diff options
37 files changed, 17 insertions, 36388 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f37971 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67766 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67766) diff --git a/old/67766-0.txt b/old/67766-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d1d3d7f..0000000 --- a/old/67766-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15734 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Discoveries of America to the Year -1525, by Arthur James Weise - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Discoveries of America to the Year 1525 - -Author: Arthur James Weise - -Release Date: April 3, 2022 [eBook #67766] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DISCOVERIES OF AMERICA TO -THE YEAR 1525 *** - - - - - - - THE - DISCOVERIES OF AMERICA - TO THE YEAR 1525 - - BY - ARTHUR JAMES WEISE, M.A. - - G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS - NEW YORK: 27 & 29 WEST 23D STREET - LONDON: 25 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN - 1884 - - Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by - ARTHUR JAMES WEISE - in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - - _Press of - G. P. Putnam’s Sons - New York_ - - - - -THIS WORK IS DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR TO THE MEMORY OF HIS DECEASED WIFE -CATHARINE V. UPDEGRAFF WEISE - - - - -PREFACE. - - -It is a fact that America in the early ages was one of the inhabited -parts of the earth. The Egyptians, who were among the first of the -peoples of the eastern hemisphere to use letters and to write history, -furnish the earliest known account of the inhabitants of this continent. -It is also a truth that some ancient geographers and philosophers, who -had no personal knowledge of the existence of a primitive people in the -western hemisphere, regarded the information recorded by the Egyptians as -fictitious and incredible. When Columbus proposed to go to this inhabited -realm beyond the western ocean almost all the learned men of Portugal -and Spain opposed the undertaking as visionary, and not a few of them -asserted that the navigator’s opinions were absurd, because, as they -argued, no one of all the seamen who had lived since the creation of the -world had discovered land beyond Hibernia. - -The discovery of the continent and the subsequent explorations of the -Spaniards not only confuted the fallacious arguments of the learned men -of the middle ages but confirmed the statements of the Egyptian records -descriptive of the civilization of the Atlantic country. The tradition -of the peopling of the continent by the descendants of Euenor, the good -man begotten in the beginning from the ground, and of the residence of -celestial beings among the inhabitants peculiarly confirms the account in -the Bible of the creation of the first man from the dust of the ground -and of his descendants having communications with angels. - -The asserted discovery of America by the Northmen rests more upon -conjecture than evidence. It appears that Columbus was not the discoverer -of the continent, for it was seen in 1497 not only by Giovanni Caboto but -by the commander of the Spanish fleet with whom Amerigo Vespucci first -sailed to the New World. - -The land of Francesca, discovered by Verrazzano in 1524, it will be seen, -was early possessed by the French, who built a fort near the Indian -village where now is the city of New York, and called the surrounding -country La Terre d’Anormée Berge; a geographical designation more -significantly expressed in the phraseology, The Land of the Palisades. - -The writing of this work required the personal examination of many old -and rare books, manuscripts, and maps, besides the perusal of a large -number of recent papers and publications relating to its subject. The -task further demanded a careful review and comparison of the various -statements of historical writers concerning the voyages of the persons -whom they believed to have been the discoverers of certain parts of the -coast of America, between Baffin’s Bay and Tierra del Fuego. - -It seemed to me that some of the information contained in the different -works which I had examined should be presented in the language of the -writers or in faithful translations so that the intended significance of -the information could be perceived by the reader. I therefore have placed -these _excerpta_ before the general reader and the critic in the belief -that the citations will be appreciated. They will at least show my -desire that the judgments of those who examine them should not be biased -by any conclusions of my own. - -My researches were for the most part made in the General Library of the -State of New York, in Albany. The generous personal interest taken by -the State’s distinguished librarian, Henry A. Homes, LL.D., in placing -before me the large number of works which I desired to examine, was -so constant and helpful that it is a great pleasure for me to mention -and acknowledge his kind offices. I am also indebted to his assistant, -George Rogers Howell, for many official courtesies. I also owe my thanks -to George H. Moore, LL.D., the erudite superintendent of the Lenox -Library, in the city of New York, to Frederick Saunders, librarian of the -Astor Library, to Jacob B. Moore, librarian of the New York Historical -Society, and to Leopold Lindau, librarian of the American Geographical -Society. The offices of L’Abbé A. N. Ménard, vicar of the parish of St. -Roch, Paris, France; of Pádre Antonio Ceriani, prefect of the Ambrosian -Library, Milan, Italy; of Jules Godeby, professor of French literature in -the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York; and of Dr. Titus -Munson Coan, of New York City, place me under many obligations to these -gentlemen. It is also a great pleasure for me to acknowledge the generous -favors of E. Thompson Gale, of Troy, which permitted me to accomplish -the purposes that I had in view when, eight years ago, I undertook my -long-protracted task. The kind offices of my friend, William H. Young, of -Troy, are also gratefully remembered. - - ARTHUR JAMES WEISE. - -TROY, N. Y., March 27, 1884. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE. - - CHAPTER I. - - Antiquity of the red race. An antediluvian people. Vestiges - of an ancient civilization in America. Records of Egypt. - Manuscripts of Solon, the great Greek legislator. Origin - of the aborigines of the western hemisphere. Founders of - an empire. The tradition preserved by the Egyptians. Early - navigation of the Atlantic Ocean. Isolation of the people of - the western continent. The Northmen. Iceland found. Greenland - explored. Saga of Eric the Red. Voyage of Bjarni, Herjulf’s - son. Explorations of Leif, the son of Eric the Red. Tradition - concerning Thorfinn Karlsefne. Discovery of Vinland. Its - geographical situation. The stone tower at Newport. Dighton - rock. Voyages of the Welsh adventurer Madoc. Discoveries of - the Zeni brothers. Story of a Frisland fisherman. Estotiland. - Drogio 1-50 - - CHAPTER II. - - Arrival of three strangely clad travellers in Venice. Their - surprising disclosures. The book of Marco Polo. Marvellous - wealth of Cathay. Gold-covered palaces. Magnificent cities. - Extensive traffic. The empire of the Grand Khan. The travels - of Sir John Mandeville. Commerce of Europe restricted. Use - of the mariner’s compass. An age of superstition. Points of - the compass-card. Geographical enthusiasm of Prince Henry of - Portugal. Explorations along the coast of Africa. The astrolabe - made useful to navigators. The Cape of Good Hope reached 51-69 - - CHAPTER III. - - Christopher Columbus’s conception of finding a short and direct - way to India. His reasonable conclusions. Statements of ancient - geographers. The known parts of the world. Circumference of - the earth. Inferences respecting pieces of wood and dead - bodies cast upon the islands lying off the west coast of - Africa. Island of the Seven Cities. Letter of Paolo Toscanelli. - Distance to Cathay. Columbus’s overtures to the king of - Portugal. Bartolomé Columbus visits England. Christopher - Columbus seeks aid in Spain. The opinion of the learned men - respecting his project. The friendly offices of Friar Juan - Perez. Luis de Santángel’s proposals to Queen Isabella. - Columbus commissioned to undertake a voyage to Cathay 70-93 - - CHAPTER IV. - - The object of Columbus’s voyage. His journal. His intention to - make a map of the lands of the ocean. The vessels of the fleet. - They sail from the port of Palos. The fears of the sailors. - Variations of the needle. The Sea of Sargasso. Incidents of the - voyage. Discovery of land. Island of San Salvador. Columbus’s - description of the people and the islands. He believes that he - had reached the continent of Asia, and that he was near the - dominions of the Grand Khan of Cathay. He sends embassadors to - the sovereign of the Orient. His letter to Rafael Sanchez. The - high latitude to which he sailed. A fort erected at La Navidad, - on the island of Española. The profits of the voyage. Columbus - sets sail for Spain. Anchors in the Tagus. Visits the king - of Portugal. Returns to Spain. Enthusiasm of the people. His - reception at Barcelona 94-144 - - CHAPTER V. - - Territorial privileges of Portugal and Spain. A line of - demarkation designated by Pope Alexander VI. The East and - the West Indies. Columbus’s second voyage. The Caribbees. - The Villa de la Navidad burned. The town of Isabela built. - Further explorations of the coast of Cuba. Depositions taken - that Columbus had reached the dominions of the Grand Khan. - The _cemies_ of the people of Española. The homeward voyage. - Ignorance of pilots respecting latitude and longitude. - Columbus’s compasses. Amerigo Vespucci’s first voyage to the - New World. Lands on the coast of South America. Describes - the natives. The country of Lariab. Columbus’s third voyage. - He surveys the continent. Explores the coast of La Tierra de - Gracia. Amerigo Vespucci’s second voyage. Sails along the - north coast of South America. Traffics for pearls with the - natives. Returns to Cadiz. Columbus’s last voyage. The edifices - of Veragua. The evidences of civilization. Writes that he - reached the province of Mango, contiguous to Cathay. Dies at - Valladolid. His nautical chart. Juan de la Cosa’s great ox-hide - map 145-185 - - CHAPTER VI. - - England sends ships to search for a navigable way to the - Indies. The first voyage of Giovanni Caboto. Pasqualigo’s - account of it. Discovery of the territory of the Grand Khan. - The flag of England and that of St. Mark planted on the coast - of the new country. Prima Tierra Vista. The island of St. - John. Caboto’s second voyage. The dispatches of Pedro de Ayala - to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. The voyages - of Sebastiano Caboto. His explorations along the coast of - Labrador. La Tierra de los Bacallaos. Sebastiano Caboto’s maps - and manuscripts 186-204 - - CHAPTER VII. - - The Portuguese reach the Indies. Land of the Holy Cross - discovered by Pedro Alvarez Cabral. Gaspar Cortereal’s voyages. - Letter of Pietro Pasqualigo. Terra Verde. Amerigo Vespucci’s - third and fourth voyages along the east coast of South America. - Johann Ruysch’s map. Martin Waldseemüller’s suggestion. The - name of America. A fountain of vivific water. Juan Ponce de - Leon explores the coast of Florida. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa - beholds the Pacific Ocean. The coast of Yucatan explored by - Francisco Hernando de Cordoba. The discoveries of Juan de - Grijalva. The country of New Spain. The expedition of Hernando - Cortes. The magnificent presents sent him by Montezuma. The - populated provinces of Mexico. Great cities. Large temples. - Decorated idols. Cortes enters the city of Mexico. Its palaces, - markets, and arsenals. The horrible sacrifices of the Mexicans. - The siege of the city 205-274 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - The discoveries of Alonso Alvarez de Pineda. The project of - Francisco de Garay. An unfortunate undertaking. The discovery - of the Mississippi River. The jurisdictions of Juan Ponce - de Leon and Francisco de Garay. Another exploration of a - part of the coast of North America. Chicora. Duharhe. Tall - people. Habits of the natives. Tierra de Ayllon. The voyage of - Fernam de Magalhaens. Discovery of the Strait of the Eleven - Thousand Virgins. The Pacific Ocean. The Moluccas or Spice - Islands reached. Voyage of Juan Sebastian del Cano. The earth - circumnavigated. The congress of Badajos 275-296 - - CHAPTER IX. - - France emulates Portugal, Spain, and England. Discoveries of - the Bretons and the Normans. Exploration of the St. Lawrence - River. Giovanni da Verrazzano put in command of a fleet to - sail to Cathay by Francis I. The king of Portugal attempts - to prevent the sailing of the vessels. Storm in the North - Sea. Departure of the Dauphine. Verrazzano reaches the coast - of North America. Designates his first landing-place Diepa. - Fruitless search for a harbor. Friendly savages. Description - of the country. Palmetto trees. Sails northward. Explorations - of the peninsula of Virginia. The Dauphine’s anchorage at - Sandy Hook. Verrazzano explores the bays of New York. The - Grande River. Block Island. The Dauphine in Narragansett Bay. - Description of the natives. Exploration of the coast of Maine. - Five hundred and two leagues of land inspected. Francesca. - Verrazzano’s geographical explanation of his voyage. Arrival - of the Dauphine at Dieppe 297-334 - - CHAPTER X. - - (_Addenda._) - - Circulation of the news of Verrazzano’s remarkable discoveries. - Fernando Carli’s letter to his father. The adverse opinion of - the people concerning Verrazzano’s undertaking. The navigator - regarded as another Amerigo Vespucci, another Magellan. Three - ships equipped to sail to the Indies under the command of - Verrazzano. His third voyage to the New Land. The indomitable - Florentine falls a victim to savage cruelty. His body roasted - and eaten. Ramusio’s worthy tribute. The navigator’s great - parchment map. The Maiollo map. Hieronymus da Verrazzano’s - chart 335-343 - - CHAPTER XI. - - (_Addenda._) - - The French again search for a direct water-route to India. - Voyages of Jacques Cartier. The names given to the natives of - the New Land. The peasants of New France. The Hudson explored - in the sixteenth century. The French name for the Palisades. - The country of the Grand Scarp. Manants Island. A small fort - built by the French on the site of New York City. The château - on Castle Island, near the site of Albany. The structure - damaged by a freshet. The Mohawk Indians show the ruins to - the Dutch explorers of the river in the seventeenth century. - The Hollanders call it Fort Nassau. The opinion of the Dutch - inhabitants of Albany respecting the people who built it 344-363 - - Index 365-380 - - - - - -COPIES OF RARE MAPS. - - - I.—Delineation of the hyperborean regions by Sigurd Stephanius - in 1570 22 - - II.—A part of the map of the New World contained in the edition of - Ptolemy’s geography printed in Strasburg in 1513 124 - - III.—A part of the Cabot-map of 1544, in the Bibliothèque nationale, - Paris 190 - - IV.—Map of the New World contained in Peter Martyr’s “Legatio - Babylonica,” printed in 1511 220 - - V.—A tracing representing the limits of the discoveries of Juan - Ponce de Leon and Francisco de Garay. 1521 278 - - VI.—A part of the map of the fourth part of the world contained - in the Cosmographie Universelle by André Thevet, printed in - Paris in 1575 304 - - VII.—Map of Terre de la Franciscane in the cosmography of Jean - Alphonse and Raulin Secalart, 1545 354 - - VIII.—Map of a part of North America made by Giacomo de Gastaldi - in 1553 356 - - IX.—A part of the map of the world made by Gerard Mercator in - Duisburg in 1569 360 - - X.—A part of the map of the world made by Juan de la Cosa in - 1500 cover-pocket - - XI.—A part of the map of the world made by Johann Ruysch, - contained in the edition of Ptolemy’s geography printed in - Rome in 1508 cover-pocket - - XII.—A part of the map of the world made by Visconte de Maiollo - in 1527 cover-pocket - - - - -DISCOVERIES OF AMERICA. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - -The oldest scriptures, sacred and profane, attest the antiquity of the -red race.[1] As early as the antediluvian period this division of the -human family had taken possession of the islands and continent of the -western hemisphere, where it founded an empire, the most famous and -formidable of primeval times. Great in political power, its commercial, -agricultural, and other economical interests were commensurably vast and -unparalleled. The skill of its architects and engineers was exhibited in -large and imposing edifices and in extraordinary and extensive public -works. Aggressively belligerent, its armies overran parts of Europe and -Africa, exacting tribute, deposing and substituting rulers. - -When the Spaniards, in the sixteenth century, began to explore the -interior of the continent of America for gold, silver, and precious -stones, they found populated provinces, great cities, temples, palaces, -aqueducts, canals, bridges, and causeways. The astonished adventurers -also discovered the vestiges of an aboriginal people, among which -were many massive tablets of stone covered with columns of strange -hieroglyphics and antique images, picturing a past civilization for the -rise and growth of which modern archæologists have not yet satisfactorily -determined dates. - -In the early ages of the world the Egyptians recorded whatever they -deemed important and worthy of preservation concerning the principal -inhabitants of the globe. These inquisitive chroniclers of antediluvian -traditions placed in their archives some remarkable information -respecting the original people of the western hemisphere. The historical -value of this information is enhanced by the fact that those parts of it -which seem to be the most improbable are supported by similar statements -in the Bible, while the less astounding are verified by the discovery, -on the continent of the so-called New World, of such remains as those -which are said to have existed in the country west of the entrance to the -Mediterranean Sea. - -About five hundred and seventy years before the Christian era, Solon, -the celebrated legislator of Greece, visited Egypt, and while there -became acquainted with some of the erudite priests of the country.[2] -When the latter communicated to him what they had learned from the -records concerning the ancient peoples of the earth, the sage of Greece -was so deeply impressed with the unquestionable value of this strange -information that he committed it to writing, intending to use it in an -historical poem which he had undertaken to compose.[3] On his return to -Athens he was not permitted the leisure that was needed to complete his -agreeable task.[4] After his death, the compilations he had made in Egypt -were, for a long time, preserved by his descendants, and at last became -the property of Plato, the Greek philosopher.[5] The latter, when a boy, -had studiously perused his eminent ancestor’s manuscript, and when he had -reached the last years of his scholarly life he could not disengage his -thoughts from the conviction that it was his personal duty to publish its -rare information.[6] In order, therefore, to give publicity to Solon’s -valuable compilations, Plato, a short time before his own death, wrote -that part of the unfinished dialogue entitled “Critias, or the Atlantic,” -in which appears the earliest known account of the ancient people of the -western hemisphere.[7] - -“When Solon interrogated the priests, who were the most distinguished -for their antiquarian knowledge, he became aware that neither he nor -any of the Greeks knew much concerning the history of the first ages of -the world. On one occasion, for the purpose of inducing the priests to -relate some of their ancient traditions he began to narrate the early -history of his own country.... Thereupon one of the eldest priests -exclaimed: ‘Solon, Solon, you Greeks are but children, and an aged Greek -there is none!’ Solon, hearing this, asked, ‘What do you mean?’ The -priest replied: ‘You are all youths in intelligence, for you have no old -beliefs transmitted by tradition, nor any science hoary with age.... From -the olden time we have chronicled whatever has happened in your country -or in ours, or in any other region known to us,—any action, noble or -great or in any other way remarkable,—and these records are preserved in -our temples, whereas you and other nations have but lately been provided -with letters and different things required by states.... - -“‘Many and great exploits of your state, therefore, are here recorded, -and call forth our admiration; nevertheless, there is one in particular, -which in magnitude and heroism surpasses them all. For these records -relate that your state once checked the advance of a mighty force which -threatened all Europe and Asia, moving upon them from the Atlantic Ocean. -For at that time this ocean was navigable; and beyond the strait [that of -Gibraltar], which you in your language call the Pillars of Hercules, was -an island larger than Libya [Africa] and Asia put together.[8] At that -time sea-faring men could pass from it to the other islands, and from -them to the opposite continent, which extended along the real ocean. -For the sea [the Mediterranean] inside the strait, which we have already -mentioned, is like a bay with a narrow entrance, but the other sea is -rightly called an ocean, and the land, which entirely surrounds it, may -truly and correctly be called a continent. In this large Atlantic island -a mighty and wonderful confederacy of kings was formed, which subdued the -whole island and many other islands and parts of the continent. Besides -this it extended its rule, on our side, over Libya as far as Egypt, and -over Europe as far as Tyrrhenia.[9] At that time the united forces of -this power undertook to crush at one blow both your country and ours, and -all the other countries lying within the strait.’”[10] - -“‘In the beginning the gods divided the whole earth, here and there, into -large and small portions, that they might obtain temples and sacrifices. -In this way Poseidon received as his portion the Atlantic island, and -begat children by a mortal woman (ἐκ θνητῆς γυναικὸς), and placed them on -a part of the island which we are about to describe.’”[11] - -Incredible as this information concerning the residence of a person -possessing a divine nature on the earth and his matrimonial relationship -with a woman seems to be, there are some remarkable statements in the -traditions of the ancients respecting celestial beings dwelling among -men, and, by marriage with their daughters, being the progenitors of an -illustrious offspring. The Hebrew patriarchs, it is said, had personal -communications with angels, at different times and places. It is related -that three, in human form, partook of food given them by Abraham, under -a tree, in the plain of Mamre.[12] Herodotus was told, by certain -Egyptians, that “gods had been the rulers of Egypt and had dwelt among -men; and that one of them always had the supreme power.”[13] Moses, “who -was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” describing the people -of the antediluvian world, writes: - -“It happened, as men began to multiply on the face of the earth and -daughters were born to them, the sons of the Elohim (בני האלהים) -[literally, the sons of the eminent or mighty ones] saw the daughters of -man (בנות האדם) that they were fair; then they took for wives among -them all whom they loved.... There were giants (נפלים) on the earth -in those days, and also after that the sons of the Elohim went in unto -the daughters of man and they bare children to them, the same became -heroes (גברים) who were of old, men of name (אנשי שם).”[14] - -“‘Toward the sea, in the middle of the island, was a plain,’ the priest -continued, ‘which was very attractive and fertile. About fifty stadia -from the centre of the plain was a mountain with sloping sides.[15] On -this dwelt one of those men begotten from the ground in the beginning -(κατὰ ἀρχὰς ἐκ γῆς ἀνδρῶν γεγονότων), Euenor by name.[16] He lived there, -with his wife, Leucippe. They had an only daughter named Cleito. When -this girl reached womanhood, her father and mother being dead, Poseidon -fell in love with her and made her his wife. He encircled the hill on -which she lived with alternate girdles of land and water, greater and -less, making two of land and three of water, each uniformly distant from -the centre of the island, in order to render her habitation inaccessible -to men, for at that time ships and sea-faring were unknown. Also by his -divine power he beautifully adorned the centre of the island, causing two -fountains to shoot upward from beneath the earth, one of cold and the -other of hot water, and making all kinds of food to grow abundantly on -the earth. He begat and raised ten male children, twins, and divided the -Atlantic island into ten parts. He gave to the first-born of the eldest -twins, his mother’s habitation and the land surrounding it, this being -the largest and the best. He appointed him king over the other children, -making the latter princes, and giving to each the control of many people -and extensive domains. He likewise gave names to all of his offspring; -to the eldest, the king, the name of Atlas, in honor of whom both the -island and the ocean were called Atlantic.[17] To the twin born after -him (who received for his portion the extreme part of the island toward -the Pillars of Hercules as far as the region now called in that country -Gadeirica), he gave the appellation, which we Greeks call Eumelus, but -the people of that country Gadeira.[18] He called the first of the -second-born twins, Ampheres, the second Eudæmon; of the third pair, he -called the first-born Mnesis, and the second, Autochthon; of the fourth -pair, the first Elasippus, and the younger Mestor; and of the fifth pair, -to the first was given the name of Azaës, and to the last, Diaprepes. - -“‘For many generations these and their descendants were the rulers and -the inhabitants of the islands in the ocean, and, as it has been said, -they extended their authority over all the country as far as Egypt -and Tyrrhenia. By far the most distinguished was the race of Atlas; -and the eldest king belonging to it always handed down in succession -the government to his eldest son. All these kings in turn possessed -immense wealth, such as was never known to belong to royalty or will be -likely hereafter. They were provided with all things which, in a city -or elsewhere, are worth having. Large revenues were received by them -from foreign countries under their rule, but the greatest resources -came from the island. First were such ores as are dug in mines in -a crude condition, or need to be smelted, particularly the metal -_orichalcum_,[19] which is now known only by name, but formerly was of -great value. This was dug from the earth in many parts of the island, -being prized above all the metals then known, except gold. The island -also produced an abundance of wood for building purposes, and furnished -food for wild and tame animals. Vast numbers of elephants were on the -island, for there was abundant subsistence for all animals which feed in -marshes and along lakes, on mountains and plains, and likewise for this -animal, which by nature is the largest and most voracious of all.[20] -And whatever fragrant plants the earth produces, whether roots, or -grasses, or woods, or exuding gums, or flowers, or fruits, grew there and -were developed to perfection. The island besides produced such cultivated -fruits and dry edible fruits as we use for food and call vegetables; -also the fruits which trees bear and are used for drinks, meats, and -ointments; and those also which have a hard shell, used in sport and -pleasure, that are collected with trouble, together with dainty fruits -for dessert, which provoke the appetite or please the sick;—all these -that once-existing and tropic island, sacred and delightful, produced in -surprising and infinite quantities. Obtaining all these from the soil, -the inhabitants employed themselves in building temples, royal palaces, -harbors, and wharves in all parts of the country, constructing them as -follows: - -“‘First of all, the people residing in and about that ancient metropolis -bridged over those girdles of water, making a causeway to and from the -royal palace. In this place, which had been the residence of the gods -and their ancestors, they, at the beginning, erected the palace; and -each [king] in turn, receiving it from his predecessor, and further -embellishing the ornamental parts, continually surpassed the one before -him, until they made the building very attractive to the sight, on -account of its size and the beauty of its elaborations. They dug a canal, -beginning at the sea, three plethra[21] broad, a hundred feet deep, and -fifty stadia in length, to the outermost girdle, and thus made a channel -to it from the sea as into a harbor, by enlarging its mouth sufficiently -to admit the largest vessels. Besides this, they separated by aqueducts -the girdles of land which separated those of water, so that a trireme[22] -could be taken from one girdle of water to another, arching the girdles -of land to allow a water-way beneath them; for the banks of the girdles -of land rose to a height considerably above the water. And the greatest -of these girdles into which the sea flowed was three stadia in width, and -the girdle of land next to it was of the same width. The second girdle -of water was two stadia in width and the second girdle of land the same. -The last girdle of water, environing the centre of the island, was only -one stadium wide, and the island, on which the king’s palace stood, had a -diameter of five stadia. This island, as well as the girdles of land, and -the bridge (which was a plethron in width), they inclosed on the sides -with stone walls, erecting towers and gates at intervals on the aqueducts -where the water passed through [the girdles of land]. The stone for the -walls they quarried within the limits of the island, both in the centre, -and inside and outside the girdles; one kind of it was white, a second -black, a third red; and by thus quarrying they made at the same time -openings which served for two docks, having likewise a covering of rock. -Of the buildings, some were of plain structure, while others they built -of a composite style of architecture, using the different kinds of stone -as pleased them most, thus realizing a pleasure becoming their natures. -And they covered the whole circuit of the wall round the extreme outer -girdle with bronze, applying it as they would plaster. The next wall -inside of it they covered with melted tin, and the wall round the citadel -with _orichalcum_ that has a fiery resplendence. - -“‘Further, the royal palace within the citadel was constructed in the -following manner: In the centre of it a temple was erected, difficult -of access, sacred to Cleito and Poseidon, surrounded by an inclosure of -gold; for on this spot they begat and raised the race of the ten kings, -and where also their descendants, making annual collections from all the -ten allotments, offered seasonable sacrifices to each one. - -“‘The temple of Poseidon was a stadium in length, three plethra in -breadth, and of a proportionate height, having a somewhat barbaric -appearance. All the outside of the temple, except the pinnacles, they -lined with silver, but the pinnacles they covered with gold. Respecting -the interior, the ceiling was wholly of ivory, variegated with gold -and _orichalcum_, and all the other parts, the walls, the pillars, and -the pavements, they covered with _orichalcum_. They also placed in the -temple golden statues. The one of the god stood in a chariot driving with -reins six-winged horses. It was of such size that the head of the god -touched the ceiling, and surrounding the statue were a hundred nereids -on dolphins; for the people of that day thought that this was their -number. The temple also contained many other statues dedicated to private -persons. On the outside of the temple golden images were also placed of -all the men and women that were descended from the ten kings, and many -other large statues, both of kings and of private people, both from -the metropolis and from the foreign countries over which the kings had -dominion. There was also an altar, in size and elaboration corresponding -to these ornaments; and there were palaces also whose grandeur was in -keeping with the greatness of the empire and also with the splendor of -the temple. - -“‘They had fountains from cold and hot springs of which there were many, -the water being suited in every way to their use on account of its -sweetness and purity. Around these springs they made their residences -and well-watered plantations, together with their reservoirs, some open -to the heavens, but the others, for use in winter, roofed over for warm -baths. The kings’ bathing-houses and those of private persons were -separated, as well as those of the women. There were others for horses -and other draught cattle, each provided with the requisite means of -cleanliness. The stream flowing from these they conducted to the grove -of Poseidon, where there were all kinds of trees reaching a wonderful -height on account of the fertility of the soil, and then led it away by -aqueducts to the outer girdles of water. There they also erected a large -number of temples, dedicated to many different gods, and many gardens -and gymnasia, one for men, and others separately for horses, on the two -girdles of land. To test the speed of the horses there was a race-course -in the middle of the largest girdle of land, a stadium in width, that -extended around its entire circumference. Around it on all sides were -barracks for the household troops, corresponding to their number. To -the more faithful of these troops quarters were assigned on the smaller -girdle of land closer to the citadel, while those who excelled all the -others in loyalty had quarters given them within the citadel, near the -residences of the kings. The docks were filled with triremes and the -equipments for triremes; and the triremes were all adequately provided -with them. These were the arrangements for the protection of the palace -of the kings. On crossing the three outer harbors one found a wall which -extended entirely around the island, beginning at the sea, everywhere -fifty stadia distant from the greatest girdle and harbor, and inclosed -the entrance to the canal and the entrance to the sea. The whole of -this part of the girdle of land was covered with many and densely-built -dwellings. The canal and the largest harbor were filled with vessels and -traders, coming from all parts, and these, on account of their number, -made a babel of voices, a commotion, and a din all through the day and -the night. - -“‘We have now related from memory a description of the city and its -ancient habitations; now we must attempt to describe the nature of the -other parts of the country and the employment of the people. First, -then, the whole region was said to be exceedingly high and precipitous -toward the sea, and the plain, encircling the city, surrounded by -mountains sloping down to the sea, being level and smooth, extended in -one direction three thousand stadia, and the central part, from the sea, -more than two thousand stadia. And this part of the island extended -toward the south, in an opposite direction from the north. The mountains -around it were, at that time, also celebrated, exceeding in number, size, -and attractiveness all those of the present day; having on them many -hamlets together with villages, as well as rivers, lakes, and marshes, -furnishing ample supplies of food for all cattle, both tame and wild; -with timber of different kinds and in great quantity for every special -purpose. The plain, by nature, being as described, was improved in the -following way by many kings through a long course of time: It was almost -square in extent, generally straight and oblong, and where it terminated -they bounded it by digging a canal around it. Concerning the depth, -breadth, and length of which for a public work, besides other concomitant -undertakings, we can scarcely believe what was said, still we must tell -what we learned. The canal was excavated to the depth of a plethrum, and -the breadth was a stadium in every part, the entire excavation round the -plain being ten thousand stadia in length. This canal, receiving the -water of the streams coming from the mountains, conducted it all around -the plain and near to the city, and finally to the sea. From above, -likewise, straight canals were cut about a hundred feet broad along the -plain, back into the canal near the sea; distant from one another about -one hundred stadia; and it was by these canals that timber from the -mountains was brought to the city, and on which the rest of the shipping -trade was done; transverse canals of communication being cut into the -others and toward the city. Their harvest they gathered twice in a year; -in winter availing themselves of the rains, and in summer irrigating the -land from the canals. - -“‘It was ordered for the men on the plain fit for military service that -each individual leader should have an allotment of land; each allotment -amounting in extent to a hundred stadia; the whole number of allotments -being sixty thousand. It is said that many men from the mountains and -other parts of the country were assigned, according to their dwellings -and villages, certain tracts by their respective leaders. Each leader -was required to furnish for war the sixth part of a war-chariot (to make -the number of ten thousand), two riding horses, and a two-horse chariot -without a driver’s seat, having a mounted charioteer to guide the horses, -with another rider to dismount and fight at the side of them; also two -heavy-armed men, two archers, two slingers, three light-armed soldiers, -the same number of stone-shooters and javelin-men, besides four seamen -to make up the crews of one thousand two hundred vessels. Thus were the -military affairs of this city arranged. Respecting those of the nine -other allotments, there were different regulations, which it would be too -tedious to narrate. - -“‘The following were the systems of official services and honors: Each -of the ten kings ruled supreme over the people and the laws in his own -allotment and over his own city, constraining and punishing whom he -pleased.[23] As the law was handed down to them, the government and -commonwealth in each allotment were regulated by the injunctions of -Poseidon. Inscriptions [of this law] were made by the first [kings] on a -column of _orichalcum_ which was placed in the centre of the island, in -the temple of Poseidon, where the kings consulted together every fifth -year, (which they afterward changed to every sixth year,) each king -representing at these meetings the entire kingdom and its subdivisions. -The kings, when they were assembled, deliberated on matters respecting -the common weal, and inquired what transgressions each had committed, -and each respectively rendered his decision. Before they sat in judgment -they gave one another pledges, according to the following custom: The -ten, when they were assembled in the temple, after invoking the god to -receive their sacrifice propitiously, went swordless, with staves and -nooses, among the bulls grazing within the temple inclosure, and the bull -they took they brought to the column and slaughtered it, the head of -the bull being under the inscriptions. Besides the laws on the column, -there was a malediction written containing denunciations of evil on -the disobedient. When, therefore, in compliance with their laws, they -sacrificed and burned all the limbs of the bull, they filled a goblet -with the blood of the animal, and threw the remainder into the fire, -in order to purify the column. Afterward dipping from the goblet with -golden cups, they poured libations of blood on the fire, and swore to do -justice according to the laws on the column, to punish any one who had -previously transgressed them, besides swearing that they themselves would -never afterward willingly transgress the inscribed laws, or rule or obey -any ruler governing otherwise than according to his father’s laws. Then -after invoking these denunciations on themselves and their descendants, -and after drinking from the cup and depositing it in the temple of the -god, and sitting the necessary time at supper, they, as soon as it was -dark and the fire of the sacrifice had ceased to burn, dressed themselves -in beautiful dark-blue robes, and sat down on the ground, near the embers -of the sacrifice, over which they had sworn. All the fire in the temple -having been extinguished for the night, they then mutually judged one -another respecting any accusation of transgressing the laws. After their -acts of judgment were ended, and daylight had come, they inscribed their -decisions on a golden tablet and deposited it and their dresses in the -temple as memorials. There were also many other special laws respecting -the privileges of the kings. The principal ones were that they should -never wage war upon one another, that all should lend their aid when -any attempt was made in their cities to destroy the royal race, that -they should consult together as their ancestors had done respecting the -right course to be pursued in war and in other matters, and that they -should allot the government of the empire to the Atlantic race. They -did not allow the king, however, any authority to put to death any of -his kinsmen, unless the execution was approved by more than five of the -ten.’”[24] - -The priest also related that it was “about nine thousand years ago that -war was proclaimed between those dwelling outside the Pillars of Hercules -and all those within them.”[25] Athens “was the leader of the latter -people and directed the operations of the war, and the kings of the -Atlantic island were the commanders of the forces of the former.”[26] - -“‘But in a later age,’ said the priest, ‘by extraordinary earthquakes and -deluges, bringing destruction in a single day and night, the whole of -your formidable race was at once sunk under the earth, and the Atlantic -island in like manner plunged beneath the sea and concealed from view; -therefore that sea is, at present, neither passable nor to be traced -out, being blocked up with a great depth of mud made by the sunken -island.’”[27] - -The history of the Atlantic people as it was known to the ancient -Egyptians ends with this catastrophe. The inference of the priest that -the mud of the submerged island made the Atlantic impassable is seemingly -an assertion without any basis of fact. Had he said that the submergence -of some of the islands west of the Pillars of Hercules obliterated the -marked sea-path between the continents of the two hemispheres, this -statement would have strictly accorded with what he had said before, that -“sea-faring men, at that time, could pass from it [the Atlantic island] -to the other islands, and from them to the opposite continent.”[28] The -disappearance of the islands, in sight of which seamen had steered their -galleys, at once isolated the peoples of the two hemispheres. Thus it -happened, in the course of centuries, that the aborigines of America -passed out of the recollection of the inhabitants of the so-called Old -World as an early-known people. - -The writer of the first book of the Bible relates that when “Yahveh saw -the wickedness of man was great upon the earth and every imagination of -the thoughts of his heart only evil continually, ... it repented him -of having made man on the earth, and he was grieved in his heart. And -Yahveh said, ‘I will exterminate man whom I have created from the surface -of the ground.’”[29] The information contained in these words of the -learned Hebrew so closely correspond to that imparted to Solon by the -Egyptian priest concerning the subsequent degeneracy of the primitive -people of the earth, that it would seem as if it had been derived from -the same source. “‘For many generations,’ said the priest, ‘so long as -the god-nature continued in them, they remained obedient to the laws and -were happily influenced by it. But when the divine nature became extinct -by the dominance and constant ascendency of the human, and the habits -of men overpowered them, ... they deported themselves in an unbecoming -way.... Therefore, Zeus, the god of gods, who rules justly and searches -out such things, perceiving an illustrious people miserably depraved, and -intending to inflict punishment on them that they might become better -fitted to command their appetites and passions, collected all the gods -into their own most holy habitation, which, being in the centre of the -universe, commands a view of all things having a part in generation; and -having assembled them, he said....’”[30] - -An inscription on the interior walls of the tomb of Seti I. of Egypt -contains a statement concerning a council of the gods held to consider -what punishment should be visited upon the depraved descendants of the -god Râ, which is similar to the declaration of the last clause of Plato’s -unfinished dialogue.[31] Lenormant, commenting upon the information -contained in the inscription, remarks: - -“The Egyptians admitted a destruction of the primitive men by the gods on -account of their rebellion and sins. This event was recorded in a chapter -of the sacred books of Tahout,—certain hermetic books of the Egyptian -priesthood,—that had been graven on the walls of one of the most isolated -rooms of the burial crypts of King Seti I., at Thebes. The text of it has -been published and translated by Edward Naville.[32] - -“The scene is placed at the end of the reign of the god Râ.... Incensed -by the wickedness and the crimes of the men whom he had begotten, the god -summons the other gods to consult with them in the utmost secrecy, ‘in -order that mankind might not know it, and that their hearts might not be -dismayed.’ - -“Said Râ to Noun: ‘Thou, the eldest of the gods, of whom I am sprung, -and you, ancient gods, behold the men who have been begotten by me. They -speak words against me. Tell me what you would do in this crisis. Behold, -I have waited, and I have not destroyed them before having heard your -counsel.’”[33] - -Singular as the fact may seem, the state, polity, and genius of the -people of the western hemisphere described in the records of Egypt -reappear in the strange features of the civilization of Mexico, and -in the vestiges of its aborigines, which amazed the Spaniards who -accompanied Hernando Cortes into the interior of the country, in the -early part of the sixteenth century. The remarkable accounts given by -Bernal Diaz and other contemporary writers respecting the people, the -kings, the cities, the palaces, the temples, and the public works seen -by the Spanish invaders, verify, in many ways, the declarations of the -Egyptian priests concerning the Atlantic race.[34] - -For centuries after the disappearance of the islands lying in the ocean -west of the Pillars of Hercules, the wide expanse of water, dashing its -foaming surges on the shores of the continents of the two hemispheres, -was not only unexplored but was deemed impassable. Superstition filled -its misty distances with frightful chimeras and geographical absurdities. -About the beginning of the Middle Ages the vikings of Northern Europe -were venturing across the North Sea in their single-masted, many-oared -galleys. Until this time the superstitious seamen of Scandinavia had -not attempted to sail beyond the sight of land to any great distance. -Their first lessons in navigating the narrow expanse of the North Sea -were taken when their boats were unexpectedly carried away from the -rugged coast of Norway by tempestuous winds to the Hetland[35] and -Fer öe[36] (Far islands). Whatever fears of permanent exile on these -unexplored islands may at first have alarmed the deported Northmen, -these were dispelled by the cheering suggestion that when the wind blew -from the west they could return to their own country. As soon as the -wind blew eastwardly they put to sea. Using their sails and oars they -safely reached the western shore of Scandinavia. Frequent experiences of -this kind in time emboldened the Norwegian seamen to undertake voyages -to the westward islands in search of booty. Having no compass to guide -their galleys thither, they carried with them hawks or ravens, and when -uncertain respecting the course of their vessels, they let loose a cast -of these birds, which instinctively flew to the nearest land. Thitherward -they steered, and finding that it was their destination or not, they -secured whatever plunder they could and departed. Not unfrequently the -vessels of the Norse sea-kings were lost in storms on the wild waters of -the Atlantic, or wrecked on the inhospitable shores of remote islands. -It is said that Naddoddr, a Norwegian pirate, was drifted in his ship -by an adverse wind, in 860, to Iceland, which he called Sneeland -(Snowland).[37] It is also related that when the famous viking, Floki, -was lost in his vessel in stormy weather, between the islands of Faroe -and Sneeland, in 865, he let fly three ravens, one of which flew back to -the Faroe islands, the second returned to the ship, and the third winged -its way toward the more northerly island which the perplexed Northman -was seeking. This sturdy seaman described the new country as volcanic -and sterile, glacial and cold, and appropriately called it Island -(Iceland). His companions, however, reported that they had found it to -have a delightful climate and a fertile soil. One, wishing to describe -its general fruitfulness in a more attractive way, averred that “milk -dropped from every plant and butter from every twig.”[38] In a short time -a course to Iceland was marked out by the early rovers of the North Sea, -who, before the close of the ninth century, planted a colony on the bleak -coast of this icy island, the most westerly land hitherto discovered by -the fearless seamen of Scandinavia.[39] - -[Illustration: SIGURDI STEPHANII TERRARUM HYPERBOREARUM DELINEATIO, ANNO -1570. - -Delineation of the Hyperborean Regions, by Sigurd Stephanus in the year -1570. (Size of the original, 6¾ inches square.)] - -But Iceland did not long remain the most remote part of the western world -known to the people of Europe. Gunnbjörn, a Norwegian, driven westward -in his ship beyond Iceland, in a storm, in 876, descried land looming -up along the western horizon. In the latter part of the tenth century, -Eric the Red, whom the public assembly of Iceland had declared an outlaw, -determined to go in search of the land seen by Gunnbjörn. He sailed from -Iceland about the year 981, and came in sight of the coast of Greenland, -at a place called Midjökul.[40] He then steered southward to see whether -the country were habitable. He passed the first winter near the middle of -the site of the eastern settlement (_eystri bygd_).[41] In the following -summer he reached the western uninhabited region (_vestri ubygd_),[42] -and gave names to many places. As soon as the ice disappeared, at the -close of the second winter, and the sea was again navigable, he returned -to Iceland, and called the country which he had explored Graenland -(Greenland), “because” he said, “people will be influenced to immigrate -to it, if the land bears an attractive name.” Among those whom Eric -induced to return with him as colonists to Greenland was a Norwegian, -named Herjulf. Thirty-five ships (_skipa_) filled with emigrants set -sail from Iceland for the newly explored country, but only fourteen of -the vessels reached the places where the colonists were to dwell. Eric -the Red settled at Brattahlid, and Herjulf erected his house on a cape -called Herjulfsnes (Herjulf’s nose, or promontory).[43] “This was fifteen -winters before Christianity was established by law in Iceland.”[44] - -Among the traditions preserved of the voyages of the Northmen in -the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, there are several that -have caused considerable controversy respecting the historical and -geographical value of the information contained in them; for a number -of eminent writers have made use of this information to show that the -Northmen were the first discoverers of America and the explorers of a -large part of the eastern coast of the continent.[45] Although these -sagas or legends of Iceland were unrecorded for several centuries, the -manuscripts which now contain them are assumed to have been written in -a manner so precise that translations of their text are presented to -prove that the Norse vikings not only made frequent voyages to America, -but that they have left definite and reliable information respecting -the parts of the coast visited by them. Other distinguished writers -consider these traditions as too mythical and vague to be deemed -valuable, either historically or geographically, and argue that what is -thought to describe the physical features and productions of parts of the -present territory of the eastern coast of the United States describes -the topography and fruits of Greenland. A brief narration of the most -important particulars of the voyages of several of the Northmen who -have been regarded, as the first discoverers of parts of the continent -of America, will suffice to show the grounds upon which rest many of -the arguments that have been advanced to support the opinion that these -persons had landed upon its shores and explored a great extent of its -Atlantic coast. - -It is said in the saga of Eric the Red and of the Greenlanders,[46] that -when Herjulf sailed, in the spring of 985, from Iceland to Greenland, -his son Bjarni was in Norway. When the latter, in the following summer -returned to Iceland, and learned that his father had emigrated to the -country recently explored by Eric the Red, he determined to sail to it -and pass the winter with his father, as had been his custom for many -years. He evidently had some misgivings respecting the success of the -contemplated voyage, for he said to his companions: “Our going there -will be devoid of common-sense, since not one of us has traversed the -Greenland Sea.” “Nevertheless,” as the tradition runs, “as soon as they -had fitted for the voyage, they intrusted themselves to the ocean, and -made sail three days, until the land passed out of their sight from the -water. But then the bearing winds ceased to blow, and northern breezes -and a fog succeeded. Then they were drifted about for many days and -nights, not knowing whither they tended. After this the light of the sun -was seen, and they were able to survey the regions of the sky. Now they -carried sail, and steered this day before they beheld land.” They sailed -near to it, and “soon saw that the country was not mountainous, but -covered with trees and diversified with little hills. They left the land -on their larboard side, and let the stern turn from the shore. Then they -sailed two days before they saw another land [or region].... They then -approached it, and saw that it was level and covered with trees. Then, -the favorable wind having ceased blowing, the sailors said that it seemed -to them that it would be well to land there, but Bjarni was unwilling to -do so.... He bade them make sail, which was done. They turned the prow -from the land, and sailed out into the open sea, where for three days -they had a favorable south-southwest wind. They saw a third land [or -region], but it was high and mountainous and covered with glaciers.... -They did not lower sail, but holding their course along the shore, they -found it to be an island. Again they turned the stern against the land, -and made sail for the high sea, having the same wind, which gradually -increasing, Bjarni ordered the sails to be shortened, forbidding the use -of more canvas than the ship and her outfit could conveniently bear. Thus -they sailed for four days, when they saw a fourth land” [or region], -which was Greenland, where Bjarni found his father.[47] - -Bjarni’s discoveries, it is said, were often the subject of conversation -among the Northmen. It is further related that Leif, the son of Eric the -Red, purchased Bjarni’s ship and set sail in it with thirty-five men -from Brattahlid about the year 1000 to seek new lands. Nothing is told in -the tradition concerning the direction in which these Northmen sailed, -only that “they first came to the land [or region] last seen by Bjarni. -They steered toward the shore, cast anchor, put out the boat, and went on -land, where they saw no herbage. The whole country was filled with high -icy mountains, and from the sea all the way to the icy mountains was a -plain of flat stones.” Leif called the region Helluland.[48] - -When Leif and his companions departed from Helluland, it is related that -they “put out to sea and found another land [or region]. This was a level -country and covered with trees.” Leif named it Markland.[49] - -[Illustration: FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA. - -ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.] - -As related in the saga, when they departed from Markland, “they sailed on -the high sea, having a northeast wind, and were two days at sea before -they saw land. They steered toward it and touched the island lying before -the north part of the land. When they went on land they surveyed it, for -by good fortune the weather was serene. They found the grass sprinkled -with dew, and it happened by chance that they touched the dew with their -hands and carried them to their mouths and perceived that it had a sweet -taste which they had not before noticed. Then they returned to the ship -and sailed through a bay lying between the island and a tongue of land -running toward the north. Steering a course to the west shore, they -passed the tongue of land. Here when the tide ebbed there were very -narrow shoals. When the ship got aground there were shallows of great -extent between the vessel and the receded sea. So great was the desire -of the men to go on land that they were unwilling to stay on board until -the returning tide floated the ship. They went ashore at a place where a -river flowed out from a lake. When the tide floated the ship, they took -the boat and rowed to the vessel and brought her into the river and then -into the lake. Here they anchored, carried the luggage from the ship, -and built dwellings. Afterward they held a consultation and resolved -to remain at this place during the winter. Then they erected large -buildings. There were not only many salmon in the river but also in the -lake and of a larger size than they had before seen. So great was the -fertility of the soil that they were led to believe that cattle would not -be in want of food during winter, or that wintry coldness would prevail, -or the grass wither much.” - -While the Northmen were passing the winter on the shore of the unnamed -lake, it happened one evening that a Southern man, named Tyrker, did -not return with those who had been out exploring the country. Those who -went to search for the absent man met him returning to the quarters. -They were surprised when he told them that he had found wine-wood and -wine-berries (_vinvid ok vinber_). “Is this true, my teacher?” asked -Leif. “It is really true,” Tyrker replied, “for where I was brought up -there was not wanting either wine-wood or wine-berries.” They passed this -night in sleep, but on the following morning Leif said to the men: “Two -things are now to be done on alternate days, gathering wine-berries or -hewing wine-wood and felling trees, (_lesa vinber, edr höggva vinvid ok -fella mörkina_,) with which my ships should be loaded.” Having loaded the -ship and the spring approaching they prepared to depart. To designate -the productions of the region, Leif called it Vinland (Wine-land). They -then put to sea and had a favorable wind until they came in sight of -Greenland.[50] - -As a number of writers have assumed that the region of Vinland, where -Leif and his companions wintered, was the country adjacent Mount Hope -Bay, in Rhode Island, the following description of a part of the east -coast of Greenland, given by Captain W. A. Graah, who was sent there, -in 1828, by the Danish government to obtain information respecting the -site of the eastern settlement (_eystri bygd_), will likely afford -grounds for a more plausible conjecture that Vinland was a region in -Greenland: “August 30 [1829].—The place we now were at was the Ekallumiut -[between the sixty-third and sixty-fourth parallel of north latitude], -so often mentioned. The cove, the length of which is between one and two -cable-lengths, has on both sides of it, but particularly on the eastern, -fields of considerable extent, covered with dwarf-willows, juniper-berry, -black crake-berry, and whortleberry heath, the first-named growing to -the height of two feet, and the whole interspersed with a good many -patches of a fine species of grass, which, however, was very much burnt -by the heat of the sun, except in the immediate vicinity of the brooks -and rivulets that, in great number, ran down the sides of the hills, and -intersected the level land in every direction. At the the bottom of the -cove stretches an extensive valley, through which runs a stream abounding -in char, [a species of salmon,] and having its source in the glaciers, -of which several gigantic arms reach down into the valley from the height -in the background. On the banks of this brook the grass grew luxuriantly; -but it was far from being, at many places, of a height fit for mowing, -so that even this spot, where grass was more abundant than anywhere else -perhaps along the whole coast, does not seem calculated to furnish winter -fodder for any considerable number of cattle. Various flowers, among -which the sweet-smelling lychnis, everywhere adorned the fields.... At -this really beautiful spot, the natives of the country round assemble for -a few days during their brief summer, to feast upon the char that are to -be got here in great plenty and of a great size, the black crake-berry -and angelica, and to lay in a stock of them for winter use, and give -themselves up to mirth and merry-making.”[51] - -It is further related, in the saga, concerning Vinland, that “the days -are more equal there than in Greenland or Iceland; there the sun sets -at eykt time (_eyktar-stad_, 3:30 P.M.), and rises at day-meal time -(_dagmála-stad_, breakfast-time), on the shortest day.”[52] - -As there is no reliable information to indicate that the Northmen of -the tenth century had any instruments by which they could accurately -measure the changing spaces of day and night, or that their observations -of the sun gave them the knowledge of astronomical time, an attempt -to elucidate the exact duration of the shortest day in Vinland from -the vague signification of the words _eyktar-stad_ and _dágmála-stad_ -would consequently be futile and unsatisfactory. Nevertheless a number -of scholars have attempted to determine the length of the shortest day -at the place where the Northmen built their winter-quarters. Some have -given the day a measurement of six hours, others seven, eight, and nine -hours.[53] These different lengths of the day involve the inference that -Vinland was somewhere between the forty-first and sixty-first parallels -of north latitude. - -It is related in another saga or legend that Vinland was visited in -the eleventh century by other Northmen.[54] Among the number were -Thorfinn Karlsefne, Snorro Thorbrandson, Bjarni Grimolfson, and Thorhall -Gamlason. It is said that the three ships which departed from the western -settlement, in the spring of 1007, had on board one hundred and forty men -(_40 manna ok hundrad_). After sailing two days southward from Bjanneyjar -they reached Helluland. “Thence they sailed two days, and turned from the -south to the southeast,” and came to Markland. - -When the Northmen departed from Markland, it is said in the saga that -“they then sailed far to the southward along the coast and came to a -promontory. The land lay on the right and had a long sandy beach. They -rowed to it and found on a tongue of land the keel of a ship. They called -this point of land Kjalarnes (Keel cape), and the beach Furdustrandir -(Long Strand), for it took a long time to sail by it. Then the coast -became sinuous. They then steered the ship into an inlet. King Olaf -Tryggvason had given Leif two Scotch people, a man named Haki and a woman -named Hekja. They were swifter than animals. These persons were in the -ship with Karlsefne. When they had sailed past Furdustrandir they put -these Scots ashore and ordered them to run to the south of the country -and explore it, and return within three days.... They were absent the -designated time. When they returned, one brought a bunch of wine-berries -(_vinberja köngul_), the other an ear of wheat (_hveitiax nysaid_).[55] -When they were taken on board, the ship sailed farther. They came into a -bay, where there was an island around which flowed rapid currents that -suggested the name which they gave it, Straumey (Stream island). There -were so many eider ducks on the island that one could hardly walk about -without stepping on their eggs. They called this place Straumfjörd -(Stream inlet). They took the cargo from the ship and made preparations -to remain there. They had with them different kinds of cattle. They -undertook nothing but the exploration of the land. Without having -provided food beforehand they sustained themselves there during the -winter. In the summer the fishing was not good and they were in want of -provisions. Thorhall the hunter disappeared. They had previously prayed -to God to give them food, but they were not supplied as quickly as they -thought their hunger demanded. They searched for Thorhall for three days. -At last they found him lying on the top of a rock, looking up at the sky, -gasping and muttering. They asked him why he was there. He said that his -presence there should not trouble them. They prevailed on him to return -home with them. A whale was stranded there, and they found it and cut it -up. No one knew what kind of a whale it was, and when the cook prepared -a part of it for them, they ate it and all were made sick. Then Thorhall -said: ‘The red-bearded [Thor, the god of thunder,] was more helpful than -your Christ; this [the whale meat] I have received for my hymns which I -sing of Thor, my protector; seldom has he deserted me.’ When they heard -this assertion, they cast the remainder of the whale into the sea and -resigned themselves to the care of God. Then the weather favored them so -that they were able to row out to fish, and thereafter they were not in -want of food, for wild game was caught on land and fish in the sea, and -eggs were collected on the island.... - -“It is said that Thorhall resolved to go northward along Furdustrandir to -explore Vinland, but Karlsefne determined to sail southward along the -coast. Thorhall fitted out his vessel under the island, having not more -than nine men to join him, for all the others went with Karlsefne. Now -when Thorhall carried water to his ship, he sang these verses: - - ‘People told me when I came - Hither, all would be so fine; - The good Vinland, known to fame, - Rich in fruits and choicest wine; - Now the water-pail they send; - To the fountain I must bend, - Nor from out this land divine - Have I quaffed one drop of wine.’ - -“When they were about to depart and had hoisted sail, Thorhall again sang: - - ‘Let our trusty band - Haste to Fatherland; - Let our vessel brave - Plough the angry wave, - While those few who love - Vinland, here may rove, - Or, with idle toil, - Fetid whales may boil, - Here on Furdustrand, - Far from Fatherland.’ ... - -“It is now to be told of Karlsefne that he with Snorro and Bjarni and -their people sailed southward along the coast. They sailed a long time -until they came to a river, which ran out from the land and through a -lake into the sea. The river was quite shallow, and no ship could enter -it without high water. Karlsefne sailed with his people into its mouth -and called the place Hóp (_ok kölludu i Hópi_).[56] They found fields -of wild wheat (_sjálfsana hveitiakra_) where the ground was low, and -wine-wood where it was higher.... There was a great number of all kinds -of wild animals in the woods. They remained at this place a half-month -and enjoyed themselves, but did not find any thing novel. They had their -cattle with them. Early one morning, when they were viewing the country, -they saw a great number of skin boats on the sea.... The people in them -rowed nearer and with curiosity gazed at them.... These people were swart -(_svartir_) and ugly, and had coarse hair, large eyes, and broad cheeks. -They remained a short time and watched Karlsefne’s people. They then -rowed away to the southward beyond the cape. - -“Karlsefne and his people had erected their dwellings above the lake. -Some of the houses were near the water and others were farther away. They -remained here during the winter.[57] There was no snow, and their cattle -subsisted on the grass.” - -It is further related that when spring drew near the natives again -visited the Northmen and trafficked with them. “The people preferred red -cloth, and for this they gave skins and all kinds of furs. They also -wanted to purchase swords and spears, but Karlsefne and Snorro would not -sell them any weapons. For a whole skin the Skraelings (_Skraelingar_) -took a piece of red cloth a span long, and bound it around their -heads.”[58] In this way they bartered for a time. Then the cloth began to -diminish, and Karlsefne and his men cut it into small strips not wider -than one’s finger, and still the Skraelings gave as much for these as -they had for the larger pieces, and often more. “It happened that a bull, -which Karlsefne had with him, ran out from the wood and bellowed loudly. -This frightened the Skraelings so much that they rushed to their boats -and rowed away to the southward around the coast.” - -Three weeks afterward a large number of Skraelings returned in their -boats uttering loud cries. “Karlsefne’s men took a red shield and held -it toward them. The Skraelings leaped from their boats and attacked -them. Many missiles fell among them, for the Skraelings used slings -(_valslöngur_). Karlsefne’s men saw that they had raised on a pole -something resembling an air-filled bag of a blue color. They hurled this -at Karlsefne’s party, and when it fell to the ground it exploded with a -loud noise. This frightened Karlsefne and his men so much that they ran -and fell back to the river, for it seemed to them that the Skraelings -were inclosing them on all sides. They did not stop until they reached a -rocky place where they stoutly resisted their assailants. Freydis [the -wife of Thorvard] came out, and seeing Karlsefne’s people retreating, -cried out: ‘Why do you run, stout men as you are, before these miserable -wretches, whom I thought you could knock down as you do cattle! If I had -weapons I know that I could fight better than you!’ They did not heed her -words. Freydis then attempted to keep up with them but could not. She -followed them to the woods. The Skraelings pursued her. She found a dead -man in the way. It was Thorbrand Snorrason. A flat stone was sticking -in his head. His sword was by his side. She grasped it and prepared to -defend herself. The Skraelings came toward her. She exposed her bosom -and struck her breast with the sword. The Skraelings were frightened -and ran to their boats and rowed away. Karlsefne and his men then came -and praised her courage. Karlsefne lost two men but the Skraelings many -more.... - -“Karlsefne and his men now perceived that notwithstanding the country -was fruitful they would be exposed to many dangerous incursions of its -inhabitants if they should remain in it. They therefore determined -to depart and return to their own land. They sailed northward along -the coast and found five Skraelings clothed in skins sleeping on the -sea-shore. They had with them vessels containing marrow mixed with blood. -Karlsefne’s men believed that they had been banished from the country -and they killed them. After that they came to a cape and there were many -wild animals on it.... Then they reached Straum fjörd, where there was -an abundance of every thing which they desired. It is said by some that -Bjarni and Gudrid remained behind with one hundred men, and did not go -farther, but that Karlsefne and Snorro went southward and forty men with -them, and that they were not longer in Hóp than two months, and that they -returned from there the same summer.... They inspected the mountains -at Hóp, which they thought belonged to a range which extended in two -directions to the same distance from Straum fjörd. The third winter they -were in Straum fjörd.... Snorro, the son of Karlsefne, was born here -the first autumn, and he was three years old when they went away from -Vinland. When they sailed from Vinland they had a south wind and came to -Markland.”[59] - -The Northmen it seems continued their visits to Vinland as late as -the fourteenth century. In the geographical treatise of Adam of -Bremen, written in 1073, the author says that it was told him by Sveyn -Estrithson, King of Denmark, that Vinland was an island: “Moreover he -said that an island had been discovered by many in that ocean, which -is called Vinland, because vines grow spontaneously there, producing -excellent wine. For that fruits abound there not having been sown, we -are assured not by any vague rumor but by the trustworthy report of the -Danes.”[60] - -The island of Vinland is described in an old geographical document as -lying on the opposite side of a channel, between it and Greenland: “Now -is to be told what lies opposite Greenland, out from the bay already -mentioned. Furdustrandir is the name of a land. There are such hard -frosts there that it is not habitable as far as is known. South of it -is Helluland, which is called Skraeling’s land. From there it is not -far to Vinland the good, which some think goes out from Africa. Between -Vinland and Greenland is Ginnungagap which flows from the sea called Mare -Oceanum that encompasses the whole earth.”[61] On a map made by Sigurd -Stephanius, an Icelander, in 1570, Helluland, Markland, Skraeling’s land, -and the promontory of Vinland are represented as parts of the country now -called Greenland.[62] - -No geographical information contained in the sagas of Iceland and -Greenland verifies the statement that the Northmen discovered America -and explored the coast of a part of the present territory of the -United States. What tradition relates respecting the Northmen finding -wine-berries in Vinland does not make it indubitably evident that they -were the fruit now called grapes.[63] The wine-wood that was cut and -carried on board of Leif’s ship indicates that there was no large timber -in Vinland, and that the trees that were felled were of a stunted growth -as those that are now found on the coast of Greenland. The statements -respecting the great number of eider ducks, the natives who were -frightened by the bellowing of a bull, the skin-boats used by them, -the want of food by the Northmen, their eating the flesh of a stranded -whale to escape starvation, and the sarcastic language of the song sung -by Thorhall concerning Vinland being a land of wine, clearly establish -the fact that this country or region was very near the Arctic circle. -Further, all the early maps of Greenland show Helluland, Markland, and -Vinland to be regions of that country. - -The questionable interpretation of the characters on the rock, lying -in the water, on the east side of the Taunton River, opposite Dighton, -Massachusetts, by a number of foreign antiquaries, is a notable -exemplification of the fictitious nature of the so-called evidence that -the Northmen discovered America and explored a part of the eastern -coast of the present territory of the United States.[64] The remarkable -statement that the round, stone-tower, at Newport, Rhode Island, -mentioned by Governor Benedict Arnold in his will, made in 1677, as “my -stone-built windmill,” was erected by the Northmen, is also an instance -of the infatuation of the learned men who believed it to be a Norse -monument.[65] - -The supposition that the Welsh adventurer, Madoc Guyneth, planted a -colony on the Atlantic coast of North America, in the twelfth century, -rests on some traditionary information in a history of Wales, published -in 1584.[66] In this rare work it is related that the sons of Owen -Guyneth, King of North Wales, on the death of their father, had many -contentions respecting the heirship to his estates and who should rule -after him. This strife mortified Madoc. In order to separate himself from -his quarrelling brothers he fitted out a number of ships and sailed west, -“leaving the coast of Ireland so far north, that he came to an unknown -land, where he saw many strange things.” He then returned home and gave -an account of the attractive and fertile countries “he had seen without -inhabitants.” He induced a number of men and women, who desired to live -peaceably, to emigrate to the western land. The second voyage was safely -made to the colony in the “fair and large country.” He returned again -to Wales for more colonists. Ten ships filled with emigrants shortly -afterward set sail for the new settlement. It is further related that -many fictions were current thereafter respecting Madoc’s discoveries in -the unnamed country.[67] Meredith ap Rhees, a Welsh bard, who died in -1477, has rehearsed in a number of verses a part of the unsatisfactory -tradition concerning Madoc’s voyage.[68] As said by Baron von Humboldt: -“The deepest obscurity still shrouds every thing connected with the -voyage of the Gaelic chief, Madoc.”[69] - -The story of a Frisland fisherman, in the history of the discoveries of -the Zeni brothers, published in 1558, is thought by some writers to be -a true narrative of this man’s adventures on a part of the continent of -America, in the fourteenth century.[70] It is related that Nicolò Zeno, a -wealthy man, had a ship built, equipped, and manned at his own expense, -and sailed in it from Venice, “with the intention of visiting England -and Flanders.” But in a storm his vessel was cast upon an island called -Frisland.[71] “The crew were saved together with most of the ship’s -cargo. This occurred in the year 1380. The inhabitants of the island, -having collected in considerable numbers, attacked the chevalier and -his men, who, being exhausted by the hardships they had endured, and -not knowing in what part of the world they had been thrown, were unable -to resist them, much less to defend themselves with the spirit that the -emergency demanded. They would have been treated, without doubt, in a -most barbarous manner, had it not fortunately happened that a powerful -chieftain, with an armed force, was in their neighborhood, who, learning -that a large ship had been cast upon the island, and hearing the noise -and shouts of the inhabitants as they rushed upon our poor mariners, -hastened forward, and putting the islanders to flight, inquired of the -Venetians, in Latin, of what nation they were, and whence they had come. -When informed that they were from Italy, and natives of that country, he -was filled with joy and amazement.... He was a great lord and possessed -certain islands called Porland, about a half-day’s sail from Frisland, -the richest and most populous of all the islands of those parts. This -chieftain’s name was Zichmni.” - -Nicolò Zeno then entered the service of this distinguished man. Some time -afterward he wrote to his brother Antonio, and related these incidents. -The latter visited Frisland, where he lived fourteen years. On the death -of Nicolò, which occurred four years after Antonio’s arrival, he was -appointed to take command of Zichmni’s fleet. From letters written by -Antonio to his brother Carlo, the remarkable particulars of the following -narrative are said to have been compiled: - -“Six and twenty years ago four fishing-boats put out to sea from -Frisland, and being overtaken by a storm were drifted about for many days -in a helpless condition. When, at last, the tempest abated, they descried -an island called Estotiland,[72] lying more than a thousand miles -westward from Frisland. One of the boats was cast upon its coast, and -the six men in it were taken by the inhabitants and conducted to a fair -and populous city, where the king sent for many interpreters, but none -could be found who understood the language of the fishermen except one -man who spoke Latin, and who likewise had been cast by accident upon the -same island. Ordered by the king, he asked them who they were, and where -they came from, and when he reported their answer, the king desired that -they should remain in that country. Accordingly, as they could not do -otherwise, they obeyed his order, and remained five years on the island, -and learned the language. One of them in particular visited different -parts of the island, and reports that it is a very rich country, -abounding in all good things. It is a little smaller than Iceland but -more fertile. In the middle of it is a very high mountain, in which rise -four rivers which water the whole country. - -“The inhabitants are a very intelligent people and possess all the arts -as we do; and it is believed that in time past they have had intercourse -with our people, for he said that he saw Latin books in the king’s -library, which they at the present time do not understand. They have -their own language and letters. They have all kinds of metals, especially -gold. Their foreign intercourse is with Greenland, where they import -furs, brimstone, and pitch. He says that toward the south there is a -great and populous country, very rich in gold. They sow corn and make -beer, which is a kind of drink which northern people take as we do wine. -They have woods of vast extent. They construct their buildings with -walls, and there are many towns and villages. They make small boats and -sail them, but they have not the loadstone, nor do they know the north by -the compass. For this reason these fishermen were held in great esteem, -insomuch that the king sent them with twelve boats to the southward to a -country which they call Drogio; but in their voyage they had such stormy -weather that they were in fear for themselves. Although they escaped a -miserable death they afterward met a more painful one, for they were -taken into the country and the greater number of them were eaten by the -savages, who are cannibals and consider human flesh very savory meat. But -as this fisherman and his remaining companions were able to show them the -way to catch fish with nets, their lives were spared. Every day he would -go fishing in the sea and in the fresh waters, and take a great number -of fish, which he gave to the chiefs, and thereby ingratiated himself so -much into their favor that he was greatly liked and held in high esteem -by all. - -“As this man’s fame spread among the different tribes, there was a -neighboring chief who was very anxious to have him with him and to see -how he practised his wonderful art of catching fish. With this object -in view he made war on the other chief with whom the fisherman was, and -being more powerful and a better warrior, he, at last, overcame him, and -so the fisherman was sent to him with the rest of his companions. During -the space of thirteen years that he dwelt in those parts, he says, he -was sent in this manner to more than five-and-twenty chiefs, for they -were continually fighting among themselves, this chief with that one, -and solely for the purpose of having the fisherman to dwell with them, -so that wandering up and down the country without any fixed abode, he -became acquainted with almost all those regions. He says that it is a -very great country, and, as it were, a new world. The people are very -rude and uncultivated, for they all go naked, and suffer bitterly from -the cold, nor have they the sense to clothe themselves with skins of the -animals which they take in hunting. They have no kind of metal. They -live by hunting, and carry lances of wood, sharpened at the point. They -have bows, the strings of which are made of beasts’ skins. They are very -fierce, and have deadly wars with one another, and eat the flesh of their -captives. They have chiefs and certain laws, but differing in different -tribes. The farther you go southwestward, however, the more refinement -you meet with, because the climate is more temperate, but there they have -cities and temples dedicated to their idols, in which they sacrifice men -and afterward eat them. In those parts they have some knowledge and use -of gold and silver. - -“This fisherman after dwelling so many years in those parts resolved -to return home if possible to his own country, but his companions, -despairing of ever seeing it again, gave him Godspeed, and remained where -they were. Accordingly he bade them farewell and made his escape through -the woods in the direction of Drogio, where he was welcomed and kindly -received by the chief of the place, who knew him and was a great enemy -of the neighboring chief. Thus passing from one chief to another, being -the same with whom he had been before, he, at last, reached, after a long -time and many hardships, Drogio, where he remained three years. Here by -good fortune he learned from the natives that some boats had appeared off -the coast, and hopeful of being able to carry out his intention, he went -to the beach, and found to his great delight that the men on board the -boats had come from Estotiland. He immediately begged them to take him -back with them, which they willingly consented to do. He understood the -language of the country which none of them could speak, and they employed -him as an interpreter. Afterward he traded in company with them to such -good purpose that he became very rich, and having fitted out a vessel of -his own he returned to Frisland.”[73] - -When Zichmni heard the story of the returned fisherman, it is said -that he prepared a fleet to go to the countries described by him. The -fisherman dying about the time that the vessels were ready to sail, some -of the seamen who had come from Estotiland in his ship were taken to -pilot them. An island called Icaria was discovered, but no exploration -of it could be made on account of the hostility of its inhabitants. The -fleet afterward proceeded to the coast of Greenland, from which it sailed -to Frisland. - -The compiler of the history of the discoveries of the Zeni brothers -says: “This discovery [made by the Frisland fisherman] Messere Antonio, -in a letter to his brother Messere Carlo, related, ... saying that we -have changed some old words and the antiquated style, but have left the -substance entire.... Of these northern places, I [the compiler] have -thought it good to draw a copy of the sailing chart, which I find I have -among our family heirlooms, and, although it is rotten with age, I have -succeeded with it tolerably well; and to those who take pleasure in such -things, it will serve to throw light on the comprehension of that which -without it could not be understood so easily.” - -Inasmuch as it is difficult to disprove that the names Frislanda, -Engronelanda, and Estotilanda were not early designations for Iceland, -Greenland, and Scotland, the supposition that the unnamed Frisland -fisherman passed thirteen years of his life on the continent of America -solely rests upon the particulars of the story of his famous adventures -as a maker of fishing-nets. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -1295-1487. - - -In the opulent and insular city of Venice, there arrived, a few years -before the close of the thirteenth century, three strangely clad -sun-embrowned men. If any notice had been taken of them when they -disembarked from the Mediterranean galley in which they had come from -Negropont, this attention had, it is likely, been bestowed upon their odd -garb and imperfect pronunciation of the Italian words which they used -while obtaining a boatman to convey them to that part of the city known -as the confine of S. Giovanni Crisostomo. - -The unique story respecting the return of these famous travellers to -Venice will always be deemed the prologue that introduces the notable -acts of the explorers of the Atlantic coast territory of America in the -fifteenth century. It is therefore properly entitled to a conspicuous -place on the first pages of the history of the discovery of America. -Five centuries ago it charmed the Venetians with its vivid colorings, -and gave to the Orient an entrancing vision that made the name of Cathay -for a time a synonym for an earthly paradise. It pictured to them a -far-off El Dorado, abounding with gold, gems, and spicery, a country -naturally delightful and artificially magnificent. America lay in some -of the navigable ways which were sought by acquisitive Europeans to go -to it, and thus the return of Nicolò, Maffeo, and Marco Polo, in 1295, -to Venice, after an absence of twenty-four years, is inseparably linked -to the great chain of events connecting it with the discovery of the -new continent of the western hemisphere.[74] Ramusio, the distinguished -Italian collector of information relating to voyages and travels, has -preserved the account of the strange revelations made by the three -travellers on their return from Cathay.[75] - -“When they arrived here the same fate befell them which happened to -Ulysses, who, when he returned after his twenty years’ wanderings to his -native Ithaca, was recognized by none of his people. In like manner these -three gentlemen, who had been absent so many years from their native -city, were not identified by any of their kinsfolk, who believed that -they had been dead for many years, as had been reported. They were quite -changed in appearance by the prolongation and hardships of their journeys -and by the trouble and anxieties they had experienced; and they had a -certain indescribable smack of the Tartar both in demeanor and accent, -having indeed almost forgotten their Venetian tongue. Their clothes, too, -were coarse and shabby, and of a Tartar cut. They proceeded on their -arrival to their house, in this city, in the confine of S. Giovanni -Crisostomo, where you may see it to this day. The house, which in those -days was a lofty and handsome palace, is now known by the name of the -Court of the Millions, for a reason which I will tell you presently. - -“When they reached the palace, they found it occupied by some of their -relatives, and they had the utmost difficulty in making the latter -understand who they were. For these good people seeing them to be in -appearance so unlike what they were formerly, and in dress so shabby, -flatly refused to believe that they were those very gentlemen of the -Polo family whom they thought had been dead many years. So these three -gentlemen,—this is a story I have often heard when I was a boy from the -illustrious Messere Gasparo Malpiero, a gentleman of very great age and -a senator of eminent virtue and integrity, whose house was on the canal -of Santa Marianna, at the corner, over the mouth of the brook of S. -Giovanni Crisostomo, and just midway among the buildings of the aforesaid -Court of the Millions, and he said he had heard the story from his own -father and grandfather, and from other old men among the neighbors,—the -three gentlemen, I say, devised a scheme by which they should obtain at -once from their kinsfolk the recognition they desired, and secure the -honorable notice of the whole city; and this was it: - -“They invited a number of their kindred to an entertainment, which they -purposely prepared with great state and splendor in their house. When the -hour arrived for sitting down to table all three came from their chambers -clothed in crimson satin, fashioned in long robes reaching to the ground, -such as people in those days wore within doors. And when water for the -hands had been served, and the guests were seated, they took off these -robes and put on others of crimson damask, while the first suits were by -their orders cut and divided among the servants. Then after partaking -of some of the dishes they went out again and came back in robes of -crimson velvet, and when they had again taken their seats, the second -suits were divided as the first. When dinner was over they did the like -with the robes of velvet, after they had put on dresses of the ordinary -fashion worn by their guests. These proceedings caused much wonder and -amazement among their relatives. But when the cloth had been drawn, and -all the servants had been ordered to retire from the dining-hall, Messere -Marco, the youngest of the three, rose from the table, and going into -another chamber brought forth the three shabby dresses of coarse stuff -which they had worn when they first arrived. Straightway they took sharp -knives and began to rip open some of the seams and welts, and to take -out of them many gems of the greatest value, such as rubies, sapphires, -carbuncles, diamonds, and emeralds, all of which had been stitched up in -these dresses in a manner so artful that nobody could have suspected the -fact. For when they took leave of the Grand Khan they changed all the -wealth which he had bestowed upon them for these rubies, emeralds, and -other gems, being well aware of the impossibility of carrying with them -so great an amount of gold on a journey so long and so difficult. - -“Now the exhibition of this large number of gems and precious stones, -all scattered over the table, threw the guests into fresh amazement, -insomuch that they seemed quite bewildered and speechless. They now saw -that in spite of all their former doubts these were really the honored -and worthy gentlemen of the Polo family as they had claimed to be, and -they therefore paid them the greatest honor and reverence. And when the -story became current in Venice, straightway the whole city, gentle and -simple, flocked to the house to embrace them, and to make much of them, -with every conceivable demonstration of affection and respect. - -“On Messere Maffeo, who was the eldest, the Venetians conferred the -honors of an office which was of great dignity in those days; while the -young men came daily to visit and converse with the ever-polite and -gracious Messere Marco, and to ask him questions about Cathay[76] and the -Grand Khan, all of which he answered with such kindly courtesy that every -man felt himself in a manner his debtor. And as it happened that in the -story, which he was constantly called on to repeat, of the magnificence -of the Grand Khan, he would speak of his revenues as amounting to ten -or fifteen millions of gold; and in like manner, when recounting other -instances of great wealth in those parts, he would always make use of the -term millions, so they gave him the nickname of Messere Marco Millioni, -an appellation which I have seen in the public records of this republic -where mention is made of him. The court of his house, in the confine of -S. Giovanni Crisostomo, has always from that time been known as the Corte -del Millioni.”[77] - -These conversational descriptions respecting the remote dominions of -the Grand Khan, with which Marco Polo often interested the imaginative -Venetians, were to have a much wider field of influence in another -form,—one which was a most potent element among the leading agencies -which opened to the people of Western Europe great pathways of discovery -and of commerce around the earth. In order to perceive how these -descriptions of Cathay led to the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean -and the discovery of the continent of America, the fortunes of Marco -Polo must be followed farther. It appears that shortly after his return -to Venice he was placed in command of a fleet, which subsequently was -captured by the Genoese in a naval engagement. While confined in Genoa -as a prisoner of war, his remarkable adventures as an explorer of remote -eastern countries became known, and he was often visited and questioned -by inquisitive people. Wearied by the frequent repetition of the story -of his wanderings in Cathay, he at last applied himself to writing an -account of his extensive journeys by the aid of such notes and memoranda -as he had taken while in the East. Assisted by a Genoese gentleman, he -completed his curious and instructive narrative, which was soon copied, -translated into different languages, and distributed among the people of -Europe.[78] - -As justly claimed by Yule, Marco Polo was the first traveller “to trace a -route across the longitude of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after -kingdom which he had seen with his own eyes; the deserts of Persia, the -flowering plateaux and wild gorges of Badakhshan, the jade-bearing rivers -of Khotan, the Mongolian steppes, ... the new and brilliant court that -had been established at Cambaluc; the first traveller to reveal China -in all its wealth and vastness, its mighty rivers, its huge cities, its -rich manufactures, its swarming population, the inconceivably vast fleets -that quickened its seas and its inland waters; to tell us of the nations -on its borders with all their eccentricities of manners and worship; -of Tibet with its sordid devotees; of Burma, with its golden pagodas -and their tinkling crowns; of Laos, of Siam, of Cochin China, of Japan, -the Eastern Thule, with its rosy pearls and golden-roofed palaces; the -first to speak of that museum of beauty and wonder, still so imperfectly -ransacked, the Indian archipelago, source of aromatics then so highly -prized and whose origin was so dark; of Java, the pearl of islands; -of Sumatra with its many kings, its strange costly products, and its -cannibal races; of the naked savages of Nicobar and Andaman; of Ceylon, -the isle of gems, with its sacred mountain and its tomb of Adam; of India -the great, not as a dreamland of Alexandrian fables but as a country -seen and partially explored, with its virtuous Brahmans, its obscene -ascetics, its diamonds and the strange tales of their acquisition, its -sea-beds of pearl, and its powerful sun; the first in medieval times to -give any distinct account of the secluded Christian empire of Abyssinia -and the semi-Christian island of Socotra; to speak, though indeed dimly, -of Zanzibar with its negroes and its ivory, and of the vast and distant -Madagascar, bordering on the dark ocean of the South, with its ruc and -other monstrocities; and, in a remotely opposite region, of Siberia -and the Arctic Ocean, of dog-sledges, white bears, and reindeer-riding -Tunguses.”[79] - -Never before had the people of Europe heard of such extraordinary wealth -and unlimited resources as existed in the far-off countries visited by -Marco Polo. His novel descriptions of stately, gold-covered palaces, -of the royal magnificence of the entertainments of the Grand Khan, of -the intoxicating fragrance of an endless profusion of rare flowers, -of luscious fruits and sweet spicery, of heavily laden argosies of -valuable merchandise floating on noble rivers, and of vast collections of -gold, silver, and precious stones, were read with the most exaggerated -conceptions of their reality. These enchanting details respecting Cathay -and the adjacent countries were fully confirmed in the fourteenth century -by Sir John Mandeville, who, in 1322, departed from England, and after -an absence of thirty-four years in different countries returned to -write, in Latin, in French, and in English, a narrative of his extended -travels.[80] - -Dazzled by the splendor of the Orient the people of Western Europe were -eager to enter into commercial intercourse with the inhabitants of -Cathay. But there were innumerable barriers, both natural and political, -obstructing all the overland ways to the East. Chief among the obstacles -classed as political was the selfish exclusiveness of the different -governments possessing the intervening territory. Had there been no -national opposition to the establishment of a protected system of -overland commerce between Western Europe and Eastern Asia, the distance -was too great to be travelled over by slowly moving caravans. - -As early as the year 1343 the aggressive enterprise of the Venetians had -obtained from the sultan of Egypt the exclusive privilege of sending -ships to trade in the ports of that country and of Syria. The merchants -of Venice thereupon established commercial agencies at Alexandria and -Damascus. Their factors penetrated Central and Southern Asia, and became -active participants in the remunerative traffic of those regions. The -prized productions of the islands in the Indian Ocean, such as pepper, -cinnamon, cloves, and other spices, were transported by them to Venice -and distributed through Europe. Although the ocean along the western -and southern coast of Africa to the East was believed to be navigable, -no attempt was made in the fourteenth century to sail by it to the -Moluccas or Spice Islands. Concerning the early navigation of the -sea-path along the coast of Africa, from the Pillars of Hercules to the -Arabian Sea, Herodotus says that when Necho, king of Egypt, “had ceased -digging the canal leading from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, he sent -certain Phœnicians in ships, with orders to sail between the Pillars of -Hercules into the Northern Sea [the Mediterranean], and so to return to -Egypt. These Phœnicians, taking their course from the Red Sea, entered -the Southern Ocean. On the approach of autumn they landed in Libya -[Africa], and planted some corn in the place where they happened to find -themselves. When this was ripe, and they had cut it down, they again -departed. Having thus consumed two years, they in the third doubled the -Pillars of Hercules, and returned to Egypt. Their account may obtain -attention from others, but to me it seems incredible, for they affirmed, -that having sailed around Libya, they had the sun on their right hand. -Thus was Libya for the first time known.”[81] - -Pliny, the celebrated encyclopedist of ancient times, says that “while -the power of Carthage was at its height, Hanno published an account of -a voyage which he made from Gades [Cadiz, Spain], to the extremity of -Arabia.[82] ... Besides, we learn from Cornelius Nepos, that one Eudoxus, -a contemporary of his, when he was fleeing from King Lathyrus, set out -from the Arabian Gulf, and was carried as far as Gades.[83] And long -before him, Cælius Antipater informs us that he had seen a person who -had sailed from Spain to Æthiopia for the purpose of trade. The same -Cornelius Nepos, when speaking of the northern circumnavigation, tells us -that Q. Metellus Celer, the colleague of L. Afranius in the consulship, -but then a proconsul in Gaul,[84] had a present made to him by the king -of the Suevi,[85] of certain Indians, who, sailing from India for the -purpose of commerce, had been driven by tempests to Germany.”[86] - -These statements were quoted in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to -support the growing belief that India could be reached in a short time by -sailing round the coast of Africa. But the want of nautical instruments -restrained seamen from undertaking a voyage which carried them beyond the -sight of familiar coasts and beneath new constellations. It was extremely -perilous for European navigators to attempt to sail to India before they -had acquired a knowledge of the use of the mariner’s compass and of the -astrolabe. The polarity of the magnet was known among oriental nations -several centuries before the Christian era. The use of the magnetic -needle for the guidance of vessels, however, did not become popular in -Europe until as late as the fourteenth century.[87] The slowness with -which its use grew into favor with European seamen is ascribable to the -prevailing superstition which hung like a darkening cloud over the minds -of the people. The strange conservatism of the age is well described in -a letter written, as it seems, in the year 1258, by Brunetto Latini, a -learned Italian, Dante’s tutor, to Guido Cavalcanti of Florence. Speaking -of his visit to Roger Bacon, the English philosopher and monk, at Oxford, -England, he says: - -“The Parliament being summoned to assemble at Oxford, I did not fail -to see Friar Bacon as soon as I arrived, and [among other things] he -showed me a black ugly stone, called a magnet, which has the surprising -property of drawing iron to it; and upon which, if a needle be rubbed, -and afterwards fastened to a straw, so that it shall swim upon water, -the needle will instantly turn toward the pole-star; therefore, be the -night ever so dark, so that neither moon nor star be visible, yet shall -the mariner be able, by the help of the needle, to steer his vessel -aright.[88] - -“This discovery, which appears useful in so great a degree to all who -travel by sea, must remain concealed until other times, because no -master-mariner dares to use it lest he should fall under a supposition of -his being a magician; nor would even the sailors venture themselves out -to sea under his command if he took with him an instrument which carries -so great an appearance of being constructed under the influence of some -infernal spirit. A time may come when these prejudices, which are of such -great hindrance to researches into the secrets of nature, will probably -be no more; and then it will be that mankind shall reap the benefit of -the labors of such learned men as Friar Bacon, and do justice to that -industry and intelligence for which he and they now meet with no other -return than obloquy and reproach.”[89] - -About the beginning of the fourteenth century, Flavia Gioja of Amalfi, -in Naples, devised what were then known as the eight points of the -superficies—the four cardinal and the four intermediate points of the -compass-card.[90] From this time forward the use of the magnet gradually -found favor with European seamen. - -The most enthusiastic projector of voyages of discovery undertaken to -ascertain the character of the land and water divisions of the earth, in -the early part of the fifteenth century, was Prince Henry, the son of -King John I. of Portugal.[91] When twenty-one years of age, he witnessed, -in 1415, the taking of Ceuta, on the northern coast of Africa, opposite -the southern extremity of Portugal. While at this opulent city, he -learned from its merchants and traders that the continent extended far -southward and was inhabited by many strange people. Fixing his residence -on the promontory of Sagres, at the southwestern extremity of Portugal, -he began to send the most experienced seamen in the service of Portugal -to explore the western coast of Africa. For a time Cape de Não, in north -latitude, 28° 45´ was considered the limit of safe navigation. It was a -common saying among Portuguese seamen, that “He who should pass Cabo -de Não, either will return or not.”[92] Beyond it was Cape Bojador, in -26° 12´ north latitude. This rocky headland, for a time, was also deemed -perilous and impassable. “Beyond this cape” it was said, “there is no -people whatever; the ground is as barren as that of Libya,—no water, -no trees, no grass in it; the sea is so shallow that at a league from -the land it is only a fathom deep; the currents are so strong that a -ship passing the cape cannot return.”[93] The attempts made by Prince -Henry’s mariners to double the two capes are thus commented upon by -Antonio Galvano, the Portuguese historian,[94] in his treatise respecting -the routes by which spices came from India to the year 1550: “In those -days none of the Portuguese had yet passed Cabo de Não in 29 degrees of -latitude.” But after it was doubled, “when they came to another cape -named Bojador, there was not one of them that dared to risk his life -beyond it. The prince was exceedingly displeased with their want of -confidence and unmanly timidity.”[95] Of the number of seamen that had -made unsuccessful attempts to pass the cape was Gil Eannes. Disappointed -as Prince Henry was by these failures to accomplish that which he had -ordered them to do, he nevertheless gave his timorous navigators all the -encouragement he could to induce them to make other and more persistent -efforts to double the formidable headland. In 1434, he again sent Gil -Eannes to explore the coast beyond Cape Bojador. Before the latter -departed the prince endeavored to dispel the terrifying fancies that -might deter him from attempting to prosecute the undertaking for which he -was commissioned. “You cannot incur such peril” said the prince, “that -the promised reward shall not be commensurate thereto. It is very strange -to me that you should be governed by a fear of something of which you are -ignorant, for if the things reported had any authentication, I should not -find fault with you for believing them. The stories of the four seamen -driven out of their course to Flanders or to the ports to which they were -sailing are not to be credited, for they had not and could not have used -the needle and the chart. But do you go notwithstanding, and make your -voyage without being influenced by their opinions, and, by the grace of -God, you will not fail to secure, by your enterprise, both honor and -compensation.”[96] Gil Eannes followed the advice of his sanguine patron, -and succeeded the same year in doubling Cape Bojador and in exploring a -part of the coast beyond it. - -South of Cape Bojador it was believed that a zone of scorching heat -would be entered by vessels sailing toward the equator. Pliny adverts -to it in these words: “The middle of the earth, over which is the path -of the sun, is parched and set on fire by the luminary, and is consumed -by being so near the heat. There are only two of the zones which are -temperate—those which lie between the torrid and the frigid zones—and -these are separated from each other, in consequence of the scorching -heat of the heavenly bodies.”[97] Conceiving this statement to be as -fallacious as many other declarations of the early geographers had been, -Prince Henry, in 1454, sent Luigi da Cadamosto, a Venetian navigator, -to explore the coast beyond Cape Bojador so long invested with so many -imaginary terrors. In 1462 Pedro de Cintra sailed three hundred miles -beyond Sierre Leone. - -As it was necessary for seamen to know the latitude and longitude of the -places to which they desired to sail, another nautical instrument besides -the mariner’s compass was needed by them.[98] The adaptation of an -instrument called the astrolabe, by which the latitudes of places could -be determined, apparently originated with King John II. of Portugal.[99] - -It is said that “when Prince Henry began the discovery of Guinea that all -mariners were accustomed to sail along the coasts, and that they always -steered their courses by observing the physical features of the land, -which are still used as guides.” - -“This method of navigating permitted them to make voyages from place to -place; but when they wished to sail in the open sea, losing sight of the -coast and standing out on the wide ocean, they perceived the numerous -errors they had made in calculating and judging the day’s run, for they -had been accustomed to allow so much way to the ship in the twenty-four -hours on account of the currents and the other mysteries of the sea, -the facts of which are clearly demonstrated by navigating by altitude. -But as necessity is the teacher of all arts, in the time of King John -II., the matter of navigation was assigned by him to Master Roderic, -and Master Joseph, a Jew, (who were his physicians,) and to one Martin -of Bohemia, a native of those parts, who boasted of being a pupil of -John of Monteregius, a famous astronomer among the professors of that -science,[100] and these devised the way of navigating by the sun’s -altitude, and they made tables of his declination such as are now used -by navigators, now more complete than they were at the beginning when the -great wooden astrolabes were first used.”[101] - -This novel and serviceable nautical instrument, first made of wood and -of a triangular shape, was soon in general use on Portuguese vessels. -The astrolabe was improved from time to time. At the beginning of the -seventeenth century, when the French seaman, Samuel de Champlain, was -exploring the St. Lawrence River and its tributaries, it was a disk -of brass, having one of its faces marked with degrees and minutes. A -brass rule, called a label, with sight-holes, turning upon a pivot at -the centre of the instrument, moved over the marked circumference of -the disk. At the zenith part of the instrument there was a small ring -by which it could be suspended from the thumb of the person taking an -observation. When used the astrolabe was turned to the sun, so that his -rays could freely pass through the two sight-holes of the label. In this -position the altitude of the sun was indicated on the divided limb of the -instrument. Opposite the zenith point was a small eyelet from which a -weight could be suspended to keep the instrument from shaking when used. - -[Illustration: A representation of the astrolabe found in 1867 in the -county of North Renfrew, province of Ontario, Canada, supposed to have -been lost by Champlain on his way to Ottawa in 1613. The diameter of -the instrument is “five inches and five-eights.” _Vide_ “Champlain’s -astrolabe.” By A. J. Russell. Montreal, 1879.] - -In the fifteenth century the day’s run of a ship was commonly reckoned -by the pilot. In an old nautical work it is said: “In order to know the -speed of the ship over the length of the course the pilot must set down -in his journal the progress the vessel has made according to hours; and -to do this he must know that the greatest distance that a ship advances -in an hour is four miles, and with feebler breezes, three or only -two.”[102] Time was measured by sand-glasses, or _ampolletas_, as they -were called by the Spaniards. Forty-eight changes of these half-hour -glasses equalled the space of a day.[103] - -In 1487 the persistent enterprise of the Portuguese in exploring a -commercial route to India along the west and south coasts of Africa was -notably signalized by the success attending the expedition commanded by -the adventurous seaman, Bartolomeu Dias. The indomitable zeal of this -Portuguese mariner enabled him to reach the southern extremity of Africa, -where he found a bold promontory to which he gave the name of Cabo -Tormentoso, (the Stormy Cape,) commemorative of the adverse winds and bad -weather encountered there. King John II., personally appreciating the -good fortune attending the explorations of the navigators of Portugal in -this direction during the previous seventy years, in which time more than -six thousand miles of coast-line had been inspected by them, called the -promontory discovered by Dias, Cabo de Boa Esperança (the Cape of Good -Hope).[104] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -1474-1492. - - -The success attending the voyages of the Portuguese along the coast of -Africa suggested to Cristoforo Colombo[105] (or Christopher Columbus, as -he is more commonly called by those speaking English), the possibility -of sailing by a shorter way to India in another direction. Ferdinand -Columbus, in his history of the life and achievements of his father,[106] -makes no attempt to conceal this fact from publicity. With an apparent -intention to give all the information which might be desired concerning -the great discoverer’s first thoughts respecting the practicability -of reaching Asia by sailing in a westerly direction, he frankly tells -what originated them in the mind of the admiral. “As one thing leads -to another, and one thought to another, in this way, while the admiral -was in Portugal, he began to infer that as the Portuguese sailed so -far southward, it was also feasible to steer westward, and that land -might likely be found in this direction. In order to be more assured -and satisfied in this matter, he began to review the cosmographies -which he had read, and to note what astronomical reasons would support -this theory.[107] That he might be more enlightened concerning his -assumption, he paid attention to what was said by people respecting -it, especially by seamen. His diligent investigations soon led him -to conclude that there were many lands west of the Canaries and the -Cape Verd Islands, and that it was practicable to sail to and discover -them.”[108] - -The remarkable aptitude displayed by Columbus in forming his conclusions -that the Atlantic Ocean was navigable, and that ships might pass across -its unexplored expanse to Cathay, was the natural expression of his -peculiar passion for geographical knowledge. In a letter written to their -Spanish majesties, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, in 1501, he says: -“I went to sea when quite young, and have continued my sea-faring until -now; and this profession makes those who follow it eager to discover the -secrets of this globe. It is now forty years that I have been sailing -to all those places which are at present visited, and I have dealt and -talked with learned people, ecclesiastics as well as laymen, Latins, -Greeks, Indians, Moors, and many other people of different nations, and -our Lord has favored this inclination, and I have received from him the -spirit of understanding. He has made me very skillful in navigation, and -to know much in astronomy, in geometry, and mathematics. God has given me -the knowledge and the ability to portray the globe, and also to delineate -cities, rivers, islands, and ports in their proper situation. During my -life I have examined and endeavored to see all books of cosmography, -history, and philosophy, and of the other sciences, so that our Lord has -sensibly opened my mind in order that I may sail from here to the Indies, -and has made me extremely anxious to do it.”[109] - -Columbus’s irrepressible desire to possess all the information he could -acquire respecting the navigable water-ways of the Atlantic also led him -to sail over the sea-path to Iceland and to the south coast of Africa, -at the equator. In his geographical work, written “to show that all the -five zones are habitable,” he says: “‘In February, 1467, I sailed myself -a hundred leagues beyond Thule, the northern part of which is seventy -degrees distant from the equator, and not sixty-three degrees as some -will have it to be; nor does it lie upon the line where Ptolemy’s West -begins, but much more to the westward, and to this island, which is as -large as England, the English trade, especially those from Bristol.[110] -At the time I was there the sea was not frozen, but the tides were so -great that in some places it swelled twenty-six fathoms and fell as -much.’ The truth is, that the Thule of which Ptolemy speaks lies where -he says, and this is called by the moderns Frizeland.” Again he says: “I -have followed sea-faring for twenty-three years without being on shore -any space of time worth mentioning, and I have seen all the East and all -the West, and have been to the North where England is situated, and even -to Guinea.” He also says that he went to sea when fourteen years old, and -ever after that led a sea-faring life.[111] - -Among the motives influencing him to think that he could sail to Cathay -by the way of the Atlantic Ocean were the statements of geographical -writers. By them it was said “that a great part of the globe had already -been travelled over, and there only remained to be discovered and made -known the space lying between the eastern limits of India, known to -Ptolemy and Marinus, and the West, where are the islands Azores[112] and -those of Cape Verd,[113] the most western lands yet discovered.[114] ... -He considered that this space, lying between the eastern limits [of -India] known to Marinus and the islands of the Cape Verd group, could -not be more than a third part of the great circumference of the globe, -since Marinus had gone toward the East fifteen hours of the twenty-four -into which the circumference of the earth is divided, and therefore to -go [still farther eastwardly] to reach the Cape Verd Islands there were -nine hours, [of the circumference to be passed over], as it is said -that Marinus began his investigations in the West.... He conceived that -since Marinus had given in his cosmography an account of fifteen hours -or parts of the globe eastwardly, and had not reached the limits of the -East, it followed that its bounds must be much beyond, and consequently -the farther the land of the East extended eastwardly, the nearer this -land was to the Cape Verd Islands in the West, and that if the space were -chiefly water it might easily be sailed in a few days, and if it were -mainly land it would sooner be discovered by sailing westward, because -it would be nearer to the Cape Verd Islands.[115] ... The fifth reason, -which induced him to believe that the distance this way was short, was -the opinion of Alfragranus and his followers, who make the circumference -of the globe much less than all other writers and cosmographers, -allowing fifty-six miles and two-thirds to a degree.[116] Whence he -inferred that as the entire circumference of the globe was of such an -extent, the third part was small, which Marinus left unknown.... And -Seneca, in his first book of nature, who considers the knowledge of this -world as nothing when compared with that which is acquired in the next -life, says a ship may sail in a few days with a fair wind from the coast -of Spain to that of India. And if it be true, as some believe, that -Seneca wrote tragedies, we may infer that he speaks of the same thing in -the chorus of his Medea: - - ‘Venient annis - Saecula seris, quibus Oceanus - Vincula rerum laxet, et ingens - Pateat tellus, Typhysque novos - Detegat orbes, nec sit terris - Ultima Thule.’ - -“‘In the last years there will come an age in which Ocean shall loosen -the bonds of things; and a great land will be accessible; and another -Tiphys shall discover new worlds, and Thule shall no longer be the -extremity of the earth.’[117] This prediction may be considered really -fulfilled in the person of the admiral.... Marco Polo, the Venetian, -and John Mandeville, in their travels say that they went much farther -eastward than Ptolemy and Marinus mention, who, although they do not -speak of the Eastern Sea, yet by the account they give of the East it -may be assumed that India is not far distant from Africa and Spain.”[118] - -Ferdinand Columbus further says that his father expected to find, “before -he came to India, a very convenient island or continent, from which he -might pursue with more advantage his main design. This hope was grounded -upon the statements of many wise men and philosophers, who believed that -the greatest part of this terraqueous globe was land, or that there was -more land than water, which, if true, he assumed that between the coast -of Spain and the limits of India then known, there were many islands and -a considerable extent of main-land.... A pilot of the king of Portugal, -named Martin Vicente, told him that, being at one time four hundred and -fifty leagues westward of Cape St. Vincent, he found and picked up in the -sea a piece of wood ingeniously carved, but not with iron, which led him -to believe, as the wind had been blowing from the west for several days, -that the piece of wood had drifted from some island lying toward the -west. Then one Pedro Correa, who had married the sister of the admiral’s -wife, told him that at the island of Porto Santo[119] he had seen another -piece of wood, brought by the same winds, as nicely carved as the piece -already mentioned, and that canes had been found there so thick that each -joint would hold more than four quarts of wine, which reports he said he -communicated to the king of Portugal while talking to him about these -matters. The pieces of cane were shown to him. There being no place in -our parts where such cane grew, he inferred it to be true that the wind -had brought the cane from some neighboring islands or else from India. -For Ptolemy, in the first book of his geography, in the seventeenth -chapter, says there is such cane in the eastern parts of India. And some -of the people living on the islands, particularly on the Azores, told him -that when the west wind blew for a long time the sea drifted some pieces -of pine-wood upon those islands, particularly on the islands Gratiosa -and Fayal, there being no pine-wood in all those parts, and that the -sea cast upon the island of Flores, another of the Azores, the bodies -of two dead men, who were very broad-faced and different in appearance -from Christians. At Cape Verd and thereabouts they said that they once -saw some covered canoes or boats which the people believed were driven -there by stress of weather while the persons in them were going from one -island to another. Nor were these the only grounds he then had which -seemed reasonable, for there were those who told him that they had seen -some islands in the western ocean.... These persons he did not believe, -because he discovered from their own words and statements that they had -not sailed one hundred leagues to the westward, and that they had been -deceived by some rocks, thinking them to be islands; or else, perhaps, -they were some of those floating islands which are drifted about by the -waves, and which the sailors call _aguados_.... - -“He says, moreover, that in the year 1484, a man came to Portugal from -the island of Madera[120] to beg a caraval of the king to discover -a country which he affirmed he saw every year, and always after the -same manner, he agreeing with others who said they had seen the island -from the Azores. On this account the Portuguese placed some islands -thereabouts on the charts and maps made at that time; and also because -Aristotle, in his book of wonderful things, affirms that it was reported -that some Carthaginian merchants had sailed over the Atlantic Ocean to -a most fruitful island.... This island the Portuguese inserted in their -maps, calling it Antilla, and though they did not give it the same -situation designated by Aristotle, yet none placed it more than two -hundred leagues due west from the Canaries and the Azores. Some believe -it to be the island of the Seven Cities peopled by the Portuguese at -the time that Spain was conquered by the Moors, in 714, at which time, -they say, seven bishops with their people embarked and sailed to this -island, where each of them built a city; and in order that none of their -people might think of returning to Spain, they burnt the ships, tackle, -and all things necessary for sailing.[121] ... It was also said that in -the time of Prince Henry of Portugal, a Portuguese ship was driven by -stress of weather to this island of Antilla, where the men went on shore, -and were conducted by the islanders to their church to learn whether -or not they were Christians and acquainted with the Roman ceremonies. -After perceiving that they were, the people of the island importuned -them to remain till their king came, who was then absent, and who would -be delighted to see them and would give them many presents.... But the -master and the seamen were afraid of being detained, suspecting these -people did not wish to be discovered and might for this reason burn their -ship. - -“On this account they returned to Portugal, hoping to be rewarded by the -prince for what they had done. He reproved them severely and bid them -return at once to the island, but the master through fear ran away from -Portugal with the ship and men. It is reported that while the seamen were -at church on the island the ship-boys gathered sand for the cook-room, -the third part of which they found to be pure gold.... Seneca, in his -fourth book, tells us that Thucydides[122] speaks of an island called -Atlantica, which in the time of the Peloponnesian war was entirely, or -the greater part of it, submerged; whereof Plato also makes mention in -his Timæus.”[123] - -While Columbus resided at Lisbon obtaining information from geographers -and seamen respecting the feasibility of sailing westward to Cathay, he -entered into correspondence with Paolo Toscanelli, a Florentine physician -and astronomer.[124] The latter sent him a copy of a letter which he -had written in Latin to Ferdinand Martinez, a prebendary of Lisbon. The -communication addressed to Columbus, is dated Florence, June 25, 1474. As -translated the letter is as follows: - -“To Christopher Colon, Paul, the physician, wishes health. - -“I apprehend your noble and earnest desire to sail to those parts where -spices grow, and therefore, in answer to your letter, I send another, -which some time ago I wrote to a friend of mine, in the service of -the king of Portugal, before the wars of Castile, in answer to one he -wrote me by his highness’s command, upon the same subject. I also send -you a sea-chart similar to the one I sent him, which may satisfy your -inquiries. The copy of that letter is the following: - -“To Ferdinand Martinez, canon of Lisbon, Paul, the physician, wishes -health. - -“I am gratified to hear of your intimacy with the most serene and -magnificent king. Although I have often spoken of the short distance -by water from here to the Indies where spices grow, which way, in my -opinion, is shorter than that taken along the coast of Guinea, yet -you inform me that his highness would have me explain and demonstrate -it in order that it may be comprehended and tested. Although I could -better elucidate the configuration of the earth with a globe in my -hand, nevertheless, I will make the matter more easy and intelligible -by exhibiting the route on such a chart as is used in navigation. I -therefore send one to his majesty, made and drawn with my own hand, -on which are delineated the extreme limits of the West, from Iceland, -in the north, to the farthest part of Guinea, in the south, with all -the intermediate islands. Opposite, in the West, the beginning of the -Indies is delineated, with the islands and places to which you may -go, representing how far you may steer from the north pole toward the -equator, and for how long a time, that is, how many leagues you may sail -before you come to those places where are to be found all kinds of spices -and precious stones. Do not think it strange if I call the country where -spices grow West, since they are generally known to be produced in the -East, because those who shall sail westward will always find those places -in the west, and they who travel by land eastward, will always find -those places in the east. The straight lines which are drawn lengthwise -on the chart show the distance from west to east, and those which cross -the former show the distance from north to south. I have also marked down -on the chart several places in the Indies where ships might put in during -a storm or contrary winds, or any other unlooked-for accident. Moreover, -to give you ample information concerning all the places of which you -desire to know something, you must understand that only traders live or -reside on these islands, and that you will find there as large a number -of ships and sea-faring people engaged in merchandizing as in any other -part of the world, particularly in the famous port of the city called -Zacton, where, every year, a hundred large ships carrying pepper, are -loaded and unloaded, besides many other vessels freighted with different -kinds of spices.[125] This country is an exceedingly populous one, and -there are many provinces, kingdoms, and innumerable cities in it under -the rule of a sovereign called the Grand Khan, signifying king of kings, -who generally resides in the province of Cathay. His predecessors greatly -desired to have the commerce and the friendship of Christians, and two -hundred years ago they sent embassadors to the pope, to ask him to send -them many learned men and doctors to teach them our religion, but on -account of some obstacles the embassadors met with, they returned without -coming to Rome. Besides, there came an embassador to Pope Eugene IV., -who informed him of the great affection which their princes and people -bore toward the Christians. I talked with him a long time concerning -the magnificence of the royal palaces, the greatness of the country, -the length and breadth of the rivers. He told me many wonderful things -respecting a great number of towns and cities built on the banks of the -rivers, and that there were two hundred cities on a single river, with -marble bridges over it of great length and breadth, and sustained by many -pillars. This country deserves to be made known as well as any other, and -there may not only be great profits realized and many things of value -obtained, but also gold, silver, all kinds of precious stones, and spices -in abundance, which are not brought into our parts. And it is certain -that many wise men, philosophers, astronomers, and other persons skilled -in the arts, and very ingenious men govern this vast country and command -its armies. On the chart, from Lisbon directly westward to the great and -famous city of Quisay, are twenty-six spaces, each measuring two hundred -and fifty miles. The city is one hundred miles, or thirty-five leagues -in circuit, and within its limits are ten marble bridges. The name -Quisay signifies city of heaven.[126] Wonderful things are reported of -the ingenuity of its inhabitants, its buildings and revenues. The space -previously mentioned is almost a third part of the circumference of the -globe.[127] The city is in the province of Mango, bordering on that of -Cathay, where the king usually resides. From the island Antilla (which -you call the Seven Cities, and of which you have some knowledge), to the -great island of Cipango,[128] are ten spaces, which include two thousand -five hundred miles, or two hundred and twenty-five leagues.[129] The -island abounds with gold, pearls, and precious stones; and you should -know that they cover their temples and palaces with plates of pure gold. -All these things are hidden and concealed, because the way to them is -unknown, and yet it may be sailed with safety. - -“Much more might be said, but having told you that which is most -important, and as you are learned and have good judgment, I am satisfied -that you will understand what I have written without my adding any thing -further to these statements. This may satisfy your curiosity, it being -as much as my time and business permit me now to write. However, I remain -ever ready to satisfy and serve his highness to the utmost in all the -commands that he shall lay upon me.”[130] - -“The admiral, now believing that his opinion was excellently well -grounded,” says Ferdinand Columbus, “resolved to be governed by it, and -to sail across the western ocean in quest of those countries. But being -aware that such an undertaking was only becoming a monarch to espouse -and to accomplish, he determined to propose it to the king of Portugal, -because he was the latter’s subject. And though King John, then reigning, -gave ear to the admiral’s proposals, yet he hesitated to accept them on -account of the great burden and expense attending the exploration and -conquest of the western coast of Africa, called Guinea. Little success -had thus far rewarded this undertaking, nor had he been able to double -the Cape of Good Hope, which name, some say, was given it instead of -Agesingue, its proper designation, because that was the farthest they -hoped to extend their explorations and conquests, or, as others will -have it, because this cape gave them the expectation of better countries -and navigation. However, the king had but little inclination to invest -any more money in discoveries; and if he gave any attention to the -admiral, it was in consequence of the excellent reasons he advanced to -support his opinion, which arguments so far convinced the king that he -had nothing else to do but to accept or to reject the terms which the -admiral proposed. For the admiral, being a noble and magnanimous man, -wished to make an agreement that would be of some personal benefit and -honor to himself, so that he would leave behind him a notable reputation -and a respected family, such as became his achievements and memory. For -this reason the king, by the advice of one Doctor Cazadilla,[131] whom -he greatly esteemed, determined to send a caravel secretly to attempt -that which the admiral had proposed to him; for if those countries were -in this way discovered, he thought that he would not be obliged to -bestow any great reward which might be demanded. Having quickly equipped -a caravel, he sent it the way the admiral had proposed to go, for the -vessel was carrying supplies to the islands of the Cape Verd group. -But those he sent had not the knowledge, perseverance, and energy of -the admiral. After wandering many days on the sea, they turned back to -the islands of Cape Verd, laughing at the undertaking, and saying that -it was unreasonable to think there should be any land in those waters. -This being told to the admiral, ... he determined to go to Castile -[Spain].... But fearing that, if the king of Castile should not favor -his undertaking, he would be forced to propose it to some other monarch, -thereby consuming much time, he sent his brother Bartolomé Columbus, who -was with him, to England.... On his way to England, Bartolomé happened to -fall into the hands of pirates, who stripped him and his companions. For -this reason, and being sick and poor in that country, it was a long time -before he could deliver his message. It was not until he had obtained -some money by making sea-charts that he began to make certain proposals -to King Henry VII., then reigning, to whom he presented a map of the -world.... The king of England, having seen the map and heard what the -admiral offered to do for him, readily accepted the overture and ordered -him to be sent for.... - -“I will not now relate how Bartolomé Columbus conducted himself in -England, but will return to the admiral, who, about the end of the year -1484, stole secretly out of Portugal with his son Diego for fear of being -detained by the king; for the king having seen how unsuited they were -whom he had sent with the caravel, was inclined to restore the admiral to -his favor, and desired that he should renew his proposals; but the king -was not as eager to undertake their consideration as the admiral was to -get away; therefore the king lost that good opportunity and the admiral -entered Castile to try his fortune which was there to favor him. Leaving -his son in a monastery, called La Rabida, near Palos, he went at once to -the court of the catholic king, which was then at Cordova, where, being -affable and an entertaining talker, he made friends of such persons as -were most favorably inclined to his undertaking and fitted to persuade -the king to espouse it. Among these was Luis de Santángel, an Aragonian -gentleman, clerk of the allowances in the king’s household, a man of -great prudence and reputation. As the undertaking demanded an examination -by enlightened men, and not meaningless words and favor, their highnesses -intrusted the matter to the prior of Prado, afterward archbishop of -Granada, and ordered him, together with some cosmographers, to make -a thorough investigation of the project and to report their opinions -respecting it.[132] But there was only a small number of cosmographers at -that time, and those who were called together were not as enlightened as -they should have been, nor would the admiral wholly explain his plans, -for fear he might be served as he had been in Portugal and be deprived of -his reward. For this reason the answers they gave their highnesses were -as different as their judgments and opinions. Some said that inasmuch -as no information concerning those countries had been obtained by the -great number of experienced sailors living since the creation, which -was many thousand years ago, it was not likely that the admiral should -know more than all the seamen that were living or that had lived before -that time. Others, who were more influenced by cosmographical reasons, -said the world was so prodigiously great that it was incredible that a -voyage of three years would carry him to the end of the East, where he -proposed to go, and to substantiate this opinion they brought forward -the statement of Seneca, who, in one of his works, by way of argument, -asserts that many wise men disagreed about this question, whether or not -the ocean were boundless, and doubted if it could be traversed; and if it -were navigable, whether habitable lands would be found on the other side -of the globe, and whether they could be reached. They added that only a -small part of this terraqueous globe was inhabited, and that this was in -our hemisphere, and that all the remainder was sea, and only navigable -near the coasts and rivers. - -“Some admitted that learned men said it was possible to sail from the -coast of Spain to the farthest part of the West. Others argued, as the -Portuguese had done, about sailing to Guinea, saying that if any man -should sail directly westward, as the admiral proposed, that he would -not be able to return to Spain on account of the roundness of the globe, -confidently believing that whosoever should go out of the hemisphere -known to Ptolemy would go downward, and that then it would be impossible -to return, affirming that it would be like climbing a hill, which ships -could not accomplish in the stiffest gale. Although the admiral properly -answered all these objections, yet the more cogent his explanations were -the less they comprehended him on account of their ignorance, for when -a man grows familiar with false principles in mathematics for a long -time he cannot perceive the true, because of the erroneous impressions -which were first imprinted on his mind. In short, all of these men -were governed by the Spanish saying, St. Augustine doubts it; for this -holy man, in his twenty-first book, chapter ninth, on the city of God, -asserts and considers that it is unreasonable to believe that there are -antipodes, or any passage from one hemisphere to another.[133] - -“They further opposed the arguments of the admiral by quoting those -current fables respecting the five zones, and other fictions, which they -believed were true. They therefore determined to condemn the enterprise -as foolish and impracticable, and to declare that it did not become the -state and dignity of such great sovereigns to be misled by such weak -information. Therefore, after much time had been spent in considering -the project, their highnesses answered the admiral that they were then -engaged in too many wars and conquests, and especially in the conquest -of Granada, which was then occupying their attention, and therefore it -was not convenient for them to espouse this new enterprise at that time; -nevertheless, another opportunity might be given them when they could -more satisfactorily examine and accomplish that which he proposed.”[134] - -Chagrined as he may have been by this second disappointment, Columbus, -with that noble enthusiasm which the personal consciousness of being in -the right begets, “determined to apply to the king of France, to whom he -had already written concerning the project, intending, if he were not -admitted to an audience there, to go to England afterward to search for -his brother, from whom he had not yet received any intelligence. With -this resolution he set out for the monastery of La Rabida, to send his -son Diego, whom he had left there, to Cordova, and then proceed on his -journey. But in order that the thing which God had decreed should come -to pass, it was put in the heart of Friar Juan Perez, guardian of that -house, to befriend the admiral, and to be so captivated with his project -that he became deeply concerned respecting his resolution and the loss -Spain would sustain by his departure. Therefore he entreated the admiral -not to proceed any farther, for he would himself go to the queen, hoping -that, as he was her father-confessor, she would be governed by what he -should say to her. Although the admiral was disappointed and disgusted -with the discreditable action and judgment of the counsellors of their -highnesses, yet, being on the other hand very desirous that Spain should -reap the benefits of his undertaking, he complied with the friar’s -desire and request, for he considered himself a Spaniard, as he had long -resided in Spain prosecuting his undertaking and had begotten children -there, which was the reason for his rejection of the offers made him by -other sovereigns, as he declares in a letter written to their highnesses -[of Spain] in these words: “That I might serve your highnesses, I have -refused to undertake with France, England, and Portugal; the letters from -the sovereigns of which your highnesses may see in the hands of Doctor -Villalan.” - -“The admiral departed with Friar Juan Perez from the monastery of La -Rabida, near Palos, and went to the camp of Santa Fé, where their -catholic majesties were carrying on the siege of Granada. The friar then -had an interview with the queen and so entreated her, that she consented -that the conferences respecting the discovery should be renewed. But -the opinions of the prior of Prado and those of his followers were -discouraging, besides Columbus desired to be made admiral and viceroy, -and to have other compensations deemed too considerable to be granted, -because if he succeeded in doing what he proposed, they thought his -demands were too exorbitant, and in case he did not accomplish any -thing, they considered it foolish to bestow such titles; consequently -the matter received no favorable decision.... These things being of such -importance, and their highnesses refusing to grant them, the admiral took -leave of his friends, and proceeded toward Cordova to make preparations -for his journey to France, for he had determined not to return to -Portugal, although the king had written to him.... - -“It was in the month of January, in the year 1492, when the admiral -departed from the camp of Santa Fé. On that same day also Luis de -Santángel, previously mentioned, who did not approve of his going away, -but was very desirous to prevent it, went to the queen, and using such -words as his thoughts suggested to persuade and enlighten her, said, he -was surprised that her highness, who had always a great fondness for -all matters of moment and consequence should now be timid in favoring -this undertaking, where so little was hazarded that might contribute in -many ways to the glory of God and the propagation of religion.... The -queen, knowing the sincerity of Santángel’s words, answered, thanking him -for his good advice and saying she was willing to accept the proposals -upon the condition that the undertaking should be delayed until she had -more leisure after the war, and yet, if he thought differently, she was -satisfied that as much money as was required to fit out a fleet, should -be borrowed on her jewels. But Santángel, perceiving that the queen -had condescended upon his advice to do what she had refused all other -persons, replied that there was no need of pawning her jewels, for he -would do her highness that small service by lending his money. Thereupon -the queen at once sent an officer post-haste to bring the admiral -back, who found him upon the bridge of Pinos, two leagues from Granada. -Although the admiral was much disheartened by the disappointments and -delays he had met with in this undertaking, nevertheless, being informed -of the queen’s wish and intention, he returned to the camp of Santa Fé, -where he was graciously entertained by their catholic majesties, and his -commission and stipulations were intrusted to their secretary, Juan de -Coloma, who, by the command of their highnesses, under their hand and -seal, granted him all the conditions and provisions which, as already -mentioned, he had demanded, without altering or subtracting any thing in -them.”[135] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -1492-1493. - - -Sensibly impressed with the importance of his undertaking, Columbus -determined to keep a journal of such observations and incidents as were -most noteworthy during the voyage. Governed by this intention, he made -the following entry in his log-book, when he set sail for the remote -shores of Cathay: - -“In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. - -“Whereas the most Christian, high, excellent, and powerful rulers, -the king and the queen of Spain and of the islands of the sea, our -sovereigns, this present year, 1492, after your highnesses had ended -the war with the Moors ruling in Europe, the same having terminated in -the great city of Granada, where, on the second day of January, this -present year, I saw the royal banners of your highnesses planted by -force of arms upon the towers of the Alhambra, the fortress of that -city, and beheld the Moorish king come out at the gate of the city and -kiss the hands of your highnesses and of the prince, my sovereign, and -in the present month, on account of the information which I had given -your highnesses respecting the countries of India and of a sovereign -called the Grand Khan, signifying, in our language, king of kings; how, -at different times, he and his predecessors had sent to Rome soliciting -instructors to teach him our holy religion, and how the holy father -had never granted his request, whereby great numbers of people were -lost, believing in idolatry and doctrines of perdition; therefore your -highnesses, as catholic Christians and sovereigns, who love and promote -the holy Christian religion, and are enemies of the sect of Mahomet, and -of all idolatry and heresy, determined to send me, Christopher Columbus, -(Cristóbal Colon,) to the previously mentioned countries of India, to -see the said sovereigns, people, and territories, and to learn their -disposition and the proper way of converting them to our holy religion; -and furthermore, directed that I should not go by land to the East, as is -customary, but by a westerly route, in which direction we have hitherto -no certain evidence that any one has gone. Therefore, after having -expelled the Jews from your dominions, your highnesses, in the same month -of January, ordered me to proceed with a sufficient armament to the -said regions of India, and for that purpose granted me great favors and -ennobled me, that thereafter I might call myself Don and be high admiral -(_almirante mayor_) of the sea, and perpetual viceroy and governor of -all the islands and continent which I might discover and acquire, or -which may hereafter be discovered and acquired in the ocean; and that -this title should be inherited by my eldest son, and thus descend from -generation to generation forever. Thereupon I left the city of Granada, -on Saturday, the twelfth day of May, 1492, and proceeded to Palos, a -seaport, where I armed three vessels very fit for such an expedition, -and having provided myself with an abundance of stores and seamen, I set -sail from this port on Friday, the third of August, half an hour before -sunrise, and steered for the Canary Islands of your highnesses, which -are in the said ocean, thence to take my departure and proceed till I -arrived at the Indies, and perform the embassy of your highnesses to the -sovereigns there, and discharge the orders given. Consequently, I have -determined to write out daily a minute account of the voyage respecting -what I do and see, and the passage, as hereafter will appear. Moreover, -sovereign princes, besides recording each night my progress during the -day and the run made during the night, I intend to make a new nautical -chart (_carta nueva de navegar_), in which I shall delineate all the sea -and the lands of the Ocean in their proper places under their wind; and, -moreover, I shall compose a book and represent the whole like a picture -by latitude, from the equator, and by longitude, from the West, wherefore -it will cause me to abstain from sleep and to make many experiments in -navigation, for these things will require no little labor.”[136] - -[Illustration: FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA. - -ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.] - -The vessels of the fleet were the ship (_la nao_), Santa Maria,[137] -commanded by Columbus, and two caravels, (_carabelas_,) La Pinta, -commanded by Martin Alonso Pinzon, and La Nina, by Vicente Yañes Pinzon, -his brother, both being natives and seamen of Palos. “Being furnished -with all necessaries and ninety men,”[138] says Ferdinand Columbus, -“they set sail on the third of August directly toward the Canaries, and -from that time forward the admiral was very careful to keep an accurate -journal of all that happened to him during the voyage, specifying the -wind that blew, how far he sailed with it, the currents he found, and -what he saw by the way, whether birds or fishes, or other things.... - -“The next day after the admiral’s departure for the Canary Islands, it -being Saturday, the fourth of August, the rudder of one of the caravels, -of the one called La Pinta, broke loose, and the caravel being compelled -to lie to, the admiral soon reached her side, but the wind blowing hard -he could render no assistance, as commanders at sea are obliged to do to -encourage those that are in distress. This he did more promptly, as he -conceived that the unshipping of the rudder had been brought about by -the contrivance of the master to avoid going on the voyage, as he had -attempted to do before they set sail.”[139] - -At the Canary Islands, Columbus altered the sails of the caravel La Nina, -and made a new rudder for the Pinta. On Thursday morning, the sixth of -September, the three vessels set sail from the island Gomera, of the -Canary group, “and stood away to the west.” On the following Sunday, -at day-break, when the fleet was nine leagues west of the island of -Ferro,[140] the sailors “lost sight of land, and many, fearing that it -would be long before they should see it again, sighed and wept, but the -admiral, after comforting them with large promises of land and of wealth, -to raise their hopes and lessen their fears respecting the length of the -voyage, pretended that by his computation they had sailed only fifteen -leagues that day when they had really run eighteen, he having determined -to keep, during the voyage, his reckoning short, in order that the men -might not think that they were so far from Spain as they were, should he -openly set down the progress made which he privately recorded.[141] - -“Continuing his voyage in this way, on Wednesday, the twelfth of -September, about sun-setting, being about one hundred and fifty leagues -west of the island of Ferro, he discovered a large piece of the trunk of -a tree of one hundred and twenty tons, which seemed to have been a long -time in the water. There and somewhat farther the current set strongly -toward the northeast. When he had run fifty leagues farther westward, on -the thirteenth of September he found at night-fall that the needle varied -half a point toward the northeast, and, at day-break, half a point more, -by which he understood that the needle did not point at the north star, -but at some other fixed and visible point. This variation no man had -observed before, and therefore he had occasion to be surprised at it; but -he was more amazed on the third day after this, when he was almost one -hundred leagues farther, for at night the needles varied about a point to -the northeast, and in the morning they pointed upon the star.”[142] - -As they sailed on this westward course, they found “more weeds than they -had hitherto toward the north as far as they could see, which weeds were -sometimes a solace to them, believing that they might come from some land -that was near, and sometimes they caused dread, because they were so -thick that in some measure they impeded the ships, and fear making things -worse than they are, they apprehended that that might happen to them -which is fictitiously reported of Saint Amaro in the Frozen Sea, which it -is said does not suffer ships to stir backward or forward, and therefore -they steered away from the shoals of weeds as far as possible.[143] - -“The wind at this time blew at southwest, sometimes more and sometimes -less west, which, though contrary to their voyage, the admiral said -he considered a very good wind and a help to them, because the men, -continually grumbling, said that among the things which increased their -fears this was one, for the wind being always astern, they should never -have a gale in those seas to carry them back; and though sometimes they -found the contrary, they alleged that it was no settled wind, and that -not being strong enough to swell the sea, it would never carry them back -as far as they had to sail. Although the admiral did whatever he could -to make them cheerful, telling them that the land being now so near did -not permit the waves to rise, and using the best argument he could, -nevertheless he affirms that he stood in need of God’s special help, as -Moses did when he led the Israelites out of Egypt, who forbore laying -violent hands upon him, because of the wonders God wrought through him. -The admiral said that he was similarly protected in this voyage. On the -following Sunday the wind began to blow from the west-northwest, with a -rolling sea as the men wished, and three hours before noon they saw a -turtle-dove fly over the ship, and in the evening they saw a pelican, -a river fowl, and other wild birds, and some crabs among the weeds; -and the next day they espied another pelican, and several small birds -which came from the west, and small fishes, some of which the men of the -other vessels stuck with harpoons, because they would not bite at the -hook.”[144] - -“As often as the men were deceived by these signs of land, so often had -they occasion to be suspicious and to grumble and conspire together. They -said the admiral, for a foolish whim, intended to make himself a great -lord at the hazard of their lives, and since they had done their duty in -trying their fortune, and had gone farther from land and any succor than -others had done, that they ought not to destroy themselves, nor proceed -farther on the voyage, because if they did, they should have reason to -repent, for their provisions would fall short and the sails of the ships -would not last, which they knew were already so impaired that it would -be difficult to retrace their course from where they were; and that none -would condemn them for returning, but that they would be regarded as -very brave men for going upon such an expedition and venturing so far, -and that the admiral being a foreigner, and having nothing at stake, and -as many wise and learned men had condemned his opinion, there would be -nobody now to favor and defend him, and that they should get more credit -than he if they accused him of ignorance and mismanagement, whatever he -should say for himself. And there were some who said that to end all -dispute, in case he would not consent to return, that they could make -short work of it and throw him overboard, and report that while he was -making his observations he fell into the sea, and that no man would -trouble himself to inquire into the truth of the matter; which deed would -hasten their return home and preserve their lives. Thus they conducted -themselves from day to day, grumbling, complaining, and conspiring -together. The admiral was not without apprehensions of their inconstancy -and evil intentions toward him. Therefore, sometimes with fair words and -sometimes with a strong determination to expose his life, putting them -in mind of the punishment due them if they hindered the voyage, he, in -some measure, quelled their fears and suppressed their evil designs. To -confirm the hope with which he had inspired them, he reminded them of the -previous signs and indications, assuring them that they would soon find -land, which they were so eager to see that they thought every hour a year -until they beheld it.... - -“On Sunday morning [the thirtieth of September], four rush-tails came -to the ship, and as they flew there together, it was thought that land -was near, especially when, not long afterward, four pelicans flew by, -and an abundance of weeds was seen, lying in a line west-northwest -and east-southeast, and also a great number of those fishes they call -_emperadores_, which have a very hard skin and are not fit to eat. -However much the admiral regarded these signs, still he never forgot -those in the heavens and the course of the stars. He therefore observed -in this place, to his great astonishment, that the stars of Charles’s -wain, at night, appeared in the west, and in the morning they were -directly northeast, from which he inferred that their whole night’s -course was but three lines or nine hours—that is, so many parts of -twenty-four,—and this he did every night. He also perceived that at -night-fall the compass-needle varied a whole point to the northwest, -and at day-break it came right with the star. These things confounded -the pilots until he told them that the cause of it was the circuit the -star took about the pole, which was some satisfaction to them, for this -variation made them apprehend some danger at such an unknown distance -from home, and in such strange regions.... - -“On Monday, the first of October, at sunrise, a pelican came to the -ship, and two more about ten in the morning, and long beds of weeds -extended from east to west. That day, in the morning, the pilot of the -admiral’s ship said that they were five hundred and seventy-eight leagues -west of the island of Ferro. The admiral said, by his reckoning, they -were five hundred and eighty-four leagues; but in secret he concluded it -was seven hundred and seven, which is one hundred and twenty-nine leagues -more than the pilot reckoned. The other two vessels differed much in -their computations, for the pilot of the caravel Nina, on the following -Wednesday afternoon, said they had sailed five hundred and forty leagues, -and the other of the caravel Pinta said six hundred and thirty-four.... - -“On Thursday afternoon, the fourth of October, a flock of more than forty -sparrows and two pelicans flew so near the ship that a seaman killed one -of them with a stone; and before this they had seen another bird like a -rush-tail, and another like a swallow, and a great many flying-fish fell -into the vessels. The next day there came a rush-tail and a pelican from -the west, and great numbers of sparrows were seen. - -“On Sunday, the seventh of October, about sunrise, some signs of land -appeared westward, but being undefined, no one said any thing, for fear -of the consequence of asserting what did not exist, and also for fear -of losing the thirty crowns which their catholic majesties had promised -as an annuity during the life of him who should first discover land. -In order to prevent the men from crying land, land, at every turn, as -they would likely have done without cause to secure the gift, it was -ordered that whoever said he saw land, if it were not ascertained to -exist in three days from that time, should lose the reward, even if -afterward he should be declared to be the first discoverer of land. All -on board of the admiral’s ship being thus forewarned, none dared to cry -out land, but those in the caravel Nina, which was a better sailer, and -kept ahead, once believing that they actually saw land, fired a gun, and -displayed their colors to indicate land. But the farther they sailed -the more their joyous expectations diminished and the indication of -land disappeared. However, it pleased God to give them soon after some -comforting assurances, for they saw great flocks of large fowl and others -of small birds flying from the west toward the southwest. Therefore, the -admiral, being now so far from Spain, and sure that such small birds -would not go far from land, altered his course, which until that time had -been westward, and stood to the southwest, saying, that his reason for -changing his course was that he would deviate but a little from his first -intention and that he would be following the example of the Portuguese, -who had discovered the greater number of their islands by means of such -birds, and more especially as the birds he saw flew generally in the same -direction. He also had always proposed to himself to find land according -to the place they were in; since, as they well knew, he had often told -them that he never expected to find land until he was seven hundred and -fifty leagues westward of the Canary Islands, within which distance, he -had further said, he should discover Española, which, at this time, he -called Cipango.... - -“On Monday, the eighth of October, there came to the ship twelve -singing-birds of several colors, and after flying about the vessel, they -held on their way. They also saw from the vessels many other birds flying -toward the southwest, and that same night great numbers of large fowls -were seen, and flocks of small birds coming from the north, and flying -after the others. Besides they saw a good number of tunny-fish. In the -morning they saw a jay, a pelican, some ducks, and small birds, flying -the same way as the others had done, and they perceived that the air was -fresh and odoriferous, as it is at Seville in April. But they were now -so eager to see land, that they had no faith in any signs; so that, on -Wednesday, the tenth of October, although they saw a great many birds -pass by during the day and at night, the men did not cease to complain, -or the admiral to censure them for their want of confidence, declaring to -them, that right or wrong they must go farther to discover the Indies for -which purpose their catholic majesties had sent them. - -“The admiral being no longer able to withstand the number that opposed -him, it pleased God that on Thursday afternoon, the eleventh of October, -the men took heart and rejoiced, because they had unquestionable signs -that they were near land. Those on board the admiral’s ship saw a green -rush float by the ship, and then a large green fish of that class which -go not far from the rocks. Those on board the caravel Pinta saw a cane -and a staff, and picked up another staff curiously wrought, and a small -board, and an abundance of fresh weeds washed from the shore. Those in -the caravel Nina saw similar things, and a branch of a thorn full of red -berries, which seemed to be recently broken off. By these signs and by -his own consciousness, the admiral, being assured that he was near land, -made a speech to all the men in the evening, after prayers, reminding -them how merciful God had been in bringing them on so long a voyage with -such fair weather, and comforting them with indications which every day -were plainer and plainer. He begged them to be very watchful that night, -for they were aware that in the first article of the instructions he had -given each ship at the Canary Islands, that he had ordered that when -they had sailed seven hundred leagues to the west, without discovering -land, that they should lie to from midnight until daylight. Therefore, -since they had not yet obtained their desires in discovering land, they -should at least manifest their zeal by being watchful. And inasmuch as -he had the strongest assurances of finding land that night, each should -watch in his place; for besides the annuity of thirty crowns which their -highnesses had promised for a life-time to the one that first saw land, -to the same person he would give a velvet doublet. - -“After this, about ten at night, as the admiral was in the great cabin, -he saw a light on shore, but said it was so obscure that he could not -affirm it to be land, though he called Pedro Gutierrez, and bid him -observe whether he saw the light, who said he did. Shortly afterward they -called Rodrigo Sanchez, of Segovia, to look that way, but he could not -see it, because he did not come in time to the place where it might have -been seen. They did not see it more than once or twice, which induced -them to think that it might have been a candle or a torch belonging to -some fisherman or traveller, who lifted it up and down; or, perhaps, that -it was in the hands of people going from one house to another, as the -light vanished and suddenly appeared again.... Being now very watchful, -they still held on their course, until about two in the morning, when the -caravel Pinta, which, being an excellent sailer, was far ahead, gave the -signal of land, which was first discovered by a sailor named Rodrigo de -Triana, when two leagues from the shore. But the annuity of thirty crowns -was not given to him by their catholic majesties, but to the admiral, who -had seen the light in the darkness, signifying the spiritual light that -he was then spreading in those dark regions. Being now near land, all the -ships lay to, those on board thinking it was a long time until morning, -when they might see what they had so long desired.”[145] - -This island, says Bartolomé de las Casas, the Spanish historian,[146] was -“one of the Lucayos, called by the Indians Guanahani.[147] Presently they -descried people, naked, and the admiral landed in the boat, which was -armed, along with Martin Alonso Pinzon and Vicente Yañez, his brother, -captain of the Nina. The admiral bore the royal standard, and the two -captains each a banner of the green cross, which all the vessels had -carried. The banner was emblazoned with the initials of the names of -the king and queen[148] on each side of the cross, with a crown over -each letter. When they came on the beach, they saw trees very green, an -abundance of water, and fruit of different kinds. The admiral called -the two captains and the other men who had come on land, and Rodrigo de -Escovedo, notary of the fleet, and Rodrigo Sanchez de Segovia, and said -that he had summoned them to bear witness that he, before all other men, -took possession (as in act he did) of that island for the king and the -queen, his sovereigns, making the requisite declarations which are more -at large set down in the instrument which they made there in writing.” - -The natives who collected around the Spaniards at their landing are -thus described by Columbus: “I perceived that if they should have much -friendship for us that it was a people that could be emancipated and -converted to our holy religion better by love than by force. I gave -a number of them some red caps and some beads of glass, which they -placed around their necks, and many other things of little value, with -which they were much pleased, and they became so friendly that their -attachment seemed strange to us. Afterward they came swimming to the -boats of the ships, where we were, bringing parrots and thread of cotton -in hanks, javelins, and many other things, which they exchanged for other -articles we gave them, such as glass beads and little bells. Finally -they took every thing and gave whatever they had with good-will. But -to me they seemed to be a very poor people. They were all naked, just -as they were born, and even the women, although I did not see but one -young girl. All the rest I saw were youths, but none more than thirty -years of age; very well made, of good shape, and very attractive faces; -their hair coarse as that of the tail of a horse, and short, brought -over the forehead to the eyebrows, except a little on the back of the -head, which is longer and never cut. Some paint themselves black, for -they are of the color of those of the Canary Islands—neither black nor -white; others paint themselves white or red, or with any color they -find. Some paint their faces, and some their bodies; others only their -eyes or their noses. They carry no weapons and they have no knowledge of -them; for when I showed them swords they took them by the edge and they -cut themselves through ignorance. They have no iron. Their javelins are -rods without iron, and some of these have at the end a fish-tooth, and -others have other things. All of them, as a class, are of a commanding -stature, and are good-looking, well formed. I saw some marks of wounds on -their bodies, and I asked by signs what had caused them. They answered -me in the same way, that people came from the other islands thereabout -to capture them, and they defended themselves. I thought then, and still -believe, that those people came from the continent, (_tierra firme_,) -to take them prisoners. They ought to be good servants and very capable, -because I perceived that they repeated very readily all that I told -them, and I believe that they would easily become Christians, for they -seemed to me as if they had no religion. If pleasing to our Lord, I shall -carry from this place, at the time of my departure, six of them to your -highnesses, in order that they may learn to talk in our language. I did -not see any animals of any kind on the island, except parrots.... - -“Soon after day-break [on Saturday, the thirteenth of October,] many of -these people came to the beach, as I have said, all youths and of good -stature, a very handsome people; their hair not curled, but straight -and coarse, like horse-hair, and all with faces and heads much broader -than any other race that I have seen; their eyes very beautiful and not -small; they were not black, but the color of those of the Canaries, nor -ought it to be expected otherwise, for it is east-west (_Lesteoueste_) -with the island Ferro of the Canary group, on the same parallel.[149] ... -They came to the ship in canoes, log-boats, made of the trunks of trees, -all of one piece, and fashioned in a wonderful manner, considering the -country. In some of the large ones were as many as forty or forty-five -men, and in others that were smaller there was only one person. They -rowed with an oar resembling the wooden shovel used by bakers, and went -wonderfully fast, and if the canoe upset, all swam and set it right -again, bailing it out with calabashes which they carried with them. They -brought balls of spun cotton, and parrots, and javelins, and other things -which it would be tedious to describe, and which they parted with for -any thing that was given them. And I was inquisitive and endeavored to -ascertain if they had gold, and I saw some who wore small pieces hanging -from holes in their noses, and I learned by signs that, by going to the -south, or by going around the island to the south, I would find a king -who had large vessels made of gold, and great quantities of the precious -metal.”[150] - -Columbus describing this island, which he named San Salvador (the Holy -Saviour), under whose protection he had made the discovery, continues: -“This is a large and level island, with extremely flourishing trees, and -streams of water. There is a large lake in the middle of the island, but -no mountains. It is entirely covered with verdure and it is delightful to -behold. The natives are an inoffensive people, and so desirous to possess -any thing they saw with us that they kept swimming off to the ships with -whatever they could find, and readily bartered for any article we saw fit -to give them in return, even such things as broken platters and pieces of -glass. I saw in this manner sixteen balls of cotton thread, which weighed -about twenty-five pounds, exchanged for three Portuguese _ceutis_.[151] -This traffic I forbade, and permitted no one to take their cotton from -them, unless I should order it to be procured for your highnesses, if -sufficient quantities could be obtained. It grows on this island, but -from my short stay here I could not inform myself fully respecting it. -The gold they wear in their noses is also found here. But not to lose -time, I am determined to proceed and ascertain whether I can reach -Cipango (Japan).... - -“In the morning, [Sunday, the fourteenth of October,] I ordered the -boats to be manned and furnished, and coasted along the island toward -the north-northeast, to examine that part of it, for we had landed first -on the eastern part. We soon discovered two or three villages, and the -people all came down to the shore, calling to us, and giving thanks to -God. Some brought us water, and others food. Others seeing that I was not -disposed to land plunged into the sea and swam to us, and we observed -that they interrogated us to know if we had come from heaven. An old -man came on board my boat. The others, both men and women, cried with -loud voices: ‘Come and see the men who have come from heaven! Bring them -food and drink!’ Thereupon many of both sexes came to the beach, every -one bringing something, giving thanks to God, prostrating themselves on -the ground, and lifting their hands to heaven. They called to us loudly -to come on land, but I was apprehensive on account of a reef of rocks, -which, except where there is a narrow entrance, surrounds the whole -island, although within there is depth of water and space sufficient for -all the ships of Christendom.... - -“After I had taken a survey of these parts, I returned to the ship. -Setting sail, I discovered so many islands that I knew not which to visit -first. The natives whom I had taken on board informed me by signs that -there were so many of them that they could not be numbered. They repeated -the names of more than a hundred. I determined to steer for the largest, -which is about five leagues from San Salvador; the others were at a -greater or less distance from this island.... - -“We stood off and on during the night [of Monday, the fifteenth of -October], determining not to come to anchor till morning, fearing to -meet with shoals. We continued our course in the morning, and as the -island was found to be six or seven leagues distant, and the tide was -against us, it was noon before we arrived there. I found that part of it, -toward San Salvador, extending from north to south to be five leagues, -and the other side, along which we coasted, running from east to west, -to be more than ten leagues. From this island, espying a still larger -one to the west, I set sail in that direction and kept on till night -without reaching the western extremity of the island, where I gave it -the name of Santa Maria de la Concepcion.... I now set sail for another -large island to the west.... This island is nine leagues distant from -Santa Maria, in a westerly direction. This part of it extends from -northwest to southeast, and it appears to be twenty-eight leagues long, -very level, without any mountains, as were San Salvador and Santa Maria, -having a good shore which was not rocky, except a few ledges under the -water, where it is necessary to anchor at some distance out, although -the water is clear and the bottom can be seen....” This island he called -Fernandina, in honor of the king of Spain. - -On Friday, the nineteenth of October, he descried an island, “toward -which,” he remarks, “we directed our course, and before noon all three -of the vessels arrived at the northern extremity, where a rocky islet -and reef extend toward the north, with another between them and the -main island. The Indians on board the ships called this island Saomete. -I named it Isabela [in honor of the queen]. It lies westerly from the -island of Fernandina, and the coast extends from the islet twelve leagues -west to a cape I called Cabo Hermoso, for it was a beautiful, round -headland, with a bold shore free from shoals. Part of the shore is rocky, -but the remainder of it, like most of the coast here, a sandy beach.... -This island is the most beautiful that I have yet seen, the trees in -great numbers, flourishing and tall; the land is higher than the other -islands, and exhibits an eminence, which, though it cannot be called -a mountain, yet it adds a charm to the appearance of the island, and -indicates the existence of streams of water in the interior. From this -part toward the northeast is an extensive bay, with many large and dense -groves.... I am not solicitous to examine particularly every thing here, -which, indeed, could not be done in fifty years, for it is my desire -to make all possible discoveries, and return to your highnesses, if it -please our Lord, in April. However, should I meet with gold or spices in -great quantity, I shall remain till I collect as much as possible, and -for this purpose I am only proceeding in search of them.” ... - -Under the date of Sunday, the twenty-first of October, while at anchor -off the island of Isabela, Columbus writes: “I shall depart immediately, -if the weather serve, and sail round the island till I succeed in meeting -with the king, in order to see if I can acquire any of the gold which, -I hear, he possesses. Afterward I shall set sail for another very large -island, which I believe to be Cipango, according to the signs I receive -from the Indians on board. They call the island Colba [Cuba], and say -there are many large ships and sailors there. Another island they call -Bosio, and inform me that it is very large. The others that are on the -course I shall examine on the way, and accordingly as I find gold or -spices in abundance, I shall determine what to do. Nevertheless, I am -determined to proceed to the continent, and visit the city of Guisay [the -city of heaven, the residence of the Grand Khan], where I shall deliver -the letters of your highnesses to the Grand Khan, and demand an answer, -with which I shall return.... - -“Tuesday, the twenty-third of October.... It is now my determination -to depart for the island of Cuba, which I believe to be Cipango from -the accounts I have received here of the great number and riches of the -people. I have abandoned the intention of staying here and sailing round -the island in search of the king, as it would be a waste of time, and I -perceive there are no gold mines to be found.... And as we are going to -places where there is great commerce, I judge it inexpedient to linger on -the way, but to proceed and survey the countries we meet with, till we -arrive at that one most favorable for our business. It is my opinion that -we shall find much profit there in spices, but my want of knowledge in -these articles occasions me extreme regret, inasmuch as I see a thousand -kinds of trees, each kind with its particular fruit, and as flourishing -at this time as the fields in Spain during the months of May and June. -Likewise a thousand kinds of herbs and flowers, of the properties of -which I remain in ignorance, with the exception of the aloe, which I have -directed to-day to be taken on board in large quantities for the use of -your highnesses.... - -“Wednesday, the twenty-fourth of October.... At midnight weighed anchor -and set sail from Cabo del Isles of the island of Isabela, being in the -north part, where I had remained preparing to depart for the island of -Cuba, in which place the Indians tell me I shall find great commerce, -with abundance of gold and spices, and large ships, and merchants. They -direct me to steer toward the west-southwest, which is the course I am -holding. If the accounts which the natives of the islands and those on -board the ships have communicated to me by signs (for their language I -do not understand) are credible, this must be the island of Cipango, -of which we have heard so many wonderful things. According to my -geographical knowledge it must be somewhere in this neighborhood.” - -On Sunday, the twenty-eighth of October, Columbus’s ships arrived off the -coast of Cuba and “entered an attractive river, free from shallows and -all other obstructions.... The mouth of the river had a depth of twelve -fathoms of water, and a breadth sufficient for ships to beat in. They -anchored within the river, and the admiral remarks that the scenery here -exceeded in beauty any thing he had ever seen, the river being bordered -with trees of the most beautiful and luxuriant foliage of a peculiar -appearance, and its banks covered with flowers and fruits of different -kinds. Birds were here in great number singing most charmingly. Numerous -palm trees were seen, different from those of Guinea and Spain, not -having the same kind of bark. They were of a moderate height and bore -very large leaves, which the natives used to cover their houses. The -land appeared quite level. The admiral went ashore in a boat, and found -two dwellings, which he supposed to be those of fishermen, and that the -owners had fled. He found in one of them a dog unable to bark. Both -houses contained nets of palm, lines, horn fish-hooks, harpoons of bone, -and other implements for fishing, as also many fire-places, and each -house seemed sufficiently large to shelter a great number of people. The -admiral gave orders that nothing should be touched.... They returned -on board the boat and ascended the river some distance.... The admiral -declares this to be the most beautiful island ever seen, abounding in -good harbors and deep rivers, with a shore upon which it appears the -sea never breaks high, as the grass grows down to the water’s edge, a -thing that never happens where the sea is rough. Indeed, a high sea they -had not yet had among these islands. This island, he says, is full of -attractive mountains, which are lofty, although not of great range. The -rest of the country is high, similar to Sicily, abounding in streams, -as they understood from the Indians of Guanahani that were on board the -ships, who informed them by signs that it contained ten large rivers, -and that the island was so large that with their canoes they could not -sail round it in twenty days.... The Indians told them there were mines -of gold here and pearls.... They further informed him that large vessels -came there from the Grand Khan, and that the main-land was distant a -voyage of ten days. The admiral named the river and port San Salvador.” -Farther westward, along the northern side of the island, Columbus -discovered the rivers which he called Rio de la Luna (River of the Moon), -and the Rio de Mares (River of Seas). The houses which were built on the -shores of the latter river, he says, were “the finest he had yet seen, -and thinks, the nearer he approaches the continent, they will continue -to improve. They were of a large size, built in the shape of a tent, -and each collection of them appeared like a camp, without any order of -streets, the houses scattered here and there. Their interiors were found -very clean and neat, well furnished and set in order. The houses were all -built of fine palm branches. They found here many statues shaped like -women, and numerous heads somewhat like masks, well made; whether these -were used as ornaments, or objects of worship, did not appear. Here, -about the houses, were small fowl originally wild, but now tame.” - -On Tuesday, the thirtieth of October, “they sailed from the river which -they had named Rio de Mares, and standing to the northwest, discovered a -cape covered with palm trees, which the admiral called Cabo de Palmas; -it is fifteen leagues distant from the place of their departure. The -Indians on board the Pinta signified to the Spaniards, that beyond this -cape was a river, and from this river to Cuba was a distance of a voyage -or a journey of four days. The captain of the Pinta declared that he -understood Cuba to be a city, and that the land here was a continent of -great extent which stretched far to the north; also that the king of this -country was at war with the Grand Khan, whom the Indians called Cami, -and his country or city, Fava and other names. The admiral determined to -steer for this river, and to send a present and the letter of the Spanish -sovereigns to the king.... Seemingly the admiral was forty-two degrees -distant from the equator toward the north, if the manuscript is not -corrupted from which I [Las Casas] have taken this [information], and he -says that he had undertaken to go to the Grand Khan, who, he thinks, was -near there or in the city of Cathay of the Grand Khan, which city is very -large according to what was told before he departed from Spain.” - -The vessels having returned on Wednesday to the Rio de Mares from a -short exploration of the coast, the admiral at sunrise, on Thursday, -sent some of his men ashore “to visit the houses they saw there. They -found the inhabitants had all fled, but after some time they espied a -man. The admiral then sent one of his Indians ashore, who called to -him from a distance and bade him not to fear any harm as the Spaniards -were a friendly people, not injuring any one nor belonging to the Grand -Khan, but on the contrary had made many presents of their goods to the -inhabitants of the islands. The natives, having ascertained that no -ill treatment was intended them, regained confidence, and came in more -than sixteen canoes to the vessels, bringing cotton yarn and other -things, which the admiral ordered should not be taken from them, as he -wished them to understand that he was in search of nothing but gold, -which they called _nucay_. All day the canoes passed between the ships -and the shore. The admiral saw no gold among them, but remarks that, -having observed an Indian with a piece of wrought silver in his nose, he -conceived it to be an indication of the existence of that metal in the -country. The Indians informed them by signs that within three days many -traders would come there from the interior to purchase the goods of the -Spaniards to whom the traders would communicate news of the king, who, as -far as could be learned from the signs of the natives, resided at a place -that was a journey of four days from there. They informed the Spaniards -also that many persons had been sent to tell the king respecting the -admiral. These people were found to be of the same race and manners -as those already seen, without any religion that could be discovered. -The Spaniards never saw the Indians who were kept on board the vessels -engaged in any act of worship, but they would, when directed, make the -sign of the cross, and repeat the _Salve_ and _Ave Maria_, with their -hands extended toward heaven. The language is the same throughout these -islands and the people friendly toward one another, which the admiral -says he believes to be the case in all the neighboring parts, and that -they are at war with the Grand Khan, whom they call Cavila, and his -country Bafan. These people go naked as the others.... It is certain, -says the admiral, that this is the continent, and that we are in the -neighborhood of Zayto and Guinsay, a hundred leagues more or less distant -from the one or the other.”[152] - -With his thoughts all aglow with his seeming power to prove the -correctness of his geographical conjecture that he had reached the -eastern coast of Asia, Columbus sent from this place, on the second of -November, Rodrigo de Jerez of Ayamonte, and Luis de Torres, a Jew, (the -latter having lived with the adelantado of Murcia, and who knew Hebrew, -Chaldaic, and some Arabic,) and two Indians, into the interior of the -island, with letters to the Grand Khan of Cathay. “He gave them strings -of beads to purchase provisions, and directed them to return within six -days. Specimens of spicery were intrusted to them that they might know if -any thing similar existed in the country. He took care to instruct them -how they should inquire for the king, and what they were to say to inform -him that the king and queen of Castile had dispatched him with letters -and a present for his majesty. Furthermore, the envoys were instructed to -obtain some knowledge of the country, and observe the ports and rivers, -with their distances from the place where the ships lay. Here the admiral -took this night the altitude with a quadrant, and found that he was -forty-two degrees from the equator, and by his calculation eleven hundred -and forty-two leagues from Ferro, and he was confident that it was the -continent.”[153] - -Among the noticeable things which the embassadors observed while -journeying into the interior of Cuba was the common use of tobacco by the -natives. “The two Spaniards,” says Las Casas, “met upon their journey -great numbers of people of both sexes: the men always with a firebrand in -their hands and certain herbs for smoking. These were dry and were placed -in a dry leaf, after the manner of those paper tubes which the boys -in Spain use at Whitsuntide. Lighting one end, they drew the smoke by -sucking at the other. This causes drowsiness and a kind of intoxication, -and according to the statement of the natives relieves them from the -feeling of fatigue. These tubes they call by the name of _tabacos_.”[154] - -While waiting the return of the embassadors to the Grand Khan, Columbus -acquired some knowledge of the productions of Cuba. “The soil is very -fertile, producing _mames_, a root like a carrot, tasting like chestnuts. -Beans are also found here but very dissimilar to ours; also cotton, -growing spontaneously among the mountains. I am of the opinion that it is -gathered at all seasons of the year, for I observed upon a single plant -blossoms, buds, and open pods. A thousand other productions I have also -observed, which doubtless are of great value, but it is impossible for me -to describe them.” - -On the fifth of November, the party sent to the Grand Khan returned, -and gave these particulars of their journey: “After having travelled a -dozen leagues they came to a town containing about fifty houses, where -there were probably a thousand inhabitants; each house containing a -large number of people. The houses were built after the manner of large -tents. The inhabitants received them, after their fashion, with great -ceremony. The men and women flocked to behold them, and they were lodged -in their best houses. They showed their admiration and reverence by -touching the strangers, kissing their hands and feet, and manifesting -astonishment. They imagined them to be from heaven, and signified as -much to them. They were feasted with such food as the natives had to -offer. Upon their arrival at the town the chief men of the place led -them by the arms to the principal building; here they gave them seats, -and the Indians sat upon the ground in a circle round them. The Indians -who had accompanied the Spaniards explained to the natives the manner in -which their strange guests lived, and gave a favorable account of their -character. The men then left the building, and the women entered, and sat -around the Spaniards as the men had done. They kissed their hands and -feet and examined them to see whether they were flesh and bone like their -own.... No village was seen upon the road of a larger size than five -houses.... Great numbers of birds were observed, all different from those -of Spain except the nightingales, which delighted them with their songs. -Partridges and geese were also found in great number. Of quadrupeds they -saw none except dogs that could not bark. The soil appeared fertile and -under good cultivation, producing the _mames_ already mentioned and -beans very dissimilar to ours, as well as the grain called _panic_. They -saw large quantities of cotton, spun and manufactured. A single house -contained more than five hundred _arrobas_[155] of it. Four thousand -quintals might be collected here yearly.... These people are inoffensive -and peaceable. They are unclothed, but the women wear a slight covering -about their loins. Their manners are very decent, and their complexion -not very dark, but lighter than the inhabitants of the Canary Islands. ‘I -have no doubt, most serene sovereigns,’ says the admiral, ‘that were some -proper, devout, and religious persons to come among them and learn their -language, it would be an easy matter to convert them all to Christianity, -and I hope in our Lord that your highnesses will devote yourselves with -much diligence to this object, and bring as great a multitude into the -church, inasmuch as you have exterminated those who refused to confess -the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.’ - -“I have observed that these people have no religion, neither are they -idolaters, but are a very gentle race, without the knowledge of any -iniquity. They neither kill, steal, nor carry weapons, and are so timid -that one of our men can put a hundred of them to flight, although they -readily sport and play tricks with them. They have the knowledge that -there is a God above, and are firmly persuaded that we have come from -heaven. They quickly learn such prayers as we repeat to them, and also to -make the sign of the cross.’ ... - -“Along the Rio de Mares, which I left last evening, [Sunday, the eleventh -of November,] there is undoubtedly considerable mastic, and the quantity -might be increased, for the trees when transplanted easily take root. -They are of a lofty size, bearing leaves and fruit like the lentisk. The -tree, however, is taller and has a larger leaf than the lentisk, as is -mentioned by Pliny, and as I have myself observed in the island of Scio, -in the Archipelago. I ordered many of these trees to be tapped in order -to extract the resin, but as the weather was rainy all the time I was on -the river, I was unable to procure more than a very small quantity, which -I have preserved for your highnesses.... Great quantities of cotton might -be raised here, and sold profitably, as I think, without being carried -to Spain, but to the cities of the Grand Khan, which we shall doubtless -discover, as well as many others belonging to other sovereigns. These may -become a source of profit to your highnesses by trading there with the -productions of Spain and of the other countries of Europe. Here also is -to be found plenty of aloe, which, however, is not of very great value, -but the mastic assuredly is, as it is found nowhere else than in the -previously mentioned island of Scio, where, if I rightly remember, it is -produced to the amount of fifty thousand ducats annually.” - -Columbus further remarks, that at this point, near the river which he had -called Rio del Sol, “he found the weather somewhat cold, and, as it was -in the winter, he thought it not prudent to prosecute his discoveries any -farther toward the north.”[156] - -[Illustration: A copy of a part of the map of the New World (tabvla -terre nove) contained in the edition of Ptolemy’s Geography printed at -Strasburg in 1513. (This part of the original is 9½ inches long.)] - -Speaking of his explorations along the coast of Cuba, in his letter -to Rafael Sanchez, the admiral says: “I sailed along its coast toward -the west, discovering so great an extent of territory that I could not -imagine it to be an island, but the continent of Cathay.... I continued -on my course, still expecting to meet with some town or city, but after -having gone a great distance, and not arriving at any, and finding myself -proceeding toward the north, which I was desirous to avoid on account of -the cold, and, moreover, meeting with a contrary wind, I determined to -return to the south, and therefore put about and sailed back to a harbor -that I had observed.”[157] - -On Monday, the twelfth of November, they had sailed by sunset eighteen -leagues, east by south, to a cape which Columbus called Cabo de Cuba. -“On the following Wednesday he entered a spacious and deep harbor,” -containing so many islands that they could not be counted.... He declares -that it is his opinion these islands are the innumerable ones which, on -the maps, are placed at the extreme part of the East, and says that he -believes they contain great riches, precious stones, and spicery, and -extend far to the south, spreading out on each side. He named this place -La Mar de Nuestra Senora, and the port, near the strait that extends to -these islands, Puerto del Principe. - -On Wednesday, the twenty-first of November, when the vessels were about -eighty miles southeast of Puerto del Principe, “the admiral” says Las -Casas, “found they were forty-two degrees north of the equator as at -Puerto de Mares,[158] but he says here that he has stopped using the -quadrant until he should go on land that he might mend it. From this -statement it would seem that he doubted that he was so far from the -equator, and he had reason, for it was not likely since these islands -are in ⸺ degrees.[159] To know whether the quadrant was in good working -order, it is said that he took an observation to see if he was north as -high as Castile; and if this be true, and he was as high as Florida, what -is the situation of the islands already mentioned?[160] Moreover, it is -said that the heat was great. It is evident that if he were along the -coast of Florida, it should not have been hot, but cold.[161] And it is -also manifest that in no part of the world in the latitude of forty-two -degrees is great heat experienced except by some accidental cause, and -even this exception I [Las Casas] believe has never been known.” - -A number of other places were sailed to by the inquisitive navigator, -which, in the chronological order of their discovery, he named Puerto de -Santa Catalina, Cabo del Pico, Cabo de Campana, and Puerto Santo. At -this last-named harbor, on Saturday, the first of December, “they planted -a cross in the solid rock.” Thence he sailed to Cabo Lindo, and thence to -Cabo del Monte. On Wednesday, the fifth of December, “he determined to -leave Cuba or Juana,[162] which hitherto he had taken for a continent on -account of its size, having sailed along the coast a hundred and twenty -leagues. He therefore left the shore and steered southeast by east, as -the land last discovered appeared in that direction. He took this course -because the wind always came round from the north to northeast, and from -there to east and southeast. It blew hard and they carried all sail, -having a smooth sea and a current favoring them, so that from morning to -one in the afternoon they had sailed eight miles an hour for nearly six -hours. The nights here are said to be nearly fifteen hours long. After -this they went ten miles an hour, and by sunset had sailed toward the -southeast eighty-eight miles, which are twenty-two leagues.” - -On Thursday, the sixth of December, Columbus “found himself four leagues -from the harbor named Puerto Maria.” From this place he descried several -headlands to which he respectively gave the names of Cabo del Estrella, -Cabo del Elefante, and Cabo de Cinquin. “There appeared to be between -the two last-mentioned capes a very wide channel, which the sailors said -separated an island from the mainland. This island he named Tortuga. The -land here appeared high, and not mountainous, but even and level, like -the finest arable tracts. The whole or the great part of it seemed to be -cultivated, and the plantations resembled the wheat fields in the plain -of Cordova in the month of May.” - -In the evening the ships entered the harbor “which he named Puerto de San -Nicolas, for it was the day of that saint.” On Friday he found the harbor -which he named Puerto de la Concepcion. This harbor “is about a thousand -paces or a quarter of a league wide at the mouth, without a bank or a -shoal, but exceedingly deep to the edge of the beach. It extends almost -three thousand paces, with a fine clear bottom. Any ship may enter it and -anchor without the least hazard. Here are two small streams, and opposite -the mouth of the harbor several plains, the most beautiful in the world, -resembling those of Castile, except that they surpass them. On this -account the admiral named the island Española.”[163] - -On Wednesday, the twelfth of December, “a large cross was set up at the -entrance of the harbor upon a beautiful spot upon the western side, -‘as an indication,’ in the words of the admiral, ‘that your highnesses -possess the country, and particularly for a memorial of Jesus Christ, our -Lord, and the mark of Christianity.’ ... The admiral here ascertained -the length of the day and night, and found that from sunrise to sunset -there passed twenty glasses of half an hour each, although he says there -may be some error in the calculation, as the glass may not have been -turned quickly enough, or the contrary. He states further, that he took -an observation with the astrolabe and found the latitude to be seventeen -degrees.... - -“The people here were all naked, king as well as subjects, the females -showing no evidences of bashfulness. Both sexes were more handsome than -those they had hitherto seen. Their color was light, and if they were -clothed and protected from the sun and air they would almost be as fair -as the inhabitants of Spain. The temperature of the air was cool and -exceedingly pleasant. The land is high, covered with plains and valleys, -and the highest mountains are arable. No part of Castile could produce a -territory comparable to this in beauty and fertility. The whole island -and that of Tortuga are covered with cultivated fields, like the plain of -Cordova. In these they raise _ajes_, which are slips set in the ground, -at the end of which roots grow like carrots. They grate these to powder, -knead it, and make it into bread of a very pleasant taste, like that of -chestnuts. The stalk is set out anew and produces another root, and this -is repeated four or five times. The largest and most excellent that had -been met with anywhere (the admiral says they are also found in Guinea) -were those of this island, being of the size of a man’s leg. The natives -here, according to the statement of the admiral, were stoutly built and -courageous, very different from the timid islanders of the other parts; -agreeable in their intercourse and without any religion.... They saw a -native whom the admiral took to be the governor of the district, and whom -the Indians called the cacique. He had a plate of gold as large as one’s -hand, with which he seemed desirous of bartering. He carried it to his -house and had it cut into pieces, which he traded away one by one.” - -One of the caciques of the island sent a messenger to Columbus bearing as -a present to him “a girdle, to which was attached, instead of a pouch, a -mask having the nose, tongue, and ears of beaten gold.” - -“I think,” Columbus writes, “no one who has seen these parts can say -less in their praise than I have said. I repeat that it is a matter of -wonder to see the things we have beheld, and the multitudes of people in -this island, which I call Española, and the Indians Bohio. The natives -are singularly agreeable in their intercourse and conversation with -us, and are not like the others, who, when they speak, appear to be -uttering menaces. The figures of the men and women are fine, and their -color is not black, although they paint themselves. The most of them -paint themselves red, others a dark hue, and others different colors, -which, I understand, is done to keep the sun from injuring them. The -houses and towns are very attractive, and the inhabitants live in each -settlement under the rule of a sovereign or judge, to whom they pay -implicit obedience. These magistrates are persons of excellent manners -and great reserve, and give their orders by a sign with the hand, which -is understood by all the people with surprising quickness.” - -On Monday, the twenty-fourth of December, as Columbus’s ship, the Santa -Maria, was running along the north side of Española, off the headland -named Punta Santa, “at the end of the first watch, about eleven at night, -when the vessel was about a league distant from the point of land, the -admiral lay down to sleep, having taken no rest for two days and a night. -As the sea was calm, the man at the helm left his post to a boy, and -also went off to sleep, contrary to the explicit orders of the admiral, -who had throughout the voyage forbidden, in calm or storm, the helm to -be intrusted to a boy. The admiral was free from any dread of rocks or -shoals, for the Sunday before, when he sent the sailors in boats to the -king who had invited him to visit him, they had passed three and a half -leagues to the east of Punta Santa, and had surveyed the whole coast for -three leagues beyond that point, and ascertained where the vessels might -pass, a thing never done before in the whole voyage. But as it pleased -our Lord, at midnight there being a dead calm and the sea perfectly -motionless, as in a cup, the whole crew, seeing the admiral had retired, -went off to sleep, leaving the ship in the care of the boy already -mentioned. The current carried her imperceptibly toward the shoals in the -neighborhood, upon which she struck with a noise that could have been -heard a league off.” - -Although every thing was done to keep the damaged vessel afloat by -Columbus and the few men who remained on board, “she opened between her -ribs and slowly settled down on the shoal.” On the morning of Christmas -the ship was unloaded with the assistance of the natives, who with their -canoes conveyed the goods in her to the beach. These were afterward -stowed in some houses which the cacique of the region had offered to -Columbus for that purpose. The same ruler afterward gave the admiral a -large mask, with pieces of gold at the ears, eyes, and other parts of it, -and also some jewels of the same metal. “All these things had a great -effect upon the admiral in assuaging his grief for the loss of his ship, -and he became convinced that our Lord had permitted the shipwreck in -order that he might select this place for a settlement. - -“‘And to this end,’ he says, ‘so many favorable things conspired, that -it cannot be called a disaster, but a great turn of good fortune, for -if we had not run aground, we should have kept off without anchoring -here, the place being in a large bay inside of two or three shoals. -Neither should I otherwise have been induced to leave any men in these -parts during the voyage; even if I had, I could not have spared them the -needful provisions and materials for their fortification. Many of my crew -have solicited me for permission to remain, and I have to-day [Wednesday, -the twenty-sixth of December] ordered the construction of a fort, with -a tower and a ditch, all to be well built, not that I think such a -fortification necessary as a defence against the inhabitants, for I have -already stated that with my present crew I could subjugate the whole -island, which I believe to be larger than the kingdom of Portugal, and -twice as populous, but that I think it prudent, since the territory is -at such a distance from our country, and that the natives may understand -the genius of the people of your highnesses and what they are able to -perform, so that they may be held in obedience by fear as well as by -love. For this purpose I have directed that a quantity of timber for -the construction of the fort shall be provided, also bread and wine be -left to suffice for more than a year, seed for planting, the long-boat -of the ship, a calker, a carpenter, a gunner, a cooper, and many other -persons of the number of those who have earnestly desired to serve your -highnesses, and oblige me by remaining here and searching for the gold -mine.’” - -The admiral further remarks “that every piece of the ship was saved, for -not even so much as a thong, board, or nail was lost, for she was as -complete as when she first sailed, except that which was lost by cutting -her to get out the casks and merchandise. These were carried on shore and -well secured, as has already been mentioned. He adds that he hopes to -find, on his return from Castile, a ton of gold collected by those who -remained, by trading with the natives, and that they will have succeeded -in discovering the mine and the spices, and all these in such quantities -that before three years the king and queen may undertake the recovery of -the holy sepulchre. ‘For I have before proposed to your highnesses,’ he -writes, ‘that the profits of this undertaking should be employed in the -conquest of Jerusalem, at which your highnesses smiled and said you were -pleased, and had the same inclination.’” - -“He left on the island of Española, which the Indians called Bohio, a -fort and thirty-nine men, whom he states to have been great friends -of King Guacanagari. Over these he placed Diego de Arana, a native of -Cordova, Pedro Gutierrez, groom of the king’s wardrobe, and Rodrigo de -Escovedo, a native of Seville and nephew of Fray Rodrigo Perez, with all -the powers the king and queen had delegated to him. He left them all the -goods which had been sent for trafficking, a great quantity, and every -thing belonging to the ship which had been wrecked. The goods he directed -should be traded away for gold.” - -In commemoration of the day of Christ’s nativity, on which his ship was -wrecked at this place, he called the settlement Villa de la Navidad (city -of the Nativity). He further writes in his journal that “he had heard of -another island behind that of Juana, toward the south, in which there was -a still greater quantity of gold, and where it was found in grains of the -size of a bean.... This island was called by the Indians Yamaye.”[164] - -“It was the admiral’s intention to coast farther along the island of -Española, which he might have done upon his homeward course, but as -he considered that the captains of the two caravels were brothers, -namely, Martin Alonso Pinzon and Vicente Yañez, and that they had a -party attached to them, and that they and their partisans had manifested -considerable haughtiness and avarice, disobeying his commands regardless -of the honors he had conferred upon them, which misdemeanors, as well as -the treachery of Martin Alonso, in deserting him,[165] he had winked at, -without complaining, in order not to throw impediments in the way of the -voyage—he thought it best to return home as quickly as possible. He adds -that he had many faithful men among his crews, but resolved to overlook -for the time the behavior of the refractory ones, and not at such an -unfavorable season undertake to punish them.” - -On Tuesday, the fifteenth of January, while the caravels were anchored in -the bay which he called the Golfo de las Flechas (the Gulf of Arrows), -he describes the weapons of the natives. “The bows,” he says, “are equal -in size to those of France and England, and the arrows like the javelins -used by the inhabitants of the other islands, which are made of the -stalks of the cane while it is in seed. They are very straight, about -a yard and a half in length, and doubled, with a sharp piece of wood, -a span and a half long, at the end. At the point of this some attach a -fish’s tooth, but the most of them grass.... The bows of the Indians -appear to be made of yew.” The quantity of sea-weed which he found -growing in this bay led Columbus to infer that the Indies were near the -Canary Islands, not more than four hundred leagues distant. - -On Wednesday morning, the sixteenth of January, they set sail from -the Golfo de las Flechas, to go to the island of Carib. “After sailing -sixty-four miles, as they estimated, the Indians on board signified that -the island was to the southeast, when they altered their course, and -proceeded in that direction, and after sailing several leagues the wind -freshened and blew very favorably for their return to Spain. The crews -began to grow despondent at leaving their homeward course, on account of -the leaky condition of the vessels, (for there was no remedy for it but -the help of God,) and the admiral found himself constrained to change his -course again, and steer directly for Spain.”[166] - -Columbus, afterward writing to Rafael Sanchez respecting his explorations -along the coast of Española, remarks that the island of Española is -“greater in circuit than all of Spain, from Colibre in Catalonia, near -Perpignan, round the coast of the sea of Spain, along Granada, Portugal, -Galicia, and Biscay, to Fuenterabia, at the cape of Biscay.... Each -native, as far as I can understand, has one wife, with the exception of -the king and princes, who are permitted to have as many as twenty. The -women appear to do more work than the men. Whether there exist any such -thing here as private property, I have not been able to ascertain. I have -seen an individual appointed to distribute to the others, especially food -and such things. - -“People of an extraordinary description I did not see, neither did I hear -of any, except those of the island Caris, which is the second island on -the way from Española to India. This island is inhabited by a people who -are regarded by their neighbors as exceedingly ferocious. They feed upon -human flesh. These people have many kinds of canoes with which they make -incursions upon all the islands of India, robbing and plundering wherever -they go. Their difference from the others consists in their wearing long -hair like that of women, and in using bows and arrows of cane; these last -constructed, as I have already related, by fixing a piece of sharpened -wood at the larger end. On this account they are considered very -ferocious by the other Indians, and are much feared by them.”[167] - -Speaking of the pecuniary profits of the voyage Columbus wrote: “I am -enabled to promise the acquisition, by a trifling assistance from their -majesties, of any quantity of gold, drugs, cotton, and mastic, which -last article is found in the island of Scio; also, any quantity of aloe, -and as many slaves for the service of the marine as their majesties may -need. The same may be said of rhubarb and a great variety of other things -which, I have no doubt, will be discovered by those I have left at the -fort, as I did not stop at any single place, unless obliged to do so by -the weather with the exception of Villa de la Navidad, where we remained -some time to build the fort and provide the necessary means for the -defence of the place. - -“Although the discoveries actually accomplished appear great and -surprising, yet I should have achieved much more had I been furnished -with a suitable fleet. Nevertheless the great success of this undertaking -is not to be ascribed to my own merits, but to the holy catholic faith -and to the piety of our sovereigns, the Lord often granting to men what -they never imagine themselves capable of accomplishing, even that which -appears impracticable, for he is accustomed to hear the prayers of his -servants and those who love his commandments. In this way has it happened -to me that I have succeeded in an undertaking never before accomplished -by man.”[168] - -On Thursday night, the fourteenth of February, a violent tempest arose, -“the waves crossing and dashing against one another so that the vessel -[the Nina] was overwhelmed, and not able to get out from between them. -The foresail was set very low, in order to carry her somewhat out of her -dangerous situation. They stood under it for three hours, going twenty -miles, when the wind and sea increasing, they began to drive before it, -not having any other deliverance. At the same time the Pinta, in which -was Martin Alonso Pinzon, began to scud likewise, and they soon lost -sight of her, although the two caravels made signals to each other with -lights, until from the fury of the storm they were no longer visible.” -The fear of being lost now overcame Columbus and his men. They prayed and -made many vows. “The admiral ordered that lots should be cast for one of -them [if they safely reached land] to go on a pilgrimage to Santa Maria -of Guadalupe and carry a wax taper of five pounds’ weight. He made them -all to take an oath that the one on whom the lot fell should perform the -pilgrimage. For this purpose as many peas were selected as there were -persons on board. One of the peas was marked with a cross, and all were -shaken together in a cap. The first who put his hand into the cap was the -admiral, and he drew out the crossed pea. So the lot fell on him, and he -considered himself as bound to accomplish the pilgrimage. Another lot -was taken for a pilgrimage to Santa Maria of Loretto, in the province of -Ancona, the territory of the pope, where is the house in which Our Lady -has performed so many miracles. This lot fell on a sailor of Puerto de -Santa Maria, called Pedro de Villa. The admiral promised to furnish him -with the money for his expenses. A third lot was determined upon for -the selection of a person who should watch a whole night in Santa Clara -de Moguer, and have a mass said there. This lot fell on the admiral. -After this he and all the crew made a vow to go in procession, clothed -in penitential garments, to the first church dedicated to Our Lady which -they should meet with on arriving on land, and there pay their devotions. -Besides these general vows, every individual made a private one, all -expecting to be lost, so terrible was the violence of the hurricane. -Their danger was increased by the want of ballast in the vessel, ... -which the admiral had neglected to supply among the islands, because he -wished to husband his time in making discoveries, and expected to take in -ballast at the island of Matinino, which he intended to visit. The only -thing that they could do in this emergency was to fill with sea-water -such empty casks as they could find, and by doing this they obtained some -relief. - -“Here the admiral speaks of the circumstances which caused him to fear -that our Lord would suffer them to perish, and of some which made him -hope that he would bring them safe to land, and not allow the important -information they were carrying to the king and queen to be lost. He seems -to have felt the greatest anxiety to have his wonderful discovery known, -so that the world might be convinced that his assertions had been correct -and that he had accomplished what he had professed himself able to do. -The thought of this not being done gave him the greatest disquietude, -and he was constantly apprehending that the most trifling thing might -defeat his whole intention. He ascribes this to his want of faith and -confidence in a divine providence, but comforts himself by reflecting -upon the many mercies God had shown him in having enabled him to succeed -in his project, when so many adversities and hindrances opposed him in -Castile, and afterward to accomplish his great discovery. And as he had -made the service of God the aim and business of his undertaking, and as -he had hitherto favored him by granting all his desires, he indulges in -the hope that he will continue to favor him, and will give him a safe -return. He also remembered that God had delivered him on the outward -voyage, when he had much greater reason to fear; that the eternal God -gave him resolution and courage to withstand his men when they conspired -against him and with a unanimous and menacing determination resolved to -turn back. With these thoughts, and the consideration of other wonderful -favors he had enjoyed, he says he ought not to be in fear of the tempest; -but he adds that his apprehensions and the anguish of his mind would not -allow him to rest. Besides, he continues, his anxiety was increased by -reflecting upon the condition of his two sons whom he had left at their -studies in Cordova,—these would be left orphans in a foreign land, and -the king and queen being ignorant of the services he had rendered them -by the voyage, would not feel any inclination to provide for them. On -this account, and that their highnesses might be informed that our Lord -had granted success to the undertaking in the discovery of the Indies, -and might know that storms did not prevail in those regions (which was -apparent from the plants and trees growing down to the brink of the -sea), he devised the means of acquainting them with the circumstances -of the voyage in case they should perish in the storm. This he did by -writing an account of it on parchment, as full as possible, and earnestly -entreated the finder to carry it to the king and queen of Spain. The -parchment was rolled up in a waxed cloth and well tied. A large wooden -cask being brought, he placed the roll inside of it, and threw the cask -into the sea, none of the crew knowing what it was, but all thinking that -it was some act of devotion.”[169] - -On the sixteenth of February the Nina reached the Azores, and two days -afterward was riding at anchor at the island of Santa Maria. Departing -from the Azores on the twenty-fourth of February, the Nina again -encountered another storm, which caused Columbus to take refuge in the -mouth of the river Tagus, on the fourth of March. From this roadstead he -sent a courier overland to Spain bearing the intelligence of his arrival -at this haven on the coast of Portugal, and another to the king of -Portugal to ask permission to anchor in the harbor of Lisbon. - -When, on the sixth of March, it became known in Lisbon, says Ferdinand -Columbus, “that the ship came from the Indies, such throngs of people -went aboard to see the Indians and to hear the news, that the vessel -could not contain them, and the water was covered with boats, some of -the people praising God for the success of so great an undertaking, and -others storming because the Portuguese had lost the discovery through -the king’s incredulity.... The next day the king wrote to the admiral -congratulating him on his safe return, and expressing the desire, since -the admiral was in his dominions, that he would visit him [at Valparaiso, -nine leagues from Lisbon].... The king ordered all the nobility of his -court to go out to meet him, and when the admiral came into the presence -of the king, he honored him by commanding him to put on his cap and to -sit down. The king, having heard the particulars of his fortunate voyage, -offered him all he stood in need of for the service of their catholic -majesties, although he thought that as the admiral had been a captain in -the service of Portugal, that the discovery belonged to him. To which the -admiral answered that he knew of no agreement by which he could obtain -it, and that he had strictly obeyed his orders, which were that he should -not go to the mines of Portugal or to Guinea. The king said that it was -all well, and he did not doubt but justice would be done. Having spent -considerable time in this conversation, the king commanded the prior of -Crato, the greatest man then about him, to entertain the admiral, and -show him all civility and respect, which was done accordingly. Having -remained there all Sunday, and all Monday until after mass, the admiral -took leave of the king.... As he was on his way to Lisbon, he passed a -monastery, where the queen was, who sent him an earnest entreaty that -he would not pass by without seeing her. She was much pleased to see -him, and bestowed upon him all the favor and honor that were due to the -greatest lord. That night a messenger came from the king to the admiral, -to inform him that if he wished to go by land to Spain he would attend -him, provide lodgings on the way, and furnish him all that he might -require, as far as the borders of Portugal. - -“On Wednesday, the thirteenth of March, two hours after daylight, the -admiral set sail for Seville, and, on Friday following, at noon, arrived -at Saltes, and came to anchor in the port of Palos,[170] from which -he had departed on the third of August, the previous year, 1492, seven -months and eleven days preceding his return.”[171] - -Desiring as early as possible to make known his return and his remarkable -discoveries, Columbus, as soon as his vessel came to anchor, sent -letters to several of his friends, in which he gave brief descriptions -of the people and of the islands which he had found, as he believed, in -the eastern part of Asia. One of these letters, that addressed on the -fourteenth of March to Rafael or Gabriel Sanchez, treasurer of Spain, was -shortly afterward translated into Latin and printed at Rome. The title -given to the letter expresses the popular belief respecting the situation -of the discovered islands: “A letter of Christopher Columbus, to whom our -age is greatly indebted, respecting the islands of India lately found -beyond the Ganges.”[172] - -Conscious of the greatness of his discovery, Columbus enthusiastically -closes his letter with these words: “And now the king, the queen, the -princes, and all their dominions, as well as the whole of Christendom, -ought to give thanks to our Saviour, Jesus Christ, who has granted us -such an achievement and success. Let processions be ordered, let solemn -festivals be celebrated, let the churches be filled with boughs and -flowers.” - -When his father landed at Palos, “he was received there,” says Ferdinand -Columbus, “by all the people in procession, giving thanks to God for -his fortunate success, which, it was hoped, would contribute greatly to -propagate the Christian religion and enlarge their majesties’ dominions. -All the inhabitants of the place considered it a matter of no little fame -that the admiral had sailed from that port, and that most of the men he -had with him belonged to it, though many of them, through [Martin Alonso] -Pinzon’s fault, had been mutinous and disobedient.... The admiral then -proceeded toward Seville, intending to go from there to Barcelona where -their catholic majesties were. He was compelled to tarry a little along -the way thither, though it were ever so little, to satisfy the curiosity -of the people where he went, who came from the neighboring towns to the -road along which he journeyed to see him, the Indians, and the other -things he brought. Proceeding in this manner, he reached Barcelona about -the middle of April, having previously sent their highnesses an account -of the good fortune attending his voyage, which exceedingly pleased -them, and they appointed him a most impressive reception as a man that -had performed for them an extraordinary commission. All the court and -city went out to meet him. Their catholic majesties sat in public in -great state, on costly chairs, under a canopy of gold-cloth; and when he -approached to kiss their hands they arose as to a great lord, and were -unwilling to give him their hands, and caused him to sit down by them. -When he had given them a brief account of his voyage, they permitted him -to retire to his apartment, to which he was attended by all the court. -And he was so highly honored and favored by their highnesses, that when -the king rode about Barcelona, the admiral was on one side of him, and -the Infante Fortuna on the other, for before this, no one rode by the -side of his majesty but the Infante, who was his near kinsman.”[173] - -Galvano, speaking of the enthusiasm created by Columbus’s return, says: -“Hereupon there arose so extraordinary a desire to travel among the -Spaniards that they were ready to leap into the sea to swim, if it had -been possible, unto these new lands.”[174] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -1493-1506. - - -The Spanish sovereigns, in order to obtain the privilege of extending -their sway over the islands discovered by Columbus, immediately sent -embassadors to Rome to request Pope Alexander VI. to confirm the title of -Spain to the recently found lands, for it was then believed that the pope -had sole and absolute authority to dispose of all countries inhabited by -heathen peoples. Pope Martin V. and his successors had already granted to -the crown of Portugal the possession of all the lands it might acquire by -right of discovery beyond Cape Bojador toward the East. Pope Alexander -VI., to reward the Spaniards for wresting Spain from the Moors, issued -a bull, on the fourth of May, 1493, establishing a line of limitation, -running from the north to the south pole, distant one hundred leagues -west of the Azores and the Cape Verd Islands, giving to Spain all the -lands she had discovered or might discover west of it, which had not been -acquired by any Christian power before the preceding Christmas, and to -Portugal all the territory, on the same conditions, which lay east of -it. These territorial concessions of the pope caused the possessions of -Spain, in the western hemisphere, to be called the West Indies, and those -of Portugal, in the eastern hemisphere, the East Indies. The position of -the line of demarkation displeased the Portuguese. To settle the dispute -which it caused, the two countries sent commissioners to Tordesillas, -Spain, who agreed, on the seventh of June, 1494, that the position of the -line should be changed so that it should pass, north and south, three -hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verd Islands. - -Meanwhile in Spain a fleet of seventeen ships had been fitted out to sail -to the Indies in the West. About fifteen hundred Spanish adventurers -took passage on the different vessels, which were freighted with -agricultural and mining implements, horses, cattle, and stores of various -kinds, necessary for planting colonies on the newly-discovered islands. -Commanded by Columbus, the fleet weighed anchor in the roadstead of -Cadiz, on Wednesday, the twenty-fifth of September, 1493, and thence -sailed toward the West India archipelago. - -After a voyage of thirty-eight days the fleet reached the island -of Dominica. The approach of Columbus to the field of his former -explorations is thus described: “On Saturday night, the second of -November, the admiral perceiving a great change in the sky and winds, and -having observed the heavy rains, and believing that he was near land, -ordered most of the sails to be furled, and commanded all to be upon the -watch, and not without cause for that same night, at daybreak, land was -descried seven leagues to the westward, a high mountainous island, which -he called Dominica (Sunday), because it was discovered on Sunday morning. -Shortly afterward he saw another island, northeast of Dominica, and then -another, and another after that, more northward. For this blessing which -God had been pleased to bestow on them, all the men assembled on deck -and sang the _Salve Regina_ and other prayers and hymns very devoutly, -giving thanks to God, because in twenty days after departing from Gomera, -[one of the Canary Islands,] they had made that land, estimating the -distance between them to be between seven hundred and fifty and eight -hundred leagues. Finding no convenient harbor in which to anchor on the -east side of Dominica, they stood for another island, which the admiral -called Marigalante, which was the name of his ship.”[175] Thence he -proceeded northward “to a large island which he called Santa Maria de -Guadalupe, to honor her and the request of the friars of the house of -that name, to whom he had made promise to call some island by the name of -their monastery.... Going ashore in the boat to view a village which they -had observed, they found none of the inhabitants in it, the people having -fled to the woods, except some children to whose arms they tied some -baubles to allure their fathers when they returned. In the houses they -found geese like ours, a great number of parrots, with red, green, blue, -and white feathers, as large as common cocks. They also found pumpkins, -and a kind of fruit which looked like our green pine-apples, but much -larger, and inside full of solid substance like a melon, and much sweeter -both in taste and smell, that grew on long stalks like lilies or aloes, -wild about the fields.... They also saw other kinds of fruit and herbs -different from ours; beds of cotton nets (_hamacas_), bows and arrows, -and other things.... - -“The next day, which was Tuesday, the fifth of November, the admiral sent -two boats ashore to capture some natives who might give him a description -of the country, and tell him how far off and in what direction Española -lay. Each boat brought back a youth. The youths agreed in saying that -they were not of that island, but of another called Borriquen, and that -the inhabitants of that island of Guadalupe were Caribbees or cannibals, -and had taken them prisoners from their own island. Soon after the boats -returning to shore, to take up some Christians they had left there, six -women were found with them, who had fled from the Caribbees, and came -of their own accord aboard the ships.... One of the women told them -that toward the south there were many islands, some inhabited, others -not, which both she and the other women, severally called Giamachi, -Cairvaco, Huino, Buriari, Arubeira, Sixibei. But the continent, which -they said was very great, both they and the people of Española called -Zuanta [Yucatan?], because in former times canoes had come from that land -to barter.... The same women gave them information where the island of -Española lay; for though the admiral had inserted it in his sea-chart, -yet for his further information he desired to hear what the people of -that country said of it.... Then the admiral landed and went to some -houses, where he saw ... a great deal of cotton, spun and unspun, looms -to weave, a great number of men’s skulls hung up, and baskets filled with -men’s bones.”[176] - -On his way to the island of Española, Columbus discovered an island which -he called San Juan Baptista, but the Indians, Borriquen. On the twelfth -of November he arrived off the north coast of Española. On Thursday, the -twenty-eighth of the same month, the discoverer with his fleet entered -the harbor of the Villa de la Navidad, and found the place burnt and -deserted. The next morning “the admiral landed, much concerned to see the -houses and fort in ashes and nothing left belonging to the Christians -except some ragged clothing and similar things as are found in a place -plundered and destroyed. Seeing no one to question, the admiral went up -a river that was near with some boats.... Having found nothing but some -of the clothing of the Christians, he returned to Navidad, where he saw -the bodies of eight Christians, and of three other persons in the fields, -whom they recognized by their clothing, and they seemed to have been -dead about a month. While the Christians were searching for some other -tokens or writings of the dead, a brother of the cacique, Guacanagari, -came with some Indians to talk with the admiral. These could speak some -words of Spanish, and knew the names of all the Christians that had been -left there. They related that the latter soon began to quarrel among -themselves, and each to take as much gold and as many women as they -could obtain. Pedro Gutierrez and Escovedo thereupon killed a person -named Diego, and then they and nine others went away with their women to -a cacique, whose name was Caunaboa, who was lord of the mines, and he -killed them all. Then many days afterward he came with a great number of -men to Navidad, where there was only Diego de Arana with ten men, who had -remained with him to guard the fort, all the others being dispersed about -the island. The cacique, Caunaboa, coming there at night, set fire to the -houses where the Christians lived with their women, and the Christians, -being frightened, fled to the sea, where eight were drowned, and three -died ashore, whose bodies they showed to them. Guacanagari undertook -to defend the Christians, but he and his men were wounded and were -compelled to flee for their lives.”[177] - -About the ninth of December Columbus sailed eastwardly from the site of -the Villa de la Navidad, and anchored before an Indian town, where he -determined to plant a colony. “He landed with all his men, provisions and -implements, which he had brought in the ships of the fleet, at a plain, -near a rock, on which a fort could easily be built. Here he erected a -town, and called it Isabela, in honor of Queen Isabella. This place was -deemed very suitable, inasmuch as the harbor was very large, though -exposed to the northwest, and had an attractive river a bow-shot from -it, from which canals of water might be cut to run through the middle of -the town, and beyond was an extensive plain, from which the Indians said -the mines of Cibao were not very distant. For these reasons the admiral -was eager to settle the colony. On account of the fatigue of the voyage -and that caused by his labor here, he did not have time to write in his -journal, from day to day, what happened, as had been his habit. He also -fell sick, which interrupted his writing from the eleventh of December to -the twelfth of March, 1494. Meanwhile he administered the affairs of the -town according to his ability. He intrusted Alonso de Hojeda with fifteen -men to discover the mines of Cibao. Afterward, on the second of February, -twelve ships of the fleet set sail for Castile, under the command of -Antonio de Torres.”[178] - -In March Columbus with a body of armed men explored the country of Cibao. -“It is rough and stony,” writes Ferdinand Columbus, “full of gravel, -grassy, and watered by several rivers in which gold is found. The -farther they went into the country the more rugged and mountainous they -found it. On the tops of the mountains were grains of gold-sand, for, as -the admiral said, the great rains carry it down from the summits of the -mountains to the rivers in small sand.... The admiral, perceiving that -he was now eighteen leagues from Isabela, and the country he had left -behind him very craggy, ordered a fort to be built in a very pleasant and -defensible place, which he called the castle of San Tomas, to command the -country about the mines, and to be a place of safety for the Christians -who went there. The command of this new fort he gave to Don Pedro -Margarita, a person of some importance, with fifty-six men, among whom -were men of all trades to erect the fort, which was built with clay and -timber, which made it strong enough to resist the attack of any number -of Indians that might come against it.... On Sunday, the twenty-ninth of -March, Columbus arrived at Isabela, where melons were already grown fit -to eat, although it was not more than two months after the seed had been -put into the ground. Cucumbers came up in twenty days, and a wild vine of -that country, having been pruned, had produced grapes which were good and -large. The next day, being the thirtieth of March, a farmer gathered ears -of wheat, the seed of which he had sown at the latter end of January. -There were also pease, but much larger than those they sowed. All they -sowed came up above the ground in three days, and on the twenty-fifth day -they were eating them. The stones of fruit set in the ground sprouted -in seven days, and vine branches shot out in the same time, and in -twenty-five days thereafter they gathered green grapes.... - -“The admiral, having determined to go to discover the continent, -appointed a council to govern the island in his absence. The persons -composing it were Don Diego Colon, the admiral’s brother, with the title -of president; F. Boyl [Friar Buil] and Pedro Fernandez Coronel, regents; -Alonzo Sanchez de Carvajal, rector of Bacca, and Juan de Luxan, gentlemen -of their catholic majesties.... On Tuesday, the twenty-ninth of April, -the wind being favorable, Columbus arrived at Cabo de San Nicolas, and -thence crossed over to the island of Cuba, running along the south coast -of it, and having sailed a league beyond Cabo Fuerte, he put into a large -bay which he called Puerto Grande.... - -“On Saturday, the third of May, the admiral resolved to sail from Cuba -over to Jamaica, that he might not leave it behind without knowing -whether the report of the abundance of gold there were true. The wind -being favorable, he discovered it on Sunday, when he was less than half -the distance to it. On Monday he came to anchor, and thought it was the -most attractive of all the islands which he had seen in the Indies. So -many people, in large and small canoes, came aboard his vessels that it -was quite astonishing. The next day he ran along the coast to search -for harbors. When the boats went to examine the havens, there came out -so many canoes and armed men to defend the country, that the men in the -boats were forced to return to the ships, not through fear, but to avoid -making enemies of them.... On Tuesday, the thirteenth of May, Columbus -determined to stand over again for Cuba to coast along it, intending -not to return until he had sailed five or six hundred leagues, and was -satisfied whether it were a continent or an island.... On Friday, the -thirteenth of June, the admiral perceiving that the coast of Cuba ran -far to the west, and that it was a matter of the greatest difficulty to -sail that way on account of the infinite number of islands and sand-bars -that were on all sides of them, and he also beginning to be in want of -provisions, for which reason he could not continue his voyage as he had -intended, he determined to return to the town he had begun to build in -Española. To supply himself with wood and water, he anchored at the -island Evangelista, which is thirty leagues in circuit, and seven hundred -from Dominica.”[179] - -While Columbus was exploring the coast of Cuba, near the island of -Evangelista, on the twelfth of June, it is said that he, for the purpose -of furnishing indisputable evidence that he had reached the dominions -of the Grand Khan, sent Fernando Perez de Luna, his notary, with four -attesting witnesses, to the vessels, and had each person on board to make -a declaration under oath that he was convinced that the land he saw was a -part of the continent of Asia, and that he believed any one could go from -it by land to Spain.[180] The notary, when taking the depositions, it is -said, informed each person giving this testimony, that should he for any -malicious purpose afterward assert a different opinion, he would, if an -officer, be made to pay a penalty of ten thousand maravedis for such an -offence, and if a person of lower rank, he would receive a hundred lashes -and have his tongue cut out.[181] Strange as it seems, it was Columbus’s -belief that this watery expanse was really the gulf of the Ganges.[182] - -Departing from the island of Evangelista, Columbus returned along the -coast of Cuba to Cabo de Santa Cruz, from which he steered to the island -of Jamaica. After leaving it, he discovered the two islands lying off the -east coast of Española, called respectively by the Indians Adamanai and -Mona. On the twenty-ninth of September, 1494, he returned to Isabela. - -The people of the island of Española having acquired some knowledge -of the Spanish language, were able at this time to give Columbus -considerable information respecting their religion. From his -conversations with them he was enabled to write the following account of -their peculiar image-worship: “I could discover neither idolatry nor any -sect among them, though each one of their kings, who are very many, as -well in Española as on all the other islands and continent, has a house -apart from the town, in which there is nothing but some carved, wooden -images that are called _cemies_. There is nothing done in these houses -but what is for the service of the _cemies_, to which they repair to -perform certain ceremonies, and pray there, as we do in our churches. -In these houses they have a handsome, round table, made like a dish, on -which is some powder, which they lay on the heads of the _cemies_ with -a certain ceremony. Then through a cane, that has two branches, held to -their own nostrils they snuff up this powder. The words they use none -of our people understand. The powder intoxicates them, and they act as -if they were drunk. They also give the image a name, and I believe it is -that of their father or grandfather, or both; for they have more than -one, and some more than ten, all in memory of their forefathers, as I -have already said. I have heard them praise one more than another, and -have observed them to have more devotion, and show more respect to one -than another, as we do in processions in time of want; and the people -and the caciques boast among themselves of having the best _cemies_. -When they go to these _cemies_ they shun the Christians, and will not -permit them to enter these houses. If they suspect that they will come, -they take their _cemies_ and hide them in the woods for fear that they -should be deprived of them. What is most ridiculous, they have the -habit of stealing one another’s _cemies_. It happened once that the -Christians suddenly rushed into a house with them, and the _cemi_ cried -out, speaking in their language, which showed that it was artificially -made. The _cemi_ being hollow, they had attached a tube to it, which tube -extended to a dark corner of the house, where a man was concealed with -boughs and leaves who had spoken through the tube the words which the -cacique had commanded him. The Spaniards, suspecting something of the -kind, kicked down the _cemi_, and discovered that which has been related. -The cacique seeing that his deception was known to the Spaniards, -earnestly begged them not to speak of it to his subjects or to the other -Indians, because he made them obedient by this artifice.... Three large -stones are also in the possession of almost all the caciques, which are -highly venerated by them and their people. The one they say makes the -corn and the grain to grow, the second helps women in travail, and the -third procures rain or fair weather, whenever they desire to be benefited -in any one of these ways. I sent your highnesses three of these stones by -Antonio de Torres, and have three more to bring with me. - -“When these Indians die, they have several ways of performing their -obsequies. The manner in which they bury their caciques is as follows: -They open his body and dry it at a fire in order to preserve it. Of -other persons they only take the head. They bury some in caves or -caverns, and place gourds of water and bread at their heads. Others they -burn in the house where they die, and they do not permit them to die -naturally, but strangle them at their last gasp. This is done to the -caciques. Others are turned out of the house, and are put in a _hamac_, -which is their bed, with bread and water at their heads, and they are -never visited again. Some who become dangerously ill are carried to the -cacique, who tells whether they are to be strangled or not, and what -he commands is done. I have taken pains to learn what they believe, -and whether they know what becomes of them after they are dead. This I -inquired of Caunaboa, who was the principal king of Española, an aged -man, intelligent and of much discernment. He and the rest answered that -they go to a certain valley, which every great cacique supposes to be -his country, where, they affirm, they find their parents and all their -ancestors; that they eat, have women, and enjoy themselves in pleasures -and pastimes. - -“The admiral, having brought the island into a peaceable condition, and -built the town of Isabela, besides three forts in different parts of the -country, determined to return to Spain.... He went on board, on Thursday, -the tenth of March, 1496, with two hundred and twenty-five Spaniards and -thirty Indians, and sailed from Isabela, at daybreak, and steered along -the coast with two caravels, one called Santa Cruz, the other La Nina, -the same in which he went to discover the island of Cuba.... Having -supplied himself with bread, wood, and water, he set sail on Wednesday, -the twentieth of April, from the island of Guadalupe, with the wind very -scant, keeping near the latitude of twenty-two degrees, for at that -time they had not found out the way of running away north to catch the -southwest winds.”[183] - -After sailing a month in the direction of Spain, “although there were -eight or nine pilots on board the two vessels, yet none of them knew -where they were; but the admiral was confident that they were only a -little west of the Azores.” - -Columbus, speaking of the movements of his compasses at this time, -observes: “This morning the Dutch compasses varied, as they formerly -did, a point; and those of Geneva, which previously agreed with them, -varied only a little, but after sailing east varied more, which is a sign -that we are one hundred leagues or more west of the Azores, for when we -were just one hundred there were only a few weeds scattered in the sea, -and the Dutch needles varied a point, those of Geneva cutting the north -point, and when we are a little farther east-northeast they will alter -again.”[184] These noticeable differences in the variations of the -needles, Ferdinand Columbus says, the admiral assigned to “the different -kinds of loadstones used in making them.” ... “In this way,” he remarks, -“they continued their voyage, though all the pilots went like blind men.” -Columbus, when near Spain, confidently asserted that they would be in -sight of the coast on the following morning, which proved to be true, -“for which reason he was looked upon by the seamen as very expert and -almost prophetic in sea affairs.”[185] On Saturday, the eleventh of -June, 1496, the caravels arrived in the port of Cadiz. - -“The admiral,” as soon as he had landed, “began to prepare for his -journey to Burgos, where he was favorably received by their catholic -majesties, who were there celebrating the nuptials of Prince Juan, their -son, who married Margarita of Austria.” - -[Illustration: FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA. - -ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.] - -While Columbus was in Española, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella -abrogated in part the concessions granted him, and issued letters-patent -on the tenth of April, 1495, permitting any of their subjects to -make voyages of discovery to the Indies.[186] Commissioned by their -highnesses, Amerigo Vespucci[187] went with a fleet of four vessels, -in 1497, to make discoveries. The account of the voyage is contained -in a letter written by him, in Lisbon, on the fourth of September, -1504. The publication of it made him famous as the discoverer of the -continent of America. Singular as it is true, the palpable discrepancies -found in the subsequent versions of Vespucci’s letter have led many -scholars to discredit the statements of the intelligent and enterprising -Italian.[188] Vespucci thus writes respecting his first voyage: - -“The king, Don Ferdinand of Castile, having ordered four ships to -discover new lands toward the west, I was selected by his highness to go -in the fleet to aid in the discoveries.[189] We departed from the port of -Cadiz on the tenth day of May, 1497, and took our course across the great -gulf of the ocean-sea.[190] We spent eighteen months on the voyage, and -discovered much main-land and an endless number of islands, which were in -great part inhabited. As these are not spoken of by ancient writers, I -think that they had no knowledge of them.... - -“We reached a land which we judged to be firm land, distant from the -Canary Islands about a thousand leagues more to the west, within the -torrid zone, because we found the north pole at an elevation of sixteen -degrees above the horizon,[191] and that we were more than seventy-five -degrees west of the Canary Islands as our instruments showed.[192] We -anchored our ships a league and a half from the coast. We got out our -boats, and, having manned and armed them, we went on land. - -“Before we went ashore we were greatly delighted in seeing many people -wandering along the beach. We saw that they were naked and that they -seemed to be frightened when they beheld us, likely, as I supposed, -by seeing us clothed, and of a different stature from their own. -They retired to a mountain, and we could not entice them to hold any -intercourse with us, notwithstanding we endeavored to induce them by -signs of peace and friendship.... - -“We sailed to the northwest[193] in which direction the coast extended, -always in sight of land, seeing continually, during the voyage, people on -the shore. After sailing two days, we found a secure place for the ships, -and anchored half a league from the land.... The natives were somewhat -timid, and it was a long time before we were able to dispel their fear -and induce them to come and talk to us.... Giving them such things as -looking-glasses, bells, beads, and other trifles, we enticed a number of -them to approach and enter into friendly relations with us.... - -“These people go entirely naked and wear not a particle of clothing. They -are of a medium size and very well proportioned. Their skin is reddish -like the color of a lion’s skin.... They do not allow any hair to grow -on their eyelids and eyebrows, nor on any part of their bodies; only -on their heads, for they think it very unbecoming. The men and women -are exceedingly quick in their movements, and are unconstrained in -their deportment. They walk and run rapidly. The women do not think it -a difficult thing to run a league or two.... These people are excellent -swimmers. The women surpass the men, for we have observed them many times -swimming unaided, fully two leagues out from land. - -“The weapons of these people are bows and arrows. These are curiously -made. They have no iron or any other hard metal on them. They use instead -the teeth of animals or fish.... They are expert bowmen, and hit with -their arrows whatever they shoot at. The women in some parts of the -country handle the bow with considerable skill. Their other weapons are -lances and clubs with elaborately carved heads. When they go to make -war their wives accompany them, not to fight, but to carry provision on -their backs. Sometimes a woman will convey a burden in this manner thirty -or forty leagues, which the strongest men there cannot do as we have -frequently observed.... - -“These people, although they appear ignorant as talkers, are very -sagacious and crafty in any matter in which they are interested. They do -not talk much, and when they do, it is in a low tone.... Their languages -differ so much that we found people living within the space of a hundred -leagues who could not understand one another’s speech.... They do not -partake of food at appointed times nor in such quantities to satisfy them -during equal intervals. Whenever their appetites demand food, whether in -the middle of the night or day, it does not matter to them, they appease -their hunger.... They take their food from earthen basins made by them, -or from gourds cut in half. - -“They sleep in certain nets made of cotton, very large, suspended in the -air.... These people are clean and neat in their persons, for they are -continually bathing.... They live together in common, and make their -houses like cottages, which are very strongly built with the largest -trees and covered with palm leaves.... We found one which contained -six hundred persons, and we saw the occupants of thirteen houses, who -must have numbered four thousand souls. New sites for these houses are -selected every seven or eight years. When we asked why they changed -the location of their dwellings, they said it was because the intense -heat of the sun caused painful diseases to spread among them when the -ground about their houses became permeated and foul with filth; which -explanation seemed quite reasonable to us. - -“The riches of these people are the feathers of birds of different -colors, ornaments made of fish bones, and white and green stones, with -which they adorn their cheeks, lips, and ears.... Some of these people, -when they inter their dead, place water and food at the head of the -corpse.... In some parts of the country there is a very inhuman custom of -disposing of a person about to die. His relatives carry him into a great -wood, and, fastening one of their sleeping nets to two trees, put him -in it. Having swung him in it during the day, they, at the approach of -night, depart to their homes, leaving with him water and food sufficient -for his wants during the succeeding five or six days. Should the ill man -partake of the provisions and recover sufficient strength to enable him -to make his way back to the village, his relatives honor his return with -ceremony.... - -“For their infirmities they have various kinds of medicine very different -from those we use.... I often observed that when a person was stricken -with fever and grew worse, that they bathed him with much cold water -from head to foot, and then built a great fire around him, and made -him walk about the inclosed space for an hour or two until he became -quite fatigued, when they allowed him to sleep. Many were cured by this -treatment.... Blood-letting is an art known to them. They do not take -blood from the arm except in the arm pit. They generally take it from the -loins or the calf of the leg.... They have no grain seed nor corn, but -use instead the root of a tree, from which they make flour, which is very -good, and which they call _Iuca_, and another which they call _Cāzabi_, -and another which they call _Ignami_. Very little meat is eaten by them -except human flesh.... They devour with fierce avidity their enemies, -whom they kill or capture, whether men or women. They thought it very -strange when they learned that we did not eat the flesh of our enemies.... - -“We landed in a port[194] where we found a village built above the water -like Venice. About forty-five bell-shaped houses were erected here upon -very large piles, and connected one with the other by draw-bridges.... -When we were descried by the people they were seemingly terrified, and -to protect themselves they immediately drew their bridges and shut -themselves up in their houses. While we were observing them and wondering -at their actions, we beheld about twenty-two canoes (_canoe_) approaching -us from the direction of the sea. These canoes are boats which they -use, and are made from a single tree. The people in them rowed toward -our boats, no little astonished at our forms and clothing. As they kept -at some distance from us, we made signs to induce them to come nearer. -Failing to assure them of our peaceful intentions, and seeing that they -would not approach any nearer, we rowed toward them. But they did not -remain where they were, but rowed to the land, where, by signs, they -intimated that we should wait for a short time until they returned. - -“They hastened away to a mountain, but did not stay there any length of -time. Returning they brought with them sixteen young girls, and, entering -their canoes, rowed to us, and placed four girls in each of our boats. -We were much surprised at this.... They then kept their canoes alongside -of our boats, and we were led to believe that these people were thus -manifesting their friendship. Not suspecting any thing different, we -observed a great number of people swimming toward us from the houses. -Then some old women appeared at the doors of the houses shrieking and -pulling their hair as if in great distress. Suspecting some treachery, -we took up our arms. All at once the girls in our boats plunged into the -sea, and the people in the canoes rowed away, shooting their arrows at -us. Those who swam to us carried lances with them concealed under the -water. Discovering their treachery, we not only defended ourselves, but -vigorously attacked them. We upset in our boats many of their canoes and -killed many people. In a short time those who were not hurt left their -canoes and swam to the shore. They had about fifteen or twenty killed and -wounded, and we five slightly wounded.... We took two girls and two men -prisoners. When we entered their houses we found only two old women and -a sick man. We took from the houses many things of little value, but did -not burn the houses from humane motives.... - -“This country is thickly inhabited and contains a great many rivers. The -animals in it are quite different from those in our country, except the -lions, panthers, stags, hogs, goats, and deer, and some of these are -somewhat different from ours in form.... But how can I describe the birds -here, which are so many and of so many kinds, and the color of their -feathers so different, that the sight of them amazes one. - -“The country is very attractive and fruitful, and covered with very great -woods and forests, in which the trees are always green, for they never -lose their foliage. There are unnumbered fruits very different from -those in our country. This land lies within the limits of the torrid -zone, below the line describing the tropic of Cancer, where the pole is -elevated twenty-three degrees above the horizon, at the end of the second -climate.[195] ... In this country we made a baptismal font, and baptized -many of the people, who called us _caribi_, meaning men of great wisdom. - -“The country is called Lariab by the natives. We sailed along its coast -always in sight of land and ran on the whole course toward the northwest -eight hundred and seventy leagues.[196] ... We found gold in some places -but not much. The discovery of the country and the knowledge that gold -was in it satisfied us.... - -“On our return we sailed toward the sea going between the north and east, -and after seven days we reached some islands.... We landed on one of -them, where we found many people, who called the island Iti [Hayti?].... -We set sail for Spain with two hundred and twenty-two slave-prisoners, -and arrived at the port of Cadiz on the fifteenth of October, 1498,[197] -where we were well received, and sold our slaves. This is what happened -to me in this my first voyage that may be considered noteworthy.”[198] - -“Shortly after the departure of the fleet with which Vespucci went to -the New World, Columbus complained to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella -that the permission given by them in 1495 to those who desired to go on -voyages of discovery toward the west was prejudicial to the privileges -previously granted him by their Spanish majesties. The latter therefore -revoked their letters-patent of the tenth of April, 1495, on the second -of June, 1497, declaring that it should “have no force nor effect at any -time, or in any manner whatever, so as to be prejudicial to the said -admiral, and to whatever we have thus granted and confirmed to him.”[199] - -“The fitting out of the fleet [for Columbus’s third voyage to the Indies] -was delayed much longer than was necessary through the negligence and -bad management of the king’s officers, and particularly that of Don -Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca, archdeacon of Seville. Hence it happened -that Don Juan, who was afterward bishop of Burgos, was, from that time -onward, a bitter enemy to the admiral and his affairs, and was the chief -person among those who brought him into disgrace with their catholic -majesties.[200] ... The admiral made his preparations for the voyage -with all possible diligence, and on the thirtieth of May, 1498, set -sail from the bay of San Lucar de Berrameda, with six ships, freighted -with provisions and other necessaries for the relief of the planters in -Española and the peopling of that island.”[201] - -On Thursday, the fifth of July, Columbus steered westward from the -islands of Cape Verd, and on the last day of the month altered his course -and stood to the north. “One day about noon as he was thus sailing -[off the coast of Venezuela, South America, north of the mouths of the -Orinoco river], Alonso Perez Nirando, a sailor of the town of Huelva, -while going up to the round-top, saw the peaks of three mountains to the -westward, distant about fifteen leagues. Not long afterward they beheld -land extending northeastwardly as far as they could see. When they had -given thanks to God and said the _Salve Regina_ and other prayers used -by seamen in times of distress or joy, the admiral called the discovered -island, la Isla de Trinidad (the island of the Trinity), for he had -thought of giving this name to the first land they should find on the -voyage, and now God had graciously granted him the sight of three -mountains near together as has been mentioned. The fleet stood directly -west to reach a point of land on the south side of the island, and then -coasted along that side of it until the anchors were cast, five leagues -beyond the cape, which Columbus called Punta de la Galera (Point of the -Galley), which name was suggested by a rock on the headland, resembling, -at a distance, a galley under sail. On the following morning, Wednesday, -Columbus continued his course westward, for there was only one cask of -water on board his ship, and one on each of the other vessels, and at the -last anchorage no convenient place had been found to obtain more. At the -next headland, which he called Punta de la Playa (Point of the Strand), -the ships anchored and the crews went to a small brook and obtained a -supply of fresh water. No town or people were seen here, although they -had observed many houses and towns along the coast.... This day, which -was the first of August, when the vessels were sailing between Punta de -la Galera and Punta de la Playa, they discovered the continent, distant -about twenty-five leagues as they guessed. Inasmuch as they thought it -was another island, they called it Isla Santa (Holy Island).” - -When the ships anchored at the southwestern extremity of the island -of Trinidad, which point of land Columbus called Punta del Arenal, “a -large canoe,” the admiral writes, “came from the eastward, containing -twenty-four men, all in the prime of life, fully armed with bows, arrows, -and shields. As I have said, they were all young, well proportioned, and -not dark black, but whiter than any other Indians that I had seen.... -They wore their hair long and straight, cut in the Spanish fashion. Their -heads were encircled with cotton scarfs elaborately colored, like the -head-dresses of the Moors. Some wore these scarfs round their bodies as -a covering in the place of breeches. When I reached Punta del Arenal I -found that the island of Trinidad was separated from the land of Gracia -(_la tierra de Gracia_)[202] by a strait two leagues wide.... - -“I discovered beyond the point which I called Punta de la Aguda, -one of the most attractive countries in the world, and very densely -populated.... Some of the natives immediately came in canoes to the -ship to request me in the name of their king to come on land. When they -saw that I paid no attention to them, they came in great numbers in -their canoes to the ship, many of them wearing pieces of gold on their -breasts, and some of them bracelets of pearls on their arms. When I saw -these I was exceedingly pleased, and I made many inquiries to learn -where the people found them. They informed me that they were obtained in -the neighborhood and also at a place north of the country.... Desiring -to get some pearls like those I had seen, I sent some men ashore for -that purpose.... They related that when the boats reached the shore, -two chiefs, whom they took for father and son, came to them from the -throng of the people and conducted them to a very large house, at two -springs, not round and tent-shaped as the other houses. In this house -were many seats, on which they seated our men and themselves. They then -caused bread to be brought with many kinds of fruit and various wines, -both white and red, not made from grapes but apparently from different -fruits.... The men were congregated at one end of the building and the -women at the other. Great vexation was felt by both parties because they -could not understand each other’s language, for they each desired to ask -questions concerning their respective countries.” - -Columbus, describing that part of South America which he called Gracia, -now known as Venezuela, and also referring to the Orinoco River pouring -its flood of fresh water into the Gulf of Paria, which he called Golfo -de las Perlas (Gulf of Pearls), remarks: “I think that if the mentioned -river does not flow from the earthly paradise that it comes from a vast -extent of land in the south, of which nothing hitherto has been known.” - -In the letter containing this information respecting South America the -admiral speaks of sending to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, to -whom the letter was addressed, a map of the country (_la pintura de la -tierra_).[203] - -The channel between the island of Trinidad and the land of Gracia (which -the natives called Paria), Columbus called la Boca de la Sierpe (the -mouth of the Serpent). The fleet then sailed from the Gulf of Paria -through its northern outlet, which Columbus called la Boca del Drago (the -mouth of the Dragon), and passed by the cape which he called Cabo de las -Conchas and the island which he named Margarita. “Although,” as Ferdinand -Columbus remarks, “the admiral saw that the country of Paria extended -much farther westward, nevertheless he says that from that time forward -he could not give as good a description of it as he wished on account of -his eyes being too much inflamed by constant watching. Therefore he was -compelled to obtain the most of his information concerning it from the -sailors and pilots.”[204] - -When Columbus arrived, at the end of August, at the island of Española, -where he intended to recruit his failing health, he found the colonists -rebelling against the authority of his brother Bartolomé, whom he had -left there as adelantado, or lieutenant-governor, when he sailed for -Spain in 1496. Columbus at once took steps to put an end to the sedition. -Meanwhile complaints were sent to their Spanish majesties, King Ferdinand -and Queen Isabella, who, to adjust the differences existing between -the two contending factions, sent Francisco de Bobadilla to Española -to discover the cause of the insurrection and to punish by fine and -imprisonment those whom he should find culpable. Summoning the admiral -to appear before him at San Domingo, he, as soon as Columbus arrived, -ordered him to be put in irons and to be confined in the fortress. Having -drawn up certain charges against Columbus, he sent him in chains to -Spain. About the middle of November, 1500, the vessel arrived at Cadiz. -When the news of Columbus’s humiliation at the hands of Bobadilla became -known, the people everywhere censured the latter for the unwarranted -abasement of the distinguished discoverer. The king and queen immediately -sent orders for Columbus to be set at liberty, and afterward received -him with many gracious acknowledgments of his important services, and -publicly declared that Bobadilla should account to them for his ill -treatment.[205] - -When the information contained in Columbus’s letter respecting the large -and valuable pearls possessed by the people of Paria became known in -Spain a number of capitalists immediately fitted out a fleet to go to the -Land of Pearls. The command of the vessels was given to Alonso de Hojeda, -who had accompanied Columbus on his second voyage. The cosmographer, -Juan de la Cosa, and Amerigo Vespucci went with Hojeda. Vespucci, in his -account of the voyage, says: “We departed from the port of Cadiz, three -ships in company, on the sixteenth day of May, 1499.... In forty-four -days we arrived at a new land, which we judged to be main-land, and the -continuation of that previously mentioned. It lay in the torrid zone -south of the equator, where the south pole is elevated five degrees.” -They sailed from their first place of anchorage and ran southeastwardly -along the coast forty leagues. The strong currents running from the -southeast to the northwest hindered the progress of the vessels so much -that the explorers determined to change their course and to sail to the -northwest. Following the trend of the coast in this direction, they, -after sailing some time, reached a beautiful bay, at the entrance of -which was a large island. About eighty leagues beyond this harbor they -entered another, where they went on land and obtained one hundred and -fifty pearls and some gold from the friendly natives. At another place -the inhabitants of the country “had their cheeks stuffed with a green -herb which they were continually chewing as animals chew their cud, so -that they were scarcely able to speak. Hanging from the neck of each -native were two dried gourd-shells, one filled with the herb which the -people had in their mouths, the other containing a white meal like chalk -dust. The natives carried small sticks which they wetted at intervals in -their mouths and then put them into the meal and then into the gourds -containing the herb.” Then they again filled their cheeks with the herb. - -At another place the explorers remained forty-seven days, where they -obtained “one hundred and nineteen marks of pearls” in exchange for some -small trifles. From a native, Vespucci obtained an oyster containing one -hundred and thirty pearls. The fleet sailed along the coast to where it -was “fifteen degrees north of the equator.” Thence the explorers steered -for Española to obtain provisions. Departing from the island on the -twenty-second of July, 1500, they sailed for Spain, and arrived at the -port of Cadiz on the eighth of September.[206] - -When King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella heard that the Portuguese had -reached India by sailing around Africa, they commissioned Columbus to -explore the western coast of Paria, where he conceived a navigable strait -could be found through which the vessels of Spain might sail to Cathay. -Four caravels composed the fleet with which he sailed from Cadiz on the -ninth of May, 1502. On the fifteenth of June, the vessels came in sight -of one of the Caribbean islands called by the natives Mantinino. Thence -they sailed to the island of Dominica, and thence to Española. Departing, -on the fourteenth of July, from the port of Brazil, on the south side -of the island of Española, Columbus sailed toward the Bay of Honduras, -eastward of which he imagined was a strait through which he might sail -to the Indian Ocean and reach Cathay. “We came to certain islands,” says -Ferdinand Columbus, who had accompanied his father to the New World, -“where we went ashore on the largest, called Guanaia, whence those that -make sea-charts took occasion to call all those islands Guanaia, which -are almost twelve leagues from the continent, near the province now -called Honduras, though the admiral then called it Cabo Casinas.” While -the fleet was anchored in one of the roadsteads of the group of islands -called Guanaia, a large log-boat crowded with Indians and filled with -certain commodities arrived there. Describing the capture of this highly -valued prize, Ferdinand Columbus remarks: “Fortune so ordered it that -a canoe, as long as a galley and eight feet wide, all of one tree, and -like the other boats in shape, put in there, loaded with commodities -brought from the country toward the west and bound for Nueva España.[207] -In the middle of it was a covering like an awning, made of palm leaves, -resembling those of the Venetian gondolas, which protected all beneath -it, that neither rain nor sea-water could wet the goods. Under the awning -were the women and children. Although there were twenty-five men in the -canoe, they had not the courage to defend themselves against those in our -boats who pursued them. The canoe being taken without any opposition it -was brought to the admiral’s caravel.... He commanded that such articles -should be taken as were thought to be the most desirable and valuable, as -quilts, shirts of cotton without sleeves, curiously made and dyed with -different colors, apron-cloths, and large sheets in which the Indian -women in the canoe wrapped themselves as the Moorish women, formerly in -Granada, were in the habit of doing. There were also long wooden swords, -with grooved edges on each side, in which sharp pieces of flint were -compactly fastened with thread and a bituminous substance, and these cut -naked men as if they were made of steel; also copper hatchets to cut -wood, like those of stone which the other Indians use; also bells of the -same metal, and dishes and crucibles to melt it in. For food they had -such roots and grain as the people of Española eat, and a kind of liquor -made of maize, like the English beer, and an abundance of cacao-nuts, -which in New Spain pass for money, which they seemed to value very much, -for when they were brought aboard among the other goods, I observed that -when any of these nuts fell, the Indians all stooped to pick them up, as -if they were things of value.... Notwithstanding the admiral had heard -so much from those in the canoe concerning the great wealth, politeness, -and ingenuity of the people westward toward New Spain, yet thinking that -he could sail to those countries lying to the leeward, when he thought -fit from Cuba, he would not go that way at this time, but adhered to -his intention of discovering a strait in the continent to pass into the -South Sea,[208] by which he could sail to the countries that produce -spice. Therefore he resolved to sail eastward toward Veragua and Nombre -de Dios, where he imagined the strait to be.... He was deceived in the -undertaking, for he did not conceive it to be an isthmus, or a narrow -neck of land, as it really was, but a small bay extending from sea to -sea.”[209] - -On the coast of Veragua, now the isthmus of Panama or Darien, Columbus -found the ruins of an immense building covered with tables of strange -hieroglyphics and unique reliefs. These vestiges of an ancient -civilization made so profound an impression on the mind of the admiral -that he selected a curiously elaborated piece of the wall, and brought it -away in one of his caravels. “This was the first place, in the Indies,” -says Ferdinand Columbus, “where they saw any sign of an edifice. It was a -great mass of wall of imagery seemingly composed of lime and stone. The -admiral ordered a piece of it to be brought away to show the evidence of -its antiquity.”[210] - -On the fifth of January, 1503, they cast anchor near a river which the -Indians called Yebra, and the admiral Belem or Bethlem. Westward of it -was a river which the natives called Veragua. Columbus, having determined -to build a town at this point, began, about the end of February, to erect -“houses upon the river of Belem, about a cannon-shot from its mouth, -within a trench, on the right bank of the river, at the mouth of which -there is a little hill. Besides these houses, which were all of timber -and covered with the leaves of palm trees growing along the shore, -another large house was built to serve as a store-house and magazine, -in which were stored several cannon, some powder, provisions, and other -necessaries for the use of the planters.... - -“The customs of the Indians here are somewhat similar to those of the -natives of Española and the neighboring islands; but the people of -Veragua and its neighborhood, when they talk to one another and eat turn -their backs, and are always chewing an herb, which, as we think,” says -Ferdinand Columbus, “makes their teeth to decay and rot. Their food is -fish; these they take with nets and hooks.... They have an abundance -of maize, which is a kind of grain growing in an ear, or hard head -like millet, of which they make white and red wine, as beer is made in -England, and mix their spice with it as pleases their palates. It has a -pleasant taste like a sharp, lively wine.”[211] - -“In Cariay and the adjacent country,” says Columbus, “there are great -enchanters of a very dreadful kind.... I saw there, built on a mountain, -a sepulcher as large as a house and elaborately sculptured. The body -lay uncovered with the face downward. The people told me of other very -excellent works of art.... They said that there were great mines of -copper in the country, of which metal they make hatchets and other -manufactured articles, both cast and soldered. They also make forges -from it, and all the apparatus of goldsmiths, and also crucibles. The -inhabitants wear clothes. I saw in that province large sheets of cotton -elaborately and skillfully made, and others very delicately colored with -pencils. They informed me that in the interior, towards Cathay, that the -people there have them interwoven with gold.... One thing I dare declare, -for there are many to attest it, that in the land of Veragua I saw more -indications of gold in the two first days [of my stay there] than I had -found during four years in Española.”[212] - -The Spaniards, however, were soon attacked by the natives, and were in -such distressing circumstances that Columbus was compelled to abandon -his purpose of leaving a colony on this part of the continent and to -take his men on board the ships and to return to Española. Speaking of -the return-voyage, Ferdinand Columbus writes: “Thus rejoicing that we -were all together again, we sailed along the coast eastward. Although -all the pilots were of the opinion that we might return to San Domingo -by standing away to the north, nevertheless the admiral and his brother -knew that it was requisite to run a considerable distance along this -coast before they steered across the gulf that is between the continent -and Española, at which our men were displeased, thinking that the admiral -designed to sail directly for Spain, whereas he neither had provisions -nor were his ships fit for the voyage.[213] But as he knew best what was -to be done, we held on our course until we came to Porto Bello, where -we were obliged to leave the ship Biscaina, on account of its leaky -condition, being all worm-eaten through and through. Steering along the -coast, we passed by the port we called Retrete, and a country near which -there were many small islands, which the admiral called Las Barbas, but -the Indians and pilots call that the territory of the cacique Pocorosa. -We held on this course ten more leagues to the last land we saw of the -continent, called Marmora, and on Monday, the first of May, 1503, we -stood to the north.... Although all the pilots said we should be east of -the Caribbee islands, yet the admiral feared we should not make Española, -which proved to be true.... We reached an Indian town on the coast of -Cuba, called Mataia, where, having obtained some refreshment, we sailed -for Jamaica.”[214] - -On his return to the island of Jamaica, in June, 1503, Columbus, -describing his voyage along the isthmus of Darien, wrote to King -Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, saying: “On the thirteenth of May I reached -the province of Mango, which is contiguous to that of Cathay, and -thence I steered for the island of Española.”[215] Peter Martyr[216] -also seems to have held the opinion that Columbus’s explorations were -along the continent of Asia. Writing in 1510, the first decade of the -New World, he remarks: “The opinion of Christopher Columbus respecting -the magnitude of the sphere and the opinions of the ancients concerning -the under-navigation of the world seem to be adverse. Nevertheless the -parrots and many other things brought from there indicate that the -islands savor only of India, either being near it or else of the same -nature.”[217] - -With this fourth voyage, the zealous and enthusiastic navigator ended -his life-work. On the twelfth of September, 1504, Columbus for the last -time set sail from the attractive field of his numerous explorations -and arrived at San Lucar, on the seventh of November, broken down in -health, aged, and the victim of many unjust accusations and bitter -disappointments. Two years afterward, on the twentieth of May, 1506, he -died at Valladolid, being about seventy years old, leaving to another the -discovery, by the way of the west, of a navigable route to the remote -coast of Cathay. - -As intended by him, when he set sail on his first voyage, Columbus -afterward made a map on which he delineated “all the sea and the lands -of the ocean-sea” (_del mar Océanus_) discovered by him.[218] Although -the admiral’s chart is lost, there are several maps extant, which, in -part, represent the islands of Juana, Jamaica, Española, and the smaller -ones, as he evidently had outlined them on his new sailing chart (_carta -nueva de navegar_). A map of the world, in the Estense library, at -Modena, made between the years 1501 and 1504,[219] and the map of the -New World (_tabula terre nove_), in the edition of Ptolemy’s geography, -printed in 1513, at Strasburg,[220] exhibit the islands, discovered by -Columbus on his first voyage, and of which he speaks in his journal of -1492 and 1493. The high latitudes in which he placed the Rio de Mares and -other rivers of Juana, when he made his discoveries “toward the north,” -are designated on these maps. On the Ptolemy map the name _c doffun de -abril_ at the southeast point of Cuba appears to designate the same -cape as that of _c de fvndabril_ on the map of the world made by Johann -Ruysch, the German cartographer, contained in the edition of Ptolemy’s -geography, printed at Rome in 1508.[221] Both of these misspelled -names are evidently anomalous forms of the Spanish designation, _C. de -Fuenterabia_. The names on Ruysch’s representation of the island of Cuba -correspond more closely to the Spanish orthography of the designations -given by Columbus to the places he visited than those which are inscribed -on the two maps previously mentioned.[222] - -The earliest map extant representing the territory discovered in -the western hemisphere is a map of the world drafted by the Spanish -cartographer, Juan de la Cosa.[223] It was found by Baron de Walckenaër -in the possession of a dealer in old books and wares, from whom he -bought it for a small sum of money. Baron von Humboldt shortly afterward -made its discovery known in his notable work on the geography of the -new continent.[224] When the library of Baron de Walckenaër was sold, -in Paris, in 1853, La Cosa’s map was purchased for the queen of Spain -for four thousand and twenty francs. It is now in the Naval museum, in -Madrid.[225] The famous map-maker drafted the whole world, as then known, -on an ox-hide, five feet nine inches long by three feet wide, on a scale -of fifteen Spanish leagues to a degree. The map is attractively colored -and brightened with gold. It may rightly be called the geographical -frontispiece of the history of the discovery of America.[226] - -The map bears the inscription “_Juan de la cosa la fizo enel puerto de S: -mjᵃ en año de. 1500._”—Juan de la Cosa made it in the port of Santa Maria -in the year 1500. A picture of St. Christopher bearing the Christ-child -across the water ornaments the space above the inscription.[227] Most -prominent of the islands of the “Mar Oceanus” delineated on the map are -Cuba, Habacoa,[228] and La Española. The coast of South America, as -far as it had been explored, is well represented by the painstaking -map-maker.[229] - -La Cosa, having seen a copy of the map made by Giovanni Caboto (John -Cabot), to display the fields of the English discoveries of 1497 and -1498, attempted to show in what part of the New World they were. As -outlined by him, the land explored by Cabot trends eastwardly from the -sea discovered for the English (_mar descubierta por inglese_), to the -Cape of England (Cavo de Inglaterra). As La Cosa had nothing else than -his imagination to guide him in delineating the coast of North America -between the field of the English discoveries and South America, his -extension of the main-land from the one to the other has no geographical -significance. Unable to determine definitely the position and extent of -the territory of the New World, La Cosa projected it as accurately as his -information respecting the explored parts of its sinuous coast gave him -knowledge. Ignorant of the limits of the New Land he honorably darkens -that part which might be deemed its cartographic development with several -shades of meaningless colors.[230] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -1496-1498. - - -The notable part which England took in searching for a navigable passage -to Cathay, by exploring the sea toward the west, was incited by the -success attending the explorations of Columbus in the New World. For it -is said that when the news reached England that the Genoese seaman had -discovered the coasts of India there was great talk in the court of King -Henry VII., and that men declared with much admiration that it was more -divine than human to sail toward the west to go to the East where spices -grow[231]. The bold projector, who obtained for England the distinguished -honor of being the second European power to enter the western hemisphere -with her ships, was Giovanni Caboto (John Caboto), a Venetian[232], -who had lived a number of years in London. With confessed confidence -he explained to King Henry and his learned counsellors the grounds of -his belief that the eastern coast of Asia could be reached by sailing -in a direct westward course from England, and how this course would be -a shorter way than the one taken by Columbus. He proposed to undertake -the voyage at his own expense should the king grant him the necessary -license. - -These overtures of Caboto appear to have been made about the beginning of -the year 1496. Ruy Gonzales de Puebla, the Spanish ambassador, residing -in England, having learned what Caboto had proposed to King Henry, at -once communicated the information to their majesties, King Ferdinand and -Queen Isabella of Spain. Their royal highnesses, in a letter to their -representative at the English court, dated at Tortosa, the twenty-eighth -of March, 1496, thus refer to what he had written them: - -“You say that a person like Colon has come there to place before the king -of England another undertaking similar to that of the Indies, without -prejudice to Spain or Portugal. If in this way he helps him, he will be -as free to go to the Indies as we were. We believe that this undertaking -is thrown in the way of the king of England by the king of France in -order to withdraw him from his other affairs. See that the king of -England be not deceived in this or in a similar matter. The French will -endeavor as best they can to lead him into such enterprises, inasmuch as -they are very uncertain, and are not easily prosecuted. Likewise see that -those ...[233] he is not able to undertake this thing without prejudice -to us and the king of Portugal.”[234] - -On the fifth of March, 1496, King Henry VII. complied with Caboto’s -request as set forth in the following petition: - -“To the kyng our souvereigne lord - -“Please it your highnes of your moste noble and haboundant grace to -graunt unto John Cabotto, citezen of Venes, Lewes, Sebestyan and Sancto -his sonneys your gracious lettres patentes under your grete seale in due -forme to be made according to the tenour hereafter ensuyng. And they -shall during their lyves pray to god for the prosperous continuance of -your moste noble and royale astate long to enduer.”[235] - -The letters-patent granted to Giovanni Caboto and his sons, Lodovico, -Sebastiano, and Sanctus, to his and their heirs and deputies, -commissioned them to sail, with five ships of any burden, under the -banners, flags, and ensigns of England, to all parts, regions and gulfs -of the eastern, the western, and the northern seas, in order to seek, -discover, and explore whatever islands, countries, regions, or provinces -of the heathen and of the infidels, in whatever part of the world they -were situate, which were then unknown to all Christians. As set forth in -the document, the cost and expense of the expedition were to be defrayed -by Caboto and his sons.[236] - -With this commission Giovanni Caboto set sail from the port of Bristol, -in the spring of 1497, with two ships, one of which was named the -Matthew.[237] Sailing westward from England he reached a land which he -believed to be that of Cathay, where he planted the flag of England -and that of Venice. Having explored the coast of the country for -three hundred leagues, he returned to England, where the news of his -discoveries was enthusiastically received by the interested people. - -A brief description of this voyage is contained in a a letter written by -Lorenzo Pasqualigo, in London, on the twenty-third of August, 1497, to -his brothers, Alvise and Francesco, residing in Venice: - -“The Venetian, our countryman, who went with a ship from Bristol to -search for a new island, is returned, and says that seven hundred leagues -from here he discovered firm land (_Terra ferma_), the territory of the -Grand Khan. He coasted for three hundred leagues and landed; saw no -human beings, but he has brought here to the king certain snares which -had been set to catch game, and a needle for making nets; he also found -some felled trees, by which he judged there were inhabitants. He returned -to his ship in doubt, and he was three months on the voyage, and on his -return saw two islands to starboard, but would not land, time being -precious, as he was short of provisions. This has greatly pleased the -king. He [Caboto] says that the tides are slack there and do not flow as -they do here. - -“The king has promised him, in the spring, ten ships, armed to his order, -and at his request has conceded him all the prisoners, except those -confined for high treason, to man his fleet. The king has also given him -money with which he may amuse himself until that time, and he is now in -Bristol with his sons and his wife, who is also a Venetian.[238] His name -is Juam Talbot and he is called the great admiral. Great honor is paid -him; he dresses in silk, and these English run after him like insane -people, so that he can enlist as many of them as he pleases, and a number -of our own rogues besides. - -“The discoverer of these places planted on this newly found land a -large cross, with one flag of England and another of Saint Mark, on -account of his being a Venetian, so that our banner has floated very far -afield.”[239] - -Raimondo di Soncino, the minister of the duke of Milan, at the court of -England, in a letter, written on the twenty-fourth of August, 1497, also -speaks of the return of Caboto, saying that he “found two very large -and fertile islands, having likewise discovered the Seven Cities, four -hundred leagues from England, on the western passage. This next spring -his majesty intends to send him with fifteen or twenty ships.”[240] - -The discovery of the two islands mentioned by Soncino is spoken of in -two inscriptions placed on a large map of the world, preserved in the -National library in Paris. The Spanish inscription reads: “This land was -discovered by Ioan Caboto, a Venetian, and by Sebastian Caboto, his son, -in the year of the birth of our Saviour, Jesus Christ, M.CCCC. xciiii -[M.CCCC. xcvii?], on the twenty-fourth of June, in the morning, to which -they gave the name, Prima tierra vista (First land seen), and to a large -island, which is by the said land, they gave the name of Sant Joan (Saint -John), because it was discovered the same day.”[241] - -[Illustration: A copy of a part of a map of the world in the -Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, known as the Cabot map of 1544. (The -original is about one-third larger than this copy.)] - -The map, on the margin of which this inscription appears, seems to be -a copy of one made by Sebastiano Caboto, in 1544, if the following -statement of another Spanish inscription placed on the chart be true: -“Sebastian Caboto, captain and chief pilot of his sacred christian -catholic majesty, the emperor, Charles V. of that name, and king, our -sovereign, made this large planisphere, in the year of the birth of -our Saviour, Jesus Christ, 1544, drawn with degrees of latitude and -longitude, and with winds like a marine chart, copying in part the maps -of Ptolemy, and in part those of the modern discoverers, Spaniards as -well as Portuguese, and in part those made by his father and by him.”[242] - -As will be seen on the map, the inscription _Prima tierra uista_ is -placed opposite the tract of land on the forty-eighth parallel of north -latitude, now known as Cape Breton Island. Evidently to obviate a -misconception respecting the situation of the land first described, the -words _prima uista_ (first seen) are inscribed on the peninsula to which -the former inscription directs the eye. On this map also is seen a large -island, lying northwest of the land of Prima Vista, bearing the name, Yᵃ -de S. Juan (Island of St. John). - -In a letter written in London, on the eighteenth of December, 1497, by -Raimondo di Soncino to the duke of Milan, a very interesting account -is given of Caboto’s explorations in the western hemisphere: “Perhaps, -your excellency in the press of so much business will not be disturbed -to learn that his majesty [King Henry VII.] has gained a part of Asia -without a stroke of the sword. In this kingdom is a popular Venetian -called Messer Joanne Caboto, a man of considerable ability, most skillful -in navigation, who having seen the most serene kings, first him of -Portugal, then him of Spain, that they had occupied unknown islands, -thought to make a similar acquisition for his majesty [the king of -England]. And having obtained the royal privileges which gave him the use -of the land found by him, provided the right of possession was reserved -to the crown, he departed in a little ship, from the port of Bristol, in -the western part of this kingdom, with eighteen persons who placed their -fortunes with him. Passing Ibernia [Ireland] more to the west and then -ascending toward the north, he began to navigate the eastern part of the -ocean. Leaving (for some days) the north to the right hand, and having -wandered enough he came at last to firm land (_terra ferma_) where he -planted the royal banner, took possession for his highness, made certain -marks and returned. - -“The said Messer Joanne, as he is a foreigner and poor, would not be -believed, if his partners, who are all Englishmen and from Bristol, did -not testify to the truth of what he tells. This Messer Joanne has the -representation of the world on a map (_in una carta_), and also on a -globe (_in una sphera solida_), which he has made, and he shows by them -where he arrived, and going toward the East, has passed much of the -country of Tanais. - -“And they say that the land is fertile and temperate, and think that -red-wood (_el brasilio_) grows there, and the silks, and they affirm that -there the sea is full of fish that can be taken not only with nets, but -with fishing-baskets, a stone being placed in the basket to sink it in -the water, and this, I have said, is told by the said Messer Joanne. - -“And the said Englishmen, his partners, say that that they can bring -so many fish that this kingdom will have no more business with Islanda -(Iceland), and that from that country there will be a very great trade -in the fish which they call stock-fish (_stochfissi_). But Messer Joanne -has his thoughts directed to a greater undertaking, for he thinks of -going, after this place is occupied, along the coast farther toward the -East until he is opposite the island called Cipango, situate in the -equinoctial region, where he believes all the spices of the world grow, -and where there are also gems. And he says that he was once at Mecca, -where from remote countries spices are carried by caravans, and that -those carrying them being asked where those spices grew, said they did -not know, but that they came with other merchandise from remote countries -to their home by other caravans, and that the same information was -repeated by those who brought the spices in turn to them. And he argues -that if the oriental people tell to those of the south that these things -are brought from places remote from them, and thus from hand to hand, -presupposing the rotundity of the earth, it follows that the last carry -to the northern, toward the west. And he tells this in a way that makes -it quite plain to me and I believe it. And what is a greater thing, his -majesty, who is learned and not prodigal, places confidence in what he -says, and since his return, provides well for him, as this Messer Joanne -tells me. - -“And in the spring he says that his majesty will arm some ships and -will give him all the criminals so that he may go to this country and -plant a colony there. And in this way he hopes to make London a greater -place for spices than Alexandria. And the principals of the business are -citizens of Bristol, great mariners that now know where to go. They say -that the voyage will not take more than fifteen days, if fortune favors -them after leaving Ibernia. I have talked with a Burgundian, a companion -of Messer Joanne, who affirms the same, and who is willing to go, since -the admiral (_almirante_), as Messer Joanne is already styled, has given -him an island, and has also given another to his barber, a Genoese, and -they regard the two as counts, and my lord, the admiral, the chief. And -I believe that some poor Italian friars will go on the voyage, who have -the promise of being bishops. And I, being a friend of the admiral, if I -wished to go, could have an archbishopric.”[243] - -In order to secure the king’s permission to go on the proposed voyage, -Giovanni Caboto again addressed a petition to King Henry VII., requesting -his majesty to grant him letters-patent to fit out six ships, in any of -the ports of England, and “theym convey and lede to the Londe [land] and -Isles of late founde” by him. The request was granted, and the king, -on the third day of February, 1498, in the thirteenth year of his -reign,[244] licensed him to take six ships as he desired, and “all suche -maisters,[245] maryners, pages, and subjects” as would willingly “goo and -pass with hym in the same shippes to the seid Londe or Iles.”[246] - -Having obtained his letters-patent, Giovanni Caboto, in a short time, -had five ships manned and provisioned for one year. Early in the summer -of 1498 he set sail to return to the field of his first explorations. -Pedro de Ayala,[247] in a letter dated London, July 25, 1498, addressed -to their Spanish majesties, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, writes -as follows concerning Caboto’s second voyage: “I think your highnesses -have already heard that the king of England has equipped a fleet in -order to discover certain islands and firm land (_tierra firme_), which -they have told were discovered by certain persons of Bristol, who fitted -out some ships during the past year for the same purpose. I have seen -the map which the discoverer has made, who is another Genoese like -Colon, and who has been in Seville and in Lisbon soliciting aid for -this undertaking. The people of Bristol have, for the last seven years, -sent every year two, three, or four caravels to search for the island -of Brazil [Red-wood], and the Seven Cities, according to the fancy of -this Genoese. The king determined to send the fleet, because in the past -year they brought certain news of having found land. The fleet consists -of five ships that carried provision for one year. The news has come -that the vessel in which Friar Buil[248] went has returned to Ireland -in great distress, the ship being leaky. The Genoese has continued his -voyage. I have seen the course he steered and the extent of it, and I -think that what they have found or what they are in search of, is what -your highnesses already possess, for it is the cape which was given to -your highnesses by the convention with Portugal. It is expected that they -will return toward September. I write this because the king of England -has spoken to me on the subject, and he thinks that your highnesses will -be greatly interested in it. I think the land is not farther distant than -four hundred leagues. I told him that in my opinion the land was already -in the possession of your highnesses, and though I gave my reasons he did -not like them. I believe that your highnesses are already informed of -this matter, and I do not now send the chart or map of the world which -that man has made, for in my opinion it is false, since it makes it -appear as if the land in question were not the said islands.”[249] - -The history of Giovanni Caboto terminates with the information contained -in Pedro de Ayala’s letter. Nothing definite is known respecting his -death. - -From the ambiguous and contradictory information furnished by -contemporaneous writers concerning the voyages of Sebastiano Caboto, -it appears that he sailed to the New Land, either in the years 1497 -and 1498, with his father—or in 1499, in command of a fleet of vessels -fitted out in the port of Bristol, England. For it is said that, in the -fourteenth year of King Henry’s reign,[250] Sebastiano Caboto set sail -on a voyage to an island where he knew he could obtain many things of -value: “This year one Sebastian Gabato a genoas sonne borne in _Bristow_ -professing himselfe to be experte in knowledge of the circute of the -worlde and Ilandes of the same as by his Charts and other reasonable -demonstrations he shewed, caused the king to man and victual a shippe at -_Bristow_ to search for an Ilande whiche he knewe to be replenished with -rich commodities: in the ship diverse merchauntes of _London_ adventured -smal stockes, and in the company of this shippe, sayled out of _Bristow_ -three or foure smal shippes fraught with slight and grosse wares as -course cloth, caps, laces, points.”[251] - -Peter Martyr, speaking of the voyage, says: “He fitted out two ships in -England at his own expense, and with three hundred men steered toward -the north, until, in July, he found vast icebergs floating in the sea -and almost perpetual daylight, though on the land the snow and ice had -melted. Therefore he was compelled to turn the sails, as he says, and to -go toward the west, and yet he held to the south, the shore bending, that -he almost reached the degree of the latitude of the strait of Hercules, -and proceeded so far to the west that he may have had the island of Cuba -on his left hand, being almost to its degree of longitude.[252] Steering -along this coast, which he called Bacallaos, he found, as he says, the -currents of the sea running toward the west, but gently, as those found -by the Spaniards navigating in the southern waters. It is not only likely -to be true, but it may be accepted as a fact, that between these regions -[Bacallaos and the West Indies] there is a great space still unexplored -that offers a way [to the East], where the water flows from east to -west. These currents, I think, are made to flow round the earth by the -impulsion of the heavens, and are not thrown up and swallowed again by -Demorgorgon breathing.[253] Perhaps, they may be caused, as it is said, -by influx and reflux. - -“Cabotto himself called these regions Baccallaos (_Baccallaos Cabottus -ipse terras illas appellavit_), because in the sea there he found great -shoals of certain large fish resembling tunnies, which name was given -them by the natives.[254] These fish were so numerous that sometimes -they retarded the progress of his ships. He found the people of these -regions covered only with skins, but the natives were not wholly -destitute of reason. He also relates that in these regions there is a -great number of bears which eat fish. They plunge into the water where -they see a shoal of fish and fasten their claws between the scales of -the fish, and in this way convey them to the shore, where they devour -them. The hunger of the bears being appeased, they do not annoy men. He -declares further that in many places he saw copper (_orichalcum_) among -the natives.”[255] - -Gomara, the Spanish historian, says: “But he who made this land more -widely known was Sebastian Gaboto, a Venetian.[256] He equipped two ships -in England (he having been taken there when he was little), (_do tratava -desde pequeño_,) at the cost of King Henry VII., who desired the trade in -spices the same as the king of Portugal. Others say at his own expense, -and that he promised King Henry to go by the north to Cathay, and to -bring spices there in less time than the Portuguese from the south. He -also went to see if there was any land in the Indies on which a colony -might be settled. He took three hundred men and steered a course by the -way of Iceland, above the cape of Labrador, going as far as fifty-eight -degrees, though he says much farther, stating that in the month of July -it was so extremely cold and that there were so many icebergs floating -in the sea, that he did not dare to go farther.... So Caboto, having -inspected the cold and strange country, changed his course to the west, -and returning again to the Baccalaos (_los Baccalaos_), he followed the -coast as far as thirty-eight degrees, and then returned to England.”[257] - -Galvano, the Portuguese historian, says that when Sebastiano Caboto -returned from the north, he diminished “the altitude till he came -to thirty-eight degrees, and from there returned to England. Others -will have it that he went as far as the point of Florida, which is in -twenty-five degrees.”[258] - -In the discourse of Sir Humphrey Gilbert respecting “a new passage to -Cataia,” it is said: “Furthermore, Sebastian Cabota by his personall -experience, and trauell, hath set foorth, and described this passage, -in his Charts, whiche are yet to be seene in the Queenes Maiesties -priuie Gallerie, at Whitehall, who was sent to make this discoverie by -King Henrie the seauenth, and entered the same fret: affirming, that he -sailed very far westward, with a quater of the North, on the north side -of Terra de Labrador[259] the eleuenth of June, vntil he came to the -septentrional latitude of 67½ degrees and finding the seas still open -said that he might, and would have gone to Cataia, if the mutinie of the -Maister and Mariners had not ben.”[260] - -It is further related that in the eighteenth year of the reign of King -Henry VII.,[261] three Indians were brought to England from the islands -discovered by Sebastiano Caboto: “Thys yeare, were brought vnto the Kyng -three men taken in the new founde Ilands, by Sebastian Gabato, before -named in Anno 1468, these men were clothed in Beastes skinnes, and eate -raw Flesh, but spake such a language as no man could vnderstand them, -of the which three men, two of them were seene in the Kings Court at -Westminster two yeares after, clothed, like Englishmen, and could not bee -discerned from Englishmen.”[262] - -The field of the discoveries of Giovanni Caboto, represented on the map -made by Juan de la Cosa, in 1500, and on the one of 1544, in the National -library, in Paris, was apparently the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton -Island[263] and of Nova Scotia. The part of the peninsula designated -Prima Vista, (First Seen,) on the map of 1544, appears to be the same as -that which on La Cosa’s chart is denominated Cavo de Inglaterra (Cape of -England). The coast, from Cape Breton southwestward to the Bay of Fundy, -the sea discovered for the English (_mar descubierta por inglese_),[264] -is delineated by La Cosa with approximate accuracy. - -The information given by Peter Martyr, Gomara, and Galvano respecting -the voyage of Sebastiano Caboto, makes the fact evident that the latter -sailed northwestwardly along the coast of Labrador almost to the sixtieth -parallel, where he was so far to the west “that he had the island of -Cuba on his left hand” and had nearly reached the longitude of the -island. On his return, after running along the coast of Baccallaos, he -sailed southward, but too far east of the mainland to see its coast, -and reached the latitude of the thirty-eighth parallel; whence he -steered for England. If Sebastiano Caboto had explored any part of the -present coast of the United States he certainly would have imparted some -information respecting its physical features, its inhabitants, its flora -and fauna, to the inquisitive chroniclers of his age. The descriptions -of the regions explored by him only apply to the more northern parts of -the continent, represented on the map of 1544, to which territory was -given the name La Tierra de los Bacallaos (Land of Codfish).[265] On the -planisphere of 1544, the following statement is inscribed concerning the -country discovered by Sebastiano Caboto. “The people wear clothes made -of the skins of animals, use bows and arrows, lances, darts, knob-headed -clubs, and slings in their wars. The country is very sterile. In it are -many white bears, and deer as large as horses, and many other animals of -the same class; also immense numbers of fish such as soles, salmon, very -large lings, a yard in length, and many other kinds of fish, but the most -numerous are those called bacallaos. In this country there are falcons -as black as ravens, eagles, partridges, linnets, and many other birds of -different kinds.”[266] - -“This much concerning Sebastiano Gabotes discouerie may suffice for -a present cast,” says Hakluyt, “but shortly, God willing, shall come -out in print all his owne mappes and discourses, drawne and written by -himselfe, which are in the custodie of the worshipfull master Williā -Worthington, one of her Maiesties Pensioners who (because so worthie -monumentes shoulde not be buried in perpetuall obliuion) is very willing -to suffer them to be ouerseene and published in as good order as may bee, -to the encouragement and benefite of our Countriemen.”[267] The English -collector also remarks that “the map of Sebastiano Caboto cut by Clement -Adams, concerning the discovery of the the West Indies, ... [is] to be -seene in her Maiesties priuie gallerie at Westminster, and in many other -anchient merchants houses.”[268] - -Although three hundred years have passed since Hakluyt promised the early -publication of Sebastiano Caboto’s maps and discourses, they are still -covered with the pall of oblivion.[269] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -1497-1521. - - -While the Spanish and the English expeditions had failed to find the -attractive shores of Cathay by sailing westwardly across the Atlantic, -the Portuguese were more fortunate in their long-continued attempts to -reach the dominions of the Grand Khan by sailing eastwardly. Restricted -by the papal decree to the prosecution of her voyages of discovery on -the east side of the line of demarkation, Portugal zealously persisted -in seeking along the coast of Africa a way to the Orient. Vasco da Gama, -an intrepid navigator, was placed in command of an expedition, and -sailed from Lisbon, in March, 1497, in the path marked out by Bartolomeu -Dias, in 1487. When Da Gama came to the Cape of Good Hope, or the Stormy -Cape (Cabo Tormentoso), he realized that the windy headland was rightly -named. The hazardous attempts which he repeatedly made to pass the stormy -promontory so impressed his sailors with his extreme venturesomeness that -they endeavored to persuade him to turn back. It is said that this made -Da Gama comport “himself very angrily, swearing that if they did not -double the cape, he would stand out to sea again as many times until the -cape was doubled, or there should happen whatever should please God.” -Having achieved his bold purpose, on the twenty-second of November, 1497, -Da Gama made himself famous in reaching the remote coast of India, on -the seventeenth of May, 1498, and entered the harbor of Calicut,[270] -three days afterward. Returning on the homeward voyage, he arrived at -Lisbon, about the beginning of September, 1499. - -To perfect and enjoy the privileges of her inaugurated commerce with -India, Portugal immediately fitted out a fleet of merchantmen to carry -her commodities to the distant country over the sea-path explored -by her daring navigators. Pedro Alvarez Cabral was given command of -thirteen ships, with which he sailed on the ninth of March, 1500, with -instructions to hold his course out at sea at some distance from the -coast of Africa, in order to avoid the troublesome currents and delaying -winds which had previously deterred mariners from encountering the perils -of the unexplored route near the main-land. Cabral proceeded southward, -but near the Cape Verd Islands lost sight of one of his ships, and while -seeking her he lost his course. Fortunately, on Wednesday afternoon, -on the twenty-second of April, he descried the summit of a round and -high mountain on the eastern coast of Brazil, which he called Monte -Pascoal.[271] Perceiving the next morning that he had anchored opposite -the mouth of a river, he sent Nicolao Coelho to examine it. From this -anchorage he sailed in search of a safe harbor, and on Saturday, the -twenty-fifth of April, found the roadstead which he called Porto Seguro, -which was in seventeen degrees of south latitude, according to the -observation made there. On the first of May a large wooden cross was -erected to which was affixed the declaration of Cabral’s discovery of -the country for the king of Portugal. Cabral, having dispatched Gaspar -de Lemos with a small vessel to Lisbon with the report of his discovery, -set sail, on the third of May, for India. Cabral called the discovered -country Terra de Vera Cruz (Land of the True Cross), which name was -shortly afterward changed to Terra de Santa Cruz (Land of the Holy -Cross), and subsequently Brazil was substituted for it.[272] - -In the year 1500 the Portuguese sailed in a different direction to seek -a short route to Cathay. The Portuguese historian, Galvano refers to -the expedition, saying: “In this same year 1500 it is said that Gaspar -Cortereal[273] begged permission of King Emmanuel to discover the New -Land (Terra Nova). He departed from the island Terceira with two ships -equipped at his own expense, and he sailed to that region which is in the -north in fifty degrees of latitude, which is a land now called after his -name. He returned home in safety to the city of Lisbon. Sailing a second -time on this voyage the ship was lost in which he went, and the other -vessel came back to Portugal. His brother Miguel went to seek him with -three ships at his own cost, and when they came to that coast, and found -so many entrances of rivers and havens, each ship entered a different -river, with this regulation and command, that they all three should meet -again on the twentieth of August. The other two ships did as commanded, -and they, seeing that Miguel Cortereal came not on the appointed day -nor afterward in a certain time, returned to this realm and never heard -any thing more concerning him.... But that country is called Terra dos -Cortereals unto this day.”[274] - -Damião de Góes, the Portuguese historian, says Cortereal called this -region Terra Verde (Greenland), on account of its remarkable verdure, and -the vast forests stretching all along the coast.[275] - -Ramusio, speaking of the exploration of the coast of North America says: -“In the part of the New World, which runs toward the north and northwest, -opposite our habitable part of Europe, many captains have navigated, and -the first (by that which one knows), was Gaspar Cortereale, a Portuguese, -who, in 1500, went with two caravels intending to find some strait of the -sea whence by a shorter voyage than that taken around Africa he would be -able to go to the Spice Islands. He sailed so far forward that he came -to a place where it was extremely cold, and he found, in the latitude -of sixty degrees, a river closed with snow, to which he gave the name, -calling it Rio Nevado. But he had not sufficient courage to pass much -beyond it. The whole of this coast, which runs two hundred leagues from -Rio Nevado as far as to the port of Malvas, in fifty-six degrees, he saw -full of people and along it many dwellings.”[276] - -The earliest account of Gaspar Cortereal’s voyage of 1501, from which he -never returned, is contained in a letter written by Pietro Pasqualigo, -the Venetian ambassador at the court of Portugal, to his brothers in -Italy, dated October 19, 1501. The writer says: “On the eighth of the -present month, one of the two caravels which his most serene majesty sent -the past year under the command of Gaspar Corterat, arrived here, and -reports the finding of a country distant west and northwest, two thousand -miles, heretofore quite unknown. - -“They ran along the coast between six hundred and seven hundred miles -without arriving at its termination, on which account they concluded -it to be the same continent that is connected with another land which -was discovered last year in the north, but which the caravel could not -reach on account of the ice and the vast quantity of snow, and they are -confirmed in this belief by the multitude of great rivers they found, -which certainly could not proceed from an island. They report that this -land is thickly peopled, and that the houses are built of very long -beams of timber, and covered with the skins of fishes. They have brought -hither along with them seven of the inhabitants, including men, women, -and children; and in the other caravel, which is looked for every hour, -they are bringing fifty more. These people, in color, figure, stature, -and expression, greatly resemble gypsies. They are clothed with the skins -of different beasts, but chiefly of the otter, wearing the hair outside -in summer, and next to the skin in winter. These skins, too, are not -sewed together, nor shaped to the body in any fashion, but wrapped around -the arms and shoulders as they were taken from the animals.... On this -account their appearance is wholly barbarous; yet they are very sensible -to shame, gentle in their manners, and better made in their arms, -legs, and shoulders than can be expressed. Their faces are punctured in -the same manner as the Indians; some have six marks, some eight, some -fewer. They use a language of their own, but it is understood by no one. -Moreover, I believe that every possible language has been addressed to -them. They have no iron in their country, but manufacture knives out of -certain kinds of stones, with which they point their arrows. - -“They have also brought from this island a piece of a broken sword inlaid -with gold, which we can pronounce undoubtedly to have been made in -Italy; and one of the children had in his ears two pieces (_todini_) of -silver, which likewise appear to have been made in Venice, a circumstance -inducing me to believe that their country belongs to the continent, since -it is evident that if it were an island where any vessel had touched -before this time we should have heard of it.[277] - -“They have plenty of salmon, herring, cod, and other fish of the same -kind. They have an abundance of timber, principally pine, fitted for -masts and yards of ships, on which account his serene majesty anticipates -the greatest profit from this country, both in providing timber for -ships, of which he, at present, stands in great need, and from the men -that inhabit it, who appear admirably fitted to endure labor, and will -probably be the best slaves which have been found up to this time. - -“This arrival appeared to me to be an event of which it was right -to inform you; and if on the arrival of the other caravel I receive -any additional information, it shall be transmitted to you in like -manner.”[278] - -Gaspar Cortereal, who was expected to return to Lisbon in the second -caravel, never reached Portugal. Miguel, his brother, sailed from Lisbon -in May 1502, with three ships, to search for Gaspar and the missing -vessel, but he was never heard of again, and it was conjectured that both -of the brothers had been slain by the savages from whom they had taken so -many of their relatives to serve as slaves in Portugal. - -No little enthusiasm was created at the court of Portugal by Cabral’s -report of the discovery of the Land of the True Cross. King Emmanuel at -once ordered three vessels to be equipped to sail to the new country. -Having heard of the voyages made by Amerigo Vespucci to the Land of -Pearls (Terra delle Perle), he wrote to Vespucci in Seville, and -solicited him to enter his service. The illness of the explorer did not -then permit him to accept the tempting offer of the king of Portugal. -However, when he was afterward visited by the king’s ambassador, Giuliano -di Bartolomeo del Giocondo, Vespucci consented to go to Lisbon and to be -commissioned by King Emmanuel to accompany the fleet that was prepared -to sail to Terra de Vera Cruz. His departure from Spain, he says, was a -matter of regret to all who knew him, because there he was honored, and -there the king had a right to claim his services.[279] Narrating the -incidents of his third voyage to the New World, Vespucci writes: - -“We departed from the port of Lisbon, three ships in company, on the -tenth of May, 1501, and took our course directly for the Grand Canary -Islands.... From there we sailed to the coast of Ethiopia, and arrived at -the port called Beseneghe, in the torrid zone.... We left this port of -Ethiopia and steered to the southwest.... In sixty-seven days we reached -land lying seven hundred leagues southwest of that port.... The season -was very unfavorable for the voyage, particularly when we approached the -equator, where, in the month of June, it is winter.... It pleased God, -however, to show us a new country on the seventeenth of August. Then we -anchored at the distance of a half league from the coast. We got out our -boats and went on land to see if the country were inhabited, and if it -were, by what class of people. We found that it was inhabited by a people -of a lower condition than that of beasts.... We took possession of it in -the name of his majesty. It lies five degrees south of the equator.... -We sailed in a southeasterly direction, on a line parallel with the -coast, making many landings, but never discovering any natives who could -converse with us. Running on this course, we found the land made a turn -to the southwest. As soon as we doubled the cape, which we named the Cape -of St. Augustine, we began to sail to the southwest.... This cape is -eight degrees south of the equator.”[280] - -While the explorers were sailing along the east coast of Brazil, they -arrived at a place where they anchored five days. “Here,” says Vespucci, -“we found carmine stems very large and green, and some already dry on the -tops of the trees. We left this port, always sailing to the southwest in -sight of the land, making many anchorages and treating with innumerable -people. We went so far toward the south that we were beyond the tropic -of Capricorn where the south pole is elevated thirty-two degrees above -the horizon. We had entirely lost sight of the Little Bear, and the Great -Bear was very low, almost on the verge of the horizon.[281] We steered -by the stars of the south pole, which are many, and much larger and -brighter than those of our pole. I traced the figures of the greater part -of them, particularly those of the first and greater magnitude, giving -an explanation of the circuits which they made around the pole, together -with a description of their diameters and semi-diameters, as may be seen -in my four journeys. We ran about seven hundred and fifty leagues along -this coast.... We saw a great number of redwood (verzino) and cassia -trees, and of those which produce myrrh.... We found ourselves in such -a high southern latitude, that the south pole was elevated above the -horizon fifty-two degrees.... The cold [on the seventh of April, 1502] -was so severe that no one in the fleet could endure it.... We agreed -that the superior captain[282] should make signals for the fleet to turn -about, and that we should depart from this land and steer our course in -the direction of Portugal.” - -After touching at the port of Sierra Leone, and at the Azores, the -explorers reached the port of Lisbon on the seventh day of September, -1502.[283] - -Vespucci was again sent by the king of Portugal, in 1503, with a fleet -of six ships commanded by Gonçalo Coelho, to discover an island “toward -the east called Melaccha, which we know lies in the sea,” says Vespucci, -“thirty-three degrees from the south pole.” Departing from the port of -Lisbon on the tenth of May, the vessels stood for the Cape Verd Islands. -After going to Sierra Leone on the coast of Africa, the fleet sailed -toward the southwest. On this course one of the vessels struck on a rock, -and was abandoned by the crew. On the east coast of Brazil, the fleet -entered the harbor which the Portuguese called the Bay of All Saints -(Bahia de todos os Santos). At a harbor two hundred and sixty leagues -farther south, or in eighteen degrees south latitude, a fortress was -erected, and garrisoned with twenty-four men. The fleet then sailed for -Portugal, and entered the port of Lisbon on the eighteenth of June, -1504.[284] - -The opinion of Columbus that a strait could be found to the south or -southwest of Cuba through which ships might sail to Cathay, induced -Vicente Yañez Pinzon and Juan Diaz de Solis in 1506 to search along the -coast bordering the Bay of Honduras for a navigable passage to the Indian -Ocean.[285] They held the same course as the admiral, says Herrera, “and -sailing as far as the islands Guanajos steered westward as far as Golfo -Dulce, but did not see it, for it lies hid. However, they observed the -inlet the sea makes between the land that forms the bay and the coast of -Iucatan.... From where they descried the Sierras of Caria, they steered -northward and discovered a great part of the main-land of Iucatan.”[286] - -The unique and peculiarly shaped map made by the German cartographer, -Johann Ruysch, contained in the edition of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography, -printed at Rome, in 1508,[287] is the earliest engraved chart on which -appear the fields of discovery, in the western hemisphere, entered by -Columbus, Cabot, Cortereal, Cabral, Vespucci, and other early explorers -of the coast of the new continent. - -Geographically ignorant of the longitude of the discovered part of -North America, then called the New Land (Terra Nova), Ruysch represents -it as if it were a part of the eastern coast of Asia, between the -two hundred and eightieth and the three hundredth meridians. Better -informed respecting its latitude, he delineates it as extending from -the forty-fifth to the fifty-fifth parallel of north latitude.[288] -Immediately north of the New Land is the Greenland Sea (Sinus -Grvenlantevs), and beyond it, Greenland (Grvenlant), discovered by the -Northmen. South of the New Land, between the fortieth and twenty-fifth -parallels is the unnamed and falsely represented island of Cuba, on the -west side of which is a scroll bearing the information: “As far as this -the ships of Ferdinand, king of Spain, have come.” South of this island -and that of Española (Spagnola) is the discovered part of South America, -then denominated the Land of the Holy Cross or the New World (Terra -Sancti Crucis sive Mundus Novus). The inscription on the represented -territory embraces the following information: “At different places this -region is inhabited, and it is supposed by many to be another world. -Women and men appear either entirely naked or clad with interwoven leaves -and the feathers of birds of various colors. They live together in -common without any religion or king. They are continually at war among -themselves. They eat the human flesh of captives. They exercise so much -in the salubrious air that they live more than one hundred and fifty -years. They are rarely sick, and then they cure themselves solely with -the roots of plants. Here lions are born, and serpents and other terrible -monsters found in the forests. Very large quantities of pearls and gold -are in the mountains and rivers. From here Brasil-wood, or verzini, and -cassia are carried away by the Portuguese.” Below this inscription is -another which contains the following statement: “Portuguese navigators -have inspected this part of this land, and have sailed as far as the -fiftieth degree of south latitude without seeing the southern limit of -it.” - -On the scroll on the western part of the delineated territory of -South America this information is inscribed: “As far as this Spanish -navigators have come, and they have called this land, on account of its -greatness, the New World. Inasmuch as they have not wholly explored it -nor surveyed it farther than the present termination, it must remain thus -imperfectly delineated until it is known in what direction it extends.” - -On the upper part of the right margin of the map the following fiction -respecting the configuration of the earth at the north pole is inscribed. -“It is said in the book concerning the fortunate discovery[289] that at -the arctic pole there is a high magnetic rock, thirty-three German miles -in circumference. A surging sea surrounds this rock, as if the water -were discharged downward from a vase through an opening. Around it are -islands, two of which are inhabited.” - -North of Greenland is another inscription containing a popular fiction -of the dangers besetting ships in the Arctic Ocean: “Here a surging -sea begins; here the compasses of a ship do not hold, nor are ships -which have iron about them able to turn about.” Among the perils of the -Greenland Sea were the deceptions practised by the savages inhabiting the -islands in it: “It is said that those who came formerly in ships among -these islands for fish and other food were so deceived by the demons that -they could not go on land without danger.” - -The four voyages of Amerigo Vespucci had acquainted him with so many -unknown peoples and places in the New World that he was induced by his -own inclinations and the suggestions of his friends to write an account -of the explorations of the different expeditions with which he had been -sent by the sovereigns of Spain and Portugal. In his letter, dated in -Lisbon, the fourth of September, 1504,[290] he speaks of the intended -publication of his voyages in a volume in the style of a geography (_un -uolume in stilo geografia_), and calls the composition (_zibaldone_), “Le -Quattro Giornate” (The Four Journeys). - -The earliest known work containing an account of Vespucci’s four voyages -is entitled “Cosmographiae introductio” (Introduction to geography), -printed in St. Dié, in Lorraine, on the twenty-sixth of April, 1507.[291] -This rare Latin book was the work of a German scholar named Martin -Waldseemüller, a professor of geography in the gymnasium in St. Dié,[292] -who having translated his surname into Hylacomylus[293] affixed this -Greek pseudonym to his writings. On the reverse page of the fifteenth -leaf of Hylacomylus’s Introduction to geography is the notable suggestion -that the land in the western hemisphere visited by Amerigo Vespucci -should be called Amerige or America. The enthusiastic geographer, having -described Europe, Asia, and Africa, remarks: - -“And as now these parts have been more widely surveyed, and another -fourth part has been found by Americus Vesputius (as will be perceived -by what follows), I can not see why any one can justly forbid the calling -of this part Amerige or America, that is, the land of Americus, from -Americus, the discoverer, an intelligent man, as Europe and Asia have -taken their names from women.”[294] - -The name America in a short time became a popular designation for the -continent in the western hemisphere.[295] - -Although Vespucci repeatedly mentions in his letter that he held -subordinate positions under the superior captains commanding the -different fleets with which he had sailed to the New World, twenty-one -years after his death he was unjustly accused by Johannes Schoner, in -a little geographical work, as having contrived to have the continent -called by his name.[296] Schoner’s imputation was evidently caused by -a spirit of ill-will, for he attempted, it would seem, to lessen the -importance of the discoveries made by Spain and Portugal, by placing on a -globe, made by him in 1520, this inscription designating South America: -“America vel Brasilia sive papagalli terra” (America or Brasil or the -land of parrots).[297] Later still a number of writers in turn undertook -to defame Vespucci by asserting that he did not make the voyage of 1497, -and to support their arguments quoted the erroneous statements of the -different versions of his letter. The assumptions of these writers, -however, are not corroborated by the Italian text of Vespucci’s letter, -in part presented on the preceding pages, nor are they verified by later -researches in the archives of Spain and Portugal.[298] - -[Illustration: Map of the New World in the Latin work, “Legatio -Babylonica, Oceani Decas,” by Pietro Martire d’Anghiera, printed in -Seville in 1511. (Size of the original, 7½ × 11 inches.)] - -When the Spaniards were exploring the West India archipelago a report -became current that on one of the more northward islands there was a -fountain, the water of which possessed extraordinary virtues. Peter -Martyr heard the rumor, and wrote, in 1511, to the bishop of Rome, -saying: “There is an island about three hundred and twenty-five leagues -from Española, as they say who have searched for it, named Boiuca or -Agnaneo, on which is a never-failing spring of running water of such -marvelous efficacy that when the water is drunk, perhaps, with some -attention to diet, it makes old people young again. And here I must beg -your holiness not to think that this is said jestingly or thoughtlessly, -for they have reported it everywhere as a fact, so that not only all the -common people but also the educated and the wealthy believe it to be -true.”[299] - -The island of Boiuca appears to be partly outlined on the small map in -Peter Martyr’s “Legatio Babylonica,” printed at Seville in 1511. It is -designated on the latter as a part of the island of Beimeni,—“Isla de -beimeni parte.”[300] - -Among those who gave credence to the fiction of the marvellous virtues -of the spring of Boiuca was Juan Ponce de Leon, a Spanish cavalier, -who had attained considerable military fame in the West Indies.[301] -He had sailed from Spain in 1493 to Española in one of the ships of -Columbus’s second expedition. In 1509 he took part in the subjugation of -the Island of Borriquen, afterward called Porto Rico, of which he was -made governor. Beguiling himself with the hope that he could renew the -vigor of his youth by bathing in the stream of life-giving water, and at -the same time add honor to his name by becoming the discoverer of the -island on which the fountain was said to be, Juan Ponce fitted out three -vessels and sailed from the port of St. German, Porto Rico, on Thursday, -the third of March, 1512, to search for the island Boiuca, which some -called Bimini. “It is certain,” says Herrera, the Spanish historian, -“that Juan Ponce de Leon besides intending to make new discoveries, -as all the Spaniards at that time aspired to do, was also intent on -finding the fountain of Bimini and a river in Florida; the Indians of -Cuba and Española affirming that old people bathing themselves in them -became young again, and it was a fact that many Indians of Cuba, firmly -believing that there was such a stream, had found that island not long -before the Spaniards, and had passed over to Florida in search of the -river, and there built a town, where their descendants reside to this -day. This report so affected all the princes and caciques in those parts -that it was a hobby to find a river which wrought such a wonderful change -as made old people young, so that there was not a river or a brook, -scarcely a lake or a puddle, in all Florida, in which they did not bathe -themselves.”[302] - -The explorations and discoveries of Juan Ponce are thus described by -Herrera: “On Sunday, the twenty-seventh of March, the day of the Feast -of the Resurrection, commonly called the Feast of Flowers, (_que era Dia -de Pascua de Resurreccion, que comunmente dicen de Flores_,) they saw an -island and passed by it. On Monday, the twenty-eighth, they steered in -the same direction, fifteen leagues, until Wednesday, when the weather -became foul. They then stood west-northwest until the second of April. -The water grew shallower until they came into nine fathoms, a league -from the land, which was in thirty degrees and eight minutes. Thinking -this land was an island they called it La Florida, because it had a very -pretty landscape of many green groves, and it was level and regular, -and because they discovered it at the time of the Floral Feast (_Pascua -Florida_).[303] Juan Ponce wished the name to conform to these two facts. -He went on land to learn the language and to take possession. - -“On Friday, the eighth, they sailed again the same way, and on Saturday, -south by east, until the twentieth, when they saw some Indian huts from -the place where they had cast anchor. The next day the three ships sailed -along the coast and entered a current which was so swift that it drove -them back, although they had the wind strong.[304] The two ships, near -the land, dropped their anchors, but the force of the stream was so -great that it strained the cables. The third vessel, a brigantine, being -farther out, either found no bottom or was not sensible of the current, -which carried her so far from the shore that they lost sight of her, -although the day was bright and the weather fine. - -“Juan Ponce being called by the Indians went ashore and the latter at -once undertook to possess themselves of the boat, the oars, and the -arms. This was tolerated till one of the Indians stunning a sailor with -a stroke of a cudgel on the head, when the Spaniards were compelled to -fight. They had two of their men wounded with darts and arrows pointed -with sharp bones, and the Indians received little injury. Night parting -them, Juan Ponce, with considerable difficulty, got his men together -and sailed thence to a river, where they wooded and watered, and waited -for the brigantine. Sixty Indians came to attack them, one of whom was -taken to give information and to learn the Spanish language. The river -they called Rio de la Cruz, (River of the Cross), planting there a stone -cross, bearing an inscription.”[305] - -On the twenty-third of September, after having coasted in different -directions along the Flowery Land, Juan Ponce determined to return to -Porto Rico. Before he set sail, he sent Juan Perez de Ortubia to make a -further search for the rejuvenating fountains on the island of Bimini. -Not long after Juan Ponce’s return to Porto Rico, Ortubia arrived -there and reported that he had found the island, but not the wonderful -spring.[306] - -Juan Ponce de Leon went to Spain and obtained from the crown the -appointment of adelantado of Bimini and Florida. When he heard, while -living at Porto Rico, the reports of the success of Hernando Cortes in -Mexico, he fitted out, in 1521, two ships, and sailed to Florida to take -possession of it and to settle a colony on its attractive shores. But the -natives valiantly opposed the occupation of their country and drove the -ambitious invader, with the loss of many men, to his ships. Juan Ponce -was wounded in the thigh by an arrow. The vessels sailed to Cuba, where -the impoverished and disabled Spaniard not long after died.[307] - -The exploration of Central America was continued in 1511 by Vasco -Nuñez de Balboa, a native of Xeres de los Caballeros, Spain, who had -accompanied Rodrigo de Bastidas when he sailed on his voyage of discovery -to the New World, in October, 1500. In 1510 the Indian village on the -isthmus of Darien, west of the Gulf of Uraba, was made the seat of the -government of this part of the continent by the Spaniards, and called -Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa was appointed -alcade of the new colony. This ambitious and avaricious adventurer -penetrated the dense forest belting the northern coast of the isthmus, -and invaded the interior, where he found a wealthy cacique, named -Comogre. The Indian chief entertained Vasco Nuñez and his fourscore -followers with generous hospitality in his large and attractive palace, -a wooden building one hundred and fifty paces long and eighty wide. -He presented his indigent guest with four thousand ounces of golden -ornaments and sixty slaves. “This gold, with as much more obtained -at another place,” says Peter Martyr, “our men weighed on the porch -of Comogre’s palace, to separate the fifth part due to the king’s -exchequer, for it was a law that the fifth part of the gold, pearls, -and precious stones should be given to the royal treasurer, and the -remainder be divided among the discoverers. While our men were wrangling -and contending about the division of the gold, the eldest son of Comogre, -the cacique, who was present and whom we commended for wisdom, approached -with some appearance of anger him who was weighing the treasure, and -struck the balances with his fist, scattering the gold all over the -porch.” Pointing southward toward the mountains, he told them that beyond -those _sierras_ was a great sea, on which people sailed with ships as -large as theirs, and that the adjacent country contained great quantities -of gold. - -Balboa heard this surprising announcement with delight, and, ambitious to -be honored as the discoverer of the unnamed sea and the country abounding -with rich mines, began to plan to go there and achieve the notoriety -that would make his name forever famous. On the first of September, -1513, Vasco Nuñez, with one hundred and ninety men and a number of -Indian guides, embarked at Santa Maria de la Antigua and set sail in a -brigantine for the Indian village of Coyba. Here he began his toilsome -and dangerous march across the isthmus. After enduring untold hardships -the pertinacious Spaniard and his small body of wayworn followers arrived -at the foot of the Sierra de Quarequa, intercepting the view of the -unseen ocean.[308] While climbing the rugged slope of the intervening -mountain, on the twenty-fifth of September, Balboa commanded his men -to halt and to remain where they were until he had reached the summit -and surveyed the wide expanse of the great ocean billowing between the -isthmus and the remote shores of India. When the enthusiastic Spaniard -ascended to the top of the mountain and beheld the Mar del Sur (Sea of -the South), he fell upon his knees and thanked God for honoring him as -its discoverer, “as he was a man of moderate ability, little knowledge, -and humble birth.” Calling to his men to come to him, he ordered them, -after surveying the discovered sea, to construct a wooden cross, and to -plant it where he had kneeled and rendered thanks for the honor conferred -on him. A mound of stones was built near the cross as a monument to -commemorate the discovery of the ocean and the adjacent country for -his majesty, the king of Spain. Descending the southern slope of the -mountain, Balboa and his followers made their way to the shore of the -bay, which he called San Miguel, where the proud discoverer, with a -banner embellished with the picture of the Holy Virgin and Child and -the insignia of Spain, marched into the sea, and took possession of it -in the name of his sovereign, King Ferdinand. Having explored a part of -the southern coast of the isthmus, Vasco Nuñez and his men reëntered the -wilderness and arrived at Santa Maria de la Antigua on the nineteenth of -January, 1514. - -In the following year Gaspar Morales and Francisco Pizarro crossed the -isthmus with sixty men, and visited the island which Balboa had called -Isla Rica. In 1516, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, ambitious of obtaining -greater fame, and having two hundred men and considerable money at his -command, transported the timber, rigging, and other appendages of two -brigantines across the isthmus, and after putting the vessels in sailing -condition, launched them upon the recently discovered ocean. After a -short cruise among the islands near Isla Rica, Balboa returned to the -Spanish settlement at Acla, on the north coast, where he was arrested on -some false charges and put in irons by Pedrarias Davila, “as a traitor -and an usurper of the territories of the crown of Spain.” The enmity of -Pedrarias was so bitter toward the innocent officer that the Spanish -governor of Darien ordered Balboa to be executed. In 1517, at the age of -forty-one years, in the _plaza_ of Acla, the discoverer of the South Sea -was publicly beheaded.[309] - -To further explore the coast of Brazil, it is said that Juan Diaz de -Solis sailed from Lepe, Spain, on the eighth of October, 1515. Descrying -the continent at Cape San Roque, in five degrees south latitude, he -steered southward along the coast to Rio de Janeiro, (River of January,) -in twenty-three degrees south latitude. Thence he coasted farther -southward and entered a large bay of fresh water, which he called Mar -Dulce, that was afterward called Rio de la Plata. While exploring this -stream, De Solis, with some of his crew, went on land, and while ashore -was attacked by the natives, and falling into their hands he and his men -were roasted and devoured. The vessel returned to Cape St. Augustine, -and having loaded with Brazil-wood, sailed to Spain.[310] - -The greed of gold, silver, and pearls,—the master passion governing -Spanish capitalists and the horde of moneyless adventurers at this time -in the New World,—was the cause of the fitting out of three vessels, in -1517, to go in search of new countries west of the island of Cuba. This -fleet, under the command of Francisco Hernando de Cordoba, set sail, -with one hundred and ten soldiers, about the beginning of February, from -San Cristobal, on the north side of the island, and after a voyage of -twenty-one days came in sight of the northeastern part of the peninsula -of Yucatan, where an Indian town was seen, to which the Spaniards gave -the name El Gran Cairo. Near this place three temples, built of stone -and lime, were found, in which were many clay idols “some of them having -terrible shapes, seemingly representing Indians committing horrible -offences. In these temples,” says Bernal Diaz del Castillo,[311] who was -connected with the expedition, “we also found wooden boxes containing -other gods with hellish faces, several small shells, some ornaments, -three crowns, and a number of trinkets, some in the shape of fish, others -in the shape of ducks, all made of an inferior kind of gold. Seeing all -these things, the gold and the good architecture of the temples, we -felt overjoyed at the discovery of the country.” At a town, which the -Spaniards called San Lazaro, although they were aware that the Indians -called it Campeachy, they were invited to land by the inhabitants, “who -wore fine mantles made of cotton.” “They took us” Diaz remarks “to some -large edifices, which were strongly built of stone and lime and were in -many ways attractive. These were temples, the walls of which were covered -with figures representing snakes and all kinds of gods. About an altar we -saw several fresh spots of blood. On some of the idols there were figures -like crosses. There were some paintings representing groups of Indians. -All these greatly astonished us, for we had neither seen nor heard of -such things before.” - -While the explorers were taking in water, near a village called -Potonchan, now Champoton, on the western side of the peninsula, where -there were some wells, maize-plantations, and stone buildings, the -inhabitants visited them. “They all wore cotton cuirasses which reached -to their knees. They were armed with bows, lances, shields, and swords. -The latter,” Diaz further remarks, “were shaped like our broad swords, -and are wielded with both hands.” They also had slings for throwing -stones. They had bunches of feathers on their heads, and had their bodies -decorated with white, brown, and black colors. Speaking of an engagement -which the Spaniards had with the natives, Diaz says: “As soon as it was -daylight we saw more companies of armed natives moving toward the coast -with flags. They wore feather head-dresses, and were provided with drums, -bows, lances, and shields. They joined themselves to the others who had -arrived in the night. They divided themselves into corps, surrounded us -on all sides, and began to assail us with so many arrows, lances, and -stones, that more than eight of our men were wounded in the first onset. -They then rushed furiously forward and attacked us man to man; some -with their lances, others with their swords and arrows, and with such -terrible impetuosity that we were compelled to show them opposition. We -dealt them many a good thrust and blow, continuing at the same time an -incessant fire with our matchlocks and crossbows; for while some loaded -others fired. At last, by heavy blows and thrusts we forced them back, -but they did not retreat farther than was necessary to keep us strongly -surrounded.... Perceiving how closely we were hemmed in on all sides by -the enemy, who not only kept getting fresh troops but were plentifully -supplied in the field with meat, drink, and numbers of arrows, we soon -concluded that all our valiant fighting would not benefit us. All of -us were wounded. Many were shot through the neck, and more than fifty -of our men were killed. In this critical position we determined to cut -our way manfully through the enemy’s ranks and get to the boats, which -fortunately lay on the coast near us. We therefore resolutely closed our -ranks and broke through those of the enemy. You should then have heard -the whizzing of their arrows, the terrible yells of the Indians, and how -they incited one another to fight.... Many of our men were wounded while -climbing into the vessel, especially those who clung to its side, for the -Indians pursued us in their canoes, and persistently assailed us. With -the utmost exertion and the help of God we escaped from the hands of this -people.” - -“Our vessels,” Diaz further relates, “were taken to Santiago of Cuba, -where the governor [Diego Velasquez] resided. Here the two Indians were -brought on shore whom we had taken with us from Punta de Cotoche, as -already related, called Melchorejo and Juanillo. When, however, we -brought forth the box with the crowns, the golden ducks, the fish, the -idols, more noise was made about them than they really merited, so that -they became the common topics of conversation throughout the islands of -St. Domingo and Cuba; indeed, the report concerning them reached Spain. -There it was said that none of the discovered countries were as rich as -this one, and in none had there been found houses built of stone. The -earthen gods, it was said, were the heathen relics of ancient times; -others ventured to affirm that they [the people of Yucatan] were the -descendants of the Jews who had been shipwrecked off this coast, whom -Titus and Vespasian had driven from Jerusalem.... Diego Velasquez closely -questioned the two Indians whether there were any gold-mines in their -country. They answered in the affirmative; and when they were shown some -of the gold-dust found in the island of Cuba, they said there was an -abundance of it in their country. This was not true, for it is well known -that there are no gold-mines on the Punta de Cotoche, or anywhere in the -whole of Yucatan. They were likewise shown the beds in which the seeds -of that plant are sown from whose root the cassava-bread is made, which -in Cuba is called _yuca_. They assured us that the same plant grew in -their country, and was called by them _tale_. As the cassava-root in Cuba -is called _yuca_, and the ground in which it is planted by the Indians -_tale_, so from these two words originated the name of the country, -Yucatan; for the Spaniards, who were standing around the governor at the -time that he was speaking to the two Indians, said: ‘You see, sir, they -call their country Yucatan.’ And from this circumstance the country -retained the name of Yucatan, although the natives call it by a different -name.”[312] - -“It was in the year of our Lord 1518,” says Diaz, “after Diego Velasquez -had heard the good account we gave of the newly-discovered country called -Yucatan, that he determined to send another expedition to it. For this -purpose he selected four vessels, among which were the two in which we -soldiers had accompanied Cordoba on our late voyage to Yucatan, purchased -at our expense.... Our account that the houses in the newly-discovered -country were built of stone and lime had originated an extraordinary -conception of its riches, besides the Indian Melchorejo had indicated -by signs that it contained gold-mines. All these things created a great -desire among the inhabitants and soldiers on the island [Cuba] who -possessed no official authority over the Indians to go in search of -a rich country like this one; consequently, in a very short time, we -mustered two hundred and twenty men.” - -Commanded by Juan de Grijalva, the vessels sailed on the first of May, -1518, from the port of Santiago, Cuba. After touching at different -points, the fleet at last arrived off the coast of Champoton, on the -west side of Yucatan, where the Indians had attacked the Spaniards on -the last voyage and had driven them to their vessels. Here they had -another engagement with the natives, but the Spaniards were victorious -and put the enemy to flight. They then proceeded southward to the bay -called La Boca de Terminos, where Diaz relates “we found temples built of -stone and lime, full of idols made of wood or clay, with other figures, -some representing women, some serpents; also the horns of various kinds -of wild animals. We concluded that an Indian village was near it.... -We have, however, deceived ourselves, for the district was entirely -uninhabited.” - -At a promontory, beyond the bay, toward the west, about thirty Indians -visited the explorers, bringing with them broiled fish, fowl, fruit, and -maize-bread. “They also,” Diaz relates, “brought pans filled with red-hot -embers, on which they strewed incense, and perfumed us all. After this -ceremony was ended they spread some mats on the ground, over which they -laid a piece of cotton cloth. On this they put some trifling ornaments -of gold in the shape of ducks and lizards, with three necklaces made of -gold.... They next presented us with some mantles and waistcoats, such as -they wore, and begged of us to accept them, saying that they had no more -gold to give us, but that farther toward the setting of the sun there was -a country where it was found in great abundance, at the same time often -repeating the word Culba, and Mexico. We however did not understand what -they meant.” - -At a town called Aguajaluco they saw Indians hurrying to and fro -with large shields made of large tortoise-shells, which glittered so -brilliantly in the sun that some of the Spaniards thought that they were -of inferior gold. At an island, beyond one which they called Isla Blanca, -Diaz relates: “We found two houses which were strongly built of stone and -lime. Both were ascended by flights of steps, and had altars, on which -stood several abominable idols, to which, on the previous evening, five -Indians had been sacrificed. Their dead bodies still lay there, cut open, -with the arms and legs chopped off, while every thing near was besmeared -with blood. We contemplated this sight in utter astonishment, and gave -the island the name of Isla de los Sacrificios.” - -At another island farther to the west, Diaz says: “We found a temple -on which stood the great and abominable-looking god Tetzcatlipuca, -surrounded by four Indians, dressed in wide, black cloaks, their hair -hanging as our canons or Dominicans wear it. These were the priests, who -had that very day sacrificed two boys, whose bodies they had cut open -and then offered their bleeding hearts to this horrible idol. They were -about to perfume us in the same way they had done their gods; but though -the perfume smelled like our incense, we would not permit them so shocked -we were at the sight of the two boys whom they had recently killed, -and we were disgusted with their abominations. Our captain questioned -Francisco, the Indian whom we had brought with us from the Rio de -Banderas, concerning the purport of all these things, for he seemed to be -an intelligent person, we having, at that time, as I have already stated, -no interpreter. Our captain interrogated him by signs. Francisco answered -that this sacrifice had been ordered by the people of Culua; but, as it -was difficult for him to pronounce this word, he repeatedly said, Olua, -Olua. In honor of our commander, whose Christian name was Juan, and as -the day was the feast of St. John, we gave this small island the name of -San Juan de Ulua.” - -Sailing northward along the coast of Mexico, “we first came,” says Diaz, -“in sight of Tusta, and two days after, of the more elevated mountains -of Tuspa, both of which take their names from two towns close to these -mountains. Along this part of the coast we saw a number of towns lying -from six to nine miles inland. It is now the province of Panuco.” On -account of the approach of winter, the scarcity of provisions, and the -leaky condition of one of the vessels, the explorers determined to return -to Cuba; Pedro de Alvarador having previously set sail for the island. - -Speaking of their subsequent explorations in the vicinity of the mouth -of the Guacasualco River (now called Rio Coatzacoalcos, in Tehuantepec), -the Spanish writer says: “As soon as the inhabitants of Guacasualco and -the neighboring districts learned that we offered our goods for barter, -they brought us all their golden ornaments, and took in exchange green -glass beads, on which they set a high value. Besides ornaments of gold, -each Indian had with him a copper axe, which was very highly polished, -with the handle curiously carved, that served equally as an ornament -and, on the field of battle, as a weapon. At first we thought that these -axes were made of an inferior kind of gold. Therefore we began to take -them in exchange, and in the space of two days collected more than six -hundred, with which we were no less pleased, as long as we were ignorant -of their real value, than the Indians were with our glass beads.... We -set sail for Cuba, and arrived there in the space of forty days.... We -were most graciously welcomed by the governor, Diego Velasquez, who was -highly delighted with the additional gold we brought him. Altogether, it -was well worth 4,000 _pesos_; so that, with the 16,000 brought over by -Alvarado, the whole amounted to 20,000 _pesos_.[313] Some made this sum -greater, some less; but one thing is certain, the crown officials took -only the fifth of the last-mentioned sum. When they were about to take -the fifth also of the Indian axes, which we had mistaken for gold, they -grew exceedingly angry on finding them only to be of a fine quality of -copper. This caused the people to laugh at our trading transactions.”[314] - -Immediately after the return of Juan de Grijalva, in 1518, from -this voyage, Diego Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, issued orders -for the fitting out of a larger fleet than the one commanded by the -former officer. Respecting the person who was to have command of this -expedition, Diaz says that “the matter was secretly settled with Hernando -Cortes, by two confidants of Diego Velasquez, Andres de Duero, secretary -to the governor, and Almador de Lares, the royal treasurer.... Duero -and the royal treasurer, therefore, employed all their cunning to -influence the governor. They took every opportunity of placing Cortes -in the most favorable light, extolling his great courage, in a word, -declared him to be the most capable person whom he could intrust with -the command.... Their efforts were crowned with success, for Diego -Velasquez conferred the appointment of captain-general of the expedition -on that gentleman.... After Hernando Cortes had been appointed captain, -he immediately began to collect all kinds of arms and ammunition, as -matchlocks, crossbows, powder, and the like. With the same diligence -he took care to provide a large stock of goods to barter, and other -necessaries for our expedition.” On the eighteenth of February, 1519, -the fleet was on its way toward the west. On the island of Cozumel, -near the eastern coast of Yucatan, Cortes reviewed his troops. “Without -counting the pilots and marines,” says Diaz, “our number amounted to -five hundred and eight men. There were one hundred and nine sailors, -and sixteen horses.... Our squadron consisted of eleven vessels of -different tonnage.... The number of crossbow men was thirty-three, and -of those bearing matchlocks thirteen. To these add our heavy guns and -four falconets, and a great quantity of powder and balls. Respecting -the precise number of crossbow men I cannot aver, though it matters not -whether there were a few more or less.... I have now said all that need -be respecting our armament; indeed, Cortes was very particular about the -merest trifles in these preparations. - -“As Cortes paid attention to every circumstance, he ordered me and Martin -Camos of Biscay into his presence, and asked us what our opinion was -of the word _Castilan_, _Castilan_, which the Indians of Campeachy had -so often repeated when we landed there, under the command of Francisco -Hernandez de Cordoba. We again informed him of every transaction that -had taken place there. He said that he had often turned this matter -over in his mind, and could not help thinking but that the inhabitants -must have some Spaniards among them, and he thought it would not be -amiss to question the caciques of Cozumel upon this subject. This Cortes -accordingly did, and desired Melchorejo, who by this time had gained -some little knowledge of the Spanish, and perfectly understood the -language of Cozumel, to question the chiefs about it. The statements -made by them were alike, and plainly indicated that there were several -Spaniards in the country, whom they had seen; that they as slaves served -the caciques, who lived a march of two days inland; and that it was -within a few days that some Indian merchants had talked to them.” Some -days afterward Cortes learned that the two Spaniards were Geronimo de -Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero. Aguilar being informed of the presence of -the Spaniards joined them and served Cortes in the important position of -an interpreter.[315] - -When the Spaniards were in camp at the island of San Juan de Ulua, -Cortes was visited, on Easter-day, by one of the farmer-generals of -the Mexican empire, named Teuthlille. “He was accompanied” says Diaz, -“by another person of distinction called Quitlalpitoc. We subsequently -learned that they were governors of the provinces of Cotastlan, Tustepec, -Guazpaltepec, Tlatateteclo, and other districts lately subdued. They were -followed by a great number of Indians carrying presents of fowls and -plants. Teuthlille, having ordered the others to stand aside, advanced to -Cortes and bowed three times very reverentially in the Indian fashion, -which he did when he turned toward us standing nearest him. Cortes -cordially welcomed them, after which he embraced them. He desired them to -tarry a while and told them that he would give them a definite answer [in -reply to the question which their sovereign, the great Montezuma,[316] -had sent them to ask: who the Spaniards were and what they came to seek -in his country]. Meanwhile Cortes ordered the altar to be arranged as -prettily as possible. Francisco Bartolomé and Father Juan Diaz performed -mass. The two governors and the principal personages of their _suite_ -were present during the services, after which Cortes partook of dinner -with them. - -“After the table had been cleared, Cortes assisted by Aguilar and Doña -Marina[317] entered into conversation with the Mexican officials and the -caciques, telling them, that we were Christians, the subjects of the -greatest monarch of the world, named Emperor Charles,[318] that he had -many great personages among his subjects and servants, that we had come -by his command to their country, of which and its powerful sovereign, -who then reigned, his majesty had long before heard. Cortes speaking -of himself said that he was desirous to become the friend of their -sovereign, and had to disclose many things to him, in the name of his -majesty, the emperor, which their monarch would listen to with delight. -In order that a good understanding might be established between him -[Cortes] and his [Montezuma’s] subjects, they should acquaint him with -the place where this monarch resided, that he [Cortes] might pay his -respects to him and make the necessary disclosures. Teuthlille answered -in a rather imperious tone, saying: ‘Inasmuch as you have lately arrived -in this country, it would be more becoming that before desiring an -interview with my monarch, you should accept this present, which we have -brought you in his name, and then disclose your wishes to me.’ He then -took from a box, a quantity of gold-trinkets, of beautiful and artistic -workmanship, and more than twenty packages of stuffs very prettily made -of white cotton and feathers. These they presented to Cortes, besides -various other costly gifts which, on account of the number of years that -has intervened, I cannot now remember, together with provisions, as -fowl, fruit, and dried fish. Cortes accepted all these with a pleased -expression, and presented these gentlemen in return with glass beads -resembling brilliants, and other things that we had brought from Spain. -He begged them to request the inhabitants of the different districts to -begin trading with us, for we possessed various articles which we desired -to exchange for gold. This they promised to do. - -“Cortes then ordered an arm-chair, beautifully painted and adorned -with inlaid work, to be brought, also some pieces of precious stones, -wrapped in cotton cloth, perfumed with musk, a necklace of imitation -pearls, a scarlet cap, with a medal, on which was represented the holy -St. George on horseback, with lance in hand, killing the dragon. Cortes -then addressed Teuthlille, and said that he presented the chair to his -monarch, Montezuma, that he might sit in it when he should pay him a -visit, and the string of pearls to wind around his head on the same -occasion, all of which presents were from our sovereign, the emperor, -who had sent them to Montezuma in token of friendship and as a proof of -the esteem in which he held him. Cortes further remarked that Teuthlille -should inform us where and when he, Cortes, could personally have an -audience with the monarch. Teuthlille accepted the presents, and said in -reply that his master, Montezuma, as he also was a great monarch, would -in turn be equally delighted to learn something about our great emperor; -that he would hasten to lay the presents before him, and to return with -his answer. - -“Teuthlille had with him very skillful painters, for there were such in -Mexico, and he ordered them to paint the portrait and entire person of -Cortes, with the dress he wore; also the pictures of all the other chief -officers, the soldiers, our ships, horses, Doña Marina, and Aguilar, even -our two dogs, the cannon, the balls, in short, every thing that they -could see that belonged to us. The paintings they took along with them to -show to their monarch.” - -After an absence of about six or seven days, Teuthlille returned, as Diaz -further observes, “with more than a hundred Indian porters, all heavily -laden, accompanied by a great Mexican cacique, who, in countenance, -stature, and deportment, greatly resembled Cortes, and on that account -had been selected by his monarch to accompany the deputation. For, as -it was related, when Teuthlille presented the picture representing -Cortes, all the grandees who were present with their monarch, Montezuma, -immediately observed that he resembled a person of distinction named -Quintalbor. This was the same person who now accompanied Teuthlille. We -therefore called one the Cortes of this place, and the other the Cortes -of that place. We must now, however, tell what the embassadors did -when they came into the presence of Cortes. First of all they touched -the ground at his feet with their hands. They then perfumed him and -all the Spaniards who were present, with pans made of clay. Cortes -gave them a very cordial reception, and desired them to sit down at -his side. Quintalbor, the cacique, was commissioned to discuss matters -jointly with Teuthlille. The two, therefore, told Cortes that he was -most welcome to visit their country, and after considerable talking on -both sides, they produced the presents”[319] sent him by Montezuma. -As is further related by the Spanish historian, Juan de Torquemada, a -contemporary of Diaz, “the embassador of Montezuma ordered mats to be -spread on the ground before Cortes, and over them some cotton cloth, -on which he arranged the presents, comprising many cotton shirts, and -great quantities of other cotton stuffs, beautifully manufactured, and -interwoven with feathers of the most splendid colors. There were shields -made of the purest white stuffs, decorated with feathers, gold, silver, -and pearls, surpassing everything in beauty and skilled workmanship that -ever was seen. There was also a helmet, tastefully carved out of wood, -filled with grains of gold; also a casque, made of thin plates of gold, -decorated with tassels, and with stones resembling the emerald. There -were numerous large bunches of feathers of different colors, set in -silver and gold; fans for keeping off flies, made of the rarest feathers; -a thousand lockets of gold and silver of the most curious and beautiful -workmanship; bracelets and military decorations of gold and silver, -splendidly embossed with green and bright yellow feathers; leather made -of deer skin, curried and colored in the best possible manner; shoes and -sandals of the same leather, sewed with thin gold-wire, and the soles of -beautiful white and blue stone. There were other kinds of shoes, very -tastefully made of cotton; mirrors of marcasite, globular-shaped, of the -size of one’s fist, and most ingeniously set in gold, the small frame -itself being very valuable, and worthy of the acceptance of any crowned -head; coverings and curtains to beds, manufactured of variously colored -cotton, more glossy and of a finer texture than silk; a number of other -gold and silver trinkets; a necklace of gold, decorated with more than -a hundred emeralds, rubies, and various ornaments of gold; a second -necklace of many large pearls and emeralds, all of the most exquisite -workmanship; numerous gold trinkets in the shape of frogs and animals; -jewels in the form of medals. The cases were even more valuable than -the precious stones they contained. There was also a quantity of large -and small grains of gold. The most valuable of these presents, however, -were two round plates, one of gold, on which was a sun with rays and the -zodiac. This weighed more than one hundred marks.[320] The other plate -was of silver, which in a similar manner represented the moon. It weighed -about fifty marks. The two disks were massive and of the thickness of -the Spanish coin of four silver reals, and as large as carriage-wheels. -Those who saw these splendid presents said that, without considering the -beautiful workmanship, the value of the gold and silver alone amounted to -twenty-five thousand _castellanos de oro_; so that the full value of all -these presents may rightly be estimated at fifty thousand ducats.”[321] - -“When Quintalbor, the great cacique, and Teuthlille, presented these -gifts to Cortes,” as Diaz further relates, “they begged him to accept of -them in the same spirit of friendship with which their monarch sent them, -and to distribute them among his _teules_.[322] Thereupon they began to -tell what their monarch had particularly commissioned them to say, which -was as follows: ‘He, Montezuma, was delighted with the arrival of such -courageous men in his provinces, for, according to the accounts he had -received, and judging from the occurrence at Tabasco [where Cortes had -had an engagement with the natives], we certainly must be brave men. He -wished very much to see our great emperor who was so powerful, of whom, -although residing at so great a distance, he had already gained some -knowledge, and he would send him a present of some valuable stones. He -was likewise ready to furnish us with every thing we might require during -our stay. Respecting Cortes visiting him, the undertaking should not -engage our thoughts, for it was not necessary, and would be attended with -great difficulties.’ - -“Cortes thanked them most sincerely for their kindness, gave each several -shirts made of Holland linen, some blue beads, and other trifles, and -requested them when they returned to their great monarch to tell him -that our emperor and master would deem it very unkind, after we had -come from such distant countries and crossed such vast seas, solely -with the intention of paying our respects to Montezuma, if we returned -without accomplishing this object. He wished, therefore, to proceed to -his residence, and to receive personally his commands. The embassadors -answered that they would convey these messages to their monarch, and -that a visit to him was unnecessary. Cortes thereupon gave them out -of our poverty a cup of Florentine workmanship, gilded and ornamented -with wreaths of leaves in relief, and the shirts made of Holland linen, -and other things, all of which were to be presented to Montezuma, -together with Cortes’s message. The two emissaries then departed, while -Quitlalpitoc alone remained behind in our camp, commissioned, as it -appeared, by the two other officials of Montezuma, to provide provisions -for us from the neighboring districts. - -“After the Mexican embassadors had taken their departure, Cortes ordered -two vessels to sail farther northward and explore the coast. The command -of these was given to Francisco de Montejo, with orders to follow the -same course taken by Grijalva.... Montejo departed, and sailed to the -Rio Grande, near Panuco, as far as we had gone with Grijalva. On account -of the strong currents he could not proceed any farther. He therefore -returned to San Juan de Ulua.... - -“One morning the Indians, who had dwelt near us in huts, and had -furnished us with provisions and brought gold to barter, secretly -departed with Quitlalpitoc. This, we subsequently learned, was done by -the orders of Montezuma. He had forbidden all intercourse with Cortes, -believing that he was obeying the commands of his idol-gods. These were -named Tetzcatlipuca and Huitzilopochtli; the former being the god of -hell, and the latter the god of war, to whom Montezuma daily sacrificed -a number of children in order that the gods might disclose to him what -he should do with us. He intended to take us prisoners should we not -re-embark—employing some to educate children, and sacrificing the others. -His idol-gods, as we afterward learned, advised him not to listen to -Cortes, and to pay no attention to the message that we had sent him -respecting the cross and the image of the Blessed Virgin. This was what -caused his men to go away so secretly. - -“This being the condition of affairs, we daily expected that hostilities -would begin, and we were therefore the more vigilant. It happened one -day, while I was standing sentinel on the sand-hills with another -soldier, that we espied five Indians coming along the shore. Not to -alarm the camp with so trifling a matter, we allowed them to advance. -They all appeared very good-humored, made their obeisance to us after -their fashion, and requested us, by signs, to conduct them to the camp. -Thereupon I said to my companion: ‘I will take them there, while you -remain where you are,’ for at that time my legs were not so infirm as -they are now, in my old age. When I presented them to Cortes, they -manifested the utmost reverence, and continually repeated the word -_Lopelucio_, _Lopelucio_, which in the Totonac language means lord, -great god. In dress and language these people differed entirely from -the Mexicans whom Montezuma had sent to our camp. They had large holes -bored in their under-lips, in which they wore pieces of a speckled, blue -stone, or thin plates of gold. The holes in their ears were quite large, -from which depended similar ornaments. Neither Aguilar nor Doña Marina -understood their language. The latter asked them whether there were any -_naëyavatos_ or interpreters with them. Thereupon two of them answered -that they understood the Mexican language. Then the talking began. They -bid us welcome, and said that their ruler had sent them to inquire who we -were, and that he would be delighted to be of any use to such powerful -men as we were. They said that they would have waited on us earlier, -if they had not shunned the people of Culhua, namely, the Mexicans -(meaning as much as villains), who had been with us. It is likely that -these people had heard of our battles at Tabasco and Potonchan. They at -least knew that the Mexicans had secretly departed from us three days -before this time. Cortes learned many things from them which were of the -greatest importance to him, particularly the information respecting the -enemies and opponents of Montezuma. Cortes, therefore, was very friendly -to these people. He gave them a number of presents, and desired them to -return to their ruler and to tell him that he would in person shortly -visit him.” - -The indomitable commander now advanced northward along the coast as far -as Chiahuitzla, near the roadstead where his ships were anchored. A short -distance from this place Cortes began to build the city to which he gave -the name Villa Rica de Vera Cruz (the Rich Town of the True Cross). From -the port of the new city, Cortes, on the twenty-sixth of July, 1519, -dispatched a ship to Spain, under the command of Alonso Puertocarrero -and Francisco de Montejo, carrying letters to the emperor, Charles V., -with accounts of the invasion of New Spain. With these communications -were sent some of the presents that Cortes had received, besides several -cotton and agave-scrolls of Mexican hieroglyphics. “Our agents took -charge of the letters,” Diaz remarks, “and were bound by a promise not to -touch at the Havannah under any pretext whatever, or to enter the harbor -of El Marien, where Francisco de Montejo had possessions. This was done -in order that Diego Velasquez might not receive any intelligence of our -movements.” - -The resolute officer, having ordered his ships to be destroyed, began -about the middle of August his march toward the city of Mexico,[323] -with his small band of about five hundred followers, fifteen horsemen, -and seven pieces of artillery. He took with him thirteen hundred native -warriors from Cempoalla, besides a thousand porters to transport the -camp-baggage, provisions, and munition. - -In the province of Xocotlan the invaders came to an Indian town called -by the Spaniards Castilblanco, governed by a cacique who was subject to -Montezuma. The hospitable ruler described to Cortes the situation of the -city of Mexico, which was built on an island surrounded by water, and -approachable on foot by three bridged causeways. - -“A certain place in this province,” says Diaz, “I shall never forget. -Here a vast number of human skulls were piled in the best manner -imaginable. There must have been more than one hundred thousand; I -repeat, more than one hundred thousand. In the same orderly way the -remaining human bones were piled in another corner of the square. The -latter it would have been impossible to count. Besides these bones there -were human heads hanging from beams on both sides of the square.” On -the first, second, and fifth days of September, near the village of -Tehuacacinco, Cortes had victorious engagements with the Tlascallans. - -“It also happened,” Diaz further remarks, “that the powerful king -of Mexico, Montezuma, either in the great goodness of his heart, or -because he began to fear our approach to his metropolis, dispatched -five men of distinction to our camp in the province of Tlascalla to -congratulate us on our advance, and to assure us of the great delight -he felt when he heard of the splendid victories we had gained over such -large armies. This message was sent with a valuable present of gold -trinkets, differently elaborated, worth about one thousand _pesos_, and -also packages of cotton stuffs, as much as twenty men could carry. He -also wished us to know, that it was his desire to become a subject of -our emperor, that he was greatly pleased to learn that we were so near -his metropolis, and that he was every way well-disposed toward Cortes -and all the _teules_, his brothers. He likewise wished to be told by us -what annual tribute in gold, silver, jewels, and cotton stuffs he was to -forward to our great emperor, which tribute would save us the trouble -of coming to Mexico, adding that he should indeed be pleased to see us, -but that our march would be a hazardous undertaking through a sterile -and rocky country, and that the fatigues which we should have to undergo -grieved him the more when he considered how impossible it was for him to -remove the hindrances from the way.” - -Cortes shortly afterward marched into the city of Tlascalla, where, when -they entered it, “the streets and balconies could scarcely contain the -number of men and women” who welcomed them. “Delight was depicted on -every countenance,” and “twenty baskets full of roses” were “presented -to Cortes and the soldiers, whom the citizens thought were officers, and -particularly to those who were on horseback.” Here Cortes was told by one -of the principal men of the place “that Montezuma had strong garrisons -in every town, besides the warriors who marched out from the metropolis -to the field of battle. Every province was compelled to pay him tribute -in gold, silver, feathers, precious stones, cotton stuffs, as well as -Indians of both sexes, some of whom he took into his service, and some he -sacrificed. He was a monarch so powerful and wealthy that he accomplished -and obtained all he desired. His palaces were filled with riches and -_chalchihuis_ stones,[324] which he seized wherever he went. In short, -all the wealth of the country was in his possession.” - -Cortes was further told that the city of Mexico “was abundantly supplied -with fresh water from the spring of Chapultepec, which was about two -miles from the city, whence the water was partly conveyed to the houses -by means of pipes, and partly in boats through the canals, when it was -sold in small quantities to the inhabitants. Respecting the weapons -of this nation, they included two-edged lances that were projected by -means of a thong and penetrated any cuirass. The warriors were excellent -marksmen with the bow and arrow, and carried pikes with blades of flint, -which were very ingeniously made, and were as sharp as razors. Besides -these weapons, they carried shields, and wore cotton cuirasses. There was -also a great number of slingers, who were provided with round stones, -long pikes, and sharp swords which were wielded with both hands. - -“To explain all these things, the caciques exhibited large pieces of -_nequen_,[325] on which were pictured their battles and their art of -warfare. When Cortes and we considered that we had gained sufficient -information concerning these things, the conversation turned to subjects -of greater importance. Our friends told us how and whence they came -into this country, and how they settled there; how it had happened, -notwithstanding their nearness to the Mexicans, that they resembled them -so little, and lived in perpetual warfare with each other. A tradition -was also handed down from their forefathers that in ancient times a race -of men and women lived here who were immense in stature with large bones, -and who were a very bad and evil-disposed people, whom they had mostly -exterminated by continual war, and the few that had been spared, had in -the course of time died. - -“In order to give us a conception of the huge frames of these people, -they dragged forth a bone, or rather a thigh-bone, of one of the giants, -which was very strong, and measured the length of a man of good stature. -This bone was still entire from the knee to the hip-joint. I measured it -with my own person, and found it to be of my own length, although I am a -man of considerable height. They showed us many similar pieces of bones, -but they were all worm-eaten and decayed. We, however, did not doubt for -a moment, that the country was once inhabited by giants. Cortes remarked -that we ought to forward these bones to his majesty in Spain at the very -earliest opportunity.” - -Montezuma again sent embassadors to Cortes bearing presents. They said -“that their monarch could not but feel astonished that we” as Diaz -relates, “had made so long a stay among a poor and uncivilized people, -who were not fit for slaves, but so viciously disposed, so treacherous -and thievish, that some day or night when we least apprehended it they -would kill us merely for the sake of plunder. Montezuma begged us to -visit his city, where, at least, we might enjoy the good things it -offered, even though these should be below our deserts, and not equal -to what he could wish.... Cortes thanked the embassadors in a very -flattering manner for their civilities and the expressions of friendship -they had conveyed to him from their monarch, and he desired them to tell -their sovereign that in a short time he would pay his respects to him.” - -At Cholula, to which Cortes next marched, a plot was concocted to kill -the Spaniards, but being warned, they were on their guard and severely -punished the inhabitants for their treacherous conduct. Describing the -city, Diaz says: “Cholula had more than a hundred very high towers, -they were all _cues_ or temples, in which human sacrifices were offered -and idols stood. The principal temple was even higher than the one in -the city of Mexico, though the latter was really magnificent and very -high. The temple [at Cholula] is said to have contained one hundred -courts, and an idol of enormous dimensions, (the name of which I have -forgotten), which was in great repute, and people came from various -places to sacrifice human beings to it and bring offerings for the dead. -I well remember when we first entered the city and beheld the elevated -white temples, how the whole place reminded us all of Valladolid.[326] -... I must add a word or two respecting the wooden cages we saw in this -city. They were constructed of heavy timber, and filled with grown men -and little boys, who were fattening for the sacrifices and feasts. Cortes -ordered these diabolical cages to be pulled down, and sent the prisoners -to their homes.” - -While Cortes was on his way to the city of Mexico from Cholula, another -embassy from Montezuma met him, bringing him again presents of gold and -cotton fabrics. Montezuma desired the embassadors to express his regrets -for the many hardships which Cortes was compelled to endure on his -wearisome journey to see his person, that he would send to the port on -the coast a great quantity of gold, silver, and jewels for the emperor, -that he would present Cortes himself with four loads of gold, and one -load for each of his companions, but that he forbade him to enter the -city of Mexico, as all his troops were under arms to oppose him. “On -this occasion” says Diaz, “Cortes again told the embassadors that he -was surprised that their sovereign, who had called himself our friend -so often and was so powerful a monarch, should so frequently change his -mind, to desire a thing one day and not want it the next. Respecting the -presents of gold for our emperor and ourselves, Cortes told them that we -were thankful for Montezuma’s kind intentions, and also for the gifts -they brought with them, and that he would certainly some day render their -monarch valuable services in return. He asked them if it were right -after we had advanced within so short a distance of the metropolis to -return home without fulfilling our monarch’s commission. He said that -Montezuma should place himself in our position and consider, had he sent -embassadors to a monarch of his own rank, whether he would be pleased, if -they returned home after going almost to his palace without seeing that -monarch or fulfilling their commission to him.... Therefore he begged -that their monarch would not thereafter send any more embassadors with -such messages. Cortes further said that he was determined to see and -speak to Montezuma personally, and to inform him of the object of our -mission. All that we asked was only an audience, for the moment our stay -in his metropolis became irksome to him we would depart and return to the -place whence we had come.... With this answer Cortes sent the embassadors -back to their monarch, and we continued our march.... - -“After Montezuma learned our answer to his message he dispatched his -nephew, Cacamatzin, prince of Tezcuco, to us, in great pomp to bid us -welcome.... The conference being ended, we continued our march. We were -accompanied by the caciques and their numerous attendants, besides all -the inhabitants of the neighborhood, who had come to meet us, so that we -could hardly move for the vast crowds of people. - -“The next morning we reached the broad high road of Iztapalapan, from -which we for the first time beheld the number of cities and villages -built in the lake [of Tezcuco], and the still greater number of large -towns on the main-land and along the level causeway, which ran in a -straight line to the city of Mexico. Our astonishment was exceedingly -great, and we could not but remark to one another, that all the buildings -resembled the fairy castles of which we read in Amadis of Gaul; so high, -majestically, and splendidly did the temples, towers, and houses of the -city, all built of massive stone and lime, rise above the water of the -lake. Indeed, many of our men believed what they saw was the creation -of a dream. And the reader must not be surprised at the manner in which -I have expressed myself, for it is impossible to speak composedly of -things which we have never before seen or heard of, or could have dreamed -of.... We now entered the city of Iztapalapan, where we were quartered in -palaces of large dimensions surrounded by spacious courts, and built of -hewn stone, cedar, and other sweet-scented wood. All the apartments were -curtained with cotton drapery. - -“After we had seen all these things we visited the gardens adjoining the -palaces, which were so exceedingly attractive that I could not gratify -myself enough by walking about in them and contemplating the number of -trees which exhaled the most delightful odors, and the rose-bushes, the -different flower-beds, and the fruit-trees which stood along the paths. -Here was a pond of fresh water connected with the lake by a small canal. -The canal was constructed of stone of different colors, and decorated -with numerous figures, and was wide enough to hold the largest canoes. -In the basin various kinds of water-fowl were swimming to and fro, and -every thing was so charming and so beautiful that we could find no words -to express our astonishment.... But now there is not a vestige of all -these things remaining, and not a stone of the beautiful city left in -its place.... Iztapalapan was a city of considerable magnitude, built -partly in the water and partly on the land. Its site is now all dry land, -and where vessels once sailed to and fro seeds are sown and harvests -gathered. Indeed, the whole face of the country is so completely changed -that he who had not seen these places previously, would hardly believe -that waves had once rolled over the spot where fertile maize-plantations -are now, so wonderfully has every thing been changed here in a short -space of time. - -“On the following morning we left Iztapalapan, accompanied by all the -principal caciques already mentioned. The road on which we marched was -eight paces wide, and, if I rightly remember, ran straight to the city -of Mexico. Notwithstanding the breadth of the causeway it was much too -narrow for the great throngs of people that were constantly arriving from -different places to gaze at us, and we could hardly move forward. Besides -the tops of all the temples and towers were crowded with spectators, and -below them the lake was covered with canoes filled with Indians, for -all the people were eager to catch a glimpse of us. And who can wonder -at this curiosity, for neither men like us nor horses had ever been seen -here before. - -“When we surveyed all this splendor we scarcely knew what to think, -and we doubted whether all that we beheld were real. A succession of -large cities stretched along the banks of the lake [of Tezcuco], from -which much larger ones rose magnificently above the water. Innumerable -canoes were plying near us. At regular intervals we crossed new bridges, -and before us lay the great city of Tenustitlan Mexico in all its -grandeur.[327] And we, who were beholding this spectacle, who were -passing through this dense concourse of human beings, were a mere handful -of men, in all four hundred and fifty, our minds filled with the warnings -of the inhabitants of Huexotzinco, Tlascalla, and Tlalmanalco, and the -caution they had given us not to expose our lives to the treachery of -the Mexicans. I ask the kind reader to reflect a moment, and then to -say whether he believes any men in this world ever attempted so bold an -undertaking. - -“When we had arrived at a place where another narrow causeway led -toward Cojohuacan we were met by a number of caciques and distinguished -personages, all attired in rich raiment. They had been dispatched by -Montezuma to meet us and bid us welcome in his name. As a manifestation -of their good-will they touched the ground with their hands and kissed -it. We now halted for a few minutes to permit the princes of Tezcuco, -Iztapalapan, Tlacupa, and Cojohuacan, to get in advance to meet -Montezuma, who was slowly approaching, surrounded by other grandees of -the kingdom, seated in a splendid portable chair. When we arrived at a -place near the city, where there were several towers, the monarch raised -himself in his chair, supported by a number of distinguished caciques, -who held over his head a canopy of very great value, decorated with green -feathers, gold, silver, _chalchihuis_ stones and pearls. The bordering of -the canopy ornamented with these things was exceedingly attractive. - -“Montezuma, according to his habit, was richly attired. His half boots -were profusely decorated with jewels, the soles were of solid gold. The -four grandees who supported him were also richly clad. They must have -put on this clothing somewhere on the road, before they went to attend -Montezuma, for they were not so magnificently dressed when they first -came to meet us. Besides these distinguished caciques, there were many -other grandees around the monarch, some of whom held the canopy over his -head while others again occupied the road before him, and spread cotton -cloths that his feet might not touch the bare ground. No one of his -attendants ever looked at him full in the face. Every one in his presence -stood with eyes downcast, and it was only his four nephews and cousins, -who supported him, that dared to look up. - -“When it was announced to Cortes that Montezuma was approaching, he -alighted from his horse and advanced to meet him. Many compliments -passed between them. Montezuma welcomed Cortes, who, through Doña -Marina, said, in turn, that he hoped his majesty was in good health. -If I still remember rightly, Cortes, who had Doña Marina next to him, -wished to concede the place of honor to the monarch, who, however, would -not accept of it, but yielded it to Cortes, who then took a necklace of -precious stones of very beautiful colors and shapes, strung upon gold -wire and perfumed with musk, and placed it on the neck of Montezuma. Our -commander was then about to embrace him, but the grandees, who surrounded -Montezuma, held back Cortes’s arms, for they considered the act improper. -Our general then desired Doña Marina to tell the monarch that he [Cortes] -congratulated himself exceedingly on his good fortune of having seen so -powerful a monarch face to face, and to thank him for the honor of coming -to meet us. Montezuma replied in very appropriate words, and ordered -his two nephews, the princes of Tezcuco and Cojohuacan, to conduct us -to our quarters. He then returned to the city, accompanied by his two -other relatives, the princes of Cuitlahuac and Tlacupa, and the other -grandees of his large retinue. As they passed, we observed how all those -who composed his majesty’s escort held their heads bent forward, no one -daring to lift up his eyes in his presence, and also the deep veneration -with which he was regarded.... - -“We were quartered in a large building where there was room enough for -us all.... Near it were temples and Mexican idols. This building had -been purposely selected for us because we were termed _teules_, or -were thought to be, and that we might dwell among the gods as among -our equals. The apartments and halls were very spacious, and those set -apart for our general were furnished with carpets. Each one of us had a -separate bed, which could not have been better furnished for a gentleman -of the first rank. Each apartment was swept clean, and the walls were -newly plastered and decorated. - -“When we had entered into the great court-yard of this palace, Montezuma -came to Cortes, and, taking him by the hand, conducted him to the -apartments where he was to lodge, which had been prettily decorated after -the fashion of the country. He then hung about his neck a chased necklace -of gold, most curiously wrought with figures of crabs. The Mexican -grandees were greatly amazed at all these uncommon favors which their -monarch bestowed upon our general. - -“Cortes returned the monarch many thanks for so much kindness, and the -latter took leave of him with these words: ‘Malinche,[328] you and your -brothers must now do as if you were at home, and take some rest after -the fatigues of the journey.’ He then returned to his palace, which -was near.” This was on the eighth of November, 1519. Later in the day -Montezuma again visited Cortes, and held a long conversation with him. On -the following day Cortes had an audience with Montezuma in his palace. - -“The mighty Montezuma,” Diaz further observes, “may have been about this -time in the fortieth year of his age. He was tall, slender, and thin; -but his body was well-proportioned. His complexion was not very brown, -almost the same as that of the inhabitants. His hair was not long, -excepting where it hung thickly over his ears, which were hid by it. His -black beard, though thin, was handsome. His face was somewhat long, but -he had a cheerful countenance, and his fine eyes had an expression of -amiability or of ill-will according to his humor. He was particularly -clean in appearance, and took a bath every evening. Besides a number of -concubines, who were all daughters of note and rank, he had two lawful -wives of royal extraction, whom, however, he visited secretly without -any one daring to observe him, except his most confidential servants.... -In the halls adjoining his private apartments there was always a guard -of two thousand men of high station in waiting, with whom, however, he -never held any conversation unless to give them orders or to receive some -intelligence from them.... In cold weather when he dined a large fire -was made of the charcoal of the bark of trees, which emitted no smoke -but a delightful perfume. That his majesty might not feel any discomfort -from the heat of the fire, a screen was placed between him and it, made -of gold, and adorned with the different figures of their gods. The chair -on which he sat was somewhat low. It was filled with soft cushions and -beautifully carved. The table was higher, and suited to the seat. The -former was covered with white cloths, one of which was large. Four very -neat and pretty women held before the monarch a round pitcher, called by -them _xicales_, filled with water to wash his hands. The water was caught -in other vessels, and then the young women presented him with towels to -dry his hands. Two other women brought him maize-bread baked with eggs. -Before Montezuma began to dine, a wooden screen, elaborately gilded, was -placed before him, that no one might see him while eating. Then the young -women stood at a distance. Four elderly men of high rank came to his -table, whom he addressed from time to time or asked them some question. -Sometimes he would offer them a plate of his food, which was considered -a mark of great favor. The gray-haired, aged men, that were so highly -honored, were, as we subsequently learned, his nearest relatives, his -most trustworthy counsellors, and chief justices. Whenever he ordered any -viands to be given them, they ate standing with the greatest reverence, -not daring to look at him full in the face. The dishes in which the food -was served were of variegated and black porcelain, made at Cholula. While -the monarch was at table his courtiers and those who were waiting in the -adjoining halls maintained strict silence.... - -“Sometimes during dinner he had ugly humpbacked dwarfs to act as buffoons -and perform antics for his amusement. At other times he had jesters to -enliven him with their witticisms. Others again danced and sung before -him. Montezuma took great delight in these entertainments, and ordered -the broken victuals and pitchers of cacao-liquor (chocolate) to be -distributed among the performers. When he had dined the four women took -away the cloths and brought him water to wash his hands. During this -interval he conversed a little with the four old men, and then left the -table to enjoy his afternoon-sleep. - -“After the monarch had dined, dinner was served for the men on duty -and the other officers of his household. I often counted more than -one thousand dishes on the table of the kinds already mentioned. -Then followed, according to the Mexican custom, the frothing jugs of -cacao-liquor, as many as two thousand, after which came different kinds -of fruit in great abundance. Then the women dined who superintended the -baking department, and those who made the cacao-liquor, with the young -women who waited upon the monarch.... - -“Besides these servants were many butlers, house-stewards, treasurers, -cooks, and superintendents of maize-magazines.... I had almost forgotten -to mention, that while the monarch dined two other young women of great -beauty brought him small cakes, as white as snow, made of eggs and -other nourishing ingredients, on plates covered with clean napkins; -also a long-shaped loaf made of very substantial things, and _pachol_ -(a wafer-cake). They then brought him three beautifully painted and -gilded tubes filled with liquid-amber and an herb called by the Indians -_tabaco_. After the dinner had been removed and the singing and dancing -ended, one of these tubes was lighted. The monarch drew the smoke into -his mouth, and after he had done this a short time he would fall asleep. - -“At this time a celebrated cacique, whom we called Topia, was Montezuma’s -chief steward. He kept an account of the whole of Montezuma’s revenue, -in large books of paper which the Mexicans called _amatl_. A house was -filled with these large account-books. - -“Montezuma had also two arsenals filled with arms of all kinds, many of -which were ornamented with gold and precious stones. The arms comprised -shields of different sizes, swords, and a broad-sword wielded with both -hands, the edge of flint so extremely sharp that the swords cut much -better than our Spanish ones. There were also lances, longer than ours, -pointed at the end, a fathom long, set with several sharp flints. The -pikes are so very sharp and hard that they will pierce the strongest -shield, and cut like a razor; so that the Mexicans even shave themselves -with these flints. There were also excellent bows and arrows, pikes -with single and double points, and suitable thongs to project them; -slings, with round stones purposely made for them; also large shields, -so ingeniously made that they could be rolled up when not wanted. These -shields are unrolled on the field of battle, and completely cover the -whole body from the head to the feet. We also saw a great many kinds of -cuirasses made of quilted cotton, which were adorned on the outside with -soft feathers of different colors, and looked like uniforms. We also saw -morions and helmets constructed of wood and bones, adorned with feathers. -There were artificers always at work, who continually augmented this -store of arms; and the arsenals were under the care of certain persons, -who also superintended the manufacturing departments.... - -“I will now advert to another subject, and acquaint my readers with the -fine arts of the Mexicans. I will first speak of the sculptors, and the -gold and silversmiths who were skillful in working and smelting gold. -The latter would have astonished the most celebrated of our Spanish -goldsmiths. They were many, and the most expert lived at a place called -Ezcapuzalco, about four miles from Mexico. The next in proficiency were -very skillful masters in cutting and polishing precious stones and the -_calchihuis_ stone, which resembles the emerald. These were followed -by the great masters in painting, and the decorators in feathers, and -the wonderful sculptors. Even now there are still living in Mexico -three Indian artists, named Marcos de Aguino, Juan de la Cruz, and El -Crespello, who severally have attained so high a place in the art of -painting and sculpture, that each may be compared to an Apelles, or to -our contemporaries, Michael Angelo and [Alonso] Berruguette. - -“The women were remarkably skillful in weaving and embroidery, and they -made quantities of the finest stuffs, interwoven with feathers. The -common stuffs for daily use came from certain districts in the province -of Costatlan, which lay on the north coast, not far from Vera Cruz, where -we first landed with Cortes. - -“The concubines in the palace of Montezuma, who were all daughters of -distinguished men, were employed in manufacturing the most beautiful -stuffs, interwoven with feathers. Similar fabrics were made by certain -women who dwelt secluded in cloisters as our nuns.... Montezuma had in -his service a great number of stone-cutters, masons, and carpenters, -who were only employed about the royal palaces. Here I must not -forget to speak of his gardens for the cultivation of flowers, trees -and vegetables, of which there were various kinds. In these gardens -were many baths, wells, basins, and ponds full of limpid water, which -regularly ebbed and flowed. These gardens were made more attractive by -innumerable species of small birds, which sang among the trees. The -gardens of medicinal plants and vegetables may also be mentioned. They -were cultivated by a large body of gardeners. All the baths, wells, ponds -and buildings were substantially constructed of stone, as were also the -theatres where the singers and dancers performed. - -“We had been four days in the city of Mexico,” Diaz further remarks, -“and neither our commander nor any of us had, during this time, left -our quarters, except to visit the gardens and buildings adjoining the -palace. Cortes therefore determined to view the city, and to visit the -great market and the chief temple of Huitzilopochtli. He accordingly -sent Geronimo de Aguilar, Doña Marina, and one of his pages, named -Orteguilla, who, by this time, understood a little of the Mexican -language, to Montezuma, to request his permission to inspect the -different buildings of the city. Montezuma readily granted us permission -to go where we pleased, although he was apprehensive that we might -intentionally injure the one or the other of his idols. He therefore -determined to accompany us with some of his principal officers, and, for -this purpose, left his palace with a showy retinue.... - -“Our commander, attended by the greater part of our horsemen and -foot-soldiers, all well armed, as we were at all times, proceeded to the -Tlatelulco. By command of Montezuma, a number of caciques met us on our -way thither. When we arrived in this immense market, we were greatly -astonished to see the vast number of people, the profusion of merchandise -exposed for sale, and the admirable police-system, and the order that -everywhere existed. The grandees who accompanied us drew our attention to -the smallest circumstance, and gave us an explanation of all we saw. Each -class of merchandise had a separate place for its sale. We first visited -those divisions of the market set apart for the sale of gold and silver -wares, jewels, cloths interwoven with feathers, and other manufactured -goods, where also slaves of both sexes were sold. The slave-market was -upon as great a scale as the Portuguese market for negro slaves at -Guinea. To prevent the slaves from running away, they were fastened by -halters around their necks, though some were allowed to walk at large. -Next to these divisions were the dealers in coarser wares, cotton, -twisted thread, and cacao. In short, all kinds of commodities produced -in New Spain [Yucatan and Mexico] were here to be found. The market -reminded me of my native town of Medino del Campo at fair-time, where -each kind of merchandise has a separate street assigned for its sale. -In one place were sold the stuffs manufactured of _nequen_, as ropes -and sandals. In another place, the sweet _maguey_ root, ready-cooked, -was offered for sale, and various other things made from this plant. -In another part of the market were exposed the skins of tigers, lions, -jackals, otters, red deer, wild cats, and of other animals of prey. Some -of the skins were tanned. A particular space was assigned to the venders -of fowls, turkeys, ducks, rabbits, hares, deer, and dogs; also a space -to the fruit-sellers, pastry-cooks, and tripe-mongers. Not far from -these were exposed all kinds of earthenware, from the largest jars to -the smallest pitchers. Next were the dealers in honey and honey-cakes, -and other sweet-meats. Next to these were the timber-merchants, -furniture-dealers, with assortments of tables, benches, cradles, and all -kinds of wooden implements, all separately arranged.... But why should I -so minutely detail every article exposed for sale in this great market? -If I enumerated every thing singly, I should never get to the end of -the list. And yet I have not mentioned the paper, which in this country -is called _amatl_, the tubes filled with liquid-amber and tobacco, the -various sweet-scented salves, and similar things, or the various seeds -which were exposed for sale in the porticoes of this market, or the -medicinal herbs. - -“In the market-place there were courts of justice, to which three judges -and several constables were appointed, who inspected the goods exposed -for sale. I had almost forgotten to mention the salt, and those who made -the flint-knives; also the fish, and a kind of bread made of the mud -or scum collected from the surface of the lake, and eaten in that form, -and which has a taste similar to that of cheese.[329] Besides, there -were instruments of brass, copper, and tin; cups and painted pitchers of -wood.... - -“On our way to the great temple, while passing through the court-yards -adjoining the market, we saw a number of merchants, who dealt in -gold-dust as it came from the mines, which was exposed for sale in tubes -made of large goose-bones, so thin and white that the gold shone through -them. The value of these tubes of gold was estimated according to their -length and thickness, and were taken in exchange for so many mantles, -_xiquipiles_[330] of cacao-nuts,[331] slaves, or for other merchandise. - -“On quitting the market, we entered the spacious court-yards surrounding -the chief temple. These appeared to include more ground than the -market-place at Salamanca, and were inclosed by a double wall constructed -of stone and lime. The yards were paved with large white flag-stones, -extremely smooth, and where there were none, a brown plaster had been -used. The court-yards were kept so very clean that there was not the -smallest particle of dust or straw to be seen anywhere. - -“Before we ascended the steps of the great temple, Montezuma, who was -sacrificing on the top to his idols, sent six priests and two of his -principal officers to conduct Cortes up the steps. There were one hundred -and fourteen steps to the summit, and as they feared that Cortes would -experience the same fatigue in mounting as Montezuma had, they desired -to assist him by taking hold of his arms. Cortes, however, would not -accept the proffered aid. When we had reached the summit of the temple, -we walked across a platform where many large stones were lying, on which -those who were doomed for sacrifice were stretched out. Near these stood -a large idol, in the shape of a dragon, surrounded by various other -abominable figures, with a quantity of fresh blood in front of it.... - -“This infernal temple, from its great height, commanded an extensive view -of the surrounding country. From it we could see the three causeways -leading to the city,—that one from Iztapalapan, by which we had entered -the city four days before; that one from Tlacupa, along which we took our -flight eight months after, when we were driven out of the city by the new -monarch, Cuitlahuatzin; the third, the one from Tepeaquilla. We also saw -the aqueduct, which extended from Chapultepec, and supplied the city with -fresh water. We could also distinctly see the bridges across the openings -in the causeways, through which the waters of the lake ebbed and flowed. -The lake was crowded with canoes conveying provisions, manufactured -articles, and other merchandise to the city. We also observed that the -only means of intercourse between the houses in this city, and between -those of all the other towns built in the lake, was by draw-bridges -or canoes. In all these cities the beautiful white-plastered temples -rose above the smaller ones, like many of the towers and castles in our -Spanish cities. The view from the top of the temple, it may be imagined, -was a splendid sight. - -“After we had sufficiently gazed upon this magnificent picture, we again -turned our eyes toward the great market, and beheld the vast number -of buyers and sellers who thronged it. The bustle and noise caused by -this multitude of human beings was so great that it could be heard at -a distance of more than four miles. Some of our men, who had been at -Constantinople and at Rome and had travelled through the whole of Italy, -said that they never had seen a market-place of such large dimensions, -or which was so well regulated, or so crowded with people as this one in -Mexico.... - -“We were conducted to a small temple with one room, in which we saw two -bases resembling altars, decked with coverings of extreme beauty. On each -of them stood a gigantic, bulky-looking figure. The one on the right -hand represented the god of war, Huitzilopochtli. This idol had a very -broad face with distorted and terrible eyes, and was covered with jewels, -gold, and pearls, fastened with a paste made from a certain root. Large -serpents, also, covered with gold and precious stones, wound round the -body of this monster, which held in one hand a bow, and in the other a -bunch of arrows. Another but smaller idol, its page, standing by its -side carried the monster’s short spear and golden shield, studded with -precious stones. Around Huitzilopochtli’s neck were figures representing -human faces, and hearts made of gold and silver and decorated with -blue stones. In front of him stood several perfuming pans containing -copal, the incense of the country; also the hearts of three Indians, -who had been killed that day. The hearts were consuming before him as a -burnt-offering. The walls of the temple and the whole floor were almost -black with human blood, and the stench was highly offensive. - -“On the left hand stood another figure of the same size as -Huitzilopochtli. Its face resembled very much that of a bear. Its shining -eyes were made of _tetzcat_, the reflecting-glass of the country. This -idol, like its brother Huitzilopochtli, was covered with precious stones, -and was called Tetzcatlipuca. This was the god of hell.... A circle of -figures wound round its body, resembling diminutive devils with serpents’ -tails. The walls and floor around this idol were also besmeared with -blood, and the stench was greater than that of a Spanish slaughter-house. -Five human hearts had that day been offered to him. On the very top -of this temple stood another; the wood-work of which was exceedingly -elaborate and richly carved. In this temple there was another idol, half -man and half lizard, completely covered with precious stones; half of -this figure was hidden from view. We were told that the concealed half -was covered with the seeds of every plant on the earth, for this idol -was the god of seeds and fruits.... In the temple was a drum of enormous -dimensions, the sound of which was so deep and solemn that it was -appropriately called the drum of hell. The drum-head was made from the -skin of an enormous serpent. The sound of the drum could be heard eight -miles. The platform of the temple was covered with a variety of hellish -objects,—large and small trumpets, great slaughtering knives, the burnt -hearts of Indians who had been sacrificed,—every thing being clotted with -coagulated blood, terrible to view and filling the mind with horror.... - -“If I remember rightly, this temple occupied a space of ground on which -we could have placed six of the largest buildings commonly found in our -country. The building had the form of a pyramid, on the summit of which -was the small temple with the idols.... - -“Cortes and the rest of us at last grew weary with the inspection of so -many idols and the implements used for sacrifices, and we returned to our -quarters accompanied by a great number of the chief men and caciques, -whom Montezuma had ordered to attend us.” - -It is unnecessary here to follow farther the movements of the conquerors -(_conquistadores_) of New Spain. The beautiful and famous metropolis of -Mexico, twenty-two months after Cortes and his followers had entered -it, was in ruins, filled with the innumerable dead bodies of its heroic -defenders. The siege of the city lasted ninety-three days, ending the -13th of August, 1521. When the terrible drama ended, Cortes permitted -those of its inhabitants who had not been killed, starved, or stricken -with disease, to leave the charnel city. “The causeways,” says Diaz, -“were crowded for three days and nights with men, women, and children, on -their way to the main-land. These poor beings were much emaciated, and -had a deathlike appearance.... The houses were found filled with dead -bodies.... The soil in the city looked as if it had been ploughed, for -the famished inhabitants had dug every root out of the ground, and had -even peeled the bark from the trees to appease their hunger. We did not -find any fresh water in the city, for that in all the wells was salty. -During the horrible famine the Mexicans had not eaten the flesh of their -countrymen, although they greedily devoured that of the Tlascallans -and Spaniards. Certainly no people in this world ever suffered so much -from hunger, thirst, and the horrors of war, as the inhabitants of this -great city.” As the emperor’s share of the booty, Cortes sent to Spain -two vessels carrying eighty-eight thousand _pesos_ of gold in bars, and -the wardrobe of Montezuma. “The latter,” Diaz observes, “was a valuable -present, and well worthy of our great emperor’s acceptance, for it -embraced jewels of the greatest value, pearls of the size of hazel-nuts, -and various precious stones, the number of which my memory will not -permit me to designate. At the same time were sent the bones of the -giants which we found in the temple of Cojohuacan, which were similar -to those given to us by the Tlascallans that we had previously sent to -Spain.”[332] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -1518-1524. - - -That part of the coast of the continent, now included in the territory of -the states of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and the westerly -portion of Florida, was first discovered and explored by Alonso Alvarez -de Pineda. The fleet which this Spaniard commanded was fitted out by -Francisco de Garay, the wealthy governor of the island of Jamaica, who -had accompanied Columbus to the New World in 1493. Bernal Diaz, in his -history of the conquest of New Spain, thus speaks of this expedition: “In -the year 1518, when the report of our having discovered this country, -under Cordoba and Grijalva, and of the twenty thousand _pesos_ which came -into the hands of Diego Velasquez, had spread through the whole of the -West Indies,” and when Garay “received information of a new expedition -that was destined for New Spain, under Hernando Cortes, he [Francisco -de Garay] was seized with a great desire likewise to discover some new -countries, and certainly he had more wealth at his command than we to fit -out a fleet for such a purpose. He had learned considerable about the -riches of the new countries from our old chief pilot Alaminos, and how -thickly populated the provinces were on the river Panuco; and as several -other sailors, who had accompanied us on those expeditions, confirmed -what Alaminos had told him, he thought that it was to his advantage -to request his majesty to grant him the permission to make further -discoveries on the river Panuco, and to appoint him governor of all the -lands he should discover. For this purpose he dispatched his major-domo, -Juan de Torralva, to Spain, with letters and presents for those who at -that time administered the affairs of the Indies, soliciting them to -procure him the appointment mentioned. - -“His majesty was at the time in Flanders, and the president of the -council of the Indies, Don Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca, bishop of Burgos -and titular archbishop of Rosano, with the two licentiates Zapata and -Vargas, and the secretary Lopez de Conchillos, managed the affairs of the -Indies as they pleased. Garay therefore easily obtained the appointment -of adelantado and governor of the provinces bordering on the river -San Pedro and San Pablo, and of all the countries he should discover. -By virtue of this appointment he fitted out three vessels, having on -board two hundred and forty men, including a strong body of cavalry, -cross-bowmen, and musketeers. The chief command of this fleet he gave to -Alonso Alvarez de Pineda.[333]” - -It is further related that the explorers set sail in 1519, toward “the -peninsula of Florida, in twenty-five degrees of north latitude, for -Florida appeared to them to be a very attractive island, and they thought -that it was better to settle on islands than on the main-land, because -they could more easily conquer the natives and keep them in subjection. -They landed, but the people of Florida killed so many of them that they -did not dare to settle there. They then sailed along the coast and came -to the river of Panuco, five hundred leagues from the peninsula of -Florida, measured on a course along the coast. The natives attacked them -at every place. Many of them were killed at Chila [near the mouth of -the river Panuco], where the natives flayed and eat those who fell into -their hands, and hung up the skins in their temples to commemorate their -valor.”[334] - -Diaz further observes: “While we were lying at Villa Segura, Cortes was -informed by letters that one of the vessels which Garay had fitted out -for the purpose of forming settlements on the river Panuco had arrived -at Vera Cruz. This vessel was commanded by a certain Comargo, and had -on board more than sixty soldiers, who were all in bad health, with -their bodies greatly swelled. This Comargo gave the particulars of the -unfortunate termination of Garay’s expedition to the river Panuco. - -“The Indians had massacred the commander-in-chief, Alonso Alvarez de -Pineda, and all his soldiers and horses, and then had set fire to his -vessels. Comargo alone had been fortunate enough to escape with his men -on board of one of the vessels, and had steered for Vera Cruz, where the -explorers arrived half famished, for they had not been able to procure -any provisions from the enemy. This Comargo, it was said, had taken the -vows of the order of the Dominicans. - -“Comargo and his men, by moderate advances, at last arrived at Villa -Segura, for they were so weakened that they could scarcely move along. -When Cortes saw in what a terrible condition they were, he commended them -to our care, and showed Comargo and all his men every possible kindness. -If I remember rightly, Comargo died soon after, and also several of his -men.”[335] - -The fields of the explorations of Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, Juan de -Grijalva, Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, and Juan Ponce de Leon are -represented on a traced map of the coast of the continent and of the new -lands (_traza de las costas de tierra-firme y de las tierras nuevas_), -made in 1521, to define the limits of the jurisdictions of Juan Ponce -Leon, Francisco de Garay, and Diego Velasquez.[336] - -On the peninsula of Florida, delineated on the map, is inscribed in -Spanish: “Florida called Bimini, which Juan Ponce discovered.” West of -it is a broken line and this inscription: “As far as this Juan Ponce -discovered.” At some distance farther west is another line of limitation -and this explanation: “From here Francisco Garay began to discover.” -West of this is the early designation of the Mississippi River, “Rio del -Espiritu Santo” (River of the Holy Spirit). Southward beyond the mouth -of the Panuco River is a third broken line and the inscription: “As far -as this place Francisco de Garay discovered toward the west, and Diego -Velazquez toward the east as far as Cabo de las Higueras, which the -Pinzons discovered, and the population has given it to them.” - -[Illustration: TRAZA DE LAS COSTAS DE TIERRA-FIRME Y DE LAS TIERRAS -NUEVAS. - -A tracing of the coasts of the Continent and of the New Lands, 1521, in -the third volume of Navarrete’s “Coleccion de los Viages.”] - -According to these _memoranda_ and the statements of Herrera, the Spanish -historian, Juan Ponce de Leon explored the eastern coast of Florida -from La Cruz, south of the thirty-first parallel, to a point on the -southwestern coast, perhaps as far as Appalachee Bay. Alonso Alvarez de -Pineda’s explorations, it would seem, began at Appalachicola Bay and -ended at the Panuco River.[337] - -The more northerly part of the eastern coast of Florida and coast of the -present state of Georgia were inspected by the officers and crews of -two vessels, equipped in 1520 in the port of La Plata, San Domingo, by -seven citizens of that island. The ships were fitted out to sail among -the Bahama Islands to kidnap Indians to work in the mines and on the -plantations. Among the projectors of the expedition was Lucas Vasquez de -Ayllon.[338] When the kidnapers arrived among the Bahama Islands they -found them depopulated. “They determined,” it is said, “to go farther -toward the north to search for a new country rather than return without -any slaves. They reached a country called Chicora and Gualdape, in -thirty-two degrees of north latitude”; where there was a cape, afterward -called Cabo de Santa Elena (Cape of Saint Helen), and the Rio Jordan -(River Jordan).[339] - -“When our men steered toward the shore,” Peter Martyr relates, “the -inhabitants, astonished at the sight of the ships, imagined that some -monster was approaching. In order to satisfy their curiosity they flocked -in great numbers to the shore. When our people were about to land with -their boats the Indians ran rapidly away. As they fled our men pursued. -Some of the youngest and the fastest runners overtook two of the natives, -a man and a woman. They brought these to the ships, dressed them, and -gave them their liberty. Impressed by this evidence of good-will the -Indians returned in crowds to the beach. The king of the country, -learning how our men had dealt with the man and the woman, and seeing the -new and costly garments upon them (for the Indians only clothe themselves -with the skins of lions or of other animals), sent fifty of his people to -ours bearing the productions of the country. When visited by our people -he was friendly and hospitable. When they expressed a desire to see the -surrounding country he gave them guides and guards. Wherever they went -the inhabitants came reverently to them with presents as unto gods to be -adored, especially when they saw them having beards, and clothed with -linen and silken garments. But what! The Spaniards violated the laws -of hospitality. For by craft and various cunning devices, after they -had seen all that they wished, they so managed that on an appointed day -the Indians visited the ships to inspect them. When the vessels were -crowded with these innocent people, the anchors were weighed and the -sails hoisted, and the Indians were carried away mourning into servitude. -Instead of friends, they made the people of those regions enemies, and -having found them contented they left them miserable, having taken -children from parents, and husbands from wives. Of the two ships one only -returned, the other was never seen again. It was conjectured that all -on board were drowned, the guilty and the guiltless, for it was an old -ship.... - -“While they were there they explored the two principal regions, Chicora -and Duharhe.... They say that the people of Chicora are half black or -tawny as our farmers are, burned and tanned by the sun. The men allow -their hair to grow long, which often extends down to their girdles. The -hair of the women is much longer. Both sexes bind up their hair. The -men have no beards. Whether or not they are so naturally or so by art -is unknown; however, they take great pride in having smooth faces.... -Leaving Chicora they went to the other side of the bay, and took -possession of the region called Duharhe.” - -Peter Martyr further observes that Ayllon had been a persistent solicitor -at the court of Spain, and that he wanted to obtain letters-patent to go -again to these countries “to plant a colony there.[340] ... He brought -one of the natives of Chicora with him.... While he remained [in Spain] -prosecuting his business, I sometimes had Ayllon, the master, and the -Chicoran, his servant, as my guests. The Chicoran is not a dull person -nor superficially intelligent. He has learned the Spanish language -passably well. The things which Ayllon showed me, written by his men -and reported by the Chicoran, that are strange and remarkable, I will -relate.... Ayllon says the natives there [in Duharhe] are white, which -also Franciscus, the tawny Chicoran, asserts, and that they have long -yellow hair hanging down to their ankles. - -“These people have a king of giant-like proportions, called Datha, and -they say that the queen, his wife, is not much smaller.... This king -being asked why he and his wife were so remarkably tall and the other -people not, replied that their height was not hereditary, but that it had -been caused by violent treatment. While they were infants in the charge -of nurses their parents sent for those practicing the art, who anointed -their limbs for a number of days with certain decoctions of herbs to -soften their tender bones, which in time became as pliable as lukewarm -wax. They then stretched their limbs, often leaving them almost dead. -Thereupon the nurses, who had been fed with certain strength-producing -meats, suckled them, the infants being covered with warm cloths. When -they had again regained their vigor the practitioners again twisted -and pulled their bones as they had previously done. This treatment was -repeated from time to time until their limbs were lengthened so much that -when they reached maturity they had the desired tallness.... - -“There is another region near Duharhe called Xapida. In it they say -pearls and a precious stone resembling a pearl are to be found, which -the natives highly prize. In all the country explored by them there were -herds of deer kept like cattle with us. The deer fawn at home, and there -they also rear their young. These deer, when free, wander and pasture in -the woods during the day and at night return to their young. They are -confined in pens and allow themselves to be milked.... The people fatten -many kinds of fowl, as chickens, ducks, geese, and the like. Their bread -is maize, the same as that of the people of the islands.... The grain of -the maize is like our panic of Insubria, [in Italy,] but in size like -pease. They sow another kind of corn called Xathi. They believe it is -millet.... The natives have several varieties of potatoes, but they are -small.... The Spaniards speak of many regions which they think are under -the government of one and the same king,—Hitha, Xamunabe, Tihe. - -“In this country they say there is a caste of priests differing from the -people. These priests are held in great reverence by the inhabitants -of the surrounding country. The natives of this region cut their hair, -leaving only two curled locks hanging down in front of their ears, which -locks they tie under their chins. The Spaniards explored many regions of -this great country, which tracts they called Arambe, Guacaia, Quohathe, -Tanzacca, Pahor. The inhabitants are all somewhat tawny and swart. None -of them have any knowledge of letters, but they possess many traditions -which they preserve and relate in rhymes and songs. They exercise -themselves in dancing and skipping, and find much amusement in playing -ball, for they are very nimble and skillful. The women sew and spin, and -although for the most part they are dressed in the skins of wild animals, -they have cotton and make thread from the fibres of certain tough plants, -as our hemp or flax. There is another region called Inzignanin.”[341] - -According to Gomara’s geographical description of the coast of North -America, the explorations of the Spaniards who discovered Tierra de -Ayllon (the Land of Ayllon) extended from the Cape of St. Helen, in 32°, -northwardly forty leagues to the River Jordan. If Cape St. Helen were a -point of land near the mouth of the Combahee River, the river Jordan was -likely the Santee River, in South Carolina.[342] - -Among the most renowned of the various maritime achievements which gave -great fame to Spanish enterprise in seeking for a sea-path to Cathay by -sailing toward the west, was that of the circumnavigation of the globe -in the years 1519-1522. The remarkable voyage was begun by Fernam de -Magalhaens, a Portuguese navigator. The first account of the expedition -was written by Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian chevalier, who accompanied -Magalhaens. Pigafetta’s connection with the exploration is explained by -him in the opening chapter of his history of the voyage: “I learned that -a squadron of five vessels were under equipment at Seville, destined for -the discovery of the Molucca Islands from which we get our spices, and -that Fernam de Magalhaens,[343] a Portuguese gentleman, and a commander -of the order of St. Iago de la Spata, who had already more than once -traversed the ocean with great reputation, was made captain-general of -the expedition.[344] Therefore I immediately repaired to Barcelona to -request permission of his majesty to be one of the number of persons to -go on this voyage. My request was granted.” - -The interested historian then relates: “The captain-general, Fernam de -Magalhaens, had determined to undertake a long voyage across the ocean -where the winds are violent and storms quite frequent. He also resolved -to take a course not yet explored by any navigator, but this bold purpose -he was cautious in disclosing lest some one should try to dissuade -him from it by magnifying the risk he would run and thus dishearten -his men. Besides the dangers common to a voyage like this one was the -disadvantageous circumstance that the four other vessels under his -command were in charge of captains inimical to him solely because he was -a Portuguese and they were Spaniards.” - -The fleet sailed from the port of Seville, on Monday morning, the tenth -of August, 1519. The five ships proceeded southwardly along the coast of -Africa, passed between Cape Verd and the islands of the Cape Verd group, -and after reaching Sierra Leone, stood for the coast of Brazil. - -“After we crossed the equator,” says Pigafetta, “we lost sight of the -north star. We then steered south-southwest, making for Terra del Verzino -(Land of Red wood), in latitude twenty-three degrees thirty minutes south -latitude.[345] This country is a continuation of that in which Cape St. -Augustine is situated, in eight degrees thirty minutes south latitude.” - -The squadron entered the port now known as that of Rio Janeiro on St. -Lucy’s day, the thirteenth of December. - -“The land of Brazil, which produces every thing in abundance, is as large -as Spain, France, and Italy united. It is one of the countries acquired -by the king of Portugal. The people of Brazil are not Christians, nor -are they idolaters, for they worship nothing.... They go entirely naked, -the women as well as the men. Their houses are long cabins, which they -call _boi_. They lie on cotton-nets called hammocks fastened at the -ends to two strong posts. Their fire-places are on the ground. Their -_bois_ frequently contain a hundred men, with their wives and children, -consequently there is always considerable noise in these houses.... - -“The people of Brazil, both men and women, paint their bodies and -particularly their faces in a singular manner with different figures. -They have short, woolly hair on their heads, but none on other parts -of their bodies, for they pluck it out. They have a dress made of the -interwoven feathers of the parrot, and so arranged that the large quills -of the wings and tail form a girdle about their loins, giving the wearer -a unique and grotesque appearance. Almost all the men have their lower -lips pierced with three holes, through which they thrust a slender -cylindrical stone about two inches long. The women and children do not -wear this cumbersome ornament.... Their color is more of an olive than a -black.” - -[Illustration: FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA. - -ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.] - -After anchoring thirteen days in the port of Rio Janeiro, the fleet -coasted southward to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, where, as -Pigafetta relates: “Juan de Solis, while on a similar voyage of -discovery, was with sixty of his crew devoured by cannibals, in whom they -placed too much confidence.” - -At the beginning of winter, in the month of May, 1520, the fleet reached -the port of St. Julian, “in forty-nine degrees thirty minutes,” where -they anchored for five months.[346] Here the explorers were visited by -a number of giants. Pigafetta, describing one of the visitors, remarks: -“This man was so prodigiously large that our heads scarcely reached -to his waist. He had an attractive appearance. His face was broad and -painted red, with the exception of a circle of yellow round his eyes -and two spots, figured like hearts, on his cheeks. His hair, which was -thin, was whitened with some kind of a powder. His coat, or rather his -mantle, was made of furs, well sewed together, taken from an indigenous -animal, which afterward we had an opportunity to see. This animal [the -guanaco] has the head and ears of a mule, the body of a camel, the legs -of a stag, and the tail of a horse, and, like the latter, neighs. This -man also wore shoes made of the skin of the same animal. In his left hand -he carried a short and heavy bow; the string, somewhat thicker than a -lute’s, was made of an intestine of the animal already mentioned. In his -other hand he held arrows made of short reeds, with feathers at one end, -similar to our arrows, and at the other, instead of iron, a white and -black flint.... - -“The women are not as tall as the men, but they are much stouter.... They -paint and dress in the same manner as their husbands, and use the thin -skin of an animal to cover their nakedness. They were, in our judgment, -far from handsome, nevertheless their husbands seemed jealous.... - -“Savage as these Indians are, they are not without their medicaments. -When they have a pain in the stomach, in place of an active medicine they -thrust an arrow far down the throat to cause them to vomit.... If they -have the headache, they make a gash in their forehead, and do the same -with other parts of their body where they suffer pain, to draw from the -affected part a considerable quantity of blood.... - -“Their hair is cut circularly, like that of monks, but it is longer, and -they confine it round the head with a cotton-string, in which bandage -they place their arrows when they go hunting.... It appears that their -religion is limited to adoring the devil. They pretend that when one of -them is on the point of death, ten or twelve demons appear dancing and -singing around the dying person.... These people, as I have already said, -clothe themselves with the skin of an animal, and also cover their huts -with the same kind of skin. They transport their huts, for they have no -fixed place of abode, and wander about from place to place like gypsies. -They live on raw meat and a sweet root called _capac_.... Our captain -gave these people the name of Patagonians.... - -“Scarcely had we anchored in this roadstead before the four captains of -the other vessels plotted to murder the captain-general. These traitors -were Juan of Carthagena, inspector of the fleet, Luis de Mendoza, the -treasurer, Antonio Cocca, the paymaster, and Gaspar de Casada. The plot -was discovered. The first named was flayed alive, and the second stabbed -to the heart. Gaspar de Casada was forgiven, but in a few days he was -again treacherous. Then the captain-general (who did not dare to take -Casada’s life, as he was made a captain by the emperor,) drove him from -the fleet and left him in the country of the Patagonians, with a priest, -his accomplice.... - -“We planted a cross on the summit of a neighboring mountain, which we -named Monte Cristo, and took possession of the country in the name of the -king of Spain.... - -“Continuing our course toward the south, on the twenty-first of October, -in fifty-two degrees, we discovered a strait, which we called the Strait -of the Eleven Thousand Virgins (xi. mila Vergini), in honor of the day. -This strait, as it will hereafter appear, is four hundred and forty -miles, or one hundred and ten leagues long, and about a half league wide, -more or less.[347] It extends to another sea, which we named the Pacific -Ocean (Mar pacifico). The strait lies between lofty mountains covered -with snow, and the channel was so deep that we were compelled to anchor -close to the shore.[348] ... - -“The whole of the crew were so fully persuaded that this strait had no -western outlet, that we should have left it unexplored had it not been -for the profound scientific knowledge of the captain-general. Skillful -as he was intrepid, he knew that he had to sail through a very secluded -strait which he had seen marked on a chart, in the archives of the king -of Portugal, drawn by that most excellent man, Martin of Boemia.[349] - -“As soon as we entered the strait, imagined to be only a bay, the captain -sent the two ships, the San Antonio and La Concepcion, in advance to -explore it to its termination or to where it extended, while we, in the -ships La Trinidad and La Victoria, remained at its mouth.[350] - -“Two days passed before the vessels returned that had been sent to -examine the bottom of the bay. We began to conjecture that they had been -engulfed during the tempest which had occurred, for seeing smoke on shore -we imagined that those who had the good fortune to escape had kindled -fires to inform us of their existence and distress. But while in this -painful suspense we saw the ships coming toward us under full sail and -with their flags flying.... When we learned from those on board that they -had seen the prolongation of the bay, or, more correctly, of the strait, -we sailed to them to continue our voyage on this course, if possible. - -“When we had entered into the third bay, which I have already mentioned, -we saw two openings, or channels, the one running to the southeast, the -other to the southwest.... The captain-general sent the two vessels, the -San Antonio and La Concepcion, to the southeast to examine whether or not -this channel terminated in an open sea. The first set sail immediately -under press of canvas, not choosing to wait for the second, which the -pilot wished to leave behind, for he had intended to avail himself of the -darkness of the night to retrace his course and return to Spain by the -same way he had come. - -“This pilot was Estevan Gomez, who hated Magalhaens, for the sole reason -that when Magalhaens came to Spain to lay his project before the emperor -of going to the Moluccas by a western route, Gomez himself had already -requested, and was on the point of obtaining, some caravels for an -expedition of which he would have had the command. This expedition had -for its object new discoveries, but the arrival of Magalhaens prevented -his request from being granted, and he only obtained the subaltern -position of pilot. His disaffection was further increased by the thought -of his serving under a Portugese. In the course of the night he conspired -with the other Spaniards on board the ship. They put in irons and even -wounded the captain, Alvaro de Meschita, the cousin-german of the -captain-general, and carried him to Spain.”[351] - -When the strait was explored to its termination, the cape where the -strait ended was called, says Pigafetta, “Il Cabo Deseado” (The Desired -Cape). - -On Wednesday, the twenty-eighth of November, 1520, the three ships -left the strait and entered the unexplored expanse of the Pacific. “In -the course of three months and twenty days,” Pigafetta observes, “we -traversed nearly four thousand leagues on the ocean called by us the -Pacific, on account of our not having experienced during this period any -tempestuous weather. In this long space of time we did not descry any -land, except two desert islands. On these we saw nothing but birds and -trees, therefore we named them, Isole Sfortunato[352] (The Unfortunate -Islands).... The two islands are two hundred leagues apart. The first -lies in fifteen degrees south latitude, the second in nine degrees. -According to the measure which we made of the voyage with the chain at -the poop, we ran daily about sixty to seventy leagues.[353] If God and -the Holy Mother had not granted us a fortunate voyage we should all have -perished from hunger on so vast a sea. I do not think that any one will -hereafter venture on a similar voyage.[354] - -“If we had continued on a western course on the same parallel after -leaving the strait we should have circumnavigated the globe without -seeing any land except that extending from the Cape of the Eleven -Thousand Virgins, at the eastern head of the strait, in the Ocean Sea -(Mar oceano), to Cabo Deseado, at the western end, in the Pacific Sea -(Mar pacifico). The two capes are in fifty-two degrees south latitude. - -“The antarctic pole has not as many stars as the arctic. At the former -a large number of small stars cluster together which form two _nebulæ_. -They are separated from each other and are somewhat dim. In these -_nebulæ_ are two large and brilliant stars which move very little. These -indicate the antarctic pole. Although the needle declined somewhat from -the arctic pole it still oscillated toward it, but not with the same -force as when in the northern hemisphere. When the captain-general out at -sea directed the course in which the pilots should steer, he asked them -in what direction they steered. All of them replied that they bore in -the direction in which he had ordered them. He then informed them that -their course was wrong and directed them to correct the needle, because, -as they were in the southern hemisphere, it had not the same power to -designate the true north as in the northern hemisphere. When we got out -in the open sea, we saw, in the west, a cross of five very bright stars. - -“We steered northwest by west till we reached the equator in one hundred -and twenty-two degrees of longitude, west of the line of demarkation.... -After we crossed the equator we steered west by north. We then ran two -hundred leagues toward the west, when, changing our course again, we ran -west by south until we reached thirteen degrees of north latitude. We -proposed by this course to reach Cape Catticara which geographers have -placed in this latitude, but they are mistaken, for this cape lies twelve -degrees more toward the north.”[355] - -From the islands, which Magalhaens called “Isole de Ladroni,”[356] the -three ships stood toward the Philippine Islands, where, on one called -Matan, the captain-general was killed in an engagement with the natives, -on the twenty-seventh of April, 1521. It was at the island of Zubu, near -the former, “in ten degrees north latitude,” that Magalhaens, before his -death, received the first intelligence respecting the Molucca Islands. -On Wednesday, the sixth of November, 1521, the ships came in sight of -the long-sought Spice Islands, and on Friday, the eighth of November, -1521, the Victoria and the Trinidad arrived at the island of Tadore. -“We now,” Pigafetta remarks, “returned thanks to God and manifested our -joy by firing a round from all of our large guns. It will not excite -astonishment that we should be elated, when it is considered that we -had been at sea twenty-seven months, wanting two days, and had visited -numerous islands in search of those we had reached. - -“The Portuguese had reported that the Molucca Islands lay in the middle -of an impassable sea, full of shallows, and were surrounded by a cloudy, -foggy atmosphere. We, however, found the contrary, and never had less -than a hundred fathoms water all the way to the Molucca Islands.” -The latter were five in number: Tarenate, Tadore, Mutir, Machian and -Bachian.[357] When afterward cloves were found on the adjacent islands, -the name Moluccas, was applied to all the islands lying between the -Philippines and Java. - -After a short sojourn at the Spice Islands, the return voyage was made by -the ship La Victoria alone, commanded by Juan Sebastian del Cano,[358] -who set sail from Tadore on the twenty-first of December, 1521, the ship -La Concepcion having been burned at the island Bohol, and La Trinidad -having been left at the Moluccas in a leaking condition. Following the -route along the coast of Africa, the ship La Victoria arrived at Seville, -on Monday, the eighth of September, 1522, she having sailed in the entire -voyage, according to Pigafetta’s computation, fourteen thousand six -hundred leagues. Thus passed into history the wonderful achievement of -the first circumnavigation of the earth in three years and twenty-nine -days.[359] - -The signal success of the maritime enterprise of the Spaniards engendered -a spirit of jealousy among the Portuguese. The feeling of being -overshadowed by their persistent rival in reaching the Indies by the way -of the West led them to accuse the Spaniards of encroaching on their -commercial route to the Spice Islands, and of breaking the treaty of -Tordesillas. The Spaniards in defence claimed that the Moluccas or the -Spice Islands, found by Magellan’s companions, were not within the limits -of the territory of the Portuguese as defined by the papal bull. - -To settle these national differences the notable congress of Badajos -was convened in the spring of 1524. The king of each country sent to -it special commissioners, among which number were Fernando Columbus, -Sebastian Cabot, Diego Ribero, and Estevan Gomez. For a number of days -the two parties angrily disputed concerning the indefinite position of -the line of demarkation as established by the treaty of Tordesillas in -1494. It was a question not easily decided where among the Cape Verd -Islands the point was, through which, at the distance of three hundred -and seventy leagues from it, the line of limitation passed to the poles, -for the group of the Cape Verd Islands occupies a space in extent from -east to west of about one hundred and fifty miles. - -Wherever, east or west, they decided this point should be established -each party was aware that so much space would be gained or lost on the -opposite side of the earth by the one or the other of the two countries. -The congress, after many exciting disputations, finally ended its session -on the last day of May, without reaching any decision respecting the -position of the papal line of limitation. The admission that Spain had -full title to the Spice or Molucca Islands and that Portugal had acquired -the right of possession of a part of Brazil, were the chief concessions -made by this contentious body of learned men.[360] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -1504-1524. - - -The competitive zeal which Portugal, Spain, and England had displayed, -in searching for a short water-way to the eastern coast of Asia, in time -quickened the ambition of France to emulate these maritime powers in -discovering a desirable route across the Atlantic to the vast domains of -the Grand Khan of Cathay. The Gulf of St. Lawrence, as early as the year -1504, was frequented by the fishing vessels of France. The exploration of -the coast of the New Land, north of the present Atlantic territory of the -United States of America, is described by a famous French sea-captain of -Dieppe, in 1539. - -“The said land, that part running east and west [Cape Breton Island and -Nova Scotia?], was discovered about thirty-five years ago by the Bretons -[Britons?] and Normans; hence this land has been called the Cape of the -Bretons [Britons?]. - -“The other part [Newfoundland?] running north and south from Cape Ras to -Cape Buona Vista, including nearly seventy leagues, was discovered by the -Portuguese, and the remainder, as far as the Gulf of Castiles [north of -the Strait of Belle Isle], and still farther, was discovered by the said -Bretons [Britons?] and Normans.[361] - -“About thirty-three years ago, a ship of Honfleur first went there, of -which vessel Jean Denis was captain, and Gamart, of Rouen, pilot. In the -year 1508, a ship of Dieppe, called La Pensée, owned by Jean Ango, father -of the captain and viscount of Dieppe, sailed there, the master or patron -of the said ship being Thomas Aubert, and he was the first person who -brought here people from that country.”[362] - -In company with the Pensée, another ship, commanded by Giovanni da -Verrazzano, also sailed from the port of Dieppe. The two entering the -river of St. Lawrence, ascended it to the distance of eighty leagues. -The exploration of the river is thus described: “The people of Dieppe -continued their commercial intercourse with the East Indies. When they -heard of the discoveries which the Spaniards had made in America, they -found their emulation incited, and they equipped two vessels to discover -whether that part of the world did not extend its coast to the north. -They intrusted the command of the ships to two of their most skillful -captains, named Thomas Aubert and Jean Vérassen. These two ships sailed -from Dieppe at the beginning of the year 1508, and discovered the same -year the St. Lawrence River, to which they gave the name of Saint -Lawrence because they began to ascend it on this saint’s day [the tenth -of August]. They explored the river for more than eighty leagues, finding -the inhabitants friendly, with whom they made very profitable exchanges -for peltries.”[363] - -As related in the chronicle of Eusebius, printed at Paris in 1512, it -appears that Aubert and Verrazzano, on their departure from the New -Land, carried to France a number of natives. Under the date of 1509, it -is said: “Seven wild men were brought from that island (which is called -the New Land) to Rouen with their canoe, clothing, and weapons. They are -of a sooty color, with thick lips, and bearing marks on the face drawn -like blue veins along the cheek-bones from the ear to the middle of the -chin; with black hair and coarse like a horse’s mane; having no beard -throughout the whole life; no hair on any part of the body, except on -the head and eyebrows. They wear a girdle to cover their nakedness, in -which girdle is a sort of pouch; they form a dialect with their lips; -religion they have none. Their canoe is bark, which a man can lift on his -shoulders with one hand. Their weapons are large bows, the strings being -intestines or sinews of animals; their arrows are canes barbed with flint -or fish-bone. Their food is boiled flesh; their drink water. Of bread and -wine and money they have not the least use. They go naked or clad in the -skins of beasts,—bears, deer, sea-calves, and the like. Their country, -parallel to the seventh climate,[364] is nearer the West[365] than France -is farther from it.”[366] - -Although for a number of years, at the beginning of the sixteenth -century, this part of North America was visited by English, French, and -Portuguese seamen, it appears that no navigator had yet sailed along -the peculiarly marked and sinuous coast of the new continent between -the thirty-fourth and the forty-fifth parallels of north latitude. -Fortunately for France, Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine, who, in -1508, had sailed with Aubert to the New Land, was sent a second time on a -voyage of discovery toward the west.[367] As pertinently said by Asher: -“What Cadamosta had done for Portugal, Columbus for Spain, John Cabot for -England, that Verrazzano did for France.”[368] - -The history of Verazzano’s second visit to America rightly begins with -the attempt of the king of Portugal, in 1523, to impede the sailing of -the vessels preparing for the voyage. The means which King John III. of -Portugal employed to frustrate this undertaking are partly described by -D’Andrada, the Portuguese historian. He says: “At that time the king was -told by some Portuguese doing business in France that one João Varezano -[Giovanni da Varrazzano], a Florentine, offered himself to Francis to -discover other kingdoms in the East, which the Portuguese had not found, -and that in the ports of Normandy a fleet was making ready, under the -patronage of the admirals of the coast and the dissimulation of Francis, -to plant a colony in Santa Cruz, called Brazil, discovered and laid down -by the Portuguese on the second voyage to India.[369] Accordingly, he -[King John III.] sent to France an embassador, João da Silveyra, son of -Fernão da Silveyra, who delayed his going no longer than was necessary to -get ready.”[370] - -On his arrival at the court of France, Silveyra pursued his -investigations respecting the expedition, and on the twenty-fifth of -April, 1523, wrote to King John III., saying: - -“By what I hear Master João Verazano, who is going on the discovery -of Cathay, has not left up to this date for want of opportunity, and -because of differences, I understand, between himself and men; and on -this point, although knowing nothing positively, I have written my doubts -in accompanying letters. I shall continue to doubt, unless he take his -departure.”[371] Silveyra, according to what is said by D’Andrada, -“accomplished nothing he had in hand except to delay the voyage of the -Florentine.” - -Notwithstanding the secret machinations of the king of Portugal, -four vessels were finally fitted out and placed under the command of -Verrazzano, “to discover new lands.” Late in the year 1523, the fleet -set sail, but having encountered a severe storm in the North Sea, all -the ships were disabled, and Verrazzano, having returned to Brittany to -repair the two barques, La Normandie and La Dauphine, afterward sailed in -the Dauphine to the New Land.[372] - -When he returned to France, he wrote an interesting letter to Francis -I., king of France, dated “on board the ship La Dauphine, in the port -of Dieppe, in Normandy, July 8, 1524.”[373] In this communication -Verrazzano relates what had happened to his fleet in the North Sea, how -he had carried out the orders of the king by sailing in the Dauphine -toward the west to go to Cathay, where and when he discovered a new land -never before seen by men of ancient or modern times. He then describes -the people inhabiting the country, speaks of its various productions, -mentions the peculiar physical features of its coast, tells how many -leagues he had sailed along it, and concludes with a brief review of -the discoveries made to the year 1524 in the western hemisphere. His -remarks concerning his failure to find a convenient harbor where he -first descried land, of his unsuccessful search for one south of the -thirty-fourth parallel, of his steering afterward toward the north in -quest of a haven, and of his disappointment in this direction, are so -applicable to the peculiar features of this part of the eastern coast -of the United States, that it is easy to perceive that he faithfully -pictures the shores of South Carolina and North Carolina, along which he -began his explorations. The comparisons he makes respecting the natives, -the flora, the fauna, the climate, and the harbors of the more northern -part of the coast, prove that he had travelled extensively in other -parts of the world, and that he was well informed concerning the things -he commented upon in his letter. His geographical knowledge is far in -advance of that of the scientific men of his time, and he constantly -shows that he was practically acquainted with all the known means which -were then used to ascertain longitude, latitude, and the measurement -of distances. His opinion that the Orient extended around to the New -Land was well founded, since it was not known until the eighteenth -century that Behring’s Strait separated America from Asia. His reasoning -concerning the dimensions of the new continent, that if its breadth -corresponded to the extent of its sea-coast it doubtless exceeded Asia -in size, is logically correct. Verrazzano’s hopefulness that information -of a more satisfactory character respecting the extent of the territory -of the New Land would be obtained by other explorers, shows that he was -less thoughtful of the brilliancy of his own achievements than he was of -the more desirable and important results of future voyages to that part -of the present coast of the United States, between the thirty-fourth and -forty-fifth parallels, of which he is rightfully entitled to be regarded -the discoverer. Verrazzano wrote:[374] - - “Most Serene Sire: - - “After the past fortune on the northern coasts I did not write - to your most serene and Christian majesty concerning the - success of the four vessels ordered to the ocean to discover - new lands, thinking that you would be informed of all: how, by - the impetuous stress of the winds, we were compelled, with only - the ships La Normandie and La Dauphine, in a damaged condition, - to put back to Brittany, where they were mended. Your serene - majesty has heard of the wandering course we made with these, - armed as in war, along the shores of Spain, and afterward of - the new purpose to pursue, with the Dauphine alone, the first - voyage, from which having returned, I will give your serene - majesty an account of what we discovered.[375] - - “From the desert-rock[376] in the sea, near the island of - Madeira of the most serene king of Portugal, we departed with - the said Dauphine, on the seventeenth of the past month of - January, with fifty men, furnished with provisions, arms, and - other martial instruments, and naval stores for eight months. - Sailing westwardly, an easterly wind blowing pleasantly and - moderately, we ran in twenty-five days 800 leagues.[377] On the - fourteenth of February (_il di 14 Febbrajo_), we encountered a - storm as severe as any one navigating ever experienced, from - which we were enabled with divine help and goodness to escape, - to the praise of the glorious and fortunate name of the ship, - which endured the violent waves of the sea, and we pursued - our voyage, continuing toward the west, holding a little to - the north. In twenty-five more days (_in venti cinque altri - giorni_), we ran 400 other leagues, when there appeared a new - land, never before seen by men in ancient or modern times. - - “At first it seemed to be somewhat low. On approaching it - within a quarter of a league, we saw by the large fires made - on the shore that it was inhabited. We observed that the coast - trended toward the south, and we inspected it to discover some - harbor which we might enter with the ship to examine the nature - of the land, but for fifty leagues along it we could not find a - convenient haven where we could safely stay. Seeing the coast - continued to run toward the south, we determined to turn and go - back to the north, where we found the same want of harbors as - we ascended the coast.” - -[Illustration: A copy of a part of the map of the fourth part of the -world in the French work, “La Cosmographie Universelle,” by André Thevet, -printed in Paris in 1575. (The original part is about one-third larger.)] - -The New Land (_Nuova Terra_), discovered by Verrazzano, was first seen by -him on the tenth of March, (_old style_,) being that part of the coast of -the continent now included in the present territory of North Carolina, -north of Cape Fear,[378] on the thirty-fourth parallel of north latitude. -It appears that Verrazzano had thought of finding land on his way to the -Indies, for he says: “My intention in this voyage was to reach Cathay, -on the extreme coast of Asia, expecting, however, to find in the newly -discovered land some such obstacle as I found.” - -“Ordering a boat to carry us ashore, we beheld,” says Verrazzano, “many -people who had collected on the beach. Seeing us approaching, they fled. -Some, however, turned and gazed at us with much curiosity. Assuring -them by various signs, a number came near, manifesting great delight in -scrutinizing the peculiarities of our clothing, figure, and whiteness. -They indicated by signs where we could most easily land with the boat, -and proffered us some of their food. What we were able to learn of their -life and customs while on land, I will briefly relate to your majesty. - -“They go nearly naked, wearing only about the loins some skins of small -animals similar to the martens. A girdle of woven grass encircles the -body, to which they fasten the tails of animals, which hang down as far -as the knees. All the rest of the body is nude, as is also the head. Some -of them wear drapery in like manner made of the feathers of birds. The -color of these people is black (_neri_), not very different from that -of the Ethiopians. Their hair is black and thick, but not very long; it -is worn tied back upon the head in the form of a little tail.[379] In -person they are of good proportion, of middle-stature, a little above our -own, broad across the breast, strong in the arms, and well-formed in the -legs and other parts of the body; the only exception to their good looks -is that they have broad faces, but not all of them, for we saw many who -had sharp ones, with large black eyes and a fixed expression. They are -not very strong in body, but acute in mind, active and swift of foot as -far as we could perceive by observation. They greatly resemble in these -two last particulars the people of the East, especially those of the -remote regions. We were not able to learn much concerning their habits on -account of our short stay on land and the distance of our ship from the -shore.” - -Verrazzano designated his first landing-place on the coast of the New -Land by calling it Diepa, the Italian form of the French name Dieppe, -that of the port from which he had sailed to make discoveries in the -western hemisphere. Visconte de Maiollo, on his map of the world made in -1527, places the name Diepa on the coast of Francesca, a little north of -Terra Florida.[380] - -Describing his next place of anchorage, Verrazzano says: “We found -not far from this people another, whose mode of life we judged to be -similar to that of the former. The whole shore is covered with fine -sand about fifteen feet deep, rising in the form of little hills about -fifty paces broad. Ascending farther, we found several arms of the sea -which, entering through inlets, washed the shore on each side as the -coast trends. An extensive country appears, rising somewhat above the -level of the sandy beach in beautiful fields and broad plains, covered -with immense forests, more or less dense, the foliage of the trees being -of various colors, too attractive and charming to be described. I do not -believe that these are like the Hercynian forest, or the rough solitudes -of Scythia, or the northern regions full of vines and trees, but growing -with palms,[381] laurels, cypresses, and other varieties of trees unknown -in Europe, which exhale a very sweet fragrance a great distance. We -could not examine them closely for the reasons already mentioned, and -not on account of any difficulty in traversing the woods, which, on the -contrary, are easily penetrated. - -“As the Orient stretches around to this country,[382] I do not think -that it is devoid of the same kind of drugs and aromatic liquors, nor -of other resources as gold and the like, which the color of the earth -indicated.[383] The country abounds with many animals as deer, stags, -hares, and the like. It is plentifully supplied with lakes and ponds of -running water, and with a great variety of birds, fit and useful for -every kind of pleasant and delightful sport. This land lies in 34°. The -air is salubrious, pure, and of a temperature neither hot nor cold. There -are no impetuous winds in these regions, the most prevalent being the -northwest and west. - -“When we were there in summer-time the sky was clear with little rain, -and if fogs and mists were at any time driven in by the south wind, they -quickly disappeared, and the sky became again serene and bright. The sea -is tranquil and not stormy. Although the whole coast is low and without -harbors, it is not dangerous to navigate, being free from rocks and bold, -so that within four or five fathoms from the shore there are twenty-four -feet of water at all times of tide, and this depth uniformly increases -as you go farther into the sea. The holding ground is so good that no -ship can part her cable, however strong the wind may be, as we proved by -experience, for while riding at anchor on the coast we were overtaken by -a gale in the beginning of March, when the winds are high, as is usual in -all countries, and we found our anchor broken before it started from its -place or moved at all.” - -“March being the season in our southern climate, when vegetation of all -kinds is putting forth,” says an American writer, residing in South -Carolina, “the woods presented to the stranger a greater variety of -charms than he had ever beheld. The trees, green and beautiful with the -living verdure of our early spring, were bending down with rich clusters -of golden jessamine, which spread their rich perfume over the whole air, -while the underbrush embraced a collection of aromatic shrubs and wild -flowers, which might easily be mistaken for the rich spices of oriental -production.”[384] - -After inspecting the sandy, harborless shore of Onslow Bay, Verrazzano -sailed eastwardly in order to double Cape Lookout, in 34° 37´ north -latitude. “We set sail from this place,” he says, “continuing to coast -along the shore, which we found turned to the west, [east in the -direction in which he was sailing]. The inhabitants were numerous, for -we saw every-where many fires.[385] While at anchor on this coast, there -being no harbor to enter, we sent the boat to the shore with twenty-five -men to obtain water, but it was impossible to land without endangering -the boat, on account of the very high surf thrown upon the shore by the -sea, as it was an open roadstead.[386] Many natives came to the beach, -and signified by various friendly signs that we might trust ourselves on -land. One of their noble deeds of friendship deserves to be made known to -your majesty. A young sailor was attempting to swim ashore through the -surf to carry them some knick-knacks, as little bells, looking-glasses, -and similar trifles, when after approaching near to three or four natives -and casting them the things and turning about to get back to the boat, he -was overturned by the waves and so dashed by them upon the beach that he -lay there as if he were dead. When the people saw him in this condition -they ran and took him up by the head, legs, and arms, and carried him -some distance from the surf. The young man, finding himself borne off -in this way, uttered very loud shrieks in fear and dismay, while they -answered as best they could in their language, intimating that he had -no cause for fear. Afterward they laid him down at the foot of a little -hill, where they took off his shirt and trousers, and examined him, -expressing the greatest astonishment at the whiteness of his skin. Our -sailors in the boat seeing a great fire kindled and their companion -placed very near it, full of fear, as is usual in all cases of a novel -character, imagined that the natives were about to roast him for food. -But as soon as he had recovered his strength, after a short stay with -them, and had shown by signs that he wished to return to the boat, they -affectionately hugged him and accompanied him to the beach, where leaving -him, they withdrew to a little hill, that he might feel more free, and -watched him until he was safe in the boat. This young man reported that -these people were black as the others, that they had shining skin, -middle-stature, but sharper faces and very delicate bodies and limbs, and -that they were inferior in strength but quicker in thought. This is all -he observed.” - -After this adventure, which likely occurred somewhere on the coast near -the thirty-sixth parallel, perhaps in the vicinity of Roanoke Island, -North Carolina, Verrazzano steered northwardly, and while sailing at -night passed by the entrance to Chesapeake Bay and anchored off the coast -of Virginia, some distance north of Cape Charles, which is in 37° 3´. - -“Departing from this place [the coast of North Carolina], and always -following the coast which trended toward the north, we came,” says -Verrazzano, “in the space of fifty leagues to another land, which -appeared very beautiful and full of large forests. We approached it -and going ashore with twenty men, went back from the coast about two -leagues, and found that the people had fled and hid themselves in the -woods in fear. By searching around we discovered in the grass a very old -woman with a young girl of about eighteen or twenty years of age, who -had concealed themselves for the same reason. The old woman carried two -infants on her shoulders, and behind her neck a little boy about eight -years old. When we came upon them they began to shriek and make signs to -the men who had fled to the woods. We gave them a part of our provisions, -which they accepted with delight, but the girl would not touch any, -every thing we offered to her being thrown down in great anger. We took -the little boy from the old woman to carry him with us to France, and -would have taken the girl also, who was very beautiful and very tall, -but it was impossible on account of the piercing shrieks she uttered, -when we attempted to lead her away. Having to pass some woods, and being -far from the ship, we determined to leave her and only take the boy. -We found these people fairer (_più bianchi_) than those we had passed. -From certain grasses hanging from the branches of trees, they make their -clothing; the grasses being woven together with threads of wild hemp. -Their heads were uncovered and of the same shape as the other natives we -had seen. Their food is a kind of pulse which abounds there, different in -color and in size from ours, and of a very pleasant taste. Besides they -use birds and fish for food, which they take with snares, and bows made -of hard wood. Their arrows are reeds, in the ends of which they fasten -the bones of fish and of animals. The animals in these regions are wilder -than those in Europe by being more frequently molested by those hunting -them. We saw many of their boats constructed of a single tree, twenty -feet long and four feet wide, fabricated without the use of stone or iron -or other metal. Along the whole coast which we explored for the space -of two hundred leagues, we saw no stone of any sort. To hollow out the -log they burn as much of it as will form the concave part of the boat, -and also form the ends which are to be the prow and stern, to make the -boat float well. The land in situation, fertility, and beauty is like the -other, covered with forests, filled with different kinds of trees but not -such fragrant ones, since the region is farther north and colder.” - -While exploring the peninsula of Virginia, the warm-hearted and -sympathetic Florentine was pleasingly reminded of his own delightful -country by seeing many wild grape-vines festooning the tall forest trees. -He observed that the savages carefully removed the shading shrubbery near -the prolific vines, so that the ripening rays of the sun could fall on -the green fruit. - -“We saw in this country,” he says, “many vines growing naturally, -entwining themselves about the trees, climbing as they do in Cisalpine -Gaul, which, if they were dressed in the right way of cultivation by -husbandmen, they would produce without doubt the best of wines, because -often the fruit of that drinking is agreeable and sweet, seeing it is -not different from our own, (_perche più volte il frutto di quello -beendo, veggendo suave e dolce non dal nostro differente_). The vines are -held in high estimation by the inhabitants, for they take away all the -surrounding concealing shrubbery to enable the fruit to grow.[387] - -“We also found,” Verrazzano further relates, “wild roses, violets, -lilies, and many kinds of plants and fragrant flowers differing from our -own. We cannot describe the habitations of the people as the structures -were in the interior, but from various indications we concluded they -were formed of trees and shrubs. There were also many signs which led us -to suppose that the inhabitants often sleep in the open air without any -covering but the sky. We are ignorant of their other habits. We believe, -however, that all the people we were among live in the same way.” - -When Verrazzano was on land with the twenty men, he crossed the narrow -peninsula of Virginia and beheld the wide expanse of Chesapeake Bay.[388] -This great body of water, stretching toward the north and south as far -as he could see, and spreading westward to an unknown distance, led -the surprised explorer to imagine that it was a part of the Indian -Ocean, (_Mare Indicum_), by which, if there were a navigable entrance -to it, he might sail to Cathay.[389] Ignorant of the fact that he had -already passed at night the channel leading to this expanse of water, -Verrazzano entertained the thought that he might discover one along the -coast farther northward. Although he determined not to sail again at -night along the New Land, and resolved to inspect its coast more closely -thereafter, he failed to find a passage to the assumed western sea, when -he sailed northward. After returning to France, he made a map on which -he represented this sea separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a narrow -neck of land, similar in outline and situation to the northern part of -the peninsula of Virginia. This is corroborated by Hakluyt, the English -collector, who says: “Master John Verazanus, which had been thrise on -that coast, in an olde excellent mappe which he gave to King Henrie -the eight, and is yet in the custodie of Master Locke, doth so lay it -out.”[390] - -[Illustration: FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA. - -ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.] - -Verrazzano’s brother, Hieronymus, also made a map of New France, on which -he placed this explanatory inscription respecting this part of the coast, -which he also delineates as a narrow tract of land: “From this eastern -sea [the Atlantic] one beholds the western sea; there are six miles of -land between them.”[391] The Sea of Verrazzano (_Mare de Verrazana_), -represented on the fan-shaped map made by Michael Locke, in 1582, was, as -Hakluyt affirms, “according to Verazanus plat,” which “laieth out the sea -makinge a little necke of land in 40 degrees of latitude much like the -streyte necke or istmus of Dariena.”[392] - -Sailing northwardly from the peninsula of Virginia, Verrazzano proceeded -leisurely along the coast searching for an entrance to the so-called -western sea. Although he does not speak of entering Delaware Bay, -there is no testimony to contradict the assertion that he explored it. -Describing his voyage along the coasts of the present states of Maryland, -Delaware, and New Jersey, Verrazzano writes: “After having remained here -three days, riding at anchor off the coast [of Virginia], for we could -not find a harbor, we determined to depart, sailing always along the -shore, which trended to the northeast, only navigating in day-time and -coming to anchor at night.” - -About the last of April, 1524, the Dauphine arrived off the low point of -land, now called Sandy Hook, designated on Maiollo’s map of 1527 as C. -de S. Maria (Cape of St. Mary).[393] Seeing the convenient haven north -of it, Verrazzano changed the vessel’s course and slowly sailed into the -spacious roadstead. Having found a suitable riding-place, the French -barque cast her anchor in the sight of a multitude of interested natives, -who from the neighboring hills witnessed the first mooring of a European -ship in the tranquil waters of the large bay. - -The ship’s boat being manned, Verrazzano began to explore the mouth of -the great river, as he designated the channel now called the Narrows. -Eager to know the destination of the strange explorers, the curious -natives thronged the shores of Staten and Long islands as Verrazzano and -his men passed up the Narrows in mid-stream toward the upper bay, which -the enthusiastic Italian denominated a very beautiful lake. Entering the -commodious bay, Verrazzano hastily surveyed its islands and inlets, the -mouth of the noble river flowing into it, and the distant highlands dimly -defined along the northern horizon. Describing his short exploration of -the upper bay of New York, Verrazzano writes: - -“At the end of one hundred leagues we discovered a very delightful place -among some small hills, eminences, between which ran a very great river -(_una grandissima riviera_) to the ocean, which was deep within to the -mouth, and from the sea to the enlargement of the bay the rise of the -tide was eight feet, and through it any heavy ship can pass.[394] - -“As in good duty we did not wish to run the risk of penetrating the coast -without knowledge of the mouth of the river, we took the boat and entered -the river within the country where we found it to be thickly inhabited -and the people resembling the others we had seen, adorned with birds’ -feathers of different colors, coming toward us with evident delight, -uttering very loud cries of admiration, indicating, if we had to land -with the boat, where it was most safe. We entered the said river within -the country about half a league, where we saw it formed a most beautiful -lake (_un bellissimo lago_), about three leagues in compass, upon which -we saw boats, thirty in number, moving from one part to another with -innumerable people, who passed from shore to shore to see us.[395] -Very suddenly, as is wont to happen to those navigating, an impetuous -contrary wind blew in from the sea, compelling us to return to the ship. -We departed from this region with much displeasure on account of its -extent and attractiveness, for we believed that it was not without some -resources of wealth as all the hills indicated the existence of minerals -in them.” - -As a geographical designation for the very great river (_una grandissima -riviera_), the name Grande (Great) River was used by some of the most -celebrated map-makers of Europe, during the sixteenth century. In the -seventeenth century, when the Dutch took possession of this part of New -France, the Dutch synonym, “Groote,” was substituted for the Italian -designation. The Spaniards, who explored the coast of North America after -Verrazzano had inspected it, gave different names to the river. - -Henry Hudson was induced to explore the Grande River by Captain John -Smith, who believed that the English navigator could find a strait -connecting it with the western sea (Mare Indicum) delineated on -Verrazzano’s map. In the summer of 1609, when Hudson attempted to sail to -Asia by a passage north of Novaya Zemlya, and was compelled to abandon -the project on account of the barrier of ice surrounding the island, it -is said he placed before the officers and crew of the Half Moon (Halve -Maen), the choice of one of two proposals. Respecting the proposals of -which they had the consideration, the Dutch historian, Van Meteren, thus -speaks: “Master Hudson gave them their choice of two things, the first -was to go to the coast of America, at the fortieth degree of latitude, -mostly incited to this by letters and maps which a certain Captain Smith -had sent him from Virginia, and on which he showed him a sea by which he -might circumnavigate their southern colony [Virginia] from the north, and -from there pass into a western sea. The other proposal was to seek the -passage by Davis’s Strait.”[396] - -Hudson, besides knowing the situation of the noble stream, was also -informed that it was called the Great (Grande) River. Robert Juet, the -journalist of the voyage of 1609, recording the incidents of the last -day’s exploration of the river, writes: “Within a while after, we came -out also of the great mouth of _the great Riuer_.”[397] - -De Laet, the Dutch historian, writing in 1625, mentions the fact that the -Dutch used the name “Great” for the river in preference to all the other -appellations designating it: “The great north river of New Netherland -was called by some the Manhattes river, from the people who dwell near -its mouth; by others, Rio de Montaignes (River of the Mountains), but by -our countrymen it was mostly called ‘_de groote rieviere_’ (the Great -river).”[398] As early as the year 1624, the name “Hudson’s River” was -inscribed on maps to designate the stream discovered by Verrazzano.[399] - -Sailing from the mouth of the Grande River, between the Cape of Saint -Mary (C. de S. Maria) and the point of land denominated Anguileme[400] -on Maiollo’s map of 1527, Verrazzano coasted along the south side of -Long Island for fifty leagues, at the end of which he passed the eastern -extremity of the island, now called Montauk Point. While seeking, during -a storm, a port of refuge eastward of Long Island, Verrazzano discovered -the island now called Block Island, which he describes as triangular -in form, and in size about equal to the island of Rhodes.[401] Block -Island lies southwest of Narragansett Bay, and is about eight miles long -and about five miles broad at its widest part. Verrazzano called it -Luisa, the name of the mother of King Francis I., Louise, the daughter -of Philippe, duke of Savoy. The orthography of the Italian name, as -presented by Visconte de Maiollo on his map of the world of 1527, was -soon corrupted by map-makers, and on a number of charts of the sixteenth -century it is inscribed “Brisa” and “Briso.” The names “Claude” and -“Claudia” appear on some maps as designations for it, used most likely, -in honor of Claude, the wife of Francis I., the first being the French -orthography of the appellation, and the latter the Italian. - -The departure of the Dauphine from the mouth of the Grande River, -Verrazzano thus describes: “Weighing anchor, we sailed fifty leagues -toward the east, as the coast trended in that direction, and always -in sight of it. At the end of the course we discovered an island of a -triangular form about ten leagues from the main-land, in size about equal -to the island of Rhodes, having many hills covered with trees, and well -peopled, judging from the great number of fires we saw all around it. We -gave it the name of your majesty’s illustrious mother. We did not land on -it, as the weather was unfavorable.” - -Sailing northeasterly from Block Island, the Italian explorer beheld the -coast of the main-land, and anchored the Dauphine in Narragansett Bay, -Rhode Island. Speaking of the discovery of the commodious bay, designated -on Maiollo’s map by the Italian name, “Refugio,” Verrazzano says: - -“We proceeded to another place fifteen leagues distant from the island, -where we found a very excellent harbor. Before entering it we saw about -twenty small boats filled with people, who came to the ship with various -cries and wonderment. But they would not approach nearer than fifty -paces. Stopping, they looked at the structure of the ship, our persons, -and dress. Afterward they all cried out loudly together, signifying that -they were delighted. By imitating their signs we inspired them with a -measure of confidence, so that they came near enough for us to toss them -some little bells and glasses and many toys, which they took and looked -at laughing, and then came on board without fear. Among them were two -kings more attractive in form and stature than can be described. One was -about forty years old, the other about twenty-four, and they were dressed -in the following fashion. - -“The elder king had the skin of a deer wrapped around his nude body, -artificially made with various embroideries to decorate it. His head was -bare. His hair was bound behind with various bands, and around his neck -he wore a large chain ornamented with many stones of different colors. -The younger king was like him in appearance. This was the finest-looking -people and the handsomest in their costumes that we found in our voyage. -They exceed us in size, and are of a very fair complexion (_sono di -colore bianchissimo_); some of them incline more to a white, and others -to a tawny color. Their faces are sharp; their hair is long and black, -on the adornment of which they bestow great care. Their eyes are black -and keen; their demeanor is gentle and attractive, very much like that -of the ancients. I say nothing to your majesty of the other parts of the -body that are all in good proportion as belong to well-formed men. - -“The women resemble them in size, and are very graceful and handsome, and -quite attractive in dress and manners. They had no other clothing except -a deer-skin, ornamented as were the skins worn by the men. Some had very -rich lynx-skins upon their arms, and wore various ornaments upon their -heads, braided in their hair, which hung down upon their breasts. Others -wore different ornaments, such as those of the women of Egypt and Syria. -The older and the married people, both men and women, wore many ornaments -in their ears, hanging down in Oriental fashion. - -“We saw on them pieces of wrought copper, which is more esteemed by them -than gold, the latter being deemed the most ordinary of metals, yellow -being a color much disliked by them. Blue and red are the colors which -they value most highly. Of the things which we gave them, they preferred -the bells, azure crystals, and other toys, which they hung in their -ears and about their necks. They do not value or desire to have silk or -gold-drapery, or other kinds of cloth, nor implements of steel or iron. -When we showed them our weapons, they expressed no admiration, and only -asked how they were made. The same indifference was manifested when they -were given the looking-glasses, which they with smiles returned to us -as soon as they had looked at them. They are very generous, giving away -whatever they have. - -“We formed a great friendship with them, and one day we entered into -port with our ship, having before rode at the distance of a league from -the shore, as the weather was unfavorable. They came to the ship with a -number of their little boats, with their faces painted with different -colors, manifesting real signs of joy, bringing us of their provisions, -and signifying to us where we could best ride in safety with our ship, -and keeping with us until we had cast anchor. - -“We remained among them fifteen days to provide ourselves with many -things of which we were in want, during which time they came every day -to see our ship, bringing with them their wives, of whom they were very -careful, for, although they came on board themselves, and remained a -long while, they made their wives stay in the boats, nor could we ever -get them on board by any solicitations or any presents we could make -them. One of the two kings, however, often came with his queen and many -attendants to see us for his amusement. But he always stopped on land -at the distance of about two hundred paces from us, and sent a boat to -announce his intended visit, saying they would come and see our ship. -This was done for safety, and as soon as they had received our answer, -they came and remained some time to look around. On hearing the annoying -cries of the sailors, the king sent the queen, with her attendants, in a -very light boat to wait, near an island, a quarter of a league distant, -while he remained a long time on board, talking with us by signs, and -expressing his fanciful notions about every thing in the ship, and -asking the use of all. After imitating our modes of salutation, and -tasting our food, he courteously took leave of us. Once, when our men -remained two or three days on a small island near the ship for their -various necessities, as sailors are wont to do, he came with seven or -eight of his attendants to inquire about our movements, often asking us -if we intended to remain there long, and offering us every thing at his -command. Sometimes he would shoot with his bow, and run up and down with -his people, making great sport for us. We often went five or six leagues -into the interior, and found the country as pleasant as can be conceived, -adapted to cultivation of every kind, whether of corn, wine, or oil. -There are open plains twenty-five and thirty leagues in length, entirely -free from trees or other obstructions, and so fertile that whatever -is sown there will yield an excellent crop. On entering the woods, we -observed that they might all be traversed by any large army. The trees in -them were oaks, cypresses, and others unknown in Europe. We found, also, -apples, plums, filberts, and many other fruits, but of a different kind -from ours. The animals, which are in great numbers, stags, deer, lynx, -and many other kinds, are taken with snares and by bows; the latter is -the principal weapon of the natives. Their arrows are beautifully made. -For points they use emery, jasper, hard marble, and other sharp stones -instead of iron. They also use the same kind of sharp stones in cutting -down trees, and with them construct their boats of single logs, hollowed -out with admirable skill, and sufficiently commodious to seat ten or -twelve persons. Their oars are short, with broad blades, and are rowed by -the force of the arms, with the greatest care and as rapidly as they wish. - -“We saw their dwellings, which are circular in form, about ten or -twelve paces in circumference, made of logs split in half, without any -regularity of architecture, and covered with roofs of straw, nicely put -on, which protect them from wind and rain. There is no doubt that they -would build stately edifices if they had workmen as skillful as ours, for -the whole sea-coast abounds with shining stones, crystals, and alabaster, -and on this account it has dens and retreats for animals. They change -their habitations from place to place, as circumstances of situation and -season may require. This is easily done, for they have only to take with -them their mats, and they have other houses immediately prepared. - -“The father and the whole family dwell together in one house. In some of -their houses we saw twenty-five or thirty persons. Their food is pulse, -as that of the other people, which is here better than elsewhere, and -more carefully cultivated. In the time of sowing they are governed by -the moon, which they think effects the sprouting of the grain. They have -many other ancient customs. They live by hunting and fishing, and they -are long lived. If they fall sick ...[402] they cure themselves without -medicine, with the heat of fire. Death comes to them at last from extreme -old age. We judged them to be very affectionate and charitable toward -their relatives, for they make loud lamentations in their adversity, and -in their misery call to remembrance all their good deeds. When they die -their relations mutually join in weeping mingled with singing for a long -while. This is all that we could learn of them. - -“This region is situated on the parallel of Rome, in 41⅔ degrees, as I -shall narrate hereafter to your serene majesty.[403] At present I shall -describe the situation of this place. At its south end the channel is -narrow and a half league wide. It extends, between east [south?], and -north, twelve leagues. Then it enlarges and forms a very spacious bay -twenty leagues in circuit, in which are five small islands, very fertile -and attractive, and covered with high trees. The bay is so spacious that -between these islands any number of vessels might ride at ease without -fear of tempests and other dangers. At the entrance of the bay, farther -south, there are very attractive hills on both sides of the channel, and -many streams of clear water flow from the eminences into the sea. In the -middle of the mouth there is a rock of freestone (_uno scoglio di viva -pietra_), formed by nature and suitable for the construction of any kind -of machine or bulwark for the defence of the haven.” - -Verrazzano’s description of Narragansett Bay, named Port du Refuge on -Gastaldi’s map of 1553,[404] is so accurate that without any other -information it would be easy to determine the situation of the place -where for fifteen days, ending the sixth of May (_old style_), he and -his crew held familiar intercourse with the friendly Indians inhabiting -the islands and the main-land in the vicinity of the anchorage of -the Dauphine. The latitude of the bay given by Verrazzano cannot be -gainsaid.[405] - -Departing, on the sixth of May, from Port du Refuge, the Dauphine sailed -on a southeasterly course to pass the islands of Martha’s Vineyard and -Nantucket. Having steered fifty leagues in this direction, Verrazzano -found the coast to trend toward the north, which he followed until -he again cast anchor off the coast of Maine, a little north of the -forty-third parallel. - -The wary aborigines of this part of the New Land would not venture near -the Dauphine, nor could they be induced to part with their commodities -until they were remunerated with such things as were most useful to them. -The landing of twenty-five men from the vessel provoked an attack, and -yet after this show of hostility the Indians fled to the woods. - -Speaking of his departure from Narragansett Bay, Verrazzano writes: -“Having supplied ourselves with every thing necessary, on the sixth of -May [_old style_], we departed from the port, and sailed one hundred and -fifty leagues, keeping close enough to the coast not to lose it from our -sight. The character of the country appeared much the same as before, -but the mountains were a little higher, and in all appearance rich in -minerals. - -“We did not stop to land, as the weather was very favorable for pursuing -our voyage, and the country presented no variety. The shore stretched to -the east, and fifty leagues beyond more to the north, where we found a -more elevated country, full of very dense woods of pine, cypress, and the -like, indicative of a cold climate. - -“The people were entirely different from the others we had seen, whom -we had found kind and gentle, but these were so rude and barbarous that -we were unable, by any signs we could make, to hold any communication -with them. They clothe themselves with the skins of bears, wolves, lynx, -marine, and other animals. Their food, which we inferred from several -visits to their dwellings, is obtained by hunting and fishing. They have -certain vegetables which are roots of spontaneous growth. They have no -pulse, and we saw no signs of its cultivation. The land appears sterile -and unfit for the growth of fruits or grain of any kind. If we wished -at any time to traffic with them, they came to the sea-shore and stood -upon the rocks, from which they lowered down by a cord to our boats -beneath whatever they had to barter, continually crying out to us not to -come nearer, and instantly demanding from us that which was to be given -in exchange. They took from us only knives, fish-hooks, and sharpened -steel. No regard was paid to our courtesies. When we had nothing left to -exchange with them, the men at our departure made the most brutal signs -of disdain and contempt possible. Against their will, we penetrated two -or three leagues into the interior with twenty-five men. When we came to -the shore, they shot at us with their arrows, uttering the most horrible -cries, and afterward fleeing to the woods. In this region we found -nothing extraordinary except vast forests, and some metalliferous hills -as we inferred, for we saw that many of the people wore copper ear-rings.” - -Following the trend of the coast of Maine, Verrazzano found along this -part of his course for the space of fifty leagues, numerous islands, -thirty-two of which, near the main-land, were high and attractive. Among -them he saw many excellent roadsteads and navigable channels. - -Describing his exploration along the coast of Maine, Verrazzano remarks: -“Departing from this place [perhaps in the vicinity of Cape Neddock], -we kept along the coast steering to the northeast, and found the country -more pleasant and open, free from woods, and far in the interior we saw -lofty mountains, but none which extended to the shore. - -“Within fifty leagues we discovered thirty-two small and attractive -islands, all near the main-land. They were so high and so disposed as to -afford as fine harbors and channels as those that are in the Adriatic -Gulf, near Illyria and Dalmatia. We had no intercourse with the people, -but we judge that they were similar in disposition and habits to those we -were last among. - -“After sailing between east and north the distance of one hundred and -fifty more leagues, and finding our provisions and naval stores nearly -exhausted, we took in wood and water, and determined to return to France, -having discovered five hundred and two, that is to say, seven hundred -leagues of new land (_avendo discoperto leghe 502 cioe leghe 700 più di -nuova terra_).” - -The distance of seven hundred leagues Verrazzano reckoned in the -following way, as explained by him in his geographical exposition of the -voyage: “In addition to the 92 degrees we ran toward the west from our -point of departure before we reached land on the thirty-fourth parallel, -we have to count 300 [French] leagues, which we ran northeastwardly and -400 nearly east along the coast before we reached the fiftieth parallel -of north latitude.” Measured directly north from the thirty-fourth -parallel to the fiftieth, the space includes sixteen degrees, which -multiplied by 31¼ French leagues, which at that time equaled a degree -of latitude, the product of 500 French leagues is obtained.[406] Two -leagues added to these, for the distance sailed directly south of the -thirty-fourth parallel, make 502 French leagues, or about eleven hundred -and four land-miles, the geographical extent of the coast explored by -Verrazzano.[407] The New Land (_Nuova Terra_), discovered by Verrazzano, -was as early as the year 1527 delineated on a map of the world and -denominated Francesca. This Italian name it bore for a number of years -until the French geographical designation La Nouvelle France (New France) -was substituted for it.[408] - -Concluding his description of the new country, Verrazzano remarks: “As -to the religious faith of all these tribes, not understanding their -language, we could not learn either by signs or gestures any thing -certain. It seemed to us that they had no religion or laws, nor any -knowledge of a First Cause or Mover,—that they worshipped neither the -heavens, stars, sun, moon, nor the other planets. We could not learn if -they were given to any kind of idolatry, or offered any sacrifices or -supplications, or if they have temples or houses of prayer in their -villages. Our conclusion was that they had no religion, but lived without -any. This seems to be the result of ignorance, for they are very easily -persuaded, and imitated us with earnestness and fervor in all that they -saw us do as Christians in our acts of devotion.” - -Verrazzano added to this general description of his remarkable -discoveries, an elaborate cosmographical explanation of the situation of -the New Land. His geometrical elucidation of the distances sailed by the -Dauphine, shows how desirous he was to make plain the geography of the -vast continent, which he and others had partly explored. He says: - -“It remains for me to place before your serene majesty a cosmographical -description of the voyage. As I have already said, we departed from -the desert-rocks, lying in the extreme part of the West known to the -ancients, and in the described meridian near the Fortunate Islands, on -the thirty-second parallel from the equator of our hemisphere, and sailed -from it westwardly to where we found the first land, 1,200 leagues or -4,800 miles, reckoning according to nautical custom four miles to a -[marine] league.[409] ... During our voyage we had no lunar eclipses or -similar celestial phenomena. We therefore determined our progress from -the difference of longitude, which we ascertained by various instruments, -taking the sun’s altitude from day to day, and by calculating -geometrically the distance run by the ship from one horizon to another. -All these observations, as also the ebb and flow of the tide in all -places, were noted down in a little book, which may prove serviceable -to navigators. They are communicated to your majesty with the hope of -promoting science. - -“My intention in this voyage was to reach Cathay, on the extreme coast -of Asia, expecting, however, to find in the newly discovered land -some obstacle as I found, yet I did not doubt that I should sail by -some passage to the eastern ocean. It was the opinion of the ancients -that our eastern ocean of India was an expanse of water without any -intervening land. Aristotle supports it by arguments founded on -various probabilities, but it is contrary to later belief and false -by observation. The discovered country, of which the ancients knew -nothing, is another world compared with that which was before known, -being evidently larger than our Europe together with Africa, and, -perhaps, Asia, if one rightly estimate its extent, as shall now be -explained briefly to your majesty.”[410] He then speaks of the Spaniards -sailing as far south as the Strait of Magellan and as far north as the -twenty-first parallel without finding a termination to the continent.... - -“But to return to ourselves:—in the voyage which we have made by the -order of your majesty, in addition to the ninety-two degrees we ran -toward the west from the point of our departure before we reached land on -the thirty-fourth parallel, we have to count 300 leagues which we sailed -northeastwardly, and 400 nearly east along the coast before we reached -the fiftieth parallel of north latitude, the point where we turned our -course from the shore toward home. Beyond this point the Portuguese -had sailed as far north as the arctic circle without coming to the end -of the continent. Adding the degrees of south latitude explored, which -are fifty-four, to those of the north, which are sixty-six, the sum is -one hundred and twenty degrees, and therefore more than are included -in the latitude of Africa and Europe, for the north point of Norway, -the extremity of Europe, is in 71° north latitude, and the Cape of Good -Hope, the southern extremity of Africa, is in 35° south latitude, and -their sum is only one hundred and six degrees. If the breadth of this -newly discovered country correspond to the extent of its sea-coast, it -doubtless exceeds Asia in size. In this way we find that the land forms a -much larger part of our globe than the ancients supposed, who maintained, -contrary to mathematical reasoning, that it was less than the water, -whereas actual experience proves the reverse, so that judging in respect -to extent of surface, the land covers apparently as much space as the -water.[411] - -“I hope to point out and explain more clearly and satisfactorily the -great extent of the New Land or New World, of which I have been speaking. -Asia and Africa, we know, are joined together and are connected with -Norway and Russia with Europe, which disproves the idea of the ancients -that all this northern part had been navigated from the promontory -of Cimbri [Denmark] eastward as far as the Caspian Sea. They also -maintained that the whole continent was surrounded by two oceans, lying -east and west of it, which seas in fact do not surround either of the -two continents, for as we have already seen the land in the western -hemisphere at 54° south latitude extends eastwardly an unknown distance, -and that the land north of the equator, beyond the sixty-sixth parallel, -turns to the east and does not terminate at the seventieth parallel.[412] - -“In a short time, I hope we shall have more satisfactory information -concerning these things by the aid of your serene majesty, whom I pray -Almighty God to prosper in lasting glory, that we may see the most -important results of this our geography in the fulfillment of the holy -words of the gospel. - -“On board the ship Dauphine, in the port of Dieppe, in Normandy, the 8th -day of July, 1524. - - “Your humble servant, - - “Janus Verazzanus.” - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -(_Addenda._) - -1524-1526. - - -The safe return of Verrazzano to France and his remarkable discoveries -along the new continent were immediately heralded through Europe. The -letter which he wrote on his arrival at Dieppe was at once eagerly copied -and the transcripts widely circulated. In less than a month’s time the -news of the navigator’s extensive explorations was spread over France, -and became a prominent topic of conversation. The commercial advantages -likely to accrue to France by the important discovery of a country -thickly populated and rich in drugs, furs, and metals were everywhere -discussed, and Verrazzano’s presence at the chief centres of trade was -much desired that more information might be obtained respecting the -people and the productions of the New Land. - -A Florentine, named Fernando Carli, a person well acquainted with -Verrazzano’s former voyages, was in Lyons at the time when the surprising -intelligence reached that city. He obtained a copy of Verrazzano’s -letter, and sent it to his father in Florence, inclosed in the following -communication: - - “In the name of God. - - “August 4, 1524. - - “Honored Father:— - - “Considering that when I was in the army in Barbary, at - Gierbe, the news was sent you every day by the illustrious - gentleman, Don Hugo de Moncada, captain-general of his Cesarean - majesty in those barbarous parts, what followed contending - with the Moors of that island, which seemed to have pleased - our patrons and friends; and also the congratulatory news of - the subsequent victory; [I now send you] the news [which] - has recently reached this place, of the arrival of Captain - Giovanni da Verrazzano, our Florentine, at the port of Dieppe, - in Normandy, with his ship, the Dauphine, with which he - sailed from the Canary Islands, the last of January, to go in - search of new lands for this most serene crown of France, in - which enterprise he displayed very noble and great courage - in undertaking such an unknown voyage with only one ship, a - caravel of hardly tons burden,[413] with only fifty men, with - the intention, if possible, to discover Cathay, steering a - course through climates other than those frequented by the - Portuguese in going to it by the way of Calicut, by keeping - more to the northwest and north, believing that, although - Ptolemy, Aristotle, and other cosmographers assert that no land - is to be found toward such climates, he would nevertheless - find land there, which God has permitted him, as he distinctly - describes in his letter to his serene majesty, a copy of which - is inclosed in this communication. After spending many months - in exploring, he asserts that he was compelled to return for - want of provisions from that hemisphere into this one, having - been seven months on the voyage, showing a very great and rapid - passage, having accomplished a wonderful and most extraordinary - undertaking in the opinion of those who understand the - navigation of the globe. - - “At the beginning of the voyage there was an unfavorable - opinion formed concerning it, many thinking that there would be - no more news respecting him and his vessel, and that he would - be lost on that side of Norway, in consequence of the great - ice which is in the northern ocean.[414] However, the great - God, as the Moor said, in order to give us every day proofs of - his infinite power, and to show how admirable is this mundane - sphere, has disclosed to him a breadth of land, as you will - perceive, of great extent, as shown by good reasoning and by - degrees of latitude and longitude. - - “He declares and shows it to be greater than Europe, Africa, - and a part of Asia; therefore a new world (_ergo mundus - novus_); and this exclusive of what the Spaniards have - discovered in several years in the West; as it is hardly a - year since Fernando Magellan returned, who discovered a great - country with one ship out of the five sent on the discovery, - from which he brought spices much more excellent than the - common kind, and of his other ships no news has transpired for - five years. They are supposed to be lost.[415] - - “What this our captain has brought he does not state in his - letter, except a very young boy taken from those countries; - but it is supposed he has brought a sample of gold, which they - do not value in those parts, and of drugs and other aromatic - liquors, in order to confer here with several merchants after - he shall have been in the presence of his most serene majesty. - And at this hour he should be with the king, and from choice - should come here soon, as he is much desired, in order to be - conversed with; moreover, here he will find his majesty, the - king, our sire, who is expected in three or four days.[416] - And we hope that his serene majesty will intrust him with a - half dozen good vessels, and that he will go on the voyage. If - our Francisco Carli be returned from Cairo, advise him to go - at a venture on this voyage with him, for I believe they were - acquainted at Cairo, where he [Verrazzano] was for several - years, and not only in Egypt and Syria, but almost in all parts - of the known world. On account of his merits, he is regarded - as another Amerigo Vespucci, another Magellan, and even more - than they. We hope that, being provided with other good ships - and vessels, well-built and properly provisioned, he will - discover and develop a profitable traffic, and will, our Lord - God preserving his life, do honor to our country in acquiring - immortal fame and memory. Alderotto Brunelleschi, who started - with him, and by chance turned back unwilling to accompany him - farther, will, when he hears this news, be discontented. - - “Nothing else now occurs to me, as I have advised you by - others what is necessary. I commend myself constantly to you, - praying you to impart this to our friends, not forgetting - Pier Francisco Dagaghiano, who, in consequence of being an - experienced person, will take much pleasure in it, and commend - me to him. Likewise to Rustichi, who will not be displeased, - if he delight, as usual, in learning matters of cosmography. - God guard you from all evil. - - “Your son, - - “Fernando Carli, - - “In Lyons.”[417] - -The notable success attending Verrazzano’s voyage in 1524, it seems, -induced the celebrated navigator to undertake another in 1526. For -the furtherance of this project, he and five other persons entered -into an agreement in which it was stipulated that Philippe Chabot, -baron of Apremont, knight of the Order of the King, governor and -lieutenant-general of Burgundy, admiral of France and of Brittany,[418] -was to furnish him with two galleons then at Havre de Grace, and a -ship belonging to Jean Ango of Dieppe,[419] of seventy tons burden, -and that the admiral was also to equip and victual them for the voyage -to the New Land. The three vessels were to be ready to sail within two -months.[420] Before setting sail on this voyage, Verrazzano, on Friday, -the eleventh of May, 1526, gave to his brother, Hieronymus, and Zanobus -de Rousselay,[421] a power of attorney by which they were empowered to -act for him in any matter pertaining to his interest; and also, on the -following day, a similar instrument to Adam Godeffroy of Rouen, which -authorized him to transact certain business for the navigator.[422] In -each of these legal instruments, Verrazzano is named “Jehan de Varasenne, -nobleman, captain of the ships equipped to go on the voyage to the -Indies.” - -The French sea-captain, Jean Ribaut, in his report to Admiral Gaspard de -Coligni, of his first voyage to Florida, in 1562, says that Verrazzano, -after his return to France, in 1524, “neuer ceassed to make suite vntil -he was sent thither againe, where at last he died.”[423] - -The voyage of 1526 was the third made by Verrazzano to America: the first -in 1508, with Thomas Aubert; the second, in 1524, in the Dauphine. This -fact is corroborated by the well-informed English collector, Hakluyt, who -says that he “had been thrise on that coast.”[424] - -Of Verrazzano’s death, Ramusio gives this account: “In the last voyage -which he made, having gone on land with some of his men, he and they -were all put to death by the inhabitants, and in the presence of those -who were on board the ship were roasted and devoured. Such was the -terrible death of this valiant gentleman, who, had not this misfortune -happened him, would, by the great knowledge and experience which he had -of maritime affairs and of navigation, attended and favored by the large -liberality of King Francis, have discovered and made known to the world, -all that part of the earth up to the north pole, and would not have -been contented with only the exploration of the coast, but would have -attempted to penetrate far inland, and as far as he could go. - -“Many who had known and conversed with him, have told me that he had -declared that it was his intention to persuade the most Christian king to -send from these parts a goodly number of people to settle in some places -of the new country which are of a temperate climate and very fertile -soil, with very beautiful rivers and harbors capable of holding any fleet. - -“Settlers in these places would be the means of effecting many good -results, and among others that of bringing those barbarous and ignorant -tribes to know God and our most holy religion, showing them how to -cultivate the land, transporting some of the animals of Europe to those -vast plains; and finally, in time, discovering the inland parts, and -seeing whether or not among the many islands in that part of the world -any passage to the South Sea exists, or that the West Indies extend as -far north as the pole. - -“This and so much has been related respecting the achievements and -efforts of this brave gentleman, and in order that his memory may not be -buried and his name pass into oblivion, we have desired to give to the -light the little information that has come into our hands.”[425] - -Hakluyt, speaking of the map which Verrazzano had made and presented to -King Henry VIII. of England, which as late as the year 1584 was still -preserved by an English cartographer, says: “There is a mighty large -olde mappe in parchemente, made as yt shoulde seeme, by Verarsanus, -traced all alonge the coaste, from Florida to Cape Briton, with many -Italian names, which laieth oute the sea, makinge a little necke of -land in 40 degrees of latitude much like the streyte necke or istmus of -Dariena.” The English collector also refers to a globe which he believed -Verrazzano made: “There is an old excellent globe in the Queens privie -gallery at Westminster, which also semeth to be of Verarsanus makinge, -having the coaste in Italian, which laieth oute the very same straite -necke of lande in the latitude of 40 degrees, with the sea joyninge harde -on bothe sides, as it dothe on Panama and Nombre di Dios; which were -a matter of singular importance, yf it shoulde be true, as it is not -unlikely.”[426] - -Although the “mighty large olde mappe in parchemente” of Verrazzano’s -drafting is lost, there are several maps extant which seemingly represent -the territory of North America as it was delineated by him. The rarest -and the most valuable of these is a vellum-map of the world in the -Ambrosian Library at Milan, made in 1527. It is five feet seven inches -long and one foot eleven inches wide, and bears this inscription: -“_Vesconte de Maiollo conposuy hanc cartan. In Janua anno dñy, 1527, die -xx. decenbris._” (Visconte de Maiollo composed this chart, in Genoa, in -the year of the Lord, 1527, the twentieth day of December). The narrow -isthmus, near the fortieth parallel, and the “number of Italian names” -from “Tera Florida” to “C. de Bertoni” on this map, fully agree with -Hakluyt’s description of Verrazzano’s chart.[427] - -Hieronymus, the brother of the navigator, it seems, also made a map -of the New Land, which, it is conjectured, he drafted in 1529.[428] -The original is a planisphere delineated on parchment, fifty-one by -one hundred and two inches. This map is in the Borgian museum in Rome. -The inscription: “_Hieronimus de Verrazanus faciebat_” (Hieronimus de -Verrazano made it), permits the inference that the map was not the one -which Hakluyt described, for had Hieronymus da Verrazzano’s name been -inscribed on it, the English collector, it seems, would have mentioned -the fact. The representation of the so-called Western Sea, or “Mare -Indicum” (the Chesapeake Bay), with the explanatory inscription on -Hieronymus da Verazzano’s map, indicates that he had some knowledge of -the cartographic features of his brother’s chart, and of the geographical -_memoranda_ recorded in the little book which the latter speaks of in his -letter to King Francis I., and which he thought would be serviceable to -other navigators.[429] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -(_Addenda._) - -1526-1614. - - -After the death of Verrazzano, the French, for a time, made no attempt to -search along the coast of the new continent for a short and direct way to -Cathay. The losses sustained by the projectors of the expedition of 1526, -Ribaut says, gave “small courage to sende thither agayne, and was the -cause that this laudable enterprise was left of, vntill the yeere 1534, -at which time his Maiestie [Francis I.] (desiring alwayes to enlarge -his kingdome, countreys, and dominions, and the aduauncing the ease of -his subiectes), sent thither a Pilote of S. Mallowes, a Briton, named -James Cartier, well seene in the art and knowledge of Nauigation, and -especially of the North parts, commonly called the new land, led by some -hope to find passage that waies to the south seas.”[430] - -The two ships commanded by Cartier sailed from the port of St. Malo, on -the twentieth of April, 1534. Reaching Newfoundland on the tenth of May, -Cartier began to search for a navigable channel to India. Three months -were passed in exploring the coast of Labrador and the Strait of Belle -Isle and a part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On the fifteenth of August, -Cartier set sail for France, and arrived in the port of St. Malo, on the -fifth of September. In the following year, Cartier sailed again to New -France and explored the St. Lawrence River to the island of Hochelaga, -the site of the city of Montreal. It is said that he was told by the -natives that from there it was only “a month’s sailing to go to a land -where cinnamon and cloves are gathered.”[431] Returning from this voyage, -Cartier reached St. Malo on the sixth of July, 1536.[432] - -The first explorers of the new continent called its inhabitants by -different names. Columbus and his Spanish companions, imagining the field -of their discoveries to be in Eastern Asia, named the aborigines Indians -(_Indios_), believing them to be natives of India. Seven of the people of -Canada, carried to France, in 1509, were described by a contemporaneous -Latin writer as wood or wild men (_homines sylvestres_).[433] The French, -it appears, called the natives of New France _manants_ or _manans_, and -_paysans_, peasants, the former name being used in the middle ages as a -designation for unintelligent people or those of low condition. The name -_manants_ was likewise a designation for persons of this class living in -villages and on farms. _Manants_ properly speaking were the natives of a -place, and the _habitans_ were those who came to it to reside.[434] The -French appellation _manants_ or _manans_ not only fitly expressed the -low condition of the natives of New France, but it also gave prominence -to the fact that they dwelt in villages and were indigenous people. The -French, as late as the year 1677, called the old Indians, or rather the -descendants of the Senecas, _paisans_, peasants.[435] The Italians also -called the natives of North America peasants, _paesani_.[436] - -The Manants living on the island on which the city of New York is built, -were very friendly to the French who came to the Grande River, in the -sixteenth century, to traffic for furs. The Hollanders, however, found -them to be quite hostile in the following century. De Laet, the Dutch -historian, describing the natives of the Groote River in 1625, remarks: -“On the east side, upon the main-land, dwell the Manhattans, a bad race -of savages, who have always been very obstinate and unfriendly toward -our countrymen.”[437] He also says that Hudson, in 1609, called the Great -River “Manhattes from the name of the people who dwelt at its mouth.”[438] - -The wrong spelling of the French term _manant_ began with a misconception -of its proper pronunciation. The Dutch thinking that the _t_ was -sounded, pronounced the name _man-ant_, whence “_man-hat_,” “_man-ath_,” -“_man-ad_,” and other strange forms of the name. Wassenaer, the Dutch -historian, in 1624, speaking of the Indian tribes of New Netherland, -says: “The Manhates are situated at the mouth” of the Mauritius -River.[439] De Laet writes the name Manhattes, Manatthans, Manatthanes, -and Manhattans.[440] De Vries, the Dutch navigator, who could speak -French, spells the appellation Menates and Minates.[441] In the -deposition of Catelyn Trico, a French woman, who emigrated from Holland, -in 1624, to New Netherland, the term is written Mannantans.[442] Besides -these peculiar changes the name has many other anomalous forms.[443] - -When the first French explorers sailed along that massive bulwark of -trap-rock, now called The Palisades, rising on the west side of the -Grande River to varying altitudes from two to five hundred feet above the -level of the stream, and ranging northward and southward a distance of -more than ten miles, they were peculiarly impressed with its grandeur, -and figuratively called it L’Anormée Berge, (The Grand Scarp.) - -The adjective _anormée_ and the noun _berge_ definitely describe the -steep and extensive wall of stone which borders the noble river, now -bearing the name of a later explorer. _Anormé_, an obsolete form of the -adjective _énorme_, signifies that which is grand, vast, majestic.[444] -The noun _berge_, besides meaning an elevated border of a river, a scarp -of a fortification, a steep side of a moat or of a road, is a designation -for certain rocks elevated perpendicularly above the water.[445] In an -old French lexicon it is said: “They likewise call in marine phraseology -_bèrges_ or _barges_ those great rocks, rugged and perpendicularly -elevated, that is to say, uprightly and plumb, as the _bèrges_ or -_barges_ of Olone: such rocks as are Scylla and Charybdis, toward -Messina.”[446] - -A more appropriate name could not have been selected to designate -geographically this part of New France than that of The Land of the Grand -Scarp (_La Terre d’Anormée Berge_), or, in more familiar phraseology, -The Land of the Palisades. The words, scarp and palisade, are terms of -fortification. The first designates the steep slope below the parapet of -a fortification, next to the ditch; the second an upright row of strong -stakes set firmly in the ground in front of the counter-scarp, on the -opposite side of the moat from the scarp. - -The mispronunciation of the peculiar geographical name was evidently -the cause of its orthography being obscured so soon after it was used -as the designation for the elevated border of the Grande River. The -more frequent use thereafter of _énorme_ for _anormé_ made the term -more unfamiliar. It would seem also that when the name should have -been written _La Terre d’Énorme Berge_, that it was inscribed, _La -Terre de Normeberge_. The change of the qualifying term to a word of -two syllables, as _norom_, _norum_, _nurum_, and _norim_, rendered the -name more ambiguous. In like manner the noun _berge_ was corrupted, -being spelled _bergue_, _bega_, _berg_, and _bagra_. In this way the -territorial designation became _La Terre de Norumbega_, _La Terre de -Norembegue_, _La Terre de Noromberge_, and _La Terre de Norembergue_, and -its meaning and derivation incomprehensible to the descendants of its -originators. - -Gerard Mercator, on a terrestrial globe, (_globus terrae_), made in 1541, -represents the Grande River as if its channel were filled with _anormée -bèrges_, which he designates with the misspelled name “Anorumbega.”[447] -On a map of the world, made about the year 1548, for King Henry II. of -France, the appellation “Anorobagra” designates the river of the Grand -Scarp.[448] - -In the sixteenth century proper names less peculiar in construction -than the appellation L’Anormée Berge, were written very irregularly. It -is said by Disraeli that Leicester subscribed his name eight different -ways, and that Villers is spelled fourteen times differently in the -deeds of the family. Lower mentions that the name of Mainwaring, has the -remarkable number of one hundred and thirty-one variations in different -documents. Even in this age of dictionaries the spelling of uncommon -geographical names does not always conform to their orthography. A record -has been kept for a number of years of the different ways in which the -name of the city of Cohoes, in the state of New York, has been spelled on -letters addressed to that post-office, and the extraordinary number of -one hundred and ninety-seven changes in the form of the appellation has -been registered. - -There seems to be but a single statement that might be used to support an -assertion that the natives of the country of New France originated the -name “Norumbega.” It is in Ramusio’s Italian translation of the French -sea-captain’s description of Francesca, in which it is said: “This region -is called by the peasants Norumbega.” René Goulaine de Laudonnière, a -well-informed French naval officer, who had command of a French fort in -Florida, in 1564, contradicts the assertion that the name was transferred -from an early map of the eastern coast of Asia, saying: “It is called by -the moderns Terre de Norumberge.” André Thevet, the French geographer, -who sailed along its coast in 1556, declares that his countrymen called -the Grande River “Norombègue,” and the Indians, “Aggoncy.” - -One of the earliest accounts of the Land of the Grand Scarp extant is -in the discourse of the unnamed sea-captain of Dieppe, written in 1539. -Describing the country of Francesca, he says: “Beyond Cape Breton there -is a region contiguous to this cape, the coast of which extends west and -a quarter southwest as far as the region of Florida, and it stretches -full five hundred leagues, which coast was discovered fifteen years -ago, by Monsieur Giovanni da Verrazzano, in the name of King Francis -and of Madame, the regent, and this region is called by many the land -of the French (_la Francese_), and likewise by the Portuguese, and -its termination toward Florida is in 78° west longitude and 30° north -latitude.[449] - -“The inhabitants of this domain are a tractable people, amiable and -agreeable. The country abounds with all kinds of fruit. Oranges -and almonds grow in wild forests, with many different varieties of -odoriferous trees. This region is called by the peasants (_paesani_) -Norumbega, and between it and Brazil there is a large gulf, extending -west as far as the ninety-second meridian.”[450] - -In 1540 Jacques Cartier again sailed to New France and ascended the St. -Lawrence River. Jean François de la Roque, Sieur de Roberval, was placed -in command of this expedition, and, by letters-patent, dated January -15, 1540, was commissioned viceroy and lieutenant-general of the new -lands belonging to France in the western hemisphere. Jean Alphonse, an -experienced navigator, a native of Saintonge, near the town of Cognac, -France, accompanied Sieur de Roberval as chief pilot.[451] - -In the manuscript of the cosmography of Raulin Secalart, written about -the year 1545, preserved in the National library, in Paris, is a short -description of the coast and people of La Terre d’Anormée Berge.[452] -The writer, evidently Jean Alphonse, very faithfully describes Long -Island Sound, the eastern entrance to the Grande River, when he says: -“This river is wider than forty leagues of latitude at its mouth, and -within, the width is as much as thirty or forty leagues, and it is full -of islands, which extend ten or twelve leagues in the sea, and it is -very dangerous on account of rocks and swashings.” These observations -are remarkably consonant with those of a later writer: “Long Island -Sound, a Mediterranean Sea, separating the island from the main-land of -Connecticut, is connected with the ocean at each end of the island and -affords a sheltered line of navigation of about one hundred and twenty -miles in extent.... Opposite Harlem River is the noted pass or strait -called Hell-Gate, which is crooked, and from the numerous rocks, islands, -eddies, and currents, is somewhat difficult and dangerous.”[453] - -The identity of the river called by the French writer “Norombègue,” now -the Hudson, is satisfactorily established by the statement that the water -of the river is salty to the height of forty leagues or eighty-eight -miles. This fact is incontrovertible. The Hudson is salty or brackish -beyond the city of Poughkeepsie, which is about ninety-three miles north -of Sand Hook.[454] The assertion could not be verified were it assumed -that the description applies to the Penobscot, or the Kennebec, or the -Merrimack, or the Connecticut River. It would seem that the writer speaks -of the Palisades bordering the west side of the river, opposite the -Indian village of “Norombègue,” when he says: “On the side toward the -west of the said town there are many rocks which extend to the sea, about -fifteen miles.” - -[Illustration: Copy of the map of “Terre de la Franciscane” in the MS. of -the “Cosmographie de Jehan Allefonsce et Raulin Secalart,” 1545.] - -“I say that the Cape of St. John, called Cape Breton, and the Cape of -the Franciscan, are northeast and southwest, and range a point from an -east and west course, and there are one hundred and forty leagues on the -course, and which makes one cape, called the Cape of Norombègue. The said -cape is in forty-one degrees of the height of the arctic pole. The said -coast [_i. e._ of Connecticut] is all sandy, ...[455] flat, without any -mountain. And along this coast there are many isles of sand and the coast -very dangerous on account of banks and rocks. - -“The people of this coast and of Cape Breton are an ill-disposed race, -powerful, great arrow-makers, and live on fish and on flesh, and are not -talkative, and speak almost the same language as those of Canada, and are -a great people. And those of Cape Breton go to make war upon those of the -New Land when they are fishing, and not for any thing do they spare the -life of any one when they take him, unless it is a young boy or a young -girl; and they are so cruel that if they take a man having a beard, they -cut off his legs and arms and carry them to their wives and children, in -order to be avenged in that way. And there are among them many peltries -of all animals. - -“Beyond the Cape of Norombègue, the river of the said Norombègue descends -about twenty-five leagues from the cape. The said river is wider than -forty leagues of latitude at its mouth [entrance of Long Island Sound], -and within, this width is as much as thirty or forty leagues, and it is -full of isles which stretch out ten or twelve leagues in the sea [or -Sound], and it is very dangerous on account of rocks and swashings. The -said river is in forty-two degrees of the height of the arctic pole. - -“Up the said river, fifteen leagues, there is a town which is called -Norombègue, and there is in it a good people, and they have many -peltries of all kinds of animals. The inhabitants of the town are dressed -in skins, wearing mantles of martens. I think that the said river runs -into the river Hochelaga [the St. Lawrence], for it is salt for more than -forty leagues up, according to the statement of the people of the town. -The people use many words which resemble the Latin, and they worship the -sun, and are a handsome people, and large framed. The land of Norombègue -is high and good. - -“Before and on this side of the said river, one hundred and fifty -leagues, there is an island called Vermonde [Bermuda?] which is in about -thirty-three degrees of the height of the arctic pole.[456] And on the -west side of the said town there are many rocks which extend to the sea, -about fifteen leagues, and north of it there is a bay, in which there -is a small island, which is often subject to tempests and cannot be -inhabited.” - -[Illustration: A copy of the map of a part of North America, in the third -volume of Ramusio’s “Raccolta di Navigationi e Viaggi,” printed in 1556; -made by Giacomo de Gastaldi. (The original is about one-third larger.)] - -While Jean Alphonse was exploring the coast of La Terre d’Anormée Berge -(which at this time geographically included all the country between the -Grande River and the Gulf of St. Lawrence), he ascended the Grande River -to the height of its navigation, from which point he inferred that the -stream extended to the St. Lawrence, as it is represented on the map -made by Giacomo de Gastaldi, a Piedmontese cartographer, about the year -1553.[457] “I have been at a bay as far as forty-two degrees, between -Norumbega and Florida, and I have not searched the end thereof, and I -know not whether it [the river] pass through.... I doubt not but [the -river] Norumbega entereth into the river of Canada, and unto the sea of -Saguenay.”[458] - -This opinion, that the Hudson was an outlet of the St. Lawrence, was held -by the Dutch as late as the year 1625, for De Laet observes: “Judging -from appearances this river extends to the great river of St. Lawrence, -or Canada, since our skippers assure us that the natives come to the fort -[on the site of Albany] from that river.”[459] - -René Goulaine de Laudonnière, a French officer, commanding Fort Caroline, -on the river May, in 1564, gives, in his notable history of Florida, a -short account of Verrazanno’s discoveries in 1524.[460] He says that -the French planted in the New Land “the ensigns and arms of the king of -France, so that the Spaniards themselves, who were there afterward, have -called this country French land (_nõmé ce païs terre Francesque_).... The -east part of it is named by the moderns Terre de Norumberge, which ends -at the Gulf of Gamas, which separates it from the island of Canada.”[461] - -Not long after the discovery of Francesca by Verrazzano, French barques -were making voyages to its coast, some to obtain cod-fish and others -furs. As related by Jean Alphonse, the people of the village of L’Anormée -Berge had “many peltries of all kinds of animals.” The large quantities -of beaver, otter, and other skins obtained from the Manants, dwelling -at the mouth of the Grande River, induced the speculative Frenchmen -engaged in the traffic to erect at this point a small fort, where their -factors might reside and more advantageously enlarge their purchases of -furs. The Indian village, on the island on which the city of New York -is built, was picturesquely situated on the border of the deep, limpid -lake, then covering the sites of the plots of ground included between the -lines of Elm, Baxter, Worth, and Franklin streets. Near the south end of -the lake (which extended as far as the intersection of Centre and Duane -streets and emptied into the Hudson at Canal Street) was a small island. -Eligible, and opposite the tongue of land on which the Manants dwelt, -the French fur factors selected it as the site of the fortified trading -house which they erected and called Le Fort d’Anormée Berge (The Fort of -the Grand Scarp).[462] - -[Illustration: Copy of a part of a map of the city of New York made by -James Lyne in 1728.] - -The French geographer, André Thevet, who sailed along the coast of -La Terre d’Anormée Berge, in 1556, besides corroborating some of the -preceding statements respecting the discovery of New France, and -mentioning the fact that the Grande River was called by his countrymen -the river of “Norombègue,” and by the Indians “Aggoncy,” says[463]: -“Having left Florida on the left hand with a great number of islands, -islets, gulfs, and capes, a river presents itself, one of the beautiful -rivers that are in the world, which we named Norombègue, and the Indians -Aggoncy, and which is marked on some marine charts Grande river.[464] -Several other beautiful rivers enter this one, on which formerly the -French had built a small fort about ten or twelve leagues up it, which -fort was surrounded by fresh water that empties into the river, and this -place was called the fort of Norombègue.”[465] - -The site of the fort of L’Anormée Berge is indicated by Gerard Mercator -on his celebrated map of the world, made at Duisburg, Germany, in 1569. -The famous cartographer not only designates the situation of the French -fort on the east side of the Grande River with a conventional sign used -by map-makers, but also inscribes the name “Norombega” immediately -over it. As is seen, he outlines the Grande River to the height of its -navigation, at the confluence of the Mohawk, as far as the French had -explored it.[466] - -[Illustration: A part of Gerard Mercator’s map of the world, made in -Duisburg in 1569; copied from “Les monuments de la géographie recueil -d’anciennes cartes européennes et orientales, publiés en fac-similé.” par -M. Jomard, Paris.] - -It seems that the French fur merchants undertook to build, about the -year 1540, a _château_ or castle, at the height of the navigation of -the Grande River. As it appears, they selected a site for the building -on the long, low island lying in the bay, on the west side of the river, -near the present southern limits of the city of Albany. The walls of the -castle and its protecting earthworks were almost completed when a great -freshet inundated the island and damaged the structure so much that the -French abandoned the occupation of the island. Jean Alphonse evidently -refers to the abortive undertaking, when describing the situation of -the Indian village at the mouth of the Grande River, he says: “North of -it there is a bay, in which is a small island that is often subject to -storms, [those causing freshets,] and cannot be inhabited.” The island -bore the name of Castle Island for more than a century thereafter, but it -is now known as Van Rensselaer’s Island. - -The fact that the French had ascended the Grande River to the height -of its navigation to trade with the Indians long before Henry Hudson -explored it, is corroborated by still stronger testimony than that -already presented. One of the earliest maps representing the territory -of Nieu Nederlandt (New Netherland), or that part of New France which -the French had called La Terre d’Anormée Berge, is the figurative chart -presented to their high mightinesses, the Lords States General of the -United Netherlands, on the eleventh of October, 1614, by a number of -Dutch merchants, praying for a special license to navigate and traffic -within the limits of this part of North America.[467] Upon this map, made -in 1614, are inscribed “curious notes and _memoranda_ concerning the -natives of the country,” which the well-informed discoverer of the chart -intimates were written by one of the Dutch companions of Henry Hudson, -who accompanied the English navigator, on the voyage of 1609.[468] One of -these explanatory notes contains the undeniable testimony that the French -were the discoverers of the Grande River, and that they had been trading -with the Mohawks long before the Half Moon sailed up the river. The -plain language of the inscription makes all explanation of its meaning -unnecessary: “But as far as one can understand by what the Maquaas -[Mohawks] _say and show_, the French come with sloops as high up as their -country to trade with them.”[469] - -Among the things which were shown to the Dutch explorers by the friendly -Mohawks to confirm what they had said concerning the French, were the -conspicuous ruins of the unfinished castle. The sagacious Hollanders, not -unlikely thinking that the dilapidated building might be repaired with -little expense, and made useful to them as a trading house, should they -be licensed by the government of the Netherlands to return there to trade -for furs with the Indians, took measurements of its walls and outworks. -These _memoranda_ they also inscribed on the map of New Netherland. The -castle, as described on the chart, was fifty-eight feet wide between the -walls, and built in the form of a square, surrounded by a moat eighteen -feet wide. The interior building was thirty-six feet long and twenty-six -wide.[470] - -Although the Dutch explorers never left any definite information that -they were personally the builders of the fortification on Castle Island, -yet by naming it Fort Nassau, in honor of the stadtholder, Maurice, -prince of Orange and of Nassau, they permitted historians to infer that -they had constructed it, even before they had been privileged by the -government of the Netherlands to occupy the country. - -As late as the year 1680, the Dutch residents of Albany were -unenlightened respecting the nationality of the builders of the fort, -some supposing that the Spaniards had erected it. This assumption was not -generally credited, as there were no facts known that would verify the -presence of the Spaniards in this part of the country. The two Labadist -missionaries, Jasper Dankers and Peter Sluyter, who visited Albany in -1680, thus speak of the fort on Castle Island, and of the conjecture -concerning the people who had built it: “In the afternoon [Sunday, April -28th] we took a walk to an island upon the end of which there is a fort -built, they say, by the Spaniards. That a fort had been there is evident -enough from the earth thrown up, but it is not to be supposed that the -Spaniards came so far inland to build forts when there are no monuments -of them to be seen on the sea-coasts, where, however, they have been -according to the tradition of the Indians.”[471] - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] The Hebrew for man is derived from the verb (אדם), _to be red_. - -[2] Solon, one of the seven sages of Greece, was born about the year B. -C. 639, and died about the year B. C. 558. - -Herodotus, the Greek historian, writing in the fifth century before the -Christian era, says: “When these were subdued, and Crœsus had joined -them to the Lydians, all the learned men at that time, especially those -of Greece, resorted to Sardis, which had then reached a high degree of -eminence. Among them was Solon, an Athenian, who, having made a code of -laws for the Athenians at their request, absented himself for ten years, -having sailed away under pretense of seeing the world, that he might not -be compelled to abrogate any of the laws he had established: for the -Athenians could not do it themselves, as they were bound by the most -solemn oaths to preserve inviolate, for ten years, the institutions of -Solon. Therefore, having gone abroad for these reasons, as well as to see -the world, Solon had visited Amasis, in Egypt, and went from there to -Crœsus, at Sardis.”—Herodotus: Clio xxix, xxx. - -[3] Plutarch, the Greek biographer, says that Psenophis, the -Heliopolitan, and Senchis, the Saite, the most learned of the Egyptian -priests, were the persons who gave Solon this information.—Parallel -Lives: Solon. - -[4] “If Solon ... had not considered the writing of poetry a recreation, -but had made it, as others do, an actual employment, and had completed -the history which he had brought from Egypt; and had not been forced to -relinquish it by seditions and many other troubles in which he found -his country involved, I do not think that either Hesiod, Homer, or any -other poet would have acquired more extensive fame.”—Plato: Timæus, or -Concerning Nature. - -[5] Plato was born about the year B. C. 430 and died about the year B. C. -348. He traced his descent from Solon through his mother. - -[6] “These very writings, indeed, were in the possession of my -grandfather, and are now in mine, having been made the subject of much -study during my boyhood.”—Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic. - -[7] Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic. - -[8] The so-called Pillars of Hercules were the two mountains, Calpe and -Abyla, on the opposite sides of the Strait of Gibraltar. - -“I wonder, therefore, at those,” says Herodotus, “who have described -the limits of and divided Libya, Asia, and Europe, for the difference -between them is trifling: for in length Europe extends along both of -them, but respecting width, it is evidently not to be compared. Libya -shows itself to be surrounded by water, except so much of it as borders -Asia.”—Herodotus: Melpomene xlii. - -[9] Tyrrhenia or Umbria, in Italy, now Tuscany. - -[10] Plato: Timæus, or Concerning Nature. - -[11] Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic. - -[12] Genesis xvi. 7; xviii. 1-8, 16-33; xix. 1-22; xxxii. 1, 2. - -[13] Herodotus: Euterpe cxlii, cxliv. - -[14] Genesis vi. 1, 2, 4. - -“SOC. Do you know that heroes are half-gods? - -“HERM. What then? - -“SOC. All of them were doubtless begotten either from a god falling in -love with a mortal woman, or from a mortal man [falling in love] with a -goddess.” - -—Plato: Cratylus, or Concerning the Correct Use of Words. - -[15] A stadium is equal to 600 Greek or 625 Roman feet, or to 606 feet 9 -inches English measure. - -[16] Respecting the names of the persons appearing in the narrative -Plato observes: “We must briefly warn you not to be surprised at hearing -Hellenic names given to the barbarians; the cause of this you shall now -hear. Solon, intending to make use of this narrative in his poetry, made -an investigation into the signification of the names, and found that -the early Egyptians who recorded these facts transferred these names -into their own language; and he again receiving the meaning of each name -transcribed it into our tongue.” - -[17] “Πᾶσα ἡ νῆσος τότε πέλαγος ἐσχεν ἑπωνυμίαν, Ἀτλαντικὸν λεχθέν.” - -[18] Gadeira, an ancient city built, it is said, by the Phœnicians, -fifteen centuries before the Christian era, on the site of Cadiz, Spain. - -[19] Ὀρείχαλκος, ore of copper. From ὄρειος, mountain, and χαλκός, brass. - -[20] The remains of mammoths or elephants, _elephas primigenus_, have -been exhumed in different parts of the continent of America. - -[21] A plethron is equal to a hundred feet. - -[22] A trireme, a large-sized boat with three rows or benches of oars on -its sides. - -[23] “This agreement of the traditions of the most diverse peoples -manifests itself in a striking manner when compared with the number -assigned by the Bible to the antediluvian patriarchs. There are ten in -the account in Genesis, and a singular persistence reproduces this number -of ten in the legends of a very great number of nations, whose primitive -ancestors are still enveloped in the mist of fables.... The preserved -fragments of the celebrated historical papyrus of Turin, containing a -list of Egyptian dynasties traced in hieratic writing, seem clearly -to indicate that the editor of this canon gives ten gods, who in the -beginning ruled men.”—Les Origines de l’Histoire d’après la Bible et les -Traditions des Peuples Orientaux, par François Lenormant, professeur -d’archéologie près la Bibliothèque nationale. Deuxième édition, Paris, -1880. pp. 214, 215, 227. - -[24] Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic. - -[25] “These figures of the mythic Egyptian chronology are still -very imperfectly known to us—too little indeed to affirm any thing -satisfactorily concerning the principle of their construction.... We -must, therefore, wait for some new discovery, like that of a royal canon -similar to the one of Turin, in good condition, before we can make a -thorough examination of the principle of the cyclic periods with which -Egypt began her annals.”—Les Origines de l’Histoire. Lenormant. p. 287. - -[26] Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic. - -[27] Plato: Timæus, or Concerning Nature. - -[28] The ships of the ancients, in the time of Herodotus, were vessels -propelled by oars and sails. Describing those used by the Egyptians on -the Nile, he says: “Their ships in which they convey merchandise are made -of the acacia, which in shape is similar to the Cyrenæan lotus, and its -exudation is gum. From this acacia they cut planks about two cubits in -length, and join them together as they do bricks, building their ships -in the following manner: They fasten the planks of two cubits length -to stout and long ties; when they have thus built the hulls, they lay -rowing benches across them. They make no use of ribs, but caulk the -seams inside with byblus. They make only one rudder, and that is driven -through the keel. They use a mast of acacia, and sails of byblus. These -vessels cannot sail against the current of the stream unless a fair wind -prevails, but are towed from the shore. They are thus carried down the -stream: There is a hurdle made of tamarisk, wattled with a band of reeds, -and a stone bored through the middle, of about two talents in weight; of -these two, the hurdle is fastened to a cable, and let down at the prow -of the vessel to be carried on by the stream; and the stone by another -cable at the stern; and by this means the hurdle, by the stream bearing -hard upon it, moves quickly and draws along the ‘baris’, (for this is -the name given to these vessels,) but the stone, being dragged at the -stern, and sunk to the bottom, keeps the vessel in its course. They have -a great number of these vessels, and some of them carry many thousand -talents.”—Euterpe xcvi. - -The vessels of the Phœnicians were of a better build, but they also were -fitted out with oars and sails.—Ezekiel xxvii. 3-9. - -[29] Genesis vi. 5, 6, 7. - -[30] Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic. - -_Vide_ The Works of Plato. Bohn’s ed. London, 1849. vol. ii. Translated -by Henry Davis, pp. 413-429. - -[31] The date of the accession of Seti I. or Sethos I. is variously -given. M. Champollion Figeac places it in 1473 B.C. Mure thinks it cannot -be earlier than 1410 nor later than 1400 B.C. - -[32] Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology. t. iv. pp. 1-19. - -[33] Les Origines de l’Histoire. Lenormant. pp. 448, 449. - -[34] _Vide_ Historia Verdadera de la Conqvista de la Nueva-España. -Escrita por el Capitan Bernal Diaz del Castillo, vno de sus -Conquistadores. En Madrid, 1632. - -Antiquities of Mexico: comprising fac-similes of ancient Mexican -paintings and hieroglyphics, preserved in the Royal libraries of Paris, -Berlin, and Dresden; in the Imperial library at Vienna; in the Vatican -library; in the Borgian museum at Rome; in the library of the Institute -at Bologna; and in the Bodleian library at Oxford. Together with the -monuments of New Spain, by M. Dupaix; with their respective scales of -measurements and accompanying descriptions. The whole illustrated by many -valuable inedited manuscripts, by Lord Kingsborough. In nine volumes. -London, 1831-1848. - -[35] Now called the Shetland islands, but the name is printed on the -early maps Hetland; from Swedish _het_, hot, and _land_, land. The group -lies about 180 miles from Norway, between 59° 50´ and 60° 50´ north -latitude. - -[36] The Fer öe or Far islands lie about 170 miles northwest of the -Shetland group, and are between 61° 20´ and 62° 25´ north latitude. The -name is derived from _fer_, far, (Swedish,) and _öe_, islands. - -[37] Iceland lies between latitude 63° 24´ and 66° 33´ N. and longitude -13° 31´ and 24° 17´ W. It is one hundred and sixty miles east of -Greenland, six hundred west of Norway, and two hundred and fifty -northwest of the Fer öe, or Far islands. - -[38] History of the Northmen, by Henry Wheaton. London, 1831. pp. 17, 18. - -Iceland, or the journal of a residence in that island, during the years -1814 and 1815, by Ebenezer Henderson, vol. i. Intro. pp. xv. and 308. - -[39] “Men of experience say, who have been born in Greenland, and -have recently come from Greenland, that from Stadt, in the north part -of Norway, to Horns, on the east coast of Iceland, is seven days’ -sailing directly westward.”—Antiqvitates Americanæ, sive scriptores -septentrionales rerum Ante-Columbianarum in America. Edidit Societas -Regia Antiqvariorum Septentrionalium. Hafniæ, 1837. Ivar Bardsen’s -treatise. p. 302. - -[40] “He who sails from Iceland [to Greenland] must steer his course -from Snefelsnes, which is twelve nautical miles (_tholldt soes_) farther -to the west than the mentioned Reychenes, and for a day and a night he -will sail due west, but then he must steer to the southwest to avoid the -ice that adheres to Gunnbjörn’s rocks. Then he must hold his course one -day and one night to the northwest, which will bring him straight to -that high land of Greenland called Hvarf, under which lie the mentioned -Herjulfsnes and Sand-haffn.” - -“They who wish to sail direct from Bergen [in Norway] to Greenland -without touching Iceland, must sail due west until they find themselves -twelve nautical miles (_xii uger soes_) south of Reychenes, a promontory -on the south coast of Iceland, and by holding this course toward the west -they will come to the high land of Greenland called Hvarf.”—Antiq. Amer. -Ivar Bardsen’s treatise. pp. 304, 305; 303, 304. - -[41] _Bygd_, inhabited land, a place of residence, an abode. - -[42] _Ubygd_, an unpeopled tract, desert. - -[43] “A day before you descry the said Hvarf you ought to see another -high mountain called Hvidserk. Under these two mountains—Hvard and -Hvidserk—is a promontory (_nes_) called Herjulfsnes, near which is a -harbor called Sand-haffn.... The inhabited part of Greenland lying -eastwardly, next to Herjulfsnes, is called Skagefjörd.”—Antiq. Amer. Ivar -Bardsen’s treatise. pp. 304, 305. - -[44] Christianity, it is said, was introduced in Iceland in the year -1000.—Antiq. Amer. pp. 10, 11, 14, and note _b_. The discovery of America -by the Northmen. By North Ludlow Beamish. London, 1841. pp. 47, 48. - -[45] The traditions of the voyages of Bjarni, the son of Herjulf, and -of Leif, the son of Eric the Red, are contained in a large folio of -manuscripts found in the seventeenth century, in a monastery on the -island called Flatö, north of Breidafjörd, in Iceland. This book of -Flatö was purchased, about the year 1660, by Bishop Brynjulf Sveinson -of Skalholt, in Iceland, and was sent by him as a gift to King Frederic -III. of Denmark, and is now in the Royal Library of Copenhagen. A part of -the inscription on the first page of the volume bears this translation: -“This book, Jónn, the son of Hakon, owns.... The priest, Jónn, the son -of Thord, wrote out the narrative concerning Eric, the traveller, and -the histories of each of the Olafs; and the priest, Magnus, the son of -Thorhall, wrote out that which follows, also that which precedes, and -illuminated the whole. God Almighty and the Holy Virgin Mary bless those -who wrote and him who dictated.” - -It is supposed that these traditions, which are finely engrossed in -Icelandic on vellum, contained in the Codex Flateyensis, were compiled -between the years 1387 and 1395.—Antiq. Amer. pp. 1-4. - -[46] _Thaettir af Eireki Rauda ok Graenlendingum._ - -[47] _Bjarni leitadi Graenlands._—Antiq. Amer. pp. 17-25. Discovery of -America. Beamish, pp. 47, 48. - -[48] From _hella_, a flat stone. - -Certain writers believe that Newfoundland was called Helluland by the -Northmen. The island lies about six hundred miles south of Greenland. - -[49] Nova Scotia is supposed by some writers to be the region named -Markland by the Northmen. It is about four hundred miles southwest of -Newfoundland. - -[50] _Hèr Hefr Graenlendinga Thátt._ Antiq. Amer. pp. 26-40. Discovery of -America. Beamish, pp. 59-70. - -[51] Narrative of an expedition to the east coast of Greenland, sent by -order of the king of Denmark, in search of the lost colonies, under the -command of Captain W. A. Graah, of the Danish royal navy. Translated from -the Danish by the late G. Gordon Macdougall, F.R.S.N.A., for the Royal -Geographical Society of London. London, 1837. pp. 106, 107. - -[52] “_Meira var thar jafndaegri enn á Graenlandi edr Íslandi, sól hafdi -thar eyktarstad ok dagmálastad um skamdegi._” - -“Dag-mál, n. (_vide_ dagr), prop. ‘_day-meal_,’ one of the divisions -of the day, usually about eight or nine o’clock, A.M.; the Latin _hora -tertia_ is rendered by ‘er vér köllum dagmál,’ _which we call d._, Hom. -[Homiliu-bók], 142; enn er ekki lidit af dagmálum, Hom. (St.) 10. Acts -11, 15; in Glúm. [Viga-Glúms Saga], 342, we are told that the young Glúm -was very lazy, and lay in bed till day-meal every morning, cp. also 343; -Hrafn. [Hrafnkéls Saga] 28 and O. H. L. [Olafs Saga Helga Legendaria] -18—áeinum morni milli rismála ok dagmála—where distinction is made -between rismal (_rising time_) and dagmál, so as to make a separate -dagsmark (q. v.) of each of them; and again, a distinction is made -between ‘midday’ and dagmal, Ísl. [Islenzkar], 11, 334. The dagmal is -thus midway between ‘rising’ and ‘midday,’ which accords well with the -present use. The word is synonymous with dagver darmál, _breakfast-time_, -and denotes the hour when the ancient Icelanders used to take their -chief meal, opposed to náttmál, _night-meal_ or _supper-time_, Fms. -[Fornmanna Sögur], viii, 330; even the MSS. use dagmál and dagverdarmál -indiscriminately; cp. also Sturl. [Sturlunga Saga] 111, 4 C; Rb. -[Rimbegla], 452 says that at full moon the ebb takes place ‘at -dagmá-lum.’ To put the dagmál at 7:30 A.M., as Pál Vidalin does, seems -neither to accord with the present use nor the passage in Glúm or the -eccl. _hora tertia_, which was the nearest hour answering to the Icel. -calculation of the day. In Fb. [Flateyjar bók] 1,539, it is said that -the sun set at ‘eykd’ (_i. e._ half-past three o’clock), but rose at -‘dagmál,’ which puts the dagmal at 8:30 A.M. Compds. dagmála-stadr, m. -_the place of d. in the horizon_, Fb. [Flateyjar bók].” - -“Eykt, eykd, f. _three or half-past three o’clock_, P.M.; many -commentaries have been written upon this word, as by Pál Vidalin Skyr, -Finn Johnson in H. E. [Historia Ecclesiastica Islandiæ] 1. 153 sqq. note -6, and in Horologium, etc. The time of eykd is clearly defined in K. Th. -K. [Kristinnrettr Thorláks ok Ketils], 92 as the time _when the sun has -past two parts of the_ ‘utsudr’ (q. v.) _and has one part left_, that -is to say, _half-past three o’clock_, P.M.: it thus nearly coincides -with the eccl. Lat. _nona_ (three o’clock, P.M.); and both eykt and nona -are therefore used indiscriminately in some passages. Sunset at the -time of ‘eykd’ is opposed to sunrise at the time of ‘dagmal,’ q. v. In -Norway ‘ykt’ means a luncheon taken about half-past three o’clock. But -the passage in Edda—that autumn ends and winter begins at sunset at the -time of eykt—confounded the commentators who believed it to refer to -the conventional Icel. winter, which (in the old style) begins with the -middle of October, and lasts six months. In the latitude of Reykholt—the -residence of Snorri—the sun at this time sets about half-past four. -Upon this statement the commentators have based their reasoning both in -regard to dagmál and eykt, placing the eykt at half-past four, P.M., -and dagmal at half-past seven, A.M., although this contradicts the -definition of these terms in the law. The passage in Edda probably came -from a foreign source, and refers not to the Icel. winter but to the -astronomical winter, viz., the winter solstice or the shortest day; for -sunset at half-past three is suited not to Icel., but to the latitude -of Scotland and the southern parts of Scandinavia. The word is also -curious from its bearing upon the discovery of America by the ancients, -_vide_ Fb. [Flateyjar-bók] l. c. This sense (_half-past three_) is now -obsolete in Icel., but eykt is in freq. use in the sense of _trihorium_, -_a time of three hours_; whereas in the oldest sagas no passage has -been found bearing this sense,—the Bs. [Biskupa Sögur] 1, 385, 446, and -Hem. [Hemings-thattr] l. c., are of the 13th and 14th centuries. In -Norway ykt is freq. used metaph. of all the four meal times in the day, -morning-ykt, midday-ykt, afternoon-ykt (or ykt proper), and even-ykt. In -old MSS., Grág., K. Th. K. Hem. Heid. S. [Grágás, Kristinnrettr, Thorláks -ok Ketils, Hemings-thattr, Heidarviga Saga], this word is always spelt -eykd or eykth, shewing the root to be ‘auk’ with the fem. inflex. added; -it probably first meant the _eke_-meal, answering to Engl. _lunch_, and -thence came to mean the time of day at which this meal was taken. The -eccl. law dilates upon the word, as the Sabbath was to begin at ‘_hora -nona_’; hence the phrase, eykt helgr dagr.... - -“Eyktar-stadr. m. _the place of the sun at half-past three_, P.M.; -meira var, thar jafndaegri enn á Graenlandi edr Íslandi, sól hafdi thar -eyktar-stad ok dagmála-stad um skamdegi, Fb. [Flateyjar bók] 1, 539,—this -passage refers to the discovery of America; but in A. A. [Antiquitates -Americanæ], l. c., it is wrongly explained as denoting the shortest day -nine hours long, instead of seven; it follows that the latitude fixed by -the editors of A. A. [Antiquitates Americanæ] is too far to the south.” - -“Dagr, m. ... a day, ... 5. the day is in Icel. divided according to the -position of the sun above the horizon; these fixed traditional marks -are called dags-mörk, _day-marks_, and are substitutes for the hours of -modern times, viz. ris-mál or midr-morgun, dag-mál, há-degi, mid-degi or -mid-mundi, nón, midr-aptan, nátt-mál.” - -“Stadr, m., gen. stadar, dat. stad, and older stadi, pl. stadir: ... a -‘stead,’ place, abode.”—An Icelandic-English dictionary based on the -MS. collections of the late Richard Cleasby, enlarged and completed by -Gudbrand Vigfusson, M. A. Oxford, 1874. - -[53] Thormod Torfason, or Torfæus, as his name is Latinized, in the -addenda of his History of Ancient Vinland (Historia Vinlandiæ Antiquæ), -printed at Copenhagen, in 1705, explains the meaning of the words, saying -that the sun in Vinland, on the shortest day, was six hours above the -horizon, which would imply that this land lay between the fifty-eighth -and sixty-first parallels of north latitude. “Torfæus confirms his -interpretation by the authority of Arngrim Jonas, a learned Icelander who -flourished at the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth -century, and who was deemed a profound astronomer. In his ‘History of -Greenland,’ he thus renders the passage we are considering: ‘There is -in Vinland no winter, no cold, no frost as in Iceland or Greenland; -inasmuch as the sun, on the very day of the winter solstice (they had -no dials there), passes about six hours above the horizon.’ Having -cited this passage from Arngrim Jonas, Torfæus proceeds: ‘This meaning -I had long ago given this passage, first on the authority (if I rightly -understood him) of Bryniulf Sveinson, the most learned of all the bishops -of Skalkholt, to whom I was sent, while yet a youth, in the year 1662, -with royal letters from my gracious master, King Frederick the Third, for -the purpose of learning the genuine signification of the more difficult -ancient words and phrases; and, then, from the necessary correspondence -of the time of sunset with that of sunrise.’”—(The Discovery of America -by the Northmen. By E. Everett. North American Review. January, 1838. -vol. xlvi. pp. 179-188. _Vide_ Historia Vinlandiæ Antiquæ, seu partis -Americæ Septentrionalis. Per Thormodum Torfæum. Havniæ, 1705. Addenda.) - -Professor Charles C. Rafn, secretary of the Royal Society of Northern -Antiquaries, gives this rendition of the passage: “When the day is -shortest the sun there has a place (is above the horizon) from half-past -seven before noon till half-past four in the afternoon.”—Antiq. Amer. p. -436. _Vide_ Discovery of America. Beamish. pp. 64, 65. According to Prof. -Rafn, the Northmen built their winter-quarters on the shore of Mount Hope -bay, Rhode Island; the day, nine hours long, indicating the latitude of -41° 24´ 10´´. - -[54] The saga of Thorfinn Karlsefne and Snorro Thorbrandson (_Saga -Thorfinns Karlsefnis ok Snorra Thorbrandssonar_). This legend is -written on vellum, and is one of the valuable Icelandic manuscripts -called the Arna-Magnœan collection, which is preserved in the library -of the university of Copenhagen. The manuscripts were bequeathed to -the university by Arne Magnussen, or, as his name is Latinized, Arnus -Magnœus, an Icelandic scholar. The saga of Thorfinn is supposed to have -been compiled in the fourteenth century. - -[55] In the treatise of Ivar Bardsen, it is said that in Greenland “is -found the best of wheat, (_beste Hvede_).”—Antiq. Amer. pp. 302-318. - -The wild wheat (_elymus arenarius_) growing on the sand flats of Iceland -is thus described: “This plant, the _melur_ of the natives, is a kind -of grass, with a spike or ear four or five inches long, and generally -appears in a sandy soil. The sea-shore and tracts of volcanic ashes -in the interior are equally favorable to its growth, though it is -principally from the latter that the seeds used for bread are obtained; -and the natives regard it as a great gift wherewith the wise Creator has -blessed those mournful wastes. The harvest is in August, when it becomes -white in the ear, but as it is seldom fully ripe, it requires to be dried -before grinding. It is cut with a sickle, made up in bundles, and carried -home on the backs of horses. It is then separated from the straw, and -ground in hand-mills cut out of a block of lava, into fine meal of a -grayish color.”—Historical and descriptive account of Iceland, Greenland, -and the Faroe islands. pp. 385, 386. - -[56] From _hópa_ to recede. _Hóp_, a recess, haven, bay, inlet. - -Certain writers assume this place Hóp to be the country around Mount Hope -bay, in Rhode Island. - -[57] This statement does not agree with the one preceding it,—that “they -remained at this place a half-month.” - -[58] Skraelingar, m. pl. Esquimaux. - -[59] Antiq. Amer. pp. 136-163. Discovery of America. Beamish. pp. 87-103. - -[60] “_Præterea unam adhuc insulam recitavit a multis in eo repertam -oceano, quæ dicitur Winland, eo quod ibi vites sponte nascantur, vinum -optimum ferentes. Nam et fruges ibi non seminatas habundare, non fabulosa -opinione, sed certa comperimus relatione Danosum._”—M. Adamigesta -Hammenburgensis ecclesiæ pontificum. Edente M. Lappenburg. I. U. D. -Reipublicæ Hamburgensis tabulario. Monumenta Germaniæ historica. By -George Henry Pertz. Hannoveræ, 1846. - -[61] This fragment of a geographical or historical work is supposed to -have been written before the time of Columbus.—Gripla C. Antiq. Amer. pp. -280, 281, 293, 296. Discovery of America. Beamish. pp. 114, 115. - -[62] The map marked Tab. ii. is contained in the historical work -entitled: Gronlandia Antiqva, seu veteris Gronlandiæ Descriptio.... -Authore Thormodo Torfaeo. Havniæ, 1715. p. 21. - -[63] If they were grapes, it does not follow that they were found on the -eastern coast of the present territory of the United States. The French -navigator, Jacques Cartier, in September, 1535, found “vines laden as -full of grapes as could be all along the riuer [St. Lawrence], which -rather seemed to haue bin planted by mans hand than otherwise.”—The third -and last volume of the voyages, navigations, traffiques, and discoueries -of the English nation. By Richard Hakluyt. London, 1600. p. 218. - -[64] The rock writing, as interpreted by an Indian, is an account of -a battle fought by the people of two tribes, and was engraved by some -or one of the members of the victorious party.—Archives of aboriginal -knowledge. By Henry R. Schoolcraft. 1860. vol. i. pp. 112-124; vol. iv. -pp. 119. Antiq. Amer. pp. 373-403. - -[65] Benedict Arnold, the first governor of Rhode Island, living at -Newport, in his will, dated December 20, 1677, directed that his body -should be buried at a certain spot, “being and lying in my land, in or -near the line or path from my dwelling-house leading to my stone-built -windmill, in the town of Newport.” Another mill of similar construction -is near Leamington, in the parish of Chesterton, in Warwickshire, -England, where Benedict Arnold lived when a boy. This mill was built -according to a plan first introduced into England by Inigo Jones.—History -of New England, by John Gorham Palfrey. Boston, 1859. vol. i. Note. pp. -57-59. - -[66] History of Wales, written by Caradoc of Llancarvan, Glamorganshire, -in the British Language, translated into English by Humphry Llwyd, and -published by Dr. David Powel in the year 1584. - -[67] “The most ancient Discouery of the West Indies by Madoc, the sonne -of Owen Guyneth Prince of North-wales, in the yeere 1170: taken out -of the history of Wales, lately published by M. Dauid Powel Doctor of -Diuinity.... Madoc another of Owen Guyneth his sonnes left the land in -contention betwixt his brethren, & prepared certaine ships with men and -munition, and sought aduentures by Seas, sailing West, and leauing the -coast of Ireland so farre North, that he came vnto a land vnknowen, where -he saw many strange things.... - -“Of the voyage and returne of this Madoc there are many fables fained, as -the common people doe vse in distance of place and length of time rather -to augment then to diminish: but sure it is there he was. And after he -had returned home, and declared the pleasant and fruitfull countreys that -he had seene without inhabitants, and vpon the contrary part, for what -barren & wild ground his brethren and nephewes did murther one another, -he prepared a number of ships, and got with him such men and women as -were desirous to liue in quietnesse: and taking leaue of his friends, -tooke his journey thitherward againe.... This Madoc arriving in that -Western country, vnto his people there, and returning back for more of -his owne nation, acquaintance, & friends to inhabit that faire & large -countrey, went thither again with ten sailes, as I find noted by Gutyn -Owen.”—Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 1. - -[68] Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 1. - -[69] Kosmos: Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung. Alexander von -Humboldt. 1845-1858. Trans. by E. C. Otté. Bohn’s ed. vol. ii. pp. 608, -609. - -[70] The history of the voyages of the Zeni brothers was first published -with another work entitled: Dei Commentarij del Viaggio in Persia. -Venezia, 1558. - -[71] The name is evidently a designation for Iceland. _Frislanda_, the -cold or frozen land; Anglo-Saxon, _frysan_; Icelandic, _friosa_; Swedish, -_frysa_; Danish, _fryse_; and _land_, land. - -[72] Estotiland seems to be an anomalous form of the name Scotland, from -Anglo-Saxon, _scot_; Spanish and Portuguese, _escote_; Italian, _scotto_. - -[73] Dello Scoprimento dell’ Isole Frislanda, Eslanda, Engronelanda, -Estotilanda, & Icaria, fatto per due fratelli Zeni, M. Nicolò il -Caualiere, & M. Antonio. Libro Vno, col disegno di dette Isole. - -The Voyages of the Venetian Brothers, Nicolò and Antonio Zeno to the -Northern Seas. By Richard Henry Major. London, 1873. Hakluyt Soc. pub. -pp. 1-24. - -[74] In 1260, the two brothers, Nicolò and Maffeo Polo, departed from -Constantinople, on a trading expedition to the Euxine Sea; thence they -travelled through the western dominions of the Grand Khan of the Tartars. -In 1269 they returned home with letters from this sovereign to Pope -Clement IV. On their arrival in Venice, Nicolò found that his wife had -died in giving birth to his son, Marco, then a lad of fifteen years. -In 1271 the brothers (Maffeo being a bachelor) again left home for the -Orient, taking Marco with them. In 1295 the three returned to Venice -after an absence of twenty-four years. - -[75] Giovanni Battista Ramusio was born at Tevisa in 1485. For a decade -of years he was secretary to the Venetian Council of Ten. His valuable -collection of voyages and travels, entitled “Raccolta di Navigationi e -Viaggi,” comprises three volumes. Volume I. was published in 1554, volume -II. in 1559, and volume III. in 1556. Ramusio died in 1557. - -[76] China. “For about three centuries,” says Yule, “the Northern -provinces of China had been detached from native rule, and subject to -foreign dynasties; first to the _Khitau_, a people from the basin of the -Sungari River, and supposed (but doubtfully) to have been akin to the -Tunguses, whose rule subsisted for 200 years, and originated the name -_Khitai_, Khata, or Cathay, by which for nearly 1000 years China has been -known to the nations of Inner Asia, and to those whose acquaintance with -it was got by that channel.”—The book of Ser Marco Polo. By Henry Yule. -London, 1875. Introd. p. 11. - -[77] Ramusio: Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. vol. ii. Prefatione. - -[78] Concerning Marco Polo, Humboldt remarks: “Jacquet, who was unhappily -too early removed by a premature death from the investigation of Asiatic -languages, and who, like Klaproth and myself, was long occupied with -the work of the great Venetian traveller, wrote to me, as follows, -shortly before his decease: ‘I am as much struck as yourself by the -composition of the _Milione_. It is undoubtedly founded on the direct -and personal observation of the traveller, but he probably also made use -of documents either officially or privately communicated to him. Many -things appear to have been borrowed from Chinese and Mongolian works, -although it is difficult to determine their precise influence on the -composition of the _Milione_; owing to the successive translations from -which Polo took his extracts. Whilst our modern travellers are only too -well pleased to occupy their readers with their personal adventures, -Marco Polo takes pains to blend his own observations with the official -data communicated to him, of which, as Governor of the city of Yangui, -he was able to have a large number.’ (See my _Asie Centrale_, t. ii. p. -395.) The compiling method of the celebrated traveller likewise explains -the possibility of his being able to dictate his book at Genoa, in 1295, -to his fellow-prisoner and friend, Messer Rustizielo of Pisa, as if the -documents had been lying before him. (Compare Marsden, _Travels of Marco -Polo_, p. xxxiii).” Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 625. Note. - -[79] Ser Marco Polo. Yule. Second ed. vol. i. pp. 103, 104. - -[80] “I John Maundevylle, knight, alle be it I be not worthi, that was -born in England, in the Town of Seynt Albones, passed the See, in the -zeer of our Lord Jesu Crist mcccxxii, in the Day of Seynt Michelle; and -hidre to have ben long tyme over the See, and have seyn and gon thorghe -manye dyverse Londes, and many Provynces and Kingdomes and Iles, and have -passed thorghe Tartarye, Percye, Ermonye, the litylle and the grete; -thorghe Lybye, Caldee, and a gret partie of Ethiope; thorghe Amazoyne, -Inde the lasse and the more, a gret partie; and thorghe out many othere -Iles, that ben abouten Inde.... And zee schulle undirstonde, that I have -put this Boke out of Latyn into Frensche and translated it azen out of -Frensche into Englyssche, that every Man of my Nacioun may undirstonde -it.”—MS. in Cottonian library, marked Titus. c. xvi. The Voiage and -Travaile of Sir John Maundevile, Kt. By J. O. Halliwell. London, 1849. -Prologue. pp. 4, 5. - -[81] Herodotus: Melpomene xlii. - -[82] Caius Plinius Secundus, a Roman writer, born A. D. 23, and died A. -D. 79. Hanno’s expedition was undertaken about 570 B. C. - -[83] Eudoxus of Cyzicus, a Greek navigator, lived about 130 B. C. Ptolemy -Lathyrus began his reign B. C. 117. Cornelius Nepos flourished in the -century before the Christian era. - -[84] Supposed to have been in the year of the building of Rome, 691. - -[85] Suevi, the ancient inhabitants of that part of Germany between the -Danube and the Baltic Sea. - -[86] Historia Naturalis. lib. ii. cap. lxvii. - -[87] “In Christian Europe the earliest mention of the use of the magnetic -needle occurs in the politico-satirical poem, called _La Bible_, by -Guyot, of Provence, in 1190, and in the description of Palestine by -Jacobus, of Vitry, Bishop of Ptolemais, between 1204 and 1215. Dante (in -his _Parad._ xii., 29) refers, in a simile, to the needle (_ago_) ‘which -points to the star.’” - -“Navarrete, in his _Discurso histórico sobre los progresos del Arte de -Navegar en España_, 1802, p. 28, recalls a remarkable passage in the -Spanish _Leyes de las Partidas_ (II. tit. ix., ley 28), of the middle of -the thirteenth century: ‘The needle, which guides the seaman in the dark -night, and shows him, both in good and bad weather, how to direct his -course, is the intermediary agent (_medianera_) between the loadstone -(_la piedra_) and the north star.’ ... See the passage in _Las Siete -Partidas del sabio Rey Don Alonso el ix._ (according to the usually -adopted chronological order, Alonso the Xth). Madrid, 1829. t. i. p. -473.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 629, and note. - -[88] “_La magnete piere laide et noire. Ob ete fer volenters se joint. -Lon touchet ob une aguilet. Et en festue lon fischie. Puis lon mette en -laigue et se tient desus. Et la point se torne contre lestoille. Quant la -nuit feit tenebrous et lon ne voie estoile ne lune, poet li mariner tenir -droite voie._” - -[89] The Monthly Magazine, or British Register. London, 1802. vol. xiii. -part 1. p. 449. The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal. By Henry Major. -London, 1868. pp. 58, 59. - -[90] “We are told by Antonio Beccadelli, surnamed Il Panormita from his -birthplace, Palermo, and who was a contemporary of Prince Henry, that -sailors were first indebted to Amalfi for the use of the magnet—‘_Prima -dedit nautis usum magnetis Amalphis_’; and ‘_Inventrix prœclara fuit -magnetis Amalphis_.’ ... The former of these lines is quoted from Il -Panormita by Henricus Brenemanus, in his Dissertatio de Republica -Amalfitana, and Klaproth has added the latter.” Life of Prince Henry of -Portugal. Major. p. 59. - -[91] Dom Henrique was born at Oporto, March 4, 1394. - -[92] “_Quem passar o Cabo de Nao, ou voltara ou nao._” - -[93] Chronica do descobrimento e conquista de Guiné, escripta por -mandado de el Rey. D. Affonso V. sob a direcçao scientifica e secundo as -instrucçoes do illustre infante D. Henrique, pelo chronista Gomes Eannes -de Azurara, fielmente transladada do manuscrito original contemporaneo -que se conserva na Bibliotheca Real de Pariz. Edited by the Visconde da -Carreira, with introduction and notes by the Vicomte de Santarem. Paris, -1841. cap. viii. - -[94] Antonio Galvano was born about the year 1502. In 1538 he was -appointed by the king of Portugal governor of the Moluccas or Spice -Islands. He was recalled about the year 1545, and died in 1557. - -[95] Tratado, que compōs o nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão, -dos diuersos & desuayrados caminhos, por onde nos tempos passados a -pimenta & especearia veyo da India ás nossas partes, & assi de todos os -descobrimentos antigos & modernos, que são feitos ate a era de mil & -quinhentos & cincoenta.... Impressa em casa de Joam de Barreira impressor -del rey nosso senhor, na Rua de Sā Mameda. [Lisboa.] - -_Vide_ The discoveries of the world, from their first original unto -the year of our Lord 1555, by Antonio Galvano, governor of Ternate. -Corrected, quoted, and published in England, by Richard Hakluyt, -(1610). Now reprinted, with the original Portuguese text, and edited by -Vice-admiral Bethune, C. B. London, 1862. Hakluyt Society publication. - -[96] Chronica do descobrimento e conquista de Guiné. cap. ix. - -[97] Historia Naturalis. lib. ii. cap. lxviii. - -[98] The distance of a place, north or south of the equator, was -determined by ascertaining with the astrolabe the elevation of the pole -of the heavens above the plane of the horizon. - -The distance of one place from another, east or west of a meridian, -was obtained by ascertaining the difference of time at the two points; -the difference of time being one hour to each space of fifteen degrees -of longitude. Although a navigator in the latter part of the fifteenth -century could determine with his astrolabe the time of the place where he -was in port, from the altitude of the sun or other heavenly bodies, the -want of an accurate chronometer made it impossible for him to know the -exact time of a place elsewhere. Pigafetta, who sailed round the world in -1519-1522, says in his treatise on navigation: “Pilots now are satisfied -with knowing the latitude, and are so presumptuous that they refuse to -hear longitude mentioned.”—MS. in Ambrosian Library, Milan. - -To obtain a practical solution of the difficulties which perplexed seamen -in determining the longitude of places, the Spanish government offered -a thousand crowns, in 1598, for an accurate method of ascertaining the -time of distant places. Not long afterward the government of the United -Provinces of the Netherlands offered ten thousand florins for similar -information, and, in 1714, the parliament of Great Britain passed an act -proffering a gift of money to any person who should discover the best -means of ascertaining longitude. - -[99] Joam II. of Portugal reigned from 1481 to 1495. - -“Astrolabes designed for the determination of time and geographical -latitudes by meridian altitudes, and capable of being employed at -sea, underwent gradual improvement from the time that the astrolabium -of the Majorican pilots was in use, which is described by Raymond -Lully, in 1295, in his _Arte de navegar_, till the invention of the -instrument made by Martin Behaim, in 1484, at Lisbon, and which was, -perhaps, only a simplification of the meteoroscope of his friend -Regiomontanus.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. pp. 630, 631. - -[100] Martin Behaim was born in Nuremberg about the year 1459. His -commercial business induced him to visit Portugal about the year -1480, where, it is said, he became a pupil of Johann Müller, known -as Regiomontanus. He accompanied Diogo Cam to the Congo, in 1484. He -afterward resided on the island of Fayal, one of the Azores, for a number -of years. His celebrated terrestrial globe was constructed by him, at -Nuremberg, about the year 1492. He died at Lisbon, on the twenty-ninth of -July, 1506. - -[101] Asia de Joam de Barros dos fectos que os Portugueses fizeram no -descobrimento & conquista dos mares & terras do Oriente. Impressa per -Germao Galharde em Lixboa: a xxviij. de Junho anno de m. vᶜ. lij. dec. i. -lib. iv. cap. ii. - -[102] Arte de nauegar. Por el maestro Pedro de Medina. Valladolid. 1545. - -[103] “I find the first mention of the application of the log in a -passage of Pigafetta’s journal of Magellan’s voyage of circumnavigation, -which long lay buried among the manuscripts in the Ambrosian Library at -Milan. It is there said that in the month of January, 1521, when Magellan -had already arrived in the Pacific, ‘_Seconda la misura che facevamo -del viaggio colla catena a poppa noi percorrevamo da 60 in 70 leghe al -giorno_,’ [following the measure which we made of our progress with -the chain at the stern, we ran from sixty to seventy leagues a day]. -(Amoretti. Primo Viaggio intorno al Globo terracqueo ossia Navigazione -fatta dal Cavaliere Antonio Pigafetta sulla squadra del Magaglianes, -1800. p. 46.) What can this arrangement of a chain at the hinder part -of the ship (_catena a poppa_), ‘which we used throughout the entire -voyage to measure the way,’ have been except an apparatus similar to our -log?”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 633. - -[104] The Cape of Good Hope is in 34° 22´ south latitude. - -It is said that Dias found by the astrolabe that the cape was in 45° -south latitude, and that it was 3,100 leagues distant from Lisbon. This -distance, it is related, Dias set down, league by league, on a marine -chart, which he presented to King John II. Historia General de las -Indias. Bartolomé de las Casas. lib. i. cap. vii. - -[105] Cristoforo Colombo was born in the city of Genoa, about the year -1435. His father, Dominico Colombo, was a wool-comber. The navigator -married, in Lisbon, Doña Felipa, the daughter of Bartolomeo Moñis de -Perestrello, a distinguished mariner, who had been in the service of -Prince Henry of Portugal. - -Ferdinand Columbus, in his history of the life and achievements of his -father, remarks: “So it is that some, who would cast a cloud upon his -fame, say he was of Nervi, others of Cugureo, and others of Bugiesco, -all small towns near the city of Genoa, and upon its coast. Others, who -wish to exalt him, say he was a native of Savona, others of Genoa, and -others, more vain, make him of Piacenza, in which city there are some -honorable persons of his family and tombs with the arms and inscriptions -of the family of Colombi, this being the common surname of his ancestors, -though he, complying with the customs of the country where he went to -live and begin a new condition of life, altered the word that it might be -like the old name, and designated the direct from the collateral line, -calling himself Colon.... And the surname of Colon which he revived was -appropriate, which in Greek signifies a member, and his Christian name -being Christopher, designate him as being a member of Christ, by whom -salvation was conveyed to those Indian people.”—Histoire del Signore Don -Fernando Colombo. cap. 1. - -[106] Fernando Colombo, an illegitimate son of the admiral, was born in -Cordova about the year 1487. After his father’s discovery of the New -World, he was made page to Prince Juan, the son of King Ferdinand and -Queen Isabella. He accompanied his father in his fourth voyage, in 1502, -and after the latter’s death, sailed twice to the West Indies. He was -excellently educated, and was the author of several works. His library, -it is said, contained more than twenty thousand books and manuscripts, -which, after his death, became the property of the cathedral of Seville. -The manuscript of his history of the life of his father was lost before -the work appeared in Spanish. It is said that Luis Colon, duke of -Veragua, a dissipated grandson of the navigator, went to Genoa about -the year 1568, taking Fernando’s manuscript with him, and placed it in -the hands of Baltano de Fornari, by whom it was transferred to Giorgio -Baptista Marini, who had it translated into Italian, after which it was -printed in Venice in this language, and also in Latin. Alfonso de Ulloa’s -Italian translation of it was published, in Venice, in 1571, entitled -Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo; nelli quali s’ ha particolare, & -vera relatione della vita, & de’ fatti dell’ Ammiraglio D. Cristoforo -Colombo, suo padre. There are several English translations of Fernando -Colombo’s history. _Vide_ Collection of voyages and travels by [A. & J.] -Churchhill. London, 1732. vol. ii. pp. 499-628. Pinkerton’s Collection of -voyages and travels. London, 1819. vol. ii. pp. 1-155. - -[107] Columbus, in his investigations, no doubt, became informed -concerning the arguments advanced by the Greek astronomer, Anaximander, -in the sixth century before the Christian era, respecting the globular -form of the earth. He evidently read what Aristotle wrote in the fifth -century of the Christian era: “As to the figure of the earth, it must -necessarily be spherical.... And, moreover, from the visible phenomena, -for if it were not so, the eclipses of the moon would not have such -sections as they have. For in the configurations in the course of a -month, the deficient part takes all different shapes; it is straight, and -concave, and convex; but in eclipses it always has the line of division -convex; wherefore, since the moon is eclipsed in consequence of the -interposition of the earth, the periphery of the earth must be the cause -of this by having a spherical form. And again, from the appearance of -the stars, it is clear not only that the earth is round, but that its -size is not very great; for when we go a little distance to the south or -to the north, the circle of the horizon becomes palpably different, so -that the stars overheard undergo a great change, and are not the same to -those that travel to the north and to the south. For some stars are seen -in Egypt and at Cyprus, but are not seen in the countries north of them; -and the stars that in the north are visible while they make a complete -circuit there [in Egypt and at Cyprus], undergo a setting. So that from -this it is manifest, not only that the form of the earth is round, but -also that it is not a very large sphere; for otherwise the difference -would not be so obvious to persons making so small a change of place. -Wherefore we may judge that those persons who connect the region in the -neighborhood of the Pillars of Hercules with that toward India, and -who assert that in this way the sea is one, do not assert things very -improbable. They confirm this conjecture, moreover, by elephants, which -are said to be of the same species toward each extreme of the earth, as -if this circumstance was a consequence of the conjunction of the extreme -parts. The mathematicians, who try to calculate the measure of the -circumference, make it amount to 400,000 stadia; whence we infer that the -earth is not only spherical, but that it is not large compared with the -magnitude of the other stars,”—De Cœlo. lib. ii. cap. xiv. - -[108] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo, cap. v. - -[109] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo, cap. iv. - -[110] Iceland lies between 63° 24´ and 66° 33´ north latitude. - -[111] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. iv. - -[112] The Azores or Western Islands, about eight hundred miles west of -Portugal, lie in an oblique line, northwest and southeast, between 36° -50´ and 39° 50´ north latitude and 24° 30´ and 31° 20´ west longitude. -The Azores, frequently called Terceiras, were discovered in 1439 by Josua -van der Berg, a Flemish merchant, who was carried in his ship to them -in a storm. They were named Açores from the number of goshawks found on -them. They were not inhabited when discovered. - -[113] The Cape Verd Islands, three hundred and twenty miles west of Cape -Verd on the west coast of Africa, lie between 14° 45´ and 17° 13´ north -latitude and between 22° 45´ and 25° 25’ west longitude. - -[114] Claudius Ptolemæus, an Egyptian astronomer and geographer, lived, -in the second century at Alexandria. His System of Geography, (Γεωγραφική -Ἀφήγησις,) contained in eight books, was a standard work for fourteen -centuries. During the first part of the sixteenth century twenty-one -editions of the geography, with editions and emendations, were published. -According to Ptolemy, all the known part of the earth, from the first -meridian, or the Canary Islands, eastwardly, on the parallel of Rhodes, -measured seventy-two thousand stadia, or one hundred and eighty degrees, -which he deemed to be the half of the circumference of the globe. But -the extent he was acquainted with was really measured by one hundred and -twenty degrees, which made the circumference one third less than it is. - -Marinus of Tyre, a Greek geographer, lived about 150 A.D. This -cosmographer supposed that the country of the Seres, or Sinae (China), -the farthest part of India known to the ancients, was fifteen hours, by -the course of the sun, or two hundred and twenty-five degrees east of the -first meridian passing through the Fortunate (Canary) Islands. According -to our present geographical measurements, the distance given by Marinus -was not more than one hundred and thirty degrees, leaving two hundred -and thirty the remaining distance from China eastwardly to the Canary -Islands. Following the deductions of Marinus, there were only one hundred -and thirty-five degrees of distance between China, going eastwardly, and -the Fortunate Islands. - -[115] “Marinus, the Tyrian, misled by the length of time occupied in -the navigation from Myos Hormos to India, by the erroneously assumed -direction of the major axis of the Caspian from west to east, and by -the over-estimation of the length of the land route to the country of -the Seres, gave the old continent a breadth of 225°, instead of 129°. -The Chinese coast was thus advanced to the Sandwich Islands. Columbus -naturally preferred this result to that of Ptolemy, according to which -Quinsay should have been found in the meridian of the eastern part of the -archipelago of the Carolinas. Ptolemy, in the Almagest (ii. 1), places -the coast of Sinae at 180°, and in his Geography (lib. i. cap. 12) at -177¼°.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 645. Note. - -[116] Alfraganius or Al Fergani, an Arabian astronomer, lived in the -earlier part of the ninth century. - -[117] Medea, act. ii. - -Lucius Annæus Seneca, a Stoic philosopher and tragic poet, was born at -Corduba, Spain, about 5 B.C., and died 65 A.D. - -Tiphys was the name of the pilot of the ship of the Argonauts. - -Thule, an island in the extreme part of Northern Europe, as known in the -time of Ptolemy. The island is supposed by some to have been the Shetland -Islands, by others the Faroe group, and by others Iceland. - -[118] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. vi, vii. - -[119] Porto Santo, a small island northeast of the island of Madeira. - -[120] The island of Madeira (Wood) lies off the west coast of Africa, -between 32° 37´ and 32° 52´ north latitude and 16° 38´ and 17° 16´ west -longitude. It is thirty-four miles long. The island of Porto Santo is -twenty-five miles northeast of it. - -[121] Various fictions were current in the middle ages respecting the -situation of the island of the Seven Cities, and a number of expeditions -went in search of it with unsuccessful results. Mercator, Ortelius, and -Locke place the island in 28° north latitude. - -[122] Thucydides, a Greek historian, born B.C. 471. - -[123] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo, cap. ix, x. - -[124] “Paolo Toscanelli was so greatly distinguished as an astronomer -that Behaim’s teacher, Regiomontanus, dedicated to him, in 1463, his -work, _De Quadratura Circuli_, directed against the Cardinal Nicolaus -de Cusa. He constructed the great gnomon in the church of Santa Maria -Novella at Florence, and died in 1482, at the age of eighty-five, without -having lived long enough to enjoy the pleasure of learning the discovery -of the Cape of Good Hope by Diaz, and of the tropical part of the new -continent by Columbus.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 644. -Note. - -[125] Zacton, in China, is now called Tsiuenchau. “At this city” says -Marco Polo, “is the haven of Zayton, frequented by all of the ships from -India, ... and by all the merchants of Manzi, for hither is imported the -most astonishing quantity of goods and of precious stones and pearls.... -For it is one of the two greatest havens in the world for commerce.”—Ser -Marco Polo. Yule. Second ed. vol. ii. p. 186. On Ruysch’s map of 1508, -Zaiton is placed on the east coast of China, west of the island of Cuba. -_Vide_ map. - -[126] The city is now called Hangchau, and is in the province of -Chehkiang. As described by Marco Polo, the city was “the finest and the -noblest in the world.”—Ser Marco Polo. Yule. Second ed. vol. ii. p. 145. -Quinsai on Ruysch’s map of 1508, is northwest of Zaiton. - -[127] Antonio Pigafetta, in his Treatise on navigation, written about -the year 1523, says: “The circumference of the earth is supposed to be -divided into three hundred and sixty degrees, and to each degree are -assigned seventeen leagues and a half; the circumference of the earth is -consequently six thousand three hundred leagues. The land league is three -miles, the sea league is four.”—MS. in Ambrosian library, Milan. - -[128] Cipango (Japan), now called by the natives Dai Nippon or Dai -Nihon, is a group of islands lying between the twenty-third and fiftieth -parallels of north latitude and the one hundred and twenty-second and one -hundred and fifty-third meridians of east longitude. - -[129] From Lisbon, Spain, in 38° 42´ north latitude and 9° 8´ west -longitude (first meridian at Greenwich), to Tokio, Japan, in 35° 40´ -north latitude and 139° 40´ east longitude, the westward distance is -about eleven thousand six hundred statute miles; and from Lisbon to -Peking, China, in 39° 56´ north latitude and 116° 27´ east longitude, -about twelve thousand one hundred miles. From Liverpool, England, to New -York, on the sailing route, the distance is about three thousand and -twenty-three miles, and from New York to Canton, China, _via_ the Isthmus -of Panama and the Sandwich Islands, the distance is about ten thousand -six hundred miles. - -“As the old continent, from the western extremity of the Iberian -peninsula [Portugal], to the coast of China, comprehends almost 130° -of longitude, there remain about 230° for the distance which Columbus -would have had to traverse if he wished to reach Cathai (China); but -less if he only desired to reach Zipangi (Japan). This difference of -230°, which I have indicated, depends on the position of the Portuguese -Cape St. Vincent (11° 20´ W. of Paris), and the far projecting part of -the Chinese coast, near the then celebrated port of Quinsay, so often -named by Columbus and Toscanelli (lat. 30° 28´, long. 117° 47´ E. of -Paris).... The distance of Cape St. Vincent from Zipangi (Niphon) is 22° -of longitude less than Quinsay, therefore about 209° instead of 230° -53´.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 264. Note. - -[130] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. viii. - -[131] Diego Ortiz de Cazadilla, bishop of Ceuta. - -[132] This conclave of the learned men of Spain held its meetings in the -Dominican convent of St. Stephen, in Salamanca. - -[133] “But as to the fable that there are antipodes—that is to say, men -on the opposite side of the earth, where the sun rises when it sets to -us—men who walk with their feet opposite ours, that is on no ground -credible. And, indeed, it is not affirmed that this has been learned -by historical knowledge, but by scientific conjecture, on the ground -that the earth is suspended within the concavity of the sky, and that -it has as much room on the one side of it as on the other; hence they -say that the part which is beneath must be inhabited. But they do not -remark that, although it be supposed or scientifically demonstrated -that the world is of a round and spherical form, yet it does not follow -that the other side of the earth is bare of water; nor even, though it -be bare, does it immediately follow that it is peopled. For Scripture, -which proves the truth of its historical statements by the accomplishment -of its prophecies, gives no false information; and it is too absurd to -say that some men might have taken ship and traversed the whole wide -ocean, and crossed from this side of the world to the other, and that -thus even the inhabitants of that distant region are descended from the -first man.”—Sancti Aurelii Augustini Hipponensis episcopi operum. Tomus -Septimus. Antwerpiæ. 1700. De Civitate Dei. lib. xvi. cap. ix. The works -of Aurelius Augustine, bishop of Hippo. Trans. by the Rev. Marcus Dods. -Edinburgh. 1871. - -Lactantius, another theologian, in the fourth century, argued in the same -way: “Is it possible that men can be so absurd as to believe that the -plants and trees on the other side of the earth hang downward, and that -men there have their feet higher than their heads? If you ask of them how -they defend these monstrosities, how things do not fall away from the -earth on that side, they reply that the nature of things is such that -heavy bodies tend toward the centre, like the spokes of a wheel, while -light bodies, as clouds, smoke, fire, tend from the centre it toward the -heavens on all sides. Now I am really at a loss what to say of those who, -when they have once gone wrong, steadily persevere in their folly and -defend one absurd opinion by another.”—Div. Institutiones. lib. iii. - -[134] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xi, xii. - -[135] In a letter, addressed to the king and queen describing his fourth -voyage, Columbus remarks: “For seven years I was at your royal court, -where every one to whom the enterprise was mentioned treated it as -ridiculous, but now there is not a man, down to the very tailors, who -does not beg to be allowed to become a discoverer.”—Coleccion de los -viages y descubrimientos, que hicieron por mar los Españoles desde fines -del siglo xv., por Don Martin Fernandez de Navarrete. Madrid, 1825. tom. -i. p. 311. - -Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xiii, xiv, xv. - -[136] “_Tengo propósito de hacer carta nueva de navegar, en la cual -situaré toda la mar y tierras del mar Océano en sus propios lugares -debajo su viento; y mas componer un libro, y poner todo por el semejante -por pintura, por latitud del equinocial y longitud del Occidente, y sobre -todo cumple mucho que yo olvide el sueño y tiente mucho el navegar porque -asi cumple, las cuales serán gran trabajo._”—Coleccion de los viages y -descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. i. pp. 1-3. - -[137] Columbus, speaking of the progress of the ship, on the -twenty-fourth of October, remarks: “I carried all the sail of the ship, -the mainsail, and two bonnets, the foresail, and the spritsail, and -the mizzen and the main-top-sail. _Llevaba todas mis velas de la nao, -maestra, y dos bonetas, y trinquete, y cebadera, y mezana, y vela de -gavia._” A bonnet was a sail placed beneath the mainsail in fine weather -to increase the speed of a ship. - -[138] On the pavement of the cathedral of Seville is inscribed: “_Con -tres galeras y 90 personas_,” with three galleys and ninety persons. - -[139] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xvi, xvii. - -[140] The island of Ferro is the most westerly of the Canary group. The -Canaries lie off the west coast of Africa, between 27° and 30° north -latitude and 13° and 19° west longitude. The principal islands are: -Teneriffe, Grand Canary, Palma, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gomera, and -Ferro. Through the last island the ancient geographers drew the first -meridian of longitude. - -[141] According to Columbus’s statement, 56⅔ miles were equal to a -degree, and four miles to a marine league. It has been assumed that the -Italian mile used in measurements by Columbus equalled 4,842 English -feet, and the Italian marine league 19,368 English feet.—_Vide_ An -attempt to solve the problem of the first landing-place of Columbus in -the New World. By Captain G. V. Fox, Assistant Secretary of the United -States Navy. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Appendix No. 18. -Report for 1880. Washington, 1882. pp. 58, 59. - -[142] “On September 13, 1492, he had reached far enough to the westward -to come from a previously eastern declination within a region of westerly -declination, and that on September 17 it amounted to a whole point -(11¼°).” This constitutes his well-known discovery of a part of a line -of no-declination. “Two hundred and twenty-four leagues or, near enough -for our purpose, 672 nautical miles, west of the island of Gomera would -place him on September 13, in latitude 28° 06´ north, and in longitude -12° 42´ + 17° 08´ = 29° 50´, according to Bowditch, or if we take the -position of the harbor of Sebastian near the eastern point of Gomera -Island, according to admiralty chart No. 1873, viz.: latitude 28° 05´ 5 -and longitude 17° 06´ 3 and considering that 11° 12´ correspond to 12° -42´ of difference of longitude in that latitude, we have for a point in -the line of no-declination the latitude of 28° 05´ and longitude 29° 48´. -In E. Walker’s treatise on Terrestrial and Cosmical Magnetism, Cambridge -(England), 1866, p. 300, we read: ‘The history of this line dates from -the 13th of September, 1492, when Columbus observed the needle pass -from the east to the west of the meridian, in latitude 28° N. longitude -28° W. (probably roughly adding 11° of difference of longitude to 17° -for longitude of Gomera). According to my computation of the daily -position of the Admiral’s flagship, and based upon his log-book, he was -on September 13 in latitude 28° 21´ longitude 29° 16´.... According to -my computation of the daily track, Columbus was on September 17, 1492, -in latitude 27° 38´ and in longitude 36° 30´, when he noted 11° west -declination.”—An inquiry into the variation of the compass off the Bahama -Islands, at the time of the landfall of Columbus in 1492. By Charles A. -Schott. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Appendix No. 19. Report -for 1880. Washington, 1882. p. 5. - -“Christopher Columbus has not only the merit of being the first to -discover _a line without magnetic_ variation, but also of having excited -a taste for the study of terrestrial magnetism in Europe, by means of -his observations on the progressive increase of western declination in -receding from that line.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 656. - -[143] “Men also became acquainted with those great banks of sea-weed -(_Fucus natans_),—the oceanic meadows which presented the singular -spectacle of the accumulation of a social plant over an extent of space -almost seven times greater than the area of France. The _great Fucus -Bank_, the _Mar de Sargasso_, extends between 19° and 34° north latitude. -The major axis is situated about 7° west of the island of Corvo. The -_lesser Fucus Bank_ lies in a space between the Bermudas and the Bahamas. -Winds and partial currents variously affect, according to the character -of the season, the length and circumference of these Atlantic fucoid -meadows.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 663. - -[144] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xviii, xix. - -[145] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xx, xxii. - -The discovery of land was made on Friday morning, the twelfth of October, -_old style_. According to the calendar of Julius Cæsar, every fourth -year had three hundred and sixty-six days; the others three hundred and -sixty-five. Pope Gregory XIII. changed this method of reckoning time by -dropping ten days in October, 1582, in order to bring back the day of the -vernal equinox to the same day, in the year 325, in which the council -of Nice was convened. By an act of the parliament of Great Britain, in -1751, eleven days, in September, 1752, were dropped, and the third day of -the month was reckoned the fourteenth of the _new style_. This mode of -reckoning time is called the _new style_. - -[146] Bartolomé de las Casas was born at Seville, in 1474. In 1502 he -made his first voyage to the New World, and quitted its shores for the -last time in 1547. His history of the Indies,—Historia general de las -Indias,—written between the years 1527 and 1562, was not printed until -1875-’76, when it was issued, in five volumes, at Madrid. Before his -death, in 1566, he gave the manuscript of this work to the convent of -San Gregorio, at Valladolid, with the request that it should not be -published for forty years. A manuscript in Las Casas’s hand-writing, -apparently an abridgment of Columbus’s journal of his first voyage, which -the former evidently had made while obtaining material for his history -of the Indies, was found by Martin Fernandez de Navarrete, the Spanish -historian, in the archives of Spain, when making, about the year 1790, -researches for information respecting the marine history of Spain. - -[147] This island is believed by Munoz to be Watling Island; by -Navarrete, Grand Turk Island; by Humboldt and Irving, Cat Island. The -Bahamas lie between the island of Hayti or San Domingo and the east coast -of Florida, or between 21° and 27° 30´ north latitude and 70° 30´ and -79° 5´ west longitude. The principal islands of the group are the Grand -Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, Andros, New Providence, San Salvador, Rum -Cay, Great Exuma, Watling, Long, Crooked, Atwood’s Key, Great and Little -Magua islands. - -The identity of the island is discussed at some length by Captain G. V. -Fox, of the United States Navy, who remarks: “The study that I gave to -the subject in the winter of 1878-’79 in the Bahamas, which had been -familiar cruising-ground to me, has resulted in the selection of Samana -or Atwood Cay for the first landing-place. It is a little island, 8.8 -miles east and west, 1.6 extreme breadth, and averaging 1.2 north and -south. It has 8.6 square miles. The east end is in latitude 23° 05´ N.; -longitude, 73° 37´ west of Greenwich.... Turk is smaller than Samana, -and Cat very much longer.”—An attempt to solve the problem of the first -landing-place of Columbus in the New World. By Captain G. V. Fox, United -States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Appendix No. 18. Report for 1880. -Washington, 1882. pp. 43, 44. - -[148] F and Y: Fernando and Ysabel. - -[149] The real position of this island, in respect to that of Ferro, is -E. 5° N. The port of Ferro is in latitude 27° 46´ 2´´ N. and longitude -17° 54´ 2´´ W. - -[150] _Vide_ Personal narrative of the first voyage of Columbus to -America. From a manuscript recently discovered in Spain. Translated from -the Spanish. [By Samuel Kettell.] Boston, 1827. pp. 33-38. - -Historia general de las Indias. Por Bartolomé de las Casas. lib. 1. cap. -xxxix-xli. Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. 1. - -[151] A coin of less value than a mill. - -[152] From this point, says Humboldt, as related by Columbus’s friend, -the Cura de los Palacios, “he proposed, if he had provision enough ‘to -continue his course westward, and to return to Spain, either by water, by -way of Ceylon (Taprobane) _rodeando todo la tierra de los Negros_, or by -land, through Jerusalem and Jaffa.’ ... See the important manuscript of -Andres Bernaldez, Cura de la villa de los Palacios (Historia de los Reyes -Catolicos, cap. 123). This history comprises the years from 1488 to 1513. -Bernaldez had received Columbus into his house, in 1496, on his return -from his second voyage.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 640, -and note. - -[153] The real distance is said to be eleven hundred and five -leagues.—_Vide_ Personal narrative of the first voyage of Columbus to -America. [Kettell.] pp. 38-73. - -[154] Historia general de las Indias. Las Casas. cap. xlvi. Coleccion de -los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. 1. - -[155] An arroba is equal to twenty-five pounds. - -[156] Las Casas remarks: “From what he here relates, it appears that had -he proceeded farther northerly he would undoubtedly, in two more days, -have discovered Florida.”—MS. of Las Casas. _Vide_ Personal narrative of -the first voyage of Columbus to America. [Kettell.] pp. 73-86. - -[157] Letter of Columbus to Rafael (or Gabriel) Sanchez, dated Lisbon, -March 14, 1493. - -[158] “Only 21° of latitude.”—Navarrete. - -[159] A blank space in the original. - -[160] The island of Cuba lies between 19° 50´ and 23° 10´ north latitude, -and 74° 7´ and 84° 58´ west longitude. Florida is about one hundred and -thirty miles north of Cuba. - -[161] The argument of Las Casas concerning the heat at forty-two degrees -north latitude is invalidated by Columbus’s reasons for not sailing -farther to the north. In his letter to Rafael Sanchez he says: “Finding -myself proceeding toward the north, which I was desirous to avoid _on -account of the cold_, and, moreover, meeting with a contrary wind, I -determined to return to the south.” It would seem that Columbus was -unable to satisfy his own doubts respecting the latitude of the places -in the North to which he had sailed. If he had not mentioned that he was -in doubt respecting the working condition of his quadrant, the question -of his sailing as far north as the forty-second parallel would be an -important matter for geographical discussion. Navarrete says: “The -quadrants of that time measured the double altitude, and consequently the -forty-two degrees which Columbus says he was distant from the equator -are to be reduced to twenty-one north latitude, which is the parallel to -which he had sailed.”—_Vide_ Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. -Navarrete, tom. i. pp. 44, 47, 62. Personal narrative of the first voyage -of Columbus to America. [Kettell.] p. 95. - -[162] Ferdinand Columbus says the admiral called the island of Cuba, -Juana, in honor of Prince Juan, heir of Castile.—_Vide_ Histoire del S. -D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xxvi. - -[163] The island of Española, which the natives called Haiti, lies -between 17° 36´ and 19° 59´ north latitude, and 68° 20´ and 74° 38´ west -longitude. It is about fifty miles east-southeast of Cuba and about -seventy-five west-northwest of Porto Rico. It is now called Hayti or San -Domingo. - -[164] Apparently the original name of Jamaica. The island of Jamaica is -about eighty-five miles from Cuba. - -[165] On the twenty-first of November, 1492, Martin Alonso Pinzon, in the -Pinta, had left the other vessels and remained away from them until the -sixth of January, 1493. - -[166] MS. of Las Casas.—_Vide_ Personal narrative of the first voyage of -Columbus to America. [Kettell.] pp. 86-205. - -[167] Columbus’s letter to Rafael Sanchez. - -[168] Columbus’s letter to Rafael Sanchez. - -[169] MS. of Las Casas.—_Vide_ Personal narrative of the first voyage of -Columbus to America. [Kettell.] pp. 215-222. - -[170] Martin Alonso Pinzon had previously arrived in Galicia. - -[171] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xli, xlii. - -[172] Epistola Christofori Colom: cui etas nostra multu debit: de Insulis -Indie supra Gangem nuper inuētis. Ad quas perqrendas octauo antea mense -auspicies & ere invictissimor’ Fernãdi & Helisabet Hispaniar’ Regu -missus fuerat: ad magnificum dum Gabrielem Sanchis eorundē Serenissimor’ -Regum Tesaurariu missa: quiā nobilis ac literatus vir Leander de Cosco -ab Hispano ideomate in latinum cōuertit tertio kal’s Maii m.cccc.xciii -Pontificatus Alexandri Sexti anno primo. - -A letter of Christopher Columbus, to whom our age is greatly indebted, -respecting the islands of India lately found beyond the Ganges. In -search of which he was sent eight months ago under the auspices and at -the expense of the most invincible Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of -Spain. Sent to the magnificent lord, Gabriel Sanchez, treasurer of the -same most serene king, and which the noble and learned man, Leander de -Cosco, translated from the Spanish idiom into Latin. The third day of the -calends of May, 1493. Pontificate of Alexander VI., first year. - -[173] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xlii. - -[174] Tratado, que compōs o nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão. - -[175] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xlvi. - -[176] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xlvi, xlvii. - -[177] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. l. - -[178] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. li. - -[179] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. liii-lviii. - -[180] “_Que esta tierra de Cuba fuesa la tierra firme al comienzo de -las Indias y fin á quien en estas partes quisiere venir de España por -tierra._” - -[181] Informacion del escribano publico. Fernando Perez de Luna. -Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos de los Espagñoles. tom. ii. pp. -143, 149. - -[182] In August, 1495, Peter Martyr, writing to Cardinal Bernardino, -says: “Columbus asserts that this region is the continent of the Ganges -of India,—_Indiæ Gangetidis continentem eam esse plagam contendit -Colonus_.”—Opvs, epistolaru Petri Martyris Anglerii Mediolanēsis -Protonotarij Aplici atque a cōsilijs reru Indicaru: nuc pmu et natu y -mediocri cura excursum: quod q dē preterstili venustatē, nostroru quoque -tēporum histori loco esse poterit. Cōpluti Anno dni MDXXX. - -[183] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lviii-lxiv. - -[184] Columbus writing from Española in October, 1498, says: “Each time -that I sail from Spain to India, as soon as I have proceeded about -a hundred nautical miles to the west of the Azores, I perceive an -extraordinary alteration in the movement of the heavenly bodies, in the -temperature of the air, and in the character of the sea. I have observed -these alterations with especial care, and I notice that the mariner’s -compass, whose declination had hitherto been northeast, was now changed -to northwest; and when I had crossed this line, as if in passing the -brow of a hill, I found the ocean covered with such a mass of sea-weed, -similar to small branches of pine covered with pistachio nuts, that we -were apprehensive that for want of a sufficiency of water our ships would -run upon a shoal. Before we reached the line of which I speak, there was -no trace of any such sea-weed. On the boundary line, one hundred miles -west of the Azores, the ocean is found still and calm, being scarcely -ever moved by a breeze. On my passage from the Canary Islands to the -parallel of Sierra Leone, we had to endure a frightful degree of heat, -but as soon as we had crossed the above-mentioned line, the climate -changed, the air became temperate, and the freshness increased the -farther we proceeded.” - -“It is evident that the extract from the third voyage is but an -amplification of his first account, and expresses his conviction that -west of the Azores, where the declination was a little easterly, it -changed to the westward, being nearly zero at Corvo, and gradually -increasing to one point or 11° W., at a distance of 300 nautical miles -W. of the longitude of Corvo. The position of Rosario on the S.E. part -of the island of Corvo is, according to the _Carta Esferica de las Islas -Azores_, Madrid, 1855, in latitude 39° 41´ and longitude 24° 53´ west of -San Fernando, or in 31° 07´ west of Greenwich (according to the _Conn. -des Temps_), 100 leagues or 300 nautical miles west of this longitude -would correspond (in latitude 28°) to 5° 40´, and would bring the -Columbus line in longitude 36° 47´ W.”—An inquiry into the variation of -the compass off the Bahama Islands at the land fall of Columbus in 1492. -By Charles A. Schott. p. 51. - -[185] Histoire del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxiv. - -“The necessity for attaching a special and well-informed astronomer -to every great expedition was so generally felt that Queen Isabella -wrote to Columbus on the 5th of September, 1493, ‘that although he had -shown in his undertakings that he knew more than any other living being -(_que ninguno de los nacidos_), she counselled him, nevertheless, to -take with him Fray Antonio de Marchena, as being a learned and skillful -astronomer.’ Columbus writes in the narrative of his fourth voyage that -‘there was only one infallible method of taking a ship’s reckoning, -viz., that employed by astronomers. He who understands it may rest -satisfied; for that which it yields is like unto a prophetic vision -(_vision profetica_). Our ignorant pilots, when they have lost sight of -land for several days know not where they are. They would not be able -to find the countries again which I have discovered. To navigate a ship -requires the compass (_compas y arte_) and the knowledge or art of the -astronomer.’”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. pp. 671-673. - -[186] “That any individual among our subjects and natives, that desires, -may go hereafter (according to our pleasure and will) to discover islands -and the mainland in the said part of the aforesaid Indies, either to -those already discovered or to any other, and to traffic in them, -provided it be not in the aforesaid island of Española. He may buy from -the Christians there or from those who may hereafter be there any article -and merchandise, provided it be not gold; and this he may and shall do -with any suitable ship, provided that at the time he leaves our kingdom -he depart from the city of Cadiz, and there present himself before our -officers. And they must carry thence in each of such vessels one or two -persons named by our officers.... And it is our will and pleasure that -of all which the said persons shall find in the aforesaid islands and -mainland they shall have for themselves nine parts, and the tenth shall -be our part.”—_Vide_ Memorials of Columbus; or a collection of authentic -documents of that celebrated navigator. London, 1823. pp. 88-95. - -[187] Amerigo Vespucci, the third son of Anastasio Vespucci and -Elizabetta Mina, was born in Florence, March 9, 1451. In his boyhood he -attended the school taught by his uncle, Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, a monk -of the order of St. Mark. About the year 1493 Vespucci went to Seville, -and engaged in the business of furnishing and equipping vessels for -voyages of discovery. He died in Seville, February 22, 1512.—_Vide_ The -life and voyages of Americus Vepucius. By C. Edwards Lester and Andrew -Foster. New York, 1846. Amerigo Vespucci. Son caractère, ses écrits -(même les moins authentiques), sa vie, et ses navigations, par F. A. de -Varnhagen. Lima, 1865. - -[188] _Vide_ Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima.—A description of works -relating to America published between the years 1492 and 1551. [By Henry -Harrisse.] New York, 1866. pp. 55-68. - -[189] “_Electo per sua alteza che io fussi in essa flocta per adiutare a -discoprire._” - -[190] “_Partimo del porto di Calis adi 10 maggio_, 1497.” - -[191] Likely the double altitude, and therefore eight degrees of north -latitude, or near the mouths of the Orinoco River. - -[192] “_Una terra, ch’ la giudica’mo essere terra ferma: la quale dista -dalle isole d’Canaria piu allo occidente a circha di mille leghe fuora -dello habitato d’ rento della torrida zona: perche trouva’mo el polo del -septentrione al zare fuora del suo orizonte 16. gradi, & piu occide’tale -che le isole di Canaria, seco’do che mostrouano e nostri instrumenti 75. -gradi._” - -[193] “_Nauiga’mo per el maestrale, che cosi sicorreua la costa sempre a -uista di terra._” - -In Italy the different points of the compass were designated by the -winds: North, _tramontana_; northeast, _greco_; east, _levante_; -southeast, _sirocco_; south, _ostro_; southwest, _libeccio_; west, -_ponente_; northwest, _maestro_ or _maestrale_. - -[194] Evidently the Gulf of Coquibacoa, called shortly afterward by the -Spaniards the Gulf of Venezuela—the Gulf of Little Venice.—_Vide_ Juan de -la Cosa’s map in the cover-pocket. - -[195] “_Questa terra sta dentro del la torrida zona giuntamente, o di -basso del paralello, che descriue el tropico di cancer: doue alza el polo -dello orizonte 23 gradi nel fine del secondo clyma._” - -[196] “_Tanto che corremo dessa 870 leghe tutta uerso el maestrale._” - -The end of the second climate was at 8° 25´ north latitude. Ptolemy, -the geographer, divided the surface of the globe, from the equator to -the sixty-sixth parallel, into zones, called climates, to represent the -successive increase of fifteen minutes in the length of a mid-summer day. -The first climate extended to 4° 15´, on the north side of the equator; -the second, from 4° 15´ to 8° 25´; and the third, to 12° 30´. - -[197] “_Noi alsi facemo uela p, Spagna con 222 prigioni schiaui: & -giugnemo nel porto di Calis adi 15 doctobre 1498._” - -[198] Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci delle isole nuouamente trouate in -quattro suoi viaggi. Primo viaggio. - -_Vide_ Amerigo Vespucci. Varnhagen. pp. 34-48. Bibliotheca Americana -Vetustissima. [Harrisse.] pp. 55-68, 149, 150. - -[199] _Vide_ Memorials of Columbus. pp. 96, 97. - -[200] At this time, says Ferdinand Columbus, “in order that Don Diego, my -brother, and I, who had served as pages to Prince Juan, who was now dead, -might not suffer by his delays or be absent from court until the time of -his departure, he [the admiral] sent us, on the second of November, 1497, -from Seville, to serve as pages to her majesty, Queen Isabella.” - -[201] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxv. - -[202] Although, according to Ferdinand Columbus’s statement, his father -called the firm land (or rather an island) at the mouths of the Orinoco -River, Isla Santa (Holy Island), Columbus really called the continent, La -Tierra de Gracia (Land of Grace). - -[203] Letter from the island of Española.—_Vide_ Select letters of -Christopher Columbus, with other original documents relating to his four -voyages to the New World. Translated and edited by R. H. Major. London, -1870. Second edition. Hakluyt Society pub. - -[204] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxv-lxxiii. - -[205] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxxiv-lxxxvii. - -[206] Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci. Secundo viaggio.—_Vide_ Historie -del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxxxiv. Coleccion de los viages y -descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. iii. pp. 4-9; 543-545. - -In December, 1499, Vincente Yañez Pinzon sailed from Palos, and came in -sight of the coast of Brazil at a point of land which he called Cabo -Santa Maria de la Consolacion. The same month Diego de Lepe sailed from -Palos and made discoveries south of this cape. Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed -from Cadiz in October, 1500, and explored the coast of Paria westward to -the isthmus of Darien. - -[207] Nueva España (New Spain), was the name which the Spaniards gave to -Yucatan and Mexico when they first explored these countries. - -[208] Mar del Sur, the early Spanish name for the Pacific Ocean. - -[209] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxxxviii-xc. - -[210] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xcii. - -[211] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xciv-xcvi. - -[212] _Vide_ Select letters of Christopher Columbus. Major. - -[213] Columbus, in his letter to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, from -Jamaica, dated July 7, 1503, says: “This is the account I have to give of -my voyage. The men who accompanied me were a hundred and fifty in number, -among whom were many considered to be pilots and good sailors, but none -of them can explain whither I went nor whence I came. The explanation is -simply this: I sailed from a point above the port of Brazil, and while I -was in Española, a storm prevented me from following my intended route, -for I was compelled to go wherever the wind drove me. At the same time -I became very sick, and there was no one who had sailed in these parts -before. However, after some days the wind and sea became tranquil, but -there were rapid currents. I put into a harbor at the island called -Isla de las Bocas, and afterward steered for Tierra-firme. However, it -is impossible to give a correct account of all our movements, for I was -carried away by the current for many days without seeing land. - -“I ascertained, notwithstanding, by the compass and by observation, that -I was running parallel with the coast of Tierra-firme. No one could tell -under what part of the heavens we were, nor at what time I changed my -course for the island of Española. The pilots thought we had arrived at -the island of St. John, whereas it was the land of Mango, four hundred -leagues westward of the place mentioned by them. Let them answer and say -if they know where Veragua is situated. I assert that they can give no -other information than that they went to lands where there was plenty of -gold, and this they can surely affirm; but they do not know the way to -return there for it. They would be obliged to go on a voyage of discovery -as if they had never been there before. There is a way of reckoning [the -course and distance sailed] derived from astronomy which is trustworthy -and safe, and a sufficient guide to any one who understands it. This -resembles prophetic vision. - -“The vessels of India do not sail except with the wind abaft. This is -done, not because they are badly built or clumsy, but because the strong -currents in those parts, together with the wind, make it impracticable -for them to sail with the bowline (_con bolina_), for in one day they -would lose as much way as they might have made in seven. For a similar -reason I could not use caravels, even though they were Portuguese -lateens. This is the reason for their [the vessels of India] not -sailing except with a favorable wind, and they will sometimes remain -in port, waiting for one, seven or eight months at a time, nor is this -particularly strange, for the same occurs often in Spain.”—_Vide_ Select -letters of Christopher Columbus. Major. - -[214] Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xcvii-c. - -[215] Letter from Jamaica, July 7, 1503. - -[216] Pietro Martire d’Anghiera, commonly called Peter Martyr, a -descendant of an illustrious Milanese family originally from Anghiera, -on the eastern shore of Lake Maggiore, in upper Italy, was born in 1455 -at Arona, on the western border of the lake. He was carried to the -baptismal font by a friar of the Dominican order and christened with the -name of Peter, that of the martyr of 1252, whose feast-day falls on the -twenty-ninth of April. In 1477, he went to Rome to fit himself for the -priesthood. There he became acquainted with the Castilian embassador, the -Count of Tendilla, and was induced to return with him to Spain, in 1487. -From King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella he received a number of honoring -commissions. He followed the royal standard through two campaigns. In -1501 he was sent to Egypt to conciliate the sultan. He returned to Spain -in August, 1502. The mission to Egypt furnished him with some of the -material for his Latin work, entitled: “P. Martyris Angli Mediolanensis -opera Legatio Babylonica, Oceani decas, poemata, epigrammata.” In 1505 -he was made prior of the cathedral of Granada. Pope Leo X. honored him -with the office of apostolical prothonotary. As a royal counsellor -in the affairs of the Indies he acquired a very extensive range of -information respecting the early voyages of discovery made to the New -World. His work: “De Orbe Novo Petri Martyris ab Angleria Mediolanensis -protonotarij Cesaris senatoris decades,” contains valuable historical -matter. His letters, eight hundred and more, in the collection entitled -“Opus epistolarum,” the first dated January 1, 1488, the last May, 1525, -throw considerable light upon the numerous facts relating to the voyages -of Columbus and other navigators of his time. His “Legatio Babylonica” -was first printed at Seville (Hispalis) in 1511; his “De Orbe Novo” and -letters at Alcala (Complutum) in 1530. He died in 1525, and was entombed -in the cathedral of Grenada. - -[217] “_Quanuis huius Christophori Coloni opinio, magnitudini sphaere -& opinion, veterum de subnauigabili orbe, videatur aduersari, psittaci -tamen inde absportatii atque alia multa, vel propinquitate vel natura -solum Indicum has insulas sapere indicant._”—De Orbe Novo decades. dec. -i. cap. i. - -[218] “_Tengo propósito de hacer carta nueva de navegar, en la cual -situaré toda la mar y tierras del mar Océanus en sus propios lugares -debajo su viento._”—Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. -tom. i. p. 3. - -[219] _Vide_ Géographie du moyen âge, etudiée par Joachim Lelewel. Atlas. -Bruxelles, 1850. Orbis typus universalis, 1501-1504. Hydrographia charta -marina Portugalensium. Planche xliii. p. xiii. - -[220] Claudii Ptolemei viri Alexandrini mathematicae disciplinae -philosophi doctissimi geographiae opus novissima traductione e Graecorum -archetypis castigatissime pressum: cæteris ante lucubratorum multo -praestantius.... Anno Christi Opt. Max. MDXIII. Marcii xii. Pressus hic -Ptolemæus Argentinae vigilantissima castigatione, industriaque Joannis -Schotti urbis indigenae. - -[221] _Vide_ Map: Universalior cogniti orbis tabula ex recentibus -confecta observationibus: in cover-pocket. - -The somewhat similar inscriptions on the maps of 1501-1504 and 1513: -“_Hec terra cum ad iacentib’ insulis inuenta est per Columbu ianuensem -ex mandato Regis Castelle._”—This land with the adjacent islands was -discovered by Columbus, a Genoese, by the command of the king of -Spain,—are authoritative declarations that the admiral was the discoverer -of the represented territory. - -[222] Ruysch has printed on his map these words on a scroll, on the west -side of Cuba: “HVC VSQ NAVES FERDINADI REGIS HISPANIE PVENERVT,”—As far -as this place the ships of Ferdinand, king of Spain, come. - -[223] Juan de la Cosa, in 1493, accompanied Columbus, on his second -voyage, as a cartographer. In 1499 he explored the coast of Paria with -Alonso de Hojeda and Amerigo Vespucci. In November, 1509, he again -sailed with Hojeda to South America, and heroically met his death while -defending himself, when surrounded by a party of assailing savages, in -the village of Yurbaco, in the province called Castilla del Oro by the -Spaniards. - -[224] Examen critique de l’histoire de la géographie du nouveau continent -et des progrès de l’astronomie nautique aux quinzième et seizième -siècles. Par Alexandre de Humboldt. Paris, 1836. tome troisième. pp. 167, -174, 183. - -[225] _Vide_ Notes on Columbus. [By Henry Harrisse.] New York, 1866. Jean -et Sébastien Cabot, leur origine et leurs voyages. Par Henri Harrisse. -Paris, 1881. pp. 52, 103, 156. - -[226] _Vide_ Historical and geographical notes, 1453-1530. By Henry -Stevens. New Haven, 1869. p. 11. - -[227] St. Christopher, it is said, after he was baptized by the bishop of -Antioch, took up his abode in a desert, near a rapid stream, over which -he carried travellers on his back. While bearing, one day, a child across -the swollen flood, he discovered that it was the Christ, hence his name -Christophorus, the Christ-bearer. - -Speaking of his father’s name, Ferdinand Columbus remarks: “As St. -Christopher is reported to have received that name because he carried -Christ over the deep waters with great danger to himself, whence came -the name of Christopher, and as he conveyed over the people whom no -other could have carried, so Admiral Christophorus Colonus, imploring -the assistance of Christ in that dangerous voyage, went over safely -himself and his company, that those Indian nations might become citizens -and inhabitants of the church triumphant in heaven.”—Historie del S. D. -Fernando Colombo. cap. i. - -[228] Abaco is one of the Bahama islands. - -[229] La Cosa’s map, on three large sheets of paper, is contained in Les -monuments de la géographie ou recueil d’anciennes cartes européennes et -orientales ... publiés en fac-similé de la grandeur des originaux par -M. Jomard, membre de l’institut de France, Paris. Imprimerie de Beau, a -Saint-Germain-en-Laye. - -[230] _Vide_ Section of La Cosa’s map in the cover-pocket. - -[231] Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. i. fol. 374. - -[232] Little is known concerning the early history of Giovanni Caboto. In -the archives of Venice is the record of his naturalization, dated March -28, 1476, which shows that he had lived in that city more than fifteen -years before the privilege of citizenship was granted to him. Archives of -Venice: Senato Terra 1473-1477. tom. vii. p. 109. - -[233] An effaced part of the dispatch. - -[234] Archives of Simancas. Capitulaciones con Inglaterra. Legajo ii. -fol. 16. - -Calendar of letters, dispatches, and state papers relating to the -negotiations between England and Spain, preserved in the archives of -Simancas and elsewhere. Edited by G. A. Bergenroth. London, 1862. vol. i. -p. 89. - -[235] Public Records. Bill number 51. - -[236] Hakluyt. vol. iii. pp. 4, 5. Rymer’s Foedera. London, 1727. fols. -595, 596. - -[237] The history and antiquities of the city of Bristol. By William -Barrett. 1789. p. 172. - -[238] In the privy-purse accounts of King Henry VII. is this entry: “Aug. -10, 1497. To hym that found the new Isle, 10 £.” - -[239] Diarii di Marin Sanuto. tom. i. fol. 374. MS. in Marciana library, -Venice. - -Calendar of state papers and manuscripts relating to English affairs in -the archives and collections of Venice and other libraries of northern -Italy. Edited by Rawdon Brown. London, 1864. vol. ii. p. 262. - -[240] Sforza archives, Milan. Calendar of state papers. London, 1864. -vol. ii. p. 260. - -[241] “_Esta tierra fue descubierta por Ioan Caboto Veneciano, y -Sebastian Caboto su hijo, anno del nascimierte de nuestro Saluador Iesu -Christo de m. cccc. xciiii. a ueinte y quatro de lunio por la mannana, -ala qual pusieron nobre prima tierra uista, y a una isla grade que -esta par de la dha tierra, le pusieron nombre sánt Ioan, por auer sido -descubierta el mismo dia._”—Tabla primera. No. 8. - -The Latin inscription, which seems to be a translation of the Spanish -one, reads: “_Terram hanc olim nobis clausam, aperuit, Ioannes -Cabotus Venetus, necno Sebastianus Cabotus eius filius, anno ab orbe -redempto 1494. die uero 24. Iuly, hora 5. sub dilùculo, qua terra -primu uisam appellarut & Insula quanda magna ei opposita, Insula diui -Ioannis nominarut, quippe quæ solenni die festo diui Ioannis aperta -fuit._”—Tabula prima. No. 8. - -“John Caboto, a Venetian, and also Sebastian Caboto, his son, made the -land accessible which formerly was closed to us, in the year of the -redemption of the world 1494 [1497?], on the twenty-fourth day of July -[June?] at five o’clock in the morning, which land he called the first -seen, _primum visam_, and a large island opposite to it, he named the -island of Saint John, because it was found on the day of the feast of -Saint John.” - -[242] “_Sebastian Caboto capitan, y piloto mayor de la S. c. c. m. del -Imperador don Carlos quinto deste nombre, y Rey nuestro sennor hizo esta -figura extensa en plano, anno del nasciemᵒ de nro saluador Iesu Christo -de m.d. xliiii. annos, tirada por grados de latitud y longitud con sus -uientos como carta de marear, imitando en parte al Ptolomeo, y en parte -alos modernos descobridores, asi Espannoles como Portugueses, y parte por -su padre, y por el descubierto._”—Retulo del auctor. - -[243] Archives of Milan. Annuario scientifico. Milan, 1866. p. 700. - -[244] The thirteenth year of the reign of Henry VII. began on the -twenty-fifth of August, 1497. - -[245] “Henry VII., 1498, March 22. To Lanslot Thirkill of London, upon a -Prest for his shipp going towards the new Ilande, £. 20.—Item delivered -to Launcelot Thirkill going towards the new Ile in Prest, £. 20.—April -1. Item to Thomas Bradley and Louncelot Thirkill going to the new Isle, -£. 30.—To John Carter going to the newe Ile in reward 40. s.”—Excerpta -historica. London, 1831. pp. 116, 117. - -[246] Public Records. Bill number 6. Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 5. Memoir of -Sebastian Cabot. [Richard Biddle.] Phila. 1831. pp. 74, 75. - -[247] Pedro de Ayala, the Spanish Ambassador, was sent to London in 1497. - -[248] Bernardo Buil, a Benedictine monk, who accompanied Columbus on his -second voyage, in 1493, and returned to Spain in 1494. - -[249] Archives of Simancas. Tratado con Inglaterra. Leg. ii. Calendar of -letters, dispatches, and state papers. London, 1862. vol. i. pp. 176, 177. - -[250] The fourteenth year of the reign of Henry VII. began August 21, -1498, and ended August 21, 1499. - -[251] The Chronicle of England, from Brute vnto this present yeare of -Christ 1580. By John Stow. London, 1580. p. 862. - -Robert Fabian, from whose work Stow obtained the information concerning -Caboto’s voyage, was the author of the “Chronicle of England and France,” -or, as he called it, “The concordance of stories.” He was born in London -about the year 1450. Besides being an alderman of the city, he was one of -its sheriffs in 1493. He died in London in 1512, and was buried in St. -Michael’s, Cornhill. - -[252] “_Quare coactus fuit, uti ait, vela vertere et occidentem isequ -tetenditque tamen ad meridiem, littore sese incurvante, ut Herculei freti -latitudine ferè gradus æquarit ad occidentemque profectus tantum est, ut -Cubam insulam à læua longitudine graduum penè parem habuerit._” - -The Strait of Gibraltar (Strait of Hercules) is in 36° north latitude. - -[253] Demorgorgon, the spirit of the earth. - -[254] The name _bacallaos_, or _baccallaos_, is evidently derived from -the Greek word βάκὴλος, a large, lusty fellow. Names similar to this -appellation were used by the Greeks as early as the third century of the -Christian era. Athenæus, in his work entitled Δειπνοσοφισταί (the learned -men at supper), presents this information respecting certain fish: “They -say that they are usually caught in couples, and that one is always found -following at the tail of the other; and, therefore, from the fact of one -following close on the tail of the other, some ancients call men who are -intemperate and libidinous by the same name.... Euthydemus, in his work -on Cured Fish, says: ‘Some call this fish [the cod] the _bacchus_, and -some the _gelaria_, and some the hake.’”—The Deipnosophists or banquet -of the learned of Athenæus. Literally translated by C. D. Yonge. London, -1854. vol. ii. pp. 442, 496. - -Great numbers of the common cod [_morrhua vulgaris_] are annually caught -on the fishing-banks off the coast of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. This -fish is very prolific. It is said that eight millions of eggs have been -counted in the roe of a female cod. Cod are sometimes caught that weigh -ninety pounds. - -[255] De Orbe Novo decades. dec. iii. cap. vi. - -[256] The birthplace of Sebastian Caboto’s is not definitely known. -Richard Eden, in his translation of the Decades of the New World of Peter -Martyr, says that Sebastiano Caboto told him that he was born at Bristol, -England; and Gasparo Contarini, the embassador of Charles V., avers that -he informed him that Venice was his birthplace. It is conjectured that -he was born about the year 1476. On the twentieth of October, 1512, -Sebastiano Caboto was appointed a sea-captain by King Ferdinand of Spain. -In the service of Charles V., he sailed on the fifth of April, 1526, -to search for a navigable strait along the coast of South America. On -this voyage, in 1527, he explored the Rio de la Plata. In July, 1530, -he returned to Spain. In 1548 he went to England, where he died some -time after the year 1557.—_Vide_ The Decades of the Newe Worlde or West -India. Translated into Englysshe by Richarde Eden. Londoni, 1555. f. 255. -Dispatch of Contarini from Valladolid, December 31, 1522. MS. Marciana -library, Venice. cod. 1019. cart. 281-283. Jean et Sébastien Cabot. -Harrisse. pp. 109-133. - -[257] Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias con -todo el descubrimiento y cosas notables que han acaecido dende que se -ganaron ata et año de 1551. [Por Francisco Lopez de Gomara.] Çaragoça, -1552. primera parte. cap. de los Bacallaos. - -Francisco Lopez de Gomara was born at Seville in 1510. Hernando Cortes, -on his return to Spain after the conquest of Mexico, made Gomara his -chaplain. Gomara’s General history of the Indies (La historia general -de las Indias), and the Conquest of Mexico and New Spain (La conquista -de Mexico, y de la Nueua España), were first published at Saragossa, -(Çaragoça), Spain, in 1552. Gomara died about the year 1560. - -[258] Tratado, que compõs o nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão. - -[259] _Terra de Lavrador_, Portuguese: Land of the Farmer. - -[260] A Discovrse of a Discouerie for a new Passage to Cataia. Written by -Sir Hvmfrey Gilbert, Knight. Imprinted at London by Henry Middleton for -Richarde Ihones. 1576. sig. D iii. - -[261] The eighteenth year of the reign of King Henry VII. began August -21, 1502, and ended August 21, 1503. - -[262] Chronicle of England. Stow. p. 875. - -[263] Cape Breton Island lies between 45° 27´ and 47° 41´ north latitude. -Its greatest length is one hundred miles, and its greatest breadth -eighty-five miles. The island is isolated from the mainland by the -Strait of Canso, which is twenty-one miles long, and from one mile to -one and a half in width. Cape North is about sixty miles from Cape Ray, -Newfoundland. - -[264] The representation of the coast of Cape Breton Island and of Nova -Scotia as trending eastward and westward, as delineated on La Cosa’s -map, evidently exemplifies the incorrect conjecture made by Giovanni -Caboto respecting the situation of the first land seen by him. Columbus’s -delineation of the island of Cuba, as having an east coast that extended -far toward the north, was a similar personal assumption which afterward -was found to be false. - -[265] “These regiōs are cauled Terra Florida and Regio Baccalearum or -Bacchallaos of the which you may reade sumwhat in this booke in the vyage -of the woorthy owlde man yet lyuing Sebastiane Cabote, in the vi. booke -of the thyrde Decade. But Cabote touched only in the north corner and -most barbarous parte hereof, from whense he was repulsed with Ise in -the moneth of July. Neuer the lesse, the west and south partes of these -regions haue sence byn better searched by other.”—The Decades of the Newe -Worlde or West India. Eden. The preface to the reader. ci. - -[266] “_La gente della andan uestidos de pieles de animales, usan en sus -guèrras arcos, y flechas, lancas, y dardos, y unas porras de palo, y -hondas. Es tierra muy steril, ay en ella muchos orsos plancos, y cieruos -muy grandes como cauallos, y otras muchas animales, y semeiantemete ay -pescado infinito, sollos; salmoes lenguados, muy grandes de uara en largo -y otras muchas diuersidades de pescados, y la mayor multitud dellos se -dizen baccallaos, y asi mismo ay en la dha tierra Halcones prietos como -cueruos Aguillas, Perdices, Pardillas, y otras muchas aues de diuersas -maneras._”—Tabla primera. No. 8. - -[267] William Worthington was joined to Sebastiano Caboto in the pension -given by Philip and Mary, May 29, 1557. Rymer. vol. xvi. p. 466. Divers -voyages touching the discouerie of America. - -[268] Navigations, voyages, and discoveries, p. 6. - -[269] Richard Hakluyt was born at Yatton, England, in 1553. He took a -remarkable interest in geography and navigation, and for a time held -a professor’s chair of these branches at Oxford. In 1582 his “Divers -voyages touching the discouerie of America and Ilands adiacent vnto the -same,” was published in London. He was also the author of “A particular -discourse concerninge the greate necessitie and manifolde comodyties that -are like to growe to this Realme of England by the Westerne discoueries -lately attempted, written in the year 1584.” In 1589, he published his -celebrated work, entitled: The principal navigations, voiages, and -discoveries of the English nation, made by sea or ouer Land, to the most -remote and farthest distant quarters of the earth at any time within -the compasse of these 1500 yeeres. Deuided into three Seuerall parts, -according to the positions of the Regions whereunto they were directed. -This work was further enlarged in 1599 and 1600. He was appointed -prebendary of Westminster in 1605. He died October 23, 1616, and was -buried in Westminster Abbey. - -[270] Calicut is on the west coast of India, in 11° 15´ north latitude, -and 75° 50´ east longitude. - -Paesi nouamente retrouati. Et Nouo Mondo da Alberico Vesputio -Florentino intitulato. Stampato in Vicentia cu la impressa de Mgrō -Henrico Vicentino: & diligente cura & industria de Zamaria suo fiol nel -mcccccvii. a di iii de Nouember. lib. ii. cap. li-lx. The three voyages -of Vasco da Gama. From the Lendas da India of Gaspar Corvea. Translated -from the Portuguese by Henry E. J. Stanley. London, 1879. Hakluyt. Soc. -pub. - -[271] _Vide_ Ruysch’s map of 1508. - -[272] Paesi Nouamente retrouati. lib. iii. cap. lxi-lxxxiiii. Raccolta -di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. i. fol. 132-139. Coleccion de los -viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. iii. pp. 94, 101. - -[273] Gaspar Cortereal was the son of João Vaz Cortereal, who, it is -said, had previously made a voyage to the Land of Bacalhão (Terra de -Bacalhão). - -[274] Tratado, que compõs o-nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão. - -[275] “_Huma terra que por ser muito fresca e de grandes aruoredos -como o sao todas as que jazem pera aquella banda lhe pos nome terra -verde._”—Chronica do felicissimo rei Dom Emanuel. Lisboa, 1566. tomo i. -fol. 65. - -[276] Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 346. - -[277] It seems that the writer was ignorant of the fields of the -discoveries of the English in 1497 and 1498. Giovanni Caboto, the -Venetian navigator, no doubt had made the presents found in the -possession of the inhabitants. - -[278] Paesi nouamente retrouati. lib. vi. cap. cxxvi.—_Vide_ Letter of -Alberto Cantino. Archives of Modena. Cancelleria ducale. Dispacci dalla -Spagna. Jean et Sébastien Cabot. Harrisse. pp. 262-264. - -[279] “_Che fu tenuta a male la mia uenuta da quanti miconosceuano: -perche miparti di Castiglia, doue mi era facto honore, & il re miteneua -i’ buona possessione._” - -[280] “_Sta q’sto cauo 8. gradi fuori della linea equinoctiale uerso -laustro._” - -[281] “_Tanto fumo uerso laustro, che gia stauamo fuora del tropico di -capricorno: a donde el polo del Meridione salzaua sopra lo Orizonte 32. -gradi: et di gia hauamo perduio del tucto lorsa minore, & la maggiore chi -staua molto bassa, & quasi cisimonstraua al fine delle orizonte._” - -[282] André Gonçalves, it is said, had command of the fleet.—_Vide_ O -Brazil no seculo xvi. Estudos de Capistrano de Abreu. Rio de Janeiro, -1880. pp. 9-23. - -[283] Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci. Terzo viaggio.—_Vide_ Tratado, que -compõs o nobre & notauel Capitão Antonio Galuão. - -[284] Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci. Quarto viaggio.—_Vide_ Chronica do -felicissimo rei Dom Emanuel. Damião de Góes. tomo i. fol. 65. - -[285] Ferdinand Columbus gives 1508 as the date of the voyage. - -[286] Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas -tierra firme del mar oceano escrita por Antonio de Herrera. Madrid, -1601-1615. dec. i. lib. vi. cap. xvii. Historia del S. D. Fernando -Colombo. cap. lxxxix. Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. -Navarrete. tom. iii. p. 46. - -Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas was born in Cuellar, in Spain, in 1549, -and died in 1625. His General history of the acts of the Spaniards on the -islands and continent of the ocean-sea, is divided into eight decades, -from 1492 to 1554, contained in four volumes, the first one of which was -published in Madrid, in 1601. - -[287] Claudius Ptolemy. In hoc opere haec continentvr geographiae -Cl. Ptolemiæi a plurima uiris utriusque linguae doctiss. emēdata: & -cu archetypo graeco ab ipsis collata. Schemata cu demostrationibus -suis correcta a Marco Beneuentano monacho coelestino, & Ioanne Cotta -Veronensis iuris mathematicis consultissimis ... Noua & universalior -orbis cogniti tabula Ioā Ruysch Germano elaborata.... Anno Virginei -Partvs MDVIII. Rome. - -The map is twenty-two by sixteen inches. The copy of one half of the -fan-shaped map in the cover-pocket is a reduced fac-simile of the -original section. - -[288] The names inscribed along the coast of Terra Nova are: C. Glaciato -(Ice cape), Baia de Rockas (Bay of Rocks), R. Grado, In. Baccalavras -(Codfish island), C. de Portogesi (Cape of the Portuguese), Barbatos In., -and Biggety In. - -[289] The voyage of Nicholas de Lynna, a Franciscan monk, to the regions -near the north pole.—_Vide_ Hakluyt. vol. i. pp. 121, 122. Inscription on -Mercator’s map of the world of 1569. - -[290] Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci delle isole nuoumente trouate in -quattro suoi viaggi.—_Vide_ Amerigo Vespucci. Varnhagen. pp. 33-64. -Bibliotheca Americana vetustissima. [Harrisse.] pp. 149, 150. - -[291] Cosmographiae introdvctio cvm qvibvsdam geometriae ac astronomiae -principiis ad eam rem necessariis. Insuper quatuor Americi Vespuccij -nauigationes Vniversalis cbosmographiae descriptio tam in solido qzplano -eis etiam insertis quæ Ptholomeo ignota a nuperis reperta sunt.... -Finitu. vij. kl’ Maij. Anno supra sesqui Millesium. vij. - -[292] Baron von Humboldt furnishes the information that Martin -Waldseemüller of Freiburg, diocese of Constantius, was a student -under the rectorship of Conrad Knoll of Grüningen, the seventh of -December, 1490, and had established a bookstore at St. Dié, shortly -before 1507.—Examen critique de l’histoire de la géographie du nouveau -continent. Humboldt. vol. iv. pp. 104-106. - -[293] Hylacomylus, the forest-lake miller. - -[294] “_Nūc vo & he partes sunt latius lustratae & alia quarta pars -per Americū Vesputiū (vt in sequentibus audietur) inuenta est quā non -video cur quis iūre vetet ab Americo inuentore sagacis ingenij viro -Amerigen quasi Americi terra siue Americam dicendā: cū & Europa & Asia a -mulieribus sua sortita sint nomina._” - -Herodotus, speaking of the designations of the other divisions of the -earth, says: “Nor can I conjecture for what reason these different names -have been given to the earth, which is one, and those derived from the -names of women.... Nor can I learn the names of those who made this -division, nor whence they derived the appellations. Libya [Africa] is -said by most of the Greeks to take its name from a native woman of the -name of Libya; and Asia, from the wife of Prometheus. But the Lydians -claim this name, saying that Asia was called after Asius, son of Cotys, -son of Manes, and not after Asia, the wife of Prometheus; from whom -also a tribe of Sardis is called the Asian tribe. Whether Europe, then, -is surrounded by water is known by no man, nor is it clear whence it -received this name, nor who gave it, unless we will say that the region -received the name from the Tyrian Europa, and that it was previously -without a name like other regions, for she evidently belonged to Asia, -and never came into the country which is now called Europe by the -Grecians, and only passed from Phœnicia to Crete, and from Crete to -Lycia.”—Herodotus: Melpomene xlv. - -[295] Until recently the map made by Petrus Apianus (Peter Benewitz), -in the Polyhistor of C. Julius Solinus, printed in Vienna, in 1520, -was supposed to be the earliest on which the name of America was -engraved. However, the discovery, in France, in 1880, of a copy of the -“Cosmographiae introductio,” printed by Jean de la Place, without a title -or colophon-date, containing a map of the world, supposed to have been -made by Ludovicus Boulenger, between the years 1514 and 1520, disentitled -the former to its celebrity. The map is divided into twelve sections or -gores which can be cut and pasted on a globe. The represented territory -of North and South America is shown in two divisions, separated by a -large body of water, between the tenth and twentieth parallels of north -latitude. The word “Nova” appears on the northern division; and on the -southern, “America noviter reperta.” A similar inscription it is said is -on a cartographic representation of the world, in Vienna, made in 1509: -“_Une semblable appellation se lit sur la projection, également imprimée -en fuseaux, d’un globe terrestre à la date de 1509 qui fait partie de la -collectione de M. le général de Hauslab à Vienne._”—Jean et Sébastien -Cabot. Harrisse. p. 182. Note. - -[296] “_Americus Vesputius maritima loca Indiæ superioris ex Hispaniis -navigio ad occidentem perlustrans, eam partem quæ superioris Indiæ est -credidit esse Insulam quam a suo nomine vocari instituit._”—Ioannis -Schoneri Carolostadii opvscvlvm geographicvm ex diversorum libris ac -cartis. [Nuremberg, 1533.] - -[297] Schoner’s globe is still preserved in the library of Nuremberg. - -[298] Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas -tierra firme del mar oceano. Herrera. dec. i. lib. iv. cap. i, ii. -Amerigo Vespucci. Varnhagen. pp. 33-64. Bibliotheca Americana. -[Harrisse.] pp. 62-68, 149, 150, 304, 305. O Brazil no seculo -xvi. Capistrano de Abreu. pp. 1-39. Descobrimento do Brasil e seu -deseuvolvimento no seculo xvi. Capistrano de Abreu. Rio de Janeiro, 1883. -pp. 17-66. - -[299] De Orbo Novo decades. dec. ii. cap. x. - -[300] The map is found on the reverse page of the forty-fifth leaf of -Peter Martyr’s rare book, entitled: P. Martyris Angli Mediolanensis -opera Legatio Babylonica, Oceani decas, poemata, epigrammata. Impressum -Hispali cu summa diligencia Jacobu Corumberger, Alemanu. Anno Millesimo -quingentissimo. xi. meso vero Aprili. The chart measures seven and a half -by eleven inches. - -[301] Juan Ponce was born at Leon, Spain, about 1460. - -[302] Historia general. Herrera. dec. i. lib. ix. cap. x. - -[303] The Indians called this region _Cautio_. Historia general. Herrera. -dec. i. lib. ix. cap. x. - -[304] The Gulf Stream, which at this point is quite deep and narrow, has -a velocity varying from four to five miles an hour. - -[305] “On Sunday, the eighth of May, they doubled the Cape of Florida, -giving it the name of the Cape of the Currents (Cabo de Corrientes), -because they are stronger there than the wind, and came to an anchorage -near a town called Abaiòa. All this coast, from the Point of Reefs (Punta -de Arracifes) to the Cape of the Currents, trending north and south one -point to the eastward, is clean, and has six fathoms water, the cape -lying in twenty-eight degrees fifteen minutes. They sailed on till they -met with two islands to the southward, in twenty-seven degrees, one of -which, being a league in compass, they named Santa Marta, and took in -water there. - -“On Friday, the thirteenth of May, they sailed along a shoal and a row of -islands as far as the island which they called Pola, lying in twenty-six -degrees and a half. Between the shoal and the row of islands and the -continent is a spacious sea, like a bay. - -“On Sunday, the day of the Feast of the Holy Spirit, the fifteenth of -May, they coasted ten leagues along a row of small islands as far as two -white ones, and they called them all the Martyrs, (las Martires), because -the high rocks, at a distance, look like men suffering, and the name has -suited them well on account of the large number of persons who have since -been lost there. The rocks lie in twenty-six degrees fifteen minutes. -The ships held on, sometimes north and sometimes northeast, until the -twenty-third of May; and on the twenty-fourth they ran along the coast -to the southward as far as some small islands which lay out at sea, and -still they did not perceive that it was the main-land.” - -[306] Historia general. Herrera. dec. i. lib. ix. cap. x, xii. - -[307] Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias. -Gomara. cap. x. - -[308] Ten years before this, says Humboldt, “Columbus distinctly learned, -when he was coasting along the eastern shores of Veragua, that to the -west of this land there was a sea ‘which in less than nine days’ sail -would bear ships to the _Chersonesus aurea_ of Ptolemy and to the -mouth of the Ganges.’ In the same _Carta rarissima_, which contains -the beautiful and poetic narration of a dream, the admiral says that -‘the opposite coasts of Veragua, near the Rio de Belen, are situated -relatively to another, as Tortosa on the Mediterranean and Fuenterabia in -Biscay, or as Venice and Pisa.’ The great ocean, the South Pacific, was -even at that time regarded as merely a continuation of the _Sinus magnus_ -(μέγας κόλπος) of Ptolemy, situated before the golden Chersonesus, whilst -Cattigara and the land of the Sines (Thinae) were supposed to constitute -its eastern boundary.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. pp. 642, -643. - -[309] Historia general. Herrera. dec. i. lib. x. cap. i, ii, iv. dec. ii. -lib. i. cap. iv, xi. De Orbe Novo decades. Martire. dec. iii. cap. ii, -iii, vi, x. dec. iv. cap. vi. dec. vii. cap. x. - -[310] Historia general. Herrera. dec. ii. lib. i. cap. vii. - -[311] Bernal Diaz del Castillo, a native of Medina del Campo, Spain, -came to the New World, in 1514, with Pedro Arias de Avila, who had been -appointed governor of Terra Firma. He sailed with Cordoba and Grijalva -on their expeditions of discovery, and was with Cortes in his Mexican -campaign, and participated in more than a hundred engagements. He was -_regidor_ of the city of Guatemala, where, on the twenty-sixth day of -February, 1568, he completed his True history of the conquest of New -Spain. - -[312] Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Escrita -por el Capitan Bernal Diaz del Castillo, vno de sus conquistadores. En -Madrid, 1632. cap. i-vi. - -_Vide_ The memoirs of the conquistador, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, written -by himself, containing a true and full account of the discovery and -conquest of Mexico and New Spain. Translated from the original Spanish by -John Ingrim Lockhart. London, 1844. vol. i. chap. i-vi. - -[313] “The dollar of exchange (_peso de plata_) is worth 8 reals of -old plate, or 15 reals 2 maravedis vellon.... The value of the peso of -plate, or dollar of exchange, in English silver coin, is 39½d.” [about -seventy-four cents United States money].—The universal cambist and -commercial instructor. By Patrick Kelly. London, 1811. vol. i. pp. 388, -389. - -[314] Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Diaz. -cap. viii-xvi.—_Vide_ The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. -viii-xvi. - -[315] “He said, though still in broken Spanish, that his name was -Geronimo de Aguilar, and was a native of Ecija. About eight years ago he -had been shipwrecked with fifteen men and two women, on a voyage between -Darien and the island of St. Domingo.... The ship struck against a rock, -and they had not been able to get her off again. The whole of the crew -then got into the boat, with the hope of reaching the island of Cuba or -Jamaica, but were driven on the coast of Yucatan, where the Calachionies -had taken them prisoners and distributed them among the people. The most -of his unfortunate companions had been sacrificed to their gods. Some had -died of grief and the women had pined away, being worn out by the hard -labor of grinding which they had forced them to do. He had been doomed to -be sacrificed to their idols, but had made his escape at night, and fled -to the cacique, with whom he had been living.... He had tried to induce -Gonzalo Guerrero to leave the Indians, but had failed.” - -[316] The name is spelled by Diaz “Monteçuma.” - -[317] An Indian woman presented to Cortes by the cacique of Tabasco. She -had readily learned to speak in Spanish, and being conversant with the -language of the Mexicans, was of great value to Cortes, who made her his -secretary and then his mistress. - -[318] Charles V. ascended the Spanish throne in 1516. - -[319] Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Diaz. cap. -xix-xxxix.—_Vide_ The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. -xxx-xxxix. - -[320] “The Castilian mark weighs 3557 English troy grains.”—The universal -cambist. Kelly. vol. i. pp. 391, 292. - -[321] Primera parte de los veinte īvn lībros rituales ī monarchia Indiana -compuesto por Juan de Torquemada. En Madrid, 1723. lib. iv. cap. xvii. -fol. 389, 390. - -“The ducat of exchange (_ducado de plata_) is worth 11 reals, maravedi -of old plate, or 20 reals 25¹⁵⁄₁₇ maravedis vellon.... The value of the -ducat of plate in English silver coin is 4_s._ 6½_d._ [or one dollar and -one cent in United States money].”—The universal cambist. Kelly. vol. i. -pp. 388-392. - -Diaz gives this description of the presents: “The first was a disk about -the size of a carriage-wheel, representing the sun, the entire plate -being of the finest gold and of the most beautiful workmanship,—a most -extraordinary work of art, which, according to the account of those -who weighed it, was worth more than twenty thousand _pesos de oro_. -The second was a disk, even larger than the former, of massive silver, -representing the moon, with rays and figures on it, and of great value. -The third was a casque, filled with grains of pure gold as they were -found in the mine, worth about three thousand _pesos_, which gold was -of more importance to us than if it had been ten times this value, for -we were now assured that there were rich gold-mines in the country. -Among the other presents there were thirty golden ducks in every way -resembling the living fowl, very elaborately made. Besides, there were -figures of lions, tigers, dogs, and monkeys. There were also ten chains -with lockets, all of gold, and of the most costly workmanship; a bow with -the string and twelve arrows; two staffs like those used by justices, -five palms in length; all of which were made of the purest gold. They -also brought small cases containing the most beautiful green feathers, -interwoven with gold and silver, and fans similarly made, and figures of -all kinds of game made of gold.” - -Peter Martyr, who had inspected the presents, says: “_Si quid unquam -honoris humana ingenia in huiuscemodi artibus sunt adepta, principatum -iure merito ista consequentur. Aurum, gemmasque non admiror quidem, qua -industria, quove studio superet opus materiam, stupeo. Mille figuras -et facies mille prospexi quæ scribera nequeo. Quid oculos hominum sua -pulchritudine aeque possit allicere meo iudicio vidi nunquam._—De Orbe -Novo decades. dec. i. cap. xi. - -[322] _Teules_, according to Diaz, meant gods or celestial beings. - -[323] From Villa Rica de Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico the distance was -about one hundred and seventy-five miles. By the route of the Mexican -railroad the distance from the present city of Vera Cruz to the city of -Mexico is two hundred and sixty-three miles. - -[324] A stone of a light green color. - -[325] Paper made from the leaves of the maguey or agave-plant. - -[326] Cortes conjectured the city contained twenty thousand houses. The -temple of Quetzalcoatl was built on a terraced mound about two hundred -feet high, and was reached by ascending one hundred and twenty steps. - -[327] The name of the city is written Tenustitlan Mexico by Diaz. It is -spelled Tenuchtitlan Mexico by some Spanish writers. - -“In the spelling of the names of Indian chiefs, the townships, and of -the provinces, we have mostly followed Torquemada, who is considered -more correct on this point, for he lived fifty years in New Spain.”—The -memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. Preface. vol. i. p. vi. - -[328] This name, says Diaz, was given to Cortes “because our interpreter, -Doña Marina, was always near him, particularly when embassadors arrived, -and in our negotiations with the different caciques she interpreted -for both parties. They therefore called him the captain of Marina, and -contracted that appellation into the word Malinche.” - -[329] It is said that the slimy substance mentioned by Diaz was called -_tecuitlatl_, the excrement of stone. It was variously fashioned, and -dried in the sun. - -[330] _Xiquipiles_, according to Torquemada, expressed the number of -8,000 of any thing. - -[331] Cacao-beans were used by the Mexicans in lieu of small coin. - -[332] Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Diaz. cap. -xxxix-clix.—_Vide_ The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. -xxxix-clix. - -[333] Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Diaz. cap. -lx, clxii.—_Vide_ The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. lx, -clxii. - -[334] Tratado, que compõs e nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão. - -[335] In June, 1523, Francisco de Garay sailed with a fleet and a large -number of troops from Jamaica to take possession of the province of -Panuco, of which he had been appointed governor. He failed to accomplish -his purpose, and died in the city of Mexico, at the end of December, -1523. Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. cap. -cxxxiii, clxii. _Vide_ The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. -cxxxiii, clxii. - -[336] Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. iii. pp. -64-69; 147-153. - -[337] The situation of certain places along the coast of the present -states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, is thus -described by Gomara: “From Santa Elena to Rio Seco, in 31°, are other -forty leagues, and thence to La Cruz are twenty, and thence to Cañaveral, -forty; and from Punta Cañaveral, in 28°, are other forty to Punta de la -Florida (the peninsula of Florida).... This is in 25°, which is twenty -leagues in length, and from it are a hundred or more leagues to Ancon -bajo, which is fifty leagues from Rio Seco, from east to west, across -Florida. From Ancon bajo they estimate it to be a hundred leagues to -Rio de Nieves, and thence to that of Flores more than twenty, from -which river it is seventy leagues to the Bay of the Holy Spirit (Baya -del Espiritu Sancto), called by another name, La Culata (the breech of -a gun), which river flows out into the ocean thirty leagues, and is in -29°, and thence it is more than seventy to Rio de Pescadores. From Rio -de Pescadores, in 28° 30´, are a hundred leagues to Rio de las Palmas, -near which crosses the tropic of Cancer; thence to Rio Panuco are more -than thirty leagues; and thence to Villa Rica or Vera Cruz, seventy -leagues.”—Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias. -Gomara. cap. xii. - -[338] Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, a native of Toledo, Spain, was one of -the licentiates appointed by King Ferdinand to act as auditors of the -royal court of appeal (audiencia), afterward sitting in San Domingo. In -March, 1520, Ayllon went with Pamfilo de Narvaez to New Spain, who was -sent there by Diego Velasquez to administer the affairs of that country. -When Ayllon landed in Mexico he became so inimical to the purposes of -Velasquez that Narvaez put him under arrest and sent him back to Cuba, -where he arrived in August, 1520. - -[339] “So designated,” says Herrera, “because Jordan was the name of one -of the captains or masters of the ships.” - -Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias. Gomara. -cap. vii. - -[340] Ayllon, in 1523, was made governor (_adelantado_) of the provinces -and islands of Suache, Chicora, Xapira, Tatancal, Anicatiye, Cocayo, -Guacaya, Xoxi, Sona, Pasqui, Arambe, Xamunambe, Huag, Tanzaca, Yenyohol, -Paor, Yamiscaron, Carixagusignanin and Anoxa, that were said to lie -between the thirty-fifth and thirty-seventh parallels of north latitude. -In 1524 it is said that he sent two ships to some of these places. In -July, 1526, he sailed himself from Española, with six vessels, having on -board five hundred men and ninety horses. Diego Miruelo, the pilot of -this fleet, it is said, failed to find the coast of Chicora, which he -had visited in 1520. The natives, where the Spaniards landed, manifested -toward them the greatest friendliness, and so deceived Ayllon with their -unbounded hospitality that he sent two hundred of his men into the -interior on an exploring expedition. While they were sleeping the savages -fell upon them and murdered them to a man. They then attacked those near -the ships, who, being outnumbered, fled before their assailants. One -hundred and fifty escaped, and in a suffering condition returned to San -Domingo. It is further related that Ayllon died on the eighteenth of -October, 1526.—Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. -iii. pp. 69-74; 153-160. - -[341] De Orbe Novo decades. dec. ii. cap. vii. - -[342] “Thence to Puerto del Principe are more than a hundred leagues, and -from it to the Rio Jordan, seventy, and thence to Cabo de Santa Elena, -which is in 32°, there are forty leagues.”—Primera y segunda parte de la -historia general de las Indias. Gomara. cap. xii. - -[343] Pigafetta writes the name “Magaglianes,” the Portuguese -“Magalhaens,” the Spaniards “Magallanes,” and the French “Magellan.” The -English follow the French spelling. - -[344] Fernam de Magalhaens was born at Oporto, about the year 1470. After -entering the Portuguese navy, he sailed to the East Indies and served -under Affonso d’Albuquerque. He returned to Spain about the year 1517. - -[345] Before Brazil was discovered, red wood was brought to Europe from -Asia and Africa. - -[346] In the edition of Ptolemy’s geography, printed at Rome in 1508, -it is said: “The Land of the Holy Cross diminishes all the way to south -latitude 37°; although, according to navigators who have explored it, it -is said all the way to south latitude 50°; of which remaining part no -description is found.—_Terra Sanctæ Crucis decrescit usque ad latitudinem -37° aust.; quamquam ad Archiploi usque ad 50° austr., navigarint, ut -ferunt; quam reliquam portionem descriptam non reperi._” cap. xiv. - -[347] The eastern entrance to the strait lies between the Cape of the -Virgins, on the north, and the Cape of the Holy Spirit, on the south, and -is about twenty miles wide. The strait is three hundred and fifteen miles -long. - -[348] On the Maiollo map of 1527, the following inscription is placed -near the delineated strait: “_Streito doute pasas Magaianes Portogese -per andare in le isole de Maluchi de le spesarie de Re de Spania_,” the -strait passed by Magaianes, a Portuguese, to go to the Molucca Islands -for spices for the king of Spain. - -[349] “_Il capitano-generale, che sapeva de dover fare la sua navegazione -per uno streto molto ascoso, como vite ne la thesararia del re de -Portugal in una carta fata per quello excellentissimo huomo Martino di -Boemia._” - -The chart was evidently one drafted to exhibit the field of the -explorations of Cabral and other Portuguese navigators along the eastern -coast of Brazil. - -[350] The fifth vessel, the Santiago, while exploring the coast, when the -other ships were at anchor in the harbor of St. Julian, was wrecked. - -[351] Gomez, after deserting the squadron with the San Antonio, returned -to the port of St. Julian, and there took on board Gaspar de Casada and -the priest whom Magalhaens had put on shore. On Gomez’s return to Spain, -the sixth of May, 1521, he told “the emperor that Magalhaens was crazy -and had lied to his majesty, for he did not know where Banda was nor the -Moluccas.”—Letter of Transylvanus and Castanheda. - -[352] Spanish, Las Islas Desdichados. - -[353] “_Seconda la misura che facevamo del viaggio colla catena a poppa, -noi percorrevamo da 60 in 70 leghe algiorno._” - -[354] Sir Francis Drake followed Magalhaens a half century later. The -former departed from England on the thirteenth of December, 1577, and -returned there on the third of November, 1580. - -[355] Cape Cattigara was, according to Ptolemy, in one hundred and eighty -degrees of longitude from the Canaries and south of the equator. It is -now known as Cape Comorin, being the southern extremity of Hindostan, in -north latitude 8° 5´, and in east longitude 77° 30´. - -[356] Spanish, de los Ladrones. The Ladrone Islands, about twenty in -number, lie between 13° and 21° north latitude, and 144° and 146° east -longitude. - -[357] The Moluccas or Spice Islands, more than two hundred in number, lie -between 3° north and 9° south latitude, and 122° and 133° east longitude. - -[358] Juan Sebastian del Cano was honored for the notable part he took in -this famous voyage by being permitted to display, as his coat of arms, -the figure of a globe, on which was inscribed: “_Primus circumdedisti -me._” - -[359] Primo viaggio intorno al globo terracqueo ossia ragguaglio della -navigazione alle indie orientali per la via d’occidente fatta dal -cavaliere Antonio Pigafetta patrizio Vicentino sulla squadra del Capit. -Magaglianes negli anni 1519-1522 ora publicato per la prima volta, tratto -da un codice MS. della Biblioteca Ambrosiana di Milano e corredota di -note da Carlo Amoretti. In Milano, 1800.—_Vide_ The first voyage round -the world by Magellan, translated from the accounts of Pigafetta and -other contemporary writers. By Lord Stanley of Alderley. London, 1874. -Hakluyt Soc. pub. _Vide_ Pinkerton’s voyages and travels. vol. i. pp. -288-381. - -[360] Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias. -Gomara. cap. x. - -[361] According to Jacques Cartier’s statement, the Cape of Buona Vista -was in 48° 30´ north latitude. - -[362] Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 359. - -[363] “_Les Dieppois continuoient leur commerce dans les Indes -Orientales, lorsqu’ils apprirent les découvertes que les Espagnols -avoient faites en Amérique: leur émulation s’en trouva piquée, & ils -armèrent deux vaisseaux, pour connoître si cette partie du monde ne -s’étendoit pas du côte du Nord; ils en confièrent le commandement à -deux de leurs plus habiles Capitaines, nommés Thomas Aubert & Jean -Vérassen. Ces deux navires partirent de Dieppe au commencement de 1508, -& découvrirent, la même année, le Fleuve Saint-Laurent, auquei ils -donnérent ce nom, parce que ce fut ce jour-là qu’ils commencèrent à le -remonter; ce qu’ils firent jusqu’ à plus de quatre-vingt lieues, trouvant -des habitants affables, avec lesquels ils firent des èchanges les plus -avantageux en pelleteries._”—Mémoires chronologiques pour servir à -l’historie de Dieppe et à celle de la navigation Françoise. Jean Antoine -Desmarquets. À Paris, 1785. tom. i. pp. 99, 100. - -[364] “One of thirty regions or zones of the earth, parallel to the -equator, corresponding to the successive increase of a quarter of an hour -in the length of the midsummer day.” - -[365] West coast of Ireland. - -[366] Eusebii Caesariensis episcopi chronicon.... In alma Parisiorū -academia. Millesimo quingentesimo duodecimo Idibus vero Iunij. fol. 172. - -[367] Giovanni da Verrazzano, the son of Pier Andrea da Verrazzano, was -born at Florence about the year 1480. - -[368] Henry Hudson, the navigator. By G. M. Asher. London, 1860. Hakluyt -Society pub. Introduction. p. 79. - -[369] The voyage of Pedro Alvarez Cabral, in 1500. - -[370] Cronica do muyto alto e muyto poderoso rey destes regnos de -Portugal Dom João o III. deste nome. Francisco d’Andrada. Lisboa, 1613. -part. i. cap. 13, 14. - -[371] Letter of João da Silveyra to Dom João III. Archivo de Torre de -Tombo. Corp. Chron. part. i. ma. 29. doc. 54. - -[372] The ship La Dauphine is spoken of in the Italian text of -Verrazzano’s letter as “_la nave Dalfina_.” _Dalfina_ is the feminine -form of the Italian word _dalfino_, a dolphin. - -[373] A manuscript containing the Italian text of Verrazzano’s letter -was found in 1837, by G. W. Greene, consul from the United States -at Rome, in the Magliabecchian library of Florence, in a volume of -miscellanies, marked “Class xiii. Cod. 89. Verraz.” With this letter was -another written by Fernando Carli to his father, dated Lyons, August 4, -1524. As Carli remarks in his communication that it inclosed a copy of -Verrazzano’s letter to Francis I., it is believed that the transcript he -speaks of is the copy found in the Magliabecchian library.—Vide Life and -voyages of Verrazzano, by G. W. Greene. North American Review. vol. xlv. -October, 1837. - -Ramusio placed in the third volume of his collection of voyages and -travels a condensed form of Verrazzano’s letter, entitled “The relation -of Giovanni da Verrazzano, Florentine, to the most Christian king of -France, Francis I., of the land by him discovered in the name of his -majesty; written at Dieppe, July 8, 1524.—_Al Christianissimo Re Di -Francia Francesco Primo, Relatione di Giovanni da Verrazano Fiorentino -della terra per lui scoperta in nome di sua Maesta scritta in Dieppa, adi -8. Luglio_ M.D.XXIIII.”—Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. -iii. fol. 350. - -[374] The copy of Verrazzano’s letter has this superscription: “_Il -Capitano Giovanni da Verrazzano, fiorentino di Normandie, al la -serenissima corona di Francia, dice_”:—Captain Giovanni da Verrazzano, a -Florentine, from Normandy, to the most serene crown of France, says. - -[375] Hakluyt’s translation of the letter published by Ramusio, in 1556, -begins with these words. - -“I wrote not to your Maiesty, most Christian King, since the time we -suffered the Tempest in the North partes, of the successe of the foure -shippes, which your Maiestie sent forth to discouer new lands by the -Ocean, thinking your Maiestie had bene already duely enformed thereof. -Now by these presents I will give your Maiestie to understand how by the -violence of the Windes we were forced with the two shippes, the Norman -and the Dolphin (in such euill case as they were), to land in Britaine. -Where after wee had repayred them in all poynts as was needful, and armed -them very well, we took our course along the coast of Spaine, which -your Maiestie shall understand by the profite that we receiued thereby. -Afterwards with the Dolphin alone we determined to make discouerie of -new Countries, to prosecute the Nauigation we had already begun, which I -purpose at the present to recount unto to your Maiestie, to make manifest -the whole proceeding of the matter. - -“The 17 of January, the yeere 1524, by the Grace of God, we departed -from the dishabited rocke by the isle of Madeira (_Alli, 17. Genaro, -1524. Dio gratia partimmo dallo scoglio dishabitato_), appertaining to -the king of Portugal, with 50 men, with victuals, weapons, and other -ship-munition very well prouided and furnished for eight months; and -sailing Westward with a faire Easterly winde (_per Ponente nauigando con -vento di Leuante assai piaceuole_), in 25 dayes we ran 500 leagues, and -the 20 of Februarie (_alli 20 Febraro_), we were ouertaken with as sharpe -and terrible a tempest as euer any saylers suffered, whereof with the -diuine helpe and mercifull assistance of Almighty God, and the goodnesse -of our shippe, accompanied with the good happe of her fortunate name we -were delivered.”—_Vide_ Voyages. London, 1600. vol. ii. p. 295. - -[376] One of three islands lying in a row from north to south, southeast -of the island of Madeira, in north latitude 32° 30´, off the west coast -of Africa. The islands are called Ilhas Dezertas, and are only inhabited -by sea-fowl. - -[377] In Verrazzano’s geographical explanation of the voyage, he assigns -62½ miles to a degree and 4 miles to a marine league. According to this -_data_, 15⅝ marine leagues equal a degree. On Thevet’s map of the fourth -part of the world, printed in 1575, is a scale of leagues which shows -that a marine league was double the length of a French league. With this -information it is easy to ascertain the length of a degree in French -leagues of Verrazzano’s day; 31¼, according to his explanation, equalling -a degree. Columbus made 56⅔ miles equal an equinoctial degree and 60 -miles equal to 15 leagues. Pigafetta assigned 17½ leagues to a degree. -“The land-league is three miles,” he says, “the sea-league is four.” The -modern nautical league is one-twentieth of a degree, or three equatorial -miles or 3.45785 statute miles. A sea-mile, according to the United -States standard, is equal to 1.152664 common statute or land-miles. One -degree of longitude at the equator is equal to 69.160 land-miles. A -French geographical league, according to Verrazzano’s reckoning, equals -2⅕ land-miles of the United States standard. - -[378] Cape Fear is in 33° 48´ north latitude. - -[379] The translation of Verrazzano’s letter by Joseph G. Cogswell, -contained in the New York Historical Society’s collections, second -series, vol. i. pp. 37-54, will be followed hereafter, except when a -better rendering may be presented. - -[380] _Vide_ section of Maiollo map in the cover-pocket. The scale of -latitudes on the margin of this part of the map has been appended to -indicate the position given to places by Visconte de Maiollo. A similar -scale is engraved on another part of the rare map. - -[381] Palmetto trees. - -[382] It was not until 1728 that this conception of the navigator was -disproved. Then Vitus Behring discovered the strait which divides the two -continents. The distance between East Cape in Asia and Cape Prince of -Wales on the continent of America is forty-five miles. - -[383] “_Nè pensiamo participando dello oriente per la circumferenza sieno -senza qualche drogheria o liquore aromatico, et altre divitie oro ed -altro del quale colore la terra tutta tende._” - -[384] Historical collections of South Carolina. By B. R. Carroll. vol. i. -p. xxi. - -[385] In Ramusio’s text the word is _oriente_, east. Raccolta di -navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. ii. fol. 350. - -It was the custom of the aborigines to set fire to the underbrush in -spring to enable them to hunt and to inclose game within the limits of -the burning wood. - -[386] The harbor of Beaufort was too far inland to be seen by Verrazzano. - -[387] In Hakluyt’s translation of the text of Ramusio’s condensed copy of -Verrazzano’s letter is the following respecting the vines of Virginia: -“We saw in this country many vines growing naturally, which, growing up, -took holde of the trees as they doe in Lombardie, which if by husbandmen -they were dressed in good order, without all doubt they would yeeld -excellent wines; for hauing oftentimes seene the fruit thereof dryed; -which was sweete and pleasant, and not differing from ours, we thinke -that they doe esteeme the same, because in euery place where they growe, -they take away the under branches growing round about, that the fruit -thereof may ripen the better.”—Voyages. Hakluyt. vol. ii. p. 297. - -[388] Chesapeake Bay “extends 190 miles from its mouth, into the States -of Virginia and Maryland; it is from 7 to twenty miles broad, and -generally 9 fathoms deep.” - -The peninsula is “about 60 miles long, and from 10 to 15 wide, and -bounded toward the sea by a string of low sandy islets. The waters of the -Chesapeake enter the sea between Cape Charles and Cape Henry, forming a -strait of fifteen miles in width.”—Gazetteer of Virginia and the District -of Columbia. By Joseph Martin. 1835. pp. 23, 18. - -[389] _Vide_ Maiollo map of 1527 in the cover-pocket. - -[390] “Epistle dedicatorie” to Hakluyt’s Divers voyages, 1582. - -[391] “_Da questo mare orientale si vede il mare occidentale; sono 6 -miglia di terra infra l’uno a l’altro._” - -[392] Hakluyt’s Particular discourse, 1584. - -The English collector illustrates his Divers voyages with Locke’s map, -which the English cartographer dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney. - -[393] Sandy Hook light-house is in 40° 27´ 39´´ north latitude. - -[394] At Sandy Hook, a low, sandy point of land, eighteen miles from -the city of New York, are two ship-channels through which vessels of -the heaviest tonnage can pass. Immediately north of Sandy Hook is the -spacious roadstead called the Lower Bay. Between Staten Island, north of -it, and Long Island is the Narrows, a channel about one mile and a half -long by one wide. North of it is the Upper Bay or harbor of New York. - -[395] The Upper Bay or harbor of New York, about eight miles long by five -wide, lies between the mouth of the Hudson River on the north and the -Narrows on the south. From the bay, vessels can pass into the East River -and thence to Long Island Sound, between Long Island and the main-land. -Westward is Newark Bay, through which vessels can pass from the Upper Bay -of New York, thence into Staten Island Sound, thence into Raritan Bay and -the Lower Bay. The rise and fall of the tide in the harbor of New York is -about four and a half feet. - -[396] Belgische ofte Nederlandsche oorlogen ende geschiedenissen -beginnende van ’t jaer 1595 tot 1611.—Door Emanuel van Meteren. 1611. -Boek xxx. fol. 327. - -[397] Purchas his Pilgrimes. vol. iii. p. 595. - -[398] “_De groote noordt rievier van Nieuw-Nederlandt wordt by eenighe -ghenoemt de Manhattes rieviere naer volckeren die by naer aen’t begin -ofte de mout van de rieviere woonen; by andere oock Rio de Montaigne; -doch by de ouse wordt meest genoemt de groote rieviere._”—Nieuwe Wereldt. -Door Johannes de Laet. Tot Leyden, 1625. Boeck iii. cap. ix. - -[399] _Vide_ map entitled: ’t Noorder deel van West-Indien, contained in -the rare work in Dutch: West-Indische Spieghel. Door Athanasium Inga, -Peruen, van Cusco. Amsterdam, 1624. The map-maker’s name, A. Goos, is -inscribed on the chart. - -[400] Angoulême, a town on the Charente River, in France, sixty-six miles -northeast of Bordeaux. Angoulême, with the territory of Angoumois, was -governed from the ninth to the fourteenth century by counts. Francis I., -before he became king of France, was Comte d’Angoulême. - -[401] The island of Rhodes, lying off the southwest coast of Asia Minor, -between 35° 50´ and 36° 30´ north latitude, has an area of about 452 -square miles. - -[402] Blank space in the original copy. - -[403] Newport is in 41° 29´, and the city of Providence in 41° 49´ 22´´ -north latitude. - -[404] _Vide_ Gastaldi’s map. - -[405] As described by a late writer: “Narragansett Bay is one of the -most beautiful sheets of water in the United States; it is unrivalled -for its navigable advantages, affording at all times a safe and ready -communication with the ocean; and its shores, which are indented with -innumerable bays and inlets containing many excellent harbors. This bay -... extends more than thirty miles into the interior of the state, and -for this distance affords superior advantages for ship-navigation. The -whole extent of the bay and river, from Point Judith to Providence, is -about thirty-six miles. The average breadth of the lower section of the -bay is nearly ten miles; but the upper part is narrow. Exclusive of -the islands, of which there are about fifteen in number, and some of -considerable extent, the waters of the bay comprise an area of about one -hundred and thirty square miles.”—Gazetteer of Connecticut and Rhode -Island. 1819. pp. 302, 303, 349, 359. - -[406] See note, page 293. - -[407] The distance given by the Spanish historian, Francisco Lopez de -Gomara, in 1552, from the Point of Baccalaos, in 48° 30´ to Cape St. -Helen, in 32° north latitude, is more than seven hundred and sixty -Spanish leagues, measured as the coast trended: “From the Point of -Baccallaos are set down eight hundred and seventy leagues to Florida, -counting as follows: From the Point of Baccallaos which is in 48° 30´ are -seventy leagues of coast to La Baya del Rio, which is in more than 45°. -Thence are seventy to another bay called Isleos which is in less than -44°. From Baya Isleos to Rio Fonda are seventy leagues, and thence to Rio -de las Gamas, are other seventy, both rivers being in 43°. From Rio de -los Gamas are fifty leagues to Cabo Bajo, and thence to Rio de San Anton, -they reckon more than a hundred leagues. From Rio de San Anton are eighty -leagues along the shore of a gulf to Cabo de Arenas, which is in nearly -39°, thence to Puerto del Principe are more than a hundred leagues, and -from it to Rio Jordan seventy, and thence to Cabo de Santa Elena, which -is in 32°, there are forty leagues. From Santa Elena to Rio Seco, which -is in 31°, are forty leagues.”—La historia general de las Indias. Gomara. -cap. xii. - -[408] The name Francesca is used on the Maiollo map of 1527. Hieronymus -da Verrazzano called the region “_Verrazana seu Gallia nova_,”—Verrazana -or New Gaul. By some French writers it was denominated in the sixteenth -century, “_Terre Francesque_.” - -[409] “This distance,” he remarks, “calculated geometrically upon the -ratio that three and one seventh times the diameter of a circle is equal -to its circumference, gives 92⁵⁴¹⁶⁴⁄₄₇₂₇₃₃ degrees. For if we take -114⁶⁄₁₁ degrees as the chord of an arc of a great circle, we have by the -same ratio 95²⁴⁸³⁄₄₉₅₀ degrees as the chord of an arc on the parallel -of 34°, being that on which we first made land, and 300²³³⁄₁₅₇₅ degrees -as the circumference of the whole circle, passing through this plane. -Allowing then, as actual observations show, that 62½ terrestrial miles -correspond to a celestial degree, we find the whole circumference of -300²³³⁄₁₅₇₅ degrees, as just given, to be 18,759³¹⁄₁₂₆ miles, which, -divided by 360, makes the length of a degree of longitude on the parallel -of 34° to be 52⁹⁸⁹⁄₉₀₇₂ miles, and that is the true measure. Therefore, -by a right line to the said rock which stands in 32°, we have to -calculate the distance, the said 1,200 leagues which we have found, from -the thirty-fourth parallel, from west to east, hence I should have run -92⁵⁴¹⁶⁴⁄₄₇₂₇₃₃ degrees, and this many therefore we have sailed to the -West, which was not known to the ancients.” - -114⁶⁄₁₁ × 3¹⁄₇ = 360. 300²³³⁄₁₅₇₅ × 7 ÷ 22 = 95²⁴⁸³⁄₄₉₅₀. 300²³³⁄₁₅₇₅ × -62½ = 18,759³¹⁄₁₂₆. 18,759³¹⁄₁₂₆ ÷ 560 = 52⁹⁸⁹⁄₉₀₇₂. 4,800 by 52⁹⁸⁹⁄₉₀₇₂ -= 92⁵⁴¹⁶⁴⁄₄₇₂₇₃₃. - -[410] “The Spaniards have sailed south beyond the equator, on a meridian -20³²⁰⁶⁰/₄₇₂₈₁ degrees west of the Fortunate Islands to the latitude of -54° and there still found land. Turning about they steered northward -on the same meridian and along the coast to the eighth parallel, and -then along the coast more to the west, and north to the latitude of 21° -[31°?], without finding a termination to the continent. They estimated -the distance run as 89²⁹⁷⁰⁹/₄₆₇₈₁ which added to the 20³²⁰⁶⁰/₄₇₂₈₁ first -run make 110¹⁴⁴⁸⁸/₄₆₇₈₁, but this may vary somewhat from the truth. We -did not make this voyage, and therefore cannot speak from experience. -We calculated it geometrically from the observations furnished by many -navigators, who have made the voyage and affirm the distance to be 1600 -leagues, due allowance being made for the deviations of the ship from a -straight course by reason of contrary winds. I hope that we shall now -obtain accurate information on these points, by new voyages to be made on -the same coasts.”—_Vide_ Maiollo map of 1527. - -[411] Verrazzano’s argument is based upon the supposition that the extent -of the land of the new continent was greater than it really was, for -at this time the Pacific coast of the New Land had not been explored. -Verrazzano believed that the New World extended much farther westward -than it does. - -[412] Tierra del Fuego, south of the Strait of Magellan, had not yet been -explored, and it was not known how far it extended, or in what direction. - -[413] The number of tons is not mentioned. - -[414] According to Carli’s statement, Verrazzano at first attempted to -sail to the west by going through the North Sea. Here, as Verrazzano -relates, his vessels were disabled, and he proceeded southward toward the -desert-rock, whence he steered toward the west in quest of new lands. - -[415] Carli evidently was not well informed concerning Magellan’s -expedition, for although he speaks of the five ships of the fleet, and of -the return of the one commanded by Del Cano, he appears to be ignorant of -the death of Magellan, and of the arrival of Estevan Gomez, in 1521, with -the ship San Antonio. - -[416] King Francis wrote to his parliament, on the second of July, -1524, saying: “I am going to Lyons to prevent the enemy from entering -the kingdom, and I can assure you that Charles de Bourbon is not yet in -France.”—Historie de François Premier. Gaillard. Paris, 1769. tom. iii. -p. 172. - -[417] Lettera di Fernando Carli a suo padre. Archivo storico Italiano -ossia raccolta di opere e documenti fiuora inediti o divenuti rarissimi -risguardanti la storia d’Italia. Appendice. tomo ix. Firenze. Gio. Pietro -Vieusseux, direttore-editore al suo gabinetto scientifico letterario. -1853. - -[418] Philippe Chabot, Sieur de Brion, admiral of France, was given -command of the French marine, March 23, 1526. - -[419] Ango & Son was a noted firm of ship-builders in Dieppe. - -[420] Twenty thousand pounds, Tours currency, were to be advanced to meet -the expenses of the undertaking. The admiral of France contributed four -thousand pounds, Guillaume Preudhomme, general of Normandy, two thousand; -Pierre Despinolles, one thousand; Jean Ango, two thousand; Jacques -Boursier, two thousand; and Verrazzano (Jehan de Varesam, as his name is -written in the agreement), chief pilot, two thousand pounds. Verrazzano, -having agreed to provide competent pilots for the other two vessels, was -to receive one sixth of all the goods which should be brought back, and -one tenth of any booty taken at sea from the Moors, or other enemies of -France. Foutette collection. xxx. 770. fol. 60. Bibliothèque nationale. -Paris. - -[421] Zanobus de Rousselay, a merchant of Rouen, in a legal instrument, -dated September 30, 1526, gave bonds that “Messire Jehan de Verrassane” -was entitled “to defend a certain _clameur de haro_, obtained against him -by Guillaume Eynoult, called Cornete, living in Dieppe.” The bonds were -placed in the hands of Fremyn Poree and Robert Tassel, sergeant royal, -at Rouen, until the matter could be legally settled. MS. in archives of -Rouen. - -[422] Foutette collection. xxx. 770. fol. 60. Bibliothèque nationale. -Paris. - -[423] Hakluyt’s Divers voyages, 1582. - -[424] “Epistle dedicatorie” to Divers voyages. - -[425] Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. _Discorso sopra la nuova -Francia._ vol. iii. fol. 438. - -[426] Hakluyt’s Particular discourse, 1584. - -[427] In the cover-pocket is a copy of the part of the Maiollo map -representing the continent in the western hemisphere. - -[428] The inscription on the chart contains this information: “_Verrazana -seu Gallia nova quale discopri 5 anni fa Giovanni di Verrazzano -fiorentino per ordine et comandamēto del Chrystiannissimo Re di Francia_” -(Verrazana or New Gaul, which Giovanni di Verrazano, a Florentine, -discovered five years ago, by the order and commandment of the most -Christian king of France). - -[429] The value of the map made by Hieronymus da Verrazzano is fully -discussed in Notes on Giovanni da Verrazano, and on a planisphere of 1529 -illustrating his American voyage in 1524, with a reduced copy of the map, -by James Carson Brevoort. New York, 1874. - -_Vide_ Voyage of Verrazzano: A chapter in the early history of maritime -discovery in America. By Henry C. Murphy. New York, 1873. - -_Vide_ Verrazano, the Explorer: being a vindication of his letter and -voyage, with an examination of the map of Hieronimo da Verrazano and a -dissertation upon the globe of Vlpius. By B. F. De Costa. New York, 1880. - -[430] The true and last discouerie of Florida made by Captain John -Ribault in the yeere 1562. Dedicated to a great noble man of Fraunce, and -translated into Englishe by one Thomas Hackit. Hakluyt’s Divers voyages. -1582. - -The whole and true discoverye of Terra Florida (Englished, the Florishing -Land) conteyning as well the wonderful straunge Natures and Maners of -the People, with the mervylous Commodities and Treasures of the Country; -as also the pleasaunt Portes and Havens, and Wayes thereunto never found -out before the last year, 1562. Written in French by Captain Ribauld, -the fyrst that whollye discovered the same, and now newly set forthe in -Englishe, the xxx. of May, 1563. - -[431] Voyages. Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 232. - -[432] Brief recit, and succincte narration de la nauigation faicte es -ysles de Canada, Hochelage, and Saguenay & autres, auec particulieres -meurs, langaige & cerimonies des habitans d’icelles: fort delectable à -veoir. Auec priuilege. On les uend à Paris au second pillier en la grand -salle du Palais, & en la rue neufue Nostre dame à l’enseigne de lescu de -Frāce, par Ponce Roffet dict Fanchuer & Anthoine le Clerc frères. 1545. - -[433] “_Septem hoies syluestres ex ea isula (que terra noua dicit) -Rothomagu adducti sunt._”—Eusebii Caesariensis episcopi chronicon. Paris. -1512. p. 172. - -[434] “_Manant, s. m. Paysan habitant en un village ou en une metairie à -la campagne. Indigena, incola rusticus.... On appelle proprement manans, -ceux qui sont originaires du lieu; & habitans, ceux qui y sont venus -demeurer._”—Dictionnaire Trevoux. Nancy, 1740. - -“_Manant (ma-nan), s. m. 1° Terme d’ancienne pratique. Habitant d’un -bourg ou d’un village.... 2° Absolument, dans le langage ordinaire, mais -archaïque, un paysan.... 3° Aujourd’hui, par extension, homme grossier, -mal élevé._”—Dictionnaire de la langue Française. Par É. Littré, de -l’académie Française. Paris, 1874. - -[435] “The French call the Maques, _les Aniuez_, the Oneydes, _les -Onoyants_, the Onondagas, _les Montagneurs_, ... the Caiougas, _les -Petuneurs_, the Senegues, _les Paisans_.”—Observations of Wenworth -Greenhalgh in a journey from Albany to ye Indyans westward. 1677. London -documents in the office of the Secretary of State, Albany, N. Y. vol. -iii. p. 167. - -[436] “This region is called by the peasants (_paesani_) -Norumbega.”—Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 353. - -“_Quando per sua buona uentura intese da paesani, che erano giunto alla -marina alcuni nauiglia._” “Here by good luck he heard from the _natives_ -that some boats had arrived off the coast.”—Dello Scoprimento dell’ Isole -Frislanda, Eslanda, Engronelanda, Estotilanda, & Icaria, fatto per due -fratelli Zeni.—_Vide_ Voyages of the Venetian brothers. Major. p. 24. - -[437] Nieuwe Wereldt. Door Johannes de Laet. Tot Leyden. 1625. boek. iii. -cap. ix. - -[438] Novus Orbis, seu descriptionis Indiæ Occidentalis, autore Joanne de -Laet. Antuerpiensi, 1633. lib. iii. cap. vii. - -When the island in 1625 was purchased from the Manants by the agents of -the Dutch West India Company, the transaction is spoken of in a letter -addressed to their high mightinesses, the Lords States General of the -United Netherlands, as follows: “Our people have bought the island -Manhattes from the Wilden (wild men) for the value of sixty guilders -[about twenty-four dollars].”—Holland documents, in the office of the -Secretary of State, Albany, N. Y. vol. i. p. 155. - -[439] Historische Verhael door Nicolaes à Wassenaer. Amsterdam. -1621-1632. deel vi. fol. 144. - -[440] Nieuwe Wereldt. boeck. iii. cap. ix. Novus Orbis. lib. iii. cap. ix. - -[441] Korte historial ende journals. Door David Pietersz. de Vries. -Hoorn, 1655. pp. 146, 151. - -[442] New York Colonial MSS. xxxv. - -Samuel de Champlain, the French explorer, describing in 1632 the coast of -America in the vicinity of St. John’s River, New Brunswick, writes: “I -was at four islands near the river St. John.... Farther west there are -other islands, one of which extends six leagues, which is called by the -savages, _Menane_.” Opposite this word, Champlain writes on the marginal -space, “_L’isle de Manthane_,” adding a _t_ and an _h_ to the second -syllable of the words.—Les voyages de la Nouvelle France occidentale, -dicte Canada, faits par le Sr. de Champlain, Sanctongeois. Paris, 1632. -chap. ii. p. 58. - -[443] In different historical works and documents the following modes of -spelling the word appear: Manatans, Manates, Manate, Manath, Manathans, -Manathe, Manathes, Manatte, Manetto, Menates, Minates, Manhates, -Manhatas, Manna-hatta, Manhattes, Manahattes, Manahatta, Mahates, -Manahatas, Manahatans, Manahata, Manhatens, Manhathans, Manhatoes, -Manhatoos, Manhatos, Manhattans, Manhatten, Manhattoes, Manhattons, -Manhattos, Manhuttons, Manahactas, Manchatas, Manades, Manadoes, Manados, -Menade, Monhatous, Munhaddon, and Manhattan.—_Vide_ General index to -documents relating to the colonial history of the State of New York. - -[444] “_Anormé, ée, & anormal, adj. Ces mots ne sont plus en usage. Borel -dit qu’ils signifient qui est contre la régle commune, & qu’ énorme -vient de ces mots.... Énorme, adj. m & f. Prodigieux, éxcessif. Immanis, -immensus._”—Dictionnaire Trevoux. - -“_Par extension de la signification morale à la signification physique, -extraordinaire par sa grosseur ou par sa grandeur. Un énorme bloc -de granit.... Rem. Quand énorme signifie excessif en grandeur ou en -grosseur, il se met avant ou après son substantif._”—Dictionnaire de la -langue Française. Littré. - -[445] “_Berge (bèr-j’). s. f. 1°. Bord relevé, escarpé, d’une rivière, -d’un fossé, d’un chemin. 2°. Terme de marine. Certains rochers élevés à -pic sur l’eau...._ - -“_Etym. Espagn. et ital. barga. Diez ne veut pas qu’ il soit d’origine -germanique, et il en rapproche le kymri bargodi, surplomber, bargod, -bord. Cependant le bas-latin berga, garde, défense (qui vient de -l’allemand bergen, défendre, protéger), n’ aurait-il pas pu donner, par -une série de sens, défense, fortification, meule, et finalement bord -escarpé?_”—Dictionnaire de la langue Française. Littré. - -[446] “_On appelle aussi en tèrme de Mèr, bèrges, ou barges, les grands -rochers, âpres & rélevez à pic; c’est-à-dire, droitement & à plomb, -comme les bèrges ou barges d’Olone: telles sont Sylla & Carybde vers -Messine._”—Dictionnaire Trevoux. - -[447] Gerard Mercator was born at Rupelmonde, in East Flanders, on the -fifth of March, 1512. Mercator is the Latinized form of his German -name, _Kremer_, a tradesman, merchant. After studying at Bois-le-Duc, -in Brabant, he entered the university of Louvain. He selected for his -profession the manufacture of mathematical instruments and the art of -drawing and engraving. His cartographic fame began with the engraving -of a map of Palestine, in 1537. Next followed a map of Flanders, in -1540. Then in 1541, a large terrestrial globe, which he dedicated to the -“_Illustriss Dno Nicolao Perrenoto, Domino à Granuella_”; the original -drawings of which are preserved in the Royal library of Belgium, in -Brussels. In 1552, Mercator removed from Louvain to Duisburg, where, in -1569, he made his famous map of the world. He died in December, 1594. - -[448] The original map is now in the possession of the count of Crawford -and Balcarres, Scotland. - -[449] The edict of Francis I., appointing his mother, Louise of Savoy, -regent, is dated October, 17, 1524, but before this time she had -virtually assumed in part the direction of the government. - -[450] The large gulf is that which is now called the Gulf of Mexico. - -“A discourse of a great French sea-captain of the town of Dieppe -concerning the voyages made to the New World of the West Indies called -New France, from the fortieth to the forty-seventh parallel under the -arctic pole, and concerning the country of Brazil, Guinea, Isle of St. -Lawrence and that of Sumatra as far as the French caravels and ships -have sailed.”—Discorso d’vn gran capitano di mare Francese del Lvogno di -Dieppa. Raccolta di navigationi et viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 353. - -[451] Les voyages auantureaux dv capitaine Ian Alfonce, Sainctongeois. -Auec Priuilege du Roy. A Poitiers, au Pelican par Ian de Marnef. - -Jean Alphonse died about the year 1548. - -[452] The two first leaves of the manuscript are lost and with them the -title of the work. Inasmuch as the subject of the work is defined in -what may be said is the preface, and as the manuscript at the beginning -and at the end bears the names of “Jehan Allefonsce” and “Raulin -Secalart, cosemographe de Honnefleur, 1545,” the title of the work maybe -reconstructed and written: Cosmographie de Jehan Allefonsce et Raulin -Secalart. 1545. The manuscript is a folio of one hundred and ninety-four -leaves. It is designated MS. No. 676. - -[453] History of Long Island by Benjamin F. Thompson. 1843. p. 26. - -[454] The tide flows up the Hudson as far as the city of Troy, about one -hundred and seventy-four miles from the ocean. - -[455] An undeciphered word in the manuscript. - -“_Je ditz que le cap de Saint Jehan, dict Cap à Breton, et le cap de -la Franciscane, sont nord-est et sud-ouest et prennent un quart de est -à ouest, et y a en la route cent quarante lieues et icy faict ung cap -appelé le cap de Norombègue. Le dict cap est par quarante et ung degrez -de la haulteur du polle artique. La dicte coste est toute sableuse ... -basse, sans nulle montaigne. Et au long laquelle coste y a plusieurs -isles de sable et coste fort dangereuse de bancs et rochiers._ - -“_Les gens de ceste coste et de Cap à Breton sont maulvaises gens, -puissans, grandz fleschiers, et sont gens qui vivent de poissons et de -chair, et ont aulcun motz et parlent quasi le mesme langaige de ceux -de Canada et sont grand peuple. Et ceux de Cap à Breton vont donner la -guerre à ceulx de la Terre neufve quand ils peschent et pour nulle chose -ne saulveroyent la vie à ung homme quand ilz le prennent, si n’est jeune -enfant ou jeune fille et sont si cruels que si prennent ung homme portant -barbe, ilz luy couppent les membres et les portent à leurs femmes et -enffans, affin d’estre vengez en cela. Et y a entre eux force pelleteries -de toustes bestes._ - -“_Audela du cap de Norombègue descend la rivière dudict Norombègue, -environ vingt et cinq lieues du cap. La dicte rivière est large de plus -de quarante lieues de latitude en son entrée et ceste largeur au dedans -bien trente ou quarante lieues el est toute pleine d’isles qui entrent -bien dix ou douze lieues en la mer et est fort dangereuse de rochers et -baptures. La dicte rivière est par quarante et deux degrez de la haulteur -du polle artique._ - -“_Audedans de la dicte rivière quinze lieues y a une ville qui s’ appelle -Norombègue et y a en elle de bonnes gens et y a force pelleteries de -toutes bestes. Les gens de la ville sont vestuz de pelleteries, portans -manteaulx de martres. Je me doubte que la dicte rivière va entrer en la -rivière de Hochelaga, car elle est sallée plus de quarante lieues en -dedans selon la dict des gens de la ville. Les gens parlent beaucoup de -motz qui approuchent du latin et adorent le soleil et sont belles gens et -grandz hommes. La terre de Norombègue est haulte et bonne._ - -“_En avant et audeça de la dicte rivière cent cinquante lieues y a -une isle qui s’ appelle la Vermonde qui est par les trente et trois -degrez de la haulteur du polle artique. Et du couste devers louest de -la dicte ville, y a forces rochiers qui s’ avancent dans la mer bien -quinze lieues, et du coste vers le nort y a une anse en laquelle y a -une petite isle laquelle est fort subjecte a tempester et n’ y peut -habiter._”—Cosmographie de Jehan Allefonsce et Raulin Secarlart. 1545. -fol. 184-189. - -[456] The Bermudas or Somers’s islands lie between 32° 14´ and 32° 25´ -north latitude, and 64° 38´ and 64° 52´ west longitude. In 1522, Juan -Bermudez, a Spaniard, while on a voyage from Spain to Cuba, was wrecked -on them. In 1609 Sir George Somers, sailing to Virginia, met with a -similar misfortune among them. They are said to number three hundred and -sixty-five, and are formed by coral reefs. The principal islands are -Bermuda or Long Island, St. George’s, Ireland, Somerset, and St. David’s -Island. - -[457] The map is contained in the third volume of Ramusio’s Raccolta di -navigationi e viaggi. - -[458] Voyages. Hakluyt. vol. iii. pp. 239, 240. - -[459] Nieuwe Wereldt. boek iii. cap. ix. - -[460] In the dedication of Laudonnière’s notable history to Sir Walter -Raleigh, dated March 1, 1586, the delayed publication of the work is -thus adverted to: “It having been suppressed and forgotten for nearly -twenty years, I have, with the diligence of Mr. Hakluyt, a gentleman -well-versed in geographical history and in various languages and -sciences, disinterred it, as it were, from the tomb, where it has lain so -long in useless repose, and brought it before the world.” M. Basanier, -the publisher, says he followed the text of the manuscript _literatim_, -without any emendation or changes. - -[461] “That which is toward the arctic or north pole is called New -France insomuch as in the the year 1524, Jean Verrazano, a Florentine, -was sent by King Francis I. and Madame, the regent, his mother, to the -new countries, on which he landed and explored the whole coast extending -from the tropic of Cancer, namely, from the twenty-eighth to the fiftieth -degree, and still more toward the north. - -“He planted at this place the ensigns and arms of the king of France, -so that the Spaniards themselves, who were there afterward, have called -this country French land. It extends in latitude from the twenty-fifth -to the fifty-fourth degree toward the north; and in longitude, from the -two hundred and tenth to the three hundred and thirtieth degree. The east -part of it is called by the moderns the land of Norumberge, which ends at -the Gulf of Gamas, which separates it from the island of Canada.” - -“_Celle qui est vers le pole Arctique ou Septentrion, est nommee la -nouuelle France, pour autant que l’an mil cinq ces vingt quatre, Jean -Verrazano Florentin fut enuoyé par le Roy François premier, & par -Madame la Regente sa mere aux terres neuues, ausquelles il prit terre & -descouurit toute la coste qui est depuis le Tropique de Cancer, à scauoir -depuis le vingt-huictiesme degrè iusques au cinquantiesme: & encore plus -deuers le North. Il planta en ce païs les enseignes, & armoiries du Roy -de Frāce: de sorte que les Espagnols mesmes qui y furent depuis ont nomé -ce païs terre Francesque.... La partie Orientale d’ icelle est nommee par -les modernes terre de Norumberge, laquelle abortit au Golphe de Gamas, -qui la separe d’auec l’Isle de Canada._”—L’historie notable de la Florida -sitvee es Indes Occidentales. Par le Capitaine Laudonnière. Mise en -lumiere par M. Basanier. Paris, 1586. pp. 1, 2. - -[462] The Dutch, when they took possession of Manants Island, in the -seventeenth century, called the lake _het Versch water_ (the Fresh -water). The island on which the French built the fort was, in 1728, -selected as the site of a powder-house, which was erected there to -isolate it from common intruders. John Fitch, in the summer of 1796, -navigated his small steamboat on the Fresh water lake.—_Vide_ History -of the city of New York. By David T. Valentine. 1853. pp. 11, 282-284. -History of the city of New York. By Mrs. Martha J. Lamb. New York and -Chicago, 1877-1880. vol. ii. pp. 423, 424, 565, 736. Documentary history -of New York. vol. ii. p. 603. - -[463] André Thevet was born at Angoulême, France, about the second year -of the sixteenth century. He visited Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine, -and on his return to France, in 1554, published an account of his -travels. In July, 1555, he accompanied Chevalier Villegagnon to Brazil to -plant a colony there of French Protestants. When Thevet arrived at Rio -Janeiro in November, he was taken sick, and to hasten his recovery he -embarked for France on the last day of January, 1556. The vessel sailed -on the home voyage northward along the coast of North America as far as -Newfoundland. Thevet died in Paris, November 23, 1590. He was the author -of the following works: “Cosmographie du Levant,” Lyons, 1554; “Les -singulairités de la France antarctique, autrement nommée Amérique, et -de plusieurs autres terres et îles découvertes de notre temps,” Paris, -1556; “Discours de la bataille de Dreux,” Paris, 1563; “Cosmographie -universelle, illustrée de diverses figures des choses les plus -remarquables vues par l’auteur,” Paris, 1571; and “Les vrais portraits et -vies des hommes illustres, grecs, latins, et païens, recueillés de leurs -tableaux, livres, médailles, antiques et modernes,” Paris, 1584. - -[464] _Aggoncy_ or _Aggonzi_ signified the head. Voyages. Hakluyt. vol. -iii. p. 231. - -[465] “_Ayant laissé la Florida à main gaulche, auec grand nombre -d’Isles, Islettes, Goulphes, & Promontoires, se presente l’vne des -belles riuieres qui soit en toute la terre, nómee de nous Norombègue, -& des Barbares Aggoncy, & marquee en quelques Cartes marines riuiere -grande. Il entre plusieurs autres belles riuieres dans ceste cy, & -sur laquelle iades les François feirent bastir vn petit fort, quelque -dix ou douze lieuës en icelle, lequel estoit enuironé d’eau doulce, -qui se va desgorger das icelle: & fut nommee ceste place le fort de -Norombègue._”—La cosmographie vniverselle. D’André Thevet. A Paris, 1575. -tom. ii. chap. iii. fol. 1008, b. - -[466] The copy of Mercator’s map preserved in the National library, in -Paris, which is entitled “_Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio at usum -navigantium emendeté accommodata_,” measures seventy-eight and a half -inches by fifty inches. On this map is represented the earth _in plano_, -the meridians being paralleled and the parallels of latitude straight -lines, according to those principles of projection known as Mercator’s -projection. Respecting the latter, he says, in an inscription on the -chart: “On account of which considerations, we have increased gradually -the length of the degrees of latitude toward each pole proportionate -to the increase of the parallels beyond the length which they have on -the globe, relatively to the equator:—“_Quibus consideratis, gradus -latitudinum versus utrumque polum paulatim auximus pro incremento -parallelorum supra rationem quam habint ad acquinoctialem._” Abraham -Ortelius, the eminent cartographer, speaks of this map of Mercator’s as -“his never-enough-praised universal chart,—_Sua nunquam satis laudata -universalis tabula._” - -[467] A copy of this chart in the general library of the State of New -York, at Albany, is entitled: “The Original Carte Figurative, of which -the above is an accurate fac-simile, was found on the 26th of June, 1841, -in the Locket-kas, of the States General, in the Royal archives at the -Hague.” - -[468] “This map,” says John Romeyn Brodhead, the historian, “is -undoubtedly one of the most interesting memorials we have. It is about -three feet long, and shows, very minutely, the course of the Hudson River -from Manhattan to above Albany, as well as a portion of the sea-coast; -and contains, likewise, curious notes and memoranda about the neighboring -Indians,—the work, perhaps, of one of the companions of Hudson ... and -made within five years of the discovery of our river, its fidelity of -delineation is scarcely less remarkable than its high antiquity.”—Address -of J. Romeyn Brodhead, November 20, 1844. Coll. New York Historical Soc. -1845. p. 16. - -[469] “_Ma so vele men heeft connen verstaen uyt i seggen ende beduyen -van de Maquaas so comen de Françoysen met sloupen tot bovem aen haer land -met haerluy handelen._” - -[470] “_Fort van Nassoureen is binnen de wallen 58 voeten wydt in ’t -viercant de gracht is wydt 18 voeten._” Fort Nassau is 58 feet wide -between the walls and built as a square; the moat is 18 feet wide. “_’t -hujs is 36 voeten lanch en 26 wyt in t fort._” The house in the fort is -36 feet long and 26 wide. - -[471] Journal of a voyage to New York and a tour in several of the -American colonies in 1679 and 1680, by Jasper Dankers and Peter Sluyter -of Wiewerd in Friesland. Translated from the original MSS. in the Dutch -for the Long Island Historical Society by Henry C. Murphy. Memoirs of -Long Island Hist. Soc. 1867. vol. i. p. 318. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abaco, Great and Little, 107, 184. - - Abaiòa, town, 224. - - Aborigines, 1, 18, 19. (_See_ _Indians_.) - - Abraham, 5. - - Abreu, Capistrano de, 213, 220. - - Abyla, mountain, 4. - - Abyssinia, 58. - - Acla, 228. - - Adam, tomb of, 57. - - Adam of Bremen, 40, 41. - - Adamanai, island, 154. - - Adams, Clement, 203. - - Æthiopia, 60, 212. - - Africa, 4, 5, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 69, 70, 73, 77, 85, 219. - - Afranius, L., 60. - - Agave, 249, 252. - - Agesingue, 85. - - Aggoncy, 351, 359, 360. - - Agnaneo, island, 221. - - Aguados, 78. - - Aguajaluco, 234. - - Aguilar, Geronimo de, 239, 240, 242, 267. - - Aguino, Marcos de, 265. - - Ajes, 129. - - Alabama, 275. - - Alaminos, 275. - - Albany, N. Y., 357, 361, 362, 363. - - Albuquerque, Affonso d’, 285. - - Alderley, Lord Stanley of, 295. - - Alexander VI., Pope, 142, 145. - - Alexandria, 59, 194. - - Alfonce, Jan. (_See_ _Alphonse_.) - - Alfragranus, 75, 76. - - Allfonsce, Jehan. (_See_ _Alphonse_.) - - Aloe, 124, 136. - - Alonso X., 61. - - Alphonse, Jean, 352, 353-356, 358. - - Altars, 235. - - Alvarador, Pedro de, 236. - - Amalfi, 63. - - Amasis, 2. - - Amatl, 264, 268. - - Amber, 264, 268. - - America, name, 218, 219. - - Amerige, name, 218, 219. - - Amoretti, Carlo, 295. - - Ampheres, 8. - - Ampolletas, 69. - - Anaximander, 71. - - Ancon bajo, 279. - - Andaman, 57. - - Andrada, Francisco d’, 300, 301. - - Andros, island, 107. - - Angelo, Michael, 265. - - Angels, 5. - - Anghiera, 181. - - Ango, Jean, 298, 339. - - Ango & Son, 339. - - Angoulême, 319. - - Animals, domesticated, 109, 116, 123, 147, 231, 268, 283. - - Animals, wild, 8, 166, 202, 215, 268, 308, 324. - - Anicatiye, 281. - - Aniuez, les, 346. - - Anormée Berge, L’, 348, 349, 350, 351; - le fort d’, 359, 360. - - Anoxa, 281. - - Antediluvians, 1, 6. - - Antilla, island, 79, 84. - - Antipater, Cælius, 60. - - Antipodes, 88, 89. - - Antiquaries, Royal Soc. of Northern, 23, 33, 34. - - Apianus, Petrus, 219. - - Appalachee Bay, 279. - - Appalachicola Bay, 270. - - Aqueducts, 1, 10, 12, 252, 270. - - Arabian Gulf, 60. - - Arabian Sea, 59. - - Arambe, 281, 284. - - Arctic Ocean, 217. - - Aristotle, 71, 332, 336. - - Arna-Magnœan collection, 34. - - Arnold, Governor Benedict, 43. - - Arona, 181. - - Arana, Diego, 133, 149. - - Arroba, 123. - - Arrows. (_See_ _Indians_.) - - Arsenals, 264. - - Asher, G. M., 300. - - Asia, 4, 57, 142, 153, 192, 215, 219; - wife of Prometheus, 219. - - Asius, 219. - - Astrolabe, 66-68, 79, 125, 128. - - Athenæus, 198. - - Athens, 17. - - Atlantic empire, 5, 8, 17; - island, 4-21, 80; - ocean, early navigation of, 4, 59; - name, 7; - impassable, 17, 18, 21; - navigated, 72, 79, 80, 89; - race, 17. - - Atlas, 7, 8. - - Atwood’s key, 107, 108. - - Aubert, Thomas, 298, 299. - - Autochthon, 8. - - Avila, Pedro Arias de, 229. - - Axes, 236, 237. - - Ayala, Pedro de, 195. - - Ayllon, Lucas Vasquez de, 279, 281, 282, 284. - - Azaës, 8. - - Azores, 67, 74, 78, 79, 140, 145, 157, 158, 213. - - - Bacallaos or baccallaos, land of, 197, 200, 202, 330. - - Bachian, island, 294. - - Bacon, Roger, 62. - - Badajos, congress of, 296. - - Badakhshan, 57. - - Bahamas, the, 107. - - Bahia de todos os Santos, 214. - - Bakelos, name, 198, 203. - - Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, 225-228. - - Banda, 292. - - Bardsen, Ivar, treatise of, 23. - - Barges or bèrges, 248, 349. - - Barrett, William, 188. - - Barros, Joam de, 68. - - Bartolomé, Francisco, 240. - - Basanier, M., 357, 358. - - Bastidas, Rodrigo de, 174, 225. - - Baths, 12, 266. - - Baya Isleos, 330. - - Beamish, North Ludlow, 25. - - Bear, the Great and Little, 213. - - Bears, 199, 202. - - Beaufort, N. C., 310. - - Behaim, Martin, 67, 80, 290. - - Behring’s Strait, 303, 308. - - Behring, Vitus, 308. - - Beimeni, island of, 221, 224, 278. - - Belem, 177. - - Belle Isle, Strait of, 297, 345. - - Bells, 176. - - Beneventanus, Marcus, 215. - - Benewitz, Peter, 219. - - Berg, Joshua van, 74. - - Bergenroth, G. A., 187. - - Bermudas, 356. - - Bermudez, Juan, 356. - - Bernaldez, Andres, 120. - - Bernardino, Cardinal, 154. - - Berruguette, Alonso, 265. - - Beseneghe, 212. - - Bethlem, 177. - - Bethune, Vice-admiral, 64. - - Bible, La, 61. - - Biddle, Richard, 195. - - Bimini, fountain of, 222, 224; - island of, 224, 278. - - Birds, 100, 103, 104, 105, 109, 116, 122, 123, 147, 166, 181, 203, - 308. - - Bjanneyjar, 34. - - Bjarni, voyages of, 25-27, 37, 40. - - Block Island, 320. - - Blood-letting, 164, 298. - - Bobadilla, Francisco de, 172. - - Boemia, Martin of, 290. - - Bohemia, Martin of, 67. - - Bohio or Bosio, 114, 130, 133. - - Boiuca, 221. - - Borriquen, island of, 148, 221. - - Boulenger, Ludovicus, 219. - - Bourbon, Charles de, 338. - - Boursier, Jacques, 339. - - Bows. (_See_ _Indians_.) - - Bradley, Thomas, 195. - - Brahmans, 57. - - Brass, 8, 269. - - Brattahlid, 24, 28. - - Brazil, 173, 206, 207, 212, 213, 214, 216, 220, 228, 286, 300, 352, - 359; - island of, 195; - port of, 175, 179. - - Brazil-wood, 216, 229, 286. - - Breidafjörd, 25. - - Bretons, 297. - - Brevoort, James Carson, 343. - - Bridges, 164, 258, 270. - - Brisa or Briso, island, 320. - - Bristol, 73, 188, 189, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199. - - Britons, 297. - - Brittany, 301, 304. - - Brodhead, John Romeyn, 362. - - Brown, Rawdon, 190. - - Brunelleschi, Alderotto, 338. - - Buil, Friar Bernardo, 152, 196. - - Burma, 57. - - Bygd, 24. - - - Cabo Bajo, 330. - - Cabo Casinas, 175. - - Cabo de Arenas, 330. - - Cabo de Boa Esperança, 69. - - Cabo de Campana, 126. - - Cabo de Cinquin, 127. - - Cabo de Corrientes, 224. - - Cabo de Cuba, 125. - - Cabo de las Conchas, 171. - - Cabo de las Higueras, 278. - - Cabo del Elefante, 127. - - Cabo del Estrella, 127. - - Cabo del Isles, 115. - - Cabo del Monte, 127. - - Cabo del Pico, 126. - - Cabo de Palmas, 118. - - Cabo de San Nicolas, 152. - - Cabo de Santa Elena, 279, 280, 284, 330. - - Cabo Deseado, 292, 293. - - Cabo Fuerte, 152. - - Cabo Hermoso, 114. - - Cabo Lindo, 127. - - Cabo Santa Cruz, 154. - - Cabo Santa Maria de la Consolacion, 174. - - Caboto, Giovanni, his proposals to Henry VII. of England; sails from - Bristol, 188; - his voyage, 188, 189; - Prima Tierra Vista, 190; - island of Sant Joan, 190; - maps, 185, 191, 192; - Soncino’s account of his discoveries, 192-194; - his globe, 193; - Cabot’s second voyage, 194, 195; - described, 195, 196; - field of his discoveries, 185, 201, 210, 300. - - Caboto, Ludovicus (Lewis), 188. - - Caboto, Sanctus, 188. - - Caboto, Sebastiano, his voyages, 196-199; - extent of his explorations, 200, 202; - his maps and discoveries, 203, 204; - congress of Badajos, 296. - - Cabo Tormentoso, 69, 205. - - Cabot. (_See_ _Caboto_.) - - Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 206, 207. - - Cacamatzin, prince of, 256, 260. - - Cacao, 267; - liquor, 263; - nuts, 176, 269. - - Cadamosto, Luigi da, 66, 300. - - Cadiz, 7, 60. (_See_ _Gades_.) - - Cæsar, calendar of Julius, 107. - - Caiougas, 346. - - Calachionies, 239. - - Calicut, 206, 336. - - Calpe, mountain, 4. - - Cam, Diogo, 67. - - Cambaluc, 57. - - Camos, Martin, 238. - - Campeachy, 230, 238. - - Canada, 345, 354, 355; - river of, 357; - island of, 357, 358. - - Canals, 9, 10, 13, 14, 252. - - Canary Islands, 72, 74, 79, 95, 97, 104, 134, 158, 160. - - Cañaveral, 279. - - Cannibals. (_See_ _Indians_.) - - Canoes. (_See_ _Indians_.) - - Cano, Sebastian del, 295. - - Canso, Strait of, 201. - - Cantino, Alberto, 211. - - Capac, 289. - - Cap de la Franciscane, 354. - - Cape Bojador, 64, 66, 145. - - Cape Breton, 342, 351, 354, 355. - - Cape Breton Island, 191, 201, 297. - - Cape Briton. (_See_ _Cape Breton_.) - - Cape Buona Vista, 297. - - Cape Catticara, 293. - - Cape Charles, 314. - - Cape Comorin, 294. - - Cape de Bertoni. (_See_ _Cape Breton_.) - - Cape de Não, 63, 64. - - C. de S. Maria, 316, 319. - - Cape Fear, 306. - - Cape Henry, 314. - - Cape Lookout, 310. - - Cape Neddock, 329. - - Cape North, 201. - - Cape of England, 185, 201. - - Cape of Florida, 224. - - Cape of Good Hope, 69, 85, 205, 323. - - Cape of Norombègue, 354, 355. - - Cape of St. John, 354. - - Cape of St. Mary, 316, 319. - - Cape of the Bretons, 297. (_See_ _Cape Breton_.) - - Cape of the Franciscan, 354. - - Cape of the Holy Spirit, 289. - - Cape of the Virgins, 289, 292. - - Cape Prince of Wales, 308. - - Cape Ras, 297. - - Cape Ray, 201. - - Cape St. Augustine, 212, 229, 286. - - Cape St. Roque, 228. - - Cape St. Vincent, 77, 84. - - Cape Verd, 74, 78. - - Cape Verd Islands, 72, 74, 75, 86, 145, 146, 168. - - Caradoc of Llancarvan, 43. - - Caravels, 96, 180. - - Caria, sierras of, 215. - - Cariay, 178. - - Caribbees, 148. - - Caribbean Islands, 174. - - Caribi, 160. - - Caris, island of, 135. - - Carixagusignanin, 281. - - Carli, Fernando, 302, 335. - - Carli, Francisco, 338. - - Carolinas, archipelago, 85. - - Carpets, 260. - - Carreira, Visconde da, 64. - - Carroll, B. R., 309. - - Carthagena, Juan de, 289. - - Carthaginian merchants, 79. - - Cartier, Jacques, 42, 344, 345, 352. - - Cartier, John, 195. - - Carvajal, Alonzo Sanchez de, 152. - - Casada, Caspar de, 289, 292. - - Casas, Bartolomé de las, 107, 118, 126. - - Caspian Sea, 75, 334. - - Cassava, 242. - - Cassia, 213, 216. - - Castellanos de Oro, 250. - - Castilblanco, 250. - - Castilla del Oro, 183. - - Castle Island, 361, 362, 363. - - Cathay, 51, 58, 72, 74, 82, 84, 118, 125, 174, 175, 178, 180, 182, - 186, 188, 199, 201, 205, 207, 284, 297, 301, 306, 332, 336. - - Cat Island, 107, 108. - - Cattigara, 227. - - Caunaboa, 149, 156. - - Causeways, 256, 257, 258, 270. - - Cautio, 223. - - Cavalcanti, Guido, 62. - - Cavo de Inglaterra, 185, 201. - - Cāzabi, 164. - - Cazadilla, Diego Ortiz de, 86. - - Celer, Q. Metellus, 60. - - Cemies, 154, 155. - - Cempoalla, 249. - - Ceuta, 63. - - Ceylon, 57. - - Chabot Philippe, 339. - - Chalchihuis stones, 251, 259, 265. - - Champlain, Samuel de, 68, 347, 348. - - Champoton, 230, 233. - - Chapultepec, 252, 270. - - Charles V., of Spain, 191, 199, 240, 249. - - Charles’s wain, 102. - - Charybdis, 349. - - Chehkiang, 83. - - Chersonesus aurea, 226, 227. - - Chesapeake Bay, 314, 343. - - Chiahuitzla, 249. - - Chicora, 280, 281, 282. - - Chila, 277. - - China, 55, 57, 74, 75, 82, 84. - - Cholula, 254. - - Churchhill, collections of A. and J., 71. - - Cibao, mines of, 150. - - Cimbri, 334. - - Cinnamon, 345. - - Cintra, Pedro de, 66. - - Cipango, 84, 204, 111, 114, 115, 116, 193. - - Circumnavigation of the earth, 295. - - Claude, wife of Francis I., 320. - - Claude or Claudia, island, 320. - - Cleasby, Richard, 33. - - Cleito, 7, 11. - - Clement IV., Pope, 52. - - Climates, 166, 299, 336. - - Cloves, 294, 345. - - Cocayo, 281. - - Cocca, Antonia, 289. - - Cochin China, 57. - - Codfish, 198, 202, 203. - - Coelho, Gonçalo, 215. - - Coelho, Nicolas, 206. - - Cogswell, Joseph G., 307. - - Cohoes, N. Y., 351. - - Cojohuacan, 258, 274; - prince of, 260. - - Colba, 114. - - Colibre, 135. - - Coligni, Admiral Gaspard de, 340. - - Coloma, Juan de, 93. - - Colombo, Cristoforo. (_See_ _Christopher Columbus_.) - - Colombo, Dominico, 70. - - Colombo, Fernando. (_See_ _Ferdinand Columbus_.) - - Colon, Cristobal. (_See_ _Christopher Columbus_.) - - Colon, Diego. (_See_ _Diego Columbus_.) - - Colon, Luis, 71. - - Columbus, Bartolomé, 86, 87, 172. - - Columbus, Christopher, birthplace, 70; - parents, 70; - sea-faring, 72, 73; - geographical knowledge, 74-80; - correspondence with Toscanelli, 80; - proposals to King John II., of Portugal, 85; - sends his brother to England, 86; - goes to Spain, 87; - his project discussed at Salamanca, 87-90; - its consideration postponed by Ferdinand and Isabella, 90; - intends to go to France, 90; - befriended by Friar Juan Perez, 90, 91; - another conference, 91; - unfavorable decision, 91; - Luis de Santángel’s help, 92; - Columbus commissioned, 93-95; - intends to make a sea-chart, 96; - sails from Palos, 96; - keeps his reckoning short, 98; - observes the variations of the magnetic needle, 98, 99; - conduct of his crew, 100-102; - discovers island of Guanahani, 107; - his landing, 108; - the people, 108-110; - calls the island San Salvador, 111; - discovers the islands of Santa Maria de la Concepcion, Fernandina, - Isabela, and Cuba, 113-116; - believes he has reached Asia, 120; - sends embassadors to the Grand Khan of Cathay, 120; - productions of Cuba, 121; - natives, 122, 123; - returns from the north, 124; - his high latitudes, 126; - explores the coast of Española, 127, 128; - its natives, productions, and soil, 128-130; - builds Villa de la Navidad, 132, 133; - sails for Spain, 135; - the voyage, 137; - anchors in the Tagus, 140; - visits the king of Portugal, 141; - arrives at Palos, 141; - celebration of his discoveries, 142-144. - - Columbus’s second voyage, 146; - discovers the islands of Dominica, Marigalante, Santa Maria de - Guadalupe, 146, 147; - his sea-chart, 148; - arrives at Villa de la Navidad, 148; - builds the town of Isabela and castle of San Tomas, 150, 151; - appoints a council, 152; - coasts Cuba, 152; - believes it to be Asia, 153; - sails for Spain, his compasses, 157; - his pilots, 158; - arrives at Cadiz, 159; - goes to Burgos, 159; - his privileges prejudiced, 167. - - Columbus’s third voyage, 168; - discovers the island of Trinidad, 169; - sees the continent, 169; - Tierra de Gracia, 170; - enters the Gulf of Paria, 171; - map of the country, 171; - reaches Española, 172; - sent in chains to Spain, 172. - - Columbus’s fourth voyage, 174; - discovers the island of Mantinino, 175; - reaches Española, 175; - sails to the Guanaia islands, 175; - captures a canoe laden with Indian commodities, 175; - explores the coast of Veragua, 177-187, 226, 227; - sails to Jamaica, 180; - returns to Spain, 182; - dies at Valladolid, 182; - his map, 182, 183, 300. - - Columbus, Diego, 87, 90, 152, 168. - - Columbus, Ferdinand, 70, 71, 168. - - Comargo, 277, 278. - - Combahee River, 284. - - Comogre, 225. - - Compass. (_See_ _Mariner’s compass_.) - - Conchillos, Lopez de, 276. - - Connecticut, 253, 354; - river, 354. - - Contarini, Gasparo, 199. - - Copper, 8, 10, 111, 176, 178, 199, 236, 237, 269, 322, 328. - - Coquibacoa, Gulf of, 164. - - Cordoba, Francisco Hernando de, 229, 233, 238, 278. - - Corn, 283. - - Coronel, Pedro Fernandez, 152. - - Correa, Pedro, 77. - - Cortereal, Gaspar, 207-211. - - Cortereal, João Vaz, 207. - - Cortereal, Miguel, 207, 208, 211. - - Cortes, Hernando. Diego Velasquez appoints him captain-general, 237; - sails to the island of Cozumel, 238; - receives embassadors from Montezuma, 239; - the presents, 243-245; - explores the coast of Mexico, 247; - builds Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, 249; - begins his march toward the city of Mexico, 249; - engagements with the Tlascallans, 250; - enters Tlascalla, 251; - marches to Cholula, 253; - escorted into the city of Mexico by Montezuma, 259-261; - visits the market-place and the temple of Huitzilopochtli, 267-272; - besieges the city, 273; - sends presents to the emperor, 274. - - Corvea, Gaspar, 206. - - Corvo, island, 100, 158. - - Cosa, Juan de la, 173, 183, 184, 185, 201. - - Cosco, Leander de, 142. - - Cotastlan, 239, 266. - - Cotta, Joannes, 215. - - Cotton, 109, 110, 111, 119, 121, 123, 124, 136, 148, 176, 178, 265, - 284. - - Cotys, 219. - - Coyba, 226. - - Cozumel, 238, 239. - - Crato, prior of, 141. - - Crawford and Balcarres, count of, 350. - - Critias, or the Atlantic, 3. - - Crœsus, 2. - - Crooked Island, 107. - - Crosses, 230. - - Cruz, Juan de la, 265. - - Cuba, 114, 115, 116, 118, 126, 127, 128, 152, 153, 154, 184, 197, - 202, 216, 232. - - Cuitlahuac, prince of, 260. - - Cuitlahuatzin, 270. - - Culba, 232. - - Culhua, 248. - - Culua, 235. - - Cusa, Cardinal Nicolaus de, 80. - - - Dagaghiano, Pier Francisco, 338. - - Dagmala-stad, 31-33. - - Datha, 282. - - Damascus, 59. - - Dankers, Jasper, 363. - - Darien, isthmus, 174, 177, 225, 226, 227, 228, 315, 342. - - Davila, Pedrarias, 228. - - Davis, Henry, 19. - - Davis’s Strait, 318. - - Declination, line of, 98, 99, 102, 158. - - De Costa, B. F., 343. - - Degree, measures of, 76, 83, 98. - - Delaware Bay, 315. - - Demons, 217, 288. - - Demorgorgon, 198. - - Denis, Jean, 298. - - Denmark, 334. - - Desmarquets, Jean Antoine, 299. - - Despinolles, Pierre, 339. - - Diaprepes, 8. - - Dias, Bartolomeu, 69, 205. - - Diaz, Bernal, 21, 229; - Father Juan, 240. - - Diepa or Dieppe, 297, 298, 307, 334, 351, 352. - - Dighton rock, 42. - - Disraeli, 350. - - Dods, Marcus, 89. - - Dogs, 123, 268. - - Dominica, island of, 146. - - Doña Marina, 240, 242, 259, 260, 261, 267. - - Drake, Sir Francis, 292. - - Drogio, island of, 47, 49. - - Ducats, 244, 245. - - Duero, Andres de, 237. - - Duharhe, 281, 283. - - Duisburg, 360. - - Dwarfs, 263. - - - Eannes, Gil, 65. - - Eannes de Azurara, Gomes, 64. - - Earth, globular form of, 71, 88, 193; - circumference of, 74, 75, 83; - circumnavigation of, 295. - - East Cape, 308. - - East Indies, 145. - - East River, 317. - - Eden, Richard, 199. - - Egypt, priests of, 2, 3, 21; - invaded, 5, 8; - gods rule in, 6, 15; - stars seen in, 72. - - Egyptians, chroniclers, 2, 4, 15; - chronology of, 17; - ships of, 18; - hermetic books of, 20. - - Eider-ducks, 35. - - Ekallumiut, 30. - - Elasippus, 8. - - El Crespello, 265. - - Elephants, 8, 9. - - El Gran Cairo, 229. - - El Marien, 249. - - Elohim, 6. - - Emeralds, 244. - - Emmanuel, king of Portugal, 207, 211. - - England, 73, 74, 186, 188. - - Eric, the Red, 23, 24; - the wanderer, 25. - - Escovedo, Rodrigo de, 108, 133, 149. - - Española, 104, 128, 130, 133, 135, 148, 154, 159, 172, 175, 179, 182, - 184. - - Espiritu Santo, Rio del, 278; - Baya del, 279. - - Estotiland, 46, 49, 50. - - Estrithson, Sveyn, king of Denmark, 40. - - Ethiopia, 60, 212. - - Eudæmon, 8. - - Eudoxus, 60. - - Euenor, 6, 7. - - Eugene IV., Pope, 83. - - Eumelus, 7. - - Europa, 219. - - Europe, 4, 5, 219. - - Eusebius, 299, 345. - - Euthydemus, 198. - - Euxine Sea, 52. - - Evangelista, island of, 153, 154. - - Everett, E., 34. - - Eyktar-stad, 31-33. - - Eynoult, Guillaume, 340. - - Ezcapuzalco, 265. - - - Fabian, Robert, 197. - - Faroe islands, 22, 23. - - Fayal, island of, 67, 68. - - Ferdinand, king of Spain, 70, 72, 142, 143, 144, 159, 160, 168, 172, - 187, 195, 216. - - Fernandina, 113. - - Fish, 198, 202, 209, 241. - - Fitch, John, 359. - - Flateyensis, codex, 25. - - Flatö, 25; - book of, 25. - - Floki, the viking, 23. - - Flores island, 78. - - Florida, 124, 126, 200, 223-225, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 307, 330, - 342, 344, 351, 352, 357, 358. - - Flowers, 9, 115, 116, 251, 266, 309, 314. - - Fonseca, Juan Rodriguez de, 168, 276. - - Fornari, Baltano de, 71. - - Fort Caroline, 357. - - Fort Nassau, 363. - - Fortunate Islands, 74, 75, 331, 332. - - Foster, Andrew, 159. - - Fowls, 268, 283. - - Fox, G. V., 98, 107, 108. - - Francis I., king of France, 300, 301, 319, 320, 338, 344, 351, 352, - 357, 358. - - Francesca, 307, 330, 351. - - Frederic III., of Denmark, 25, 34. - - Freydis, 39. - - Frisland, island of, 45, 46, 49, 50, 73; - story of a fisherman of, 44, 46-50. - - Frizeland, 73. - - Fruits, 9, 115, 116, 147, 166, 171, 241, 263, 324, 352. - - Fucus natans, 99, 100. - - Fuenterabia, 135, 183, 227. - - Fuerteventura, island of, 97. - - Fundy, Bay of, 201. - - Furdustrandir, 35, 41. - - - Gadeira, 7. - - Gadeirica, 7. - - Galleys, 21. - - Galicia, 135, 141. - - Gallia Nova, 343. - - Galvano, Antonio, 64, 144, 200. - - Gama, Vasco da, 205, 206. - - Gamart of Rouen, 298. - - Gamlason, Thorhall, 34. - - Gamas, Gulf of, 357, 358. - - Ganges, 142, 154, 226. - - Gardens, 12, 256, 257, 266. - - Garay, Francisco de, 275, 278. - - Gastaldi, Giacomo de, 326, 356. - - Gaul, 61. - - Georgia, State of, 279. - - Germany, 61. - - Giants, 6, 252, 253, 274, 282, 287. - - Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 200, 201. - - Ginnungagap, 41. - - Gioja, Flavia, 63. - - Godeffroy, Adam, 340. - - Gods, divide the earth, 5; - marry the daughters of man, 5; - rule in Egypt, 6, 15; - half-gods, 6. - - Góes, Damião de, 208. - - Golfo de las Flechas, 134, 135. - - Golfo de las Perlas, 171. - - Golfo Dulce, 214. - - Gold, 111, 115, 116, 117, 132, 136, 149, 151, 167, 178, 179, 216, - 226, 229, 234, 236, 243, 251, 265, 269, 274. - - Gomara, Francisco Lopez de, 199, 200. - - Gomera, island of, 97, 99. - - Gomez, Estevan, 291, 296. - - Gonçalves, André, 213. - - Graah, Captain W. A., 30, 31. - - Gracia, Tierra de, 170. - - Greenland, from Iceland, 22; - discovered, 24; - eastern district in, 25; - sea of, 26, 216, 217; - from Newfoundland, 28. - - Grain, 23, 176, 178, 268, 283, 325. - - Grand Canary, 97. - - Grande River, 318, 319, 320, 346, 348, 351, 353, 356, 358, 359, 360. - - Grand Khan of Cathay, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 82, 94, 115, 117, 118, 120, - 124, 153, 189. - - Grand Scarp, the, 348. - - Grand Turk Island, 78. - - Grapes, 42, 151, 313. - - Gratiosa, island, 107. - - Great Exuma Island, 107. - - Greco, wind, 161. - - Greece, invasion of, 5. - - Greeks, early civilization of the, 4. - - Greene, G. W., 302. - - Greenhalgh, Wenworth, 346. - - Gregory XIII., calendar of Pope, 107. - - Grijalva, Juan de, 233, 237, 247, 278. - - Grimolfson, Bjarni, 34. - - Groote River, 318, 319, 346. - - Guacanagari, 149. - - Guacasualco River, 236. - - Guacaya, 281, 284. - - Guadalupe, 147, 148, 157. - - Gualdape, 280. - - Guanaco, the, 287. - - Guanahani, the island, 107. - - Guanaia islands, 175, 214. - - Guatemala, 229. - - Guazpaltepec, 239. - - Gudrid, 40. - - Guerrero, Gonzalo, 239. - - Guinea, 64, 67, 74, 81, 85, 88, 352. - - Guisay, 115, 120. (_See_ _Quinsay_.) - - Gulf of Castles, 267. - - Gulf of Coquibacoa, 164. - - Gulf of Gamas, 357, 358. - - Gulf of Mexico, 352. - - Gulf of St. Lawrence, 297. - - Gulf of Venezuela, 164. - - Gulf Stream, the, 223. - - Gunnbjörn, the Norwegian, 23; - skerries, 24. - - Gutierrez, Pedro, 107, 133, 149. - - Guyneth, Madoc, 43; - Owen, 43, 44. - - Guyot, 61. - - - Habacoa, 184. - - Hackit, Thomas, 344. - - Haki, 35. - - Hakluyt, Richard, 42, 44, 64, 203, 204, 357. - - Hakon, Jónn, son of, 25. - - Half Moon, 362. - - Hamacas, 147, 156. - - Hammocks, 147, 156, 163, 286. - - Hangchau, 83. - - Hanno, 60. - - Harlem River, 353. - - Harrisse, Henry, 160, 184. - - Hatchets, 176. - - Hauslab, M. le général de, 220. - - Havannah, the, 249. - - Hawks, 22. - - Hayti, 128, 167. - - Hekja, 35. - - Hell-Gate, 353. - - Helluland, 28, 34, 41, 42. - - Henderson, Ebenezer, 23. - - Henry, prince of Portugal, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 70, 79. - - Henry II. of France, 350. - - Henry VII., king of England, 86, 186, 187, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, - 199, 200, 201; - VIII., 315, 341. - - Herbs, 115, 147, 173, 174, 178. - - Hercules, pillars of, 4, 7, 17, 18, 21, 59, 60, 72, 197, 198. - - Herjulf, 24. - - Herjulfsnes, 24, 25. - - Herodotus, 2, 59. - - Heroes, 6. - - Herrera y Tordesillas, Antonio de, 215. - - Hetland, 22. - - Hieroglyphics, 1, 177, 249. - - Hitha, 283. - - Hochelaga, 345; - river of, 354, 356. - - Hojeda, Alonzo de, 150, 173, 183. - - Holy Sepulchre, 133. - - Honduras, Bay of, 175, 214. - - Honfleur, 298. - - Hóp, 37, 40. - - Horns, 23. - - Horses, 12. - - Huag, 281. - - Hudson, Henry, 318, 361, 362. - - Hudson River, 316, 317, 318, 319, 269-272, 353, 357, 362. - - Huexotzinco, 258. - - Huitzilopochtli, idol, 247; - temple of, 267. - - Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von, 44, 56, 57, 183. - - Hvarf, 24. - - Hvidserk, 24, 25. - - Hylacomylus, 218. - - - Iberian peninsula, 84. - - Ibernia, 192, 194. - - Icaria, 49. - - Iceland, 22, 23, 24, 25, 45, 193, 199. (_See_ _Island_.) - - Ignami, 164. - - Incense, 235. - - India, 57, 61, 69, 70, 74, 75, 77, 181, 206. - - Indian Ocean, 314. - - Indians (_See also_ _Manants_, _Paesani_, _Paysans_, _Wild Men_, - _Wilden_); - ancestors, 252, 253; - axes, 236, 237, 324; - ball-players, 284; - bows and arrows, 134, 136, 162, 202, 210, 230, 252, 265, 287, 288, - 299, 312, 324, 355; - burial, 156, 163; - caciques, 129, 240, 258, 259, 267; - cannibals, 135, 148, 164, 216; - canoes, 110, 119, 135, 164, 165, 175, 258, 299, 312, 313, 324; - carpenters, 266; - carpets, 260; - cities, 251, 254, 256, 258, 270; - clothing, 123, 170, 176, 178, 201, 202, 209, 216, 230, 234, 235, - 243, 280, 284, 286, 287, 288, 298, 306, 312, 317, 321, 322, - 328, 356; - clubs, 162, 202; - color, 123, 129, 130, 161, 169, 209, 281, 282, 284, 287, 299, 307, - 311, 312, 321; - concubines, 262, 266; - courts, 268; - cuirasses, 230, 252, 263; - darts, 202; - dwellings, 116, 117, 130, 163, 164, 170, 209, 225, 286, 288, 314, - 324, 325; - edifices, 230, 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 272; - enchanters, 178, 217; - eyes, 110, 307, 322; - fabrics, 170, 176, 178, 234, 241, 243, 244, 250, 254, 256, 265, - 266, 267; - faces, 110, 287, 307, 311, 321; - fans, 245; - farmer-generals, 239; - feather-work, 216, 230, 241, 245, 259; - fishing-hooks, 116, 178; - fishing-nets, 116, 178, 189; - flags, 230; - food, 129, 162, 164, 176, 201, 232, 234, 241, 262, 264, 268, 288, - 299, 312, 325, 328; - friendliness, 108, 298, 306, 310, 311, 316, 317, 321, 322, 352, 355; - furniture, 244, 260, 268; - giants, 252, 253, 282, 287; - goldsmiths, 265; - hair, 109, 110, 136, 161, 170, 281, 282, 283, 286, 287, 288, 299, - 307, 321, 322; - hammocks, 147, 156, 163, 286; - helmets, 243, 265; - hieroglyphics, 1, 177, 249; - idols, 118, 154, 155, 229, 230, 232, 234, 235, 247, 270, 271, 272; - implements, 176, 189, 236, 237, 324; - javelins, 109, 110, 134; - kidnaped, 279, 280, 281; - kings, 216, 323; - knives, 268; - lances, 162, 202, 230, 231, 252, 264; - language, 120, 162, 201, 210, 299, 355, 356; - lapidaries, 265; - liquors, 263; - longevity, 216; - magistrates, 130; - markets, 267, 271; - masks, 129; - medicine, 164, 216, 288, 325; - merchandize, 267, 268; - mirrors, 244; - money, 176, 269; - morions, 265; - musical instruments, 230, 272; - name, 345; - oars, 110, 324; - occupation, 12, 13, 14, 15, 178, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268; - ornaments, 111, 119, 163, 170, 225, 229, 234, 236, 241, 243, 244, - 248, 250, 267, 274, 287, 321, 322, 328; - palaces, 225, 256, 266; - papermakers, 252, 264; - painters, 242, 265; - painted faces, 109, 130, 210, 230, 286, 287, 288, 299, 323; - paintings, 230, 252; - phlebotomy practised, 164, 288; - pikes, 252, 264; - pipes, 264; - plantations, 230, 257; - police-system, 267; - priests, 235, 269, 283; - public works, 9, 10, 252, 256, 257, 258, 270; - religion, 110, 119, 123, 154, 155, 156, 216, 229, 286, 288, 299, - 330, 331, 356; - sacrifices, 16, 235, 239, 247, 254, 270-272; - sculptors, 265; - sculptures, 177, 178, 229, 230; - sepulchre, 178; - servants, 264; - shields, 230, 234, 243, 252, 264, 265; - shoes, 244, 288; - silversmiths, 265; - slaves, 110, 136, 167, 210, 225, 267, 269; - slings, 202, 230, 252; - snares, 189, 324; - songs, 284, 325; - spinners, 109, 110; - stature, 109, 110, 129, 161, 209, 307, 311, 321, 356; - stone-cutters, 266; - superstitions, 156; - swords, 176, 230, 231, 252, 264; - tanners, 268; - temples, 11, 12, 229, 230, 234, 235, 254, 260, 270, 271; - theatres, 266; - thread, 267, 284, 311; - tobacco, 121, 264, 268; - traditions, 252, 284, 363; - traffic, 13, 109, 110, 111, 129, 174, 298, 328; - utensils, 162, 262; - villages, 13, 112, 117, 122, 130; - wares, 263, 267, 268, 269; - warlike, 355; - warriors, 12, 14, 15, 230, 231, 251, 252; - weaving, 266; - wines, 171, 178; - wives, 162, 262, 323; - women, 122, 129, 162, 171, 262, 281, 284, 288, 311, 312, 322. - - Indies, 81, 134, 159, 187. - - Infante Fortuna, 144. - - Insubria, 283. - - Inzignanin, 284. - - Ilhas Dezertas, 304. - - Ireland, 192, 194, 196; - island of, 356. (_See_ _Ibernia_.) - - Isabela, island of, 113, 115; - town of, 150, 154, 156, 157. - - Isabella, queen of Spain, 72, 91, 92, 93, 142, 158, 159, 167, 168, - 172, 187, 195. - - Isla Blanca, 234. - - Isla de las Bocas, 179. - - Island, 23, 55. (_See_ _Iceland_.) - - Isla Rica, 228. - - Isla Santa, 169. - - Isole de Ladroni, 294. - - Isole Sfortunato, 292. - - Ithaca, 52. - - Iti, island of, 167. - - Iuca, 164. - - Iucatan, 215. (_See_ _Yucatan_.) - - Iztapalapan, 256, 270. - - - Jackals, 268. - - Jacobus, 61. - - Jacquet, 56. - - Jamaica, 133, 152, 154, 180, 182. - - Japan, 57, 84, 111. - - Java, 57, 294. - - Jerez of Ayamonte, Rodrigo de, 120. - - Jerusalem, conquest of, 133. - - Jesters, 263. - - John I., king of Portugal, 63; - II., 67, 69, 85; - III., 300, 301. - - Jomard, M., 185. - - Jonas, Arngrim, 33. - - Jones, Inigo, 43. - - Jordan River, 280, 284. - - Joseph, Master, 67. - - Juan, Prince, 70, 159, 168. - - Juana, island, 127, 182. - - Juanillo, 232. - - Juet, Robert, 319. - - - Karlsefne, Snorro, 40; - Thorfinn, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40. - - Kelly, Patrick, 237. - - Kennebec River, 354. - - Kettell, Samuel, 111, 126. - - Khotan, 57. - - Kingsborough, collection of Lord, 21. - - Kjalarnes, 35. - - Klaproth, 56. - - Knoll, Conrad, 218. - - - La Baya del Rio, 330. - - Labrador, cape of, 199; - land of, 200, 202, 345. - - La Boca de la Drago, 171; - Sierpe, 171; - de Terminos, 234. - - La Cruz, 279. - - Lactantius, 89, 90. - - La Culata, 279. - - Ladrone islands, 294. - - Laet, Johannes de, 319, 346, 347. - - La Isla de Trinidad, 168, 169, 170. - - Lake Maggiore, 181. - - Lamb, Mrs. Martha J., 359. - - Land of Ayllon, 284. - - Land of Codfish, 197, 200, 202, 207. - - Land of Cortereal, 208. - - Land of Fire, 334. - - Land of Grace, 170. - - Land of Pearls, 173. - - Land of Red wood, 286. - - Land of the Farmer, 200. - - Land of the Grand Scarp, 349-351. - - Land of the Holy Cross, 287. - - Land of the Palisades, 349. - - La Nouvelle France, 330. - - Lanzarote, island, 97. - - Lares, Almador de, 237. - - La Rabida, 87, 90, 91. - - Laos, 57. - - Lapidaries, 265. - - La Plata, port of, 279. - - Lappenburg, M., 41. - - Lariab, country of, 166. - - Las Barbas, islands, 180. - - Las Islas Desdichados, 292. - - Lateens, 180. - - Lathyrus, 60. - - Latini, Brunetto, 62. - - Latitude, 66-68. - - Laudonnière, René Goulaine de, 351, 367. - - Leagues, land, 83, 305; - sea, 83, 305, 329, 331. - - Leather, 243. - - Leicester, earl of, 350. - - Leif, son of Eric the Red, 25, 27, 30, 35, 42. - - Lelewel, Joachim, 182. - - Lemos, Gaspar de, 207. - - Lenormant, François, 15. - - Leo X., Pope, 181. - - Leon, Juan Ponce de, 221, 223-225, 278. - - Lester, C. Edwards, 159. - - Leucippe, 17. - - Levante, wind, 161. - - Lepe, Diego de, 174. - - Libeccio, wind, 161. - - Libya, 4, 5, 59, 60, 64, 219. - - Line of declination, 98, 99, 102, 158. - - Line of demarkation, 145, 296. - - Lings, 203. - - Lions, 268. - - Liquors, 171, 176, 178. - - Lisbon, 83, 84. - - Littré, É., 246. - - Liverpool, 84. - - Llwyd, Humphry, 43. - - Locke, Michael, 79, 315. - - Lockhart, John Ingrim, 233. - - London, 186, 194, 197. - - Longitude, 66-68, 332. - - Long Island, N. Y., 316, 317, 319, 320. - - Long Island, West Indies, 107, 356. - - Long Island Sound, 317, 353, 355. - - Looms, 148. - - Louise of Savoy, 320, 351, 352, 357, 358. - - Louisiana, 275. - - Luisa, island of, 320. - - Lully, Raymond, 67. - - Luna, Fernando Perez de, 153. - - Luxan, Juan de, 152. - - Lynna, Nicholas de, 217. - - Lynx, 322, 324, 328. - - - Machian, island, 294. - - Madagascar, 58. - - Madeira, island, 78, 304. - - Madoc, Guyneth, 43, 44. - - Maestrale, wind, 161. - - Maestro, wind, 161. - - Magalhaens, Fernam de, 69, 284-294, 337. - - Magellan: (_See_ _Magalhaens_.) - - Magellan’s Strait, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 333. - - Magnetic needle, 61-63, 65, 98, 99, 102, 157, 158, 217, 293. - - Magnetism, terrestrial, 98, 69, 158, 217. - - Magua, island, Great and Little, 107. - - Maguey, plant, 252; - root, 268. - - Magnussen, Arne, 34. - - Maine, 327, 328, 329. - - Mainwaring, 350. - - Maiollo, Visconte de, 307, 342. - - Maize, 176, 178, 230, 234, 283. - - Major, Richard Henry, 49, 171. - - Malinche, 261. - - Malpiero, Gasparo, 53. - - Malvas, port of, 208. - - Mames, 121, 123. - - Mamre, 6. - - Mandeville, Sir John, 58, 76. - - Mango, 84, 179, 180. - - Manants or Manans, 345, 346, 347, 348, 358. (_See_ _Indians_.) - - Manants Island, 359. - - Manhattan, 362. - - Manhattans, 346. - - Manhattes, 347; - island of, 347; - river of, 319. - - Mantinino, island, 175. - - Manzi, 82. - - Maques, or Maquaas, 347, 362. - - Maravedi, 245. - - Marchena, Fray Antonio de, 158. - - Mar del Sur, 176, 227, 228. - - Mar de Sargasso, 99, 100. - - Mar Dulce, 228. - - Mare de Verrazana, 315. - - Mare Oceanum, 41, 96, 182, 184, 293. - - Margarita, Don Pedro, 151. - - Margarita, island, 171. - - Margarita of Austria, 159. - - Marigalante, island, 147. - - Mariner’s compass, 61-63, 98, 99, 102, 157, 158, 161, 293, 296. - - Mar Indicum, 314, 343. - - Marini, Giorgio Baptista, 71. - - Marinus of Tyre, 74, 75, 76. - - Mark, a weight, 174, 244. - - Markland, 28, 34, 40, 41, 42. - - Marmora, 180. - - Marnef, Jan de, 352. - - Mar pacifico, 289, 292, 293. - - Martens, 306, 356. - - Martha’s Vineyard, 227. - - Martin, Joseph, 314. - - Martinez, Ferdinand, 80, 81. - - Martin V, Pope, 145. - - Martin of Bohemia, 67, 290. - - Martire d’Anghiera, Pietro, 154, 181, 197, 221. - - Martires, islands of las, 224. - - Martyr, Peter. (_See_ _Pietro Martire d’Anghiera_.) - - Mastic, 124, 136. - - Mataia, 180. - - Matan, island, 294. - - Maurice, prince of Orange and Nassau, 363. - - Mauritius River, 347. - - May River, 357. - - Mecca, 193. - - Medea, 76. - - Medina, Pedro de, 69. - - Mediterranean Sea, 5, 60. - - Melchorejo, 232, 233, 238. - - Melaccha, island of, 214. - - Mendoza, Luis de, 289. - - Mercator, Gerard, 76, 350, 360. - - Mercator’s projection, 360. - - Meredith ap Rhees, 44. - - Merrimack River, 354. - - Meschita, Alvaro de, 291. - - Mestor, 8. - - Meteren, Emanuel van, 318. - - Mexico, 21, 175, 234, 235, 249, 250, 252, 256-274; - Gulf of, 352. - - Midjökul, 24. - - Miles, sea and land, 76, 98, 305, 331. - - Millet, 283. - - Miruelo, Diego, 282. - - Mississippi, state, 275; - river, 278, 279. - - Mnesis, 8. - - Mohawk River, 360. - - Moluccas, islands, 59, 64, 294, 296. - - Mona, island, 154. - - Moncada, Don Hugo de, 336. - - Montagneurs, les, 346. - - Montauk Point, 320. - - Monte Cristo, 289. - - Montejo, Francisco de, 247, 249. - - Monte Pascoal, 206. - - Monteregius, John of, 67. - - Montezuma, 240, 241, 242, 243, 245, 247, 250, 251, 259, 260-273. - - Montreal, 345. - - Moors, 79, 94, 145. - - Morales, Gaspar, 228. - - Moses, 6. - - Mount Hope Bay, 30, 34, 37. - - Müller, Johann, 67. - - Murphy, Henry C., 343, 363. - - Mutir, island, 294. - - Myos Hormos, 75. - - Myrrh, 213. - - - Naddoddr, 22. - - Nantucket, 327. - - Napkins, 264. - - Narragansett Bay, 320, 321, 325, 326. - - Narrows, The, 316, 317. - - Narvaez, Pamfilo de, 279. - - Navarrete, Martin Fernandez de, 61, 107. - - Navidad, Villa de la, 133, 136, 148, 149, 150. - - Naville, Edward, 20. - - Necho, 59. - - Negropont, 51. - - Nepos, Cornelius, 60. - - Nequen, 252, 268. - - Newark Bay, 317. - - Newfoundland, 28, 198, 201. - - New France, 330, 345, 352, 357, 361. - - New Gaul, 330. - - New Land, 185, 207, 297, 299, 306, 330, 334, 344, 355. - - New Netherland, 319, 347, 361. - - Newport, stone tower of, 43; - situation, 325. - - New Providence, island, 107. - - New Spain, 21, 175, 176, 249. - - New World, 206, 216, 217, 334. - - New York City, 84; - bays, 316, 317; - site, 347, 358. - - Nicobar, 57. - - Nile, navigation of, 18; - canal from, 60. - - Nirando, Alonso Perez, 168. - - Nombre de Dios, 176, 342. - - Normans, 297. - - Norombègue, cape of, 354, 355; - town of, 355, 356; - river of, 355, 356, 357, 359, 360. - - North America, 185. - - North Carolina, 302, 306, 311. - - Northmen, galleys of, 21, 24; - deported, 22; - voyages, 25-41. - - North Sea, 21, 301, 302. - - Norumbega, 346, 351, 352, 356, 360. - - Norway, 22, 23, 24, 333, 334. - - Noun, the god, 20. - - Nova Scotia, 28, 198, 201, 297. - - Novaya Zemlya, 318. - - Nucay, 119. - - Nuestra Senora, La Mar de, 125. - - Nueva España, 21, 175. - - Nuova Terra, 306-330. - - Nuremberg, 67, 68. - - - Olafs, 55. - - Olone, 349. - - Oneydes, 346. - - Onondagas, 346. - - Onoyants, les, 346. - - Onslow Bay, 309. - - Orichalcum, 8, 10, 11, 199. - - Orinoco River, 160, 168, 170, 171. - - Orteguilla, 267. - - Ortelius, Abraham, 79, 360. - - Ortubia, Juan Perez de, 224. - - Ostro, the wind, 161. - - Otté, E. C., 44. - - Otters, 268. - - Oxford, 62. - - - Pachol, 264. - - Pacific Ocean, 289, 292, 293. - - Paesani, 346, 352. - - Paisans or paysans, 345, 346. - - Palisades, the, 348. - - Palfrey, John Gorham, 43. - - Palos, 87, 95, 96. - - Palma, island, 97. - - Palmetto trees, 308. - - Panama, isthmus, 177, 342. - - Panic, 123. - - Panuco, province, 236, 247; - river, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279. - - Paor, 281, 284. - - Paper, 252, 264. - - Paria, Gulf of, 171; - country of, 172, 173. - - Pascua Florida, 223. - - Pasqualigo, Alvise, 189; - Francesco, 189; - Lorenzo, 189; - Pietro, 209. - - Pasqui, 281. - - Patagonians, 289. - - Pearls, 117, 170, 173, 174, 216, 226, 243, 259, 271, 274, 283. - - Peasants, 345, 352. (_See_ _Indians_.) - - Peking, 84. - - Peltry, 298, 355, 356, 358. - - Penobscot River, 354. - - Perestrello, Bartolomeo Moñis de, 70. - - Perez, Friar Juan, 90, 91; - Fray Rodrigo, 133. - - Perpignan, 135. - - Persia, 44, 57. - - Pertz, George Henry, 41. - - Peso, 236. - - Peter, the Martyr, 181. - - Petuneurs, les, 346. - - Philippe, duke of Savoy, 320. - - Philippine Islands, 294. - - Phœnicians, 7, 18, 59, 60. - - Pigafetta, Antonio, 66, 69, 83, 284, 295. - - Pillars of Hercules, 4, 7, 15, 17, 18, 21, 59, 60, 72. - - Pilots, 67, 102, 103, 157, 158, 179. - - Pineda, Alonso Alvarez de, 275-279. - - Pinkerton’s collections, 71. - - Pinzon, Martin, Alonso, 77, 96, 108, 134, 137, 141, 143, 174; - Vicente Yañez, 96, 108, 134, 214, 278. - - Pisa, 227. - - Pizarro, Francisco, 228. - - Place, Jean de la, 219. - - Plato, 3, 80. - - Plethron, 9. - - Pliny, 60, 65. - - Plutarch, 3. - - Pocorosa, 180. - - Point Judith, 326. - - Pola, island, 224. - - Pole, antarctic, 293; - arctic, 293. - - Polo, Maffeo, 52, 53, 54, 55; - Marco, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 76, 82, 83; - Nicolò, 52, 53, 54, 55. - - Ponente, wind, 161. - - Potonchan, 239, 248. - - Porcelain, 363. - - Poree, Fremyn, 340. - - Porland, 45. - - Port du Refuge, 326, 327. - - Porto Bello, 180. - - Porto Rico, 128, 221. - - Porto Santo, island, 77, 78. - - Porto Seguro, 206. - - Portugal, 84, 196. - - Poseidon, 5, 7, 11, 15. - - Potatoes, 283. - - Poughkeepsie, 353. - - Powel, David, 43, 44. - - Prado, prior of, 87, 91. - - Preudhomme, Guillaume, 339. - - Prima Tierra Vista, 190, 191. - - Providence, 325, 326. - - Psenophis, 3. - - Ptolemy, 73, 74, 75, 77, 182, 191, 215, 336. - - Puebla, Ruy Gonzales de, 187. - - Puertocarrero, Alonso, 249. - - Puerto de la Concepcion, 128. - - Puerto del Principe, 125, 330. - - Puerto de Mares, 125. - - Puerto de San Nicolas, 128. - - Puerto de Santa Catalina, 126. - - Puerto Grande, 152. - - Puerto Maria, 127. - - Puerto Santo, 126. - - Pumpkins, 147. - - Punta de Arenal, 169, 170. - - Punta de Arracifes, 224. - - Punta de Cotoche, 221, 232. - - Punta de la Aguda, 170. - - Punta de la Galera, 169. - - Punta de la Playa, 169. - - Punta Santa, 130, 131. - - - Quetzalcoatl, temple of, 254. - - Quinsay, 75, 83, 84, 115, 120. - - Quintalbor, 242, 243, 245. - - Quitlalpitoc, 239, 245, 246, 247. - - Quohathe, 284. - - - Râ, the god, 20. - - Race-course, 12. - - Rafn, Charles C., 34. - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, 357. - - Ramusio, Giovanni Battista, 52. - - Raritan Bay, 317. - - Ravens, 22, 23. - - Razors, 264. - - Real, money, 244, 245. - - Red race, 1. - - Red Sea, 60. - - Red wood, 193, 213, 286. - - Refugio, 321. - - Regiomontanus, 67, 80. - - Retrete, port, 180. - - Reychenes, 24. - - Rhodes, island of, 320. - - Ribauld. (_See_ _Ribaut_.) - - Ribault. (_See_ _Ribaut_.) - - Ribaut, Jean, 340, 344. - - Ribero, Diego, 296. - - Rio Coatzacoalcos, 236. - - Rio de Banderas, 235. - - Rio de Belen, 227. - - Rio de Flores, 279. - - Rio de Janeiro, 228. - - Rio de la Cruz, 224. - - Rio de la Plata, 228, 287. - - Rio de las Gamas, 330. - - Rio de las Palmas, 279. - - Rio del Espiritu Santo, 278, 279. - - Rio del Sol, 124. - - Rio de Luna, 117. - - Rio de Mares, 117, 118, 124, 182. - - Rio de Montaignes, 319. - - Rio de Nieves, 279. - - Rio de Pescadores, 279. - - Rio de San Anton, 330. - - Rio Fonda, 330. - - Rio Grande, 247. - - Rio Janeiro, 286, 287. - - Rio Jordan, 280, 284, 330. - - Rio Nevado, 208. - - Rio Panuco, 275, 276, 277, 278. - - Rio Seco, 279, 330. - - Roanoke, island, 311. - - Roberval, Sieur de, 352. - - Roderic, Master, 67. - - Roffet, Ponce, 345. - - Roque, Jean François de la, 352. - - Rousselay, Zanobus de, 339. - - Rum Cay, island, 107. - - Rustichi, 338. - - Rustizielo, 57. - - Ruysch, Johann, 215. - - Rymer’s Foedera, 188. - - - Saint Amaro, 99. - - St. Augustine, 89. - - St. Christopher, 184. - - St. David’s island, 356. - - St. Dié, 218. - - St. George’s island, 356. - - St. Germain, port of, 222. - - St. Iago de la Spata, 285. - - St. John’s island, W. Indies, 179; - Canada, 190, 192. - - St. Julian, port of, 287, 290. - - St. Lawrence, Gulf of, 297; - isle of, 352; - river of, 290, 291, 292, 293, 298, 333. - - St. Malo, 344, 345. - - St. Lucy’s day, 286. - - Saga of Eric the Red, 26; - of Thorfinn Karlsefne, 34. - - Sagres, 63. - - Saguenay, 345; - sea of, 357. - - Salamanca, 87. - - Samana, island, 108. - - Salmon, 29, 30. - - Sanchez, Rafael, 125, 142. - - Sand-glass, 69. - - Sand-haffn, 24, 25. - - Sandwich islands, 75. - - Sandy Hook, 316, 317, 353. - - San Juan de Ulua, 235. - - Salt, 268. - - Saltes, 141. - - San Domingo, 128, 172, 179, 232. - - San Juan Baptista, island, 148. - - San Lazaro, 229. - - San Lucar de Berrameda, 168, 182. - - San Miguel, bay of, 227. - - San Pablo River, 276. - - San Pedro River, 276. - - San Salvador, Cuba, 117; - island, 107, 111. - - Santa Elena, cape of, 279, 289, 284. - - Santa Fé, 91, 92, 93. - - Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien, 225, 226, 227, 228. - - Santa Maria de Guadalupe, island, 147, 157. - - Santa Maria de la Concepcion, 113. - - Santa Maria, island, 140; - port, 184. - - Santa Marta, island, 224. - - Santángel, Luis de, 87, 92. - - Santarem, Visconte de, 64. - - Santee River, 184. - - Santiago, Cuba, 231, 233. - - Sant Joan, island, 190, 192. - - San Tomas, fort of, 151. - - Santonge or Santongeois, 348, 352. - - Saomete, island, 113. - - Sardis, 2, 219. - - Scandinavia, seamen of, 21, 22, 23. - - Schooner, Johannes, 220. - - Schoolcraft, Henry R., 42. - - Schott, Charles A., 99, 158. - - Schotti, Joannis, 182. - - Scio, island, 124. - - Scotland, 46. - - Scylla, 349. - - Sea-weed, 99, 100, 134. - - Sebastian, harbor of, 99. - - Secalart, Raulin, 352, 353. - - Sanchis, 3. - - Seneca, Lucius Annæus, 76, 80, 88. - - Senecas, Indians, 346. - - Seres, 74, 75. - - Seti I., of Egypt, 20. - - Seven Cities, 79, 84, 190, 195. - - Seville, 141, 143, 285. - - Shetland Islands, 22. - - Ships, Egyptian, 18; - Phœnician, 18; - Northmen, 24; - speed of, 68; - of India, 180. - - Siam, 57. - - Siberia, 58. - - Sidney, Sir Philip, 315. - - Sierra de Quarequa, 226. - - Sierra Leone, 66, 158, 213, 286. - - Silver, 119, 243, 251, 265. - - Silveyra, Fernão de, 301. - - Sinae, 74. - - Sines, 227. - - Sirocco, 161. - - Skagefjörd, 25. - - Skalholt, 25. - - Skraelings, 38, 39, 40. - - Skraelings’ land, 41. - - Skulls, 250. - - Slaves, Indian, 167. - - Sluyter, Peter, 363. - - Smith, Captain John, 318. - - Sneeland, 221. - - Snefelsnes, 24. - - Snorrason, Thorbrand, 39. - - Snorro, Thorbrandson, 34. - - Socotra, 58. - - Soles, 203. - - Solinus, C. Julius, 219. - - Solis, Juan Diaz de, 214, 287. - - Solon, 2, 3, 6. - - Somerset island, 356. - - Somers, Sir George, 356. - - Somer’s Island, 356. - - Sona, 28. - - Soncino, Raimondo di, 190, 192. - - South America, 160, 166, 167, 169, 170, 173, 184, 185. - - South Carolina, 284, 302, 309. - - South Sea, 176, 226, 227, 228. - - Spain, early voyages from, 60, 76, 77; - conquered, 79. - - Spices, 59, 64. - - Spice Islands, 59, 64, 294, 295, 296. - - Stadium, 6. - - Stanley, Henry E. J., 206. - - Staten Island, 316, 317; - Sound, 317. - - Stephanius, Sigurd, 41. - - Steppes, Mongolian, 57. - - Stevens, Henry, 184. - - Stock-fish, 193. - - Stow, John, 197. - - Strait of Belle Isle, 345. - - Strait of Magellan, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 333. - - Strait of the Eleven Thousand Virgins, 289. - - Straumey, 35. - - Straumfjörd, 36, 40. - - Style, old and new, 107. - - Suache, 28. - - Suevi, 61. - - Sumatra, 57, 352. - - Sveinson, Bishop Brynjulf, 25, 34. - - - Tabasco, 240, 245, 248. - - Tadore, island, 294. - - Tahout, sacred books of, 20. - - Tale, 232. - - Tanais, 193. - - Tanzaca, 281, 284. - - Tarenate, island, 294. - - Tassel, Robert, 340. - - Tatancal, 281. - - Tehuacacinco, 250. - - Tendilla, count of, 181. - - Teneriffe, 97. - - Tepeaquilla, 270. - - Terceira, 74, 207. - - Terra de Lavrador, 200, 202. - - Terra delle Perle, 211. - - Terra del Verzino, 286. - - Terra de Santa Cruz, 207, 216, 289, 300. - - Terra de Vera Cruz, 207, 211. - - Terra dos Cortereals, 208. - - Terra Florida, 307, 342, 344. - - Terra ferma, 189, 192. - - Terra Nova, 207, 215, 354. - - Terra Sanctæ Crucis, 287. - - Terra Verde, 208. - - Terre d’Anormée Berge, La, 349, 353, 356, 357. - - Terre de Norumberge, 357, 358. - - Terre Francesque, 330, 357, 358. - - Terre Neufve, 354. - - Tetzcat, 272. - - Tetzcatlipuca, the god, 235, 247, 272. - - Teules, 245, 251, 260. - - Teuthlille, 239, 241, 242, 243, 245. - - Texas, 275. - - Tezcuco, lake, 256. - - Theatres, 266. - - Thebes, 20. - - Thevet, André, 351, 359, 360. - - Thinae, 227. - - Thirkill, Launcelot, 195. - - Thompson, Benjamin F., 353. - - Thor, the god, 36. - - Thorbrandson, Snorro, 34, 37, 39, 40. - - Thord, Jónn, son of, 25. - - Thorhall, 36, 37, 42. - - Thorvard, 39. - - Thucydides, 80. - - Thule, 73, 70. - - Tibet, 57. - - Tierra de Ayllon, 284. - - Tierra de Gracia, 170, 171. - - Tierra del Fuego, 334. - - Tierra de los Bacallaos, 197, 200, 202, 207. - - Tierra firme, 110, 179. - - Tigers, 268. - - Tihe, 283. - - Tin, 269. - - Tiphys, 76. - - Titus, 232. - - Tlacupa, 260, 270. - - Tlalmanalco, 258. - - Tlascalla, 250, 251, 258. - - Tlatateteclo, 239. - - Tlatelulco, the, 267. - - Tobacco, 121, 264, 268. - - Tordesillas, 146, 295, 296. - - Torfæus, or Torfason, Thormod, 33, 34, 41. - - Tokio, 84. - - Torquemada, Juan de, 243. - - Torralva, Juan de, 276. - - Torres, Antonio de, 150, 156; - Luis de, 120. - - Tortosa, 187. - - Tortuga, island, 127. - - Toscanelli, Paolo, 80. - - Tramontana, wind, 161. - - Trees, 12, 108, 114, 115, 116, 124, 163, 166, 189, 209, 212, 223, - 266, 308, 309, 324, 326, 327, 352. - - Triana, Rodrigo de, 107. - - Trico, Catelyn, 347. - - Trinidad, island of, 168, 169, 170, 171. - - Trireme, 10, 12. - - Troy, N. Y., 353. - - Tryggvason, King Olaf, 35. - - Tsiuenchau, 82. - - Tunguses, 58. - - Turk Island, 107, 108. - - Turkeys, 268. - - Turin, papyrus of, 15. - - Tuspa, 236. - - Tusta, 236. - - Tustepec, 239. - - Tyrker, 29. - - Tyrrhenia, 5, 8. - - - Ubygd, 24. - - Ulloa, Alfonso de, 71. - - Ulysses, 52. - - Uraba, Gulf of, 225. - - - Valentine, David T., 359. - - Valladolid, 182. - - Valparaiso, 140. - - Van Rensselaer Island, 361. - - Vargas, 276. - - Varnhagen, F. A. de, 159. - - Vegetables, 9, 121, 123, 129, 147, 151, 164, 176, 232, 268, 283, 288. - - Velasquez, Diego, 231, 232, 233, 236, 237, 278, 359. - - Venezuela, 164, 168, 171. - - Venice, 51, 59, 164, 188, 199, 227. - - Vera Cruz, 249, 266, 277; - land of, 207, 211. - - Veragua, 176, 177, 178, 179, 226, 227. - - Vermonde, isle de, 355, 356. - - Verrazana seu Gallia nova, 330. - - Verrazzano, Giovanni da: - Varasenne, Jean de, 340; - Varesam, Jehan de, 339; - Varezano, João, 300; - Verarsanus, 342; - Vérassen, Jean, 298; - Verazano, João, 301; - Verazanus, John, 315; - Verrassane, Jehan de, 340; - Verrazano, Jean, 357, 358. - First voyage to America, 298, 299; - second voyage, 300; - his ship, 301, 304; - letter to Francis I., 301-303; - discovers land, 305, 306; - map, 314, 315; - on peninsula of Virginia, 314; - Sea of Verrazzano, 315; - enters New York Bay, 316; - discovers the Hudson, 317; - gives a name to Block Island, 320; - anchors in Narragansett Bay, 321-326; - sails along the coast of Maine, 327-329; - extent of land discovered, 329, 351, 357; - geographical explanation, 331; - news of his return, 335; - unfavorable opinions concerning the voyage, 337; - his former voyages, 338; - agreement for a third voyage to America, 339; - his death, 340, 341; - map and globe, 341, 342. - - Verrazzano, Hieronymus da, 315, 339; - map, 315, 330, 343. - - Verrazzano, Pier da, 300. - - Verzino, 213, 216. - - Vespasian, 232. - - Vespucci Amerigo, his first voyage, 160; - reaches the continent of America, 160; - explorations, 161-165; - land of Lariab, 166; - island of Iti, 167; - returns to Spain, 167. - - Vespucci’s second voyage, 173; - explorations along the coast of South America, 174; - returns to Spain, 174. - - Vespucci’s third voyage, 212; - explores the east coast of Brazil, 213; - returns to Lisbon, 214. - - Vespucci’s fourth voyage, 214; - sails southward along the coast of Brazil, 214; - Bay of All Saints, 214; - returns to Portugal, account of his four voyages, 217, 218; - his name given to the continent, 218, 219; - false imputations, 220. - - Vicente, Martin, 77. - - Vieusseux, Geo. Pietro, 339. - - Vigfusson, Gudbrand, 33. - - Vikings, 21. - - Villa, Pedro de, 138. - - Villa de la Navidad, 133, 136, 148, 149, 150. - - Villalan, Doctor, 91. - - Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, 249, 279. - - Villa Segura, 277. - - Villegagnon, Chevalier, 359. - - Villers, 350. - - Vinland discovered, 30; - shortest day in, 31-34; - island, 41; - promontory, 41. - - Virginia, peninsula of, 313, 314, 315, 318. - - Vision, prophetic, 158, 180. - - Vries, David Pieterse, 347. - - - Walckenaër, Baron de, 183. - - Waldseemüller, Martin, 218. - - Walker, E., 99. - - Wassenaer, Nicolaes à, 347. - - Watling Island, 107. - - Wells, 266. - - Western Sea, 315, 343. - - West Indies, 145, 203. - - Westminster, 201, 203. - - Wheat, in Vinland, 35, 37; - in Greenland, 35; - in Iceland, 35. - - Wheaton, Henry, 23. - - Whitehall, 200. - - Wilden, 347. - - Wild-men, 345, 347. - - Wine, 171, 178. - - Wine-berries, 29, 35, 42. - - Wine-land, 30. - - Wine-wood, 29, 37, 42. - - Worthington, William, 203. - - - Xamunabe, 283. - - Xamunambe, 281. - - Xapida, 283. - - Xapira, 281. - - Xathi, 283. - - Xicales, 262. - - Xiquipiles, 269. - - Xocotlan, 250. - - Xoxi, 281. - - - Yahveh, sees the wickedness of man, 19. - - Yamaye, island of, 133. - - Yamiscaron, 28. - - Yebra River, 177. - - Yenyohol, 281. - - Yonge, C. D., 198. - - Yuca, 232. - - Yucatan, 148, 175, 214, 215, 229, 230, 232, 233, 239. - - Yule, Henry, 55, 57. - - Yurbaco, 183. - - - Zacton, or Zayton, 82, 120. - - Zanzibar, 58. - - Zapata, 276. - - Zeno, Antonio, 45, 46, 50; - Carlo, 45, 50; - Nicolò, 44, 45, 46. - - Zeni brothers’ voyage, 44, 49, 50. - - Zeus, assembles the gods, 19. - - Zichmni, 45, 49. - - Zipangi, 84. (_See_ _Cipango_.) - - Zodiac, 244. - - Zuanta, 148. - - Zubu, island, 294. - - - -THE END. - -[Illustration: A copy of one half of the map of the world made by Johann -Ruysch, contained in the edition of Ptolemy’s Geography printed at Rome -in 1508. The map is entitled: “Vniversalior cogniti orbis tavula ex -recentibvs confecta observationibvs.” - -(The copy is nearly as large as the original.) - -[Copyright. “Discoveries of America.” Weise. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, New -York, 1884.]] - -[Illustration: A copy of a part of the map of the world made by Visconte -de Maiollo in Genoa in 1527. (The scale of latitudes was copied from one -on another part of the map. The original in the Ambrosian Library, Milan, -is twenty-three inches wide.) - -[Copyright. “Discoveries of America.” Weise. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS. New -York, 1884.]] - -[Illustration: A copy of a part of the map of the world made by Juan de -la Cosa in the port of St. Mary, Spain, in 1500. (The original is about -one-third larger.) - -[Copyright. “Discoveries of America.” Weise. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS. New -York, 1884.]] - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DISCOVERIES OF AMERICA TO -THE YEAR 1525 *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/67766-0.zip b/old/67766-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d66842a..0000000 --- a/old/67766-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h.zip b/old/67766-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 014800e..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/67766-h.htm b/old/67766-h/67766-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index f23df5d..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/67766-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20654 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of The discoveries of America to the year 1525, by Arthur James Weise. - </title> - - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - -<style type="text/css"> - -a { - text-decoration: none; -} - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1,h2 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; -} - -h2.nobreak { - page-break-before: avoid; -} - -hr.chap { - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - clear: both; - width: 65%; - margin-left: 17.5%; - margin-right: 17.5%; -} - -div.chapter { - page-break-before: always; -} - -ul { - list-style-type: none; -} - -li.indx { - margin-top: .5em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -li.ifrst { - margin-top: 2em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -li.isub1 { - padding-left: 4em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -li.isub2 { - padding-left: 6em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -p { - margin-top: 0.5em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: 0.5em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -table { - margin: 1em auto 1em auto; - max-width: 40em; - border-collapse: collapse; -} - -td { - padding-left: 2em; - padding-right: 0.25em; - vertical-align: top; - text-indent: -2em; - text-align: justify; -} - -.pad-top td { - padding-top: 0.75em; -} - -.tdc { - text-align: center; - padding: 0.75em 0em 0.5em 0.25em; - text-indent: 0; -} - -.tdr { - text-align: right; - padding-right: 0; -} - -.tdpg { - vertical-align: bottom; - text-align: right; - white-space: nowrap; -} - -.blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 10%; -} - -.caption { - text-align: center; - margin-bottom: 1em; - font-size: 90%; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.center { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -.footnotes { - margin-top: 1em; - border: dashed 1px; -} - -.footnote { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; -} - -.footnote .label { - position: absolute; - right: 84%; - text-align: right; -} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; -} - -.larger { - font-size: 150%; -} - -.noindent { - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - right: 4%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; -} - -.poetry-container { - text-align: center; - margin: 1em; -} - -.poetry { - display: inline-block; - text-align: left; -} - -.poetry .stanza { - margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; -} - -.poetry .verse { - padding-left: 3em; -} - -.poetry .indent0 { - text-indent: -3em; -} - -.poetry .indent14 { - text-indent: 4em; -} - -.right { - text-align: right; -} - -.smaller { - font-size: 80%; -} - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps; - font-style: normal; -} - -.allsmcap { - font-variant: small-caps; - font-style: normal; - text-transform: lowercase; -} - -.titlepage { - text-align: center; - margin-top: 3em; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - text-align: center; - font-size: smaller; - padding: 0.5em; - max-width: 40em; - margin: auto; -} - -.x-ebookmaker img { - max-width: 100%; - width: auto; - height: auto; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .poetry { - display: block; - margin-left: 1.5em; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 5%; -} - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Discoveries of America to the Year 1525, by Arthur James Weise</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Discoveries of America to the Year 1525</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Arthur James Weise</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 3, 2022 [eBook #67766]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DISCOVERIES OF AMERICA TO THE YEAR 1525 ***</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage larger"><span class="smaller">THE</span><br /> -<span class="smcap">Discoveries of America</span><br /> -<span class="smaller">TO THE YEAR 1525</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> -ARTHUR JAMES WEISE, M.A.</p> - -<p class="titlepage">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS<br /> -<span class="smaller">NEW YORK: 27 & 29 WEST 23D STREET<br /> -LONDON: 25 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN<br /> -1884</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by<br /> -ARTHUR JAMES WEISE<br /> -in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington</p> - -<p class="center smaller">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>Press of<br /> -G. P. Putnam’s Sons<br /> -New York</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage allsmcap">THIS WORK IS DEDICATED<br /> -BY THE AUTHOR<br /> -TO<br /> -THE MEMORY OF<br /> -HIS DECEASED WIFE<br /> -CATHARINE V. UPDEGRAFF WEISE</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">PREFACE.</h2> - -</div> - -<p>It is a fact that America in the early ages was one -of the inhabited parts of the earth. The Egyptians, -who were among the first of the peoples of the eastern -hemisphere to use letters and to write history, furnish -the earliest known account of the inhabitants of -this continent. It is also a truth that some ancient -geographers and philosophers, who had no personal -knowledge of the existence of a primitive people in -the western hemisphere, regarded the information recorded -by the Egyptians as fictitious and incredible. -When Columbus proposed to go to this inhabited -realm beyond the western ocean almost all the learned -men of Portugal and Spain opposed the undertaking as -visionary, and not a few of them asserted that the navigator’s -opinions were absurd, because, as they argued, -no one of all the seamen who had lived since the creation -of the world had discovered land beyond Hibernia.</p> - -<p>The discovery of the continent and the subsequent -explorations of the Spaniards not only confuted the -fallacious arguments of the learned men of the middle -ages but confirmed the statements of the Egyptian -records descriptive of the civilization of the Atlantic -country. The tradition of the peopling of the continent -by the descendants of Euenor, the good man begotten -in the beginning from the ground, and of the -residence of celestial beings among the inhabitants -peculiarly confirms the account in the Bible of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span> -creation of the first man from the dust of the ground -and of his descendants having communications with -angels.</p> - -<p>The asserted discovery of America by the Northmen -rests more upon conjecture than evidence. It -appears that Columbus was not the discoverer of the -continent, for it was seen in 1497 not only by Giovanni -Caboto but by the commander of the Spanish fleet -with whom Amerigo Vespucci first sailed to the New -World.</p> - -<p>The land of Francesca, discovered by Verrazzano in -1524, it will be seen, was early possessed by the -French, who built a fort near the Indian village where -now is the city of New York, and called the surrounding -country La Terre d’Anormée Berge; a geographical -designation more significantly expressed in the -phraseology, The Land of the Palisades.</p> - -<p>The writing of this work required the personal examination -of many old and rare books, manuscripts, -and maps, besides the perusal of a large number of -recent papers and publications relating to its subject. -The task further demanded a careful review and comparison -of the various statements of historical writers -concerning the voyages of the persons whom they believed -to have been the discoverers of certain parts of -the coast of America, between Baffin’s Bay and Tierra -del Fuego.</p> - -<p>It seemed to me that some of the information contained -in the different works which I had examined -should be presented in the language of the writers or -in faithful translations so that the intended significance -of the information could be perceived by the reader. -I therefore have placed these <i>excerpta</i> before the -general reader and the critic in the belief that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span> -citations will be appreciated. They will at least show -my desire that the judgments of those who examine -them should not be biased by any conclusions of my own.</p> - -<p>My researches were for the most part made in the -General Library of the State of New York, in Albany. -The generous personal interest taken by the State’s -distinguished librarian, Henry A. Homes, LL.D., in -placing before me the large number of works which I -desired to examine, was so constant and helpful that -it is a great pleasure for me to mention and acknowledge -his kind offices. I am also indebted to his -assistant, George Rogers Howell, for many official -courtesies. I also owe my thanks to George H. -Moore, LL.D., the erudite superintendent of the -Lenox Library, in the city of New York, to Frederick -Saunders, librarian of the Astor Library, to Jacob B. -Moore, librarian of the New York Historical Society, -and to Leopold Lindau, librarian of the American -Geographical Society. The offices of L’Abbé A. N. -Ménard, vicar of the parish of St. Roch, Paris, -France; of Pádre Antonio Ceriani, prefect of the Ambrosian -Library, Milan, Italy; of Jules Godeby, professor -of French literature in the Rensselaer Polytechnic -Institute, Troy, New York; and of Dr. Titus Munson -Coan, of New York City, place me under many obligations -to these gentlemen. It is also a great pleasure -for me to acknowledge the generous favors of E. -Thompson Gale, of Troy, which permitted me to -accomplish the purposes that I had in view when, -eight years ago, I undertook my long-protracted task. -The kind offices of my friend, William H. Young, of -Troy, are also gratefully remembered.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Arthur James Weise.</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Troy, N. Y.</span>, March 27, 1884.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[ix]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> - -</div> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Antiquity of the red race. An antediluvian people. Vestiges of an - ancient civilization in America. Records of Egypt. Manuscripts of - Solon, the great Greek legislator. Origin of the aborigines of the - western hemisphere. Founders of an empire. The tradition preserved - by the Egyptians. Early navigation of the Atlantic Ocean. - Isolation of the people of the western continent. The Northmen. - Iceland found. Greenland explored. Saga of Eric the Red. Voyage - of Bjarni, Herjulf’s son. Explorations of Leif, the son of Eric - the Red. Tradition concerning Thorfinn Karlsefne. Discovery of - Vinland. Its geographical situation. The stone tower at Newport. - Dighton rock. Voyages of the Welsh adventurer Madoc. Discoveries - of the Zeni brothers. Story of a Frisland fisherman. Estotiland. - Drogio</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1-50</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER II.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Arrival of three strangely clad travellers in Venice. Their surprising disclosures. - The book of Marco Polo. Marvellous wealth of Cathay. - Gold-covered palaces. Magnificent cities. Extensive traffic. The - empire of the Grand Khan. The travels of Sir John Mandeville. - Commerce of Europe restricted. Use of the mariner’s compass. An - age of superstition. Points of the compass-card. Geographical enthusiasm - of Prince Henry of Portugal. Explorations along the coast - of Africa. The astrolabe made useful to navigators. The Cape of - Good Hope reached</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">51-69</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER III.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Christopher Columbus’s conception of finding a short and direct way to - India. His reasonable conclusions. Statements of ancient geographers. - The known parts of the world. Circumference of the earth. - Inferences respecting pieces of wood and dead bodies cast upon the - islands lying off the west coast of Africa. Island of the Seven Cities. - Letter of Paolo Toscanelli. Distance to Cathay. Columbus’s overtures - to the king of Portugal. Bartolomé Columbus visits England. - Christopher Columbus seeks aid in Spain. The opinion of the - learned men respecting his project. The friendly offices of Friar Juan - Perez. Luis de Santángel’s proposals to Queen Isabella. Columbus - commissioned to undertake a voyage to Cathay</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">70-93</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[x]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The object of Columbus’s voyage. His journal. His intention to make a - map of the lands of the ocean. The vessels of the fleet. They sail - from the port of Palos. The fears of the sailors. Variations of the - needle. The Sea of Sargasso. Incidents of the voyage. Discovery - of land. Island of San Salvador. Columbus’s description of the - people and the islands. He believes that he had reached the continent - of Asia, and that he was near the dominions of the Grand - Khan of Cathay. He sends embassadors to the sovereign of the - Orient. His letter to Rafael Sanchez. The high latitude to which - he sailed. A fort erected at La Navidad, on the island of Española. - The profits of the voyage. Columbus sets sail for Spain. Anchors - in the Tagus. Visits the king of Portugal. Returns to Spain. - Enthusiasm of the people. His reception at Barcelona</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">94-144</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER V.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Territorial privileges of Portugal and Spain. A line of demarkation - designated by Pope Alexander VI. The East and the West Indies. - Columbus’s second voyage. The Caribbees. The Villa de la Navidad - burned. The town of Isabela built. Further explorations of - the coast of Cuba. Depositions taken that Columbus had reached the - dominions of the Grand Khan. The <i>cemies</i> of the people of Española. - The homeward voyage. Ignorance of pilots respecting latitude and - longitude. Columbus’s compasses. Amerigo Vespucci’s first voyage - to the New World. Lands on the coast of South America. Describes - the natives. The country of Lariab. Columbus’s third voyage. He - surveys the continent. Explores the coast of La Tierra de Gracia. - Amerigo Vespucci’s second voyage. Sails along the north coast of - South America. Traffics for pearls with the natives. Returns to - Cadiz. Columbus’s last voyage. The edifices of Veragua. The - evidences of civilization. Writes that he reached the province of - Mango, contiguous to Cathay. Dies at Valladolid. His nautical - chart. Juan de la Cosa’s great ox-hide map</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">145-185</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>England sends ships to search for a navigable way to the Indies. The - first voyage of Giovanni Caboto. Pasqualigo’s account of it. Discovery - of the territory of the Grand Khan. The flag of England and - that of St. Mark planted on the coast of the new country. Prima - Tierra Vista. The island of St. John. Caboto’s second voyage. The - dispatches of Pedro de Ayala to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella - of Spain. The voyages of Sebastiano Caboto. His explorations - along the coast of Labrador. La Tierra de los Bacallaos. Sebastiano - Caboto’s maps and manuscripts</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">186-204</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The Portuguese reach the Indies. Land of the Holy Cross discovered by - Pedro Alvarez Cabral. Gaspar Cortereal’s voyages. Letter of Pietro<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[xi]</span> - Pasqualigo. Terra Verde. Amerigo Vespucci’s third and fourth - voyages along the east coast of South America. Johann Ruysch’s - map. Martin Waldseemüller’s suggestion. The name of America. - A fountain of vivific water. Juan Ponce de Leon explores the coast - of Florida. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa beholds the Pacific Ocean. The - coast of Yucatan explored by Francisco Hernando de Cordoba. - The discoveries of Juan de Grijalva. The country of New Spain. - The expedition of Hernando Cortes. The magnificent presents sent - him by Montezuma. The populated provinces of Mexico. Great - cities. Large temples. Decorated idols. Cortes enters the city of - Mexico. Its palaces, markets, and arsenals. The horrible sacrifices - of the Mexicans. The siege of the city</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">205-274</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The discoveries of Alonso Alvarez de Pineda. The project of Francisco - de Garay. An unfortunate undertaking. The discovery of the Mississippi - River. The jurisdictions of Juan Ponce de Leon and Francisco - de Garay. Another exploration of a part of the coast of North - America. Chicora. Duharhe. Tall people. Habits of the natives. - Tierra de Ayllon. The voyage of Fernam de Magalhaens. Discovery - of the Strait of the Eleven Thousand Virgins. The Pacific - Ocean. The Moluccas or Spice Islands reached. Voyage of Juan - Sebastian del Cano. The earth circumnavigated. The congress of - Badajos</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">275-296</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>France emulates Portugal, Spain, and England. Discoveries of the - Bretons and the Normans. Exploration of the St. Lawrence River. - Giovanni da Verrazzano put in command of a fleet to sail to Cathay - by Francis I. The king of Portugal attempts to prevent the sailing - of the vessels. Storm in the North Sea. Departure of the Dauphine. - Verrazzano reaches the coast of North America. Designates his first - landing-place Diepa. Fruitless search for a harbor. Friendly savages. - Description of the country. Palmetto trees. Sails northward. - Explorations of the peninsula of Virginia. The Dauphine’s anchorage - at Sandy Hook. Verrazzano explores the bays of New York. The - Grande River. Block Island. The Dauphine in Narragansett Bay. - Description of the natives. Exploration of the coast of Maine. Five - hundred and two leagues of land inspected. Francesca. Verrazzano’s - geographical explanation of his voyage. Arrival of the Dauphine at - Dieppe</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">297-334</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER X.<br />(<i>Addenda.</i>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Circulation of the news of Verrazzano’s remarkable discoveries. Fernando - Carli’s letter to his father. The adverse opinion of the people concerning - Verrazzano’s undertaking. The navigator regarded as another - Amerigo Vespucci, another Magellan. Three ships equipped to sail - to the Indies under the command of Verrazzano. His third voyage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[xii]</span> - to the New Land. The indomitable Florentine falls a victim to - savage cruelty. His body roasted and eaten. Ramusio’s worthy - tribute. The navigator’s great parchment map. The Maiollo map. - Hieronymus da Verrazzano’s chart</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">335-343</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI.<br />(<i>Addenda.</i>)</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>The French again search for a direct water-route to India. Voyages of - Jacques Cartier. The names given to the natives of the New Land. - The peasants of New France. The Hudson explored in the sixteenth - century. The French name for the Palisades. The country of the - Grand Scarp. Manants Island. A small fort built by the French on - the site of New York City. The château on Castle Island, near the - site of Albany. The structure damaged by a freshet. The Mohawk - Indians show the ruins to the Dutch explorers of the river in the - seventeenth century. The Hollanders call it Fort Nassau. The - opinion of the Dutch inhabitants of Albany respecting the people who - built it</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">344-363</a></td> - </tr> - <tr class="pad-top"> - <td>Index</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#INDEX">365-380</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak">COPIES OF RARE MAPS.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="transnote"> -<p><b>Transcriber’s Note:</b> Maps are clickable for larger versions.</p> -</div> - -<table summary="Copies of rare maps"> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.—</td> - <td>Delineation of the hyperborean regions by Sigurd Stephanius in 1570</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map1">22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.—</td> - <td>A part of the map of the New World contained in the edition of Ptolemy’s geography printed in Strasburg in 1513</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map2">124</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.—</td> - <td>A part of the Cabot-map of 1544, in the Bibliothèque nationale, Paris</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map3">190</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.—</td> - <td>Map of the New World contained in Peter Martyr’s “Legatio Babylonica,” printed in 1511</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map4">220</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.—</td> - <td>A tracing representing the limits of the discoveries of Juan Ponce de Leon and Francisco de Garay. 1521</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map5">278</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.—</td> - <td>A part of the map of the fourth part of the world contained in the Cosmographie Universelle by André Thevet, printed in Paris -in 1575</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map6">304</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.—</td> - <td>Map of Terre de la Franciscane in the cosmography of Jean Alphonse and Raulin Secalart, 1545</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map7">354</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.—</td> - <td>Map of a part of North America made by Giacomo de Gastaldi in 1553</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map8">356</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.—</td> - <td>A part of the map of the world made by Gerard Mercator in Duisburg in 1569</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#map9">360</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X.—</td> - <td>A part of the map of the world made by Juan de la Cosa in 1500</td> - <td class="tdpg smaller"><a href="#map10">cover-pocket</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.—</td> - <td>A part of the map of the world made by Johann Ruysch, contained in the edition of Ptolemy’s geography printed in Rome in 1508</td> - <td class="tdpg smaller"><a href="#map11">cover-pocket</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.—</td> - <td>A part of the map of the world made by Visconte de Maiollo in 1527</td> - <td class="tdpg smaller"><a href="#map12">cover-pocket</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<h1>DISCOVERIES OF AMERICA.</h1> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</h2> - -</div> - -<p>The oldest scriptures, sacred and profane, attest -the antiquity of the red race.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> As early as the -antediluvian period this division of the human family -had taken possession of the islands and continent of -the western hemisphere, where it founded an empire, -the most famous and formidable of primeval times. -Great in political power, its commercial, agricultural, -and other economical interests were commensurably -vast and unparalleled. The skill of its architects and -engineers was exhibited in large and imposing edifices -and in extraordinary and extensive public works. -Aggressively belligerent, its armies overran parts of -Europe and Africa, exacting tribute, deposing and substituting -rulers.</p> - -<p>When the Spaniards, in the sixteenth century, began -to explore the interior of the continent of America -for gold, silver, and precious stones, they found populated -provinces, great cities, temples, palaces, aqueducts, -canals, bridges, and causeways. The astonished -adventurers also discovered the vestiges of an aboriginal -people, among which were many massive tablets -of stone covered with columns of strange hieroglyphics -and antique images, picturing a past civilization for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> -the rise and growth of which modern archæologists -have not yet satisfactorily determined dates.</p> - -<p>In the early ages of the world the Egyptians recorded -whatever they deemed important and worthy -of preservation concerning the principal inhabitants -of the globe. These inquisitive chroniclers of antediluvian -traditions placed in their archives some remarkable -information respecting the original people of the -western hemisphere. The historical value of this information -is enhanced by the fact that those parts of it -which seem to be the most improbable are supported -by similar statements in the Bible, while the less astounding -are verified by the discovery, on the continent -of the so-called New World, of such remains as -those which are said to have existed in the country west -of the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea.</p> - -<p>About five hundred and seventy years before the -Christian era, Solon, the celebrated legislator of Greece, -visited Egypt, and while there became acquainted with -some of the erudite priests of the country.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> When the -latter communicated to him what they had learned -from the records concerning the ancient peoples of -the earth, the sage of Greece was so deeply impressed -with the unquestionable value of this strange information<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span> -that he committed it to writing, intending to use -it in an historical poem which he had undertaken to -compose.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> On his return to Athens he was not permitted -the leisure that was needed to complete his -agreeable task.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> After his death, the compilations he -had made in Egypt were, for a long time, preserved by -his descendants, and at last became the property of -Plato, the Greek philosopher.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> The latter, when a -boy, had studiously perused his eminent ancestor’s -manuscript, and when he had reached the last years -of his scholarly life he could not disengage his -thoughts from the conviction that it was his personal -duty to publish its rare information.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> In order, therefore, -to give publicity to Solon’s valuable compilations, -Plato, a short time before his own death, wrote that -part of the unfinished dialogue entitled “Critias, or the -Atlantic,” in which appears the earliest known account -of the ancient people of the western hemisphere.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p>“When Solon interrogated the priests, who were -the most distinguished for their antiquarian knowledge, -he became aware that neither he nor any of the -Greeks knew much concerning the history of the first -ages of the world. On one occasion, for the purpose<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> -of inducing the priests to relate some of their ancient -traditions he began to narrate the early history of his -own country.... Thereupon one of the eldest -priests exclaimed: ‘Solon, Solon, you Greeks are but -children, and an aged Greek there is none!’ Solon, -hearing this, asked, ‘What do you mean?’ The -priest replied: ‘You are all youths in intelligence, -for you have no old beliefs transmitted by tradition, nor -any science hoary with age.... From the olden -time we have chronicled whatever has happened in -your country or in ours, or in any other region known -to us,—any action, noble or great or in any other way -remarkable,—and these records are preserved in our -temples, whereas you and other nations have but -lately been provided with letters and different things -required by states....</p> - -<p>“‘Many and great exploits of your state, therefore, -are here recorded, and call forth our admiration; nevertheless, -there is one in particular, which in magnitude -and heroism surpasses them all. For these records -relate that your state once checked the advance of a -mighty force which threatened all Europe and Asia, -moving upon them from the Atlantic Ocean. For at -that time this ocean was navigable; and beyond the -strait [that of Gibraltar], which you in your language -call the Pillars of Hercules, was an island larger than -Libya [Africa] and Asia put together.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> At that time -sea-faring men could pass from it to the other islands, -and from them to the opposite continent, which extended<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span> -along the real ocean. For the sea [the Mediterranean] -inside the strait, which we have already -mentioned, is like a bay with a narrow entrance, but -the other sea is rightly called an ocean, and the land, -which entirely surrounds it, may truly and correctly be -called a continent. In this large Atlantic island a -mighty and wonderful confederacy of kings was -formed, which subdued the whole island and many -other islands and parts of the continent. Besides this -it extended its rule, on our side, over Libya as far as -Egypt, and over Europe as far as Tyrrhenia.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> At -that time the united forces of this power undertook to -crush at one blow both your country and ours, and all -the other countries lying within the strait.’”<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> - -<p>“‘In the beginning the gods divided the whole -earth, here and there, into large and small portions, that -they might obtain temples and sacrifices. In this way -Poseidon received as his portion the Atlantic island, -and begat children by a mortal woman (ἐκ θνητῆς -γυναικὸς), and placed them on a part of the island -which we are about to describe.’”<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<p>Incredible as this information concerning the residence -of a person possessing a divine nature on the -earth and his matrimonial relationship with a woman -seems to be, there are some remarkable statements -in the traditions of the ancients respecting celestial -beings dwelling among men, and, by marriage with -their daughters, being the progenitors of an illustrious -offspring. The Hebrew patriarchs, it is said, had -personal communications with angels, at different times -and places. It is related that three, in human form, -partook of food given them by Abraham, under a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -tree, in the plain of Mamre.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Herodotus was told, -by certain Egyptians, that “gods had been the rulers -of Egypt and had dwelt among men; and that one of -them always had the supreme power.”<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Moses, “who -was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” -describing the people of the antediluvian world, writes:</p> - -<p>“It happened, as men began to multiply on the face -of the earth and daughters were born to them, the -sons of the Elohim (בני האלהים) [literally, the sons -of the eminent or mighty ones] saw the daughters of -man (בנות האדם) that they were fair; then they -took for wives among them all whom they loved.... -There were giants (נפלים) on the earth in -those days, and also after that the sons of the Elohim -went in unto the daughters of man and they bare -children to them, the same became heroes (גברים) -who were of old, men of name (אנשי שם).”<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<p>“‘Toward the sea, in the middle of the island, was -a plain,’ the priest continued, ‘which was very attractive -and fertile. About fifty stadia from the centre -of the plain was a mountain with sloping sides.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> On -this dwelt one of those men begotten from the ground -in the beginning (κατὰ ἀρχὰς ἐκ γῆς ἀνδρῶν γεγονότων), -Euenor by name.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> He lived there, with his wife,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span> -Leucippe. They had an only daughter named Cleito. -When this girl reached womanhood, her father and -mother being dead, Poseidon fell in love with her and -made her his wife. He encircled the hill on which she -lived with alternate girdles of land and water, greater -and less, making two of land and three of water, each -uniformly distant from the centre of the island, in order -to render her habitation inaccessible to men, for at that -time ships and sea-faring were unknown. Also by his -divine power he beautifully adorned the centre of the -island, causing two fountains to shoot upward from -beneath the earth, one of cold and the other of hot -water, and making all kinds of food to grow abundantly -on the earth. He begat and raised ten male children, -twins, and divided the Atlantic island into ten parts. -He gave to the first-born of the eldest twins, his -mother’s habitation and the land surrounding it, this -being the largest and the best. He appointed him -king over the other children, making the latter princes, -and giving to each the control of many people and -extensive domains. He likewise gave names to all -of his offspring; to the eldest, the king, the name of -Atlas, in honor of whom both the island and the ocean -were called Atlantic.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> To the twin born after him -(who received for his portion the extreme part of the -island toward the Pillars of Hercules as far as the -region now called in that country Gadeirica), he gave -the appellation, which we Greeks call Eumelus, but the -people of that country Gadeira.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> He called the first of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -the second-born twins, Ampheres, the second Eudæmon; -of the third pair, he called the first-born Mnesis, -and the second, Autochthon; of the fourth pair, the -first Elasippus, and the younger Mestor; and of the -fifth pair, to the first was given the name of Azaës, and -to the last, Diaprepes.</p> - -<p>“‘For many generations these and their descendants -were the rulers and the inhabitants of the islands in -the ocean, and, as it has been said, they extended their -authority over all the country as far as Egypt and Tyrrhenia. -By far the most distinguished was the race of -Atlas; and the eldest king belonging to it always -handed down in succession the government to his -eldest son. All these kings in turn possessed immense -wealth, such as was never known to belong to royalty -or will be likely hereafter. They were provided with -all things which, in a city or elsewhere, are worth -having. Large revenues were received by them from -foreign countries under their rule, but the greatest resources -came from the island. First were such ores as -are dug in mines in a crude condition, or need to be -smelted, particularly the metal <i>orichalcum</i>,<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> which is -now known only by name, but formerly was of great -value. This was dug from the earth in many parts of -the island, being prized above all the metals then -known, except gold. The island also produced an -abundance of wood for building purposes, and furnished -food for wild and tame animals. Vast numbers -of elephants were on the island, for there was abundant -subsistence for all animals which feed in marshes and -along lakes, on mountains and plains, and likewise for -this animal, which by nature is the largest and most<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span> -voracious of all.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> And whatever fragrant plants the -earth produces, whether roots, or grasses, or woods, or -exuding gums, or flowers, or fruits, grew there and -were developed to perfection. The island besides produced -such cultivated fruits and dry edible fruits as we -use for food and call vegetables; also the fruits which -trees bear and are used for drinks, meats, and ointments; -and those also which have a hard shell, used -in sport and pleasure, that are collected with trouble, -together with dainty fruits for dessert, which provoke -the appetite or please the sick;—all these that once-existing -and tropic island, sacred and delightful, produced -in surprising and infinite quantities. Obtaining -all these from the soil, the inhabitants employed themselves -in building temples, royal palaces, harbors, and -wharves in all parts of the country, constructing them -as follows:</p> - -<p>“‘First of all, the people residing in and about that -ancient metropolis bridged over those girdles of water, -making a causeway to and from the royal palace. In -this place, which had been the residence of the gods -and their ancestors, they, at the beginning, erected the -palace; and each [king] in turn, receiving it from his -predecessor, and further embellishing the ornamental -parts, continually surpassed the one before him, until -they made the building very attractive to the sight, on -account of its size and the beauty of its elaborations. -They dug a canal, beginning at the sea, three plethra<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> -broad, a hundred feet deep, and fifty stadia in length, -to the outermost girdle, and thus made a channel to it -from the sea as into a harbor, by enlarging its mouth -sufficiently to admit the largest vessels. Besides this,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> -they separated by aqueducts the girdles of land which -separated those of water, so that a trireme<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> could be -taken from one girdle of water to another, arching the -girdles of land to allow a water-way beneath them; for -the banks of the girdles of land rose to a height considerably -above the water. And the greatest of these -girdles into which the sea flowed was three stadia in -width, and the girdle of land next to it was of the same -width. The second girdle of water was two stadia in -width and the second girdle of land the same. The -last girdle of water, environing the centre of the island, -was only one stadium wide, and the island, on -which the king’s palace stood, had a diameter of -five stadia. This island, as well as the girdles of -land, and the bridge (which was a plethron in width), -they inclosed on the sides with stone walls, erecting -towers and gates at intervals on the aqueducts where -the water passed through [the girdles of land]. The -stone for the walls they quarried within the limits of -the island, both in the centre, and inside and outside -the girdles; one kind of it was white, a second black, -a third red; and by thus quarrying they made at the -same time openings which served for two docks, having -likewise a covering of rock. Of the buildings, some -were of plain structure, while others they built of a -composite style of architecture, using the different -kinds of stone as pleased them most, thus realizing a -pleasure becoming their natures. And they covered -the whole circuit of the wall round the extreme outer -girdle with bronze, applying it as they would plaster. -The next wall inside of it they covered with melted tin, -and the wall round the citadel with <i>orichalcum</i> that has -a fiery resplendence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></p> - -<p>“‘Further, the royal palace within the citadel was -constructed in the following manner: In the centre -of it a temple was erected, difficult of access, sacred -to Cleito and Poseidon, surrounded by an inclosure of -gold; for on this spot they begat and raised the race -of the ten kings, and where also their descendants, -making annual collections from all the ten allotments, -offered seasonable sacrifices to each one.</p> - -<p>“‘The temple of Poseidon was a stadium in length, -three plethra in breadth, and of a proportionate height, -having a somewhat barbaric appearance. All the outside -of the temple, except the pinnacles, they lined -with silver, but the pinnacles they covered with gold. -Respecting the interior, the ceiling was wholly of ivory, -variegated with gold and <i>orichalcum</i>, and all the other -parts, the walls, the pillars, and the pavements, they -covered with <i>orichalcum</i>. They also placed in the -temple golden statues. The one of the god stood in a -chariot driving with reins six-winged horses. It was -of such size that the head of the god touched the -ceiling, and surrounding the statue were a hundred -nereids on dolphins; for the people of that day thought -that this was their number. The temple also contained -many other statues dedicated to private persons. On -the outside of the temple golden images were also -placed of all the men and women that were descended -from the ten kings, and many other large statues, both -of kings and of private people, both from the metropolis -and from the foreign countries over which the kings -had dominion. There was also an altar, in size and -elaboration corresponding to these ornaments; and -there were palaces also whose grandeur was in -keeping with the greatness of the empire and also -with the splendor of the temple.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p> - -<p>“‘They had fountains from cold and hot springs of -which there were many, the water being suited in -every way to their use on account of its sweetness and -purity. Around these springs they made their residences -and well-watered plantations, together with -their reservoirs, some open to the heavens, but the -others, for use in winter, roofed over for warm baths. -The kings’ bathing-houses and those of private persons -were separated, as well as those of the women. -There were others for horses and other draught cattle, -each provided with the requisite means of cleanliness. -The stream flowing from these they conducted to the -grove of Poseidon, where there were all kinds of trees -reaching a wonderful height on account of the fertility -of the soil, and then led it away by aqueducts to the -outer girdles of water. There they also erected a -large number of temples, dedicated to many different -gods, and many gardens and gymnasia, one for men, -and others separately for horses, on the two girdles of -land. To test the speed of the horses there was a -race-course in the middle of the largest girdle of land, -a stadium in width, that extended around its entire circumference. -Around it on all sides were barracks for -the household troops, corresponding to their number. -To the more faithful of these troops quarters were -assigned on the smaller girdle of land closer to the -citadel, while those who excelled all the others in loyalty -had quarters given them within the citadel, near -the residences of the kings. The docks were filled -with triremes and the equipments for triremes; and -the triremes were all adequately provided with them. -These were the arrangements for the protection of the -palace of the kings. On crossing the three outer harbors -one found a wall which extended entirely around<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -the island, beginning at the sea, everywhere fifty -stadia distant from the greatest girdle and harbor, and -inclosed the entrance to the canal and the entrance to -the sea. The whole of this part of the girdle of land -was covered with many and densely-built dwellings. -The canal and the largest harbor were filled with -vessels and traders, coming from all parts, and these, -on account of their number, made a babel of voices, a -commotion, and a din all through the day and the -night.</p> - -<p>“‘We have now related from memory a description -of the city and its ancient habitations; now we must -attempt to describe the nature of the other parts of -the country and the employment of the people. First, -then, the whole region was said to be exceedingly -high and precipitous toward the sea, and the plain, -encircling the city, surrounded by mountains sloping -down to the sea, being level and smooth, extended -in one direction three thousand stadia, and the central -part, from the sea, more than two thousand stadia. -And this part of the island extended toward the south, -in an opposite direction from the north. The mountains -around it were, at that time, also celebrated, -exceeding in number, size, and attractiveness all those -of the present day; having on them many hamlets -together with villages, as well as rivers, lakes, and -marshes, furnishing ample supplies of food for all cattle, -both tame and wild; with timber of different kinds and -in great quantity for every special purpose. The plain, -by nature, being as described, was improved in the -following way by many kings through a long course of -time: It was almost square in extent, generally -straight and oblong, and where it terminated they -bounded it by digging a canal around it. Concerning<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -the depth, breadth, and length of which for a public -work, besides other concomitant undertakings, we can -scarcely believe what was said, still we must tell what -we learned. The canal was excavated to the depth of -a plethrum, and the breadth was a stadium in every -part, the entire excavation round the plain being ten -thousand stadia in length. This canal, receiving the -water of the streams coming from the mountains, conducted -it all around the plain and near to the city, and -finally to the sea. From above, likewise, straight -canals were cut about a hundred feet broad along the -plain, back into the canal near the sea; distant from -one another about one hundred stadia; and it was by -these canals that timber from the mountains was -brought to the city, and on which the rest of the -shipping trade was done; transverse canals of communication -being cut into the others and toward the -city. Their harvest they gathered twice in a year; in -winter availing themselves of the rains, and in summer -irrigating the land from the canals.</p> - -<p>“‘It was ordered for the men on the plain fit for military -service that each individual leader should have an -allotment of land; each allotment amounting in extent -to a hundred stadia; the whole number of allotments -being sixty thousand. It is said that many men from -the mountains and other parts of the country were -assigned, according to their dwellings and villages, certain -tracts by their respective leaders. Each leader -was required to furnish for war the sixth part of a -war-chariot (to make the number of ten thousand), two -riding horses, and a two-horse chariot without a -driver’s seat, having a mounted charioteer to guide -the horses, with another rider to dismount and fight at -the side of them; also two heavy-armed men, two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -archers, two slingers, three light-armed soldiers, the -same number of stone-shooters and javelin-men, besides -four seamen to make up the crews of one thousand -two hundred vessels. Thus were the military -affairs of this city arranged. Respecting those of the -nine other allotments, there were different regulations, -which it would be too tedious to narrate.</p> - -<p>“‘The following were the systems of official services -and honors: Each of the ten kings ruled supreme -over the people and the laws in his own allotment -and over his own city, constraining and punishing -whom he pleased.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> As the law was handed down to -them, the government and commonwealth in each -allotment were regulated by the injunctions of Poseidon. -Inscriptions [of this law] were made by the first -[kings] on a column of <i>orichalcum</i> which was placed -in the centre of the island, in the temple of Poseidon, -where the kings consulted together every fifth year, -(which they afterward changed to every sixth year,) -each king representing at these meetings the entire -kingdom and its subdivisions. The kings, when they -were assembled, deliberated on matters respecting the -common weal, and inquired what transgressions each -had committed, and each respectively rendered his -decision. Before they sat in judgment they gave one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -another pledges, according to the following custom: -The ten, when they were assembled in the temple, -after invoking the god to receive their sacrifice propitiously, -went swordless, with staves and nooses, among -the bulls grazing within the temple inclosure, and the -bull they took they brought to the column and slaughtered -it, the head of the bull being under the inscriptions. -Besides the laws on the column, there was a -malediction written containing denunciations of evil on -the disobedient. When, therefore, in compliance with -their laws, they sacrificed and burned all the limbs of -the bull, they filled a goblet with the blood of the -animal, and threw the remainder into the fire, in order -to purify the column. Afterward dipping from the -goblet with golden cups, they poured libations of -blood on the fire, and swore to do justice according to -the laws on the column, to punish any one who had -previously transgressed them, besides swearing that -they themselves would never afterward willingly transgress -the inscribed laws, or rule or obey any ruler -governing otherwise than according to his father’s laws. -Then after invoking these denunciations on themselves -and their descendants, and after drinking from the cup -and depositing it in the temple of the god, and sitting -the necessary time at supper, they, as soon as it was -dark and the fire of the sacrifice had ceased to burn, -dressed themselves in beautiful dark-blue robes, and -sat down on the ground, near the embers of the sacrifice, -over which they had sworn. All the fire in the -temple having been extinguished for the night, they -then mutually judged one another respecting any accusation -of transgressing the laws. After their acts of -judgment were ended, and daylight had come, they -inscribed their decisions on a golden tablet and deposited<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -it and their dresses in the temple as memorials. -There were also many other special laws respecting -the privileges of the kings. The principal ones were -that they should never wage war upon one another, -that all should lend their aid when any attempt was -made in their cities to destroy the royal race, that they -should consult together as their ancestors had done respecting -the right course to be pursued in war and in -other matters, and that they should allot the government -of the empire to the Atlantic race. They did -not allow the king, however, any authority to put to -death any of his kinsmen, unless the execution was -approved by more than five of the ten.’”<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - -<p>The priest also related that it was “about nine -thousand years ago that war was proclaimed between -those dwelling outside the Pillars of Hercules and all -those within them.”<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Athens “was the leader of the -latter people and directed the operations of the war, -and the kings of the Atlantic island were the commanders -of the forces of the former.”<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> - -<p>“‘But in a later age,’ said the priest, ‘by extraordinary -earthquakes and deluges, bringing destruction in -a single day and night, the whole of your formidable -race was at once sunk under the earth, and the -Atlantic island in like manner plunged beneath the sea -and concealed from view; therefore that sea is, at -present, neither passable nor to be traced out, being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -blocked up with a great depth of mud made by the -sunken island.’”<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - -<p>The history of the Atlantic people as it was known -to the ancient Egyptians ends with this catastrophe. -The inference of the priest that the mud of the submerged -island made the Atlantic impassable is seemingly -an assertion without any basis of fact. Had he -said that the submergence of some of the islands west -of the Pillars of Hercules obliterated the marked sea-path -between the continents of the two hemispheres, -this statement would have strictly accorded with what -he had said before, that “sea-faring men, at that time, -could pass from it [the Atlantic island] to the other -islands, and from them to the opposite continent.”<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> -The disappearance of the islands, in sight of which seamen -had steered their galleys, at once isolated the -peoples of the two hemispheres. Thus it happened, -in the course of centuries, that the aborigines of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> -America passed out of the recollection of the inhabitants -of the so-called Old World as an early-known -people.</p> - -<p>The writer of the first book of the Bible relates -that when “Yahveh saw the wickedness of man was -great upon the earth and every imagination of the -thoughts of his heart only evil continually, ... -it repented him of having made man on the earth, -and he was grieved in his heart. And Yahveh said, -‘I will exterminate man whom I have created from -the surface of the ground.’”<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> The information contained -in these words of the learned Hebrew so closely -correspond to that imparted to Solon by the Egyptian -priest concerning the subsequent degeneracy of the -primitive people of the earth, that it would seem as -if it had been derived from the same source. “‘For -many generations,’ said the priest, ‘so long as the -god-nature continued in them, they remained obedient -to the laws and were happily influenced by it. But -when the divine nature became extinct by the dominance -and constant ascendency of the human, and the -habits of men overpowered them, ... they deported -themselves in an unbecoming way.... -Therefore, Zeus, the god of gods, who rules justly -and searches out such things, perceiving an illustrious -people miserably depraved, and intending to inflict -punishment on them that they might become better -fitted to command their appetites and passions, collected -all the gods into their own most holy habitation, -which, being in the centre of the universe, commands -a view of all things having a part in generation; and -having assembled them, he said....’”<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span></p> - -<p>An inscription on the interior walls of the tomb of -Seti I. of Egypt contains a statement concerning a -council of the gods held to consider what punishment -should be visited upon the depraved descendants of -the god Râ, which is similar to the declaration of the -last clause of Plato’s unfinished dialogue.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Lenormant, -commenting upon the information contained in the -inscription, remarks:</p> - -<p>“The Egyptians admitted a destruction of the primitive -men by the gods on account of their rebellion and -sins. This event was recorded in a chapter of the sacred -books of Tahout,—certain hermetic books of the Egyptian -priesthood,—that had been graven on the walls of -one of the most isolated rooms of the burial crypts of -King Seti I., at Thebes. The text of it has been published -and translated by Edward Naville.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<p>“The scene is placed at the end of the reign of the -god Râ.... Incensed by the wickedness and -the crimes of the men whom he had begotten, the god -summons the other gods to consult with them in the -utmost secrecy, ‘in order that mankind might not -know it, and that their hearts might not be dismayed.’</p> - -<p>“Said Râ to Noun: ‘Thou, the eldest of the gods, -of whom I am sprung, and you, ancient gods, behold -the men who have been begotten by me. They speak -words against me. Tell me what you would do in this -crisis. Behold, I have waited, and I have not destroyed -them before having heard your counsel.’”<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> - -<p>Singular as the fact may seem, the state, polity, -and genius of the people of the western hemisphere<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -described in the records of Egypt reappear in the -strange features of the civilization of Mexico, and in the -vestiges of its aborigines, which amazed the Spaniards -who accompanied Hernando Cortes into the interior -of the country, in the early part of the sixteenth century. -The remarkable accounts given by Bernal Diaz -and other contemporary writers respecting the people, -the kings, the cities, the palaces, the temples, and the -public works seen by the Spanish invaders, verify, in -many ways, the declarations of the Egyptian priests -concerning the Atlantic race.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> - -<p>For centuries after the disappearance of the islands -lying in the ocean west of the Pillars of Hercules, the -wide expanse of water, dashing its foaming surges on -the shores of the continents of the two hemispheres, -was not only unexplored but was deemed impassable. -Superstition filled its misty distances with frightful -chimeras and geographical absurdities. About the -beginning of the Middle Ages the vikings of Northern -Europe were venturing across the North Sea in their -single-masted, many-oared galleys. Until this time -the superstitious seamen of Scandinavia had not attempted -to sail beyond the sight of land to any great distance. -Their first lessons in navigating the narrow -expanse of the North Sea were taken when their -boats were unexpectedly carried away from the rugged<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -coast of Norway by tempestuous winds to the Hetland<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> -and Fer öe<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> (Far islands). Whatever fears of -permanent exile on these unexplored islands may at -first have alarmed the deported Northmen, these -were dispelled by the cheering suggestion that when -the wind blew from the west they could return to their -own country. As soon as the wind blew eastwardly -they put to sea. Using their sails and oars they safely -reached the western shore of Scandinavia. Frequent -experiences of this kind in time emboldened the -Norwegian seamen to undertake voyages to the -westward islands in search of booty. Having no -compass to guide their galleys thither, they carried -with them hawks or ravens, and when uncertain respecting -the course of their vessels, they let loose a -cast of these birds, which instinctively flew to the -nearest land. Thitherward they steered, and finding -that it was their destination or not, they secured whatever -plunder they could and departed. Not unfrequently -the vessels of the Norse sea-kings were lost -in storms on the wild waters of the Atlantic, or -wrecked on the inhospitable shores of remote islands. -It is said that Naddoddr, a Norwegian pirate, was -drifted in his ship by an adverse wind, in 860, to Iceland, -which he called Sneeland (Snowland).<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> It is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> -also related that when the famous viking, Floki, was -lost in his vessel in stormy weather, between the -islands of Faroe and Sneeland, in 865, he let fly three -ravens, one of which flew back to the Faroe islands, -the second returned to the ship, and the third winged -its way toward the more northerly island which the -perplexed Northman was seeking. This sturdy seaman -described the new country as volcanic and sterile, -glacial and cold, and appropriately called it Island -(Iceland). His companions, however, reported that -they had found it to have a delightful climate and a -fertile soil. One, wishing to describe its general fruitfulness -in a more attractive way, averred that “milk -dropped from every plant and butter from every -twig.”<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> In a short time a course to Iceland was -marked out by the early rovers of the North Sea, who, -before the close of the ninth century, planted a colony -on the bleak coast of this icy island, the most westerly -land hitherto discovered by the fearless seamen of -Scandinavia.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map1"> -<a href="images/map1-full.jpg"><img src="images/map1.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">SIGURDI STEPHANII TERRARUM HYPERBOREARUM DELINEATIO, -ANNO 1570.</p> -<p class="caption">Delineation of the Hyperborean Regions, by Sigurd -Stephanus in the year 1570. (Size of the original, 6¾ inches square.)</p> -</div> - -<p>But Iceland did not long remain the most remote -part of the western world known to the people of -Europe. Gunnbjörn, a Norwegian, driven westward in -his ship beyond Iceland, in a storm, in 876, descried -land looming up along the western horizon. In the -latter part of the tenth century, Eric the Red, whom -the public assembly of Iceland had declared an outlaw, -determined to go in search of the land seen by Gunnbjörn.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -He sailed from Iceland about the year 981, and -came in sight of the coast of Greenland, at a place -called Midjökul.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> He then steered southward to see -whether the country were habitable. He passed the -first winter near the middle of the site of the eastern -settlement (<i>eystri bygd</i>).<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> In the following summer -he reached the western uninhabited region (<i>vestri -ubygd</i>),<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> and gave names to many places. As soon as -the ice disappeared, at the close of the second winter, -and the sea was again navigable, he returned to Iceland, -and called the country which he had explored -Graenland (Greenland), “because” he said, “people -will be influenced to immigrate to it, if the land bears -an attractive name.” Among those whom Eric induced -to return with him as colonists to Greenland -was a Norwegian, named Herjulf. Thirty-five ships -(<i>skipa</i>) filled with emigrants set sail from Iceland for -the newly explored country, but only fourteen of the -vessels reached the places where the colonists were to -dwell. Eric the Red settled at Brattahlid, and Herjulf -erected his house on a cape called Herjulfsnes (Herjulf’s -nose, or promontory).<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> “This was fifteen winters<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -before Christianity was established by law in Iceland.”<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> - -<p>Among the traditions preserved of the voyages of -the Northmen in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth -centuries, there are several that have caused considerable -controversy respecting the historical and -geographical value of the information contained in -them; for a number of eminent writers have made -use of this information to show that the Northmen -were the first discoverers of America and the explorers -of a large part of the eastern coast of the -continent.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> Although these sagas or legends of Iceland -were unrecorded for several centuries, the manuscripts -which now contain them are assumed to have -been written in a manner so precise that translations -of their text are presented to prove that the Norse -vikings not only made frequent voyages to America, -but that they have left definite and reliable information -respecting the parts of the coast visited by them.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -Other distinguished writers consider these traditions as -too mythical and vague to be deemed valuable, either -historically or geographically, and argue that what is -thought to describe the physical features and productions -of parts of the present territory of the eastern -coast of the United States describes the topography -and fruits of Greenland. A brief narration of the most -important particulars of the voyages of several of the -Northmen who have been regarded, as the first discoverers -of parts of the continent of America, will suffice -to show the grounds upon which rest many of the -arguments that have been advanced to support the -opinion that these persons had landed upon its shores -and explored a great extent of its Atlantic coast.</p> - -<p>It is said in the saga of Eric the Red and of the -Greenlanders,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> that when Herjulf sailed, in the spring -of 985, from Iceland to Greenland, his son Bjarni was -in Norway. When the latter, in the following summer -returned to Iceland, and learned that his father had -emigrated to the country recently explored by Eric -the Red, he determined to sail to it and pass the winter -with his father, as had been his custom for many years. -He evidently had some misgivings respecting the success -of the contemplated voyage, for he said to his -companions: “Our going there will be devoid of -common-sense, since not one of us has traversed the -Greenland Sea.” “Nevertheless,” as the tradition -runs, “as soon as they had fitted for the voyage, they -intrusted themselves to the ocean, and made sail three -days, until the land passed out of their sight from the -water. But then the bearing winds ceased to blow, -and northern breezes and a fog succeeded. Then they -were drifted about for many days and nights, not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -knowing whither they tended. After this the light of -the sun was seen, and they were able to survey the -regions of the sky. Now they carried sail, and steered -this day before they beheld land.” They sailed near -to it, and “soon saw that the country was not mountainous, -but covered with trees and diversified with -little hills. They left the land on their larboard side, -and let the stern turn from the shore. Then they -sailed two days before they saw another land [or -region].... They then approached it, and -saw that it was level and covered with trees. Then, -the favorable wind having ceased blowing, the sailors -said that it seemed to them that it would be well to -land there, but Bjarni was unwilling to do so.... -He bade them make sail, which was done. They -turned the prow from the land, and sailed out into the -open sea, where for three days they had a favorable -south-southwest wind. They saw a third land [or -region], but it was high and mountainous and covered -with glaciers.... They did not lower sail, but -holding their course along the shore, they found it to -be an island. Again they turned the stern against the -land, and made sail for the high sea, having the same -wind, which gradually increasing, Bjarni ordered the -sails to be shortened, forbidding the use of more -canvas than the ship and her outfit could conveniently -bear. Thus they sailed for four days, when they saw a -fourth land” [or region], which was Greenland, where -Bjarni found his father.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> - -<p>Bjarni’s discoveries, it is said, were often the subject -of conversation among the Northmen. It is -further related that Leif, the son of Eric the Red, purchased -Bjarni’s ship and set sail in it with thirty-five<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -men from Brattahlid about the year 1000 to seek new -lands. Nothing is told in the tradition concerning the -direction in which these Northmen sailed, only that -“they first came to the land [or region] last seen by -Bjarni. They steered toward the shore, cast anchor, -put out the boat, and went on land, where they saw no -herbage. The whole country was filled with high icy -mountains, and from the sea all the way to the icy -mountains was a plain of flat stones.” Leif called the -region Helluland.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> - -<p>When Leif and his companions departed from -Helluland, it is related that they “put out to sea and -found another land [or region]. This was a level -country and covered with trees.” Leif named it -Markland.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<a href="images/map-mercator-full.jpg"><img src="images/map-mercator.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA.</p> -<p class="caption">ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.</p> -</div> - -<p>As related in the saga, when they departed from -Markland, “they sailed on the high sea, having a -northeast wind, and were two days at sea before they -saw land. They steered toward it and touched the -island lying before the north part of the land. When -they went on land they surveyed it, for by good fortune -the weather was serene. They found the grass -sprinkled with dew, and it happened by chance that -they touched the dew with their hands and carried them -to their mouths and perceived that it had a sweet taste -which they had not before noticed. Then they returned -to the ship and sailed through a bay lying between -the island and a tongue of land running toward -the north. Steering a course to the west shore, they -passed the tongue of land. Here when the tide ebbed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span> -there were very narrow shoals. When the ship got -aground there were shallows of great extent between -the vessel and the receded sea. So great was the -desire of the men to go on land that they were unwilling -to stay on board until the returning tide floated -the ship. They went ashore at a place where a river -flowed out from a lake. When the tide floated the -ship, they took the boat and rowed to the vessel and -brought her into the river and then into the lake. -Here they anchored, carried the luggage from the -ship, and built dwellings. Afterward they held a consultation -and resolved to remain at this place during -the winter. Then they erected large buildings. There -were not only many salmon in the river but also in the -lake and of a larger size than they had before seen. -So great was the fertility of the soil that they were -led to believe that cattle would not be in want of food -during winter, or that wintry coldness would prevail, or -the grass wither much.”</p> - -<p>While the Northmen were passing the winter on -the shore of the unnamed lake, it happened one evening -that a Southern man, named Tyrker, did not -return with those who had been out exploring the -country. Those who went to search for the absent -man met him returning to the quarters. They were -surprised when he told them that he had found wine-wood -and wine-berries (<i>vinvid ok vinber</i>). “Is this -true, my teacher?” asked Leif. “It is really true,” -Tyrker replied, “for where I was brought up there was -not wanting either wine-wood or wine-berries.” They -passed this night in sleep, but on the following morning -Leif said to the men: “Two things are now to be -done on alternate days, gathering wine-berries or hewing -wine-wood and felling trees, (<i>lesa vinber, edr<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -höggva vinvid ok fella mörkina</i>,) with which my ships -should be loaded.” Having loaded the ship and the -spring approaching they prepared to depart. To designate -the productions of the region, Leif called it Vinland -(Wine-land). They then put to sea and had a -favorable wind until they came in sight of Greenland.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> - -<p>As a number of writers have assumed that the region -of Vinland, where Leif and his companions wintered, -was the country adjacent Mount Hope Bay, in -Rhode Island, the following description of a part of the -east coast of Greenland, given by Captain W. A. -Graah, who was sent there, in 1828, by the Danish -government to obtain information respecting the site -of the eastern settlement (<i>eystri bygd</i>), will likely afford -grounds for a more plausible conjecture that Vinland -was a region in Greenland: “August 30 [1829].—The -place we now were at was the Ekallumiut [between -the sixty-third and sixty-fourth parallel of north -latitude], so often mentioned. The cove, the length -of which is between one and two cable-lengths, has on -both sides of it, but particularly on the eastern, fields -of considerable extent, covered with dwarf-willows, -juniper-berry, black crake-berry, and whortleberry -heath, the first-named growing to the height of two -feet, and the whole interspersed with a good many -patches of a fine species of grass, which, however, was -very much burnt by the heat of the sun, except in -the immediate vicinity of the brooks and rivulets that, -in great number, ran down the sides of the hills, and -intersected the level land in every direction. At the -the bottom of the cove stretches an extensive valley, -through which runs a stream abounding in char, [a -species of salmon,] and having its source in the glaciers,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> -of which several gigantic arms reach down into the -valley from the height in the background. On the -banks of this brook the grass grew luxuriantly; but -it was far from being, at many places, of a height fit for -mowing, so that even this spot, where grass was more -abundant than anywhere else perhaps along the whole -coast, does not seem calculated to furnish winter -fodder for any considerable number of cattle. Various -flowers, among which the sweet-smelling lychnis, -everywhere adorned the fields.... At this -really beautiful spot, the natives of the country round -assemble for a few days during their brief summer, to -feast upon the char that are to be got here in great -plenty and of a great size, the black crake-berry and -angelica, and to lay in a stock of them for winter use, -and give themselves up to mirth and merry-making.”<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> - -<p>It is further related, in the saga, concerning Vinland, -that “the days are more equal there than in -Greenland or Iceland; there the sun sets at eykt time -(<i>eyktar-stad</i>, 3:30 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>), and rises at day-meal time -(<i>dagmála-stad</i>, breakfast-time), on the shortest day.”<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p> - -<p>As there is no reliable information to indicate that -the Northmen of the tenth century had any instruments -by which they could accurately measure the -changing spaces of day and night, or that their observations -of the sun gave them the knowledge of -astronomical time, an attempt to elucidate the exact -duration of the shortest day in Vinland from the vague<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -signification of the words <i>eyktar-stad</i> and <i>dágmála-stad</i> -would consequently be futile and unsatisfactory. Nevertheless -a number of scholars have attempted to determine -the length of the shortest day at the place -where the Northmen built their winter-quarters. Some -have given the day a measurement of six hours, others -seven, eight, and nine hours.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> These different lengths<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -of the day involve the inference that Vinland was somewhere -between the forty-first and sixty-first parallels -of north latitude.</p> - -<p>It is related in another saga or legend that Vinland -was visited in the eleventh century by other Northmen.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> -Among the number were Thorfinn Karlsefne, Snorro -Thorbrandson, Bjarni Grimolfson, and Thorhall Gamlason. -It is said that the three ships which departed -from the western settlement, in the spring of 1007, had -on board one hundred and forty men (<i>40 manna ok -hundrad</i>). After sailing two days southward from -Bjanneyjar they reached Helluland. “Thence they -sailed two days, and turned from the south to the -southeast,” and came to Markland.</p> - -<p>When the Northmen departed from Markland, it is -said in the saga that “they then sailed far to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -southward along the coast and came to a promontory. -The land lay on the right and had a long sandy beach. -They rowed to it and found on a tongue of land the -keel of a ship. They called this point of land Kjalarnes -(Keel cape), and the beach Furdustrandir (Long -Strand), for it took a long time to sail by it. Then the -coast became sinuous. They then steered the ship -into an inlet. King Olaf Tryggvason had given Leif -two Scotch people, a man named Haki and a woman -named Hekja. They were swifter than animals. These -persons were in the ship with Karlsefne. When they -had sailed past Furdustrandir they put these Scots -ashore and ordered them to run to the south of the -country and explore it, and return within three days.... -They were absent the designated time. -When they returned, one brought a bunch of wine-berries -(<i>vinberja köngul</i>), the other an ear of wheat -(<i>hveitiax nysaid</i>).<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> When they were taken on board, -the ship sailed farther. They came into a bay, where -there was an island around which flowed rapid currents -that suggested the name which they gave it, Straumey -(Stream island). There were so many eider ducks on -the island that one could hardly walk about without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -stepping on their eggs. They called this place Straumfjörd -(Stream inlet). They took the cargo from the -ship and made preparations to remain there. They -had with them different kinds of cattle. They undertook -nothing but the exploration of the land. Without -having provided food beforehand they sustained themselves -there during the winter. In the summer the -fishing was not good and they were in want of provisions. -Thorhall the hunter disappeared. They had -previously prayed to God to give them food, but they -were not supplied as quickly as they thought their -hunger demanded. They searched for Thorhall for -three days. At last they found him lying on the top -of a rock, looking up at the sky, gasping and muttering. -They asked him why he was there. He said that -his presence there should not trouble them. They -prevailed on him to return home with them. A whale -was stranded there, and they found it and cut it up. -No one knew what kind of a whale it was, and when -the cook prepared a part of it for them, they ate it and -all were made sick. Then Thorhall said: ‘The red-bearded -[Thor, the god of thunder,] was more helpful -than your Christ; this [the whale meat] I have received -for my hymns which I sing of Thor, my protector; -seldom has he deserted me.’ When they -heard this assertion, they cast the remainder of the -whale into the sea and resigned themselves to the -care of God. Then the weather favored them so that -they were able to row out to fish, and thereafter they -were not in want of food, for wild game was caught -on land and fish in the sea, and eggs were collected on -the island....</p> - -<p>“It is said that Thorhall resolved to go northward -along Furdustrandir to explore Vinland, but Karlsefne<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -determined to sail southward along the coast. Thorhall -fitted out his vessel under the island, having not more -than nine men to join him, for all the others went with -Karlsefne. Now when Thorhall carried water to his -ship, he sang these verses:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">‘People told me when I came</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Hither, all would be so fine;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The good Vinland, known to fame,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Rich in fruits and choicest wine;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Now the water-pail they send;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To the fountain I must bend,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Nor from out this land divine</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Have I quaffed one drop of wine.’</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>“When they were about to depart and had hoisted -sail, Thorhall again sang:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">‘Let our trusty band</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Haste to Fatherland;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Let our vessel brave</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Plough the angry wave,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">While those few who love</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Vinland, here may rove,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Or, with idle toil,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Fetid whales may boil,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Here on Furdustrand,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Far from Fatherland.’ ...</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>“It is now to be told of Karlsefne that he with -Snorro and Bjarni and their people sailed southward -along the coast. They sailed a long time until they -came to a river, which ran out from the land and -through a lake into the sea. The river was quite shallow, -and no ship could enter it without high water. -Karlsefne sailed with his people into its mouth and -called the place Hóp (<i>ok kölludu i Hópi</i>).<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> They -found fields of wild wheat (<i>sjálfsana hveitiakra</i>) where -the ground was low, and wine-wood where it was -higher.... There was a great number of all kinds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -of wild animals in the woods. They remained at this -place a half-month and enjoyed themselves, but did not -find any thing novel. They had their cattle with them. -Early one morning, when they were viewing the -country, they saw a great number of skin boats on the -sea.... The people in them rowed nearer -and with curiosity gazed at them.... These -people were swart (<i>svartir</i>) and ugly, and had coarse -hair, large eyes, and broad cheeks. They remained a -short time and watched Karlsefne’s people. They then -rowed away to the southward beyond the cape.</p> - -<p>“Karlsefne and his people had erected their dwellings -above the lake. Some of the houses were near -the water and others were farther away. They remained -here during the winter.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> There was no snow, -and their cattle subsisted on the grass.”</p> - -<p>It is further related that when spring drew near the -natives again visited the Northmen and trafficked with -them. “The people preferred red cloth, and for this -they gave skins and all kinds of furs. They also wanted -to purchase swords and spears, but Karlsefne and -Snorro would not sell them any weapons. For a -whole skin the Skraelings (<i>Skraelingar</i>) took a piece -of red cloth a span long, and bound it around their -heads.”<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> In this way they bartered for a time. Then -the cloth began to diminish, and Karlsefne and his men -cut it into small strips not wider than one’s finger, and -still the Skraelings gave as much for these as they -had for the larger pieces, and often more. “It happened -that a bull, which Karlsefne had with him, ran -out from the wood and bellowed loudly. This frightened -the Skraelings so much that they rushed to their boats -and rowed away to the southward around the coast.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span></p> - -<p>Three weeks afterward a large number of Skraelings -returned in their boats uttering loud cries. “Karlsefne’s -men took a red shield and held it toward -them. The Skraelings leaped from their boats and -attacked them. Many missiles fell among them, for -the Skraelings used slings (<i>valslöngur</i>). Karlsefne’s -men saw that they had raised on a pole something -resembling an air-filled bag of a blue color. They -hurled this at Karlsefne’s party, and when it fell to -the ground it exploded with a loud noise. This frightened -Karlsefne and his men so much that they ran -and fell back to the river, for it seemed to them that the -Skraelings were inclosing them on all sides. They did -not stop until they reached a rocky place where they -stoutly resisted their assailants. Freydis [the wife of -Thorvard] came out, and seeing Karlsefne’s people retreating, -cried out: ‘Why do you run, stout men as -you are, before these miserable wretches, whom I -thought you could knock down as you do cattle! If I -had weapons I know that I could fight better than -you!’ They did not heed her words. Freydis then -attempted to keep up with them but could not. She -followed them to the woods. The Skraelings pursued -her. She found a dead man in the way. It was Thorbrand -Snorrason. A flat stone was sticking in his -head. His sword was by his side. She grasped it -and prepared to defend herself. The Skraelings came -toward her. She exposed her bosom and struck -her breast with the sword. The Skraelings were -frightened and ran to their boats and rowed away. -Karlsefne and his men then came and praised her -courage. Karlsefne lost two men but the Skraelings -many more....</p> - -<p>“Karlsefne and his men now perceived that notwithstanding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> -the country was fruitful they would be -exposed to many dangerous incursions of its inhabitants -if they should remain in it. They therefore determined -to depart and return to their own land. They -sailed northward along the coast and found five -Skraelings clothed in skins sleeping on the sea-shore. -They had with them vessels containing marrow mixed -with blood. Karlsefne’s men believed that they had -been banished from the country and they killed them. -After that they came to a cape and there were many -wild animals on it.... Then they reached -Straum fjörd, where there was an abundance of every -thing which they desired. It is said by some that -Bjarni and Gudrid remained behind with one hundred -men, and did not go farther, but that Karlsefne and -Snorro went southward and forty men with them, and -that they were not longer in Hóp than two months, -and that they returned from there the same summer.... -They inspected the mountains at Hóp, which -they thought belonged to a range which extended in -two directions to the same distance from Straum -fjörd. The third winter they were in Straum fjörd.... -Snorro, the son of Karlsefne, was born here -the first autumn, and he was three years old when -they went away from Vinland. When they sailed from -Vinland they had a south wind and came to Markland.”<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> - -<p>The Northmen it seems continued their visits to -Vinland as late as the fourteenth century. In the geographical -treatise of Adam of Bremen, written in 1073, -the author says that it was told him by Sveyn Estrithson, -King of Denmark, that Vinland was an island: -“Moreover he said that an island had been discovered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -by many in that ocean, which is called Vinland, -because vines grow spontaneously there, producing excellent -wine. For that fruits abound there not having -been sown, we are assured not by any vague rumor -but by the trustworthy report of the Danes.”<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> - -<p>The island of Vinland is described in an old geographical -document as lying on the opposite side of a -channel, between it and Greenland: “Now is to be -told what lies opposite Greenland, out from the bay -already mentioned. Furdustrandir is the name of a -land. There are such hard frosts there that it is not -habitable as far as is known. South of it is Helluland, -which is called Skraeling’s land. From there it is not -far to Vinland the good, which some think goes out -from Africa. Between Vinland and Greenland is -Ginnungagap which flows from the sea called Mare -Oceanum that encompasses the whole earth.”<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> On a -map made by Sigurd Stephanius, an Icelander, in 1570, -Helluland, Markland, Skraeling’s land, and the promontory -of Vinland are represented as parts of the -country now called Greenland.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> - -<p>No geographical information contained in the sagas -of Iceland and Greenland verifies the statement that -the Northmen discovered America and explored the -coast of a part of the present territory of the United<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> -States. What tradition relates respecting the Northmen -finding wine-berries in Vinland does not make it -indubitably evident that they were the fruit now called -grapes.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> The wine-wood that was cut and carried on -board of Leif’s ship indicates that there was no large -timber in Vinland, and that the trees that were felled -were of a stunted growth as those that are now found -on the coast of Greenland. The statements respecting -the great number of eider ducks, the natives who were -frightened by the bellowing of a bull, the skin-boats -used by them, the want of food by the Northmen, -their eating the flesh of a stranded whale to escape -starvation, and the sarcastic language of the song sung -by Thorhall concerning Vinland being a land of wine, -clearly establish the fact that this country or region -was very near the Arctic circle. Further, all the early -maps of Greenland show Helluland, Markland, and -Vinland to be regions of that country.</p> - -<p>The questionable interpretation of the characters -on the rock, lying in the water, on the east side of the -Taunton River, opposite Dighton, Massachusetts, by a -number of foreign antiquaries, is a notable exemplification -of the fictitious nature of the so-called evidence -that the Northmen discovered America and explored -a part of the eastern coast of the present territory of the -United States.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> The remarkable statement that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -round, stone-tower, at Newport, Rhode Island, mentioned -by Governor Benedict Arnold in his will, made -in 1677, as “my stone-built windmill,” was erected by -the Northmen, is also an instance of the infatuation of -the learned men who believed it to be a Norse monument.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> - -<p>The supposition that the Welsh adventurer, Madoc -Guyneth, planted a colony on the Atlantic coast of -North America, in the twelfth century, rests on some -traditionary information in a history of Wales, published -in 1584.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> In this rare work it is related that the sons -of Owen Guyneth, King of North Wales, on the death -of their father, had many contentions respecting the -heirship to his estates and who should rule after him. -This strife mortified Madoc. In order to separate -himself from his quarrelling brothers he fitted out a -number of ships and sailed west, “leaving the coast of -Ireland so far north, that he came to an unknown land, -where he saw many strange things.” He then returned -home and gave an account of the attractive -and fertile countries “he had seen without inhabitants.” -He induced a number of men and women, who desired -to live peaceably, to emigrate to the western land. -The second voyage was safely made to the colony in -the “fair and large country.” He returned again to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -Wales for more colonists. Ten ships filled with emigrants -shortly afterward set sail for the new settlement. -It is further related that many fictions were current -thereafter respecting Madoc’s discoveries in the unnamed -country.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> Meredith ap Rhees, a Welsh bard, -who died in 1477, has rehearsed in a number of verses -a part of the unsatisfactory tradition concerning Madoc’s -voyage.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> As said by Baron von Humboldt: -“The deepest obscurity still shrouds every thing connected -with the voyage of the Gaelic chief, Madoc.”<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> - -<p>The story of a Frisland fisherman, in the history of -the discoveries of the Zeni brothers, published in 1558, -is thought by some writers to be a true narrative of -this man’s adventures on a part of the continent of -America, in the fourteenth century.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> It is related that -Nicolò Zeno, a wealthy man, had a ship built, equipped,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -and manned at his own expense, and sailed in it from -Venice, “with the intention of visiting England and -Flanders.” But in a storm his vessel was cast upon an -island called Frisland.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> “The crew were saved together -with most of the ship’s cargo. This occurred -in the year 1380. The inhabitants of the island, having -collected in considerable numbers, attacked the chevalier -and his men, who, being exhausted by the hardships -they had endured, and not knowing in what part -of the world they had been thrown, were unable to -resist them, much less to defend themselves with the -spirit that the emergency demanded. They would -have been treated, without doubt, in a most barbarous -manner, had it not fortunately happened that a powerful -chieftain, with an armed force, was in their neighborhood, -who, learning that a large ship had been cast -upon the island, and hearing the noise and shouts of -the inhabitants as they rushed upon our poor mariners, -hastened forward, and putting the islanders to flight, -inquired of the Venetians, in Latin, of what nation they -were, and whence they had come. When informed -that they were from Italy, and natives of that country, -he was filled with joy and amazement.... He -was a great lord and possessed certain islands called -Porland, about a half-day’s sail from Frisland, the -richest and most populous of all the islands of those -parts. This chieftain’s name was Zichmni.”</p> - -<p>Nicolò Zeno then entered the service of this distinguished -man. Some time afterward he wrote to his -brother Antonio, and related these incidents. The -latter visited Frisland, where he lived fourteen years. -On the death of Nicolò, which occurred four years<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -after Antonio’s arrival, he was appointed to take command -of Zichmni’s fleet. From letters written by -Antonio to his brother Carlo, the remarkable particulars -of the following narrative are said to have been -compiled:</p> - -<p>“Six and twenty years ago four fishing-boats put -out to sea from Frisland, and being overtaken by a -storm were drifted about for many days in a helpless -condition. When, at last, the tempest abated, they -descried an island called Estotiland,<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> lying more than -a thousand miles westward from Frisland. One of -the boats was cast upon its coast, and the six men -in it were taken by the inhabitants and conducted to a -fair and populous city, where the king sent for many -interpreters, but none could be found who understood -the language of the fishermen except one man who -spoke Latin, and who likewise had been cast by accident -upon the same island. Ordered by the king, he -asked them who they were, and where they came from, -and when he reported their answer, the king desired -that they should remain in that country. Accordingly, -as they could not do otherwise, they obeyed his order, -and remained five years on the island, and learned the -language. One of them in particular visited different -parts of the island, and reports that it is a very rich -country, abounding in all good things. It is a little -smaller than Iceland but more fertile. In the middle -of it is a very high mountain, in which rise four rivers -which water the whole country.</p> - -<p>“The inhabitants are a very intelligent people and -possess all the arts as we do; and it is believed that -in time past they have had intercourse with our people, -for he said that he saw Latin books in the king’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -library, which they at the present time do not understand. -They have their own language and letters. -They have all kinds of metals, especially gold. Their -foreign intercourse is with Greenland, where they -import furs, brimstone, and pitch. He says that toward -the south there is a great and populous country, very -rich in gold. They sow corn and make beer, which is -a kind of drink which northern people take as we do -wine. They have woods of vast extent. They construct -their buildings with walls, and there are many -towns and villages. They make small boats and sail -them, but they have not the loadstone, nor do they -know the north by the compass. For this reason these -fishermen were held in great esteem, insomuch that -the king sent them with twelve boats to the southward -to a country which they call Drogio; but in their -voyage they had such stormy weather that they were -in fear for themselves. Although they escaped a miserable -death they afterward met a more painful one, -for they were taken into the country and the greater -number of them were eaten by the savages, who are -cannibals and consider human flesh very savory meat. -But as this fisherman and his remaining companions -were able to show them the way to catch fish with -nets, their lives were spared. Every day he would go -fishing in the sea and in the fresh waters, and take a -great number of fish, which he gave to the chiefs, and -thereby ingratiated himself so much into their favor -that he was greatly liked and held in high esteem -by all.</p> - -<p>“As this man’s fame spread among the different -tribes, there was a neighboring chief who was very -anxious to have him with him and to see how he practised -his wonderful art of catching fish. With this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> -object in view he made war on the other chief with -whom the fisherman was, and being more powerful -and a better warrior, he, at last, overcame him, and so -the fisherman was sent to him with the rest of his -companions. During the space of thirteen years that -he dwelt in those parts, he says, he was sent in this -manner to more than five-and-twenty chiefs, for they -were continually fighting among themselves, this chief -with that one, and solely for the purpose of having the -fisherman to dwell with them, so that wandering up -and down the country without any fixed abode, he became -acquainted with almost all those regions. He -says that it is a very great country, and, as it were, a -new world. The people are very rude and uncultivated, -for they all go naked, and suffer bitterly from -the cold, nor have they the sense to clothe themselves -with skins of the animals which they take in hunting. -They have no kind of metal. They live by hunting, -and carry lances of wood, sharpened at the point. -They have bows, the strings of which are made of -beasts’ skins. They are very fierce, and have deadly -wars with one another, and eat the flesh of their captives. -They have chiefs and certain laws, but differing -in different tribes. The farther you go southwestward, -however, the more refinement you meet with, because -the climate is more temperate, but there they have -cities and temples dedicated to their idols, in which -they sacrifice men and afterward eat them. In those -parts they have some knowledge and use of gold and -silver.</p> - -<p>“This fisherman after dwelling so many years in -those parts resolved to return home if possible to his -own country, but his companions, despairing of ever -seeing it again, gave him Godspeed, and remained -where they were. Accordingly he bade them farewell<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span> -and made his escape through the woods in the direction -of Drogio, where he was welcomed and kindly -received by the chief of the place, who knew him and -was a great enemy of the neighboring chief. Thus -passing from one chief to another, being the same with -whom he had been before, he, at last, reached, after -a long time and many hardships, Drogio, where he -remained three years. Here by good fortune he -learned from the natives that some boats had appeared -off the coast, and hopeful of being able to carry -out his intention, he went to the beach, and found to -his great delight that the men on board the boats had -come from Estotiland. He immediately begged them -to take him back with them, which they willingly consented -to do. He understood the language of the -country which none of them could speak, and they -employed him as an interpreter. Afterward he traded -in company with them to such good purpose that he -became very rich, and having fitted out a vessel of his -own he returned to Frisland.”<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<p>When Zichmni heard the story of the returned -fisherman, it is said that he prepared a fleet to go to -the countries described by him. The fisherman dying -about the time that the vessels were ready to sail, -some of the seamen who had come from Estotiland in -his ship were taken to pilot them. An island called -Icaria was discovered, but no exploration of it could -be made on account of the hostility of its inhabitants. -The fleet afterward proceeded to the coast of Greenland, -from which it sailed to Frisland.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p> - -<p>The compiler of the history of the discoveries of -the Zeni brothers says: “This discovery [made by -the Frisland fisherman] Messere Antonio, in a letter to -his brother Messere Carlo, related, ... saying -that we have changed some old words and the antiquated -style, but have left the substance entire.... -Of these northern places, I [the compiler] have -thought it good to draw a copy of the sailing chart, -which I find I have among our family heirlooms, and, -although it is rotten with age, I have succeeded with -it tolerably well; and to those who take pleasure in -such things, it will serve to throw light on the comprehension -of that which without it could not be understood -so easily.”</p> - -<p>Inasmuch as it is difficult to disprove that the -names Frislanda, Engronelanda, and Estotilanda were -not early designations for Iceland, Greenland, and Scotland, -the supposition that the unnamed Frisland fisherman -passed thirteen years of his life on the continent -of America solely rests upon the particulars of the -story of his famous adventures as a maker of fishing-nets.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1295-1487.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>In the opulent and insular city of Venice, there -arrived, a few years before the close of the thirteenth -century, three strangely clad sun-embrowned men. If -any notice had been taken of them when they disembarked -from the Mediterranean galley in which they -had come from Negropont, this attention had, it is -likely, been bestowed upon their odd garb and imperfect -pronunciation of the Italian words which they used -while obtaining a boatman to convey them to that part -of the city known as the confine of S. Giovanni -Crisostomo.</p> - -<p>The unique story respecting the return of these -famous travellers to Venice will always be deemed -the prologue that introduces the notable acts of the -explorers of the Atlantic coast territory of America -in the fifteenth century. It is therefore properly entitled -to a conspicuous place on the first pages of the -history of the discovery of America. Five centuries -ago it charmed the Venetians with its vivid colorings, -and gave to the Orient an entrancing vision that made -the name of Cathay for a time a synonym for an earthly -paradise. It pictured to them a far-off El Dorado, -abounding with gold, gems, and spicery, a country -naturally delightful and artificially magnificent. America -lay in some of the navigable ways which were -sought by acquisitive Europeans to go to it, and thus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -the return of Nicolò, Maffeo, and Marco Polo, in 1295, -to Venice, after an absence of twenty-four years, is -inseparably linked to the great chain of events connecting -it with the discovery of the new continent of -the western hemisphere.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Ramusio, the distinguished -Italian collector of information relating to voyages and -travels, has preserved the account of the strange -revelations made by the three travellers on their -return from Cathay.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p> - -<p>“When they arrived here the same fate befell them -which happened to Ulysses, who, when he returned -after his twenty years’ wanderings to his native Ithaca, -was recognized by none of his people. In like manner -these three gentlemen, who had been absent so many -years from their native city, were not identified by any -of their kinsfolk, who believed that they had been dead -for many years, as had been reported. They were -quite changed in appearance by the prolongation and -hardships of their journeys and by the trouble and -anxieties they had experienced; and they had a certain -indescribable smack of the Tartar both in demeanor -and accent, having indeed almost forgotten their Venetian -tongue. Their clothes, too, were coarse and -shabby, and of a Tartar cut. They proceeded on their -arrival to their house, in this city, in the confine of S.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> -Giovanni Crisostomo, where you may see it to this -day. The house, which in those days was a lofty and -handsome palace, is now known by the name of the -Court of the Millions, for a reason which I will tell you -presently.</p> - -<p>“When they reached the palace, they found it occupied -by some of their relatives, and they had the -utmost difficulty in making the latter understand who -they were. For these good people seeing them to be -in appearance so unlike what they were formerly, and -in dress so shabby, flatly refused to believe that they -were those very gentlemen of the Polo family whom -they thought had been dead many years. So these -three gentlemen,—this is a story I have often heard -when I was a boy from the illustrious Messere Gasparo -Malpiero, a gentleman of very great age and a senator -of eminent virtue and integrity, whose house was -on the canal of Santa Marianna, at the corner, over the -mouth of the brook of S. Giovanni Crisostomo, and -just midway among the buildings of the aforesaid Court -of the Millions, and he said he had heard the story from -his own father and grandfather, and from other old -men among the neighbors,—the three gentlemen, I say, -devised a scheme by which they should obtain at once -from their kinsfolk the recognition they desired, and -secure the honorable notice of the whole city; and this -was it:</p> - -<p>“They invited a number of their kindred to an -entertainment, which they purposely prepared with -great state and splendor in their house. When the -hour arrived for sitting down to table all three came -from their chambers clothed in crimson satin, fashioned -in long robes reaching to the ground, such as people in -those days wore within doors. And when water for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> -the hands had been served, and the guests were seated, -they took off these robes and put on others of crimson -damask, while the first suits were by their orders cut -and divided among the servants. Then after partaking -of some of the dishes they went out again and came -back in robes of crimson velvet, and when they had -again taken their seats, the second suits were divided -as the first. When dinner was over they did the like -with the robes of velvet, after they had put on dresses -of the ordinary fashion worn by their guests. These -proceedings caused much wonder and amazement -among their relatives. But when the cloth had been -drawn, and all the servants had been ordered to retire -from the dining-hall, Messere Marco, the youngest of -the three, rose from the table, and going into another -chamber brought forth the three shabby dresses of -coarse stuff which they had worn when they first arrived. -Straightway they took sharp knives and began -to rip open some of the seams and welts, and to take -out of them many gems of the greatest value, such as -rubies, sapphires, carbuncles, diamonds, and emeralds, -all of which had been stitched up in these dresses in -a manner so artful that nobody could have suspected -the fact. For when they took leave of the Grand Khan -they changed all the wealth which he had bestowed -upon them for these rubies, emeralds, and other gems, -being well aware of the impossibility of carrying with -them so great an amount of gold on a journey so long -and so difficult.</p> - -<p>“Now the exhibition of this large number of gems -and precious stones, all scattered over the table, threw -the guests into fresh amazement, insomuch that they -seemed quite bewildered and speechless. They now -saw that in spite of all their former doubts these were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> -really the honored and worthy gentlemen of the Polo -family as they had claimed to be, and they therefore -paid them the greatest honor and reverence. And -when the story became current in Venice, straightway -the whole city, gentle and simple, flocked to the house -to embrace them, and to make much of them, with -every conceivable demonstration of affection and respect.</p> - -<p>“On Messere Maffeo, who was the eldest, the -Venetians conferred the honors of an office which was -of great dignity in those days; while the young men -came daily to visit and converse with the ever-polite -and gracious Messere Marco, and to ask him questions -about Cathay<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> and the Grand Khan, all of which he -answered with such kindly courtesy that every man felt -himself in a manner his debtor. And as it happened -that in the story, which he was constantly called on to -repeat, of the magnificence of the Grand Khan, he -would speak of his revenues as amounting to ten or -fifteen millions of gold; and in like manner, when -recounting other instances of great wealth in those -parts, he would always make use of the term millions, -so they gave him the nickname of Messere Marco -Millioni, an appellation which I have seen in the public -records of this republic where mention is made of him. -The court of his house, in the confine of S. Giovanni -Crisostomo, has always from that time been known as -the Corte del Millioni.”<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span></p> - -<p>These conversational descriptions respecting the -remote dominions of the Grand Khan, with which -Marco Polo often interested the imaginative Venetians, -were to have a much wider field of influence in -another form,—one which was a most potent element -among the leading agencies which opened to the people -of Western Europe great pathways of discovery -and of commerce around the earth. In order to perceive -how these descriptions of Cathay led to the exploration -of the Atlantic Ocean and the discovery of the -continent of America, the fortunes of Marco Polo must -be followed farther. It appears that shortly after his -return to Venice he was placed in command of a fleet, -which subsequently was captured by the Genoese in a -naval engagement. While confined in Genoa as a -prisoner of war, his remarkable adventures as an -explorer of remote eastern countries became known, -and he was often visited and questioned by inquisitive -people. Wearied by the frequent repetition of the story -of his wanderings in Cathay, he at last applied himself -to writing an account of his extensive journeys by the -aid of such notes and memoranda as he had taken while -in the East. Assisted by a Genoese gentleman, he -completed his curious and instructive narrative, which -was soon copied, translated into different languages, -and distributed among the people of Europe.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p> - -<p>As justly claimed by Yule, Marco Polo was the -first traveller “to trace a route across the longitude -of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after kingdom -which he had seen with his own eyes; the deserts -of Persia, the flowering plateaux and wild gorges -of Badakhshan, the jade-bearing rivers of Khotan, the -Mongolian steppes, ... the new and brilliant -court that had been established at Cambaluc; the first -traveller to reveal China in all its wealth and vastness, -its mighty rivers, its huge cities, its rich manufactures, -its swarming population, the inconceivably vast fleets -that quickened its seas and its inland waters; to tell us -of the nations on its borders with all their eccentricities -of manners and worship; of Tibet with its sordid -devotees; of Burma, with its golden pagodas and their -tinkling crowns; of Laos, of Siam, of Cochin China, -of Japan, the Eastern Thule, with its rosy pearls and -golden-roofed palaces; the first to speak of that museum -of beauty and wonder, still so imperfectly ransacked, -the Indian archipelago, source of aromatics -then so highly prized and whose origin was so dark; -of Java, the pearl of islands; of Sumatra with its many -kings, its strange costly products, and its cannibal -races; of the naked savages of Nicobar and Andaman; -of Ceylon, the isle of gems, with its sacred mountain -and its tomb of Adam; of India the great, not as a -dreamland of Alexandrian fables but as a country seen -and partially explored, with its virtuous Brahmans,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -its obscene ascetics, its diamonds and the strange tales -of their acquisition, its sea-beds of pearl, and its powerful -sun; the first in medieval times to give any distinct -account of the secluded Christian empire of -Abyssinia and the semi-Christian island of Socotra; to -speak, though indeed dimly, of Zanzibar with its negroes -and its ivory, and of the vast and distant Madagascar, -bordering on the dark ocean of the South, with its ruc -and other monstrocities; and, in a remotely opposite -region, of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, of dog-sledges, -white bears, and reindeer-riding Tunguses.”<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> - -<p>Never before had the people of Europe heard of -such extraordinary wealth and unlimited resources as -existed in the far-off countries visited by Marco Polo. -His novel descriptions of stately, gold-covered palaces, -of the royal magnificence of the entertainments of the -Grand Khan, of the intoxicating fragrance of an endless -profusion of rare flowers, of luscious fruits and sweet -spicery, of heavily laden argosies of valuable merchandise -floating on noble rivers, and of vast collections of -gold, silver, and precious stones, were read with the -most exaggerated conceptions of their reality. These -enchanting details respecting Cathay and the adjacent -countries were fully confirmed in the fourteenth century -by Sir John Mandeville, who, in 1322, departed from -England, and after an absence of thirty-four years in -different countries returned to write, in Latin, in French, -and in English, a narrative of his extended travels.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span></p> - -<p>Dazzled by the splendor of the Orient the people -of Western Europe were eager to enter into commercial -intercourse with the inhabitants of Cathay. But there -were innumerable barriers, both natural and political, -obstructing all the overland ways to the East. Chief -among the obstacles classed as political was the selfish -exclusiveness of the different governments possessing -the intervening territory. Had there been no national -opposition to the establishment of a protected system -of overland commerce between Western Europe and -Eastern Asia, the distance was too great to be travelled -over by slowly moving caravans.</p> - -<p>As early as the year 1343 the aggressive enterprise -of the Venetians had obtained from the sultan of -Egypt the exclusive privilege of sending ships to trade -in the ports of that country and of Syria. The merchants -of Venice thereupon established commercial -agencies at Alexandria and Damascus. Their factors -penetrated Central and Southern Asia, and became -active participants in the remunerative traffic of those -regions. The prized productions of the islands in the -Indian Ocean, such as pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and -other spices, were transported by them to Venice and -distributed through Europe. Although the ocean along -the western and southern coast of Africa to the East -was believed to be navigable, no attempt was made -in the fourteenth century to sail by it to the Moluccas -or Spice Islands. Concerning the early navigation of -the sea-path along the coast of Africa, from the Pillars -of Hercules to the Arabian Sea, Herodotus says that -when Necho, king of Egypt, “had ceased digging the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -canal leading from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, he -sent certain Phœnicians in ships, with orders to sail -between the Pillars of Hercules into the Northern -Sea [the Mediterranean], and so to return to Egypt. -These Phœnicians, taking their course from the Red -Sea, entered the Southern Ocean. On the approach -of autumn they landed in Libya [Africa], and planted -some corn in the place where they happened to find -themselves. When this was ripe, and they had cut it -down, they again departed. Having thus consumed -two years, they in the third doubled the Pillars of -Hercules, and returned to Egypt. Their account may -obtain attention from others, but to me it seems incredible, -for they affirmed, that having sailed around -Libya, they had the sun on their right hand. Thus -was Libya for the first time known.”<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - -<p>Pliny, the celebrated encyclopedist of ancient times, -says that “while the power of Carthage was at its -height, Hanno published an account of a voyage which -he made from Gades [Cadiz, Spain], to the extremity -of Arabia.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> ... Besides, we learn from Cornelius -Nepos, that one Eudoxus, a contemporary of his, when -he was fleeing from King Lathyrus, set out from the -Arabian Gulf, and was carried as far as Gades.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> And -long before him, Cælius Antipater informs us that he -had seen a person who had sailed from Spain to -Æthiopia for the purpose of trade. The same Cornelius -Nepos, when speaking of the northern circumnavigation, -tells us that Q. Metellus Celer, the colleague -of L. Afranius in the consulship, but then a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -proconsul in Gaul,<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> had a present made to him by the -king of the Suevi,<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> of certain Indians, who, sailing -from India for the purpose of commerce, had been -driven by tempests to Germany.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> - -<p>These statements were quoted in the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries to support the growing belief that -India could be reached in a short time by sailing round -the coast of Africa. But the want of nautical instruments -restrained seamen from undertaking a voyage -which carried them beyond the sight of familiar coasts -and beneath new constellations. It was extremely -perilous for European navigators to attempt to sail to -India before they had acquired a knowledge of the use -of the mariner’s compass and of the astrolabe. The -polarity of the magnet was known among oriental -nations several centuries before the Christian era. The -use of the magnetic needle for the guidance of vessels, -however, did not become popular in Europe until as -late as the fourteenth century.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> The slowness with -which its use grew into favor with European seamen is -ascribable to the prevailing superstition which hung<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -like a darkening cloud over the minds of the people. -The strange conservatism of the age is well described -in a letter written, as it seems, in the year 1258, by -Brunetto Latini, a learned Italian, Dante’s tutor, to -Guido Cavalcanti of Florence. Speaking of his visit -to Roger Bacon, the English philosopher and monk, at -Oxford, England, he says:</p> - -<p>“The Parliament being summoned to assemble at -Oxford, I did not fail to see Friar Bacon as soon as I -arrived, and [among other things] he showed me a -black ugly stone, called a magnet, which has the surprising -property of drawing iron to it; and upon which, -if a needle be rubbed, and afterwards fastened to a -straw, so that it shall swim upon water, the needle will -instantly turn toward the pole-star; therefore, be the -night ever so dark, so that neither moon nor star be -visible, yet shall the mariner be able, by the help of the -needle, to steer his vessel aright.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> - -<p>“This discovery, which appears useful in so great -a degree to all who travel by sea, must remain concealed -until other times, because no master-mariner -dares to use it lest he should fall under a supposition -of his being a magician; nor would even the sailors -venture themselves out to sea under his command if -he took with him an instrument which carries so great -an appearance of being constructed under the influence -of some infernal spirit. A time may come when these -prejudices, which are of such great hindrance to researches -into the secrets of nature, will probably be no -more; and then it will be that mankind shall reap the -benefit of the labors of such learned men as Friar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -Bacon, and do justice to that industry and intelligence -for which he and they now meet with no other return -than obloquy and reproach.”<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p> - -<p>About the beginning of the fourteenth century, -Flavia Gioja of Amalfi, in Naples, devised what were -then known as the eight points of the superficies—the -four cardinal and the four intermediate points of the -compass-card.<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> From this time forward the use of the -magnet gradually found favor with European seamen.</p> - -<p>The most enthusiastic projector of voyages of discovery -undertaken to ascertain the character of the -land and water divisions of the earth, in the early part -of the fifteenth century, was Prince Henry, the son of -King John I. of Portugal.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> When twenty-one years of -age, he witnessed, in 1415, the taking of Ceuta, on -the northern coast of Africa, opposite the southern extremity -of Portugal. While at this opulent city, he -learned from its merchants and traders that the continent -extended far southward and was inhabited by -many strange people. Fixing his residence on the -promontory of Sagres, at the southwestern extremity -of Portugal, he began to send the most experienced seamen -in the service of Portugal to explore the western -coast of Africa. For a time Cape de Não, in north latitude, -28° 45´ was considered the limit of safe navigation. -It was a common saying among Portuguese seamen,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> -that “He who should pass Cabo de Não, either will -return or not.”<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> Beyond it was Cape Bojador, in 26° -12´ north latitude. This rocky headland, for a time, was -also deemed perilous and impassable. “Beyond this -cape” it was said, “there is no people whatever; -the ground is as barren as that of Libya,—no water, no -trees, no grass in it; the sea is so shallow that at a -league from the land it is only a fathom deep; the currents -are so strong that a ship passing the cape cannot -return.”<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> The attempts made by Prince Henry’s mariners -to double the two capes are thus commented upon -by Antonio Galvano, the Portuguese historian,<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> in his -treatise respecting the routes by which spices came -from India to the year 1550: “In those days none of -the Portuguese had yet passed Cabo de Não in 29 degrees -of latitude.” But after it was doubled, “when -they came to another cape named Bojador, there was -not one of them that dared to risk his life beyond it. -The prince was exceedingly displeased with their want -of confidence and unmanly timidity.”<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Of the number<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> -of seamen that had made unsuccessful attempts to pass -the cape was Gil Eannes. Disappointed as Prince -Henry was by these failures to accomplish that which -he had ordered them to do, he nevertheless gave his -timorous navigators all the encouragement he could to -induce them to make other and more persistent efforts -to double the formidable headland. In 1434, he again -sent Gil Eannes to explore the coast beyond Cape -Bojador. Before the latter departed the prince endeavored -to dispel the terrifying fancies that might -deter him from attempting to prosecute the undertaking -for which he was commissioned. “You cannot -incur such peril” said the prince, “that the promised -reward shall not be commensurate thereto. It is very -strange to me that you should be governed by a fear -of something of which you are ignorant, for if the -things reported had any authentication, I should not -find fault with you for believing them. The stories of the -four seamen driven out of their course to Flanders or -to the ports to which they were sailing are not to be -credited, for they had not and could not have used the -needle and the chart. But do you go notwithstanding, -and make your voyage without being influenced by -their opinions, and, by the grace of God, you will not -fail to secure, by your enterprise, both honor and compensation.”<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> -Gil Eannes followed the advice of his -sanguine patron, and succeeded the same year in doubling -Cape Bojador and in exploring a part of the coast -beyond it.</p> - -<p>South of Cape Bojador it was believed that a zone -of scorching heat would be entered by vessels sailing -toward the equator. Pliny adverts to it in these -words: “The middle of the earth, over which is the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -path of the sun, is parched and set on fire by the luminary, -and is consumed by being so near the heat. -There are only two of the zones which are temperate—those -which lie between the torrid and the frigid -zones—and these are separated from each other, in consequence -of the scorching heat of the heavenly bodies.”<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> -Conceiving this statement to be as fallacious as many -other declarations of the early geographers had been, -Prince Henry, in 1454, sent Luigi da Cadamosto, a -Venetian navigator, to explore the coast beyond Cape -Bojador so long invested with so many imaginary terrors. -In 1462 Pedro de Cintra sailed three hundred -miles beyond Sierre Leone.</p> - -<p>As it was necessary for seamen to know the latitude -and longitude of the places to which they desired to -sail, another nautical instrument besides the mariner’s -compass was needed by them.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> The adaptation of an -instrument called the astrolabe, by which the latitudes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> -of places could be determined, apparently originated -with King John II. of Portugal.<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p> - -<p>It is said that “when Prince Henry began the discovery -of Guinea that all mariners were accustomed to -sail along the coasts, and that they always steered their -courses by observing the physical features of the land, -which are still used as guides.”</p> - -<p>“This method of navigating permitted them to make -voyages from place to place; but when they wished -to sail in the open sea, losing sight of the coast and -standing out on the wide ocean, they perceived the -numerous errors they had made in calculating and -judging the day’s run, for they had been accustomed -to allow so much way to the ship in the twenty-four -hours on account of the currents and the other mysteries -of the sea, the facts of which are clearly demonstrated -by navigating by altitude. But as necessity is -the teacher of all arts, in the time of King John II., -the matter of navigation was assigned by him to Master -Roderic, and Master Joseph, a Jew, (who were his -physicians,) and to one Martin of Bohemia, a native of -those parts, who boasted of being a pupil of John of -Monteregius, a famous astronomer among the professors -of that science,<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> and these devised the way of navigating -by the sun’s altitude, and they made tables of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> -his declination such as are now used by navigators, -now more complete than they were at the beginning -when the great wooden astrolabes were first used.”<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p> - -<p>This novel and serviceable nautical instrument, first -made of wood and of a triangular shape, was soon in -general use on Portuguese vessels. The astrolabe was -improved from time to time. At the beginning of the -seventeenth century, when the French seaman, Samuel -de Champlain, was exploring the St. Lawrence River -and its tributaries, it was a disk of brass, having one of -its faces marked with degrees and minutes. A brass -rule, called a label, with sight-holes, turning upon a -pivot at the centre of the instrument, moved over the -marked circumference of the disk. At the zenith part -of the instrument there was a small ring by which it -could be suspended from the thumb of the person taking -an observation. When used the astrolabe was turned -to the sun, so that his rays could freely pass through -the two sight-holes of the label. In this position the -altitude of the sun was indicated on the divided limb of -the instrument. Opposite the zenith point was a small -eyelet from which a weight could be suspended to keep -the instrument from shaking when used.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> -<img src="images/astrolabe.jpg" width="450" height="600" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">A representation of the astrolabe found in 1867 in the county of North -Renfrew, province of Ontario, Canada, supposed to have been lost by -Champlain on his way to Ottawa in 1613. The diameter of the instrument -is “five inches and five-eights.” <i>Vide</i> “Champlain’s astrolabe.” By A. -J. Russell. Montreal, 1879.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the fifteenth century the day’s run of a ship was -commonly reckoned by the pilot. In an old nautical -work it is said: “In order to know the speed of the -ship over the length of the course the pilot must set -down in his journal the progress the vessel has made -according to hours; and to do this he must know that -the greatest distance that a ship advances in an hour is -four miles, and with feebler breezes, three or only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -two.”<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> Time was measured by sand-glasses, or <i>ampolletas</i>, -as they were called by the Spaniards. Forty-eight -changes of these half-hour glasses equalled the -space of a day.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> - -<p>In 1487 the persistent enterprise of the Portuguese -in exploring a commercial route to India along the -west and south coasts of Africa was notably signalized -by the success attending the expedition commanded by -the adventurous seaman, Bartolomeu Dias. The indomitable -zeal of this Portuguese mariner enabled him -to reach the southern extremity of Africa, where he -found a bold promontory to which he gave the name -of Cabo Tormentoso, (the Stormy Cape,) commemorative -of the adverse winds and bad weather encountered -there. King John II., personally appreciating the good -fortune attending the explorations of the navigators of -Portugal in this direction during the previous seventy -years, in which time more than six thousand miles of -coast-line had been inspected by them, called the promontory -discovered by Dias, Cabo de Boa Esperança -(the Cape of Good Hope).<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1474-1492.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The success attending the voyages of the Portuguese -along the coast of Africa suggested to Cristoforo -Colombo<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> (or Christopher Columbus, as he is more -commonly called by those speaking English), the possibility -of sailing by a shorter way to India in another -direction. Ferdinand Columbus, in his history of the -life and achievements of his father,<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> makes no attempt to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -conceal this fact from publicity. With an apparent -intention to give all the information which might be -desired concerning the great discoverer’s first thoughts -respecting the practicability of reaching Asia by sailing -in a westerly direction, he frankly tells what originated -them in the mind of the admiral. “As one thing leads -to another, and one thought to another, in this way, -while the admiral was in Portugal, he began to infer -that as the Portuguese sailed so far southward, it was -also feasible to steer westward, and that land might -likely be found in this direction. In order to be more -assured and satisfied in this matter, he began to review -the cosmographies which he had read, and to note what -astronomical reasons would support this theory.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> That<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> -he might be more enlightened concerning his assumption, -he paid attention to what was said by people -respecting it, especially by seamen. His diligent investigations -soon led him to conclude that there were many -lands west of the Canaries and the Cape Verd Islands, -and that it was practicable to sail to and discover -them.”<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p> - -<p>The remarkable aptitude displayed by Columbus -in forming his conclusions that the Atlantic Ocean was -navigable, and that ships might pass across its unexplored -expanse to Cathay, was the natural expression -of his peculiar passion for geographical knowledge. In -a letter written to their Spanish majesties, King Ferdinand -and Queen Isabella, in 1501, he says: “I went -to sea when quite young, and have continued my sea-faring -until now; and this profession makes those who -follow it eager to discover the secrets of this globe. It -is now forty years that I have been sailing to all those -places which are at present visited, and I have dealt -and talked with learned people, ecclesiastics as well as -laymen, Latins, Greeks, Indians, Moors, and many -other people of different nations, and our Lord has -favored this inclination, and I have received from him<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -the spirit of understanding. He has made me very -skillful in navigation, and to know much in astronomy, -in geometry, and mathematics. God has given me the -knowledge and the ability to portray the globe, and -also to delineate cities, rivers, islands, and ports in their -proper situation. During my life I have examined and -endeavored to see all books of cosmography, history, -and philosophy, and of the other sciences, so that our -Lord has sensibly opened my mind in order that I may -sail from here to the Indies, and has made me extremely -anxious to do it.”<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> - -<p>Columbus’s irrepressible desire to possess all the -information he could acquire respecting the navigable -water-ways of the Atlantic also led him to sail over the -sea-path to Iceland and to the south coast of Africa, at -the equator. In his geographical work, written “to -show that all the five zones are habitable,” he says: -“‘In February, 1467, I sailed myself a hundred leagues -beyond Thule, the northern part of which is seventy -degrees distant from the equator, and not sixty-three -degrees as some will have it to be; nor does it lie upon -the line where Ptolemy’s West begins, but much more -to the westward, and to this island, which is as large as -England, the English trade, especially those from Bristol.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> -At the time I was there the sea was not frozen, -but the tides were so great that in some places it -swelled twenty-six fathoms and fell as much.’ The -truth is, that the Thule of which Ptolemy speaks lies -where he says, and this is called by the moderns Frizeland.” -Again he says: “I have followed sea-faring for -twenty-three years without being on shore any space -of time worth mentioning, and I have seen all the East -and all the West, and have been to the North where<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> -England is situated, and even to Guinea.” He also -says that he went to sea when fourteen years old, and -ever after that led a sea-faring life.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> - -<p>Among the motives influencing him to think that -he could sail to Cathay by the way of the Atlantic -Ocean were the statements of geographical writers. -By them it was said “that a great part of the globe -had already been travelled over, and there only remained -to be discovered and made known the space -lying between the eastern limits of India, known to -Ptolemy and Marinus, and the West, where are the -islands Azores<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> and those of Cape Verd,<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> the most -western lands yet discovered.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> ... He considered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> -that this space, lying between the eastern limits -[of India] known to Marinus and the islands of the -Cape Verd group, could not be more than a third part -of the great circumference of the globe, since Marinus -had gone toward the East fifteen hours of the twenty-four -into which the circumference of the earth is -divided, and therefore to go [still farther eastwardly] -to reach the Cape Verd Islands there were nine hours, -[of the circumference to be passed over], as it is said -that Marinus began his investigations in the West.... -He conceived that since Marinus had given -in his cosmography an account of fifteen hours or -parts of the globe eastwardly, and had not reached the -limits of the East, it followed that its bounds must be -much beyond, and consequently the farther the land of -the East extended eastwardly, the nearer this land was -to the Cape Verd Islands in the West, and that if the -space were chiefly water it might easily be sailed in a -few days, and if it were mainly land it would sooner -be discovered by sailing westward, because it would be -nearer to the Cape Verd Islands.<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> ... The -fifth reason, which induced him to believe that the distance -this way was short, was the opinion of Alfragranus -and his followers, who make the circumference of -the globe much less than all other writers and cosmographers,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> -allowing fifty-six miles and two-thirds to a -degree.<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> Whence he inferred that as the entire circumference -of the globe was of such an extent, the -third part was small, which Marinus left unknown.... -And Seneca, in his first book of nature, who -considers the knowledge of this world as nothing when -compared with that which is acquired in the next life, -says a ship may sail in a few days with a fair wind from -the coast of Spain to that of India. And if it be true, -as some believe, that Seneca wrote tragedies, we may -infer that he speaks of the same thing in the chorus of -his Medea:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent14">‘Venient annis</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Saecula seris, quibus Oceanus</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Vincula rerum laxet, et ingens</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Pateat tellus, Typhysque novos</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Detegat orbes, nec sit terris</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Ultima Thule.’</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>“‘In the last years there will come an age in which -Ocean shall loosen the bonds of things; and a great -land will be accessible; and another Tiphys shall discover -new worlds, and Thule shall no longer be the -extremity of the earth.’<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> This prediction may be considered -really fulfilled in the person of the admiral.... -Marco Polo, the Venetian, and John Mandeville, -in their travels say that they went much farther -eastward than Ptolemy and Marinus mention, who, -although they do not speak of the Eastern Sea, yet by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> -the account they give of the East it may be assumed -that India is not far distant from Africa and Spain.”<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p> - -<p>Ferdinand Columbus further says that his father -expected to find, “before he came to India, a very -convenient island or continent, from which he might -pursue with more advantage his main design. This -hope was grounded upon the statements of many wise -men and philosophers, who believed that the greatest -part of this terraqueous globe was land, or that there -was more land than water, which, if true, he assumed -that between the coast of Spain and the limits of India -then known, there were many islands and a considerable -extent of main-land.... A pilot of the king -of Portugal, named Martin Vicente, told him that, being -at one time four hundred and fifty leagues westward of -Cape St. Vincent, he found and picked up in the sea a -piece of wood ingeniously carved, but not with iron, -which led him to believe, as the wind had been blowing -from the west for several days, that the piece of wood -had drifted from some island lying toward the west. -Then one Pedro Correa, who had married the sister of -the admiral’s wife, told him that at the island of Porto -Santo<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> he had seen another piece of wood, brought by -the same winds, as nicely carved as the piece already -mentioned, and that canes had been found there so -thick that each joint would hold more than four quarts -of wine, which reports he said he communicated to the -king of Portugal while talking to him about these -matters. The pieces of cane were shown to him. -There being no place in our parts where such cane -grew, he inferred it to be true that the wind had -brought the cane from some neighboring islands or else -from India. For Ptolemy, in the first book of his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -geography, in the seventeenth chapter, says there is -such cane in the eastern parts of India. And some of -the people living on the islands, particularly on the -Azores, told him that when the west wind blew for a -long time the sea drifted some pieces of pine-wood -upon those islands, particularly on the islands Gratiosa -and Fayal, there being no pine-wood in all those parts, -and that the sea cast upon the island of Flores, another -of the Azores, the bodies of two dead men, who were -very broad-faced and different in appearance from Christians. -At Cape Verd and thereabouts they said that -they once saw some covered canoes or boats which the -people believed were driven there by stress of weather -while the persons in them were going from one island -to another. Nor were these the only grounds he then -had which seemed reasonable, for there were those -who told him that they had seen some islands in the -western ocean.... These persons he did not -believe, because he discovered from their own words -and statements that they had not sailed one hundred -leagues to the westward, and that they had been deceived -by some rocks, thinking them to be islands; or -else, perhaps, they were some of those floating islands -which are drifted about by the waves, and which the -sailors call <i>aguados</i>....</p> - -<p>“He says, moreover, that in the year 1484, a man -came to Portugal from the island of Madera<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> to beg a -caraval of the king to discover a country which he affirmed -he saw every year, and always after the same -manner, he agreeing with others who said they had -seen the island from the Azores. On this account the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -Portuguese placed some islands thereabouts on the -charts and maps made at that time; and also because -Aristotle, in his book of wonderful things, affirms that -it was reported that some Carthaginian merchants had -sailed over the Atlantic Ocean to a most fruitful island.... -This island the Portuguese inserted in their -maps, calling it Antilla, and though they did not give -it the same situation designated by Aristotle, yet none -placed it more than two hundred leagues due west from -the Canaries and the Azores. Some believe it to be -the island of the Seven Cities peopled by the Portuguese -at the time that Spain was conquered by the -Moors, in 714, at which time, they say, seven bishops -with their people embarked and sailed to this island, -where each of them built a city; and in order that -none of their people might think of returning to Spain, -they burnt the ships, tackle, and all things necessary -for sailing.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> ... It was also said that in the -time of Prince Henry of Portugal, a Portuguese ship -was driven by stress of weather to this island of Antilla, -where the men went on shore, and were conducted by -the islanders to their church to learn whether or not -they were Christians and acquainted with the Roman -ceremonies. After perceiving that they were, the people -of the island importuned them to remain till their king -came, who was then absent, and who would be delighted -to see them and would give them many presents.... -But the master and the seamen were -afraid of being detained, suspecting these people did -not wish to be discovered and might for this reason -burn their ship.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span></p> - -<p>“On this account they returned to Portugal, hoping -to be rewarded by the prince for what they had done. -He reproved them severely and bid them return at -once to the island, but the master through fear ran -away from Portugal with the ship and men. It is reported -that while the seamen were at church on the -island the ship-boys gathered sand for the cook-room, -the third part of which they found to be pure gold.... -Seneca, in his fourth book, tells us that -Thucydides<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> speaks of an island called Atlantica, -which in the time of the Peloponnesian war was entirely, -or the greater part of it, submerged; whereof -Plato also makes mention in his Timæus.”<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p> - -<p>While Columbus resided at Lisbon obtaining information -from geographers and seamen respecting the -feasibility of sailing westward to Cathay, he entered -into correspondence with Paolo Toscanelli, a Florentine -physician and astronomer.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> The latter sent him a copy -of a letter which he had written in Latin to Ferdinand -Martinez, a prebendary of Lisbon. The communication -addressed to Columbus, is dated Florence, June -25, 1474. As translated the letter is as follows:</p> - -<p>“To Christopher Colon, Paul, the physician, wishes -health.</p> - -<p>“I apprehend your noble and earnest desire to sail -to those parts where spices grow, and therefore, in -answer to your letter, I send another, which some time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -ago I wrote to a friend of mine, in the service of the -king of Portugal, before the wars of Castile, in answer -to one he wrote me by his highness’s command, upon -the same subject. I also send you a sea-chart similar -to the one I sent him, which may satisfy your inquiries. -The copy of that letter is the following:</p> - -<p>“To Ferdinand Martinez, canon of Lisbon, Paul, -the physician, wishes health.</p> - -<p>“I am gratified to hear of your intimacy with the -most serene and magnificent king. Although I have -often spoken of the short distance by water from here -to the Indies where spices grow, which way, in my -opinion, is shorter than that taken along the coast of -Guinea, yet you inform me that his highness would have -me explain and demonstrate it in order that it may be -comprehended and tested. Although I could better -elucidate the configuration of the earth with a globe in -my hand, nevertheless, I will make the matter more easy -and intelligible by exhibiting the route on such a chart -as is used in navigation. I therefore send one to his -majesty, made and drawn with my own hand, on which -are delineated the extreme limits of the West, from Iceland, -in the north, to the farthest part of Guinea, in the -south, with all the intermediate islands. Opposite, in -the West, the beginning of the Indies is delineated, -with the islands and places to which you may go, -representing how far you may steer from the north pole -toward the equator, and for how long a time, that is, how -many leagues you may sail before you come to those -places where are to be found all kinds of spices and -precious stones. Do not think it strange if I call the -country where spices grow West, since they are generally -known to be produced in the East, because those who -shall sail westward will always find those places in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span> -west, and they who travel by land eastward, will always -find those places in the east. The straight lines which -are drawn lengthwise on the chart show the distance -from west to east, and those which cross the former -show the distance from north to south. I have also -marked down on the chart several places in the Indies -where ships might put in during a storm or contrary -winds, or any other unlooked-for accident. Moreover, -to give you ample information concerning all the places -of which you desire to know something, you must -understand that only traders live or reside on these -islands, and that you will find there as large a number -of ships and sea-faring people engaged in merchandizing -as in any other part of the world, particularly in the -famous port of the city called Zacton, where, every -year, a hundred large ships carrying pepper, are loaded -and unloaded, besides many other vessels freighted -with different kinds of spices.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> This country is an exceedingly -populous one, and there are many provinces, -kingdoms, and innumerable cities in it under the rule -of a sovereign called the Grand Khan, signifying king -of kings, who generally resides in the province of -Cathay. His predecessors greatly desired to have the -commerce and the friendship of Christians, and two -hundred years ago they sent embassadors to the pope, -to ask him to send them many learned men and doctors -to teach them our religion, but on account of some -obstacles the embassadors met with, they returned -without coming to Rome. Besides, there came an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> -embassador to Pope Eugene IV., who informed him of -the great affection which their princes and people bore -toward the Christians. I talked with him a long time -concerning the magnificence of the royal palaces, the -greatness of the country, the length and breadth of the -rivers. He told me many wonderful things respecting -a great number of towns and cities built on the banks -of the rivers, and that there were two hundred cities on -a single river, with marble bridges over it of great -length and breadth, and sustained by many pillars. -This country deserves to be made known as well as any -other, and there may not only be great profits realized -and many things of value obtained, but also gold, silver, -all kinds of precious stones, and spices in abundance, -which are not brought into our parts. And it is certain -that many wise men, philosophers, astronomers, and -other persons skilled in the arts, and very ingenious -men govern this vast country and command its armies. -On the chart, from Lisbon directly westward to the -great and famous city of Quisay, are twenty-six spaces, -each measuring two hundred and fifty miles. The city -is one hundred miles, or thirty-five leagues in circuit, -and within its limits are ten marble bridges. The name -Quisay signifies city of heaven.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Wonderful things -are reported of the ingenuity of its inhabitants, its buildings -and revenues. The space previously mentioned -is almost a third part of the circumference of the globe.<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span> -The city is in the province of Mango, bordering on that -of Cathay, where the king usually resides. From the -island Antilla (which you call the Seven Cities, and of -which you have some knowledge), to the great island -of Cipango,<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> are ten spaces, which include two thousand -five hundred miles, or two hundred and twenty-five -leagues.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> The island abounds with gold, pearls, and -precious stones; and you should know that they cover -their temples and palaces with plates of pure gold. All -these things are hidden and concealed, because the -way to them is unknown, and yet it may be sailed with -safety.</p> - -<p>“Much more might be said, but having told you -that which is most important, and as you are learned -and have good judgment, I am satisfied that you will -understand what I have written without my adding -any thing further to these statements. This may satisfy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> -your curiosity, it being as much as my time and -business permit me now to write. However, I remain -ever ready to satisfy and serve his highness to the -utmost in all the commands that he shall lay upon -me.”<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p> - -<p>“The admiral, now believing that his opinion was -excellently well grounded,” says Ferdinand Columbus, -“resolved to be governed by it, and to sail across -the western ocean in quest of those countries. But -being aware that such an undertaking was only becoming -a monarch to espouse and to accomplish, he determined -to propose it to the king of Portugal, because -he was the latter’s subject. And though King John, -then reigning, gave ear to the admiral’s proposals, yet -he hesitated to accept them on account of the great -burden and expense attending the exploration and -conquest of the western coast of Africa, called Guinea. -Little success had thus far rewarded this undertaking, -nor had he been able to double the Cape of Good -Hope, which name, some say, was given it instead of -Agesingue, its proper designation, because that was -the farthest they hoped to extend their explorations -and conquests, or, as others will have it, because this -cape gave them the expectation of better countries and -navigation. However, the king had but little inclination -to invest any more money in discoveries; and if -he gave any attention to the admiral, it was in consequence -of the excellent reasons he advanced to support -his opinion, which arguments so far convinced the king -that he had nothing else to do but to accept or to -reject the terms which the admiral proposed. For the -admiral, being a noble and magnanimous man, wished -to make an agreement that would be of some personal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> -benefit and honor to himself, so that he would leave -behind him a notable reputation and a respected family, -such as became his achievements and memory. For -this reason the king, by the advice of one Doctor -Cazadilla,<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> whom he greatly esteemed, determined to -send a caravel secretly to attempt that which the admiral -had proposed to him; for if those countries were -in this way discovered, he thought that he would not -be obliged to bestow any great reward which might be -demanded. Having quickly equipped a caravel, he -sent it the way the admiral had proposed to go, for the -vessel was carrying supplies to the islands of the Cape -Verd group. But those he sent had not the knowledge, -perseverance, and energy of the admiral. After wandering -many days on the sea, they turned back to the -islands of Cape Verd, laughing at the undertaking, and -saying that it was unreasonable to think there should -be any land in those waters. This being told to the -admiral, ... he determined to go to Castile -[Spain].... But fearing that, if the king of -Castile should not favor his undertaking, he would be -forced to propose it to some other monarch, thereby -consuming much time, he sent his brother Bartolomé -Columbus, who was with him, to England.... -On his way to England, Bartolomé happened to fall -into the hands of pirates, who stripped him and his -companions. For this reason, and being sick and poor -in that country, it was a long time before he could -deliver his message. It was not until he had obtained -some money by making sea-charts that he began to -make certain proposals to King Henry VII., then -reigning, to whom he presented a map of the world.... -The king of England, having seen the map<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span> -and heard what the admiral offered to do for him, -readily accepted the overture and ordered him to be -sent for....</p> - -<p>“I will not now relate how Bartolomé Columbus -conducted himself in England, but will return to the -admiral, who, about the end of the year 1484, stole secretly -out of Portugal with his son Diego for fear of -being detained by the king; for the king having seen -how unsuited they were whom he had sent with the caravel, -was inclined to restore the admiral to his favor, and -desired that he should renew his proposals; but the -king was not as eager to undertake their consideration -as the admiral was to get away; therefore the king -lost that good opportunity and the admiral entered -Castile to try his fortune which was there to favor him. -Leaving his son in a monastery, called La Rabida, near -Palos, he went at once to the court of the catholic -king, which was then at Cordova, where, being affable -and an entertaining talker, he made friends of such -persons as were most favorably inclined to his undertaking -and fitted to persuade the king to espouse it. -Among these was Luis de Santángel, an Aragonian -gentleman, clerk of the allowances in the king’s household, -a man of great prudence and reputation. As the -undertaking demanded an examination by enlightened -men, and not meaningless words and favor, their highnesses -intrusted the matter to the prior of Prado, afterward -archbishop of Granada, and ordered him, together -with some cosmographers, to make a thorough -investigation of the project and to report their opinions -respecting it.<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> But there was only a small number of -cosmographers at that time, and those who were called -together were not as enlightened as they should have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> -been, nor would the admiral wholly explain his plans, -for fear he might be served as he had been in -Portugal and be deprived of his reward. For this -reason the answers they gave their highnesses were as -different as their judgments and opinions. Some said -that inasmuch as no information concerning those -countries had been obtained by the great number of -experienced sailors living since the creation, which was -many thousand years ago, it was not likely that the -admiral should know more than all the seamen that -were living or that had lived before that time. Others, -who were more influenced by cosmographical reasons, -said the world was so prodigiously great that it -was incredible that a voyage of three years would carry -him to the end of the East, where he proposed to go, -and to substantiate this opinion they brought forward -the statement of Seneca, who, in one of his works, by -way of argument, asserts that many wise men disagreed -about this question, whether or not the ocean were -boundless, and doubted if it could be traversed; and -if it were navigable, whether habitable lands would be -found on the other side of the globe, and whether they -could be reached. They added that only a small part -of this terraqueous globe was inhabited, and that this -was in our hemisphere, and that all the remainder was -sea, and only navigable near the coasts and rivers.</p> - -<p>“Some admitted that learned men said it was possible -to sail from the coast of Spain to the farthest -part of the West. Others argued, as the Portuguese -had done, about sailing to Guinea, saying that if any -man should sail directly westward, as the admiral proposed, -that he would not be able to return to Spain on -account of the roundness of the globe, confidently believing -that whosoever should go out of the hemisphere<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span> -known to Ptolemy would go downward, and that then -it would be impossible to return, affirming that it would -be like climbing a hill, which ships could not accomplish -in the stiffest gale. Although the admiral properly -answered all these objections, yet the more cogent -his explanations were the less they comprehended him -on account of their ignorance, for when a man grows -familiar with false principles in mathematics for a long -time he cannot perceive the true, because of the erroneous -impressions which were first imprinted on his -mind. In short, all of these men were governed by -the Spanish saying, St. Augustine doubts it; for this -holy man, in his twenty-first book, chapter ninth, on -the city of God, asserts and considers that it is unreasonable -to believe that there are antipodes, or any -passage from one hemisphere to another.<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span></p> - -<p>“They further opposed the arguments of the admiral -by quoting those current fables respecting the -five zones, and other fictions, which they believed were -true. They therefore determined to condemn the enterprise -as foolish and impracticable, and to declare -that it did not become the state and dignity of such -great sovereigns to be misled by such weak information. -Therefore, after much time had been spent in -considering the project, their highnesses answered the -admiral that they were then engaged in too many wars -and conquests, and especially in the conquest of -Granada, which was then occupying their attention, -and therefore it was not convenient for them to espouse -this new enterprise at that time; nevertheless, another -opportunity might be given them when they could -more satisfactorily examine and accomplish that which -he proposed.”<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p> - -<p>Chagrined as he may have been by this second -disappointment, Columbus, with that noble enthusiasm -which the personal consciousness of being in the right -begets, “determined to apply to the king of France, -to whom he had already written concerning the -project, intending, if he were not admitted to an audience -there, to go to England afterward to search for his -brother, from whom he had not yet received any intelligence. -With this resolution he set out for the monastery -of La Rabida, to send his son Diego, whom he -had left there, to Cordova, and then proceed on his -journey. But in order that the thing which God had -decreed should come to pass, it was put in the heart of -Friar Juan Perez, guardian of that house, to befriend the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> -admiral, and to be so captivated with his project that he -became deeply concerned respecting his resolution and -the loss Spain would sustain by his departure. Therefore -he entreated the admiral not to proceed any farther, -for he would himself go to the queen, hoping -that, as he was her father-confessor, she would be governed -by what he should say to her. Although the admiral -was disappointed and disgusted with the discreditable -action and judgment of the counsellors of their -highnesses, yet, being on the other hand very desirous -that Spain should reap the benefits of his undertaking, -he complied with the friar’s desire and request, for he -considered himself a Spaniard, as he had long resided -in Spain prosecuting his undertaking and had begotten -children there, which was the reason for his rejection of -the offers made him by other sovereigns, as he declares -in a letter written to their highnesses [of Spain] in these -words: “That I might serve your highnesses, I have -refused to undertake with France, England, and Portugal; -the letters from the sovereigns of which your -highnesses may see in the hands of Doctor Villalan.”</p> - -<p>“The admiral departed with Friar Juan Perez from -the monastery of La Rabida, near Palos, and went to -the camp of Santa Fé, where their catholic majesties -were carrying on the siege of Granada. The friar then -had an interview with the queen and so entreated her, -that she consented that the conferences respecting the -discovery should be renewed. But the opinions of the -prior of Prado and those of his followers were discouraging, -besides Columbus desired to be made -admiral and viceroy, and to have other compensations -deemed too considerable to be granted, because if he -succeeded in doing what he proposed, they thought -his demands were too exorbitant, and in case he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -did not accomplish any thing, they considered it -foolish to bestow such titles; consequently the matter -received no favorable decision.... These -things being of such importance, and their highnesses -refusing to grant them, the admiral took leave of his -friends, and proceeded toward Cordova to make preparations -for his journey to France, for he had determined -not to return to Portugal, although the king had -written to him....</p> - -<p>“It was in the month of January, in the year 1492, -when the admiral departed from the camp of Santa Fé. -On that same day also Luis de Santángel, previously -mentioned, who did not approve of his going away, -but was very desirous to prevent it, went to the queen, -and using such words as his thoughts suggested to -persuade and enlighten her, said, he was surprised that -her highness, who had always a great fondness for all -matters of moment and consequence should now be -timid in favoring this undertaking, where so little was -hazarded that might contribute in many ways to the -glory of God and the propagation of religion.... -The queen, knowing the sincerity of Santángel’s words, -answered, thanking him for his good advice and saying -she was willing to accept the proposals upon the -condition that the undertaking should be delayed until -she had more leisure after the war, and yet, if he thought -differently, she was satisfied that as much money as -was required to fit out a fleet, should be borrowed on -her jewels. But Santángel, perceiving that the queen -had condescended upon his advice to do what she had -refused all other persons, replied that there was no -need of pawning her jewels, for he would do her highness -that small service by lending his money. Thereupon -the queen at once sent an officer post-haste to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -bring the admiral back, who found him upon the bridge -of Pinos, two leagues from Granada. Although the -admiral was much disheartened by the disappointments -and delays he had met with in this undertaking, nevertheless, -being informed of the queen’s wish and intention, -he returned to the camp of Santa Fé, where he -was graciously entertained by their catholic majesties, -and his commission and stipulations were intrusted to -their secretary, Juan de Coloma, who, by the command -of their highnesses, under their hand and seal, granted -him all the conditions and provisions which, as already -mentioned, he had demanded, without altering or subtracting -any thing in them.”<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1492-1493.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Sensibly impressed with the importance of his -undertaking, Columbus determined to keep a journal -of such observations and incidents as were most noteworthy -during the voyage. Governed by this intention, -he made the following entry in his log-book, -when he set sail for the remote shores of Cathay:</p> - -<p>“In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.</p> - -<p>“Whereas the most Christian, high, excellent, and -powerful rulers, the king and the queen of Spain and -of the islands of the sea, our sovereigns, this present -year, 1492, after your highnesses had ended the war -with the Moors ruling in Europe, the same having terminated -in the great city of Granada, where, on the -second day of January, this present year, I saw the -royal banners of your highnesses planted by force of -arms upon the towers of the Alhambra, the fortress of -that city, and beheld the Moorish king come out at the -gate of the city and kiss the hands of your highnesses -and of the prince, my sovereign, and in the present -month, on account of the information which I had given -your highnesses respecting the countries of India -and of a sovereign called the Grand Khan, signifying, -in our language, king of kings; how, at different times, -he and his predecessors had sent to Rome soliciting -instructors to teach him our holy religion, and how the -holy father had never granted his request, whereby<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> -great numbers of people were lost, believing in idolatry -and doctrines of perdition; therefore your highnesses, -as catholic Christians and sovereigns, who love -and promote the holy Christian religion, and are enemies -of the sect of Mahomet, and of all idolatry and -heresy, determined to send me, Christopher Columbus, -(Cristóbal Colon,) to the previously mentioned countries -of India, to see the said sovereigns, people, and -territories, and to learn their disposition and the proper -way of converting them to our holy religion; and furthermore, -directed that I should not go by land to the -East, as is customary, but by a westerly route, in which -direction we have hitherto no certain evidence that any -one has gone. Therefore, after having expelled the Jews -from your dominions, your highnesses, in the same -month of January, ordered me to proceed with a sufficient -armament to the said regions of India, and for -that purpose granted me great favors and ennobled me, -that thereafter I might call myself Don and be high -admiral (<i>almirante mayor</i>) of the sea, and perpetual -viceroy and governor of all the islands and continent -which I might discover and acquire, or which may -hereafter be discovered and acquired in the ocean; -and that this title should be inherited by my eldest -son, and thus descend from generation to generation -forever. Thereupon I left the city of Granada, -on Saturday, the twelfth day of May, 1492, -and proceeded to Palos, a seaport, where I armed -three vessels very fit for such an expedition, and -having provided myself with an abundance of -stores and seamen, I set sail from this port on -Friday, the third of August, half an hour before -sunrise, and steered for the Canary Islands of your -highnesses, which are in the said ocean, thence to take<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -my departure and proceed till I arrived at the Indies, -and perform the embassy of your highnesses to the -sovereigns there, and discharge the orders given. -Consequently, I have determined to write out daily a -minute account of the voyage respecting what I do and -see, and the passage, as hereafter will appear. Moreover, -sovereign princes, besides recording each night -my progress during the day and the run made during -the night, I intend to make a new nautical chart (<i>carta -nueva de navegar</i>), in which I shall delineate all the sea -and the lands of the Ocean in their proper places under -their wind; and, moreover, I shall compose a book and -represent the whole like a picture by latitude, from the -equator, and by longitude, from the West, wherefore it -will cause me to abstain from sleep and to make many -experiments in navigation, for these things will require -no little labor.”<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<a href="images/map-mercator-full.jpg"><img src="images/map-mercator.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA.</p> -<p class="caption">ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.</p> -</div> - -<p>The vessels of the fleet were the ship (<i>la nao</i>), Santa -Maria,<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> commanded by Columbus, and two caravels, -(<i>carabelas</i>,) La Pinta, commanded by Martin Alonso -Pinzon, and La Nina, by Vicente Yañes Pinzon, his -brother, both being natives and seamen of Palos. -“Being furnished with all necessaries and ninety men,”<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> -says Ferdinand Columbus, “they set sail on the third of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> -August directly toward the Canaries, and from that time -forward the admiral was very careful to keep an accurate -journal of all that happened to him during the voyage, -specifying the wind that blew, how far he sailed with -it, the currents he found, and what he saw by the way, -whether birds or fishes, or other things....</p> - -<p>“The next day after the admiral’s departure for the -Canary Islands, it being Saturday, the fourth of August, -the rudder of one of the caravels, of the one called La -Pinta, broke loose, and the caravel being compelled to -lie to, the admiral soon reached her side, but the wind -blowing hard he could render no assistance, as commanders -at sea are obliged to do to encourage those that are -in distress. This he did more promptly, as he conceived -that the unshipping of the rudder had been brought -about by the contrivance of the master to avoid going -on the voyage, as he had attempted to do before they -set sail.”<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p> - -<p>At the Canary Islands, Columbus altered the sails -of the caravel La Nina, and made a new rudder for the -Pinta. On Thursday morning, the sixth of September, -the three vessels set sail from the island Gomera, of -the Canary group, “and stood away to the west.” On -the following Sunday, at day-break, when the fleet was -nine leagues west of the island of Ferro,<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> the sailors -“lost sight of land, and many, fearing that it would be -long before they should see it again, sighed and wept, -but the admiral, after comforting them with large promises -of land and of wealth, to raise their hopes and -lessen their fears respecting the length of the voyage,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> -pretended that by his computation they had sailed only -fifteen leagues that day when they had really run -eighteen, he having determined to keep, during the voyage, -his reckoning short, in order that the men might -not think that they were so far from Spain as they -were, should he openly set down the progress made -which he privately recorded.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p> - -<p>“Continuing his voyage in this way, on Wednesday, -the twelfth of September, about sun-setting, -being about one hundred and fifty leagues west of the -island of Ferro, he discovered a large piece of the -trunk of a tree of one hundred and twenty tons, which -seemed to have been a long time in the water. There -and somewhat farther the current set strongly toward -the northeast. When he had run fifty leagues farther -westward, on the thirteenth of September he found -at night-fall that the needle varied half a point toward -the northeast, and, at day-break, half a point more, by -which he understood that the needle did not point at -the north star, but at some other fixed and visible -point. This variation no man had observed before, -and therefore he had occasion to be surprised at it; but -he was more amazed on the third day after this, when -he was almost one hundred leagues farther, for at night -the needles varied about a point to the northeast, and -in the morning they pointed upon the star.”<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span></p> - -<p>As they sailed on this westward course, they found -“more weeds than they had hitherto toward the north -as far as they could see, which weeds were sometimes -a solace to them, believing that they might come from -some land that was near, and sometimes they caused -dread, because they were so thick that in some measure -they impeded the ships, and fear making things worse -than they are, they apprehended that that might happen -to them which is fictitiously reported of Saint Amaro -in the Frozen Sea, which it is said does not suffer ships -to stir backward or forward, and therefore they steered -away from the shoals of weeds as far as possible.<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span></p> - -<p>“The wind at this time blew at southwest, sometimes -more and sometimes less west, which, though -contrary to their voyage, the admiral said he considered -a very good wind and a help to them, because the men, -continually grumbling, said that among the things -which increased their fears this was one, for the wind -being always astern, they should never have a gale in -those seas to carry them back; and though sometimes -they found the contrary, they alleged that it was no -settled wind, and that not being strong enough to swell -the sea, it would never carry them back as far as they -had to sail. Although the admiral did whatever he -could to make them cheerful, telling them that the land -being now so near did not permit the waves to rise, -and using the best argument he could, nevertheless he -affirms that he stood in need of God’s special help, as -Moses did when he led the Israelites out of Egypt, -who forbore laying violent hands upon him, because of -the wonders God wrought through him. The admiral -said that he was similarly protected in this voyage. On -the following Sunday the wind began to blow from the -west-northwest, with a rolling sea as the men wished, -and three hours before noon they saw a turtle-dove fly -over the ship, and in the evening they saw a pelican, a -river fowl, and other wild birds, and some crabs among -the weeds; and the next day they espied another pelican, -and several small birds which came from the -west, and small fishes, some of which the men of the -other vessels stuck with harpoons, because they would -not bite at the hook.”<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></p> - -<p>“As often as the men were deceived by these signs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> -of land, so often had they occasion to be suspicious -and to grumble and conspire together. They said the -admiral, for a foolish whim, intended to make himself -a great lord at the hazard of their lives, and since -they had done their duty in trying their fortune, and had -gone farther from land and any succor than others had -done, that they ought not to destroy themselves, nor -proceed farther on the voyage, because if they did, -they should have reason to repent, for their provisions -would fall short and the sails of the ships would not -last, which they knew were already so impaired that it -would be difficult to retrace their course from where -they were; and that none would condemn them for -returning, but that they would be regarded as very -brave men for going upon such an expedition and venturing -so far, and that the admiral being a foreigner, -and having nothing at stake, and as many wise and -learned men had condemned his opinion, there would -be nobody now to favor and defend him, and that they -should get more credit than he if they accused him of -ignorance and mismanagement, whatever he should -say for himself. And there were some who said that -to end all dispute, in case he would not consent to -return, that they could make short work of it and throw -him overboard, and report that while he was making -his observations he fell into the sea, and that no man -would trouble himself to inquire into the truth of the -matter; which deed would hasten their return home -and preserve their lives. Thus they conducted themselves -from day to day, grumbling, complaining, and -conspiring together. The admiral was not without apprehensions -of their inconstancy and evil intentions -toward him. Therefore, sometimes with fair words -and sometimes with a strong determination to expose<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span> -his life, putting them in mind of the punishment due -them if they hindered the voyage, he, in some measure, -quelled their fears and suppressed their evil designs. -To confirm the hope with which he had inspired them, -he reminded them of the previous signs and indications, -assuring them that they would soon find land, -which they were so eager to see that they thought -every hour a year until they beheld it....</p> - -<p>“On Sunday morning [the thirtieth of September], -four rush-tails came to the ship, and as they flew -there together, it was thought that land was near, especially -when, not long afterward, four pelicans flew -by, and an abundance of weeds was seen, lying in a -line west-northwest and east-southeast, and also a -great number of those fishes they call <i>emperadores</i>, -which have a very hard skin and are not fit to eat. -However much the admiral regarded these signs, still -he never forgot those in the heavens and the course of -the stars. He therefore observed in this place, to his -great astonishment, that the stars of Charles’s wain, at -night, appeared in the west, and in the morning they -were directly northeast, from which he inferred that -their whole night’s course was but three lines or nine -hours—that is, so many parts of twenty-four,—and this -he did every night. He also perceived that at night-fall -the compass-needle varied a whole point to the -northwest, and at day-break it came right with the star. -These things confounded the pilots until he told them -that the cause of it was the circuit the star took about -the pole, which was some satisfaction to them, for this -variation made them apprehend some danger at such -an unknown distance from home, and in such strange -regions....</p> - -<p>“On Monday, the first of October, at sunrise, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span> -pelican came to the ship, and two more about ten in the -morning, and long beds of weeds extended from east -to west. That day, in the morning, the pilot of the -admiral’s ship said that they were five hundred and -seventy-eight leagues west of the island of Ferro. The -admiral said, by his reckoning, they were five hundred -and eighty-four leagues; but in secret he concluded it -was seven hundred and seven, which is one hundred -and twenty-nine leagues more than the pilot reckoned. -The other two vessels differed much in their computations, -for the pilot of the caravel Nina, on the following -Wednesday afternoon, said they had sailed five hundred -and forty leagues, and the other of the caravel -Pinta said six hundred and thirty-four....</p> - -<p>“On Thursday afternoon, the fourth of October, a -flock of more than forty sparrows and two pelicans flew -so near the ship that a seaman killed one of them with -a stone; and before this they had seen another bird -like a rush-tail, and another like a swallow, and a great -many flying-fish fell into the vessels. The next day -there came a rush-tail and a pelican from the west, and -great numbers of sparrows were seen.</p> - -<p>“On Sunday, the seventh of October, about sunrise, -some signs of land appeared westward, but being -undefined, no one said any thing, for fear of the consequence -of asserting what did not exist, and also for -fear of losing the thirty crowns which their catholic -majesties had promised as an annuity during the life -of him who should first discover land. In order to -prevent the men from crying land, land, at every turn, -as they would likely have done without cause to secure -the gift, it was ordered that whoever said he saw land, -if it were not ascertained to exist in three days from -that time, should lose the reward, even if afterward he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> -should be declared to be the first discoverer of land. -All on board of the admiral’s ship being thus forewarned, -none dared to cry out land, but those in the -caravel Nina, which was a better sailer, and kept -ahead, once believing that they actually saw land, fired -a gun, and displayed their colors to indicate land. But -the farther they sailed the more their joyous expectations -diminished and the indication of land disappeared. -However, it pleased God to give them soon after some -comforting assurances, for they saw great flocks of large -fowl and others of small birds flying from the west -toward the southwest. Therefore, the admiral, being -now so far from Spain, and sure that such small birds -would not go far from land, altered his course, which -until that time had been westward, and stood to the -southwest, saying, that his reason for changing his -course was that he would deviate but a little from his -first intention and that he would be following the -example of the Portuguese, who had discovered the -greater number of their islands by means of such birds, -and more especially as the birds he saw flew generally -in the same direction. He also had always proposed -to himself to find land according to the place they were -in; since, as they well knew, he had often told them -that he never expected to find land until he was seven -hundred and fifty leagues westward of the Canary -Islands, within which distance, he had further said, he -should discover Española, which, at this time, he -called Cipango....</p> - -<p>“On Monday, the eighth of October, there came -to the ship twelve singing-birds of several colors, and -after flying about the vessel, they held on their way. -They also saw from the vessels many other birds flying -toward the southwest, and that same night great<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> -numbers of large fowls were seen, and flocks of small -birds coming from the north, and flying after the others. -Besides they saw a good number of tunny-fish. In the -morning they saw a jay, a pelican, some ducks, and -small birds, flying the same way as the others had -done, and they perceived that the air was fresh and -odoriferous, as it is at Seville in April. But they -were now so eager to see land, that they had no faith -in any signs; so that, on Wednesday, the tenth of -October, although they saw a great many birds pass -by during the day and at night, the men did not cease -to complain, or the admiral to censure them for their -want of confidence, declaring to them, that right or -wrong they must go farther to discover the Indies -for which purpose their catholic majesties had sent -them.</p> - -<p>“The admiral being no longer able to withstand -the number that opposed him, it pleased God that on -Thursday afternoon, the eleventh of October, the men -took heart and rejoiced, because they had unquestionable -signs that they were near land. Those on board -the admiral’s ship saw a green rush float by the ship, -and then a large green fish of that class which go not -far from the rocks. Those on board the caravel Pinta -saw a cane and a staff, and picked up another staff -curiously wrought, and a small board, and an abundance -of fresh weeds washed from the shore. Those in the -caravel Nina saw similar things, and a branch of a -thorn full of red berries, which seemed to be recently -broken off. By these signs and by his own consciousness, -the admiral, being assured that he was near land, -made a speech to all the men in the evening, after -prayers, reminding them how merciful God had been -in bringing them on so long a voyage with such fair<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span> -weather, and comforting them with indications which -every day were plainer and plainer. He begged them to -be very watchful that night, for they were aware that in -the first article of the instructions he had given each ship -at the Canary Islands, that he had ordered that when -they had sailed seven hundred leagues to the west, -without discovering land, that they should lie to from -midnight until daylight. Therefore, since they had not -yet obtained their desires in discovering land, they -should at least manifest their zeal by being watchful. -And inasmuch as he had the strongest assurances of -finding land that night, each should watch in his place; -for besides the annuity of thirty crowns which their -highnesses had promised for a life-time to the one that -first saw land, to the same person he would give a -velvet doublet.</p> - -<p>“After this, about ten at night, as the admiral was -in the great cabin, he saw a light on shore, but said it -was so obscure that he could not affirm it to be land, -though he called Pedro Gutierrez, and bid him observe -whether he saw the light, who said he did. Shortly -afterward they called Rodrigo Sanchez, of Segovia, to -look that way, but he could not see it, because he did -not come in time to the place where it might have -been seen. They did not see it more than once or -twice, which induced them to think that it might have -been a candle or a torch belonging to some fisherman -or traveller, who lifted it up and down; or, perhaps, -that it was in the hands of people going from one -house to another, as the light vanished and suddenly -appeared again.... Being now very watchful, -they still held on their course, until about two in the -morning, when the caravel Pinta, which, being an excellent -sailer, was far ahead, gave the signal of land,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> -which was first discovered by a sailor named Rodrigo -de Triana, when two leagues from the shore. But the -annuity of thirty crowns was not given to him by their -catholic majesties, but to the admiral, who had seen the -light in the darkness, signifying the spiritual light that he -was then spreading in those dark regions. Being now -near land, all the ships lay to, those on board thinking -it was a long time until morning, when they might see -what they had so long desired.”<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p> - -<p>This island, says Bartolomé de las Casas, the -Spanish historian,<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> was “one of the Lucayos, called by -the Indians Guanahani.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> Presently they descried<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span> -people, naked, and the admiral landed in the boat, -which was armed, along with Martin Alonso Pinzon -and Vicente Yañez, his brother, captain of the Nina. -The admiral bore the royal standard, and the two captains -each a banner of the green cross, which all the -vessels had carried. The banner was emblazoned with -the initials of the names of the king and queen<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> on -each side of the cross, with a crown over each letter. -When they came on the beach, they saw trees very -green, an abundance of water, and fruit of different -kinds. The admiral called the two captains and -the other men who had come on land, and Rodrigo de -Escovedo, notary of the fleet, and Rodrigo Sanchez de -Segovia, and said that he had summoned them to bear -witness that he, before all other men, took possession -(as in act he did) of that island for the king and the -queen, his sovereigns, making the requisite declarations -which are more at large set down in the instrument -which they made there in writing.”</p> - -<p>The natives who collected around the Spaniards at -their landing are thus described by Columbus: “I perceived -that if they should have much friendship for us -that it was a people that could be emancipated and converted -to our holy religion better by love than by force. -I gave a number of them some red caps and some beads -of glass, which they placed around their necks, and -many other things of little value, with which they were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> -much pleased, and they became so friendly that their -attachment seemed strange to us. Afterward they -came swimming to the boats of the ships, where we -were, bringing parrots and thread of cotton in hanks, -javelins, and many other things, which they exchanged -for other articles we gave them, such as glass beads -and little bells. Finally they took every thing and -gave whatever they had with good-will. But to me -they seemed to be a very poor people. They were -all naked, just as they were born, and even the women, -although I did not see but one young girl. All the -rest I saw were youths, but none more than thirty -years of age; very well made, of good shape, and very -attractive faces; their hair coarse as that of the tail of -a horse, and short, brought over the forehead to the -eyebrows, except a little on the back of the head, -which is longer and never cut. Some paint themselves -black, for they are of the color of those of the Canary -Islands—neither black nor white; others paint themselves -white or red, or with any color they find. Some -paint their faces, and some their bodies; others only -their eyes or their noses. They carry no weapons and -they have no knowledge of them; for when I showed -them swords they took them by the edge and they cut -themselves through ignorance. They have no iron. -Their javelins are rods without iron, and some of these -have at the end a fish-tooth, and others have other -things. All of them, as a class, are of a commanding -stature, and are good-looking, well formed. I saw -some marks of wounds on their bodies, and I asked by -signs what had caused them. They answered me in -the same way, that people came from the other islands -thereabout to capture them, and they defended themselves. -I thought then, and still believe, that those<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> -people came from the continent, (<i>tierra firme</i>,) to take -them prisoners. They ought to be good servants and -very capable, because I perceived that they repeated -very readily all that I told them, and I believe that -they would easily become Christians, for they seemed -to me as if they had no religion. If pleasing to our Lord, -I shall carry from this place, at the time of my departure, -six of them to your highnesses, in order that they may -learn to talk in our language. I did not see any animals -of any kind on the island, except parrots....</p> - -<p>“Soon after day-break [on Saturday, the thirteenth -of October,] many of these people came to the beach, as -I have said, all youths and of good stature, a very -handsome people; their hair not curled, but straight -and coarse, like horse-hair, and all with faces and heads -much broader than any other race that I have seen; -their eyes very beautiful and not small; they were -not black, but the color of those of the Canaries, -nor ought it to be expected otherwise, for it is -east-west (<i>Lesteoueste</i>) with the island Ferro of the -Canary group, on the same parallel.<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> ... They -came to the ship in canoes, log-boats, made of the -trunks of trees, all of one piece, and fashioned in a -wonderful manner, considering the country. In some -of the large ones were as many as forty or forty-five -men, and in others that were smaller there was only -one person. They rowed with an oar resembling the -wooden shovel used by bakers, and went wonderfully -fast, and if the canoe upset, all swam and set it right -again, bailing it out with calabashes which they carried -with them. They brought balls of spun cotton, and -parrots, and javelins, and other things which it would be -tedious to describe, and which they parted with for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span> -any thing that was given them. And I was inquisitive -and endeavored to ascertain if they had gold, and I -saw some who wore small pieces hanging from holes -in their noses, and I learned by signs that, by going to -the south, or by going around the island to the south, -I would find a king who had large vessels made of -gold, and great quantities of the precious metal.”<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p> - -<p>Columbus describing this island, which he named -San Salvador (the Holy Saviour), under whose protection -he had made the discovery, continues: “This is -a large and level island, with extremely flourishing -trees, and streams of water. There is a large lake in -the middle of the island, but no mountains. It is -entirely covered with verdure and it is delightful to -behold. The natives are an inoffensive people, and so -desirous to possess any thing they saw with us that -they kept swimming off to the ships with whatever they -could find, and readily bartered for any article we saw -fit to give them in return, even such things as broken -platters and pieces of glass. I saw in this manner sixteen -balls of cotton thread, which weighed about -twenty-five pounds, exchanged for three Portuguese -<i>ceutis</i>.<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> This traffic I forbade, and permitted no one -to take their cotton from them, unless I should order it -to be procured for your highnesses, if sufficient quantities -could be obtained. It grows on this island, but -from my short stay here I could not inform myself -fully respecting it. The gold they wear in their noses -is also found here. But not to lose time, I am determined -to proceed and ascertain whether I can reach -Cipango (Japan)....</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span></p> - -<p>“In the morning, [Sunday, the fourteenth of October,] -I ordered the boats to be manned and furnished, -and coasted along the island toward the north-northeast, -to examine that part of it, for we had landed first -on the eastern part. We soon discovered two -or three villages, and the people all came down to -the shore, calling to us, and giving thanks to -God. Some brought us water, and others food. -Others seeing that I was not disposed to land plunged -into the sea and swam to us, and we observed -that they interrogated us to know if we had come from -heaven. An old man came on board my boat. The -others, both men and women, cried with loud voices: -‘Come and see the men who have come from heaven! -Bring them food and drink!’ Thereupon many of -both sexes came to the beach, every one bringing -something, giving thanks to God, prostrating themselves -on the ground, and lifting their hands to heaven. -They called to us loudly to come on land, but I was -apprehensive on account of a reef of rocks, which, -except where there is a narrow entrance, surrounds the -whole island, although within there is depth of water -and space sufficient for all the ships of Christendom....</p> - -<p>“After I had taken a survey of these parts, I -returned to the ship. Setting sail, I discovered so -many islands that I knew not which to visit first. -The natives whom I had taken on board informed -me by signs that there were so many of them that -they could not be numbered. They repeated the -names of more than a hundred. I determined to -steer for the largest, which is about five leagues from -San Salvador; the others were at a greater or less -distance from this island....</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span></p> - -<p>“We stood off and on during the night [of -Monday, the fifteenth of October], determining not to -come to anchor till morning, fearing to meet with shoals. -We continued our course in the morning, and as the -island was found to be six or seven leagues distant, -and the tide was against us, it was noon before we -arrived there. I found that part of it, toward San -Salvador, extending from north to south to be five -leagues, and the other side, along which we coasted, -running from east to west, to be more than ten leagues. -From this island, espying a still larger one to the -west, I set sail in that direction and kept on till night -without reaching the western extremity of the island, -where I gave it the name of Santa Maria de la -Concepcion.... I now set sail for another -large island to the west.... This island is -nine leagues distant from Santa Maria, in a westerly -direction. This part of it extends from northwest -to southeast, and it appears to be twenty-eight leagues -long, very level, without any mountains, as were San -Salvador and Santa Maria, having a good shore which -was not rocky, except a few ledges under the water, -where it is necessary to anchor at some distance out, -although the water is clear and the bottom can be -seen....” This island he called Fernandina, -in honor of the king of Spain.</p> - -<p>On Friday, the nineteenth of October, he descried -an island, “toward which,” he remarks, “we directed -our course, and before noon all three of the vessels -arrived at the northern extremity, where a rocky islet -and reef extend toward the north, with another between -them and the main island. The Indians on -board the ships called this island Saomete. I named -it Isabela [in honor of the queen]. It lies westerly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span> -from the island of Fernandina, and the coast extends -from the islet twelve leagues west to a cape I called -Cabo Hermoso, for it was a beautiful, round headland, -with a bold shore free from shoals. Part of the shore -is rocky, but the remainder of it, like most of the coast -here, a sandy beach.... This island is the -most beautiful that I have yet seen, the trees in great -numbers, flourishing and tall; the land is higher than -the other islands, and exhibits an eminence, which, -though it cannot be called a mountain, yet it adds a -charm to the appearance of the island, and indicates -the existence of streams of water in the interior. -From this part toward the northeast is an extensive -bay, with many large and dense groves.... I -am not solicitous to examine particularly every thing -here, which, indeed, could not be done in fifty years, -for it is my desire to make all possible discoveries, and -return to your highnesses, if it please our Lord, in -April. However, should I meet with gold or spices in -great quantity, I shall remain till I collect as much as -possible, and for this purpose I am only proceeding in -search of them.” ...</p> - -<p>Under the date of Sunday, the twenty-first of -October, while at anchor off the island of Isabela, -Columbus writes: “I shall depart immediately, if the -weather serve, and sail round the island till I succeed -in meeting with the king, in order to see if I can -acquire any of the gold which, I hear, he possesses. -Afterward I shall set sail for another very large island, -which I believe to be Cipango, according to the signs -I receive from the Indians on board. They call the -island Colba [Cuba], and say there are many large -ships and sailors there. Another island they call -Bosio, and inform me that it is very large. The others<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> -that are on the course I shall examine on the way, and -accordingly as I find gold or spices in abundance, I -shall determine what to do. Nevertheless, I am -determined to proceed to the continent, and visit -the city of Guisay [the city of heaven, the residence -of the Grand Khan], where I shall deliver the letters of -your highnesses to the Grand Khan, and demand an -answer, with which I shall return....</p> - -<p>“Tuesday, the twenty-third of October.... -It is now my determination to depart for the island of -Cuba, which I believe to be Cipango from the accounts -I have received here of the great number and riches of -the people. I have abandoned the intention of staying -here and sailing round the island in search of the -king, as it would be a waste of time, and I perceive -there are no gold mines to be found.... And -as we are going to places where there is great commerce, -I judge it inexpedient to linger on the way, but -to proceed and survey the countries we meet with, till -we arrive at that one most favorable for our business. -It is my opinion that we shall find much profit there in -spices, but my want of knowledge in these articles -occasions me extreme regret, inasmuch as I see a -thousand kinds of trees, each kind with its particular -fruit, and as flourishing at this time as the fields in -Spain during the months of May and June. Likewise -a thousand kinds of herbs and flowers, of the properties -of which I remain in ignorance, with the exception -of the aloe, which I have directed to-day to be taken -on board in large quantities for the use of your highnesses....</p> - -<p>“Wednesday, the twenty-fourth of October.... -At midnight weighed anchor and set sail from -Cabo del Isles of the island of Isabela, being in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span> -north part, where I had remained preparing to depart -for the island of Cuba, in which place the Indians tell -me I shall find great commerce, with abundance of gold -and spices, and large ships, and merchants. They -direct me to steer toward the west-southwest, which is -the course I am holding. If the accounts which the -natives of the islands and those on board the ships -have communicated to me by signs (for their language -I do not understand) are credible, this must be the island -of Cipango, of which we have heard so many wonderful -things. According to my geographical knowledge -it must be somewhere in this neighborhood.”</p> - -<p>On Sunday, the twenty-eighth of October, Columbus’s -ships arrived off the coast of Cuba and “entered -an attractive river, free from shallows and all other obstructions.... -The mouth of the river had a -depth of twelve fathoms of water, and a breadth sufficient -for ships to beat in. They anchored within the -river, and the admiral remarks that the scenery here -exceeded in beauty any thing he had ever seen, the -river being bordered with trees of the most beautiful -and luxuriant foliage of a peculiar appearance, and its -banks covered with flowers and fruits of different kinds. -Birds were here in great number singing most -charmingly. Numerous palm trees were seen, different -from those of Guinea and Spain, not having the same -kind of bark. They were of a moderate height and bore -very large leaves, which the natives used to cover their -houses. The land appeared quite level. The admiral -went ashore in a boat, and found two dwellings, which -he supposed to be those of fishermen, and that the -owners had fled. He found in one of them a dog unable -to bark. Both houses contained nets of palm, -lines, horn fish-hooks, harpoons of bone, and other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> -implements for fishing, as also many fire-places, and each -house seemed sufficiently large to shelter a great number -of people. The admiral gave orders that nothing -should be touched.... They returned on board -the boat and ascended the river some distance.... -The admiral declares this to be the most beautiful -island ever seen, abounding in good harbors and deep -rivers, with a shore upon which it appears the sea -never breaks high, as the grass grows down to the -water’s edge, a thing that never happens where the sea -is rough. Indeed, a high sea they had not yet had -among these islands. This island, he says, is full of -attractive mountains, which are lofty, although not of -great range. The rest of the country is high, similar -to Sicily, abounding in streams, as they understood -from the Indians of Guanahani that were on board the -ships, who informed them by signs that it contained -ten large rivers, and that the island was so large that -with their canoes they could not sail round it in twenty -days.... The Indians told them there were -mines of gold here and pearls.... They further -informed him that large vessels came there from -the Grand Khan, and that the main-land was distant a -voyage of ten days. The admiral named the river and -port San Salvador.” Farther westward, along the -northern side of the island, Columbus discovered the -rivers which he called Rio de la Luna (River of the -Moon), and the Rio de Mares (River of Seas). The -houses which were built on the shores of the latter -river, he says, were “the finest he had yet seen, and -thinks, the nearer he approaches the continent, they -will continue to improve. They were of a large size, -built in the shape of a tent, and each collection of them -appeared like a camp, without any order of streets, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> -houses scattered here and there. Their interiors were -found very clean and neat, well furnished and set in -order. The houses were all built of fine palm branches. -They found here many statues shaped like women, and -numerous heads somewhat like masks, well made; -whether these were used as ornaments, or objects of -worship, did not appear. Here, about the houses, -were small fowl originally wild, but now tame.”</p> - -<p>On Tuesday, the thirtieth of October, “they sailed -from the river which they had named Rio de Mares, and -standing to the northwest, discovered a cape covered -with palm trees, which the admiral called Cabo de Palmas; -it is fifteen leagues distant from the place of their -departure. The Indians on board the Pinta signified to -the Spaniards, that beyond this cape was a river, and -from this river to Cuba was a distance of a voyage or a -journey of four days. The captain of the Pinta declared -that he understood Cuba to be a city, and that the -land here was a continent of great extent which -stretched far to the north; also that the king of this -country was at war with the Grand Khan, whom the Indians -called Cami, and his country or city, Fava and -other names. The admiral determined to steer for -this river, and to send a present and the letter of the -Spanish sovereigns to the king.... Seemingly -the admiral was forty-two degrees distant from the -equator toward the north, if the manuscript is not corrupted -from which I [Las Casas] have taken this -[information], and he says that he had undertaken to -go to the Grand Khan, who, he thinks, was near -there or in the city of Cathay of the Grand Khan, -which city is very large according to what was told -before he departed from Spain.”</p> - -<p>The vessels having returned on Wednesday to the -Rio de Mares from a short exploration of the coast, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span> -admiral at sunrise, on Thursday, sent some of his men -ashore “to visit the houses they saw there. They -found the inhabitants had all fled, but after some time -they espied a man. The admiral then sent one of his -Indians ashore, who called to him from a distance and -bade him not to fear any harm as the Spaniards were -a friendly people, not injuring any one nor belonging -to the Grand Khan, but on the contrary had made -many presents of their goods to the inhabitants of the -islands. The natives, having ascertained that no ill -treatment was intended them, regained confidence, and -came in more than sixteen canoes to the vessels, bringing -cotton yarn and other things, which the admiral -ordered should not be taken from them, as he wished -them to understand that he was in search of nothing but -gold, which they called <i>nucay</i>. All day the canoes -passed between the ships and the shore. The admiral -saw no gold among them, but remarks that, having observed -an Indian with a piece of wrought silver in his -nose, he conceived it to be an indication of the existence -of that metal in the country. The Indians informed -them by signs that within three days many -traders would come there from the interior to purchase -the goods of the Spaniards to whom the traders would -communicate news of the king, who, as far as could be -learned from the signs of the natives, resided at a -place that was a journey of four days from there. -They informed the Spaniards also that many persons -had been sent to tell the king respecting the admiral. -These people were found to be of the same race and -manners as those already seen, without any religion -that could be discovered. The Spaniards never saw -the Indians who were kept on board the vessels engaged -in any act of worship, but they would, when directed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span> -make the sign of the cross, and repeat the <i>Salve</i> -and <i>Ave Maria</i>, with their hands extended toward -heaven. The language is the same throughout these -islands and the people friendly toward one another, -which the admiral says he believes to be the case in -all the neighboring parts, and that they are at war with -the Grand Khan, whom they call Cavila, and his country -Bafan. These people go naked as the others.... -It is certain, says the admiral, that this is the continent, -and that we are in the neighborhood of Zayto and -Guinsay, a hundred leagues more or less distant from -the one or the other.”<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> - -<p>With his thoughts all aglow with his seeming -power to prove the correctness of his geographical -conjecture that he had reached the eastern coast of -Asia, Columbus sent from this place, on the second of -November, Rodrigo de Jerez of Ayamonte, and Luis -de Torres, a Jew, (the latter having lived with the -adelantado of Murcia, and who knew Hebrew, Chaldaic, -and some Arabic,) and two Indians, into the -interior of the island, with letters to the Grand Khan -of Cathay. “He gave them strings of beads to purchase -provisions, and directed them to return within -six days. Specimens of spicery were intrusted to them -that they might know if any thing similar existed in -the country. He took care to instruct them how they -should inquire for the king, and what they were to say -to inform him that the king and queen of Castile had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> -dispatched him with letters and a present for his majesty. -Furthermore, the envoys were instructed to obtain -some knowledge of the country, and observe the ports -and rivers, with their distances from the place where -the ships lay. Here the admiral took this night the -altitude with a quadrant, and found that he was forty-two -degrees from the equator, and by his calculation -eleven hundred and forty-two leagues from Ferro, and -he was confident that it was the continent.”<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p> - -<p>Among the noticeable things which the embassadors -observed while journeying into the interior of -Cuba was the common use of tobacco by the natives. -“The two Spaniards,” says Las Casas, “met upon -their journey great numbers of people of both sexes: -the men always with a firebrand in their hands and -certain herbs for smoking. These were dry and were -placed in a dry leaf, after the manner of those paper -tubes which the boys in Spain use at Whitsuntide. -Lighting one end, they drew the smoke by sucking at -the other. This causes drowsiness and a kind of intoxication, -and according to the statement of the natives -relieves them from the feeling of fatigue. These tubes -they call by the name of <i>tabacos</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></p> - -<p>While waiting the return of the embassadors to the -Grand Khan, Columbus acquired some knowledge of -the productions of Cuba. “The soil is very fertile, producing -<i>mames</i>, a root like a carrot, tasting like chestnuts. -Beans are also found here but very dissimilar -to ours; also cotton, growing spontaneously among -the mountains. I am of the opinion that it is gathered -at all seasons of the year, for I observed upon a single<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> -plant blossoms, buds, and open pods. A thousand -other productions I have also observed, which doubtless -are of great value, but it is impossible for me to -describe them.”</p> - -<p>On the fifth of November, the party sent to the -Grand Khan returned, and gave these particulars of -their journey: “After having travelled a dozen leagues -they came to a town containing about fifty houses, -where there were probably a thousand inhabitants; -each house containing a large number of people. The -houses were built after the manner of large tents. The -inhabitants received them, after their fashion, with great -ceremony. The men and women flocked to behold -them, and they were lodged in their best houses. They -showed their admiration and reverence by touching -the strangers, kissing their hands and feet, and manifesting -astonishment. They imagined them to be from -heaven, and signified as much to them. They were -feasted with such food as the natives had to offer. -Upon their arrival at the town the chief men of the -place led them by the arms to the principal building; -here they gave them seats, and the Indians sat upon -the ground in a circle round them. The Indians who -had accompanied the Spaniards explained to the -natives the manner in which their strange guests -lived, and gave a favorable account of their character. -The men then left the building, and the women entered, -and sat around the Spaniards as the men had -done. They kissed their hands and feet and examined -them to see whether they were flesh and bone like -their own.... No village was seen upon the -road of a larger size than five houses.... Great -numbers of birds were observed, all different from -those of Spain except the nightingales, which delighted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span> -them with their songs. Partridges and geese were -also found in great number. Of quadrupeds they saw -none except dogs that could not bark. The soil appeared -fertile and under good cultivation, producing the -<i>mames</i> already mentioned and beans very dissimilar -to ours, as well as the grain called <i>panic</i>. They saw -large quantities of cotton, spun and manufactured. -A single house contained more than five hundred -<i>arrobas</i><a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> of it. Four thousand quintals might be collected -here yearly.... These people are inoffensive -and peaceable. They are unclothed, but the women -wear a slight covering about their loins. Their manners -are very decent, and their complexion not very -dark, but lighter than the inhabitants of the Canary -Islands. ‘I have no doubt, most serene sovereigns,’ -says the admiral, ‘that were some proper, devout, and -religious persons to come among them and learn their -language, it would be an easy matter to convert them -all to Christianity, and I hope in our Lord that your -highnesses will devote yourselves with much diligence -to this object, and bring as great a multitude into the -church, inasmuch as you have exterminated those who -refused to confess the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.’</p> - -<p>“I have observed that these people have no religion, -neither are they idolaters, but are a very gentle race, -without the knowledge of any iniquity. They neither -kill, steal, nor carry weapons, and are so timid that one -of our men can put a hundred of them to flight, although -they readily sport and play tricks with them. -They have the knowledge that there is a God above, -and are firmly persuaded that we have come from -heaven. They quickly learn such prayers as we repeat -to them, and also to make the sign of the cross.’ ...</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span></p> - -<p>“Along the Rio de Mares, which I left last evening, -[Sunday, the eleventh of November,] there is undoubtedly -considerable mastic, and the quantity might be -increased, for the trees when transplanted easily take -root. They are of a lofty size, bearing leaves and fruit -like the lentisk. The tree, however, is taller and has a -larger leaf than the lentisk, as is mentioned by Pliny, -and as I have myself observed in the island of Scio, in -the Archipelago. I ordered many of these trees to be -tapped in order to extract the resin, but as the weather -was rainy all the time I was on the river, I was unable -to procure more than a very small quantity, which I -have preserved for your highnesses.... Great -quantities of cotton might be raised here, and sold -profitably, as I think, without being carried to Spain, -but to the cities of the Grand Khan, which we shall -doubtless discover, as well as many others belonging to -other sovereigns. These may become a source of -profit to your highnesses by trading there with the -productions of Spain and of the other countries of -Europe. Here also is to be found plenty of aloe, -which, however, is not of very great value, but the -mastic assuredly is, as it is found nowhere else than in -the previously mentioned island of Scio, where, if I -rightly remember, it is produced to the amount of fifty -thousand ducats annually.”</p> - -<p>Columbus further remarks, that at this point, near -the river which he had called Rio del Sol, “he found -the weather somewhat cold, and, as it was in the winter, -he thought it not prudent to prosecute his discoveries -any farther toward the north.”<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;" id="map2"> -<a href="images/map2-full.jpg"><img src="images/map2.jpg" width="275" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">A copy of a part of the map of the New World -(tabvla terre nove) contained in the edition of Ptolemy’s Geography -printed at Strasburg in 1513. (This part of the original is 9½ inches -long.)</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span></p> - -<p>Speaking of his explorations along the coast of -Cuba, in his letter to Rafael Sanchez, the admiral says: -“I sailed along its coast toward the west, discovering -so great an extent of territory that I could not imagine -it to be an island, but the continent of Cathay.... -I continued on my course, still expecting to meet with -some town or city, but after having gone a great distance, -and not arriving at any, and finding myself -proceeding toward the north, which I was desirous to -avoid on account of the cold, and, moreover, meeting -with a contrary wind, I determined to return to the south, -and therefore put about and sailed back to a harbor that -I had observed.”<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p> - -<p>On Monday, the twelfth of November, they had -sailed by sunset eighteen leagues, east by south, to a -cape which Columbus called Cabo de Cuba. “On the -following Wednesday he entered a spacious and deep -harbor,” containing so many islands that they could not -be counted.... He declares that it is his opinion -these islands are the innumerable ones which, on -the maps, are placed at the extreme part of the East, -and says that he believes they contain great riches, -precious stones, and spicery, and extend far to the south, -spreading out on each side. He named this place La -Mar de Nuestra Senora, and the port, near the strait -that extends to these islands, Puerto del Principe.</p> - -<p>On Wednesday, the twenty-first of November, -when the vessels were about eighty miles southeast of -Puerto del Principe, “the admiral” says Las Casas, -“found they were forty-two degrees north of the -equator as at Puerto de Mares,<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> but he says here that -he has stopped using the quadrant until he should go<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span> -on land that he might mend it. From this statement -it would seem that he doubted that he was so far from -the equator, and he had reason, for it was not likely -since these islands are in ⸺ degrees.<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> To know -whether the quadrant was in good working order, it is -said that he took an observation to see if he was north -as high as Castile; and if this be true, and he was as -high as Florida, what is the situation of the islands -already mentioned?<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> Moreover, it is said that the -heat was great. It is evident that if he were along -the coast of Florida, it should not have been hot, but -cold.<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> And it is also manifest that in no part of the -world in the latitude of forty-two degrees is great heat -experienced except by some accidental cause, and even -this exception I [Las Casas] believe has never been -known.”</p> - -<p>A number of other places were sailed to by the -inquisitive navigator, which, in the chronological order -of their discovery, he named Puerto de Santa Catalina, -Cabo del Pico, Cabo de Campana, and Puerto<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span> -Santo. At this last-named harbor, on Saturday, the first -of December, “they planted a cross in the solid rock.” -Thence he sailed to Cabo Lindo, and thence to Cabo -del Monte. On Wednesday, the fifth of December, -“he determined to leave Cuba or Juana,<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> which -hitherto he had taken for a continent on account -of its size, having sailed along the coast a hundred and -twenty leagues. He therefore left the shore and -steered southeast by east, as the land last discovered -appeared in that direction. He took this course because -the wind always came round from the north to -northeast, and from there to east and southeast. It -blew hard and they carried all sail, having a smooth -sea and a current favoring them, so that from morning -to one in the afternoon they had sailed eight miles an -hour for nearly six hours. The nights here are said to -be nearly fifteen hours long. After this they went -ten miles an hour, and by sunset had sailed toward the -southeast eighty-eight miles, which are twenty-two -leagues.”</p> - -<p>On Thursday, the sixth of December, Columbus -“found himself four leagues from the harbor named -Puerto Maria.” From this place he descried several -headlands to which he respectively gave the names of -Cabo del Estrella, Cabo del Elefante, and Cabo de -Cinquin. “There appeared to be between the two -last-mentioned capes a very wide channel, which the -sailors said separated an island from the mainland. -This island he named Tortuga. The land here appeared -high, and not mountainous, but even and level, -like the finest arable tracts. The whole or the great -part of it seemed to be cultivated, and the plantations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span> -resembled the wheat fields in the plain of Cordova in -the month of May.”</p> - -<p>In the evening the ships entered the harbor -“which he named Puerto de San Nicolas, for it was -the day of that saint.” On Friday he found the harbor -which he named Puerto de la Concepcion. This -harbor “is about a thousand paces or a quarter of a -league wide at the mouth, without a bank or a shoal, -but exceedingly deep to the edge of the beach. It -extends almost three thousand paces, with a fine clear -bottom. Any ship may enter it and anchor without -the least hazard. Here are two small streams, and -opposite the mouth of the harbor several plains, the -most beautiful in the world, resembling those of Castile, -except that they surpass them. On this account -the admiral named the island Española.”<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a></p> - -<p>On Wednesday, the twelfth of December, “a large -cross was set up at the entrance of the harbor upon a -beautiful spot upon the western side, ‘as an indication,’ -in the words of the admiral, ‘that your highnesses -possess the country, and particularly for a memorial of -Jesus Christ, our Lord, and the mark of Christianity.’ ... -The admiral here ascertained the length of -the day and night, and found that from sunrise to sunset -there passed twenty glasses of half an hour each, -although he says there may be some error in the calculation, -as the glass may not have been turned quickly -enough, or the contrary. He states further, that he -took an observation with the astrolabe and found the -latitude to be seventeen degrees....</p> - -<p>“The people here were all naked, king as well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span> -as subjects, the females showing no evidences of bashfulness. -Both sexes were more handsome than those -they had hitherto seen. Their color was light, and if -they were clothed and protected from the sun and air -they would almost be as fair as the inhabitants of Spain. -The temperature of the air was cool and exceedingly -pleasant. The land is high, covered with plains -and valleys, and the highest mountains are arable. No -part of Castile could produce a territory comparable to -this in beauty and fertility. The whole island and that -of Tortuga are covered with cultivated fields, like the -plain of Cordova. In these they raise <i>ajes</i>, which are -slips set in the ground, at the end of which roots grow -like carrots. They grate these to powder, knead it, -and make it into bread of a very pleasant taste, like -that of chestnuts. The stalk is set out anew and produces -another root, and this is repeated four or five -times. The largest and most excellent that had been -met with anywhere (the admiral says they are also -found in Guinea) were those of this island, being of the -size of a man’s leg. The natives here, according to the -statement of the admiral, were stoutly built and courageous, -very different from the timid islanders of the -other parts; agreeable in their intercourse and without -any religion.... They saw a native whom the -admiral took to be the governor of the district, and -whom the Indians called the cacique. He had a plate -of gold as large as one’s hand, with which he seemed -desirous of bartering. He carried it to his house and -had it cut into pieces, which he traded away one by -one.”</p> - -<p>One of the caciques of the island sent a messenger -to Columbus bearing as a present to him “a girdle, to -which was attached, instead of a pouch, a mask having -the nose, tongue, and ears of beaten gold.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span></p> - -<p>“I think,” Columbus writes, “no one who has seen -these parts can say less in their praise than I -have said. I repeat that it is a matter of wonder to -see the things we have beheld, and the multitudes of -people in this island, which I call Española, and the -Indians Bohio. The natives are singularly agreeable in -their intercourse and conversation with us, and are not -like the others, who, when they speak, appear to be -uttering menaces. The figures of the men and women -are fine, and their color is not black, although they -paint themselves. The most of them paint themselves -red, others a dark hue, and others different colors, which, -I understand, is done to keep the sun from injuring -them. The houses and towns are very attractive, and -the inhabitants live in each settlement under the rule -of a sovereign or judge, to whom they pay implicit -obedience. These magistrates are persons of excellent -manners and great reserve, and give their orders by a -sign with the hand, which is understood by all the -people with surprising quickness.”</p> - -<p>On Monday, the twenty-fourth of December, as -Columbus’s ship, the Santa Maria, was running along -the north side of Española, off the headland named -Punta Santa, “at the end of the first watch, about -eleven at night, when the vessel was about a league distant -from the point of land, the admiral lay down to -sleep, having taken no rest for two days and a night. -As the sea was calm, the man at the helm left his post -to a boy, and also went off to sleep, contrary to -the explicit orders of the admiral, who had throughout -the voyage forbidden, in calm or storm, the helm to be -intrusted to a boy. The admiral was free from any -dread of rocks or shoals, for the Sunday before, when -he sent the sailors in boats to the king who had invited<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> -him to visit him, they had passed three and a half -leagues to the east of Punta Santa, and had surveyed -the whole coast for three leagues beyond that point, -and ascertained where the vessels might pass, a -thing never done before in the whole voyage. But as -it pleased our Lord, at midnight there being a dead -calm and the sea perfectly motionless, as in a cup, the -whole crew, seeing the admiral had retired, went off to -sleep, leaving the ship in the care of the boy already -mentioned. The current carried her imperceptibly -toward the shoals in the neighborhood, upon which she -struck with a noise that could have been heard a league -off.”</p> - -<p>Although every thing was done to keep the damaged -vessel afloat by Columbus and the few men who remained -on board, “she opened between her ribs and -slowly settled down on the shoal.” On the morning of -Christmas the ship was unloaded with the assistance of -the natives, who with their canoes conveyed the goods -in her to the beach. These were afterward stowed in -some houses which the cacique of the region had offered -to Columbus for that purpose. The same ruler afterward -gave the admiral a large mask, with pieces of gold -at the ears, eyes, and other parts of it, and also some -jewels of the same metal. “All these things had a great -effect upon the admiral in assuaging his grief for the -loss of his ship, and he became convinced that our -Lord had permitted the shipwreck in order that he -might select this place for a settlement.</p> - -<p>“‘And to this end,’ he says, ‘so many favorable -things conspired, that it cannot be called a disaster, but -a great turn of good fortune, for if we had not run -aground, we should have kept off without anchoring -here, the place being in a large bay inside of two or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> -three shoals. Neither should I otherwise have been -induced to leave any men in these parts during the -voyage; even if I had, I could not have spared them the -needful provisions and materials for their fortification. -Many of my crew have solicited me for permission to -remain, and I have to-day [Wednesday, the twenty-sixth -of December] ordered the construction of a fort, -with a tower and a ditch, all to be well built, not that I -think such a fortification necessary as a defence against -the inhabitants, for I have already stated that with my -present crew I could subjugate the whole island, which -I believe to be larger than the kingdom of Portugal, -and twice as populous, but that I think it prudent, since -the territory is at such a distance from our country, and -that the natives may understand the genius of the -people of your highnesses and what they are able to -perform, so that they may be held in obedience by fear -as well as by love. For this purpose I have directed -that a quantity of timber for the construction of the fort -shall be provided, also bread and wine be left to suffice -for more than a year, seed for planting, the long-boat of -the ship, a calker, a carpenter, a gunner, a cooper, and -many other persons of the number of those who have -earnestly desired to serve your highnesses, and oblige -me by remaining here and searching for the gold -mine.’”</p> - -<p>The admiral further remarks “that every piece of -the ship was saved, for not even so much as a thong, -board, or nail was lost, for she was as complete as -when she first sailed, except that which was lost by -cutting her to get out the casks and merchandise. -These were carried on shore and well secured, as has -already been mentioned. He adds that he hopes to -find, on his return from Castile, a ton of gold collected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span> -by those who remained, by trading with the natives, -and that they will have succeeded in discovering the -mine and the spices, and all these in such quantities -that before three years the king and queen may undertake -the recovery of the holy sepulchre. ‘For I have -before proposed to your highnesses,’ he writes, ‘that -the profits of this undertaking should be employed in -the conquest of Jerusalem, at which your highnesses -smiled and said you were pleased, and had the same -inclination.’”</p> - -<p>“He left on the island of Española, which the Indians -called Bohio, a fort and thirty-nine men, whom -he states to have been great friends of King Guacanagari. -Over these he placed Diego de Arana, a -native of Cordova, Pedro Gutierrez, groom of the king’s -wardrobe, and Rodrigo de Escovedo, a native of Seville -and nephew of Fray Rodrigo Perez, with all the -powers the king and queen had delegated to him. He -left them all the goods which had been sent for trafficking, -a great quantity, and every thing belonging to the -ship which had been wrecked. The goods he directed -should be traded away for gold.”</p> - -<p>In commemoration of the day of Christ’s nativity, -on which his ship was wrecked at this place, he called the -settlement Villa de la Navidad (city of the Nativity). -He further writes in his journal that “he had heard -of another island behind that of Juana, toward the south, -in which there was a still greater quantity of gold, and -where it was found in grains of the size of a bean.... -This island was called by the Indians Yamaye.”<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p> - -<p>“It was the admiral’s intention to coast farther -along the island of Española, which he might have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> -done upon his homeward course, but as he considered -that the captains of the two caravels were brothers, -namely, Martin Alonso Pinzon and Vicente Yañez, and -that they had a party attached to them, and that they and -their partisans had manifested considerable haughtiness -and avarice, disobeying his commands regardless of the -honors he had conferred upon them, which misdemeanors, -as well as the treachery of Martin Alonso, in -deserting him,<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> he had winked at, without complaining, -in order not to throw impediments in the way of the -voyage—he thought it best to return home as quickly -as possible. He adds that he had many faithful men -among his crews, but resolved to overlook for the time -the behavior of the refractory ones, and not at such an -unfavorable season undertake to punish them.”</p> - -<p>On Tuesday, the fifteenth of January, while the -caravels were anchored in the bay which he called the -Golfo de las Flechas (the Gulf of Arrows), he describes -the weapons of the natives. “The bows,” he says, -“are equal in size to those of France and England, -and the arrows like the javelins used by the inhabitants -of the other islands, which are made of the stalks of the -cane while it is in seed. They are very straight, about -a yard and a half in length, and doubled, with a sharp -piece of wood, a span and a half long, at the end. At -the point of this some attach a fish’s tooth, but the -most of them grass.... The bows of the Indians -appear to be made of yew.” The quantity of -sea-weed which he found growing in this bay led Columbus -to infer that the Indies were near the Canary -Islands, not more than four hundred leagues distant.</p> - -<p>On Wednesday morning, the sixteenth of January,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> -they set sail from the Golfo de las Flechas, to go to the -island of Carib. “After sailing sixty-four miles, as they -estimated, the Indians on board signified that the island -was to the southeast, when they altered their course, -and proceeded in that direction, and after sailing several -leagues the wind freshened and blew very favorably -for their return to Spain. The crews began to grow -despondent at leaving their homeward course, on account -of the leaky condition of the vessels, (for there -was no remedy for it but the help of God,) and the -admiral found himself constrained to change his course -again, and steer directly for Spain.”<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> - -<p>Columbus, afterward writing to Rafael Sanchez respecting -his explorations along the coast of Española, -remarks that the island of Española is “greater in circuit -than all of Spain, from Colibre in Catalonia, near -Perpignan, round the coast of the sea of Spain, along -Granada, Portugal, Galicia, and Biscay, to Fuenterabia, -at the cape of Biscay.... Each native, as far as -I can understand, has one wife, with the exception of -the king and princes, who are permitted to have as many -as twenty. The women appear to do more work than -the men. Whether there exist any such thing here -as private property, I have not been able to ascertain. -I have seen an individual appointed to distribute to -the others, especially food and such things.</p> - -<p>“People of an extraordinary description I did not -see, neither did I hear of any, except those of the island -Caris, which is the second island on the way from -Española to India. This island is inhabited by a people -who are regarded by their neighbors as exceedingly -ferocious. They feed upon human flesh. These people -have many kinds of canoes with which they make<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span> -incursions upon all the islands of India, robbing and -plundering wherever they go. Their difference from -the others consists in their wearing long hair like that -of women, and in using bows and arrows of cane; -these last constructed, as I have already related, by -fixing a piece of sharpened wood at the larger end. -On this account they are considered very ferocious by -the other Indians, and are much feared by them.”<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p> - -<p>Speaking of the pecuniary profits of the voyage -Columbus wrote: “I am enabled to promise the acquisition, -by a trifling assistance from their majesties, -of any quantity of gold, drugs, cotton, and mastic, -which last article is found in the island of Scio; also, -any quantity of aloe, and as many slaves for the service -of the marine as their majesties may need. The -same may be said of rhubarb and a great variety of -other things which, I have no doubt, will be discovered -by those I have left at the fort, as I did not stop at any -single place, unless obliged to do so by the weather -with the exception of Villa de la Navidad, where we -remained some time to build the fort and provide the -necessary means for the defence of the place.</p> - -<p>“Although the discoveries actually accomplished -appear great and surprising, yet I should have achieved -much more had I been furnished with a suitable fleet. -Nevertheless the great success of this undertaking is -not to be ascribed to my own merits, but to the holy -catholic faith and to the piety of our sovereigns, -the Lord often granting to men what they never -imagine themselves capable of accomplishing, even -that which appears impracticable, for he is accustomed -to hear the prayers of his servants and those who love -his commandments. In this way has it happened to me<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> -that I have succeeded in an undertaking never before -accomplished by man.”<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p> - -<p>On Thursday night, the fourteenth of February, a -violent tempest arose, “the waves crossing and dashing -against one another so that the vessel [the Nina] -was overwhelmed, and not able to get out from between -them. The foresail was set very low, in order to carry -her somewhat out of her dangerous situation. They -stood under it for three hours, going twenty miles, -when the wind and sea increasing, they began to drive -before it, not having any other deliverance. At the -same time the Pinta, in which was Martin Alonso -Pinzon, began to scud likewise, and they soon lost sight -of her, although the two caravels made signals to each -other with lights, until from the fury of the storm they -were no longer visible.” The fear of being lost now -overcame Columbus and his men. They prayed and -made many vows. “The admiral ordered that lots -should be cast for one of them [if they safely reached -land] to go on a pilgrimage to Santa Maria of Guadalupe -and carry a wax taper of five pounds’ weight. He -made them all to take an oath that the one on whom the -lot fell should perform the pilgrimage. For this purpose -as many peas were selected as there were persons -on board. One of the peas was marked with a cross, -and all were shaken together in a cap. The first who -put his hand into the cap was the admiral, and he drew -out the crossed pea. So the lot fell on him, and he -considered himself as bound to accomplish the pilgrimage. -Another lot was taken for a pilgrimage to -Santa Maria of Loretto, in the province of Ancona, -the territory of the pope, where is the house in which -Our Lady has performed so many miracles. This lot<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> -fell on a sailor of Puerto de Santa Maria, called Pedro -de Villa. The admiral promised to furnish him with -the money for his expenses. A third lot was determined -upon for the selection of a person who should -watch a whole night in Santa Clara de Moguer, and -have a mass said there. This lot fell on the admiral. -After this he and all the crew made a vow to go in -procession, clothed in penitential garments, to the first -church dedicated to Our Lady which they should meet -with on arriving on land, and there pay their devotions. -Besides these general vows, every individual made a -private one, all expecting to be lost, so terrible was the -violence of the hurricane. Their danger was increased -by the want of ballast in the vessel, ... which -the admiral had neglected to supply among the islands, -because he wished to husband his time in making discoveries, -and expected to take in ballast at the island -of Matinino, which he intended to visit. The only -thing that they could do in this emergency was to fill -with sea-water such empty casks as they could find, -and by doing this they obtained some relief.</p> - -<p>“Here the admiral speaks of the circumstances -which caused him to fear that our Lord would suffer -them to perish, and of some which made him hope -that he would bring them safe to land, and not allow -the important information they were carrying to the -king and queen to be lost. He seems to have felt -the greatest anxiety to have his wonderful discovery -known, so that the world might be convinced that his -assertions had been correct and that he had accomplished -what he had professed himself able to do. The -thought of this not being done gave him the greatest -disquietude, and he was constantly apprehending that -the most trifling thing might defeat his whole intention.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> -He ascribes this to his want of faith and confidence in -a divine providence, but comforts himself by reflecting -upon the many mercies God had shown him in having -enabled him to succeed in his project, when so many -adversities and hindrances opposed him in Castile, and -afterward to accomplish his great discovery. And as -he had made the service of God the aim and business -of his undertaking, and as he had hitherto favored him -by granting all his desires, he indulges in the hope that -he will continue to favor him, and will give him a safe -return. He also remembered that God had delivered -him on the outward voyage, when he had much greater -reason to fear; that the eternal God gave him resolution -and courage to withstand his men when they -conspired against him and with a unanimous and -menacing determination resolved to turn back. With -these thoughts, and the consideration of other wonderful -favors he had enjoyed, he says he ought not to be -in fear of the tempest; but he adds that his apprehensions -and the anguish of his mind would not allow him -to rest. Besides, he continues, his anxiety was increased -by reflecting upon the condition of his two -sons whom he had left at their studies in Cordova,—these -would be left orphans in a foreign land, and the -king and queen being ignorant of the services he had -rendered them by the voyage, would not feel any -inclination to provide for them. On this account, and -that their highnesses might be informed that our Lord -had granted success to the undertaking in the discovery -of the Indies, and might know that storms did not prevail -in those regions (which was apparent from the -plants and trees growing down to the brink of the sea), -he devised the means of acquainting them with the -circumstances of the voyage in case they should perish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> -in the storm. This he did by writing an account of it on -parchment, as full as possible, and earnestly entreated -the finder to carry it to the king and queen of Spain. -The parchment was rolled up in a waxed cloth and -well tied. A large wooden cask being brought, he -placed the roll inside of it, and threw the cask into -the sea, none of the crew knowing what it was, but all -thinking that it was some act of devotion.”<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p> - -<p>On the sixteenth of February the Nina reached the -Azores, and two days afterward was riding at anchor at -the island of Santa Maria. Departing from the Azores -on the twenty-fourth of February, the Nina again encountered -another storm, which caused Columbus to -take refuge in the mouth of the river Tagus, on the -fourth of March. From this roadstead he sent a -courier overland to Spain bearing the intelligence of -his arrival at this haven on the coast of Portugal, and -another to the king of Portugal to ask permission to -anchor in the harbor of Lisbon.</p> - -<p>When, on the sixth of March, it became known in -Lisbon, says Ferdinand Columbus, “that the ship came -from the Indies, such throngs of people went aboard -to see the Indians and to hear the news, that the vessel -could not contain them, and the water was covered -with boats, some of the people praising God for the -success of so great an undertaking, and others storming -because the Portuguese had lost the discovery through -the king’s incredulity.... The next day the -king wrote to the admiral congratulating him on his -safe return, and expressing the desire, since the admiral -was in his dominions, that he would visit him [at Valparaiso, -nine leagues from Lisbon].... The -king ordered all the nobility of his court to go out to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> -meet him, and when the admiral came into the presence -of the king, he honored him by commanding him -to put on his cap and to sit down. The king, having -heard the particulars of his fortunate voyage, offered -him all he stood in need of for the service of their -catholic majesties, although he thought that as the -admiral had been a captain in the service of Portugal, -that the discovery belonged to him. To which the admiral -answered that he knew of no agreement by which -he could obtain it, and that he had strictly obeyed his -orders, which were that he should not go to the mines -of Portugal or to Guinea. The king said that it was -all well, and he did not doubt but justice would be -done. Having spent considerable time in this conversation, -the king commanded the prior of Crato, the -greatest man then about him, to entertain the admiral, -and show him all civility and respect, which was done -accordingly. Having remained there all Sunday, and -all Monday until after mass, the admiral took leave of -the king.... As he was on his way to Lisbon, -he passed a monastery, where the queen was, who sent -him an earnest entreaty that he would not pass by without -seeing her. She was much pleased to see him, and -bestowed upon him all the favor and honor that were -due to the greatest lord. That night a messenger came -from the king to the admiral, to inform him that if he -wished to go by land to Spain he would attend him, -provide lodgings on the way, and furnish him all that -he might require, as far as the borders of Portugal.</p> - -<p>“On Wednesday, the thirteenth of March, two -hours after daylight, the admiral set sail for Seville, -and, on Friday following, at noon, arrived at Saltes, -and came to anchor in the port of Palos,<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> from which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span> -he had departed on the third of August, the previous -year, 1492, seven months and eleven days preceding -his return.”<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p> - -<p>Desiring as early as possible to make known his -return and his remarkable discoveries, Columbus, as -soon as his vessel came to anchor, sent letters to several -of his friends, in which he gave brief descriptions of -the people and of the islands which he had found, as -he believed, in the eastern part of Asia. One of these -letters, that addressed on the fourteenth of March to -Rafael or Gabriel Sanchez, treasurer of Spain, was -shortly afterward translated into Latin and printed at -Rome. The title given to the letter expresses the -popular belief respecting the situation of the discovered -islands: “A letter of Christopher Columbus, to whom -our age is greatly indebted, respecting the islands of -India lately found beyond the Ganges.”<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></p> - -<p>Conscious of the greatness of his discovery, Columbus -enthusiastically closes his letter with these words: -“And now the king, the queen, the princes, and all -their dominions, as well as the whole of Christendom, -ought to give thanks to our Saviour, Jesus Christ, who -has granted us such an achievement and success. Let<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> -processions be ordered, let solemn festivals be celebrated, -let the churches be filled with boughs and -flowers.”</p> - -<p>When his father landed at Palos, “he was received -there,” says Ferdinand Columbus, “by all the people -in procession, giving thanks to God for his fortunate -success, which, it was hoped, would contribute greatly -to propagate the Christian religion and enlarge their -majesties’ dominions. All the inhabitants of the place -considered it a matter of no little fame that the admiral -had sailed from that port, and that most of the men he -had with him belonged to it, though many of them, -through [Martin Alonso] Pinzon’s fault, had been mutinous -and disobedient.... The admiral then -proceeded toward Seville, intending to go from there -to Barcelona where their catholic majesties were. He -was compelled to tarry a little along the way thither, -though it were ever so little, to satisfy the curiosity of -the people where he went, who came from the neighboring -towns to the road along which he journeyed to -see him, the Indians, and the other things he brought. -Proceeding in this manner, he reached Barcelona about -the middle of April, having previously sent their highnesses -an account of the good fortune attending his -voyage, which exceedingly pleased them, and they appointed -him a most impressive reception as a man that -had performed for them an extraordinary commission. -All the court and city went out to meet him. Their -catholic majesties sat in public in great state, on costly -chairs, under a canopy of gold-cloth; and when he approached -to kiss their hands they arose as to a great -lord, and were unwilling to give him their hands, and -caused him to sit down by them. When he had given -them a brief account of his voyage, they permitted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> -him to retire to his apartment, to which he was attended -by all the court. And he was so highly -honored and favored by their highnesses, that when -the king rode about Barcelona, the admiral was on one -side of him, and the Infante Fortuna on the other, for -before this, no one rode by the side of his majesty but -the Infante, who was his near kinsman.”<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p> - -<p>Galvano, speaking of the enthusiasm created by -Columbus’s return, says: “Hereupon there arose so -extraordinary a desire to travel among the Spaniards -that they were ready to leap into the sea to swim, if it -had been possible, unto these new lands.”<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1493-1506.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The Spanish sovereigns, in order to obtain the -privilege of extending their sway over the islands discovered -by Columbus, immediately sent embassadors -to Rome to request Pope Alexander VI. to confirm -the title of Spain to the recently found lands, for it -was then believed that the pope had sole and absolute -authority to dispose of all countries inhabited by -heathen peoples. Pope Martin V. and his successors -had already granted to the crown of Portugal the -possession of all the lands it might acquire by right of -discovery beyond Cape Bojador toward the East. Pope -Alexander VI., to reward the Spaniards for wresting -Spain from the Moors, issued a bull, on the fourth of -May, 1493, establishing a line of limitation, running -from the north to the south pole, distant one hundred -leagues west of the Azores and the Cape Verd Islands, -giving to Spain all the lands she had discovered or -might discover west of it, which had not been acquired -by any Christian power before the preceding Christmas, -and to Portugal all the territory, on the same -conditions, which lay east of it. These territorial concessions -of the pope caused the possessions of Spain, -in the western hemisphere, to be called the West Indies, -and those of Portugal, in the eastern hemisphere, -the East Indies. The position of the line of demarkation -displeased the Portuguese. To settle the dispute<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span> -which it caused, the two countries sent commissioners -to Tordesillas, Spain, who agreed, on the seventh of -June, 1494, that the position of the line should be -changed so that it should pass, north and south, three -hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verd -Islands.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile in Spain a fleet of seventeen ships had -been fitted out to sail to the Indies in the West. About -fifteen hundred Spanish adventurers took passage on -the different vessels, which were freighted with agricultural -and mining implements, horses, cattle, and -stores of various kinds, necessary for planting colonies -on the newly-discovered islands. Commanded by -Columbus, the fleet weighed anchor in the roadstead -of Cadiz, on Wednesday, the twenty-fifth of September, -1493, and thence sailed toward the West India -archipelago.</p> - -<p>After a voyage of thirty-eight days the fleet reached -the island of Dominica. The approach of Columbus -to the field of his former explorations is thus described: -“On Saturday night, the second of November, the -admiral perceiving a great change in the sky and -winds, and having observed the heavy rains, and believing -that he was near land, ordered most of the sails -to be furled, and commanded all to be upon the watch, -and not without cause for that same night, at daybreak, -land was descried seven leagues to the westward, -a high mountainous island, which he called -Dominica (Sunday), because it was discovered on -Sunday morning. Shortly afterward he saw another -island, northeast of Dominica, and then another, and -another after that, more northward. For this blessing -which God had been pleased to bestow on them, all -the men assembled on deck and sang the <i>Salve Regina</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span> -and other prayers and hymns very devoutly, giving -thanks to God, because in twenty days after departing -from Gomera, [one of the Canary Islands,] they had -made that land, estimating the distance between them -to be between seven hundred and fifty and eight hundred -leagues. Finding no convenient harbor in which -to anchor on the east side of Dominica, they stood for -another island, which the admiral called Marigalante, -which was the name of his ship.”<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> Thence he proceeded -northward “to a large island which he called -Santa Maria de Guadalupe, to honor her and the -request of the friars of the house of that name, to -whom he had made promise to call some island by the -name of their monastery.... Going ashore in -the boat to view a village which they had observed, -they found none of the inhabitants in it, the people -having fled to the woods, except some children to -whose arms they tied some baubles to allure their -fathers when they returned. In the houses they found -geese like ours, a great number of parrots, with red, -green, blue, and white feathers, as large as common -cocks. They also found pumpkins, and a kind of fruit -which looked like our green pine-apples, but much -larger, and inside full of solid substance like a melon, -and much sweeter both in taste and smell, that grew -on long stalks like lilies or aloes, wild about the fields.... -They also saw other kinds of fruit and herbs -different from ours; beds of cotton nets (<i>hamacas</i>), -bows and arrows, and other things....</p> - -<p>“The next day, which was Tuesday, the fifth of -November, the admiral sent two boats ashore to -capture some natives who might give him a description -of the country, and tell him how far off and in what<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span> -direction Española lay. Each boat brought back a youth. -The youths agreed in saying that they were not of that -island, but of another called Borriquen, and that the -inhabitants of that island of Guadalupe were Caribbees -or cannibals, and had taken them prisoners from their -own island. Soon after the boats returning to shore, -to take up some Christians they had left there, six -women were found with them, who had fled from the -Caribbees, and came of their own accord aboard the -ships.... One of the women told them that -toward the south there were many islands, some inhabited, -others not, which both she and the other -women, severally called Giamachi, Cairvaco, Huino, -Buriari, Arubeira, Sixibei. But the continent, which -they said was very great, both they and the people -of Española called Zuanta [Yucatan?], because in -former times canoes had come from that land to -barter.... The same women gave them information -where the island of Española lay; for though -the admiral had inserted it in his sea-chart, yet for his -further information he desired to hear what the people -of that country said of it.... Then the admiral -landed and went to some houses, where he saw ... -a great deal of cotton, spun and unspun, looms to -weave, a great number of men’s skulls hung up, and -baskets filled with men’s bones.”<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></p> - -<p>On his way to the island of Española, Columbus -discovered an island which he called San Juan Baptista, -but the Indians, Borriquen. On the twelfth of November -he arrived off the north coast of Española. -On Thursday, the twenty-eighth of the same month, -the discoverer with his fleet entered the harbor of -the Villa de la Navidad, and found the place burnt and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> -deserted. The next morning “the admiral landed, -much concerned to see the houses and fort in ashes -and nothing left belonging to the Christians except -some ragged clothing and similar things as are found -in a place plundered and destroyed. Seeing no one -to question, the admiral went up a river that was near -with some boats.... Having found nothing -but some of the clothing of the Christians, he returned -to Navidad, where he saw the bodies of eight Christians, -and of three other persons in the fields, whom -they recognized by their clothing, and they seemed to -have been dead about a month. While the Christians -were searching for some other tokens or writings of -the dead, a brother of the cacique, Guacanagari, came -with some Indians to talk with the admiral. These -could speak some words of Spanish, and knew the -names of all the Christians that had been left there. -They related that the latter soon began to quarrel -among themselves, and each to take as much gold and -as many women as they could obtain. Pedro Gutierrez -and Escovedo thereupon killed a person named Diego, -and then they and nine others went away with their -women to a cacique, whose name was Caunaboa, who -was lord of the mines, and he killed them all. Then -many days afterward he came with a great number of -men to Navidad, where there was only Diego de -Arana with ten men, who had remained with him to -guard the fort, all the others being dispersed about the -island. The cacique, Caunaboa, coming there at night, -set fire to the houses where the Christians lived with -their women, and the Christians, being frightened, fled -to the sea, where eight were drowned, and three died -ashore, whose bodies they showed to them. Guacanagari -undertook to defend the Christians, but he and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> -his men were wounded and were compelled to flee for -their lives.”<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p> - -<p>About the ninth of December Columbus sailed eastwardly -from the site of the Villa de la Navidad, and -anchored before an Indian town, where he determined -to plant a colony. “He landed with all his men, provisions -and implements, which he had brought in the -ships of the fleet, at a plain, near a rock, on which a -fort could easily be built. Here he erected a town, -and called it Isabela, in honor of Queen Isabella. This -place was deemed very suitable, inasmuch as the -harbor was very large, though exposed to the northwest, -and had an attractive river a bow-shot from it, -from which canals of water might be cut to run through -the middle of the town, and beyond was an extensive -plain, from which the Indians said the mines of Cibao -were not very distant. For these reasons the admiral -was eager to settle the colony. On account of the -fatigue of the voyage and that caused by his labor -here, he did not have time to write in his journal, from -day to day, what happened, as had been his habit. -He also fell sick, which interrupted his writing from -the eleventh of December to the twelfth of March, -1494. Meanwhile he administered the affairs of the -town according to his ability. He intrusted Alonso de -Hojeda with fifteen men to discover the mines of -Cibao. Afterward, on the second of February, twelve -ships of the fleet set sail for Castile, under the command -of Antonio de Torres.”<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p> - -<p>In March Columbus with a body of armed men explored -the country of Cibao. “It is rough and stony,” -writes Ferdinand Columbus, “full of gravel, grassy, -and watered by several rivers in which gold is found.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> -The farther they went into the country the more -rugged and mountainous they found it. On the tops -of the mountains were grains of gold-sand, for, as the -admiral said, the great rains carry it down from the -summits of the mountains to the rivers in small sand.... -The admiral, perceiving that he was now -eighteen leagues from Isabela, and the country he had -left behind him very craggy, ordered a fort to be built -in a very pleasant and defensible place, which he called -the castle of San Tomas, to command the country -about the mines, and to be a place of safety for the -Christians who went there. The command of this new -fort he gave to Don Pedro Margarita, a person of -some importance, with fifty-six men, among whom -were men of all trades to erect the fort, which was -built with clay and timber, which made it strong -enough to resist the attack of any number of Indians -that might come against it.... On Sunday, -the twenty-ninth of March, Columbus arrived at Isabela, -where melons were already grown fit to eat, -although it was not more than two months after the -seed had been put into the ground. Cucumbers came -up in twenty days, and a wild vine of that country, -having been pruned, had produced grapes which were -good and large. The next day, being the thirtieth of -March, a farmer gathered ears of wheat, the seed of -which he had sown at the latter end of January. -There were also pease, but much larger than those -they sowed. All they sowed came up above the -ground in three days, and on the twenty-fifth day they -were eating them. The stones of fruit set in the -ground sprouted in seven days, and vine branches -shot out in the same time, and in twenty-five days -thereafter they gathered green grapes....</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span></p> - -<p>“The admiral, having determined to go to discover -the continent, appointed a council to govern the island -in his absence. The persons composing it were Don -Diego Colon, the admiral’s brother, with the title of -president; F. Boyl [Friar Buil] and Pedro Fernandez -Coronel, regents; Alonzo Sanchez de Carvajal, rector -of Bacca, and Juan de Luxan, gentlemen of their -catholic majesties.... On Tuesday, the twenty-ninth -of April, the wind being favorable, Columbus -arrived at Cabo de San Nicolas, and thence crossed -over to the island of Cuba, running along the south -coast of it, and having sailed a league beyond Cabo -Fuerte, he put into a large bay which he called Puerto -Grande....</p> - -<p>“On Saturday, the third of May, the admiral resolved -to sail from Cuba over to Jamaica, that he might -not leave it behind without knowing whether the report -of the abundance of gold there were true. The -wind being favorable, he discovered it on Sunday, -when he was less than half the distance to it. On -Monday he came to anchor, and thought it was the most -attractive of all the islands which he had seen in the -Indies. So many people, in large and small canoes, -came aboard his vessels that it was quite astonishing. -The next day he ran along the coast to search for -harbors. When the boats went to examine the -havens, there came out so many canoes and armed -men to defend the country, that the men in the -boats were forced to return to the ships, not through -fear, but to avoid making enemies of them.... -On Tuesday, the thirteenth of May, Columbus determined -to stand over again for Cuba to coast -along it, intending not to return until he had sailed -five or six hundred leagues, and was satisfied whether<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> -it were a continent or an island.... On -Friday, the thirteenth of June, the admiral perceiving -that the coast of Cuba ran far to the west, and that -it was a matter of the greatest difficulty to sail that -way on account of the infinite number of islands and -sand-bars that were on all sides of them, and he also -beginning to be in want of provisions, for which reason -he could not continue his voyage as he had intended, -he determined to return to the town he had begun to -build in Española. To supply himself with wood and -water, he anchored at the island Evangelista, which is -thirty leagues in circuit, and seven hundred from Dominica.”<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p> - -<p>While Columbus was exploring the coast of Cuba, -near the island of Evangelista, on the twelfth of June, -it is said that he, for the purpose of furnishing indisputable -evidence that he had reached the dominions of -the Grand Khan, sent Fernando Perez de Luna, his -notary, with four attesting witnesses, to the vessels, -and had each person on board to make a declaration -under oath that he was convinced that the land he saw -was a part of the continent of Asia, and that he believed -any one could go from it by land to Spain.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> The -notary, when taking the depositions, it is said, informed -each person giving this testimony, that should he for -any malicious purpose afterward assert a different -opinion, he would, if an officer, be made to pay a -penalty of ten thousand maravedis for such an offence, -and if a person of lower rank, he would receive a -hundred lashes and have his tongue cut out.<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> Strange<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span> -as it seems, it was Columbus’s belief that this watery -expanse was really the gulf of the Ganges.<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p> - -<p>Departing from the island of Evangelista, Columbus -returned along the coast of Cuba to Cabo de Santa -Cruz, from which he steered to the island of Jamaica. -After leaving it, he discovered the two islands lying -off the east coast of Española, called respectively by -the Indians Adamanai and Mona. On the twenty-ninth -of September, 1494, he returned to Isabela.</p> - -<p>The people of the island of Española having -acquired some knowledge of the Spanish language, -were able at this time to give Columbus considerable -information respecting their religion. From his conversations -with them he was enabled to write the -following account of their peculiar image-worship: -“I could discover neither idolatry nor any sect among -them, though each one of their kings, who are very -many, as well in Española as on all the other islands -and continent, has a house apart from the town, in -which there is nothing but some carved, wooden -images that are called <i>cemies</i>. There is nothing -done in these houses but what is for the service of the -<i>cemies</i>, to which they repair to perform certain ceremonies, -and pray there, as we do in our churches. -In these houses they have a handsome, round table, -made like a dish, on which is some powder, which -they lay on the heads of the <i>cemies</i> with a certain -ceremony. Then through a cane, that has two -branches, held to their own nostrils they snuff up<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> -this powder. The words they use none of our people -understand. The powder intoxicates them, and they -act as if they were drunk. They also give the image -a name, and I believe it is that of their father or -grandfather, or both; for they have more than one, -and some more than ten, all in memory of their forefathers, -as I have already said. I have heard them -praise one more than another, and have observed -them to have more devotion, and show more respect -to one than another, as we do in processions in time -of want; and the people and the caciques boast -among themselves of having the best <i>cemies</i>. When -they go to these <i>cemies</i> they shun the Christians, and -will not permit them to enter these houses. If they -suspect that they will come, they take their <i>cemies</i> -and hide them in the woods for fear that they should -be deprived of them. What is most ridiculous, they -have the habit of stealing one another’s <i>cemies</i>. It -happened once that the Christians suddenly rushed -into a house with them, and the <i>cemi</i> cried out, speaking -in their language, which showed that it was artificially -made. The <i>cemi</i> being hollow, they had attached -a tube to it, which tube extended to a dark -corner of the house, where a man was concealed with -boughs and leaves who had spoken through the tube -the words which the cacique had commanded him. -The Spaniards, suspecting something of the kind, -kicked down the <i>cemi</i>, and discovered that which has -been related. The cacique seeing that his deception -was known to the Spaniards, earnestly begged them -not to speak of it to his subjects or to the other -Indians, because he made them obedient by this artifice.... -Three large stones are also in the -possession of almost all the caciques, which are highly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span> -venerated by them and their people. The one they say -makes the corn and the grain to grow, the second -helps women in travail, and the third procures rain or -fair weather, whenever they desire to be benefited in -any one of these ways. I sent your highnesses three -of these stones by Antonio de Torres, and have three -more to bring with me.</p> - -<p>“When these Indians die, they have several ways -of performing their obsequies. The manner in which -they bury their caciques is as follows: They open his -body and dry it at a fire in order to preserve it. Of -other persons they only take the head. They bury some -in caves or caverns, and place gourds of water and -bread at their heads. Others they burn in the house -where they die, and they do not permit them to -die naturally, but strangle them at their last gasp. -This is done to the caciques. Others are turned out -of the house, and are put in a <i>hamac</i>, which is their -bed, with bread and water at their heads, and they are -never visited again. Some who become dangerously -ill are carried to the cacique, who tells whether they -are to be strangled or not, and what he commands is -done. I have taken pains to learn what they believe, -and whether they know what becomes of them after -they are dead. This I inquired of Caunaboa, who was -the principal king of Española, an aged man, intelligent -and of much discernment. He and the rest -answered that they go to a certain valley, which every -great cacique supposes to be his country, where, they -affirm, they find their parents and all their ancestors; -that they eat, have women, and enjoy themselves in -pleasures and pastimes.</p> - -<p>“The admiral, having brought the island into a -peaceable condition, and built the town of Isabela, besides<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span> -three forts in different parts of the country, determined -to return to Spain.... He went on -board, on Thursday, the tenth of March, 1496, with two -hundred and twenty-five Spaniards and thirty Indians, -and sailed from Isabela, at daybreak, and steered along -the coast with two caravels, one called Santa Cruz, the -other La Nina, the same in which he went to discover -the island of Cuba.... Having supplied himself -with bread, wood, and water, he set sail on -Wednesday, the twentieth of April, from the island of -Guadalupe, with the wind very scant, keeping near -the latitude of twenty-two degrees, for at that time -they had not found out the way of running away north -to catch the southwest winds.”<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></p> - -<p>After sailing a month in the direction of Spain, -“although there were eight or nine pilots on board the -two vessels, yet none of them knew where they were; -but the admiral was confident that they were only a -little west of the Azores.”</p> - -<p>Columbus, speaking of the movements of his compasses -at this time, observes: “This morning the -Dutch compasses varied, as they formerly did, a point; -and those of Geneva, which previously agreed with -them, varied only a little, but after sailing east varied -more, which is a sign that we are one hundred leagues -or more west of the Azores, for when we were just one -hundred there were only a few weeds scattered in the -sea, and the Dutch needles varied a point, those of -Geneva cutting the north point, and when we are a -little farther east-northeast they will alter again.”<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> -These noticeable differences in the variations of the -needles, Ferdinand Columbus says, the admiral assigned -to “the different kinds of loadstones used in making -them.” ... “In this way,” he remarks, “they -continued their voyage, though all the pilots went like -blind men.” Columbus, when near Spain, confidently -asserted that they would be in sight of the coast on the -following morning, which proved to be true, “for which -reason he was looked upon by the seamen as very expert -and almost prophetic in sea affairs.”<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> On Saturday,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span> -the eleventh of June, 1496, the caravels arrived -in the port of Cadiz.</p> - -<p>“The admiral,” as soon as he had landed, “began to -prepare for his journey to Burgos, where he was favorably -received by their catholic majesties, who were -there celebrating the nuptials of Prince Juan, their son, -who married Margarita of Austria.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<a href="images/map-mercator-full.jpg"><img src="images/map-mercator.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA.</p> -<p class="caption">ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.</p> -</div> - -<p>While Columbus was in Española, King Ferdinand -and Queen Isabella abrogated in part the concessions -granted him, and issued letters-patent on the tenth of -April, 1495, permitting any of their subjects to make -voyages of discovery to the Indies.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> Commissioned by -their highnesses, Amerigo Vespucci<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> went with a fleet -of four vessels, in 1497, to make discoveries. The account<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> -of the voyage is contained in a letter written by -him, in Lisbon, on the fourth of September, 1504. The -publication of it made him famous as the discoverer of -the continent of America. Singular as it is true, the -palpable discrepancies found in the subsequent versions -of Vespucci’s letter have led many scholars to discredit -the statements of the intelligent and enterprising Italian.<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> -Vespucci thus writes respecting his first voyage:</p> - -<p>“The king, Don Ferdinand of Castile, having -ordered four ships to discover new lands toward the -west, I was selected by his highness to go in the fleet -to aid in the discoveries.<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> We departed from the port -of Cadiz on the tenth day of May, 1497, and took our -course across the great gulf of the ocean-sea.<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> We -spent eighteen months on the voyage, and discovered -much main-land and an endless number of islands, -which were in great part inhabited. As these are not -spoken of by ancient writers, I think that they had no -knowledge of them....</p> - -<p>“We reached a land which we judged to be firm -land, distant from the Canary Islands about a thousand -leagues more to the west, within the torrid zone, -because we found the north pole at an elevation of -sixteen degrees above the horizon,<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> and that we were -more than seventy-five degrees west of the Canary -Islands as our instruments showed.<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> We anchored<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span> -our ships a league and a half from the coast. We got -out our boats, and, having manned and armed them, -we went on land.</p> - -<p>“Before we went ashore we were greatly delighted -in seeing many people wandering along the beach. -We saw that they were naked and that they seemed -to be frightened when they beheld us, likely, as I supposed, -by seeing us clothed, and of a different stature -from their own. They retired to a mountain, and we -could not entice them to hold any intercourse with us, -notwithstanding we endeavored to induce them by -signs of peace and friendship....</p> - -<p>“We sailed to the northwest<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> in which direction the -coast extended, always in sight of land, seeing continually, -during the voyage, people on the shore. After -sailing two days, we found a secure place for the ships, -and anchored half a league from the land.... The -natives were somewhat timid, and it was a long time -before we were able to dispel their fear and induce -them to come and talk to us.... Giving them such -things as looking-glasses, bells, beads, and other trifles, -we enticed a number of them to approach and enter -into friendly relations with us....</p> - -<p>“These people go entirely naked and wear not a -particle of clothing. They are of a medium size and -very well proportioned. Their skin is reddish like the -color of a lion’s skin.... They do not allow any -hair to grow on their eyelids and eyebrows, nor on -any part of their bodies; only on their heads, for they -think it very unbecoming. The men and women are -exceedingly quick in their movements, and are unconstrained<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> -in their deportment. They walk and run -rapidly. The women do not think it a difficult thing -to run a league or two.... These people are excellent -swimmers. The women surpass the men, for we -have observed them many times swimming unaided, -fully two leagues out from land.</p> - -<p>“The weapons of these people are bows and -arrows. These are curiously made. They have no -iron or any other hard metal on them. They use -instead the teeth of animals or fish.... They -are expert bowmen, and hit with their arrows whatever -they shoot at. The women in some parts of the -country handle the bow with considerable skill. Their -other weapons are lances and clubs with elaborately -carved heads. When they go to make war their wives -accompany them, not to fight, but to carry provision -on their backs. Sometimes a woman will convey a -burden in this manner thirty or forty leagues, which -the strongest men there cannot do as we have frequently -observed....</p> - -<p>“These people, although they appear ignorant as -talkers, are very sagacious and crafty in any matter in -which they are interested. They do not talk much, -and when they do, it is in a low tone.... Their -languages differ so much that we found people living -within the space of a hundred leagues who could not -understand one another’s speech.... They -do not partake of food at appointed times nor in -such quantities to satisfy them during equal intervals. -Whenever their appetites demand food, whether in -the middle of the night or day, it does not matter to -them, they appease their hunger.... They -take their food from earthen basins made by them, or -from gourds cut in half.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span></p> - -<p>“They sleep in certain nets made of cotton, very -large, suspended in the air.... These people -are clean and neat in their persons, for they are continually -bathing.... They live together in -common, and make their houses like cottages, which -are very strongly built with the largest trees and covered -with palm leaves.... We found one -which contained six hundred persons, and we saw the -occupants of thirteen houses, who must have numbered -four thousand souls. New sites for these houses are -selected every seven or eight years. When we asked -why they changed the location of their dwellings, they -said it was because the intense heat of the sun caused -painful diseases to spread among them when the -ground about their houses became permeated and foul -with filth; which explanation seemed quite reasonable -to us.</p> - -<p>“The riches of these people are the feathers of birds -of different colors, ornaments made of fish bones, and -white and green stones, with which they adorn their -cheeks, lips, and ears.... Some of these people, -when they inter their dead, place water and food at the -head of the corpse.... In some parts of the -country there is a very inhuman custom of disposing -of a person about to die. His relatives carry him into -a great wood, and, fastening one of their sleeping nets -to two trees, put him in it. Having swung him in it -during the day, they, at the approach of night, depart -to their homes, leaving with him water and food sufficient -for his wants during the succeeding five or six -days. Should the ill man partake of the provisions -and recover sufficient strength to enable him to make -his way back to the village, his relatives honor his return -with ceremony....</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span></p> - -<p>“For their infirmities they have various kinds of -medicine very different from those we use.... -I often observed that when a person was stricken -with fever and grew worse, that they bathed him with -much cold water from head to foot, and then built a -great fire around him, and made him walk about the -inclosed space for an hour or two until he became -quite fatigued, when they allowed him to sleep. Many -were cured by this treatment.... Blood-letting -is an art known to them. They do not take blood from -the arm except in the arm pit. They generally take -it from the loins or the calf of the leg.... They -have no grain seed nor corn, but use instead the root -of a tree, from which they make flour, which is very -good, and which they call <i>Iuca</i>, and another which they -call <i>Cāzabi</i>, and another which they call <i>Ignami</i>. Very -little meat is eaten by them except human flesh.... -They devour with fierce avidity their enemies, -whom they kill or capture, whether men or -women. They thought it very strange when they -learned that we did not eat the flesh of our enemies....</p> - -<p>“We landed in a port<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> where we found a village -built above the water like Venice. About forty-five -bell-shaped houses were erected here upon very large -piles, and connected one with the other by draw-bridges.... -When we were descried by the people they -were seemingly terrified, and to protect themselves -they immediately drew their bridges and shut themselves -up in their houses. While we were observing -them and wondering at their actions, we beheld about -twenty-two canoes (<i>canoe</i>) approaching us from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span> -direction of the sea. These canoes are boats which -they use, and are made from a single tree. The people -in them rowed toward our boats, no little astonished -at our forms and clothing. As they kept at some -distance from us, we made signs to induce them to -come nearer. Failing to assure them of our peaceful -intentions, and seeing that they would not approach any -nearer, we rowed toward them. But they did not -remain where they were, but rowed to the land, where, -by signs, they intimated that we should wait for a short -time until they returned.</p> - -<p>“They hastened away to a mountain, but did not -stay there any length of time. Returning they brought -with them sixteen young girls, and, entering their -canoes, rowed to us, and placed four girls in each of -our boats. We were much surprised at this.... -They then kept their canoes alongside of our boats, -and we were led to believe that these people were thus -manifesting their friendship. Not suspecting any thing -different, we observed a great number of people swimming -toward us from the houses. Then some old -women appeared at the doors of the houses shrieking -and pulling their hair as if in great distress. Suspecting -some treachery, we took up our arms. All at once -the girls in our boats plunged into the sea, and the -people in the canoes rowed away, shooting their arrows -at us. Those who swam to us carried lances with -them concealed under the water. Discovering their -treachery, we not only defended ourselves, but vigorously -attacked them. We upset in our boats many of -their canoes and killed many people. In a short time -those who were not hurt left their canoes and swam to -the shore. They had about fifteen or twenty killed -and wounded, and we five slightly wounded....<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span> -We took two girls and two men prisoners. When we -entered their houses we found only two old women and -a sick man. We took from the houses many things of -little value, but did not burn the houses from humane -motives....</p> - -<p>“This country is thickly inhabited and contains -a great many rivers. The animals in it are quite -different from those in our country, except the lions, -panthers, stags, hogs, goats, and deer, and some -of these are somewhat different from ours in form.... -But how can I describe the birds here, which -are so many and of so many kinds, and the color of -their feathers so different, that the sight of them -amazes one.</p> - -<p>“The country is very attractive and fruitful, and -covered with very great woods and forests, in which -the trees are always green, for they never lose their -foliage. There are unnumbered fruits very different -from those in our country. This land lies within the -limits of the torrid zone, below the line describing the -tropic of Cancer, where the pole is elevated twenty-three -degrees above the horizon, at the end of the -second climate.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> ... In this country we made -a baptismal font, and baptized many of the people, who -called us <i>caribi</i>, meaning men of great wisdom.</p> - -<p>“The country is called Lariab by the natives. We -sailed along its coast always in sight of land and -ran on the whole course toward the northwest eight -hundred and seventy leagues.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> ... We found<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span> -gold in some places but not much. The discovery -of the country and the knowledge that gold was -in it satisfied us....</p> - -<p>“On our return we sailed toward the sea going -between the north and east, and after seven days we -reached some islands.... We landed on one -of them, where we found many people, who called the -island Iti [Hayti?].... We set sail for Spain -with two hundred and twenty-two slave-prisoners, -and arrived at the port of Cadiz on the fifteenth of -October, 1498,<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> where we were well received, and -sold our slaves. This is what happened to me in this -my first voyage that may be considered noteworthy.”<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p> - -<p>“Shortly after the departure of the fleet with -which Vespucci went to the New World, Columbus -complained to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella -that the permission given by them in 1495 to those -who desired to go on voyages of discovery toward the -west was prejudicial to the privileges previously -granted him by their Spanish majesties. The latter -therefore revoked their letters-patent of the tenth of -April, 1495, on the second of June, 1497, declaring -that it should “have no force nor effect at any time, -or in any manner whatever, so as to be prejudicial to -the said admiral, and to whatever we have thus granted -and confirmed to him.”<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span></p> - -<p>“The fitting out of the fleet [for Columbus’s third -voyage to the Indies] was delayed much longer than -was necessary through the negligence and bad management -of the king’s officers, and particularly that -of Don Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca, archdeacon of -Seville. Hence it happened that Don Juan, who was -afterward bishop of Burgos, was, from that time onward, -a bitter enemy to the admiral and his affairs, -and was the chief person among those who brought -him into disgrace with their catholic majesties.<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> ... -The admiral made his preparations for the -voyage with all possible diligence, and on the thirtieth -of May, 1498, set sail from the bay of San Lucar de -Berrameda, with six ships, freighted with provisions -and other necessaries for the relief of the planters in -Española and the peopling of that island.”<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a></p> - -<p>On Thursday, the fifth of July, Columbus steered -westward from the islands of Cape Verd, and on the -last day of the month altered his course and stood to -the north. “One day about noon as he was thus sailing -[off the coast of Venezuela, South America, north -of the mouths of the Orinoco river], Alonso Perez -Nirando, a sailor of the town of Huelva, while going -up to the round-top, saw the peaks of three mountains -to the westward, distant about fifteen leagues. Not -long afterward they beheld land extending northeastwardly -as far as they could see. When they had -given thanks to God and said the <i>Salve Regina</i> and -other prayers used by seamen in times of distress or -joy, the admiral called the discovered island, la Isla de<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span> -Trinidad (the island of the Trinity), for he had thought -of giving this name to the first land they should find -on the voyage, and now God had graciously granted -him the sight of three mountains near together as has -been mentioned. The fleet stood directly west to reach -a point of land on the south side of the island, and then -coasted along that side of it until the anchors were -cast, five leagues beyond the cape, which Columbus -called Punta de la Galera (Point of the Galley), which -name was suggested by a rock on the headland, resembling, -at a distance, a galley under sail. On the -following morning, Wednesday, Columbus continued -his course westward, for there was only one cask of -water on board his ship, and one on each of the other -vessels, and at the last anchorage no convenient place -had been found to obtain more. At the next headland, -which he called Punta de la Playa (Point of the Strand), -the ships anchored and the crews went to a small -brook and obtained a supply of fresh water. No town -or people were seen here, although they had observed -many houses and towns along the coast.... -This day, which was the first of August, when the vessels -were sailing between Punta de la Galera and Punta -de la Playa, they discovered the continent, distant -about twenty-five leagues as they guessed. Inasmuch -as they thought it was another island, they called it Isla -Santa (Holy Island).”</p> - -<p>When the ships anchored at the southwestern extremity -of the island of Trinidad, which point of land -Columbus called Punta del Arenal, “a large canoe,” -the admiral writes, “came from the eastward, containing -twenty-four men, all in the prime of life, fully armed -with bows, arrows, and shields. As I have said, they were -all young, well proportioned, and not dark black, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> -whiter than any other Indians that I had seen.... -They wore their hair long and straight, cut in the -Spanish fashion. Their heads were encircled with -cotton scarfs elaborately colored, like the head-dresses -of the Moors. Some wore these scarfs round their -bodies as a covering in the place of breeches. When -I reached Punta del Arenal I found that the island of -Trinidad was separated from the land of Gracia (<i>la -tierra de Gracia</i>)<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> by a strait two leagues wide....</p> - -<p>“I discovered beyond the point which I called -Punta de la Aguda, one of the most attractive countries -in the world, and very densely populated.... -Some of the natives immediately came in canoes to -the ship to request me in the name of their king to -come on land. When they saw that I paid no attention -to them, they came in great numbers in their -canoes to the ship, many of them wearing pieces of -gold on their breasts, and some of them bracelets of -pearls on their arms. When I saw these I was exceedingly -pleased, and I made many inquiries to learn -where the people found them. They informed me -that they were obtained in the neighborhood and also -at a place north of the country.... Desiring -to get some pearls like those I had seen, I sent some -men ashore for that purpose.... They related -that when the boats reached the shore, two chiefs, -whom they took for father and son, came to them from -the throng of the people and conducted them to a very -large house, at two springs, not round and tent-shaped -as the other houses. In this house were many seats, -on which they seated our men and themselves. They<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span> -then caused bread to be brought with many kinds of -fruit and various wines, both white and red, not made -from grapes but apparently from different fruits.... -The men were congregated at one end of the building -and the women at the other. Great vexation was felt -by both parties because they could not understand -each other’s language, for they each desired to ask -questions concerning their respective countries.”</p> - -<p>Columbus, describing that part of South America -which he called Gracia, now known as Venezuela, and -also referring to the Orinoco River pouring its flood -of fresh water into the Gulf of Paria, which he called -Golfo de las Perlas (Gulf of Pearls), remarks: “I think -that if the mentioned river does not flow from the -earthly paradise that it comes from a vast extent of -land in the south, of which nothing hitherto has been -known.”</p> - -<p>In the letter containing this information respecting -South America the admiral speaks of sending to King -Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, to whom the letter was -addressed, a map of the country (<i>la pintura de la -tierra</i>).<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a></p> - -<p>The channel between the island of Trinidad and the -land of Gracia (which the natives called Paria), Columbus -called la Boca de la Sierpe (the mouth of the Serpent). -The fleet then sailed from the Gulf of Paria -through its northern outlet, which Columbus called la -Boca del Drago (the mouth of the Dragon), and passed -by the cape which he called Cabo de las Conchas and -the island which he named Margarita. “Although,” as -Ferdinand Columbus remarks, “the admiral saw that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span> -the country of Paria extended much farther westward, -nevertheless he says that from that time forward he -could not give as good a description of it as he wished -on account of his eyes being too much inflamed by -constant watching. Therefore he was compelled to -obtain the most of his information concerning it from -the sailors and pilots.”<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p> - -<p>When Columbus arrived, at the end of August, at -the island of Española, where he intended to recruit -his failing health, he found the colonists rebelling -against the authority of his brother Bartolomé, whom -he had left there as adelantado, or lieutenant-governor, -when he sailed for Spain in 1496. Columbus -at once took steps to put an end to the sedition. -Meanwhile complaints were sent to their Spanish majesties, -King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who, to -adjust the differences existing between the two contending -factions, sent Francisco de Bobadilla to Española -to discover the cause of the insurrection and to -punish by fine and imprisonment those whom he should -find culpable. Summoning the admiral to appear -before him at San Domingo, he, as soon as Columbus -arrived, ordered him to be put in irons and to be confined -in the fortress. Having drawn up certain charges -against Columbus, he sent him in chains to Spain. -About the middle of November, 1500, the vessel -arrived at Cadiz. When the news of Columbus’s humiliation -at the hands of Bobadilla became known, the -people everywhere censured the latter for the unwarranted -abasement of the distinguished discoverer. The -king and queen immediately sent orders for Columbus -to be set at liberty, and afterward received him with -many gracious acknowledgments of his important<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span> -services, and publicly declared that Bobadilla should -account to them for his ill treatment.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a></p> - -<p>When the information contained in Columbus’s -letter respecting the large and valuable pearls possessed -by the people of Paria became known in Spain a number -of capitalists immediately fitted out a fleet to go to -the Land of Pearls. The command of the vessels was -given to Alonso de Hojeda, who had accompanied -Columbus on his second voyage. The cosmographer, -Juan de la Cosa, and Amerigo Vespucci went with -Hojeda. Vespucci, in his account of the voyage, says: -“We departed from the port of Cadiz, three ships in -company, on the sixteenth day of May, 1499.... -In forty-four days we arrived at a new land, which we -judged to be main-land, and the continuation of that -previously mentioned. It lay in the torrid zone south -of the equator, where the south pole is elevated five -degrees.” They sailed from their first place of anchorage -and ran southeastwardly along the coast forty -leagues. The strong currents running from the southeast -to the northwest hindered the progress of the -vessels so much that the explorers determined to -change their course and to sail to the northwest. Following -the trend of the coast in this direction, they, -after sailing some time, reached a beautiful bay, at the -entrance of which was a large island. About eighty -leagues beyond this harbor they entered another, -where they went on land and obtained one hundred -and fifty pearls and some gold from the friendly natives. -At another place the inhabitants of the country “had -their cheeks stuffed with a green herb which they were -continually chewing as animals chew their cud, so that -they were scarcely able to speak. Hanging from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> -neck of each native were two dried gourd-shells, one -filled with the herb which the people had in their -mouths, the other containing a white meal like chalk -dust. The natives carried small sticks which they -wetted at intervals in their mouths and then put them -into the meal and then into the gourds containing the -herb.” Then they again filled their cheeks with the -herb.</p> - -<p>At another place the explorers remained forty-seven -days, where they obtained “one hundred and -nineteen marks of pearls” in exchange for some -small trifles. From a native, Vespucci obtained an -oyster containing one hundred and thirty pearls. The -fleet sailed along the coast to where it was “fifteen -degrees north of the equator.” Thence the explorers -steered for Española to obtain provisions. Departing -from the island on the twenty-second of July, 1500, -they sailed for Spain, and arrived at the port of Cadiz -on the eighth of September.<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p> - -<p>When King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella heard -that the Portuguese had reached India by sailing -around Africa, they commissioned Columbus to -explore the western coast of Paria, where he conceived -a navigable strait could be found through -which the vessels of Spain might sail to Cathay. Four -caravels composed the fleet with which he sailed -from Cadiz on the ninth of May, 1502. On the fifteenth -of June, the vessels came in sight of one of the Caribbean<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span> -islands called by the natives Mantinino. -Thence they sailed to the island of Dominica, and -thence to Española. Departing, on the fourteenth -of July, from the port of Brazil, on the south side of -the island of Española, Columbus sailed toward the -Bay of Honduras, eastward of which he imagined was -a strait through which he might sail to the Indian -Ocean and reach Cathay. “We came to certain -islands,” says Ferdinand Columbus, who had accompanied -his father to the New World, “where we went -ashore on the largest, called Guanaia, whence those -that make sea-charts took occasion to call all those -islands Guanaia, which are almost twelve leagues from -the continent, near the province now called Honduras, -though the admiral then called it Cabo Casinas.” -While the fleet was anchored in one of the roadsteads -of the group of islands called Guanaia, a large log-boat -crowded with Indians and filled with certain commodities -arrived there. Describing the capture of this -highly valued prize, Ferdinand Columbus remarks: -“Fortune so ordered it that a canoe, as long as a galley -and eight feet wide, all of one tree, and like the other -boats in shape, put in there, loaded with commodities -brought from the country toward the west and bound -for Nueva España.<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> In the middle of it was a covering -like an awning, made of palm leaves, resembling those -of the Venetian gondolas, which protected all beneath -it, that neither rain nor sea-water could wet the goods. -Under the awning were the women and children. -Although there were twenty-five men in the canoe, -they had not the courage to defend themselves against -those in our boats who pursued them. The canoe -being taken without any opposition it was brought to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span> -the admiral’s caravel.... He commanded that -such articles should be taken as were thought to be -the most desirable and valuable, as quilts, shirts of -cotton without sleeves, curiously made and dyed with -different colors, apron-cloths, and large sheets in which -the Indian women in the canoe wrapped themselves as -the Moorish women, formerly in Granada, were in the -habit of doing. There were also long wooden swords, -with grooved edges on each side, in which sharp pieces -of flint were compactly fastened with thread and a -bituminous substance, and these cut naked men as -if they were made of steel; also copper hatchets to cut -wood, like those of stone which the other Indians use; -also bells of the same metal, and dishes and crucibles -to melt it in. For food they had such roots and grain -as the people of Española eat, and a kind of liquor -made of maize, like the English beer, and an abundance -of cacao-nuts, which in New Spain pass for -money, which they seemed to value very much, for -when they were brought aboard among the other -goods, I observed that when any of these nuts fell, the -Indians all stooped to pick them up, as if they were -things of value.... Notwithstanding the admiral -had heard so much from those in the canoe concerning -the great wealth, politeness, and ingenuity of the people -westward toward New Spain, yet thinking that he -could sail to those countries lying to the leeward, when -he thought fit from Cuba, he would not go that way at -this time, but adhered to his intention of discovering -a strait in the continent to pass into the South Sea,<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> -by which he could sail to the countries that produce -spice. Therefore he resolved to sail eastward toward -Veragua and Nombre de Dios, where he imagined the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span> -strait to be.... He was deceived in the undertaking, -for he did not conceive it to be an isthmus, or -a narrow neck of land, as it really was, but a small bay -extending from sea to sea.”<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></p> - -<p>On the coast of Veragua, now the isthmus of -Panama or Darien, Columbus found the ruins of an -immense building covered with tables of strange hieroglyphics -and unique reliefs. These vestiges of an ancient -civilization made so profound an impression on -the mind of the admiral that he selected a curiously -elaborated piece of the wall, and brought it away in -one of his caravels. “This was the first place, in the -Indies,” says Ferdinand Columbus, “where they saw any -sign of an edifice. It was a great mass of wall of imagery -seemingly composed of lime and stone. The admiral -ordered a piece of it to be brought away to show -the evidence of its antiquity.”<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a></p> - -<p>On the fifth of January, 1503, they cast anchor near -a river which the Indians called Yebra, and the admiral -Belem or Bethlem. Westward of it was a river -which the natives called Veragua. Columbus, having -determined to build a town at this point, began, about -the end of February, to erect “houses upon the river -of Belem, about a cannon-shot from its mouth, within a -trench, on the right bank of the river, at the mouth -of which there is a little hill. Besides these houses, -which were all of timber and covered with the leaves of -palm trees growing along the shore, another large -house was built to serve as a store-house and magazine, -in which were stored several cannon, some powder, -provisions, and other necessaries for the use of the -planters....</p> - -<p>“The customs of the Indians here are somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span> -similar to those of the natives of Española and the -neighboring islands; but the people of Veragua and -its neighborhood, when they talk to one another and -eat turn their backs, and are always chewing an herb, -which, as we think,” says Ferdinand Columbus, “makes -their teeth to decay and rot. Their food is fish; these -they take with nets and hooks.... They have -an abundance of maize, which is a kind of grain growing -in an ear, or hard head like millet, of which they -make white and red wine, as beer is made in England, -and mix their spice with it as pleases their palates. It -has a pleasant taste like a sharp, lively wine.”<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p> - -<p>“In Cariay and the adjacent country,” says Columbus, -“there are great enchanters of a very dreadful -kind.... I saw there, built on a mountain, a -sepulcher as large as a house and elaborately sculptured. -The body lay uncovered with the face downward. -The people told me of other very excellent -works of art.... They said that there were -great mines of copper in the country, of which metal -they make hatchets and other manufactured articles, -both cast and soldered. They also make forges from -it, and all the apparatus of goldsmiths, and also crucibles. -The inhabitants wear clothes. I saw in that -province large sheets of cotton elaborately and skillfully -made, and others very delicately colored with -pencils. They informed me that in the interior, -towards Cathay, that the people there have them interwoven -with gold.... One thing I dare declare, -for there are many to attest it, that in the land of Veragua -I saw more indications of gold in the two first -days [of my stay there] than I had found during four -years in Española.”<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span></p> - -<p>The Spaniards, however, were soon attacked by the -natives, and were in such distressing circumstances -that Columbus was compelled to abandon his purpose -of leaving a colony on this part of the continent and to -take his men on board the ships and to return to Española. -Speaking of the return-voyage, Ferdinand -Columbus writes: “Thus rejoicing that we were all -together again, we sailed along the coast eastward. -Although all the pilots were of the opinion that we -might return to San Domingo by standing away to -the north, nevertheless the admiral and his brother -knew that it was requisite to run a considerable distance -along this coast before they steered across the -gulf that is between the continent and Española, at -which our men were displeased, thinking that the admiral -designed to sail directly for Spain, whereas he -neither had provisions nor were his ships fit for the -voyage.<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> But as he knew best what was to be done,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span> -we held on our course until we came to Porto Bello, -where we were obliged to leave the ship Biscaina, on -account of its leaky condition, being all worm-eaten -through and through. Steering along the coast, we -passed by the port we called Retrete, and a country -near which there were many small islands, which the -admiral called Las Barbas, but the Indians and pilots -call that the territory of the cacique Pocorosa. We -held on this course ten more leagues to the last land -we saw of the continent, called Marmora, and on Monday, -the first of May, 1503, we stood to the north.... -Although all the pilots said we should be -east of the Caribbee islands, yet the admiral feared we -should not make Española, which proved to be true.... -We reached an Indian town on the coast of -Cuba, called Mataia, where, having obtained some refreshment, -we sailed for Jamaica.”<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a></p> - -<p>On his return to the island of Jamaica, in June, -1503, Columbus, describing his voyage along the -isthmus of Darien, wrote to King Ferdinand and -Queen Isabella, saying: “On the thirteenth of May -I reached the province of Mango, which is contiguous -to that of Cathay, and thence I steered for the island of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span> -Española.”<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> Peter Martyr<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> also seems to have held -the opinion that Columbus’s explorations were along the -continent of Asia. Writing in 1510, the first decade -of the New World, he remarks: “The opinion of -Christopher Columbus respecting the magnitude of the -sphere and the opinions of the ancients concerning the -under-navigation of the world seem to be adverse. -Nevertheless the parrots and many other things -brought from there indicate that the islands savor only -of India, either being near it or else of the same nature.”<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></p> - -<p>With this fourth voyage, the zealous and enthusiastic -navigator ended his life-work. On the -twelfth of September, 1504, Columbus for the last time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> -set sail from the attractive field of his numerous explorations -and arrived at San Lucar, on the seventh of -November, broken down in health, aged, and the victim -of many unjust accusations and bitter disappointments. -Two years afterward, on the twentieth of May, -1506, he died at Valladolid, being about seventy years -old, leaving to another the discovery, by the way of the -west, of a navigable route to the remote coast of -Cathay.</p> - -<p>As intended by him, when he set sail on his first -voyage, Columbus afterward made a map on which -he delineated “all the sea and the lands of the ocean-sea” -(<i>del mar Océanus</i>) discovered by him.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> Although -the admiral’s chart is lost, there are several maps extant, -which, in part, represent the islands of Juana, -Jamaica, Española, and the smaller ones, as he evidently -had outlined them on his new sailing chart (<i>carta -nueva de navegar</i>). A map of the world, in the Estense -library, at Modena, made between the years 1501 and -1504,<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> and the map of the New World (<i>tabula terre -nove</i>), in the edition of Ptolemy’s geography, printed -in 1513, at Strasburg,<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> exhibit the islands, discovered -by Columbus on his first voyage, and of which he -speaks in his journal of 1492 and 1493. The high -latitudes in which he placed the Rio de Mares and -other rivers of Juana, when he made his discoveries<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span> -“toward the north,” are designated on these maps. -On the Ptolemy map the name <i>c doffun de abril</i> at the -southeast point of Cuba appears to designate the same -cape as that of <i>c de fvndabril</i> on the map of the world -made by Johann Ruysch, the German cartographer, contained -in the edition of Ptolemy’s geography, printed -at Rome in 1508.<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> Both of these misspelled names -are evidently anomalous forms of the Spanish designation, -<i>C. de Fuenterabia</i>. The names on Ruysch’s -representation of the island of Cuba correspond more -closely to the Spanish orthography of the designations -given by Columbus to the places he visited than those -which are inscribed on the two maps previously -mentioned.<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p> - -<p>The earliest map extant representing the territory -discovered in the western hemisphere is a map of the -world drafted by the Spanish cartographer, Juan de la -Cosa.<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> It was found by Baron de Walckenaër in the -possession of a dealer in old books and wares, from -whom he bought it for a small sum of money. Baron -von Humboldt shortly afterward made its discovery -known in his notable work on the geography of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> -new continent.<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> When the library of Baron de Walckenaër -was sold, in Paris, in 1853, La Cosa’s map was -purchased for the queen of Spain for four thousand -and twenty francs. It is now in the Naval museum, -in Madrid.<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> The famous map-maker drafted the whole -world, as then known, on an ox-hide, five feet nine -inches long by three feet wide, on a scale of fifteen -Spanish leagues to a degree. The map is attractively -colored and brightened with gold. It may rightly be -called the geographical frontispiece of the history of -the discovery of America.<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></p> - -<p>The map bears the inscription “<i>Juan de la cosa la -fizo enel puerto de S: mjᵃ en año de. 1500.</i>”—Juan de -la Cosa made it in the port of Santa Maria in the year -1500. A picture of St. Christopher bearing the Christ-child -across the water ornaments the space above the inscription.<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> -Most prominent of the islands of the “Mar -Oceanus” delineated on the map are Cuba, Habacoa,<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> -and La Española. The coast of South America, as far<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> -as it had been explored, is well represented by the painstaking -map-maker.<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a></p> - -<p>La Cosa, having seen a copy of the map made by -Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot), to display the fields of -the English discoveries of 1497 and 1498, attempted -to show in what part of the New World they were. -As outlined by him, the land explored by Cabot -trends eastwardly from the sea discovered for the -English (<i>mar descubierta por inglese</i>), to the Cape of -England (Cavo de Inglaterra). As La Cosa had -nothing else than his imagination to guide him in delineating -the coast of North America between the field -of the English discoveries and South America, his extension -of the main-land from the one to the other has -no geographical significance. Unable to determine -definitely the position and extent of the territory of the -New World, La Cosa projected it as accurately as his -information respecting the explored parts of its sinuous -coast gave him knowledge. Ignorant of the limits of -the New Land he honorably darkens that part which -might be deemed its cartographic development with -several shades of meaningless colors.<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1496-1498.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The notable part which England took in searching -for a navigable passage to Cathay, by exploring the sea -toward the west, was incited by the success attending -the explorations of Columbus in the New World. For -it is said that when the news reached England that the -Genoese seaman had discovered the coasts of India -there was great talk in the court of King Henry VII., -and that men declared with much admiration that it -was more divine than human to sail toward the west -to go to the East where spices grow<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a>. The bold projector, -who obtained for England the distinguished -honor of being the second European power to enter -the western hemisphere with her ships, was Giovanni -Caboto (John Caboto), a Venetian<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a>, who had lived a -number of years in London. With confessed confidence -he explained to King Henry and his learned -counsellors the grounds of his belief that the eastern -coast of Asia could be reached by sailing in a direct -westward course from England, and how this course -would be a shorter way than the one taken by Columbus. -He proposed to undertake the voyage at his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> -own expense should the king grant him the necessary -license.</p> - -<p>These overtures of Caboto appear to have been -made about the beginning of the year 1496. Ruy -Gonzales de Puebla, the Spanish ambassador, residing -in England, having learned what Caboto had proposed -to King Henry, at once communicated the information -to their majesties, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella -of Spain. Their royal highnesses, in a letter to their -representative at the English court, dated at Tortosa, -the twenty-eighth of March, 1496, thus refer to what -he had written them:</p> - -<p>“You say that a person like Colon has come there -to place before the king of England another undertaking -similar to that of the Indies, without prejudice -to Spain or Portugal. If in this way he helps him, he -will be as free to go to the Indies as we were. We -believe that this undertaking is thrown in the way of -the king of England by the king of France in order -to withdraw him from his other affairs. See that the -king of England be not deceived in this or in a similar -matter. The French will endeavor as best they can -to lead him into such enterprises, inasmuch as they are -very uncertain, and are not easily prosecuted. Likewise -see that those ...<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> he is not able to -undertake this thing without prejudice to us and the -king of Portugal.”<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a></p> - -<p>On the fifth of March, 1496, King Henry VII. -complied with Caboto’s request as set forth in the -following petition:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span></p> - -<p>“To the kyng our souvereigne lord</p> - -<p>“Please it your highnes of your moste noble and -haboundant grace to graunt unto John Cabotto, citezen -of Venes, Lewes, Sebestyan and Sancto his sonneys -your gracious lettres patentes under your grete seale -in due forme to be made according to the tenour hereafter -ensuyng. And they shall during their lyves pray -to god for the prosperous continuance of your moste -noble and royale astate long to enduer.”<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p> - -<p>The letters-patent granted to Giovanni Caboto and -his sons, Lodovico, Sebastiano, and Sanctus, to his and -their heirs and deputies, commissioned them to sail, -with five ships of any burden, under the banners, flags, -and ensigns of England, to all parts, regions and gulfs -of the eastern, the western, and the northern seas, in -order to seek, discover, and explore whatever islands, -countries, regions, or provinces of the heathen and of -the infidels, in whatever part of the world they were -situate, which were then unknown to all Christians. -As set forth in the document, the cost and expense of -the expedition were to be defrayed by Caboto and his -sons.<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p> - -<p>With this commission Giovanni Caboto set sail -from the port of Bristol, in the spring of 1497, with two -ships, one of which was named the Matthew.<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> Sailing -westward from England he reached a land which he -believed to be that of Cathay, where he planted the -flag of England and that of Venice. Having explored -the coast of the country for three hundred leagues, he -returned to England, where the news of his discoveries -was enthusiastically received by the interested people.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span></p> - -<p>A brief description of this voyage is contained in a -a letter written by Lorenzo Pasqualigo, in London, on -the twenty-third of August, 1497, to his brothers, -Alvise and Francesco, residing in Venice:</p> - -<p>“The Venetian, our countryman, who went with a -ship from Bristol to search for a new island, is returned, -and says that seven hundred leagues from here -he discovered firm land (<i>Terra ferma</i>), the territory of -the Grand Khan. He coasted for three hundred -leagues and landed; saw no human beings, but he has -brought here to the king certain snares which had -been set to catch game, and a needle for making nets; -he also found some felled trees, by which he judged -there were inhabitants. He returned to his ship in -doubt, and he was three months on the voyage, and on -his return saw two islands to starboard, but would not -land, time being precious, as he was short of provisions. -This has greatly pleased the king. He [Caboto] says -that the tides are slack there and do not flow as they -do here.</p> - -<p>“The king has promised him, in the spring, ten -ships, armed to his order, and at his request has conceded -him all the prisoners, except those confined for -high treason, to man his fleet. The king has also -given him money with which he may amuse himself -until that time, and he is now in Bristol with his sons -and his wife, who is also a Venetian.<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> His name is -Juam Talbot and he is called the great admiral. -Great honor is paid him; he dresses in silk, and -these English run after him like insane people, so -that he can enlist as many of them as he pleases, -and a number of our own rogues besides.</p> - -<p>“The discoverer of these places planted on this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span> -newly found land a large cross, with one flag of England -and another of Saint Mark, on account of his -being a Venetian, so that our banner has floated very -far afield.”<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></p> - -<p>Raimondo di Soncino, the minister of the duke -of Milan, at the court of England, in a letter, written -on the twenty-fourth of August, 1497, also speaks of -the return of Caboto, saying that he “found two very -large and fertile islands, having likewise discovered -the Seven Cities, four hundred leagues from England, -on the western passage. This next spring his majesty -intends to send him with fifteen or twenty ships.”<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p> - -<p>The discovery of the two islands mentioned by Soncino -is spoken of in two inscriptions placed on a large -map of the world, preserved in the National library in -Paris. The Spanish inscription reads: “This land -was discovered by Ioan Caboto, a Venetian, and by -Sebastian Caboto, his son, in the year of the birth of -our Saviour, Jesus Christ, <span class="allsmcap">M.CCCC.</span> xciiii [<span class="allsmcap">M.CCCC.</span> xcvii?], -on the twenty-fourth of June, in the morning, to which -they gave the name, Prima tierra vista (First land -seen), and to a large island, which is by the said land, -they gave the name of Sant Joan (Saint John), because -it was discovered the same day.”<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map3"> -<a href="images/map3-full.jpg"><img src="images/map3.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">A copy of a part of a map of the world in the Bibliothèque -Nationale, Paris, known as the Cabot map of 1544. (The original is about -one-third larger than this copy.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The map, on the margin of which this inscription -appears, seems to be a copy of one made by Sebastiano -Caboto, in 1544, if the following statement of another -Spanish inscription placed on the chart be true: “Sebastian -Caboto, captain and chief pilot of his sacred -christian catholic majesty, the emperor, Charles V. of -that name, and king, our sovereign, made this large -planisphere, in the year of the birth of our Saviour, -Jesus Christ, 1544, drawn with degrees of latitude and -longitude, and with winds like a marine chart, copying -in part the maps of Ptolemy, and in part those of the -modern discoverers, Spaniards as well as Portuguese, -and in part those made by his father and by him.”<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p> - -<p>As will be seen on the map, the inscription <i>Prima -tierra uista</i> is placed opposite the tract of land on the -forty-eighth parallel of north latitude, now known as -Cape Breton Island. Evidently to obviate a misconception -respecting the situation of the land first described, -the words <i>prima uista</i> (first seen) are inscribed -on the peninsula to which the former inscription directs -the eye. On this map also is seen a large island,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span> -lying northwest of the land of Prima Vista, bearing the -name, Yᵃ de S. Juan (Island of St. John).</p> - -<p>In a letter written in London, on the eighteenth of -December, 1497, by Raimondo di Soncino to the duke -of Milan, a very interesting account is given of Caboto’s -explorations in the western hemisphere: “Perhaps, -your excellency in the press of so much business will -not be disturbed to learn that his majesty [King -Henry VII.] has gained a part of Asia without a -stroke of the sword. In this kingdom is a popular -Venetian called Messer Joanne Caboto, a man of considerable -ability, most skillful in navigation, who having -seen the most serene kings, first him of Portugal, then -him of Spain, that they had occupied unknown islands, -thought to make a similar acquisition for his majesty -[the king of England]. And having obtained the -royal privileges which gave him the use of the land -found by him, provided the right of possession was reserved -to the crown, he departed in a little ship, from -the port of Bristol, in the western part of this kingdom, -with eighteen persons who placed their fortunes with -him. Passing Ibernia [Ireland] more to the west and -then ascending toward the north, he began to navigate -the eastern part of the ocean. Leaving (for some -days) the north to the right hand, and having wandered -enough he came at last to firm land (<i>terra -ferma</i>) where he planted the royal banner, took possession -for his highness, made certain marks and -returned.</p> - -<p>“The said Messer Joanne, as he is a foreigner and -poor, would not be believed, if his partners, who are -all Englishmen and from Bristol, did not testify to the -truth of what he tells. This Messer Joanne has the -representation of the world on a map (<i>in una carta</i>),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span> -and also on a globe (<i>in una sphera solida</i>), which he -has made, and he shows by them where he arrived, -and going toward the East, has passed much of the -country of Tanais.</p> - -<p>“And they say that the land is fertile and temperate, -and think that red-wood (<i>el brasilio</i>) grows there, and -the silks, and they affirm that there the sea is full of -fish that can be taken not only with nets, but with fishing-baskets, -a stone being placed in the basket to sink -it in the water, and this, I have said, is told by the said -Messer Joanne.</p> - -<p>“And the said Englishmen, his partners, say that -that they can bring so many fish that this kingdom -will have no more business with Islanda (Iceland), and -that from that country there will be a very great trade in -the fish which they call stock-fish (<i>stochfissi</i>). But Messer -Joanne has his thoughts directed to a greater undertaking, -for he thinks of going, after this place is occupied, -along the coast farther toward the East until -he is opposite the island called Cipango, situate in the -equinoctial region, where he believes all the spices -of the world grow, and where there are also gems. -And he says that he was once at Mecca, where from -remote countries spices are carried by caravans, and -that those carrying them being asked where those -spices grew, said they did not know, but that they -came with other merchandise from remote countries to -their home by other caravans, and that the same information -was repeated by those who brought the spices -in turn to them. And he argues that if the oriental -people tell to those of the south that these things are -brought from places remote from them, and thus from -hand to hand, presupposing the rotundity of the earth, -it follows that the last carry to the northern, toward<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span> -the west. And he tells this in a way that makes it -quite plain to me and I believe it. And what is a -greater thing, his majesty, who is learned and not -prodigal, places confidence in what he says, and since -his return, provides well for him, as this Messer Joanne -tells me.</p> - -<p>“And in the spring he says that his majesty will arm -some ships and will give him all the criminals so that -he may go to this country and plant a colony there. -And in this way he hopes to make London a greater -place for spices than Alexandria. And the principals -of the business are citizens of Bristol, great mariners -that now know where to go. They say that the voyage -will not take more than fifteen days, if fortune -favors them after leaving Ibernia. I have talked with a -Burgundian, a companion of Messer Joanne, who affirms -the same, and who is willing to go, since the admiral -(<i>almirante</i>), as Messer Joanne is already styled, -has given him an island, and has also given another to -his barber, a Genoese, and they regard the two as -counts, and my lord, the admiral, the chief. And I believe -that some poor Italian friars will go on the voyage, -who have the promise of being bishops. And I, -being a friend of the admiral, if I wished to go, could -have an archbishopric.”<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></p> - -<p>In order to secure the king’s permission to go on -the proposed voyage, Giovanni Caboto again addressed -a petition to King Henry VII., requesting his majesty -to grant him letters-patent to fit out six ships, in any -of the ports of England, and “theym convey and lede -to the Londe [land] and Isles of late founde” by him. -The request was granted, and the king, on the third -day of February, 1498, in the thirteenth year of his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span> -reign,<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> licensed him to take six ships as he desired, and -“all suche maisters,<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> maryners, pages, and subjects” as -would willingly “goo and pass with hym in the same -shippes to the seid Londe or Iles.”<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p> - -<p>Having obtained his letters-patent, Giovanni Caboto, -in a short time, had five ships manned and provisioned -for one year. Early in the summer of 1498 -he set sail to return to the field of his first explorations. -Pedro de Ayala,<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> in a letter dated London, July 25, -1498, addressed to their Spanish majesties, King Ferdinand -and Queen Isabella, writes as follows concerning -Caboto’s second voyage: “I think your highnesses have -already heard that the king of England has equipped -a fleet in order to discover certain islands and firm -land (<i>tierra firme</i>), which they have told were discovered -by certain persons of Bristol, who fitted out some -ships during the past year for the same purpose. I -have seen the map which the discoverer has made, -who is another Genoese like Colon, and who has been -in Seville and in Lisbon soliciting aid for this undertaking. -The people of Bristol have, for the last seven -years, sent every year two, three, or four caravels to -search for the island of Brazil [Red-wood], and the -Seven Cities, according to the fancy of this Genoese. -The king determined to send the fleet, because in the -past year they brought certain news of having found<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span> -land. The fleet consists of five ships that carried provision -for one year. The news has come that the -vessel in which Friar Buil<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> went has returned to Ireland -in great distress, the ship being leaky. The Genoese -has continued his voyage. I have seen the course -he steered and the extent of it, and I think that what -they have found or what they are in search of, is what -your highnesses already possess, for it is the cape -which was given to your highnesses by the convention -with Portugal. It is expected that they will return -toward September. I write this because the king of -England has spoken to me on the subject, and he -thinks that your highnesses will be greatly interested -in it. I think the land is not farther distant than four -hundred leagues. I told him that in my opinion the -land was already in the possession of your highnesses, -and though I gave my reasons he did not like them. -I believe that your highnesses are already informed of -this matter, and I do not now send the chart or map of -the world which that man has made, for in my opinion -it is false, since it makes it appear as if the land in -question were not the said islands.”<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a></p> - -<p>The history of Giovanni Caboto terminates with -the information contained in Pedro de Ayala’s letter. -Nothing definite is known respecting his death.</p> - -<p>From the ambiguous and contradictory information -furnished by contemporaneous writers concerning the -voyages of Sebastiano Caboto, it appears that he sailed -to the New Land, either in the years 1497 and 1498, -with his father—or in 1499, in command of a fleet of -vessels fitted out in the port of Bristol, England. For<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span> -it is said that, in the fourteenth year of King Henry’s -reign,<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> Sebastiano Caboto set sail on a voyage to an -island where he knew he could obtain many things of -value: “This year one Sebastian Gabato a genoas -sonne borne in <i>Bristow</i> professing himselfe to be -experte in knowledge of the circute of the worlde -and Ilandes of the same as by his Charts and other -reasonable demonstrations he shewed, caused the -king to man and victual a shippe at <i>Bristow</i> to -search for an Ilande whiche he knewe to be replenished -with rich commodities: in the ship diverse -merchauntes of <i>London</i> adventured smal stockes, -and in the company of this shippe, sayled out of -<i>Bristow</i> three or foure smal shippes fraught with -slight and grosse wares as course cloth, caps, laces, -points.”<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></p> - -<p>Peter Martyr, speaking of the voyage, says: “He -fitted out two ships in England at his own expense, -and with three hundred men steered toward the north, -until, in July, he found vast icebergs floating in the -sea and almost perpetual daylight, though on the land -the snow and ice had melted. Therefore he was compelled -to turn the sails, as he says, and to go toward -the west, and yet he held to the south, the shore bending, -that he almost reached the degree of the latitude -of the strait of Hercules, and proceeded so far to the -west that he may have had the island of Cuba on his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span> -left hand, being almost to its degree of longitude.<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> -Steering along this coast, which he called Bacallaos, -he found, as he says, the currents of the sea running -toward the west, but gently, as those found by the -Spaniards navigating in the southern waters. It is -not only likely to be true, but it may be accepted as a -fact, that between these regions [Bacallaos and the -West Indies] there is a great space still unexplored -that offers a way [to the East], where the water flows -from east to west. These currents, I think, are made -to flow round the earth by the impulsion of the heavens, -and are not thrown up and swallowed again by Demorgorgon -breathing.<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Perhaps, they may be caused, -as it is said, by influx and reflux.</p> - -<p>“Cabotto himself called these regions Baccallaos -(<i>Baccallaos Cabottus ipse terras illas appellavit</i>), because -in the sea there he found great shoals of certain large -fish resembling tunnies, which name was given them by -the natives.<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> These fish were so numerous that sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> -they retarded the progress of his ships. He -found the people of these regions covered only with -skins, but the natives were not wholly destitute of -reason. He also relates that in these regions there is -a great number of bears which eat fish. They plunge -into the water where they see a shoal of fish and fasten -their claws between the scales of the fish, and in this -way convey them to the shore, where they devour -them. The hunger of the bears being appeased, -they do not annoy men. He declares further that in -many places he saw copper (<i>orichalcum</i>) among the -natives.”<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a></p> - -<p>Gomara, the Spanish historian, says: “But he who -made this land more widely known was Sebastian -Gaboto, a Venetian.<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> He equipped two ships in England -(he having been taken there when he was little), -(<i>do tratava desde pequeño</i>,) at the cost of King Henry -VII., who desired the trade in spices the same as the -king of Portugal. Others say at his own expense, -and that he promised King Henry to go by the north -to Cathay, and to bring spices there in less time than -the Portuguese from the south. He also went to see -if there was any land in the Indies on which a colony<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> -might be settled. He took three hundred men and -steered a course by the way of Iceland, above the -cape of Labrador, going as far as fifty-eight degrees, -though he says much farther, stating that in the month -of July it was so extremely cold and that there were so -many icebergs floating in the sea, that he did not dare -to go farther.... So Caboto, having inspected -the cold and strange country, changed his course to -the west, and returning again to the Baccalaos (<i>los -Baccalaos</i>), he followed the coast as far as thirty-eight -degrees, and then returned to England.”<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a></p> - -<p>Galvano, the Portuguese historian, says that when -Sebastiano Caboto returned from the north, he diminished -“the altitude till he came to thirty-eight degrees, -and from there returned to England. Others will have -it that he went as far as the point of Florida, which is -in twenty-five degrees.”<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a></p> - -<p>In the discourse of Sir Humphrey Gilbert respecting -“a new passage to Cataia,” it is said: “Furthermore, -Sebastian Cabota by his personall experience, -and trauell, hath set foorth, and described this passage, -in his Charts, whiche are yet to be seene in the -Queenes Maiesties priuie Gallerie, at Whitehall, who -was sent to make this discoverie by King Henrie the -seauenth, and entered the same fret: affirming, that he -sailed very far westward, with a quater of the North,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span> -on the north side of Terra de Labrador<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> the eleuenth -of June, vntil he came to the septentrional latitude -of 67½ degrees and finding the seas still open -said that he might, and would have gone to Cataia, if -the mutinie of the Maister and Mariners had not ben.”<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p> - -<p>It is further related that in the eighteenth year of -the reign of King Henry VII.,<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> three Indians were -brought to England from the islands discovered by -Sebastiano Caboto: “Thys yeare, were brought vnto -the Kyng three men taken in the new founde Ilands, -by Sebastian Gabato, before named in Anno 1468, -these men were clothed in Beastes skinnes, and eate -raw Flesh, but spake such a language as no man could -vnderstand them, of the which three men, two of them -were seene in the Kings Court at Westminster two -yeares after, clothed, like Englishmen, and could not -bee discerned from Englishmen.”<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p> - -<p>The field of the discoveries of Giovanni Caboto, -represented on the map made by Juan de la Cosa, in -1500, and on the one of 1544, in the National library, in -Paris, was apparently the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton -Island<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> and of Nova Scotia. The part of the peninsula -designated Prima Vista, (First Seen,) on the map -of 1544, appears to be the same as that which on La -Cosa’s chart is denominated Cavo de Inglaterra (Cape -of England). The coast, from Cape Breton southwestward<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> -to the Bay of Fundy, the sea discovered for the -English (<i>mar descubierta por inglese</i>),<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> is delineated by -La Cosa with approximate accuracy.</p> - -<p>The information given by Peter Martyr, Gomara, -and Galvano respecting the voyage of Sebastiano Caboto, -makes the fact evident that the latter sailed northwestwardly -along the coast of Labrador almost to the -sixtieth parallel, where he was so far to the west -“that he had the island of Cuba on his left hand” and -had nearly reached the longitude of the island. On -his return, after running along the coast of Baccallaos, -he sailed southward, but too far east of the mainland -to see its coast, and reached the latitude of the thirty-eighth -parallel; whence he steered for England. If -Sebastiano Caboto had explored any part of the present -coast of the United States he certainly would have -imparted some information respecting its physical -features, its inhabitants, its flora and fauna, to the inquisitive -chroniclers of his age. The descriptions of -the regions explored by him only apply to the more -northern parts of the continent, represented on the -map of 1544, to which territory was given the name -La Tierra de los Bacallaos (Land of Codfish).<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> On -the planisphere of 1544, the following statement is inscribed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span> -concerning the country discovered by Sebastiano -Caboto. “The people wear clothes made of the -skins of animals, use bows and arrows, lances, darts, -knob-headed clubs, and slings in their wars. The -country is very sterile. In it are many white bears, -and deer as large as horses, and many other animals -of the same class; also immense numbers of fish such -as soles, salmon, very large lings, a yard in length, and -many other kinds of fish, but the most numerous are -those called bacallaos. In this country there are falcons -as black as ravens, eagles, partridges, linnets, and -many other birds of different kinds.”<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a></p> - -<p>“This much concerning Sebastiano Gabotes discouerie -may suffice for a present cast,” says Hakluyt, -“but shortly, God willing, shall come out in print all -his owne mappes and discourses, drawne and written -by himselfe, which are in the custodie of the worshipfull -master Williā Worthington, one of her Maiesties -Pensioners who (because so worthie monumentes -shoulde not be buried in perpetuall obliuion) is very -willing to suffer them to be ouerseene and published in -as good order as may bee, to the encouragement and -benefite of our Countriemen.”<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> The English collector -also remarks that “the map of Sebastiano Caboto cut -by Clement Adams, concerning the discovery of the -the West Indies, ... [is] to be seene in her<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span> -Maiesties priuie gallerie at Westminster, and in many -other anchient merchants houses.”<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a></p> - -<p>Although three hundred years have passed since -Hakluyt promised the early publication of Sebastiano -Caboto’s maps and discourses, they are still covered -with the pall of oblivion.<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1497-1521.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>While the Spanish and the English expeditions had -failed to find the attractive shores of Cathay by sailing -westwardly across the Atlantic, the Portuguese were -more fortunate in their long-continued attempts to -reach the dominions of the Grand Khan by sailing -eastwardly. Restricted by the papal decree to the prosecution -of her voyages of discovery on the east side -of the line of demarkation, Portugal zealously persisted -in seeking along the coast of Africa a way to the -Orient. Vasco da Gama, an intrepid navigator, was -placed in command of an expedition, and sailed from -Lisbon, in March, 1497, in the path marked out by -Bartolomeu Dias, in 1487. When Da Gama came to -the Cape of Good Hope, or the Stormy Cape (Cabo -Tormentoso), he realized that the windy headland was -rightly named. The hazardous attempts which he repeatedly -made to pass the stormy promontory so impressed -his sailors with his extreme venturesomeness -that they endeavored to persuade him to turn back. -It is said that this made Da Gama comport “himself -very angrily, swearing that if they did not double the -cape, he would stand out to sea again as many times -until the cape was doubled, or there should happen -whatever should please God.” Having achieved his -bold purpose, on the twenty-second of November, -1497, Da Gama made himself famous in reaching the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span> -remote coast of India, on the seventeenth of May, -1498, and entered the harbor of Calicut,<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> three days -afterward. Returning on the homeward voyage, he -arrived at Lisbon, about the beginning of September, -1499.</p> - -<p>To perfect and enjoy the privileges of her inaugurated -commerce with India, Portugal immediately -fitted out a fleet of merchantmen to carry her commodities -to the distant country over the sea-path explored -by her daring navigators. Pedro Alvarez Cabral was -given command of thirteen ships, with which he sailed on -the ninth of March, 1500, with instructions to hold his -course out at sea at some distance from the coast of -Africa, in order to avoid the troublesome currents and -delaying winds which had previously deterred mariners -from encountering the perils of the unexplored route -near the main-land. Cabral proceeded southward, but -near the Cape Verd Islands lost sight of one of his -ships, and while seeking her he lost his course. Fortunately, -on Wednesday afternoon, on the twenty-second -of April, he descried the summit of a round and -high mountain on the eastern coast of Brazil, which he -called Monte Pascoal.<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> Perceiving the next morning -that he had anchored opposite the mouth of a river, -he sent Nicolao Coelho to examine it. From this anchorage -he sailed in search of a safe harbor, and on -Saturday, the twenty-fifth of April, found the roadstead -which he called Porto Seguro, which was in seventeen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span> -degrees of south latitude, according to the observation -made there. On the first of May a large wooden cross -was erected to which was affixed the declaration of -Cabral’s discovery of the country for the king of Portugal. -Cabral, having dispatched Gaspar de Lemos with -a small vessel to Lisbon with the report of his discovery, -set sail, on the third of May, for India. Cabral -called the discovered country Terra de Vera Cruz -(Land of the True Cross), which name was shortly -afterward changed to Terra de Santa Cruz (Land -of the Holy Cross), and subsequently Brazil was -substituted for it.<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p> - -<p>In the year 1500 the Portuguese sailed in a different -direction to seek a short route to Cathay. The -Portuguese historian, Galvano refers to the expedition, -saying: “In this same year 1500 it is said that Gaspar -Cortereal<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> begged permission of King Emmanuel to -discover the New Land (Terra Nova). He departed -from the island Terceira with two ships equipped -at his own expense, and he sailed to that region which -is in the north in fifty degrees of latitude, which is a -land now called after his name. He returned home -in safety to the city of Lisbon. Sailing a second -time on this voyage the ship was lost in which he -went, and the other vessel came back to Portugal. -His brother Miguel went to seek him with three -ships at his own cost, and when they came to that -coast, and found so many entrances of rivers and -havens, each ship entered a different river, with this -regulation and command, that they all three should -meet again on the twentieth of August. The other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span> -two ships did as commanded, and they, seeing that -Miguel Cortereal came not on the appointed day nor -afterward in a certain time, returned to this realm and -never heard any thing more concerning him.... -But that country is called Terra dos Cortereals unto -this day.”<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a></p> - -<p>Damião de Góes, the Portuguese historian, says -Cortereal called this region Terra Verde (Greenland), -on account of its remarkable verdure, and the vast -forests stretching all along the coast.<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></p> - -<p>Ramusio, speaking of the exploration of the coast -of North America says: “In the part of the New -World, which runs toward the north and northwest, -opposite our habitable part of Europe, many captains -have navigated, and the first (by that which one -knows), was Gaspar Cortereale, a Portuguese, who, in -1500, went with two caravels intending to find some -strait of the sea whence by a shorter voyage than that -taken around Africa he would be able to go to the -Spice Islands. He sailed so far forward that he came -to a place where it was extremely cold, and he found, -in the latitude of sixty degrees, a river closed with -snow, to which he gave the name, calling it Rio -Nevado. But he had not sufficient courage to pass -much beyond it. The whole of this coast, which runs -two hundred leagues from Rio Nevado as far as to the -port of Malvas, in fifty-six degrees, he saw full of -people and along it many dwellings.”<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></p> - -<p>The earliest account of Gaspar Cortereal’s voyage -of 1501, from which he never returned, is contained in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> -a letter written by Pietro Pasqualigo, the Venetian -ambassador at the court of Portugal, to his brothers -in Italy, dated October 19, 1501. The writer says: -“On the eighth of the present month, one of the two -caravels which his most serene majesty sent the past -year under the command of Gaspar Corterat, arrived -here, and reports the finding of a country distant west -and northwest, two thousand miles, heretofore quite -unknown.</p> - -<p>“They ran along the coast between six hundred -and seven hundred miles without arriving at its termination, -on which account they concluded it to be the -same continent that is connected with another land -which was discovered last year in the north, but which -the caravel could not reach on account of the ice and -the vast quantity of snow, and they are confirmed in -this belief by the multitude of great rivers they found, -which certainly could not proceed from an island. They -report that this land is thickly peopled, and that the -houses are built of very long beams of timber, and covered -with the skins of fishes. They have brought -hither along with them seven of the inhabitants, including -men, women, and children; and in the other -caravel, which is looked for every hour, they are bringing -fifty more. These people, in color, figure, stature, -and expression, greatly resemble gypsies. They are -clothed with the skins of different beasts, but chiefly of -the otter, wearing the hair outside in summer, and next -to the skin in winter. These skins, too, are not sewed -together, nor shaped to the body in any fashion, but -wrapped around the arms and shoulders as they were -taken from the animals.... On this account -their appearance is wholly barbarous; yet they are -very sensible to shame, gentle in their manners, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span> -better made in their arms, legs, and shoulders than can -be expressed. Their faces are punctured in the same -manner as the Indians; some have six marks, some -eight, some fewer. They use a language of their own, -but it is understood by no one. Moreover, I believe -that every possible language has been addressed to -them. They have no iron in their country, but manufacture -knives out of certain kinds of stones, with which -they point their arrows.</p> - -<p>“They have also brought from this island a piece -of a broken sword inlaid with gold, which we can pronounce -undoubtedly to have been made in Italy; and -one of the children had in his ears two pieces (<i>todini</i>) -of silver, which likewise appear to have been made in -Venice, a circumstance inducing me to believe that -their country belongs to the continent, since it is -evident that if it were an island where any vessel -had touched before this time we should have heard -of it.<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p> - -<p>“They have plenty of salmon, herring, cod, and -other fish of the same kind. They have an abundance -of timber, principally pine, fitted for masts and -yards of ships, on which account his serene majesty -anticipates the greatest profit from this country, both -in providing timber for ships, of which he, at present, -stands in great need, and from the men that inhabit it, -who appear admirably fitted to endure labor, and will -probably be the best slaves which have been found up -to this time.</p> - -<p>“This arrival appeared to me to be an event -of which it was right to inform you; and if on -the arrival of the other caravel I receive any additional<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span> -information, it shall be transmitted to you in -like manner.”<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a></p> - -<p>Gaspar Cortereal, who was expected to return to -Lisbon in the second caravel, never reached Portugal. -Miguel, his brother, sailed from Lisbon in May 1502, -with three ships, to search for Gaspar and the missing -vessel, but he was never heard of again, and it was -conjectured that both of the brothers had been slain -by the savages from whom they had taken so many -of their relatives to serve as slaves in Portugal.</p> - -<p>No little enthusiasm was created at the court of -Portugal by Cabral’s report of the discovery of the -Land of the True Cross. King Emmanuel at once -ordered three vessels to be equipped to sail to the -new country. Having heard of the voyages made -by Amerigo Vespucci to the Land of Pearls (Terra -delle Perle), he wrote to Vespucci in Seville, and solicited -him to enter his service. The illness of the explorer -did not then permit him to accept the tempting -offer of the king of Portugal. However, when he -was afterward visited by the king’s ambassador, Giuliano -di Bartolomeo del Giocondo, Vespucci consented -to go to Lisbon and to be commissioned by King -Emmanuel to accompany the fleet that was prepared -to sail to Terra de Vera Cruz. His departure from -Spain, he says, was a matter of regret to all who knew -him, because there he was honored, and there the king -had a right to claim his services.<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> Narrating the incidents -of his third voyage to the New World, Vespucci -writes:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span></p> - -<p>“We departed from the port of Lisbon, three ships -in company, on the tenth of May, 1501, and took our -course directly for the Grand Canary Islands.... -From there we sailed to the coast of Ethiopia, and arrived -at the port called Beseneghe, in the torrid zone.... -We left this port of Ethiopia and steered to -the southwest.... In sixty-seven days we -reached land lying seven hundred leagues southwest -of that port.... The season was very unfavorable -for the voyage, particularly when we approached -the equator, where, in the month of June, it is winter.... -It pleased God, however, to show us a new -country on the seventeenth of August. Then we -anchored at the distance of a half league from the -coast. We got out our boats and went on land to see -if the country were inhabited, and if it were, by what -class of people. We found that it was inhabited by a -people of a lower condition than that of beasts.... -We took possession of it in the name of his -majesty. It lies five degrees south of the equator.... -We sailed in a southeasterly direction, on a -line parallel with the coast, making many landings, but -never discovering any natives who could converse -with us. Running on this course, we found the land -made a turn to the southwest. As soon as we doubled -the cape, which we named the Cape of St. Augustine, -we began to sail to the southwest.... This -cape is eight degrees south of the equator.”<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></p> - -<p>While the explorers were sailing along the east -coast of Brazil, they arrived at a place where they -anchored five days. “Here,” says Vespucci, “we -found carmine stems very large and green, and some -already dry on the tops of the trees. We left<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span> -this port, always sailing to the southwest in sight -of the land, making many anchorages and treating -with innumerable people. We went so far toward the -south that we were beyond the tropic of Capricorn -where the south pole is elevated thirty-two degrees -above the horizon. We had entirely lost sight of the -Little Bear, and the Great Bear was very low, almost on -the verge of the horizon.<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> We steered by the stars of -the south pole, which are many, and much larger and -brighter than those of our pole. I traced the figures -of the greater part of them, particularly those of the -first and greater magnitude, giving an explanation -of the circuits which they made around the pole, -together with a description of their diameters and -semi-diameters, as may be seen in my four journeys. -We ran about seven hundred and fifty leagues along -this coast.... We saw a great number of redwood -(verzino) and cassia trees, and of those which -produce myrrh.... We found ourselves in -such a high southern latitude, that the south pole -was elevated above the horizon fifty-two degrees.... -The cold [on the seventh of April, 1502] -was so severe that no one in the fleet could endure -it.... We agreed that the superior captain<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> -should make signals for the fleet to turn about, -and that we should depart from this land and steer -our course in the direction of Portugal.”</p> - -<p>After touching at the port of Sierra Leone, -and at the Azores, the explorers reached the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> -port of Lisbon on the seventh day of September, -1502.<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a></p> - -<p>Vespucci was again sent by the king of Portugal, -in 1503, with a fleet of six ships commanded by Gonçalo -Coelho, to discover an island “toward the east -called Melaccha, which we know lies in the sea,” says -Vespucci, “thirty-three degrees from the south pole.” -Departing from the port of Lisbon on the tenth of -May, the vessels stood for the Cape Verd Islands. -After going to Sierra Leone on the coast of Africa, -the fleet sailed toward the southwest. On this course -one of the vessels struck on a rock, and was abandoned -by the crew. On the east coast of Brazil, the -fleet entered the harbor which the Portuguese called -the Bay of All Saints (Bahia de todos os Santos). At -a harbor two hundred and sixty leagues farther south, -or in eighteen degrees south latitude, a fortress was -erected, and garrisoned with twenty-four men. The -fleet then sailed for Portugal, and entered the port of -Lisbon on the eighteenth of June, 1504.<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a></p> - -<p>The opinion of Columbus that a strait could be -found to the south or southwest of Cuba through which -ships might sail to Cathay, induced Vicente Yañez Pinzon -and Juan Diaz de Solis in 1506 to search along the -coast bordering the Bay of Honduras for a navigable -passage to the Indian Ocean.<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> They held the same -course as the admiral, says Herrera, “and sailing as far -as the islands Guanajos steered westward as far as -Golfo Dulce, but did not see it, for it lies hid. However, -they observed the inlet the sea makes between the -land that forms the bay and the coast of Iucatan....<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span> -From where they descried the Sierras of -Caria, they steered northward and discovered a great -part of the main-land of Iucatan.”<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></p> - -<p>The unique and peculiarly shaped map made by the -German cartographer, Johann Ruysch, contained in the -edition of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography, printed at -Rome, in 1508,<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> is the earliest engraved chart on which -appear the fields of discovery, in the western hemisphere, -entered by Columbus, Cabot, Cortereal, Cabral, -Vespucci, and other early explorers of the coast of the -new continent.</p> - -<p>Geographically ignorant of the longitude of the discovered -part of North America, then called the New -Land (Terra Nova), Ruysch represents it as if it were -a part of the eastern coast of Asia, between the two -hundred and eightieth and the three hundredth meridians. -Better informed respecting its latitude, he delineates -it as extending from the forty-fifth to the fifty-fifth -parallel of north latitude.<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> Immediately north of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> -the New Land is the Greenland Sea (Sinus Grvenlantevs), -and beyond it, Greenland (Grvenlant), discovered -by the Northmen. South of the New Land, between -the fortieth and twenty-fifth parallels is the unnamed -and falsely represented island of Cuba, on the west side -of which is a scroll bearing the information: “As far -as this the ships of Ferdinand, king of Spain, have -come.” South of this island and that of Española -(Spagnola) is the discovered part of South America, -then denominated the Land of the Holy Cross or the -New World (Terra Sancti Crucis sive Mundus Novus). -The inscription on the represented territory embraces -the following information: “At different places this -region is inhabited, and it is supposed by many to be -another world. Women and men appear either entirely -naked or clad with interwoven leaves and the feathers -of birds of various colors. They live together in common -without any religion or king. They are continually -at war among themselves. They eat the human -flesh of captives. They exercise so much in the salubrious -air that they live more than one hundred and -fifty years. They are rarely sick, and then they cure -themselves solely with the roots of plants. Here lions -are born, and serpents and other terrible monsters -found in the forests. Very large quantities of pearls and -gold are in the mountains and rivers. From here -Brasil-wood, or verzini, and cassia are carried away by -the Portuguese.” Below this inscription is another -which contains the following statement: “Portuguese -navigators have inspected this part of this land, and -have sailed as far as the fiftieth degree of south latitude -without seeing the southern limit of it.”</p> - -<p>On the scroll on the western part of the delineated -territory of South America this information is inscribed:<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> -“As far as this Spanish navigators have -come, and they have called this land, on account -of its greatness, the New World. Inasmuch as they -have not wholly explored it nor surveyed it farther -than the present termination, it must remain thus imperfectly -delineated until it is known in what direction -it extends.”</p> - -<p>On the upper part of the right margin of the map -the following fiction respecting the configuration of the -earth at the north pole is inscribed. “It is said in -the book concerning the fortunate discovery<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> that at -the arctic pole there is a high magnetic rock, thirty-three -German miles in circumference. A surging sea -surrounds this rock, as if the water were discharged -downward from a vase through an opening. Around -it are islands, two of which are inhabited.”</p> - -<p>North of Greenland is another inscription containing -a popular fiction of the dangers besetting ships in -the Arctic Ocean: “Here a surging sea begins; here -the compasses of a ship do not hold, nor are ships -which have iron about them able to turn about.” -Among the perils of the Greenland Sea were the deceptions -practised by the savages inhabiting the islands -in it: “It is said that those who came formerly in -ships among these islands for fish and other food were -so deceived by the demons that they could not go on -land without danger.”</p> - -<p>The four voyages of Amerigo Vespucci had acquainted -him with so many unknown peoples and -places in the New World that he was induced by his -own inclinations and the suggestions of his friends to -write an account of the explorations of the different<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span> -expeditions with which he had been sent by the -sovereigns of Spain and Portugal. In his letter, dated -in Lisbon, the fourth of September, 1504,<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> he speaks -of the intended publication of his voyages in a volume -in the style of a geography (<i>un uolume in stilo geografia</i>), -and calls the composition (<i>zibaldone</i>), “Le -Quattro Giornate” (The Four Journeys).</p> - -<p>The earliest known work containing an account of -Vespucci’s four voyages is entitled “Cosmographiae -introductio” (Introduction to geography), printed in -St. Dié, in Lorraine, on the twenty-sixth of April, -1507.<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> This rare Latin book was the work of a -German scholar named Martin Waldseemüller, a professor -of geography in the gymnasium in St. Dié,<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> -who having translated his surname into Hylacomylus<a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> -affixed this Greek pseudonym to his writings. On -the reverse page of the fifteenth leaf of Hylacomylus’s -Introduction to geography is the notable suggestion -that the land in the western hemisphere visited -by Amerigo Vespucci should be called Amerige -or America. The enthusiastic geographer, having -described Europe, Asia, and Africa, remarks:</p> - -<p>“And as now these parts have been more widely -surveyed, and another fourth part has been found by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span> -Americus Vesputius (as will be perceived by what follows), -I can not see why any one can justly forbid -the calling of this part Amerige or America, that is, -the land of Americus, from Americus, the discoverer, -an intelligent man, as Europe and Asia have taken -their names from women.”<a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a></p> - -<p>The name America in a short time became a -popular designation for the continent in the western -hemisphere.<a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span></p> - -<p>Although Vespucci repeatedly mentions in his -letter that he held subordinate positions under the -superior captains commanding the different fleets with -which he had sailed to the New World, twenty-one -years after his death he was unjustly accused by -Johannes Schoner, in a little geographical work, as -having contrived to have the continent called by his -name.<a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> Schoner’s imputation was evidently caused -by a spirit of ill-will, for he attempted, it would seem, -to lessen the importance of the discoveries made by -Spain and Portugal, by placing on a globe, made -by him in 1520, this inscription designating South -America: “America vel Brasilia sive papagalli terra” -(America or Brasil or the land of parrots).<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> Later still -a number of writers in turn undertook to defame Vespucci -by asserting that he did not make the voyage of -1497, and to support their arguments quoted the -erroneous statements of the different versions of his -letter. The assumptions of these writers, however, -are not corroborated by the Italian text of Vespucci’s -letter, in part presented on the preceding pages, nor -are they verified by later researches in the archives of -Spain and Portugal.<a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map4"> -<a href="images/map4-full.jpg"><img src="images/map4.jpg" width="300" height="175" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">Map of the New World in the Latin work, “Legatio -Babylonica, Oceani Decas,” by Pietro Martire d’Anghiera, printed in -Seville in 1511. (Size of the original, 7½ × 11 inches.)</p> -</div> - -<p>When the Spaniards were exploring the West India<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span> -archipelago a report became current that on one of -the more northward islands there was a fountain, the -water of which possessed extraordinary virtues. Peter -Martyr heard the rumor, and wrote, in 1511, to the -bishop of Rome, saying: “There is an island about -three hundred and twenty-five leagues from Española, -as they say who have searched for it, named -Boiuca or Agnaneo, on which is a never-failing -spring of running water of such marvelous efficacy -that when the water is drunk, perhaps, with some -attention to diet, it makes old people young again. -And here I must beg your holiness not to think that -this is said jestingly or thoughtlessly, for they have -reported it everywhere as a fact, so that not only all -the common people but also the educated and the -wealthy believe it to be true.”<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a></p> - -<p>The island of Boiuca appears to be partly outlined -on the small map in Peter Martyr’s “Legatio Babylonica,” -printed at Seville in 1511. It is designated -on the latter as a part of the island of Beimeni,—“Isla -de beimeni parte.”<a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a></p> - -<p>Among those who gave credence to the fiction of -the marvellous virtues of the spring of Boiuca was Juan -Ponce de Leon, a Spanish cavalier, who had attained -considerable military fame in the West Indies.<a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> He -had sailed from Spain in 1493 to Española in one of -the ships of Columbus’s second expedition. In 1509 he -took part in the subjugation of the Island of Borriquen, -afterward called Porto Rico, of which he was made<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span> -governor. Beguiling himself with the hope that he -could renew the vigor of his youth by bathing in the -stream of life-giving water, and at the same time add -honor to his name by becoming the discoverer of the -island on which the fountain was said to be, Juan Ponce -fitted out three vessels and sailed from the port of St. -German, Porto Rico, on Thursday, the third of March, -1512, to search for the island Boiuca, which some called -Bimini. “It is certain,” says Herrera, the Spanish historian, -“that Juan Ponce de Leon besides intending to -make new discoveries, as all the Spaniards at that time -aspired to do, was also intent on finding the fountain -of Bimini and a river in Florida; the Indians of Cuba -and Española affirming that old people bathing themselves -in them became young again, and it was a fact -that many Indians of Cuba, firmly believing that there -was such a stream, had found that island not long -before the Spaniards, and had passed over to Florida -in search of the river, and there built a town, where -their descendants reside to this day. This report so -affected all the princes and caciques in those parts that -it was a hobby to find a river which wrought such a -wonderful change as made old people young, so that -there was not a river or a brook, scarcely a lake or a -puddle, in all Florida, in which they did not bathe -themselves.”<a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a></p> - -<p>The explorations and discoveries of Juan Ponce are -thus described by Herrera: “On Sunday, the -twenty-seventh of March, the day of the Feast of the -Resurrection, commonly called the Feast of Flowers, -(<i>que era Dia de Pascua de Resurreccion, que comunmente -dicen de Flores</i>,) they saw an island and passed by it. -On Monday, the twenty-eighth, they steered in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span> -same direction, fifteen leagues, until Wednesday, when -the weather became foul. They then stood west-northwest -until the second of April. The water grew -shallower until they came into nine fathoms, a league -from the land, which was in thirty degrees and eight -minutes. Thinking this land was an island they called -it La Florida, because it had a very pretty landscape -of many green groves, and it was level and regular, and -because they discovered it at the time of the Floral -Feast (<i>Pascua Florida</i>).<a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> Juan Ponce wished the -name to conform to these two facts. He went on land -to learn the language and to take possession.</p> - -<p>“On Friday, the eighth, they sailed again the same -way, and on Saturday, south by east, until the twentieth, -when they saw some Indian huts from the place -where they had cast anchor. The next day the three -ships sailed along the coast and entered a current -which was so swift that it drove them back, although -they had the wind strong.<a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> The two ships, near the -land, dropped their anchors, but the force of the stream -was so great that it strained the cables. The third -vessel, a brigantine, being farther out, either found no -bottom or was not sensible of the current, which carried -her so far from the shore that they lost sight of her, -although the day was bright and the weather fine.</p> - -<p>“Juan Ponce being called by the Indians went -ashore and the latter at once undertook to possess -themselves of the boat, the oars, and the arms. This -was tolerated till one of the Indians stunning a sailor -with a stroke of a cudgel on the head, when the Spaniards -were compelled to fight. They had two of their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span> -men wounded with darts and arrows pointed with sharp -bones, and the Indians received little injury. Night -parting them, Juan Ponce, with considerable difficulty, -got his men together and sailed thence to a river, -where they wooded and watered, and waited for the -brigantine. Sixty Indians came to attack them, one -of whom was taken to give information and to learn -the Spanish language. The river they called Rio de -la Cruz, (River of the Cross), planting there a stone -cross, bearing an inscription.”<a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a></p> - -<p>On the twenty-third of September, after having -coasted in different directions along the Flowery Land, -Juan Ponce determined to return to Porto Rico. Before -he set sail, he sent Juan Perez de Ortubia to make -a further search for the rejuvenating fountains on the -island of Bimini. Not long after Juan Ponce’s return -to Porto Rico, Ortubia arrived there and reported that -he had found the island, but not the wonderful spring.<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span></p> - -<p>Juan Ponce de Leon went to Spain and obtained -from the crown the appointment of adelantado of -Bimini and Florida. When he heard, while living at -Porto Rico, the reports of the success of Hernando -Cortes in Mexico, he fitted out, in 1521, two ships, and -sailed to Florida to take possession of it and to settle -a colony on its attractive shores. But the natives valiantly -opposed the occupation of their country and -drove the ambitious invader, with the loss of many -men, to his ships. Juan Ponce was wounded in the -thigh by an arrow. The vessels sailed to Cuba, where -the impoverished and disabled Spaniard not long after -died.<a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></p> - -<p>The exploration of Central America was continued -in 1511 by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, a native of Xeres -de los Caballeros, Spain, who had accompanied Rodrigo -de Bastidas when he sailed on his voyage of discovery -to the New World, in October, 1500. In 1510 -the Indian village on the isthmus of Darien, west of -the Gulf of Uraba, was made the seat of the government -of this part of the continent by the Spaniards, -and called Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien. -Vasco Nuñez de Balboa was appointed alcade of the -new colony. This ambitious and avaricious adventurer -penetrated the dense forest belting the northern -coast of the isthmus, and invaded the interior, where -he found a wealthy cacique, named Comogre. The -Indian chief entertained Vasco Nuñez and his fourscore -followers with generous hospitality in his -large and attractive palace, a wooden building one -hundred and fifty paces long and eighty wide. He -presented his indigent guest with four thousand -ounces of golden ornaments and sixty slaves. “This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span> -gold, with as much more obtained at another place,” -says Peter Martyr, “our men weighed on the porch of -Comogre’s palace, to separate the fifth part due to the -king’s exchequer, for it was a law that the fifth part of -the gold, pearls, and precious stones should be given -to the royal treasurer, and the remainder be divided -among the discoverers. While our men were wrangling -and contending about the division of the gold, the -eldest son of Comogre, the cacique, who was present -and whom we commended for wisdom, approached -with some appearance of anger him who was weighing -the treasure, and struck the balances with his fist, scattering -the gold all over the porch.” Pointing southward -toward the mountains, he told them that beyond -those <i>sierras</i> was a great sea, on which people sailed -with ships as large as theirs, and that the adjacent -country contained great quantities of gold.</p> - -<p>Balboa heard this surprising announcement with -delight, and, ambitious to be honored as the discoverer -of the unnamed sea and the country abounding with -rich mines, began to plan to go there and achieve the -notoriety that would make his name forever famous. -On the first of September, 1513, Vasco Nuñez, with -one hundred and ninety men and a number of Indian -guides, embarked at Santa Maria de la Antigua and -set sail in a brigantine for the Indian village of Coyba. -Here he began his toilsome and dangerous march -across the isthmus. After enduring untold hardships -the pertinacious Spaniard and his small body of wayworn -followers arrived at the foot of the Sierra de -Quarequa, intercepting the view of the unseen ocean.<a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span> -While climbing the rugged slope of the intervening -mountain, on the twenty-fifth of September, Balboa -commanded his men to halt and to remain where they -were until he had reached the summit and surveyed -the wide expanse of the great ocean billowing between -the isthmus and the remote shores of India. When -the enthusiastic Spaniard ascended to the top of the -mountain and beheld the Mar del Sur (Sea of the -South), he fell upon his knees and thanked God for -honoring him as its discoverer, “as he was a man of -moderate ability, little knowledge, and humble birth.” -Calling to his men to come to him, he ordered them, -after surveying the discovered sea, to construct a -wooden cross, and to plant it where he had kneeled -and rendered thanks for the honor conferred on him. -A mound of stones was built near the cross as a monument -to commemorate the discovery of the ocean and -the adjacent country for his majesty, the king of Spain. -Descending the southern slope of the mountain, Balboa -and his followers made their way to the shore of the -bay, which he called San Miguel, where the proud -discoverer, with a banner embellished with the picture -of the Holy Virgin and Child and the insignia of Spain, -marched into the sea, and took possession of it in the -name of his sovereign, King Ferdinand. Having explored -a part of the southern coast of the isthmus, -Vasco Nuñez and his men reëntered the wilderness -and arrived at Santa Maria de la Antigua on the nineteenth -of January, 1514.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span></p> - -<p>In the following year Gaspar Morales and Francisco -Pizarro crossed the isthmus with sixty men, and visited -the island which Balboa had called Isla Rica. In 1516, -Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, ambitious of obtaining greater -fame, and having two hundred men and considerable -money at his command, transported the timber, rigging, -and other appendages of two brigantines across -the isthmus, and after putting the vessels in sailing -condition, launched them upon the recently discovered -ocean. After a short cruise among the islands near -Isla Rica, Balboa returned to the Spanish settlement at -Acla, on the north coast, where he was arrested on -some false charges and put in irons by Pedrarias Davila, -“as a traitor and an usurper of the territories of the -crown of Spain.” The enmity of Pedrarias was so bitter -toward the innocent officer that the Spanish governor -of Darien ordered Balboa to be executed. In 1517, -at the age of forty-one years, in the <i>plaza</i> of Acla, the -discoverer of the South Sea was publicly beheaded.<a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a></p> - -<p>To further explore the coast of Brazil, it is said that -Juan Diaz de Solis sailed from Lepe, Spain, on the -eighth of October, 1515. Descrying the continent at -Cape San Roque, in five degrees south latitude, he -steered southward along the coast to Rio de Janeiro, -(River of January,) in twenty-three degrees south latitude. -Thence he coasted farther southward and entered -a large bay of fresh water, which he called Mar -Dulce, that was afterward called Rio de la Plata. While -exploring this stream, De Solis, with some of his crew, -went on land, and while ashore was attacked by the -natives, and falling into their hands he and his men -were roasted and devoured. The vessel returned to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> -Cape St. Augustine, and having loaded with Brazil-wood, -sailed to Spain.<a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a></p> - -<p>The greed of gold, silver, and pearls,—the master -passion governing Spanish capitalists and the horde of -moneyless adventurers at this time in the New World,—was -the cause of the fitting out of three vessels, in 1517, -to go in search of new countries west of the island of -Cuba. This fleet, under the command of Francisco -Hernando de Cordoba, set sail, with one hundred and -ten soldiers, about the beginning of February, from -San Cristobal, on the north side of the island, and after -a voyage of twenty-one days came in sight of the -northeastern part of the peninsula of Yucatan, where -an Indian town was seen, to which the Spaniards gave -the name El Gran Cairo. Near this place three -temples, built of stone and lime, were found, in which -were many clay idols “some of them having terrible -shapes, seemingly representing Indians committing -horrible offences. In these temples,” says Bernal Diaz -del Castillo,<a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a> who was connected with the expedition, -“we also found wooden boxes containing other gods -with hellish faces, several small shells, some ornaments, -three crowns, and a number of trinkets, some in the -shape of fish, others in the shape of ducks, all made of -an inferior kind of gold. Seeing all these things, the -gold and the good architecture of the temples, we felt -overjoyed at the discovery of the country.” At a town, -which the Spaniards called San Lazaro, although they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span> -were aware that the Indians called it Campeachy, they -were invited to land by the inhabitants, “who wore -fine mantles made of cotton.” “They took us” Diaz -remarks “to some large edifices, which were strongly -built of stone and lime and were in many ways attractive. -These were temples, the walls of which were -covered with figures representing snakes and all kinds -of gods. About an altar we saw several fresh spots of -blood. On some of the idols there were figures like -crosses. There were some paintings representing -groups of Indians. All these greatly astonished us, -for we had neither seen nor heard of such things -before.”</p> - -<p>While the explorers were taking in water, near a -village called Potonchan, now Champoton, on the -western side of the peninsula, where there were some -wells, maize-plantations, and stone buildings, the inhabitants -visited them. “They all wore cotton cuirasses -which reached to their knees. They were armed with -bows, lances, shields, and swords. The latter,” Diaz -further remarks, “were shaped like our broad swords, -and are wielded with both hands.” They also had -slings for throwing stones. They had bunches of -feathers on their heads, and had their bodies decorated -with white, brown, and black colors. Speaking of an -engagement which the Spaniards had with the natives, -Diaz says: “As soon as it was daylight we saw more -companies of armed natives moving toward the coast -with flags. They wore feather head-dresses, and were -provided with drums, bows, lances, and shields. They -joined themselves to the others who had arrived in the -night. They divided themselves into corps, surrounded -us on all sides, and began to assail us with so many -arrows, lances, and stones, that more than eight of our<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span> -men were wounded in the first onset. They then -rushed furiously forward and attacked us man to man; -some with their lances, others with their swords and -arrows, and with such terrible impetuosity that we were -compelled to show them opposition. We dealt them -many a good thrust and blow, continuing at the same -time an incessant fire with our matchlocks and crossbows; -for while some loaded others fired. At last, by -heavy blows and thrusts we forced them back, but they -did not retreat farther than was necessary to keep -us strongly surrounded.... Perceiving how -closely we were hemmed in on all sides by the enemy, -who not only kept getting fresh troops but were plentifully -supplied in the field with meat, drink, and numbers -of arrows, we soon concluded that all our valiant -fighting would not benefit us. All of us were wounded. -Many were shot through the neck, and more than fifty -of our men were killed. In this critical position we -determined to cut our way manfully through the -enemy’s ranks and get to the boats, which fortunately -lay on the coast near us. We therefore resolutely -closed our ranks and broke through those of the enemy. -You should then have heard the whizzing of their -arrows, the terrible yells of the Indians, and how they -incited one another to fight.... Many of our -men were wounded while climbing into the vessel, -especially those who clung to its side, for the Indians -pursued us in their canoes, and persistently assailed -us. With the utmost exertion and the help of God -we escaped from the hands of this people.”</p> - -<p>“Our vessels,” Diaz further relates, “were taken to -Santiago of Cuba, where the governor [Diego Velasquez] -resided. Here the two Indians were brought on -shore whom we had taken with us from Punta de<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span> -Cotoche, as already related, called Melchorejo and -Juanillo. When, however, we brought forth the box -with the crowns, the golden ducks, the fish, the idols, -more noise was made about them than they really -merited, so that they became the common topics of -conversation throughout the islands of St. Domingo -and Cuba; indeed, the report concerning them reached -Spain. There it was said that none of the discovered -countries were as rich as this one, and in none had -there been found houses built of stone. The earthen -gods, it was said, were the heathen relics of ancient -times; others ventured to affirm that they [the people -of Yucatan] were the descendants of the Jews who -had been shipwrecked off this coast, whom Titus and -Vespasian had driven from Jerusalem.... Diego -Velasquez closely questioned the two Indians whether -there were any gold-mines in their country. They -answered in the affirmative; and when they were shown -some of the gold-dust found in the island of Cuba, they -said there was an abundance of it in their country. -This was not true, for it is well known that there are -no gold-mines on the Punta de Cotoche, or anywhere -in the whole of Yucatan. They were likewise shown -the beds in which the seeds of that plant are sown -from whose root the cassava-bread is made, which in -Cuba is called <i>yuca</i>. They assured us that the same -plant grew in their country, and was called by them -<i>tale</i>. As the cassava-root in Cuba is called <i>yuca</i>, and -the ground in which it is planted by the Indians <i>tale</i>, -so from these two words originated the name of the -country, Yucatan; for the Spaniards, who were standing -around the governor at the time that he was speaking -to the two Indians, said: ‘You see, sir, they call -their country Yucatan.’ And from this circumstance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span> -the country retained the name of Yucatan, although -the natives call it by a different name.”<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a></p> - -<p>“It was in the year of our Lord 1518,” says Diaz, -“after Diego Velasquez had heard the good account -we gave of the newly-discovered country called Yucatan, -that he determined to send another expedition to -it. For this purpose he selected four vessels, among -which were the two in which we soldiers had accompanied -Cordoba on our late voyage to Yucatan, purchased -at our expense.... Our account that -the houses in the newly-discovered country were built -of stone and lime had originated an extraordinary -conception of its riches, besides the Indian Melchorejo -had indicated by signs that it contained -gold-mines. All these things created a great desire -among the inhabitants and soldiers on the island -[Cuba] who possessed no official authority over the -Indians to go in search of a rich country like this one; -consequently, in a very short time, we mustered two -hundred and twenty men.”</p> - -<p>Commanded by Juan de Grijalva, the vessels sailed -on the first of May, 1518, from the port of Santiago, Cuba. -After touching at different points, the fleet at last -arrived off the coast of Champoton, on the west side -of Yucatan, where the Indians had attacked the Spaniards -on the last voyage and had driven them to their -vessels. Here they had another engagement with the -natives, but the Spaniards were victorious and put the -enemy to flight. They then proceeded southward to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span> -the bay called La Boca de Terminos, where Diaz relates -“we found temples built of stone and lime, full of idols -made of wood or clay, with other figures, some representing -women, some serpents; also the horns of -various kinds of wild animals. We concluded that -an Indian village was near it.... We have, -however, deceived ourselves, for the district was entirely -uninhabited.”</p> - -<p>At a promontory, beyond the bay, toward the -west, about thirty Indians visited the explorers, bringing -with them broiled fish, fowl, fruit, and maize-bread. -“They also,” Diaz relates, “brought pans -filled with red-hot embers, on which they strewed -incense, and perfumed us all. After this ceremony -was ended they spread some mats on the ground, over -which they laid a piece of cotton cloth. On this they -put some trifling ornaments of gold in the shape of -ducks and lizards, with three necklaces made of gold.... -They next presented us with some mantles -and waistcoats, such as they wore, and begged of -us to accept them, saying that they had no more gold -to give us, but that farther toward the setting of the -sun there was a country where it was found in great -abundance, at the same time often repeating the word -Culba, and Mexico. We however did not understand -what they meant.”</p> - -<p>At a town called Aguajaluco they saw Indians -hurrying to and fro with large shields made of large -tortoise-shells, which glittered so brilliantly in the -sun that some of the Spaniards thought that they -were of inferior gold. At an island, beyond one -which they called Isla Blanca, Diaz relates: “We -found two houses which were strongly built of stone -and lime. Both were ascended by flights of steps, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span> -had altars, on which stood several abominable idols, to -which, on the previous evening, five Indians had -been sacrificed. Their dead bodies still lay there, cut -open, with the arms and legs chopped off, while every -thing near was besmeared with blood. We contemplated -this sight in utter astonishment, and gave the -island the name of Isla de los Sacrificios.”</p> - -<p>At another island farther to the west, Diaz says: -“We found a temple on which stood the great -and abominable-looking god Tetzcatlipuca, surrounded -by four Indians, dressed in wide, black cloaks, -their hair hanging as our canons or Dominicans -wear it. These were the priests, who had that -very day sacrificed two boys, whose bodies they -had cut open and then offered their bleeding hearts -to this horrible idol. They were about to perfume -us in the same way they had done their gods; but -though the perfume smelled like our incense, we -would not permit them so shocked we were at the -sight of the two boys whom they had recently killed, -and we were disgusted with their abominations. Our -captain questioned Francisco, the Indian whom we had -brought with us from the Rio de Banderas, concerning -the purport of all these things, for he seemed to be an -intelligent person, we having, at that time, as I have -already stated, no interpreter. Our captain interrogated -him by signs. Francisco answered that this -sacrifice had been ordered by the people of Culua; -but, as it was difficult for him to pronounce this word, -he repeatedly said, Olua, Olua. In honor of our commander, -whose Christian name was Juan, and as the -day was the feast of St. John, we gave this small island -the name of San Juan de Ulua.”</p> - -<p>Sailing northward along the coast of Mexico, “we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span> -first came,” says Diaz, “in sight of Tusta, and two days -after, of the more elevated mountains of Tuspa, both -of which take their names from two towns close to -these mountains. Along this part of the coast we saw -a number of towns lying from six to nine miles inland. -It is now the province of Panuco.” On account of the -approach of winter, the scarcity of provisions, and the -leaky condition of one of the vessels, the explorers -determined to return to Cuba; Pedro de Alvarador -having previously set sail for the island.</p> - -<p>Speaking of their subsequent explorations in the -vicinity of the mouth of the Guacasualco River (now -called Rio Coatzacoalcos, in Tehuantepec), the Spanish -writer says: “As soon as the inhabitants of Guacasualco -and the neighboring districts learned that we -offered our goods for barter, they brought us all their -golden ornaments, and took in exchange green glass -beads, on which they set a high value. Besides ornaments -of gold, each Indian had with him a copper axe, -which was very highly polished, with the handle curiously -carved, that served equally as an ornament and, -on the field of battle, as a weapon. At first we thought -that these axes were made of an inferior kind of gold. -Therefore we began to take them in exchange, and in -the space of two days collected more than six hundred, -with which we were no less pleased, as long as we were -ignorant of their real value, than the Indians were with -our glass beads.... We set sail for Cuba, and -arrived there in the space of forty days.... We -were most graciously welcomed by the governor, Diego -Velasquez, who was highly delighted with the additional -gold we brought him. Altogether, it was well worth -4,000 <i>pesos</i>; so that, with the 16,000 brought over by -Alvarado, the whole amounted to 20,000 <i>pesos</i>.<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> Some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span> -made this sum greater, some less; but one thing is -certain, the crown officials took only the fifth of the -last-mentioned sum. When they were about to take -the fifth also of the Indian axes, which we had mistaken -for gold, they grew exceedingly angry on finding -them only to be of a fine quality of copper. This -caused the people to laugh at our trading transactions.”<a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a></p> - -<p>Immediately after the return of Juan de Grijalva, -in 1518, from this voyage, Diego Velasquez, the -governor of Cuba, issued orders for the fitting out of -a larger fleet than the one commanded by the former -officer. Respecting the person who was to have command -of this expedition, Diaz says that “the matter -was secretly settled with Hernando Cortes, by two -confidants of Diego Velasquez, Andres de Duero, -secretary to the governor, and Almador de Lares, the -royal treasurer.... Duero and the royal treasurer, -therefore, employed all their cunning to influence -the governor. They took every opportunity of placing -Cortes in the most favorable light, extolling his -great courage, in a word, declared him to be the most -capable person whom he could intrust with the -command.... Their efforts were crowned -with success, for Diego Velasquez conferred the -appointment of captain-general of the expedition on -that gentleman.... After Hernando Cortes -had been appointed captain, he immediately began to -collect all kinds of arms and ammunition, as matchlocks, -crossbows, powder, and the like. With the same<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span> -diligence he took care to provide a large stock of -goods to barter, and other necessaries for our expedition.” -On the eighteenth of February, 1519, the fleet -was on its way toward the west. On the island of -Cozumel, near the eastern coast of Yucatan, Cortes reviewed -his troops. “Without counting the pilots and -marines,” says Diaz, “our number amounted to five -hundred and eight men. There were one hundred -and nine sailors, and sixteen horses.... Our -squadron consisted of eleven vessels of different tonnage.... -The number of crossbow men was -thirty-three, and of those bearing matchlocks thirteen. -To these add our heavy guns and four falconets, and -a great quantity of powder and balls. Respecting the -precise number of crossbow men I cannot aver, -though it matters not whether there were a few more -or less.... I have now said all that need be -respecting our armament; indeed, Cortes was very -particular about the merest trifles in these preparations.</p> - -<p>“As Cortes paid attention to every circumstance, -he ordered me and Martin Camos of Biscay into his -presence, and asked us what our opinion was of the -word <i>Castilan</i>, <i>Castilan</i>, which the Indians of Campeachy -had so often repeated when we landed there, -under the command of Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba. -We again informed him of every transaction -that had taken place there. He said that he had often -turned this matter over in his mind, and could not help -thinking but that the inhabitants must have some -Spaniards among them, and he thought it would not -be amiss to question the caciques of Cozumel upon this -subject. This Cortes accordingly did, and desired -Melchorejo, who by this time had gained some little -knowledge of the Spanish, and perfectly understood<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span> -the language of Cozumel, to question the chiefs about -it. The statements made by them were alike, and -plainly indicated that there were several Spaniards in -the country, whom they had seen; that they as slaves -served the caciques, who lived a march of two days -inland; and that it was within a few days that some -Indian merchants had talked to them.” Some days -afterward Cortes learned that the two Spaniards were -Geronimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero. Aguilar -being informed of the presence of the Spaniards -joined them and served Cortes in the important position -of an interpreter.<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a></p> - -<p>When the Spaniards were in camp at the island of -San Juan de Ulua, Cortes was visited, on Easter-day, -by one of the farmer-generals of the Mexican empire, -named Teuthlille. “He was accompanied” says Diaz, -“by another person of distinction called Quitlalpitoc. -We subsequently learned that they were governors of the -provinces of Cotastlan, Tustepec, Guazpaltepec, Tlatateteclo, -and other districts lately subdued. They were -followed by a great number of Indians carrying presents -of fowls and plants. Teuthlille, having ordered the -others to stand aside, advanced to Cortes and bowed -three times very reverentially in the Indian fashion,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span> -which he did when he turned toward us standing -nearest him. Cortes cordially welcomed them, after -which he embraced them. He desired them to tarry -a while and told them that he would give them a -definite answer [in reply to the question which their -sovereign, the great Montezuma,<a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> had sent them to ask: -who the Spaniards were and what they came to seek -in his country]. Meanwhile Cortes ordered the altar -to be arranged as prettily as possible. Francisco -Bartolomé and Father Juan Diaz performed mass. The -two governors and the principal personages of their -<i>suite</i> were present during the services, after which -Cortes partook of dinner with them.</p> - -<p>“After the table had been cleared, Cortes assisted -by Aguilar and Doña Marina<a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> entered into conversation -with the Mexican officials and the caciques, telling -them, that we were Christians, the subjects of the -greatest monarch of the world, named Emperor -Charles,<a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> that he had many great personages among -his subjects and servants, that we had come by his -command to their country, of which and its powerful -sovereign, who then reigned, his majesty had long -before heard. Cortes speaking of himself said that he -was desirous to become the friend of their sovereign, -and had to disclose many things to him, in the name -of his majesty, the emperor, which their monarch would -listen to with delight. In order that a good understanding -might be established between him [Cortes] -and his [Montezuma’s] subjects, they should acquaint -him with the place where this monarch resided, that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span> -he [Cortes] might pay his respects to him and make -the necessary disclosures. Teuthlille answered in a -rather imperious tone, saying: ‘Inasmuch as you -have lately arrived in this country, it would be more -becoming that before desiring an interview with my -monarch, you should accept this present, which we -have brought you in his name, and then disclose your -wishes to me.’ He then took from a box, a quantity -of gold-trinkets, of beautiful and artistic workmanship, -and more than twenty packages of stuffs very prettily -made of white cotton and feathers. These they presented -to Cortes, besides various other costly gifts -which, on account of the number of years that has intervened, -I cannot now remember, together with provisions, -as fowl, fruit, and dried fish. Cortes accepted -all these with a pleased expression, and presented these -gentlemen in return with glass beads resembling brilliants, -and other things that we had brought from Spain. -He begged them to request the inhabitants of the different -districts to begin trading with us, for we possessed -various articles which we desired to exchange -for gold. This they promised to do.</p> - -<p>“Cortes then ordered an arm-chair, beautifully -painted and adorned with inlaid work, to be brought, -also some pieces of precious stones, wrapped in cotton -cloth, perfumed with musk, a necklace of imitation -pearls, a scarlet cap, with a medal, on which was represented -the holy St. George on horseback, with lance -in hand, killing the dragon. Cortes then addressed -Teuthlille, and said that he presented the chair to his -monarch, Montezuma, that he might sit in it when he -should pay him a visit, and the string of pearls to wind -around his head on the same occasion, all of which -presents were from our sovereign, the emperor, who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span> -had sent them to Montezuma in token of friendship -and as a proof of the esteem in which he held him. -Cortes further remarked that Teuthlille should inform -us where and when he, Cortes, could personally have -an audience with the monarch. Teuthlille accepted -the presents, and said in reply that his master, Montezuma, -as he also was a great monarch, would in turn -be equally delighted to learn something about our -great emperor; that he would hasten to lay the presents -before him, and to return with his answer.</p> - -<p>“Teuthlille had with him very skillful painters, for -there were such in Mexico, and he ordered them to -paint the portrait and entire person of Cortes, with the -dress he wore; also the pictures of all the other chief -officers, the soldiers, our ships, horses, Doña Marina, -and Aguilar, even our two dogs, the cannon, the balls, -in short, every thing that they could see that belonged -to us. The paintings they took along with them to -show to their monarch.”</p> - -<p>After an absence of about six or seven days, Teuthlille -returned, as Diaz further observes, “with more -than a hundred Indian porters, all heavily laden, -accompanied by a great Mexican cacique, who, in -countenance, stature, and deportment, greatly resembled -Cortes, and on that account had been selected by -his monarch to accompany the deputation. For, as it -was related, when Teuthlille presented the picture -representing Cortes, all the grandees who were -present with their monarch, Montezuma, immediately -observed that he resembled a person of distinction -named Quintalbor. This was the same person who -now accompanied Teuthlille. We therefore called one -the Cortes of this place, and the other the Cortes of -that place. We must now, however, tell what the embassadors<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span> -did when they came into the presence of -Cortes. First of all they touched the ground at his -feet with their hands. They then perfumed him and -all the Spaniards who were present, with pans made -of clay. Cortes gave them a very cordial reception, -and desired them to sit down at his side. Quintalbor, -the cacique, was commissioned to discuss matters jointly -with Teuthlille. The two, therefore, told Cortes -that he was most welcome to visit their country, and -after considerable talking on both sides, they produced -the presents”<a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> sent him by Montezuma. As is further -related by the Spanish historian, Juan de Torquemada, -a contemporary of Diaz, “the embassador of Montezuma -ordered mats to be spread on the ground before -Cortes, and over them some cotton cloth, on which he -arranged the presents, comprising many cotton shirts, -and great quantities of other cotton stuffs, beautifully -manufactured, and interwoven with feathers of the -most splendid colors. There were shields made of -the purest white stuffs, decorated with feathers, gold, -silver, and pearls, surpassing everything in beauty and -skilled workmanship that ever was seen. There was -also a helmet, tastefully carved out of wood, filled with -grains of gold; also a casque, made of thin plates of -gold, decorated with tassels, and with stones resembling -the emerald. There were numerous large bunches of -feathers of different colors, set in silver and gold; -fans for keeping off flies, made of the rarest feathers; -a thousand lockets of gold and silver of the most curious -and beautiful workmanship; bracelets and military -decorations of gold and silver, splendidly embossed -with green and bright yellow feathers; leather made -of deer skin, curried and colored in the best possible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span> -manner; shoes and sandals of the same leather, -sewed with thin gold-wire, and the soles of beautiful -white and blue stone. There were other kinds of -shoes, very tastefully made of cotton; mirrors of marcasite, -globular-shaped, of the size of one’s fist, and -most ingeniously set in gold, the small frame itself -being very valuable, and worthy of the acceptance of -any crowned head; coverings and curtains to beds, -manufactured of variously colored cotton, more glossy -and of a finer texture than silk; a number of other gold -and silver trinkets; a necklace of gold, decorated with -more than a hundred emeralds, rubies, and various ornaments -of gold; a second necklace of many large -pearls and emeralds, all of the most exquisite workmanship; -numerous gold trinkets in the shape of frogs -and animals; jewels in the form of medals. The cases -were even more valuable than the precious stones they -contained. There was also a quantity of large and -small grains of gold. The most valuable of these -presents, however, were two round plates, one of gold, -on which was a sun with rays and the zodiac. This -weighed more than one hundred marks.<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> The other -plate was of silver, which in a similar manner represented -the moon. It weighed about fifty marks. The -two disks were massive and of the thickness of the -Spanish coin of four silver reals, and as large as carriage-wheels. -Those who saw these splendid presents -said that, without considering the beautiful workmanship, -the value of the gold and silver alone amounted -to twenty-five thousand <i>castellanos de oro</i>; so that the -full value of all these presents may rightly be estimated -at fifty thousand ducats.”<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span></p> - -<p>“When Quintalbor, the great cacique, and Teuthlille, -presented these gifts to Cortes,” as Diaz further -relates, “they begged him to accept of them in the -same spirit of friendship with which their monarch -sent them, and to distribute them among his <i>teules</i>.<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> -Thereupon they began to tell what their monarch had -particularly commissioned them to say, which was as -follows: ‘He, Montezuma, was delighted with the -arrival of such courageous men in his provinces, for, -according to the accounts he had received, and judging -from the occurrence at Tabasco [where Cortes had had -an engagement with the natives], we certainly must be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span> -brave men. He wished very much to see our great -emperor who was so powerful, of whom, although -residing at so great a distance, he had already gained -some knowledge, and he would send him a present of -some valuable stones. He was likewise ready to -furnish us with every thing we might require during -our stay. Respecting Cortes visiting him, the undertaking -should not engage our thoughts, for it was not -necessary, and would be attended with great difficulties.’</p> - -<p>“Cortes thanked them most sincerely for their -kindness, gave each several shirts made of Holland -linen, some blue beads, and other trifles, and requested -them when they returned to their great monarch to -tell him that our emperor and master would deem it -very unkind, after we had come from such distant -countries and crossed such vast seas, solely with the -intention of paying our respects to Montezuma, if we -returned without accomplishing this object. He -wished, therefore, to proceed to his residence, and -to receive personally his commands. The embassadors -answered that they would convey these messages to -their monarch, and that a visit to him was unnecessary. -Cortes thereupon gave them out of our poverty a cup -of Florentine workmanship, gilded and ornamented -with wreaths of leaves in relief, and the shirts made of -Holland linen, and other things, all of which were to -be presented to Montezuma, together with Cortes’s -message. The two emissaries then departed, while -Quitlalpitoc alone remained behind in our camp, commissioned, -as it appeared, by the two other officials of -Montezuma, to provide provisions for us from the -neighboring districts.</p> - -<p>“After the Mexican embassadors had taken their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span> -departure, Cortes ordered two vessels to sail farther -northward and explore the coast. The command of -these was given to Francisco de Montejo, with orders -to follow the same course taken by Grijalva.... -Montejo departed, and sailed to the Rio Grande, near -Panuco, as far as we had gone with Grijalva. On -account of the strong currents he could not proceed -any farther. He therefore returned to San Juan de -Ulua....</p> - -<p>“One morning the Indians, who had dwelt near us -in huts, and had furnished us with provisions and -brought gold to barter, secretly departed with Quitlalpitoc. -This, we subsequently learned, was done by -the orders of Montezuma. He had forbidden all intercourse -with Cortes, believing that he was obeying the -commands of his idol-gods. These were named Tetzcatlipuca -and Huitzilopochtli; the former being the -god of hell, and the latter the god of war, to whom -Montezuma daily sacrificed a number of children in -order that the gods might disclose to him what he -should do with us. He intended to take us prisoners -should we not re-embark—employing some to educate -children, and sacrificing the others. His idol-gods, as -we afterward learned, advised him not to listen to -Cortes, and to pay no attention to the message that -we had sent him respecting the cross and the image of -the Blessed Virgin. This was what caused his men to -go away so secretly.</p> - -<p>“This being the condition of affairs, we daily expected -that hostilities would begin, and we were -therefore the more vigilant. It happened one day, -while I was standing sentinel on the sand-hills with -another soldier, that we espied five Indians coming -along the shore. Not to alarm the camp with so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span> -trifling a matter, we allowed them to advance. They -all appeared very good-humored, made their obeisance -to us after their fashion, and requested us, by signs, to -conduct them to the camp. Thereupon I said to my -companion: ‘I will take them there, while you remain -where you are,’ for at that time my legs were not so -infirm as they are now, in my old age. When I presented -them to Cortes, they manifested the utmost -reverence, and continually repeated the word <i>Lopelucio</i>, -<i>Lopelucio</i>, which in the Totonac language means lord, -great god. In dress and language these people -differed entirely from the Mexicans whom Montezuma -had sent to our camp. They had large holes bored in -their under-lips, in which they wore pieces of a -speckled, blue stone, or thin plates of gold. The holes -in their ears were quite large, from which depended -similar ornaments. Neither Aguilar nor Doña Marina -understood their language. The latter asked them -whether there were any <i>naëyavatos</i> or interpreters -with them. Thereupon two of them answered that -they understood the Mexican language. Then the -talking began. They bid us welcome, and said that -their ruler had sent them to inquire who we were, and -that he would be delighted to be of any use to such -powerful men as we were. They said that they would -have waited on us earlier, if they had not shunned the -people of Culhua, namely, the Mexicans (meaning as -much as villains), who had been with us. It is likely -that these people had heard of our battles at Tabasco -and Potonchan. They at least knew that the Mexicans -had secretly departed from us three days before -this time. Cortes learned many things from them -which were of the greatest importance to him, particularly -the information respecting the enemies and opponents<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span> -of Montezuma. Cortes, therefore, was very -friendly to these people. He gave them a number of -presents, and desired them to return to their ruler and -to tell him that he would in person shortly visit him.”</p> - -<p>The indomitable commander now advanced northward -along the coast as far as Chiahuitzla, near the -roadstead where his ships were anchored. A short -distance from this place Cortes began to build the city -to which he gave the name Villa Rica de Vera Cruz -(the Rich Town of the True Cross). From the port of -the new city, Cortes, on the twenty-sixth of July, 1519, -dispatched a ship to Spain, under the command of -Alonso Puertocarrero and Francisco de Montejo, carrying -letters to the emperor, Charles V., with accounts -of the invasion of New Spain. With these communications -were sent some of the presents that Cortes had -received, besides several cotton and agave-scrolls of -Mexican hieroglyphics. “Our agents took charge of -the letters,” Diaz remarks, “and were bound by a -promise not to touch at the Havannah under any pretext -whatever, or to enter the harbor of El Marien, -where Francisco de Montejo had possessions. This -was done in order that Diego Velasquez might not -receive any intelligence of our movements.”</p> - -<p>The resolute officer, having ordered his ships to -be destroyed, began about the middle of August his -march toward the city of Mexico,<a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> with his small band -of about five hundred followers, fifteen horsemen, and -seven pieces of artillery. He took with him thirteen -hundred native warriors from Cempoalla, besides a -thousand porters to transport the camp-baggage, provisions, -and munition.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span></p> - -<p>In the province of Xocotlan the invaders came to -an Indian town called by the Spaniards Castilblanco, -governed by a cacique who was subject to Montezuma. -The hospitable ruler described to Cortes the situation -of the city of Mexico, which was built on an island -surrounded by water, and approachable on foot by -three bridged causeways.</p> - -<p>“A certain place in this province,” says Diaz, “I -shall never forget. Here a vast number of human -skulls were piled in the best manner imaginable. -There must have been more than one hundred thousand; -I repeat, more than one hundred thousand. In -the same orderly way the remaining human bones -were piled in another corner of the square. The latter -it would have been impossible to count. Besides these -bones there were human heads hanging from beams -on both sides of the square.” On the first, second, and -fifth days of September, near the village of Tehuacacinco, -Cortes had victorious engagements with the -Tlascallans.</p> - -<p>“It also happened,” Diaz further remarks, “that -the powerful king of Mexico, Montezuma, either in the -great goodness of his heart, or because he began to -fear our approach to his metropolis, dispatched five -men of distinction to our camp in the province of -Tlascalla to congratulate us on our advance, and to -assure us of the great delight he felt when he heard of -the splendid victories we had gained over such large -armies. This message was sent with a valuable present -of gold trinkets, differently elaborated, worth about -one thousand <i>pesos</i>, and also packages of cotton stuffs, -as much as twenty men could carry. He also wished -us to know, that it was his desire to become a subject -of our emperor, that he was greatly pleased to learn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span> -that we were so near his metropolis, and that he was -every way well-disposed toward Cortes and all the -<i>teules</i>, his brothers. He likewise wished to be told by -us what annual tribute in gold, silver, jewels, and cotton -stuffs he was to forward to our great emperor, -which tribute would save us the trouble of coming to -Mexico, adding that he should indeed be pleased to -see us, but that our march would be a hazardous undertaking -through a sterile and rocky country, and that -the fatigues which we should have to undergo grieved -him the more when he considered how impossible it -was for him to remove the hindrances from the way.”</p> - -<p>Cortes shortly afterward marched into the city of -Tlascalla, where, when they entered it, “the streets -and balconies could scarcely contain the number of -men and women” who welcomed them. “Delight -was depicted on every countenance,” and “twenty -baskets full of roses” were “presented to Cortes and -the soldiers, whom the citizens thought were officers, -and particularly to those who were on horseback.” -Here Cortes was told by one of the principal men of -the place “that Montezuma had strong garrisons in -every town, besides the warriors who marched out -from the metropolis to the field of battle. Every -province was compelled to pay him tribute in gold, -silver, feathers, precious stones, cotton stuffs, as well -as Indians of both sexes, some of whom he took into -his service, and some he sacrificed. He was a monarch -so powerful and wealthy that he accomplished -and obtained all he desired. His palaces were filled -with riches and <i>chalchihuis</i> stones,<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> which he seized -wherever he went. In short, all the wealth of the -country was in his possession.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span></p> - -<p>Cortes was further told that the city of Mexico -“was abundantly supplied with fresh water from the -spring of Chapultepec, which was about two miles -from the city, whence the water was partly conveyed -to the houses by means of pipes, and partly in boats -through the canals, when it was sold in small quantities -to the inhabitants. Respecting the weapons of -this nation, they included two-edged lances that were -projected by means of a thong and penetrated any -cuirass. The warriors were excellent marksmen with -the bow and arrow, and carried pikes with blades of -flint, which were very ingeniously made, and were as -sharp as razors. Besides these weapons, they carried -shields, and wore cotton cuirasses. There was also a -great number of slingers, who were provided with -round stones, long pikes, and sharp swords which were -wielded with both hands.</p> - -<p>“To explain all these things, the caciques exhibited -large pieces of <i>nequen</i>,<a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> on which were pictured -their battles and their art of warfare. When -Cortes and we considered that we had gained sufficient -information concerning these things, the conversation -turned to subjects of greater importance. Our -friends told us how and whence they came into this -country, and how they settled there; how it had happened, -notwithstanding their nearness to the Mexicans, -that they resembled them so little, and lived in -perpetual warfare with each other. A tradition was -also handed down from their forefathers that in -ancient times a race of men and women lived here -who were immense in stature with large bones, and -who were a very bad and evil-disposed people, -whom they had mostly exterminated by continual war,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span> -and the few that had been spared, had in the course -of time died.</p> - -<p>“In order to give us a conception of the huge -frames of these people, they dragged forth a bone, or -rather a thigh-bone, of one of the giants, which was very -strong, and measured the length of a man of good -stature. This bone was still entire from the knee to -the hip-joint. I measured it with my own person, and -found it to be of my own length, although I am a man -of considerable height. They showed us many similar -pieces of bones, but they were all worm-eaten and decayed. -We, however, did not doubt for a moment, -that the country was once inhabited by giants. Cortes -remarked that we ought to forward these bones -to his majesty in Spain at the very earliest opportunity.”</p> - -<p>Montezuma again sent embassadors to Cortes -bearing presents. They said “that their monarch -could not but feel astonished that we” as Diaz relates, -“had made so long a stay among a poor and -uncivilized people, who were not fit for slaves, but so -viciously disposed, so treacherous and thievish, that -some day or night when we least apprehended it they -would kill us merely for the sake of plunder. Montezuma -begged us to visit his city, where, at least, we -might enjoy the good things it offered, even though -these should be below our deserts, and not equal to -what he could wish.... Cortes thanked the -embassadors in a very flattering manner for their -civilities and the expressions of friendship they had -conveyed to him from their monarch, and he desired -them to tell their sovereign that in a short time he -would pay his respects to him.”</p> - -<p>At Cholula, to which Cortes next marched, a plot<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span> -was concocted to kill the Spaniards, but being warned, -they were on their guard and severely punished the -inhabitants for their treacherous conduct. Describing -the city, Diaz says: “Cholula had more than a hundred -very high towers, they were all <i>cues</i> or temples, in -which human sacrifices were offered and idols stood. -The principal temple was even higher than the one in -the city of Mexico, though the latter was really magnificent -and very high. The temple [at Cholula] is -said to have contained one hundred courts, and an -idol of enormous dimensions, (the name of which I -have forgotten), which was in great repute, and people -came from various places to sacrifice human beings to -it and bring offerings for the dead. I well remember -when we first entered the city and beheld the elevated -white temples, how the whole place reminded us all of -Valladolid.<a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> ... I must add a word or two respecting -the wooden cages we saw in this city. They -were constructed of heavy timber, and filled with grown -men and little boys, who were fattening for the sacrifices -and feasts. Cortes ordered these diabolical cages -to be pulled down, and sent the prisoners to their -homes.”</p> - -<p>While Cortes was on his way to the city of Mexico -from Cholula, another embassy from Montezuma met -him, bringing him again presents of gold and cotton -fabrics. Montezuma desired the embassadors to -express his regrets for the many hardships which -Cortes was compelled to endure on his wearisome -journey to see his person, that he would send to the -port on the coast a great quantity of gold, silver, and -jewels for the emperor, that he would present Cortes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span> -himself with four loads of gold, and one load for each -of his companions, but that he forbade him to enter -the city of Mexico, as all his troops were under arms -to oppose him. “On this occasion” says Diaz, “Cortes -again told the embassadors that he was surprised that -their sovereign, who had called himself our friend so -often and was so powerful a monarch, should so frequently -change his mind, to desire a thing one day -and not want it the next. Respecting the presents of -gold for our emperor and ourselves, Cortes told them -that we were thankful for Montezuma’s kind intentions, -and also for the gifts they brought with them, -and that he would certainly some day render their -monarch valuable services in return. He asked them -if it were right after we had advanced within so short -a distance of the metropolis to return home without -fulfilling our monarch’s commission. He said that -Montezuma should place himself in our position and -consider, had he sent embassadors to a monarch of his -own rank, whether he would be pleased, if they returned -home after going almost to his palace without -seeing that monarch or fulfilling their commission to -him.... Therefore he begged that their monarch -would not thereafter send any more embassadors -with such messages. Cortes further said that he was -determined to see and speak to Montezuma personally, -and to inform him of the object of our mission. -All that we asked was only an audience, for the -moment our stay in his metropolis became irksome to -him we would depart and return to the place whence -we had come.... With this answer Cortes -sent the embassadors back to their monarch, and we -continued our march....</p> - -<p>“After Montezuma learned our answer to his message<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span> -he dispatched his nephew, Cacamatzin, prince of -Tezcuco, to us, in great pomp to bid us welcome.... -The conference being ended, we continued -our march. We were accompanied by the caciques -and their numerous attendants, besides all the inhabitants -of the neighborhood, who had come to meet us, -so that we could hardly move for the vast crowds of -people.</p> - -<p>“The next morning we reached the broad high -road of Iztapalapan, from which we for the first time -beheld the number of cities and villages built in the -lake [of Tezcuco], and the still greater number of large -towns on the main-land and along the level causeway, -which ran in a straight line to the city of Mexico. -Our astonishment was exceedingly great, and we could -not but remark to one another, that all the buildings -resembled the fairy castles of which we read in Amadis -of Gaul; so high, majestically, and splendidly did the -temples, towers, and houses of the city, all built of -massive stone and lime, rise above the water of the -lake. Indeed, many of our men believed what they -saw was the creation of a dream. And the reader -must not be surprised at the manner in which I have -expressed myself, for it is impossible to speak composedly -of things which we have never before seen or -heard of, or could have dreamed of.... We -now entered the city of Iztapalapan, where we were -quartered in palaces of large dimensions surrounded -by spacious courts, and built of hewn stone, cedar, and -other sweet-scented wood. All the apartments were -curtained with cotton drapery.</p> - -<p>“After we had seen all these things we visited the -gardens adjoining the palaces, which were so exceedingly -attractive that I could not gratify myself enough<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span> -by walking about in them and contemplating the number -of trees which exhaled the most delightful odors, -and the rose-bushes, the different flower-beds, and the -fruit-trees which stood along the paths. Here was a -pond of fresh water connected with the lake by a small -canal. The canal was constructed of stone of different -colors, and decorated with numerous figures, and was -wide enough to hold the largest canoes. In the basin -various kinds of water-fowl were swimming to and -fro, and every thing was so charming and so beautiful -that we could find no words to express our astonishment.... -But now there is not a vestige of all -these things remaining, and not a stone of the beautiful -city left in its place.... Iztapalapan was a -city of considerable magnitude, built partly in the -water and partly on the land. Its site is now all dry -land, and where vessels once sailed to and fro seeds -are sown and harvests gathered. Indeed, the whole -face of the country is so completely changed that he -who had not seen these places previously, would hardly -believe that waves had once rolled over the spot where -fertile maize-plantations are now, so wonderfully has -every thing been changed here in a short space of -time.</p> - -<p>“On the following morning we left Iztapalapan, accompanied -by all the principal caciques already mentioned. -The road on which we marched was eight -paces wide, and, if I rightly remember, ran straight -to the city of Mexico. Notwithstanding the breadth -of the causeway it was much too narrow for the great -throngs of people that were constantly arriving from -different places to gaze at us, and we could hardly -move forward. Besides the tops of all the temples and -towers were crowded with spectators, and below them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span> -the lake was covered with canoes filled with Indians, -for all the people were eager to catch a glimpse of us. -And who can wonder at this curiosity, for neither men -like us nor horses had ever been seen here before.</p> - -<p>“When we surveyed all this splendor we scarcely -knew what to think, and we doubted whether all that -we beheld were real. A succession of large cities -stretched along the banks of the lake [of Tezcuco], -from which much larger ones rose magnificently above -the water. Innumerable canoes were plying near us. -At regular intervals we crossed new bridges, and before -us lay the great city of Tenustitlan Mexico in all -its grandeur.<a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> And we, who were beholding this -spectacle, who were passing through this dense concourse -of human beings, were a mere handful of men, -in all four hundred and fifty, our minds filled with the -warnings of the inhabitants of Huexotzinco, Tlascalla, -and Tlalmanalco, and the caution they had given us -not to expose our lives to the treachery of the Mexicans. -I ask the kind reader to reflect a moment, and -then to say whether he believes any men in this world -ever attempted so bold an undertaking.</p> - -<p>“When we had arrived at a place where another -narrow causeway led toward Cojohuacan we were met -by a number of caciques and distinguished personages, -all attired in rich raiment. They had been dispatched -by Montezuma to meet us and bid us welcome in his -name. As a manifestation of their good-will they -touched the ground with their hands and kissed it. -We now halted for a few minutes to permit the princes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span> -of Tezcuco, Iztapalapan, Tlacupa, and Cojohuacan, to -get in advance to meet Montezuma, who was slowly -approaching, surrounded by other grandees of the kingdom, -seated in a splendid portable chair. When -we arrived at a place near the city, where there -were several towers, the monarch raised himself -in his chair, supported by a number of distinguished -caciques, who held over his head a canopy of very -great value, decorated with green feathers, gold, silver, -<i>chalchihuis</i> stones and pearls. The bordering of the -canopy ornamented with these things was exceedingly -attractive.</p> - -<p>“Montezuma, according to his habit, was richly -attired. His half boots were profusely decorated with -jewels, the soles were of solid gold. The four grandees -who supported him were also richly clad. They must -have put on this clothing somewhere on the road, -before they went to attend Montezuma, for they were -not so magnificently dressed when they first came to -meet us. Besides these distinguished caciques, there -were many other grandees around the monarch, some -of whom held the canopy over his head while others -again occupied the road before him, and spread cotton -cloths that his feet might not touch the bare -ground. No one of his attendants ever looked at -him full in the face. Every one in his presence stood -with eyes downcast, and it was only his four nephews -and cousins, who supported him, that dared to look up.</p> - -<p>“When it was announced to Cortes that Montezuma -was approaching, he alighted from his horse and -advanced to meet him. Many compliments passed -between them. Montezuma welcomed Cortes, who, -through Doña Marina, said, in turn, that he hoped his -majesty was in good health. If I still remember rightly,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span> -Cortes, who had Doña Marina next to him, wished to -concede the place of honor to the monarch, who, however, -would not accept of it, but yielded it to Cortes, -who then took a necklace of precious stones of very -beautiful colors and shapes, strung upon gold wire and -perfumed with musk, and placed it on the neck of Montezuma. -Our commander was then about to embrace -him, but the grandees, who surrounded Montezuma, -held back Cortes’s arms, for they considered the act -improper. Our general then desired Doña Marina to -tell the monarch that he [Cortes] congratulated himself -exceedingly on his good fortune of having seen so -powerful a monarch face to face, and to thank him for -the honor of coming to meet us. Montezuma replied -in very appropriate words, and ordered his two -nephews, the princes of Tezcuco and Cojohuacan, to -conduct us to our quarters. He then returned to the -city, accompanied by his two other relatives, the princes -of Cuitlahuac and Tlacupa, and the other grandees of -his large retinue. As they passed, we observed how -all those who composed his majesty’s escort held their -heads bent forward, no one daring to lift up his eyes in -his presence, and also the deep veneration with which -he was regarded....</p> - -<p>“We were quartered in a large building where there -was room enough for us all.... Near it were -temples and Mexican idols. This building had been -purposely selected for us because we were termed -<i>teules</i>, or were thought to be, and that we might dwell -among the gods as among our equals. The apartments -and halls were very spacious, and those set -apart for our general were furnished with carpets. -Each one of us had a separate bed, which could not -have been better furnished for a gentleman of the first<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span> -rank. Each apartment was swept clean, and the walls -were newly plastered and decorated.</p> - -<p>“When we had entered into the great court-yard of -this palace, Montezuma came to Cortes, and, taking -him by the hand, conducted him to the apartments -where he was to lodge, which had been prettily decorated -after the fashion of the country. He then hung -about his neck a chased necklace of gold, most curiously -wrought with figures of crabs. The Mexican -grandees were greatly amazed at all these uncommon -favors which their monarch bestowed upon our general.</p> - -<p>“Cortes returned the monarch many thanks for so -much kindness, and the latter took leave of him with -these words: ‘Malinche,<a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> you and your brothers -must now do as if you were at home, and take some -rest after the fatigues of the journey.’ He then returned -to his palace, which was near.” This was on -the eighth of November, 1519. Later in the day -Montezuma again visited Cortes, and held a long conversation -with him. On the following day Cortes had -an audience with Montezuma in his palace.</p> - -<p>“The mighty Montezuma,” Diaz further observes, -“may have been about this time in the fortieth year of -his age. He was tall, slender, and thin; but his body -was well-proportioned. His complexion was not very -brown, almost the same as that of the inhabitants. -His hair was not long, excepting where it hung thickly -over his ears, which were hid by it. His black beard, -though thin, was handsome. His face was somewhat -long, but he had a cheerful countenance, and his fine<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span> -eyes had an expression of amiability or of ill-will -according to his humor. He was particularly clean in -appearance, and took a bath every evening. Besides -a number of concubines, who were all daughters of -note and rank, he had two lawful wives of royal extraction, -whom, however, he visited secretly without -any one daring to observe him, except his most confidential -servants.... In the halls adjoining his -private apartments there was always a guard of two -thousand men of high station in waiting, with whom, -however, he never held any conversation unless to give -them orders or to receive some intelligence from them.... -In cold weather when he dined a large fire was -made of the charcoal of the bark of trees, which emitted -no smoke but a delightful perfume. That his majesty -might not feel any discomfort from the heat of the fire, -a screen was placed between him and it, made of gold, -and adorned with the different figures of their gods. -The chair on which he sat was somewhat low. It was -filled with soft cushions and beautifully carved. The -table was higher, and suited to the seat. The former -was covered with white cloths, one of which was large. -Four very neat and pretty women held before the -monarch a round pitcher, called by them <i>xicales</i>, -filled with water to wash his hands. The water was -caught in other vessels, and then the young women -presented him with towels to dry his hands. Two other -women brought him maize-bread baked with eggs. -Before Montezuma began to dine, a wooden screen, -elaborately gilded, was placed before him, that no one -might see him while eating. Then the young women -stood at a distance. Four elderly men of high rank -came to his table, whom he addressed from time to -time or asked them some question. Sometimes he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span> -would offer them a plate of his food, which was considered -a mark of great favor. The gray-haired, aged -men, that were so highly honored, were, as we subsequently -learned, his nearest relatives, his most trustworthy -counsellors, and chief justices. Whenever he -ordered any viands to be given them, they ate standing -with the greatest reverence, not daring to look at -him full in the face. The dishes in which the food was -served were of variegated and black porcelain, made at -Cholula. While the monarch was at table his courtiers -and those who were waiting in the adjoining halls -maintained strict silence....</p> - -<p>“Sometimes during dinner he had ugly humpbacked -dwarfs to act as buffoons and perform antics -for his amusement. At other times he had jesters -to enliven him with their witticisms. Others again -danced and sung before him. Montezuma took great -delight in these entertainments, and ordered the -broken victuals and pitchers of cacao-liquor (chocolate) -to be distributed among the performers. When -he had dined the four women took away the cloths -and brought him water to wash his hands. During -this interval he conversed a little with the four old -men, and then left the table to enjoy his afternoon-sleep.</p> - -<p>“After the monarch had dined, dinner was served -for the men on duty and the other officers of his household. -I often counted more than one thousand dishes -on the table of the kinds already mentioned. Then -followed, according to the Mexican custom, the frothing -jugs of cacao-liquor, as many as two thousand, -after which came different kinds of fruit in great abundance. -Then the women dined who superintended -the baking department, and those who made the cacao-liquor,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span> -with the young women who waited upon the -monarch....</p> - -<p>“Besides these servants were many butlers, house-stewards, -treasurers, cooks, and superintendents of -maize-magazines.... I had almost forgotten -to mention, that while the monarch dined two other -young women of great beauty brought him small -cakes, as white as snow, made of eggs and other -nourishing ingredients, on plates covered with clean -napkins; also a long-shaped loaf made of very substantial -things, and <i>pachol</i> (a wafer-cake). They then -brought him three beautifully painted and gilded tubes -filled with liquid-amber and an herb called by the Indians -<i>tabaco</i>. After the dinner had been removed and -the singing and dancing ended, one of these tubes was -lighted. The monarch drew the smoke into his mouth, -and after he had done this a short time he would fall -asleep.</p> - -<p>“At this time a celebrated cacique, whom we called -Topia, was Montezuma’s chief steward. He kept an -account of the whole of Montezuma’s revenue, in large -books of paper which the Mexicans called <i>amatl</i>. A -house was filled with these large account-books.</p> - -<p>“Montezuma had also two arsenals filled with arms -of all kinds, many of which were ornamented with gold -and precious stones. The arms comprised shields of -different sizes, swords, and a broad-sword wielded with -both hands, the edge of flint so extremely sharp that -the swords cut much better than our Spanish ones. -There were also lances, longer than ours, pointed at -the end, a fathom long, set with several sharp flints. -The pikes are so very sharp and hard that they will -pierce the strongest shield, and cut like a razor; so -that the Mexicans even shave themselves with these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span> -flints. There were also excellent bows and arrows, -pikes with single and double points, and suitable thongs -to project them; slings, with round stones purposely -made for them; also large shields, so ingeniously made -that they could be rolled up when not wanted. These -shields are unrolled on the field of battle, and completely -cover the whole body from the head to the -feet. We also saw a great many kinds of cuirasses -made of quilted cotton, which were adorned on the -outside with soft feathers of different colors, and looked -like uniforms. We also saw morions and helmets constructed -of wood and bones, adorned with feathers. -There were artificers always at work, who continually -augmented this store of arms; and the arsenals were -under the care of certain persons, who also superintended -the manufacturing departments....</p> - -<p>“I will now advert to another subject, and acquaint -my readers with the fine arts of the Mexicans. I will -first speak of the sculptors, and the gold and silversmiths -who were skillful in working and smelting gold. -The latter would have astonished the most celebrated -of our Spanish goldsmiths. They were many, and the -most expert lived at a place called Ezcapuzalco, about -four miles from Mexico. The next in proficiency were -very skillful masters in cutting and polishing precious -stones and the <i>calchihuis</i> stone, which resembles the -emerald. These were followed by the great masters -in painting, and the decorators in feathers, and the -wonderful sculptors. Even now there are still living -in Mexico three Indian artists, named Marcos de -Aguino, Juan de la Cruz, and El Crespello, who -severally have attained so high a place in the art of -painting and sculpture, that each may be compared to -an Apelles, or to our contemporaries, Michael Angelo -and [Alonso] Berruguette.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span></p> - -<p>“The women were remarkably skillful in weaving -and embroidery, and they made quantities of the -finest stuffs, interwoven with feathers. The common -stuffs for daily use came from certain districts in the -province of Costatlan, which lay on the north coast, -not far from Vera Cruz, where we first landed with -Cortes.</p> - -<p>“The concubines in the palace of Montezuma, who -were all daughters of distinguished men, were employed -in manufacturing the most beautiful stuffs, interwoven -with feathers. Similar fabrics were made by -certain women who dwelt secluded in cloisters as our -nuns.... Montezuma had in his service a -great number of stone-cutters, masons, and carpenters, -who were only employed about the royal palaces. Here -I must not forget to speak of his gardens for the -cultivation of flowers, trees and vegetables, of which -there were various kinds. In these gardens were -many baths, wells, basins, and ponds full of limpid water, -which regularly ebbed and flowed. These gardens -were made more attractive by innumerable species of -small birds, which sang among the trees. The gardens -of medicinal plants and vegetables may also be mentioned. -They were cultivated by a large body of gardeners. -All the baths, wells, ponds and buildings were -substantially constructed of stone, as were also the -theatres where the singers and dancers performed.</p> - -<p>“We had been four days in the city of Mexico,” -Diaz further remarks, “and neither our commander -nor any of us had, during this time, left our quarters, -except to visit the gardens and buildings adjoining -the palace. Cortes therefore determined to view the -city, and to visit the great market and the chief temple -of Huitzilopochtli. He accordingly sent Geronimo de<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span> -Aguilar, Doña Marina, and one of his pages, named -Orteguilla, who, by this time, understood a little of the -Mexican language, to Montezuma, to request his permission -to inspect the different buildings of the city. -Montezuma readily granted us permission to go where -we pleased, although he was apprehensive that we -might intentionally injure the one or the other of his -idols. He therefore determined to accompany us with -some of his principal officers, and, for this purpose, left -his palace with a showy retinue....</p> - -<p>“Our commander, attended by the greater part of -our horsemen and foot-soldiers, all well armed, as we -were at all times, proceeded to the Tlatelulco. By command -of Montezuma, a number of caciques met us on -our way thither. When we arrived in this immense -market, we were greatly astonished to see the vast -number of people, the profusion of merchandise exposed -for sale, and the admirable police-system, and -the order that everywhere existed. The grandees -who accompanied us drew our attention to the smallest -circumstance, and gave us an explanation of all we -saw. Each class of merchandise had a separate place -for its sale. We first visited those divisions of the -market set apart for the sale of gold and silver wares, -jewels, cloths interwoven with feathers, and other -manufactured goods, where also slaves of both sexes -were sold. The slave-market was upon as great a scale -as the Portuguese market for negro slaves at Guinea. -To prevent the slaves from running away, they were -fastened by halters around their necks, though some -were allowed to walk at large. Next to these divisions -were the dealers in coarser wares, cotton, twisted -thread, and cacao. In short, all kinds of commodities -produced in New Spain [Yucatan and Mexico] were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span> -here to be found. The market reminded me of my -native town of Medino del Campo at fair-time, where -each kind of merchandise has a separate street assigned -for its sale. In one place were sold the stuffs -manufactured of <i>nequen</i>, as ropes and sandals. In -another place, the sweet <i>maguey</i> root, ready-cooked, -was offered for sale, and various other things made -from this plant. In another part of the market were -exposed the skins of tigers, lions, jackals, otters, red -deer, wild cats, and of other animals of prey. Some -of the skins were tanned. A particular space was -assigned to the venders of fowls, turkeys, ducks, rabbits, -hares, deer, and dogs; also a space to the fruit-sellers, -pastry-cooks, and tripe-mongers. Not far from -these were exposed all kinds of earthenware, from the -largest jars to the smallest pitchers. Next were the -dealers in honey and honey-cakes, and other sweet-meats. -Next to these were the timber-merchants, furniture-dealers, -with assortments of tables, benches, -cradles, and all kinds of wooden implements, all separately -arranged.... But why should I so minutely -detail every article exposed for sale in this great -market? If I enumerated every thing singly, I should -never get to the end of the list. And yet I have not -mentioned the paper, which in this country is called -<i>amatl</i>, the tubes filled with liquid-amber and tobacco, -the various sweet-scented salves, and similar things, or -the various seeds which were exposed for sale in the -porticoes of this market, or the medicinal herbs.</p> - -<p>“In the market-place there were courts of justice, -to which three judges and several constables were appointed, -who inspected the goods exposed for sale. I -had almost forgotten to mention the salt, and those -who made the flint-knives; also the fish, and a kind of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span> -bread made of the mud or scum collected from the surface -of the lake, and eaten in that form, and which has -a taste similar to that of cheese.<a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> Besides, there were -instruments of brass, copper, and tin; cups and painted -pitchers of wood....</p> - -<p>“On our way to the great temple, while passing -through the court-yards adjoining the market, we saw -a number of merchants, who dealt in gold-dust as it -came from the mines, which was exposed for sale in -tubes made of large goose-bones, so thin and white -that the gold shone through them. The value of these -tubes of gold was estimated according to their length -and thickness, and were taken in exchange for so -many mantles, <i>xiquipiles</i><a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> of cacao-nuts,<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> slaves, or for -other merchandise.</p> - -<p>“On quitting the market, we entered the spacious -court-yards surrounding the chief temple. These appeared -to include more ground than the market-place -at Salamanca, and were inclosed by a double wall constructed -of stone and lime. The yards were paved -with large white flag-stones, extremely smooth, and -where there were none, a brown plaster had been -used. The court-yards were kept so very clean that -there was not the smallest particle of dust or straw to -be seen anywhere.</p> - -<p>“Before we ascended the steps of the great temple, -Montezuma, who was sacrificing on the top to his -idols, sent six priests and two of his principal officers -to conduct Cortes up the steps. There were one hundred -and fourteen steps to the summit, and as they -feared that Cortes would experience the same fatigue<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span> -in mounting as Montezuma had, they desired to assist -him by taking hold of his arms. Cortes, however, -would not accept the proffered aid. When we had -reached the summit of the temple, we walked across a -platform where many large stones were lying, on -which those who were doomed for sacrifice were -stretched out. Near these stood a large idol, in the -shape of a dragon, surrounded by various other abominable -figures, with a quantity of fresh blood in front of -it....</p> - -<p>“This infernal temple, from its great height, commanded -an extensive view of the surrounding country. -From it we could see the three causeways leading to -the city,—that one from Iztapalapan, by which we had -entered the city four days before; that one from Tlacupa, -along which we took our flight eight months -after, when we were driven out of the city by the new -monarch, Cuitlahuatzin; the third, the one from Tepeaquilla. -We also saw the aqueduct, which extended -from Chapultepec, and supplied the city with fresh -water. We could also distinctly see the bridges across -the openings in the causeways, through which the -waters of the lake ebbed and flowed. The lake was -crowded with canoes conveying provisions, manufactured -articles, and other merchandise to the city. -We also observed that the only means of intercourse -between the houses in this city, and between those of -all the other towns built in the lake, was by draw-bridges -or canoes. In all these cities the beautiful -white-plastered temples rose above the smaller ones, -like many of the towers and castles in our Spanish -cities. The view from the top of the temple, it may be -imagined, was a splendid sight.</p> - -<p>“After we had sufficiently gazed upon this magnificent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span> -picture, we again turned our eyes toward the -great market, and beheld the vast number of buyers -and sellers who thronged it. The bustle and noise -caused by this multitude of human beings was so great -that it could be heard at a distance of more than four -miles. Some of our men, who had been at Constantinople -and at Rome and had travelled through the -whole of Italy, said that they never had seen a market-place -of such large dimensions, or which was so well -regulated, or so crowded with people as this one in -Mexico....</p> - -<p>“We were conducted to a small temple with one -room, in which we saw two bases resembling altars, -decked with coverings of extreme beauty. On each of -them stood a gigantic, bulky-looking figure. The one -on the right hand represented the god of war, Huitzilopochtli. -This idol had a very broad face with distorted -and terrible eyes, and was covered with jewels, -gold, and pearls, fastened with a paste made from a -certain root. Large serpents, also, covered with gold -and precious stones, wound round the body of this -monster, which held in one hand a bow, and in the -other a bunch of arrows. Another but smaller idol, -its page, standing by its side carried the monster’s -short spear and golden shield, studded with precious -stones. Around Huitzilopochtli’s neck were figures -representing human faces, and hearts made of gold -and silver and decorated with blue stones. In front -of him stood several perfuming pans containing copal, -the incense of the country; also the hearts of three -Indians, who had been killed that day. The hearts -were consuming before him as a burnt-offering. The -walls of the temple and the whole floor were almost -black with human blood, and the stench was highly -offensive.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span></p> - -<p>“On the left hand stood another figure of the same -size as Huitzilopochtli. Its face resembled very much -that of a bear. Its shining eyes were made of <i>tetzcat</i>, -the reflecting-glass of the country. This idol, like its -brother Huitzilopochtli, was covered with precious -stones, and was called Tetzcatlipuca. This was the god of -hell.... A circle of figures wound round its body, -resembling diminutive devils with serpents’ tails. The -walls and floor around this idol were also besmeared -with blood, and the stench was greater than that of a -Spanish slaughter-house. Five human hearts had that -day been offered to him. On the very top of this -temple stood another; the wood-work of which was -exceedingly elaborate and richly carved. In this temple -there was another idol, half man and half lizard, -completely covered with precious stones; half of this -figure was hidden from view. We were told that the -concealed half was covered with the seeds of every -plant on the earth, for this idol was the god of seeds -and fruits.... In the temple was a drum of -enormous dimensions, the sound of which was so deep -and solemn that it was appropriately called the drum -of hell. The drum-head was made from the skin of -an enormous serpent. The sound of the drum could -be heard eight miles. The platform of the temple was -covered with a variety of hellish objects,—large and -small trumpets, great slaughtering knives, the burnt -hearts of Indians who had been sacrificed,—every -thing being clotted with coagulated blood, terrible to -view and filling the mind with horror....</p> - -<p>“If I remember rightly, this temple occupied a -space of ground on which we could have placed six of -the largest buildings commonly found in our country. -The building had the form of a pyramid, on the summit<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span> -of which was the small temple with the idols....</p> - -<p>“Cortes and the rest of us at last grew weary with -the inspection of so many idols and the implements -used for sacrifices, and we returned to our quarters accompanied -by a great number of the chief men and -caciques, whom Montezuma had ordered to attend -us.”</p> - -<p>It is unnecessary here to follow farther the movements -of the conquerors (<i>conquistadores</i>) of New -Spain. The beautiful and famous metropolis of Mexico, -twenty-two months after Cortes and his followers -had entered it, was in ruins, filled with the innumerable -dead bodies of its heroic defenders. The siege of the -city lasted ninety-three days, ending the 13th of August, -1521. When the terrible drama ended, Cortes -permitted those of its inhabitants who had not been -killed, starved, or stricken with disease, to leave the -charnel city. “The causeways,” says Diaz, “were -crowded for three days and nights with men, women, -and children, on their way to the main-land. These -poor beings were much emaciated, and had a deathlike -appearance.... The houses were found -filled with dead bodies.... The soil in the -city looked as if it had been ploughed, for the famished -inhabitants had dug every root out of the ground, and -had even peeled the bark from the trees to appease -their hunger. We did not find any fresh water in the -city, for that in all the wells was salty. During the -horrible famine the Mexicans had not eaten the flesh -of their countrymen, although they greedily devoured -that of the Tlascallans and Spaniards. Certainly no -people in this world ever suffered so much from hunger, -thirst, and the horrors of war, as the inhabitants -of this great city.” As the emperor’s share of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span> -booty, Cortes sent to Spain two vessels carrying -eighty-eight thousand <i>pesos</i> of gold in bars, and the -wardrobe of Montezuma. “The latter,” Diaz observes, -“was a valuable present, and well worthy of our great -emperor’s acceptance, for it embraced jewels of the greatest -value, pearls of the size of hazel-nuts, and various -precious stones, the number of which my memory will -not permit me to designate. At the same time were -sent the bones of the giants which we found in the -temple of Cojohuacan, which were similar to those -given to us by the Tlascallans that we had previously -sent to Spain.”<a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1518-1524.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>That part of the coast of the continent, now included -in the territory of the states of Texas, Louisiana, -Mississippi, Alabama, and the westerly portion of -Florida, was first discovered and explored by Alonso -Alvarez de Pineda. The fleet which this Spaniard -commanded was fitted out by Francisco de Garay, the -wealthy governor of the island of Jamaica, who had -accompanied Columbus to the New World in 1493. -Bernal Diaz, in his history of the conquest of New -Spain, thus speaks of this expedition: “In the year -1518, when the report of our having discovered this -country, under Cordoba and Grijalva, and of the twenty -thousand <i>pesos</i> which came into the hands of Diego -Velasquez, had spread through the whole of the West -Indies,” and when Garay “received information of a -new expedition that was destined for New Spain, under -Hernando Cortes, he [Francisco de Garay] was seized -with a great desire likewise to discover some new -countries, and certainly he had more wealth at his -command than we to fit out a fleet for such a purpose. -He had learned considerable about the riches of the -new countries from our old chief pilot Alaminos, and -how thickly populated the provinces were on the river -Panuco; and as several other sailors, who had accompanied -us on those expeditions, confirmed what Alaminos -had told him, he thought that it was to his advantage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span> -to request his majesty to grant him the permission -to make further discoveries on the river -Panuco, and to appoint him governor of all the lands -he should discover. For this purpose he dispatched -his major-domo, Juan de Torralva, to Spain, with letters -and presents for those who at that time administered -the affairs of the Indies, soliciting them to procure him -the appointment mentioned.</p> - -<p>“His majesty was at the time in Flanders, and the -president of the council of the Indies, Don Juan -Rodriguez de Fonseca, bishop of Burgos and titular -archbishop of Rosano, with the two licentiates Zapata -and Vargas, and the secretary Lopez de Conchillos, -managed the affairs of the Indies as they pleased. -Garay therefore easily obtained the appointment of -adelantado and governor of the provinces bordering -on the river San Pedro and San Pablo, and of all -the countries he should discover. By virtue of this -appointment he fitted out three vessels, having on -board two hundred and forty men, including a strong -body of cavalry, cross-bowmen, and musketeers. The -chief command of this fleet he gave to Alonso Alvarez -de Pineda.<a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a>”</p> - -<p>It is further related that the explorers set sail in -1519, toward “the peninsula of Florida, in twenty-five -degrees of north latitude, for Florida appeared to them -to be a very attractive island, and they thought that it -was better to settle on islands than on the main-land, -because they could more easily conquer the natives -and keep them in subjection. They landed, but the -people of Florida killed so many of them that they did -not dare to settle there. They then sailed along the -coast and came to the river of Panuco, five hundred<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span> -leagues from the peninsula of Florida, measured on a -course along the coast. The natives attacked them -at every place. Many of them were killed at Chila -[near the mouth of the river Panuco], where the natives -flayed and eat those who fell into their hands, and hung -up the skins in their temples to commemorate their -valor.”<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a></p> - -<p>Diaz further observes: “While we were lying at -Villa Segura, Cortes was informed by letters that one -of the vessels which Garay had fitted out for the purpose -of forming settlements on the river Panuco had -arrived at Vera Cruz. This vessel was commanded -by a certain Comargo, and had on board more than -sixty soldiers, who were all in bad health, with their -bodies greatly swelled. This Comargo gave the particulars -of the unfortunate termination of Garay’s expedition -to the river Panuco.</p> - -<p>“The Indians had massacred the commander-in-chief, -Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, and all his soldiers -and horses, and then had set fire to his vessels. Comargo -alone had been fortunate enough to escape -with his men on board of one of the vessels, and -had steered for Vera Cruz, where the explorers arrived -half famished, for they had not been able to -procure any provisions from the enemy. This Comargo, -it was said, had taken the vows of the order -of the Dominicans.</p> - -<p>“Comargo and his men, by moderate advances, -at last arrived at Villa Segura, for they were so -weakened that they could scarcely move along. When -Cortes saw in what a terrible condition they were, -he commended them to our care, and showed Comargo -and all his men every possible kindness. If I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span> -remember rightly, Comargo died soon after, and also -several of his men.”<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a></p> - -<p>The fields of the explorations of Alonso Alvarez -de Pineda, Juan de Grijalva, Francisco Hernandez de -Cordoba, and Juan Ponce de Leon are represented on -a traced map of the coast of the continent and of the -new lands (<i>traza de las costas de tierra-firme y de las -tierras nuevas</i>), made in 1521, to define the limits of -the jurisdictions of Juan Ponce Leon, Francisco de -Garay, and Diego Velasquez.<a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a></p> - -<p>On the peninsula of Florida, delineated on the map, -is inscribed in Spanish: “Florida called Bimini, which -Juan Ponce discovered.” West of it is a broken line -and this inscription: “As far as this Juan Ponce discovered.” -At some distance farther west is another -line of limitation and this explanation: “From here -Francisco Garay began to discover.” West of this is -the early designation of the Mississippi River, “Rio del -Espiritu Santo” (River of the Holy Spirit). Southward -beyond the mouth of the Panuco River is a third -broken line and the inscription: “As far as this -place Francisco de Garay discovered toward the west, -and Diego Velazquez toward the east as far as Cabo -de las Higueras, which the Pinzons discovered, and the -population has given it to them.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map5"> -<a href="images/map5-full.jpg"><img src="images/map5.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">TRAZA DE LAS COSTAS DE TIERRA-FIRME Y DE LAS TIERRAS -NUEVAS.</p> -<p class="caption">A tracing of the coasts of the Continent and of the -New Lands, 1521, in the third volume of Navarrete’s “Coleccion de los Viages.”</p> -</div> - -<p>According to these <i>memoranda</i> and the statements -of Herrera, the Spanish historian, Juan Ponce de Leon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span> -explored the eastern coast of Florida from La Cruz, -south of the thirty-first parallel, to a point on the southwestern -coast, perhaps as far as Appalachee Bay. -Alonso Alvarez de Pineda’s explorations, it would seem, -began at Appalachicola Bay and ended at the Panuco -River.<a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a></p> - -<p>The more northerly part of the eastern coast of -Florida and coast of the present state of Georgia were -inspected by the officers and crews of two vessels, -equipped in 1520 in the port of La Plata, San Domingo, -by seven citizens of that island. The ships -were fitted out to sail among the Bahama Islands to -kidnap Indians to work in the mines and on the plantations. -Among the projectors of the expedition was -Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon.<a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> When the kidnapers -arrived among the Bahama Islands they found them -depopulated. “They determined,” it is said, “to go -farther toward the north to search for a new country<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span> -rather than return without any slaves. They reached -a country called Chicora and Gualdape, in thirty-two -degrees of north latitude”; where there was a cape, -afterward called Cabo de Santa Elena (Cape of Saint -Helen), and the Rio Jordan (River Jordan).<a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a></p> - -<p>“When our men steered toward the shore,” Peter -Martyr relates, “the inhabitants, astonished at the -sight of the ships, imagined that some monster was -approaching. In order to satisfy their curiosity they -flocked in great numbers to the shore. When our -people were about to land with their boats the Indians -ran rapidly away. As they fled our men pursued. -Some of the youngest and the fastest runners overtook -two of the natives, a man and a woman. They brought -these to the ships, dressed them, and gave them their -liberty. Impressed by this evidence of good-will the -Indians returned in crowds to the beach. The king of -the country, learning how our men had dealt with the -man and the woman, and seeing the new and costly -garments upon them (for the Indians only clothe themselves -with the skins of lions or of other animals), sent -fifty of his people to ours bearing the productions of -the country. When visited by our people he was -friendly and hospitable. When they expressed a -desire to see the surrounding country he gave them -guides and guards. Wherever they went the inhabitants -came reverently to them with presents as unto -gods to be adored, especially when they saw them -having beards, and clothed with linen and silken garments. -But what! The Spaniards violated the laws -of hospitality. For by craft and various cunning<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span> -devices, after they had seen all that they wished, they -so managed that on an appointed day the Indians -visited the ships to inspect them. When the vessels -were crowded with these innocent people, the anchors -were weighed and the sails hoisted, and the Indians -were carried away mourning into servitude. Instead -of friends, they made the people of those regions -enemies, and having found them contented they left -them miserable, having taken children from parents, -and husbands from wives. Of the two ships one only -returned, the other was never seen again. It was conjectured -that all on board were drowned, the guilty -and the guiltless, for it was an old ship....</p> - -<p>“While they were there they explored the two -principal regions, Chicora and Duharhe.... -They say that the people of Chicora are half black or -tawny as our farmers are, burned and tanned by the -sun. The men allow their hair to grow long, which -often extends down to their girdles. The hair of the -women is much longer. Both sexes bind up their -hair. The men have no beards. Whether or not they -are so naturally or so by art is unknown; however, -they take great pride in having smooth faces.... -Leaving Chicora they went to the other side of the -bay, and took possession of the region called Duharhe.”</p> - -<p>Peter Martyr further observes that Ayllon had been -a persistent solicitor at the court of Spain, and that he -wanted to obtain letters-patent to go again to these -countries “to plant a colony there.<a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> ... He<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span> -brought one of the natives of Chicora with him.... -While he remained [in Spain] prosecuting his business, -I sometimes had Ayllon, the master, and the Chicoran, -his servant, as my guests. The Chicoran is not a dull -person nor superficially intelligent. He has learned -the Spanish language passably well. The things -which Ayllon showed me, written by his men and reported -by the Chicoran, that are strange and remarkable, -I will relate.... Ayllon says the natives -there [in Duharhe] are white, which also Franciscus, -the tawny Chicoran, asserts, and that they have long -yellow hair hanging down to their ankles.</p> - -<p>“These people have a king of giant-like proportions, -called Datha, and they say that the queen, his wife, is -not much smaller.... This king being asked -why he and his wife were so remarkably tall and the -other people not, replied that their height was not -hereditary, but that it had been caused by violent -treatment. While they were infants in the charge of -nurses their parents sent for those practicing the art, -who anointed their limbs for a number of days with -certain decoctions of herbs to soften their tender -bones, which in time became as pliable as lukewarm -wax. They then stretched their limbs, often leaving -them almost dead. Thereupon the nurses, who had -been fed with certain strength-producing meats, suckled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span> -them, the infants being covered with warm cloths. -When they had again regained their vigor the practitioners -again twisted and pulled their bones as they -had previously done. This treatment was repeated -from time to time until their limbs were lengthened so -much that when they reached maturity they had the -desired tallness....</p> - -<p>“There is another region near Duharhe called Xapida. -In it they say pearls and a precious stone resembling -a pearl are to be found, which the natives -highly prize. In all the country explored by them -there were herds of deer kept like cattle with us. The -deer fawn at home, and there they also rear their -young. These deer, when free, wander and pasture in -the woods during the day and at night return to their -young. They are confined in pens and allow themselves -to be milked.... The people fatten many -kinds of fowl, as chickens, ducks, geese, and the like. -Their bread is maize, the same as that of the people of -the islands.... The grain of the maize is like our -panic of Insubria, [in Italy,] but in size like pease. -They sow another kind of corn called Xathi. They -believe it is millet.... The natives have several -varieties of potatoes, but they are small.... The -Spaniards speak of many regions which they think are -under the government of one and the same king,—Hitha, -Xamunabe, Tihe.</p> - -<p>“In this country they say there is a caste of priests -differing from the people. These priests are held in -great reverence by the inhabitants of the surrounding -country. The natives of this region cut their hair, -leaving only two curled locks hanging down in front of -their ears, which locks they tie under their chins. The -Spaniards explored many regions of this great country,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span> -which tracts they called Arambe, Guacaia, Quohathe, -Tanzacca, Pahor. The inhabitants are all somewhat -tawny and swart. None of them have any knowledge -of letters, but they possess many traditions which they -preserve and relate in rhymes and songs. They exercise -themselves in dancing and skipping, and find much -amusement in playing ball, for they are very nimble -and skillful. The women sew and spin, and although -for the most part they are dressed in the skins of wild -animals, they have cotton and make thread from the -fibres of certain tough plants, as our hemp or flax. -There is another region called Inzignanin.”<a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a></p> - -<p>According to Gomara’s geographical description -of the coast of North America, the explorations of the -Spaniards who discovered Tierra de Ayllon (the Land -of Ayllon) extended from the Cape of St. Helen, in 32°, -northwardly forty leagues to the River Jordan. If Cape -St. Helen were a point of land near the mouth of the -Combahee River, the river Jordan was likely the Santee -River, in South Carolina.<a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a></p> - -<p>Among the most renowned of the various maritime -achievements which gave great fame to Spanish enterprise -in seeking for a sea-path to Cathay by sailing -toward the west, was that of the circumnavigation -of the globe in the years 1519-1522. The remarkable -voyage was begun by Fernam de Magalhaens, a -Portuguese navigator. The first account of the expedition -was written by Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian -chevalier, who accompanied Magalhaens. Pigafetta’s -connection with the exploration is explained by him in -the opening chapter of his history of the voyage: “I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span> -learned that a squadron of five vessels were under -equipment at Seville, destined for the discovery of the -Molucca Islands from which we get our spices, and -that Fernam de Magalhaens,<a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> a Portuguese gentleman, -and a commander of the order of St. Iago de la -Spata, who had already more than once traversed the -ocean with great reputation, was made captain-general -of the expedition.<a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> Therefore I immediately repaired -to Barcelona to request permission of his majesty to be -one of the number of persons to go on this voyage. -My request was granted.”</p> - -<p>The interested historian then relates: “The -captain-general, Fernam de Magalhaens, had determined -to undertake a long voyage across the ocean -where the winds are violent and storms quite frequent. -He also resolved to take a course not yet explored by -any navigator, but this bold purpose he was cautious -in disclosing lest some one should try to dissuade him -from it by magnifying the risk he would run and thus -dishearten his men. Besides the dangers common to a -voyage like this one was the disadvantageous circumstance -that the four other vessels under his -command were in charge of captains inimical to him -solely because he was a Portuguese and they were -Spaniards.”</p> - -<p>The fleet sailed from the port of Seville, on Monday -morning, the tenth of August, 1519. The five -ships proceeded southwardly along the coast of Africa, -passed between Cape Verd and the islands of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span> -Cape Verd group, and after reaching Sierra Leone, -stood for the coast of Brazil.</p> - -<p>“After we crossed the equator,” says Pigafetta, -“we lost sight of the north star. We then steered -south-southwest, making for Terra del Verzino (Land -of Red wood), in latitude twenty-three degrees thirty -minutes south latitude.<a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> This country is a continuation -of that in which Cape St. Augustine is situated, -in eight degrees thirty minutes south latitude.”</p> - -<p>The squadron entered the port now known as that -of Rio Janeiro on St. Lucy’s day, the thirteenth of -December.</p> - -<p>“The land of Brazil, which produces every thing in -abundance, is as large as Spain, France, and Italy -united. It is one of the countries acquired by the -king of Portugal. The people of Brazil are not -Christians, nor are they idolaters, for they worship -nothing.... They go entirely naked, the -women as well as the men. Their houses are long -cabins, which they call <i>boi</i>. They lie on cotton-nets -called hammocks fastened at the ends to two strong -posts. Their fire-places are on the ground. Their -<i>bois</i> frequently contain a hundred men, with their -wives and children, consequently there is always considerable -noise in these houses....</p> - -<p>“The people of Brazil, both men and women, paint -their bodies and particularly their faces in a singular -manner with different figures. They have short, -woolly hair on their heads, but none on other parts of -their bodies, for they pluck it out. They have a dress -made of the interwoven feathers of the parrot, and so -arranged that the large quills of the wings and tail -form a girdle about their loins, giving the wearer a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span> -unique and grotesque appearance. Almost all the -men have their lower lips pierced with three holes, -through which they thrust a slender cylindrical stone -about two inches long. The women and children do -not wear this cumbersome ornament.... Their -color is more of an olive than a black.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<a href="images/map-mercator-full.jpg"><img src="images/map-mercator.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA.</p> -<p class="caption">ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.</p> -</div> - -<p>After anchoring thirteen days in the port of Rio -Janeiro, the fleet coasted southward to the mouth of -the Rio de la Plata, where, as Pigafetta relates: “Juan -de Solis, while on a similar voyage of discovery, was -with sixty of his crew devoured by cannibals, in whom -they placed too much confidence.”</p> - -<p>At the beginning of winter, in the month of May, -1520, the fleet reached the port of St. Julian, “in forty-nine -degrees thirty minutes,” where they anchored for -five months.<a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> Here the explorers were visited by a -number of giants. Pigafetta, describing one of the -visitors, remarks: “This man was so prodigiously -large that our heads scarcely reached to his waist. -He had an attractive appearance. His face was broad -and painted red, with the exception of a circle of -yellow round his eyes and two spots, figured like -hearts, on his cheeks. His hair, which was thin, was -whitened with some kind of a powder. His coat, or -rather his mantle, was made of furs, well sewed together, -taken from an indigenous animal, which afterward -we had an opportunity to see. This animal [the -guanaco] has the head and ears of a mule, the body of -a camel, the legs of a stag, and the tail of a horse, and,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span> -like the latter, neighs. This man also wore shoes -made of the skin of the same animal. In his left hand -he carried a short and heavy bow; the string, somewhat -thicker than a lute’s, was made of an intestine of -the animal already mentioned. In his other hand he -held arrows made of short reeds, with feathers at one -end, similar to our arrows, and at the other, instead of -iron, a white and black flint....</p> - -<p>“The women are not as tall as the men, but they -are much stouter.... They paint and dress in -the same manner as their husbands, and use the thin -skin of an animal to cover their nakedness. They -were, in our judgment, far from handsome, nevertheless -their husbands seemed jealous....</p> - -<p>“Savage as these Indians are, they are not without -their medicaments. When they have a pain in the -stomach, in place of an active medicine they thrust an -arrow far down the throat to cause them to vomit.... -If they have the headache, they make a -gash in their forehead, and do the same with other -parts of their body where they suffer pain, to draw -from the affected part a considerable quantity of -blood....</p> - -<p>“Their hair is cut circularly, like that of monks, but -it is longer, and they confine it round the head with a -cotton-string, in which bandage they place their arrows -when they go hunting.... It appears that -their religion is limited to adoring the devil. They -pretend that when one of them is on the point of -death, ten or twelve demons appear dancing and singing -around the dying person.... These people, -as I have already said, clothe themselves with the -skin of an animal, and also cover their huts with the -same kind of skin. They transport their huts, for they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span> -have no fixed place of abode, and wander about -from place to place like gypsies. They live on -raw meat and a sweet root called <i>capac</i>.... -Our captain gave these people the name of Patagonians....</p> - -<p>“Scarcely had we anchored in this roadstead before -the four captains of the other vessels plotted to murder -the captain-general. These traitors were Juan of -Carthagena, inspector of the fleet, Luis de Mendoza, -the treasurer, Antonio Cocca, the paymaster, and -Gaspar de Casada. The plot was discovered. The -first named was flayed alive, and the second stabbed -to the heart. Gaspar de Casada was forgiven, but in -a few days he was again treacherous. Then the captain-general -(who did not dare to take Casada’s life, as he -was made a captain by the emperor,) drove him from -the fleet and left him in the country of the Patagonians, -with a priest, his accomplice....</p> - -<p>“We planted a cross on the summit of a neighboring -mountain, which we named Monte Cristo, and took -possession of the country in the name of the king of -Spain....</p> - -<p>“Continuing our course toward the south, on the -twenty-first of October, in fifty-two degrees, we discovered -a strait, which we called the Strait of the -Eleven Thousand Virgins (xi. mila Vergini), in honor -of the day. This strait, as it will hereafter appear, is -four hundred and forty miles, or one hundred and ten -leagues long, and about a half league wide, more or -less.<a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> It extends to another sea, which we named the -Pacific Ocean (Mar pacifico). The strait lies between -lofty mountains covered with snow, and the channel<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span> -was so deep that we were compelled to anchor close -to the shore.<a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> ...</p> - -<p>“The whole of the crew were so fully persuaded -that this strait had no western outlet, that we should -have left it unexplored had it not been for the profound -scientific knowledge of the captain-general. Skillful -as he was intrepid, he knew that he had to sail through -a very secluded strait which he had seen marked on a -chart, in the archives of the king of Portugal, drawn -by that most excellent man, Martin of Boemia.<a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a></p> - -<p>“As soon as we entered the strait, imagined to be -only a bay, the captain sent the two ships, the San -Antonio and La Concepcion, in advance to explore it -to its termination or to where it extended, while we, -in the ships La Trinidad and La Victoria, remained at -its mouth.<a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a></p> - -<p>“Two days passed before the vessels returned that -had been sent to examine the bottom of the bay. We -began to conjecture that they had been engulfed during -the tempest which had occurred, for seeing smoke -on shore we imagined that those who had the good -fortune to escape had kindled fires to inform us of their -existence and distress. But while in this painful suspense -we saw the ships coming toward us under full -sail and with their flags flying.... When we -learned from those on board that they had seen the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span> -prolongation of the bay, or, more correctly, of the -strait, we sailed to them to continue our voyage on -this course, if possible.</p> - -<p>“When we had entered into the third bay, which I -have already mentioned, we saw two openings, or -channels, the one running to the southeast, the other -to the southwest.... The captain-general sent -the two vessels, the San Antonio and La Concepcion, -to the southeast to examine whether or not this channel -terminated in an open sea. The first set sail immediately -under press of canvas, not choosing to wait -for the second, which the pilot wished to leave behind, -for he had intended to avail himself of the darkness of -the night to retrace his course and return to Spain by -the same way he had come.</p> - -<p>“This pilot was Estevan Gomez, who hated Magalhaens, -for the sole reason that when Magalhaens came -to Spain to lay his project before the emperor of going -to the Moluccas by a western route, Gomez himself -had already requested, and was on the point of -obtaining, some caravels for an expedition of which he -would have had the command. This expedition had -for its object new discoveries, but the arrival of Magalhaens -prevented his request from being granted, and -he only obtained the subaltern position of pilot. His -disaffection was further increased by the thought of his -serving under a Portugese. In the course of the night -he conspired with the other Spaniards on board the -ship. They put in irons and even wounded the captain, -Alvaro de Meschita, the cousin-german of the -captain-general, and carried him to Spain.”<a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span></p> - -<p>When the strait was explored to its termination, -the cape where the strait ended was called, says Pigafetta, -“Il Cabo Deseado” (The Desired Cape).</p> - -<p>On Wednesday, the twenty-eighth of November, -1520, the three ships left the strait and entered the -unexplored expanse of the Pacific. “In the course of -three months and twenty days,” Pigafetta observes, -“we traversed nearly four thousand leagues on the -ocean called by us the Pacific, on account of our not -having experienced during this period any tempestuous -weather. In this long space of time we did not -descry any land, except two desert islands. On these -we saw nothing but birds and trees, therefore we -named them, Isole Sfortunato<a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> (The Unfortunate -Islands).... The two islands are two hundred -leagues apart. The first lies in fifteen degrees south -latitude, the second in nine degrees. According to the -measure which we made of the voyage with the chain -at the poop, we ran daily about sixty to seventy -leagues.<a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> If God and the Holy Mother had not -granted us a fortunate voyage we should all have -perished from hunger on so vast a sea. I do not think -that any one will hereafter venture on a similar voyage.<a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a></p> - -<p>“If we had continued on a western course on the -same parallel after leaving the strait we should have -circumnavigated the globe without seeing any land -except that extending from the Cape of the Eleven<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span> -Thousand Virgins, at the eastern head of the strait, in -the Ocean Sea (Mar oceano), to Cabo Deseado, at -the western end, in the Pacific Sea (Mar pacifico). -The two capes are in fifty-two degrees south latitude.</p> - -<p>“The antarctic pole has not as many stars as the -arctic. At the former a large number of small stars -cluster together which form two <i>nebulæ</i>. They are -separated from each other and are somewhat dim. In -these <i>nebulæ</i> are two large and brilliant stars which -move very little. These indicate the antarctic pole. -Although the needle declined somewhat from the arctic -pole it still oscillated toward it, but not with the same -force as when in the northern hemisphere. When the -captain-general out at sea directed the course in which -the pilots should steer, he asked them in what direction -they steered. All of them replied that they bore in -the direction in which he had ordered them. He then -informed them that their course was wrong and directed -them to correct the needle, because, as they -were in the southern hemisphere, it had not the same -power to designate the true north as in the northern -hemisphere. When we got out in the open sea, we -saw, in the west, a cross of five very bright stars.</p> - -<p>“We steered northwest by west till we reached the -equator in one hundred and twenty-two degrees of -longitude, west of the line of demarkation.... -After we crossed the equator we steered west by north. -We then ran two hundred leagues toward the west, -when, changing our course again, we ran west by -south until we reached thirteen degrees of north latitude. -We proposed by this course to reach Cape -Catticara which geographers have placed in this latitude, -but they are mistaken, for this cape lies twelve -degrees more toward the north.”<a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span></p> - -<p>From the islands, which Magalhaens called “Isole de -Ladroni,”<a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> the three ships stood toward the Philippine -Islands, where, on one called Matan, the captain-general -was killed in an engagement with the natives, on -the twenty-seventh of April, 1521. It was at the -island of Zubu, near the former, “in ten degrees north -latitude,” that Magalhaens, before his death, received -the first intelligence respecting the Molucca Islands. -On Wednesday, the sixth of November, 1521, the -ships came in sight of the long-sought Spice Islands, -and on Friday, the eighth of November, 1521, the -Victoria and the Trinidad arrived at the island of Tadore. -“We now,” Pigafetta remarks, “returned -thanks to God and manifested our joy by firing a -round from all of our large guns. It will not excite astonishment -that we should be elated, when it is considered -that we had been at sea twenty-seven months, -wanting two days, and had visited numerous islands in -search of those we had reached.</p> - -<p>“The Portuguese had reported that the Molucca -Islands lay in the middle of an impassable sea, full of -shallows, and were surrounded by a cloudy, foggy atmosphere. -We, however, found the contrary, and -never had less than a hundred fathoms water all the -way to the Molucca Islands.” The latter were five in -number: Tarenate, Tadore, Mutir, Machian and -Bachian.<a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> When afterward cloves were found on the -adjacent islands, the name Moluccas, was applied to all -the islands lying between the Philippines and Java.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span></p> - -<p>After a short sojourn at the Spice Islands, the return -voyage was made by the ship La Victoria alone, commanded -by Juan Sebastian del Cano,<a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> who set sail from -Tadore on the twenty-first of December, 1521, the -ship La Concepcion having been burned at the island -Bohol, and La Trinidad having been left at the Moluccas -in a leaking condition. Following the route along -the coast of Africa, the ship La Victoria arrived at -Seville, on Monday, the eighth of September, 1522, she -having sailed in the entire voyage, according to Pigafetta’s -computation, fourteen thousand six hundred -leagues. Thus passed into history the wonderful -achievement of the first circumnavigation of the earth -in three years and twenty-nine days.<a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a></p> - -<p>The signal success of the maritime enterprise of the -Spaniards engendered a spirit of jealousy among the -Portuguese. The feeling of being overshadowed by -their persistent rival in reaching the Indies by the way -of the West led them to accuse the Spaniards of encroaching -on their commercial route to the Spice -Islands, and of breaking the treaty of Tordesillas. -The Spaniards in defence claimed that the Moluccas -or the Spice Islands, found by Magellan’s companions, -were not within the limits of the territory of the Portuguese -as defined by the papal bull.</p> - -<p>To settle these national differences the notable congress<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span> -of Badajos was convened in the spring of 1524. -The king of each country sent to it special commissioners, -among which number were Fernando Columbus, -Sebastian Cabot, Diego Ribero, and Estevan -Gomez. For a number of days the two parties angrily -disputed concerning the indefinite position of the line -of demarkation as established by the treaty of Tordesillas -in 1494. It was a question not easily decided -where among the Cape Verd Islands the point was, -through which, at the distance of three hundred and -seventy leagues from it, the line of limitation passed to -the poles, for the group of the Cape Verd Islands occupies -a space in extent from east to west of about one -hundred and fifty miles.</p> - -<p>Wherever, east or west, they decided this point -should be established each party was aware that so -much space would be gained or lost on the opposite -side of the earth by the one or the other of the two -countries. The congress, after many exciting disputations, -finally ended its session on the last day of May, -without reaching any decision respecting the position -of the papal line of limitation. The admission that -Spain had full title to the Spice or Molucca Islands and -that Portugal had acquired the right of possession of a -part of Brazil, were the chief concessions made by this -contentious body of learned men.<a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">1504-1524.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The competitive zeal which Portugal, Spain, and -England had displayed, in searching for a short water-way -to the eastern coast of Asia, in time quickened -the ambition of France to emulate these maritime -powers in discovering a desirable route across the -Atlantic to the vast domains of the Grand Khan of -Cathay. The Gulf of St. Lawrence, as early as the -year 1504, was frequented by the fishing vessels of -France. The exploration of the coast of the New -Land, north of the present Atlantic territory of the -United States of America, is described by a famous -French sea-captain of Dieppe, in 1539.</p> - -<p>“The said land, that part running east and west -[Cape Breton Island and Nova Scotia?], was discovered -about thirty-five years ago by the Bretons -[Britons?] and Normans; hence this land has been -called the Cape of the Bretons [Britons?].</p> - -<p>“The other part [Newfoundland?] running north -and south from Cape Ras to Cape Buona Vista, including -nearly seventy leagues, was discovered by the -Portuguese, and the remainder, as far as the Gulf of -Castiles [north of the Strait of Belle Isle], and still -farther, was discovered by the said Bretons [Britons?] -and Normans.<a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span></p> - -<p>“About thirty-three years ago, a ship of Honfleur -first went there, of which vessel Jean Denis was captain, -and Gamart, of Rouen, pilot. In the year 1508, -a ship of Dieppe, called La Pensée, owned by Jean -Ango, father of the captain and viscount of Dieppe, -sailed there, the master or patron of the said ship -being Thomas Aubert, and he was the first person -who brought here people from that country.”<a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a></p> - -<p>In company with the Pensée, another ship, commanded -by Giovanni da Verrazzano, also sailed from -the port of Dieppe. The two entering the river of St. -Lawrence, ascended it to the distance of eighty leagues. -The exploration of the river is thus described: “The -people of Dieppe continued their commercial intercourse -with the East Indies. When they heard of the -discoveries which the Spaniards had made in America, -they found their emulation incited, and they equipped -two vessels to discover whether that part of the world -did not extend its coast to the north. They intrusted -the command of the ships to two of their most skillful -captains, named Thomas Aubert and Jean Vérassen. -These two ships sailed from Dieppe at the beginning -of the year 1508, and discovered the same year the -St. Lawrence River, to which they gave the name of -Saint Lawrence because they began to ascend it on -this saint’s day [the tenth of August]. They explored -the river for more than eighty leagues, finding the -inhabitants friendly, with whom they made very profitable -exchanges for peltries.”<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span></p> - -<p>As related in the chronicle of Eusebius, printed at -Paris in 1512, it appears that Aubert and Verrazzano, -on their departure from the New Land, carried to -France a number of natives. Under the date of 1509, -it is said: “Seven wild men were brought from that -island (which is called the New Land) to Rouen with -their canoe, clothing, and weapons. They are of a -sooty color, with thick lips, and bearing marks on the -face drawn like blue veins along the cheek-bones from -the ear to the middle of the chin; with black hair and -coarse like a horse’s mane; having no beard throughout -the whole life; no hair on any part of the body, -except on the head and eyebrows. They wear a -girdle to cover their nakedness, in which girdle is a -sort of pouch; they form a dialect with their lips; -religion they have none. Their canoe is bark, which -a man can lift on his shoulders with one hand. Their -weapons are large bows, the strings being intestines -or sinews of animals; their arrows are canes barbed -with flint or fish-bone. Their food is boiled flesh; -their drink water. Of bread and wine and money -they have not the least use. They go naked or clad -in the skins of beasts,—bears, deer, sea-calves, and the -like. Their country, parallel to the seventh climate,<a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> -is nearer the West<a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> than France is farther from it.”<a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span></p> - -<p>Although for a number of years, at the beginning -of the sixteenth century, this part of North America -was visited by English, French, and Portuguese seamen, -it appears that no navigator had yet sailed along -the peculiarly marked and sinuous coast of the new -continent between the thirty-fourth and the forty-fifth -parallels of north latitude. Fortunately for France, -Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine, who, in 1508, -had sailed with Aubert to the New Land, was sent a -second time on a voyage of discovery toward the -west.<a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> As pertinently said by Asher: “What Cadamosta -had done for Portugal, Columbus for Spain, -John Cabot for England, that Verrazzano did for -France.”<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a></p> - -<p>The history of Verazzano’s second visit to America -rightly begins with the attempt of the king of Portugal, -in 1523, to impede the sailing of the vessels preparing -for the voyage. The means which King John III. of -Portugal employed to frustrate this undertaking are -partly described by D’Andrada, the Portuguese historian. -He says: “At that time the king was told by -some Portuguese doing business in France that one -João Varezano [Giovanni da Varrazzano], a Florentine, -offered himself to Francis to discover other kingdoms -in the East, which the Portuguese had not found, and -that in the ports of Normandy a fleet was making -ready, under the patronage of the admirals of the coast -and the dissimulation of Francis, to plant a colony in -Santa Cruz, called Brazil, discovered and laid down by -the Portuguese on the second voyage to India.<a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> Accordingly, -he [King John III.] sent to France an embassador,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span> -João da Silveyra, son of Fernão da Silveyra, -who delayed his going no longer than was necessary -to get ready.”<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></p> - -<p>On his arrival at the court of France, Silveyra -pursued his investigations respecting the expedition, -and on the twenty-fifth of April, 1523, wrote to King -John III., saying:</p> - -<p>“By what I hear Master João Verazano, who is -going on the discovery of Cathay, has not left up to -this date for want of opportunity, and because of differences, -I understand, between himself and men; and -on this point, although knowing nothing positively, I -have written my doubts in accompanying letters. I -shall continue to doubt, unless he take his departure.”<a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> -Silveyra, according to what is said by D’Andrada, -“accomplished nothing he had in hand except to delay -the voyage of the Florentine.”</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the secret machinations of the -king of Portugal, four vessels were finally fitted out -and placed under the command of Verrazzano, “to -discover new lands.” Late in the year 1523, the fleet -set sail, but having encountered a severe storm in the -North Sea, all the ships were disabled, and Verrazzano, -having returned to Brittany to repair the two barques, -La Normandie and La Dauphine, afterward sailed -in the Dauphine to the New Land.<a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a></p> - -<p>When he returned to France, he wrote an interesting -letter to Francis I., king of France, dated “on -board the ship La Dauphine, in the port of Dieppe, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span> -Normandy, July 8, 1524.”<a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> In this communication Verrazzano -relates what had happened to his fleet in the -North Sea, how he had carried out the orders of the -king by sailing in the Dauphine toward the west to go -to Cathay, where and when he discovered a new land -never before seen by men of ancient or modern times. -He then describes the people inhabiting the country, -speaks of its various productions, mentions the peculiar -physical features of its coast, tells how many leagues he -had sailed along it, and concludes with a brief review -of the discoveries made to the year 1524 in the western -hemisphere. His remarks concerning his failure -to find a convenient harbor where he first descried -land, of his unsuccessful search for one south of the -thirty-fourth parallel, of his steering afterward toward -the north in quest of a haven, and of his disappointment -in this direction, are so applicable to the peculiar -features of this part of the eastern coast of the United -States, that it is easy to perceive that he faithfully pictures -the shores of South Carolina and North Carolina, -along which he began his explorations. The comparisons -he makes respecting the natives, the flora, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span> -fauna, the climate, and the harbors of the more northern -part of the coast, prove that he had travelled extensively -in other parts of the world, and that he was -well informed concerning the things he commented -upon in his letter. His geographical knowledge is -far in advance of that of the scientific men of his time, -and he constantly shows that he was practically acquainted -with all the known means which were then -used to ascertain longitude, latitude, and the measurement -of distances. His opinion that the Orient extended -around to the New Land was well founded, -since it was not known until the eighteenth century -that Behring’s Strait separated America from Asia. -His reasoning concerning the dimensions of the new -continent, that if its breadth corresponded to the extent -of its sea-coast it doubtless exceeded Asia in size, is -logically correct. Verrazzano’s hopefulness that information -of a more satisfactory character respecting the -extent of the territory of the New Land would be obtained -by other explorers, shows that he was less -thoughtful of the brilliancy of his own achievements -than he was of the more desirable and important results -of future voyages to that part of the present coast -of the United States, between the thirty-fourth and -forty-fifth parallels, of which he is rightfully entitled to -be regarded the discoverer. Verrazzano wrote:<a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>“Most Serene Sire:</p> - -<p>“After the past fortune on the northern coasts I -did not write to your most serene and Christian -majesty concerning the success of the four vessels -ordered to the ocean to discover new lands, thinking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span> -that you would be informed of all: how, by the impetuous -stress of the winds, we were compelled, with -only the ships La Normandie and La Dauphine, in a -damaged condition, to put back to Brittany, where -they were mended. Your serene majesty has heard -of the wandering course we made with these, armed -as in war, along the shores of Spain, and afterward of -the new purpose to pursue, with the Dauphine alone, -the first voyage, from which having returned, I will -give your serene majesty an account of what we discovered.<a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></p> - -<p>“From the desert-rock<a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> in the sea, near the island -of Madeira of the most serene king of Portugal, we -departed with the said Dauphine, on the seventeenth -of the past month of January, with fifty men, furnished -with provisions, arms, and other martial instruments, -and naval stores for eight months. Sailing westwardly, -an easterly wind blowing pleasantly and moderately, -we ran in twenty-five days 800 leagues.<a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> On the -fourteenth of February (<i>il di 14 Febbrajo</i>), we encountered -a storm as severe as any one navigating -ever experienced, from which we were enabled -with divine help and goodness to escape, to the -praise of the glorious and fortunate name of the -ship, which endured the violent waves of the sea, and -we pursued our voyage, continuing toward the west, -holding a little to the north. In twenty-five more days -(<i>in venti cinque altri giorni</i>), we ran 400 other leagues, -when there appeared a new land, never before seen by -men in ancient or modern times.</p> - -<p>“At first it seemed to be somewhat low. On approaching -it within a quarter of a league, we saw by -the large fires made on the shore that it was inhabited. -We observed that the coast trended toward the south, -and we inspected it to discover some harbor which we -might enter with the ship to examine the nature of the -land, but for fifty leagues along it we could not find a -convenient haven where we could safely stay. Seeing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span> -the coast continued to run toward the south, we determined -to turn and go back to the north, where we -found the same want of harbors as we ascended the -coast.”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map6"> -<a href="images/map6-full.jpg"><img src="images/map6.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">A copy of a part of the map of the fourth part of the -world in the French work, “La Cosmographie Universelle,” by André Thevet, -printed in Paris in 1575. (The original part is about one-third larger.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The New Land (<i>Nuova Terra</i>), discovered by Verrazzano, -was first seen by him on the tenth of March, -(<i>old style</i>,) being that part of the coast of the continent -now included in the present territory of North -Carolina, north of Cape Fear,<a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> on the thirty-fourth parallel -of north latitude. It appears that Verrazzano had -thought of finding land on his way to the Indies, for -he says: “My intention in this voyage was to reach -Cathay, on the extreme coast of Asia, expecting, however, -to find in the newly discovered land some such -obstacle as I found.”</p> - -<p>“Ordering a boat to carry us ashore, we beheld,” -says Verrazzano, “many people who had collected on -the beach. Seeing us approaching, they fled. Some, -however, turned and gazed at us with much curiosity. -Assuring them by various signs, a number came near, -manifesting great delight in scrutinizing the peculiarities -of our clothing, figure, and whiteness. They indicated -by signs where we could most easily land with the -boat, and proffered us some of their food. What we -were able to learn of their life and customs while on -land, I will briefly relate to your majesty.</p> - -<p>“They go nearly naked, wearing only about the -loins some skins of small animals similar to the -martens. A girdle of woven grass encircles the body, -to which they fasten the tails of animals, which hang -down as far as the knees. All the rest of the body is -nude, as is also the head. Some of them wear drapery -in like manner made of the feathers of birds. The color<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span> -of these people is black (<i>neri</i>), not very different from -that of the Ethiopians. Their hair is black and thick, -but not very long; it is worn tied back upon the head -in the form of a little tail.<a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> In person they are of good -proportion, of middle-stature, a little above our own, -broad across the breast, strong in the arms, and well-formed -in the legs and other parts of the body; the -only exception to their good looks is that they have -broad faces, but not all of them, for we saw many -who had sharp ones, with large black eyes and a -fixed expression. They are not very strong in body, -but acute in mind, active and swift of foot as far as -we could perceive by observation. They greatly resemble -in these two last particulars the people of -the East, especially those of the remote regions. We -were not able to learn much concerning their habits on -account of our short stay on land and the distance of -our ship from the shore.”</p> - -<p>Verrazzano designated his first landing-place on -the coast of the New Land by calling it Diepa, the -Italian form of the French name Dieppe, that of the -port from which he had sailed to make discoveries in -the western hemisphere. Visconte de Maiollo, on his -map of the world made in 1527, places the name Diepa -on the coast of Francesca, a little north of Terra -Florida.<a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a></p> - -<p>Describing his next place of anchorage, Verrazzano -says: “We found not far from this people another, -whose mode of life we judged to be similar to that of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span> -the former. The whole shore is covered with fine sand -about fifteen feet deep, rising in the form of little hills -about fifty paces broad. Ascending farther, we found -several arms of the sea which, entering through inlets, -washed the shore on each side as the coast trends. -An extensive country appears, rising somewhat above -the level of the sandy beach in beautiful fields and -broad plains, covered with immense forests, more or -less dense, the foliage of the trees being of various -colors, too attractive and charming to be described. I -do not believe that these are like the Hercynian forest, -or the rough solitudes of Scythia, or the northern -regions full of vines and trees, but growing with palms,<a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> -laurels, cypresses, and other varieties of trees unknown -in Europe, which exhale a very sweet fragrance a -great distance. We could not examine them closely -for the reasons already mentioned, and not on account -of any difficulty in traversing the woods, which, on the -contrary, are easily penetrated.</p> - -<p>“As the Orient stretches around to this country,<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> -I do not think that it is devoid of the same kind of -drugs and aromatic liquors, nor of other resources as -gold and the like, which the color of the earth indicated.<a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> -The country abounds with many animals as -deer, stags, hares, and the like. It is plentifully supplied -with lakes and ponds of running water, and with -a great variety of birds, fit and useful for every kind of -pleasant and delightful sport. This land lies in 34°.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span> -The air is salubrious, pure, and of a temperature -neither hot nor cold. There are no impetuous winds -in these regions, the most prevalent being the northwest -and west.</p> - -<p>“When we were there in summer-time the sky -was clear with little rain, and if fogs and mists were at -any time driven in by the south wind, they quickly -disappeared, and the sky became again serene and -bright. The sea is tranquil and not stormy. Although -the whole coast is low and without harbors, it is not -dangerous to navigate, being free from rocks and bold, -so that within four or five fathoms from the shore -there are twenty-four feet of water at all times of tide, -and this depth uniformly increases as you go farther -into the sea. The holding ground is so good that no -ship can part her cable, however strong the wind may -be, as we proved by experience, for while riding at -anchor on the coast we were overtaken by a gale in -the beginning of March, when the winds are high, as is -usual in all countries, and we found our anchor broken -before it started from its place or moved at all.”</p> - -<p>“March being the season in our southern climate, -when vegetation of all kinds is putting forth,” says an -American writer, residing in South Carolina, “the -woods presented to the stranger a greater variety of -charms than he had ever beheld. The trees, green -and beautiful with the living verdure of our early -spring, were bending down with rich clusters of golden -jessamine, which spread their rich perfume over the -whole air, while the underbrush embraced a collection -of aromatic shrubs and wild flowers, which might easily -be mistaken for the rich spices of oriental production.”<a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a></p> - -<p>After inspecting the sandy, harborless shore of Onslow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span> -Bay, Verrazzano sailed eastwardly in order to -double Cape Lookout, in 34° 37´ north latitude. “We -set sail from this place,” he says, “continuing to coast -along the shore, which we found turned to the west, -[east in the direction in which he was sailing]. The -inhabitants were numerous, for we saw every-where -many fires.<a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a> While at anchor on this coast, there being -no harbor to enter, we sent the boat to the shore with -twenty-five men to obtain water, but it was impossible -to land without endangering the boat, on account of -the very high surf thrown upon the shore by the sea, -as it was an open roadstead.<a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> Many natives came to -the beach, and signified by various friendly signs that -we might trust ourselves on land. One of their noble -deeds of friendship deserves to be made known to your -majesty. A young sailor was attempting to swim -ashore through the surf to carry them some knick-knacks, -as little bells, looking-glasses, and similar -trifles, when after approaching near to three or four -natives and casting them the things and turning about -to get back to the boat, he was overturned by the -waves and so dashed by them upon the beach that he -lay there as if he were dead. When the people saw -him in this condition they ran and took him up by the -head, legs, and arms, and carried him some distance -from the surf. The young man, finding himself borne -off in this way, uttered very loud shrieks in fear and -dismay, while they answered as best they could in -their language, intimating that he had no cause for -fear. Afterward they laid him down at the foot of a -little hill, where they took off his shirt and trousers, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span> -examined him, expressing the greatest astonishment -at the whiteness of his skin. Our sailors in the boat -seeing a great fire kindled and their companion placed -very near it, full of fear, as is usual in all cases of a -novel character, imagined that the natives were about -to roast him for food. But as soon as he had recovered -his strength, after a short stay with them, and had -shown by signs that he wished to return to the boat, -they affectionately hugged him and accompanied him -to the beach, where leaving him, they withdrew to a -little hill, that he might feel more free, and watched -him until he was safe in the boat. This young man -reported that these people were black as the others, -that they had shining skin, middle-stature, but sharper -faces and very delicate bodies and limbs, and that they -were inferior in strength but quicker in thought. This -is all he observed.”</p> - -<p>After this adventure, which likely occurred somewhere -on the coast near the thirty-sixth parallel, perhaps -in the vicinity of Roanoke Island, North Carolina, -Verrazzano steered northwardly, and while sailing -at night passed by the entrance to Chesapeake Bay -and anchored off the coast of Virginia, some distance -north of Cape Charles, which is in 37° 3´.</p> - -<p>“Departing from this place [the coast of North -Carolina], and always following the coast which trended -toward the north, we came,” says Verrazzano, “in the -space of fifty leagues to another land, which appeared -very beautiful and full of large forests. We approached -it and going ashore with twenty men, went back from -the coast about two leagues, and found that the people -had fled and hid themselves in the woods in fear. By -searching around we discovered in the grass a very -old woman with a young girl of about eighteen or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span> -twenty years of age, who had concealed themselves -for the same reason. The old woman carried two infants -on her shoulders, and behind her neck a little boy -about eight years old. When we came upon them -they began to shriek and make signs to the men who -had fled to the woods. We gave them a part of our -provisions, which they accepted with delight, but the -girl would not touch any, every thing we offered to -her being thrown down in great anger. We took the -little boy from the old woman to carry him with us to -France, and would have taken the girl also, who was -very beautiful and very tall, but it was impossible on -account of the piercing shrieks she uttered, when we -attempted to lead her away. Having to pass some -woods, and being far from the ship, we determined to -leave her and only take the boy. We found these -people fairer (<i>più bianchi</i>) than those we had passed. -From certain grasses hanging from the branches of -trees, they make their clothing; the grasses being -woven together with threads of wild hemp. Their -heads were uncovered and of the same shape as the -other natives we had seen. Their food is a kind of -pulse which abounds there, different in color and in -size from ours, and of a very pleasant taste. Besides -they use birds and fish for food, which they take with -snares, and bows made of hard wood. Their arrows -are reeds, in the ends of which they fasten the bones -of fish and of animals. The animals in these regions -are wilder than those in Europe by being more frequently -molested by those hunting them. We saw -many of their boats constructed of a single tree, -twenty feet long and four feet wide, fabricated without -the use of stone or iron or other metal. Along the -whole coast which we explored for the space of two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span> -hundred leagues, we saw no stone of any sort. To -hollow out the log they burn as much of it as will form -the concave part of the boat, and also form the ends -which are to be the prow and stern, to make the boat -float well. The land in situation, fertility, and beauty -is like the other, covered with forests, filled with different -kinds of trees but not such fragrant ones, since -the region is farther north and colder.”</p> - -<p>While exploring the peninsula of Virginia, the -warm-hearted and sympathetic Florentine was pleasingly -reminded of his own delightful country by seeing -many wild grape-vines festooning the tall forest trees. -He observed that the savages carefully removed the -shading shrubbery near the prolific vines, so that the -ripening rays of the sun could fall on the green fruit.</p> - -<p>“We saw in this country,” he says, “many vines -growing naturally, entwining themselves about the -trees, climbing as they do in Cisalpine Gaul, which, if -they were dressed in the right way of cultivation by -husbandmen, they would produce without doubt the -best of wines, because often the fruit of that drinking -is agreeable and sweet, seeing it is not different from -our own, (<i>perche più volte il frutto di quello beendo, veggendo -suave e dolce non dal nostro differente</i>). The -vines are held in high estimation by the inhabitants, -for they take away all the surrounding concealing -shrubbery to enable the fruit to grow.<a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span></p> - -<p>“We also found,” Verrazzano further relates, “wild -roses, violets, lilies, and many kinds of plants and -fragrant flowers differing from our own. We cannot -describe the habitations of the people as the structures -were in the interior, but from various indications we -concluded they were formed of trees and shrubs. -There were also many signs which led us to suppose -that the inhabitants often sleep in the open air without -any covering but the sky. We are ignorant of their -other habits. We believe, however, that all the people -we were among live in the same way.”</p> - -<p>When Verrazzano was on land with the twenty -men, he crossed the narrow peninsula of Virginia and -beheld the wide expanse of Chesapeake Bay.<a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> This -great body of water, stretching toward the north and -south as far as he could see, and spreading westward to -an unknown distance, led the surprised explorer to -imagine that it was a part of the Indian Ocean, (<i>Mare -Indicum</i>), by which, if there were a navigable entrance -to it, he might sail to Cathay.<a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> Ignorant of the fact that -he had already passed at night the channel leading to this -expanse of water, Verrazzano entertained the thought -that he might discover one along the coast farther -northward. Although he determined not to sail again -at night along the New Land, and resolved to inspect -its coast more closely thereafter, he failed to find a -passage to the assumed western sea, when he sailed -northward. After returning to France, he made a map<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span> -on which he represented this sea separated from the -Atlantic Ocean by a narrow neck of land, similar in outline -and situation to the northern part of the peninsula -of Virginia. This is corroborated by Hakluyt, the -English collector, who says: “Master John Verazanus, -which had been thrise on that coast, in an olde excellent -mappe which he gave to King Henrie the eight, -and is yet in the custodie of Master Locke, doth so lay -it out.”<a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<a href="images/map-mercator-full.jpg"><img src="images/map-mercator.jpg" width="200" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">FIELD OF VOYAGES TO AMERICA.</p> -<p class="caption">ON MERCATOR’S PROJECTION.</p> -</div> - -<p>Verrazzano’s brother, Hieronymus, also made a map -of New France, on which he placed this explanatory -inscription respecting this part of the coast, which he -also delineates as a narrow tract of land: “From this -eastern sea [the Atlantic] one beholds the western sea; -there are six miles of land between them.”<a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> The Sea -of Verrazzano (<i>Mare de Verrazana</i>), represented on -the fan-shaped map made by Michael Locke, in 1582, -was, as Hakluyt affirms, “according to Verazanus -plat,” which “laieth out the sea makinge a little necke -of land in 40 degrees of latitude much like the streyte -necke or istmus of Dariena.”<a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a></p> - -<p>Sailing northwardly from the peninsula of Virginia, -Verrazzano proceeded leisurely along the coast -searching for an entrance to the so-called western -sea. Although he does not speak of entering Delaware -Bay, there is no testimony to contradict the assertion -that he explored it. Describing his voyage along -the coasts of the present states of Maryland, Delaware, -and New Jersey, Verrazzano writes: “After having -remained here three days, riding at anchor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span> -off the coast [of Virginia], for we could not find a -harbor, we determined to depart, sailing always -along the shore, which trended to the northeast, only -navigating in day-time and coming to anchor at night.”</p> - -<p>About the last of April, 1524, the Dauphine arrived -off the low point of land, now called Sandy Hook, -designated on Maiollo’s map of 1527 as C. de S. Maria -(Cape of St. Mary).<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> Seeing the convenient haven -north of it, Verrazzano changed the vessel’s course and -slowly sailed into the spacious roadstead. Having -found a suitable riding-place, the French barque cast -her anchor in the sight of a multitude of interested -natives, who from the neighboring hills witnessed the -first mooring of a European ship in the tranquil waters -of the large bay.</p> - -<p>The ship’s boat being manned, Verrazzano began -to explore the mouth of the great river, as he designated -the channel now called the Narrows. Eager to know -the destination of the strange explorers, the curious -natives thronged the shores of Staten and Long islands -as Verrazzano and his men passed up the Narrows in -mid-stream toward the upper bay, which the enthusiastic -Italian denominated a very beautiful lake. Entering -the commodious bay, Verrazzano hastily surveyed its -islands and inlets, the mouth of the noble river flowing -into it, and the distant highlands dimly defined along -the northern horizon. Describing his short exploration -of the upper bay of New York, Verrazzano writes:</p> - -<p>“At the end of one hundred leagues we discovered -a very delightful place among some small hills, eminences, -between which ran a very great river (<i>una grandissima -riviera</i>) to the ocean, which was deep within -to the mouth, and from the sea to the enlargement of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317"></a>[317]</span> -the bay the rise of the tide was eight feet, and through -it any heavy ship can pass.<a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a></p> - -<p>“As in good duty we did not wish to run the risk -of penetrating the coast without knowledge of the mouth -of the river, we took the boat and entered the river within -the country where we found it to be thickly inhabited -and the people resembling the others we had seen, -adorned with birds’ feathers of different colors, coming -toward us with evident delight, uttering very loud cries -of admiration, indicating, if we had to land with the -boat, where it was most safe. We entered the said -river within the country about half a league, where -we saw it formed a most beautiful lake (<i>un bellissimo -lago</i>), about three leagues in compass, upon which we -saw boats, thirty in number, moving from one part to -another with innumerable people, who passed from -shore to shore to see us.<a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> Very suddenly, as is wont -to happen to those navigating, an impetuous contrary -wind blew in from the sea, compelling us to return to -the ship. We departed from this region with much -displeasure on account of its extent and attractiveness, -for we believed that it was not without some resources -of wealth as all the hills indicated the existence of -minerals in them.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318"></a>[318]</span></p> - -<p>As a geographical designation for the very great -river (<i>una grandissima riviera</i>), the name Grande -(Great) River was used by some of the most celebrated -map-makers of Europe, during the sixteenth century. -In the seventeenth century, when the Dutch took -possession of this part of New France, the Dutch synonym, -“Groote,” was substituted for the Italian designation. -The Spaniards, who explored the coast of -North America after Verrazzano had inspected it, gave -different names to the river.</p> - -<p>Henry Hudson was induced to explore the Grande -River by Captain John Smith, who believed that the -English navigator could find a strait connecting it with -the western sea (Mare Indicum) delineated on Verrazzano’s -map. In the summer of 1609, when Hudson -attempted to sail to Asia by a passage north of Novaya -Zemlya, and was compelled to abandon the project -on account of the barrier of ice surrounding the island, -it is said he placed before the officers and crew of the -Half Moon (Halve Maen), the choice of one of two proposals. -Respecting the proposals of which they had the -consideration, the Dutch historian, Van Meteren, thus -speaks: “Master Hudson gave them their choice of -two things, the first was to go to the coast of America, -at the fortieth degree of latitude, mostly incited to this -by letters and maps which a certain Captain Smith had -sent him from Virginia, and on which he showed him -a sea by which he might circumnavigate their southern -colony [Virginia] from the north, and from there pass -into a western sea. The other proposal was to seek -the passage by Davis’s Strait.”<a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a></p> - -<p>Hudson, besides knowing the situation of the noble<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319"></a>[319]</span> -stream, was also informed that it was called the Great -(Grande) River. Robert Juet, the journalist of the -voyage of 1609, recording the incidents of the last -day’s exploration of the river, writes: “Within a -while after, we came out also of the great mouth of -<i>the great Riuer</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a></p> - -<p>De Laet, the Dutch historian, writing in 1625, -mentions the fact that the Dutch used the name -“Great” for the river in preference to all the other -appellations designating it: “The great north river -of New Netherland was called by some the Manhattes -river, from the people who dwell near its mouth; by -others, Rio de Montaignes (River of the Mountains), -but by our countrymen it was mostly called ‘<i>de groote -rieviere</i>’ (the Great river).”<a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> As early as the year -1624, the name “Hudson’s River” was inscribed on -maps to designate the stream discovered by Verrazzano.<a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a></p> - -<p>Sailing from the mouth of the Grande River, between -the Cape of Saint Mary (C. de S. Maria) and -the point of land denominated Anguileme<a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> on Maiollo’s -map of 1527, Verrazzano coasted along the south side -of Long Island for fifty leagues, at the end of which -he passed the eastern extremity of the island, now<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a>[320]</span> -called Montauk Point. While seeking, during a storm, -a port of refuge eastward of Long Island, Verrazzano -discovered the island now called Block Island, which -he describes as triangular in form, and in size about -equal to the island of Rhodes.<a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> Block Island lies -southwest of Narragansett Bay, and is about eight -miles long and about five miles broad at its widest -part. Verrazzano called it Luisa, the name of the -mother of King Francis I., Louise, the daughter of -Philippe, duke of Savoy. The orthography of the -Italian name, as presented by Visconte de Maiollo -on his map of the world of 1527, was soon corrupted -by map-makers, and on a number of charts of the sixteenth -century it is inscribed “Brisa” and “Briso.” -The names “Claude” and “Claudia” appear on some -maps as designations for it, used most likely, in honor -of Claude, the wife of Francis I., the first being the -French orthography of the appellation, and the latter -the Italian.</p> - -<p>The departure of the Dauphine from the mouth of -the Grande River, Verrazzano thus describes: “Weighing -anchor, we sailed fifty leagues toward the east, as -the coast trended in that direction, and always in sight -of it. At the end of the course we discovered an -island of a triangular form about ten leagues from the -main-land, in size about equal to the island of Rhodes, -having many hills covered with trees, and well peopled, -judging from the great number of fires we saw -all around it. We gave it the name of your majesty’s -illustrious mother. We did not land on it, as the -weather was unfavorable.”</p> - -<p>Sailing northeasterly from Block Island, the Italian -explorer beheld the coast of the main-land, and anchored<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321"></a>[321]</span> -the Dauphine in Narragansett Bay, Rhode -Island. Speaking of the discovery of the commodious -bay, designated on Maiollo’s map by the Italian name, -“Refugio,” Verrazzano says:</p> - -<p>“We proceeded to another place fifteen leagues -distant from the island, where we found a very excellent -harbor. Before entering it we saw about twenty -small boats filled with people, who came to the ship -with various cries and wonderment. But they would -not approach nearer than fifty paces. Stopping, they -looked at the structure of the ship, our persons, and -dress. Afterward they all cried out loudly together, -signifying that they were delighted. By imitating -their signs we inspired them with a measure of confidence, -so that they came near enough for us to toss -them some little bells and glasses and many toys, -which they took and looked at laughing, and then -came on board without fear. Among them were two -kings more attractive in form and stature than can be -described. One was about forty years old, the other -about twenty-four, and they were dressed in the following -fashion.</p> - -<p>“The elder king had the skin of a deer wrapped -around his nude body, artificially made with various -embroideries to decorate it. His head was bare. His -hair was bound behind with various bands, and around -his neck he wore a large chain ornamented with many -stones of different colors. The younger king was like -him in appearance. This was the finest-looking people -and the handsomest in their costumes that we found -in our voyage. They exceed us in size, and are of a -very fair complexion (<i>sono di colore bianchissimo</i>); -some of them incline more to a white, and others to a -tawny color. Their faces are sharp; their hair is long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322"></a>[322]</span> -and black, on the adornment of which they bestow -great care. Their eyes are black and keen; their -demeanor is gentle and attractive, very much like that -of the ancients. I say nothing to your majesty of the -other parts of the body that are all in good proportion -as belong to well-formed men.</p> - -<p>“The women resemble them in size, and are very -graceful and handsome, and quite attractive in dress -and manners. They had no other clothing except a -deer-skin, ornamented as were the skins worn by the -men. Some had very rich lynx-skins upon their arms, -and wore various ornaments upon their heads, braided -in their hair, which hung down upon their breasts. -Others wore different ornaments, such as those of the -women of Egypt and Syria. The older and the married -people, both men and women, wore many ornaments -in their ears, hanging down in Oriental fashion.</p> - -<p>“We saw on them pieces of wrought copper, which -is more esteemed by them than gold, the latter being -deemed the most ordinary of metals, yellow being a -color much disliked by them. Blue and red are the -colors which they value most highly. Of the things -which we gave them, they preferred the bells, azure -crystals, and other toys, which they hung in their ears -and about their necks. They do not value or desire to -have silk or gold-drapery, or other kinds of cloth, nor -implements of steel or iron. When we showed them -our weapons, they expressed no admiration, and only -asked how they were made. The same indifference -was manifested when they were given the looking-glasses, -which they with smiles returned to us as soon -as they had looked at them. They are very generous, -giving away whatever they have.</p> - -<p>“We formed a great friendship with them, and one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323"></a>[323]</span> -day we entered into port with our ship, having before -rode at the distance of a league from the shore, as the -weather was unfavorable. They came to the ship with -a number of their little boats, with their faces painted -with different colors, manifesting real signs of joy, -bringing us of their provisions, and signifying to us -where we could best ride in safety with our ship, -and keeping with us until we had cast anchor.</p> - -<p>“We remained among them fifteen days to provide -ourselves with many things of which we were in -want, during which time they came every day to see -our ship, bringing with them their wives, of whom they -were very careful, for, although they came on board -themselves, and remained a long while, they made -their wives stay in the boats, nor could we ever get -them on board by any solicitations or any presents we -could make them. One of the two kings, however, -often came with his queen and many attendants to see -us for his amusement. But he always stopped on land -at the distance of about two hundred paces from us, -and sent a boat to announce his intended visit, saying -they would come and see our ship. This was done -for safety, and as soon as they had received our answer, -they came and remained some time to look -around. On hearing the annoying cries of the sailors, -the king sent the queen, with her attendants, in a very -light boat to wait, near an island, a quarter of a league -distant, while he remained a long time on board, talking -with us by signs, and expressing his fanciful notions -about every thing in the ship, and asking the use -of all. After imitating our modes of salutation, and -tasting our food, he courteously took leave of us. -Once, when our men remained two or three days on -a small island near the ship for their various necessities,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324"></a>[324]</span> -as sailors are wont to do, he came with seven or -eight of his attendants to inquire about our movements, -often asking us if we intended to remain there long, -and offering us every thing at his command. Sometimes -he would shoot with his bow, and run up and -down with his people, making great sport for us. We -often went five or six leagues into the interior, and -found the country as pleasant as can be conceived, -adapted to cultivation of every kind, whether of corn, -wine, or oil. There are open plains twenty-five and -thirty leagues in length, entirely free from trees or -other obstructions, and so fertile that whatever is sown -there will yield an excellent crop. On entering the -woods, we observed that they might all be traversed -by any large army. The trees in them were oaks, cypresses, -and others unknown in Europe. We found, -also, apples, plums, filberts, and many other fruits, but -of a different kind from ours. The animals, which are -in great numbers, stags, deer, lynx, and many other -kinds, are taken with snares and by bows; the latter is -the principal weapon of the natives. Their arrows are -beautifully made. For points they use emery, jasper, -hard marble, and other sharp stones instead of iron. -They also use the same kind of sharp stones in cutting -down trees, and with them construct their boats of single -logs, hollowed out with admirable skill, and sufficiently -commodious to seat ten or twelve persons. Their -oars are short, with broad blades, and are rowed by -the force of the arms, with the greatest care and as -rapidly as they wish.</p> - -<p>“We saw their dwellings, which are circular in form, -about ten or twelve paces in circumference, made of -logs split in half, without any regularity of architecture, -and covered with roofs of straw, nicely put on, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325"></a>[325]</span> -protect them from wind and rain. There is no doubt -that they would build stately edifices if they had workmen -as skillful as ours, for the whole sea-coast abounds -with shining stones, crystals, and alabaster, and on this -account it has dens and retreats for animals. They -change their habitations from place to place, as circumstances -of situation and season may require. This is -easily done, for they have only to take with them their -mats, and they have other houses immediately prepared.</p> - -<p>“The father and the whole family dwell together -in one house. In some of their houses we saw twenty-five -or thirty persons. Their food is pulse, as that of -the other people, which is here better than elsewhere, -and more carefully cultivated. In the time of sowing -they are governed by the moon, which they think effects -the sprouting of the grain. They have many -other ancient customs. They live by hunting and -fishing, and they are long lived. If they fall sick ...<a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> -they cure themselves without medicine, with -the heat of fire. Death comes to them at last from -extreme old age. We judged them to be very affectionate -and charitable toward their relatives, for they -make loud lamentations in their adversity, and in their -misery call to remembrance all their good deeds. -When they die their relations mutually join in weeping -mingled with singing for a long while. This is all -that we could learn of them.</p> - -<p>“This region is situated on the parallel of Rome, -in 41⅔ degrees, as I shall narrate hereafter to your -serene majesty.<a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> At present I shall describe the situation -of this place. At its south end the channel is narrow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326"></a>[326]</span> -and a half league wide. It extends, between east -[south?], and north, twelve leagues. Then it enlarges -and forms a very spacious bay twenty leagues in circuit, -in which are five small islands, very fertile and -attractive, and covered with high trees. The bay is so -spacious that between these islands any number of -vessels might ride at ease without fear of tempests and -other dangers. At the entrance of the bay, farther -south, there are very attractive hills on both sides of -the channel, and many streams of clear water flow -from the eminences into the sea. In the middle of the -mouth there is a rock of freestone (<i>uno scoglio di viva -pietra</i>), formed by nature and suitable for the construction -of any kind of machine or bulwark for the defence -of the haven.”</p> - -<p>Verrazzano’s description of Narragansett Bay, -named Port du Refuge on Gastaldi’s map of 1553,<a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> is -so accurate that without any other information it would -be easy to determine the situation of the place where -for fifteen days, ending the sixth of May (<i>old style</i>), he -and his crew held familiar intercourse with the friendly -Indians inhabiting the islands and the main-land in the -vicinity of the anchorage of the Dauphine. The latitude -of the bay given by Verrazzano cannot be gainsaid.<a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327"></a>[327]</span></p> - -<p>Departing, on the sixth of May, from Port du -Refuge, the Dauphine sailed on a southeasterly course to -pass the islands of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket. -Having steered fifty leagues in this direction, Verrazzano -found the coast to trend toward the north, which -he followed until he again cast anchor off the coast of -Maine, a little north of the forty-third parallel.</p> - -<p>The wary aborigines of this part of the New Land -would not venture near the Dauphine, nor could they be -induced to part with their commodities until they were -remunerated with such things as were most useful to -them. The landing of twenty-five men from the vessel -provoked an attack, and yet after this show of hostility -the Indians fled to the woods.</p> - -<p>Speaking of his departure from Narragansett Bay, -Verrazzano writes: “Having supplied ourselves with -every thing necessary, on the sixth of May [<i>old style</i>], -we departed from the port, and sailed one hundred and -fifty leagues, keeping close enough to the coast not to -lose it from our sight. The character of the country -appeared much the same as before, but the mountains -were a little higher, and in all appearance rich in -minerals.</p> - -<p>“We did not stop to land, as the weather was very -favorable for pursuing our voyage, and the country -presented no variety. The shore stretched to the east, -and fifty leagues beyond more to the north, where we -found a more elevated country, full of very dense woods -of pine, cypress, and the like, indicative of a cold -climate.</p> - -<p>“The people were entirely different from the others -we had seen, whom we had found kind and gentle, but -these were so rude and barbarous that we were unable, -by any signs we could make, to hold any communication<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328"></a>[328]</span> -with them. They clothe themselves with the skins -of bears, wolves, lynx, marine, and other animals. Their -food, which we inferred from several visits to their -dwellings, is obtained by hunting and fishing. They -have certain vegetables which are roots of spontaneous -growth. They have no pulse, and we saw no signs of -its cultivation. The land appears sterile and unfit for -the growth of fruits or grain of any kind. If we wished -at any time to traffic with them, they came to the sea-shore -and stood upon the rocks, from which they lowered -down by a cord to our boats beneath whatever -they had to barter, continually crying out to us not to -come nearer, and instantly demanding from us that -which was to be given in exchange. They took from -us only knives, fish-hooks, and sharpened steel. No -regard was paid to our courtesies. When we had -nothing left to exchange with them, the men at our -departure made the most brutal signs of disdain and -contempt possible. Against their will, we penetrated -two or three leagues into the interior with twenty-five -men. When we came to the shore, they shot at us -with their arrows, uttering the most horrible cries, and -afterward fleeing to the woods. In this region we -found nothing extraordinary except vast forests, and -some metalliferous hills as we inferred, for we saw that -many of the people wore copper ear-rings.”</p> - -<p>Following the trend of the coast of Maine, Verrazzano -found along this part of his course for the space -of fifty leagues, numerous islands, thirty-two of which, -near the main-land, were high and attractive. Among -them he saw many excellent roadsteads and navigable -channels.</p> - -<p>Describing his exploration along the coast of Maine, -Verrazzano remarks: “Departing from this place<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329"></a>[329]</span> -[perhaps in the vicinity of Cape Neddock], we kept -along the coast steering to the northeast, and found -the country more pleasant and open, free from woods, -and far in the interior we saw lofty mountains, but -none which extended to the shore.</p> - -<p>“Within fifty leagues we discovered thirty-two -small and attractive islands, all near the main-land. -They were so high and so disposed as to afford as fine -harbors and channels as those that are in the Adriatic -Gulf, near Illyria and Dalmatia. We had no intercourse -with the people, but we judge that they were -similar in disposition and habits to those we were last -among.</p> - -<p>“After sailing between east and north the distance -of one hundred and fifty more leagues, and finding our -provisions and naval stores nearly exhausted, we took -in wood and water, and determined to return to France, -having discovered five hundred and two, that is to say, -seven hundred leagues of new land (<i>avendo discoperto -leghe 502 cioe leghe 700 più di nuova terra</i>).”</p> - -<p>The distance of seven hundred leagues Verrazzano -reckoned in the following way, as explained by him in -his geographical exposition of the voyage: “In addition -to the 92 degrees we ran toward the west from -our point of departure before we reached land on the -thirty-fourth parallel, we have to count 300 [French] -leagues, which we ran northeastwardly and 400 nearly -east along the coast before we reached the fiftieth parallel -of north latitude.” Measured directly north from -the thirty-fourth parallel to the fiftieth, the space includes -sixteen degrees, which multiplied by 31¼ -French leagues, which at that time equaled a degree -of latitude, the product of 500 French leagues is -obtained.<a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> Two leagues added to these, for the distance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330"></a>[330]</span> -sailed directly south of the thirty-fourth parallel, -make 502 French leagues, or about eleven hundred -and four land-miles, the geographical extent of the -coast explored by Verrazzano.<a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> The New Land -(<i>Nuova Terra</i>), discovered by Verrazzano, was as early -as the year 1527 delineated on a map of the world -and denominated Francesca. This Italian name it bore -for a number of years until the French geographical -designation La Nouvelle France (New France) was -substituted for it.<a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a></p> - -<p>Concluding his description of the new country, Verrazzano -remarks: “As to the religious faith of all these -tribes, not understanding their language, we could not -learn either by signs or gestures any thing certain. It -seemed to us that they had no religion or laws, nor any -knowledge of a First Cause or Mover,—that they worshipped -neither the heavens, stars, sun, moon, nor the -other planets. We could not learn if they were given -to any kind of idolatry, or offered any sacrifices or -supplications, or if they have temples or houses of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331"></a>[331]</span> -prayer in their villages. Our conclusion was that they -had no religion, but lived without any. This seems to -be the result of ignorance, for they are very easily persuaded, -and imitated us with earnestness and fervor in -all that they saw us do as Christians in our acts of devotion.”</p> - -<p>Verrazzano added to this general description of his -remarkable discoveries, an elaborate cosmographical -explanation of the situation of the New Land. His -geometrical elucidation of the distances sailed by the -Dauphine, shows how desirous he was to make plain -the geography of the vast continent, which he and -others had partly explored. He says:</p> - -<p>“It remains for me to place before your serene -majesty a cosmographical description of the voyage. -As I have already said, we departed from the desert-rocks, -lying in the extreme part of the West known to -the ancients, and in the described meridian near the -Fortunate Islands, on the thirty-second parallel from -the equator of our hemisphere, and sailed from it westwardly -to where we found the first land, 1,200 leagues -or 4,800 miles, reckoning according to nautical custom -four miles to a [marine] league.<a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> ... During<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332"></a>[332]</span> -our voyage we had no lunar eclipses or similar celestial -phenomena. We therefore determined our progress -from the difference of longitude, which we ascertained -by various instruments, taking the sun’s altitude from -day to day, and by calculating geometrically the distance -run by the ship from one horizon to another. -All these observations, as also the ebb and flow of the -tide in all places, were noted down in a little book, -which may prove serviceable to navigators. They -are communicated to your majesty with the hope of -promoting science.</p> - -<p>“My intention in this voyage was to reach Cathay, -on the extreme coast of Asia, expecting, however, to -find in the newly discovered land some obstacle as I -found, yet I did not doubt that I should sail by some -passage to the eastern ocean. It was the opinion of -the ancients that our eastern ocean of India was an expanse -of water without any intervening land. Aristotle -supports it by arguments founded on various probabilities, -but it is contrary to later belief and false by -observation. The discovered country, of which the -ancients knew nothing, is another world compared with -that which was before known, being evidently larger -than our Europe together with Africa, and, perhaps, -Asia, if one rightly estimate its extent, as shall now -be explained briefly to your majesty.”<a id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> He then<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333"></a>[333]</span> -speaks of the Spaniards sailing as far south as the Strait -of Magellan and as far north as the twenty-first parallel -without finding a termination to the continent....</p> - -<p>“But to return to ourselves:—in the voyage which -we have made by the order of your majesty, in addition -to the ninety-two degrees we ran toward the west -from the point of our departure before we reached land -on the thirty-fourth parallel, we have to count 300 -leagues which we sailed northeastwardly, and 400 -nearly east along the coast before we reached the -fiftieth parallel of north latitude, the point where we -turned our course from the shore toward home. Beyond -this point the Portuguese had sailed as far north -as the arctic circle without coming to the end of the -continent. Adding the degrees of south latitude explored, -which are fifty-four, to those of the north, -which are sixty-six, the sum is one hundred and twenty -degrees, and therefore more than are included in the -latitude of Africa and Europe, for the north point of -Norway, the extremity of Europe, is in 71° north -latitude, and the Cape of Good Hope, the southern -extremity of Africa, is in 35° south latitude, and their -sum is only one hundred and six degrees. If the -breadth of this newly discovered country correspond to -the extent of its sea-coast, it doubtless exceeds Asia in -size. In this way we find that the land forms a much -larger part of our globe than the ancients supposed, -who maintained, contrary to mathematical reasoning, -that it was less than the water, whereas actual experience -proves the reverse, so that judging in respect to -extent of surface, the land covers apparently as much -space as the water.<a id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334"></a>[334]</span></p> - -<p>“I hope to point out and explain more clearly and -satisfactorily the great extent of the New Land or New -World, of which I have been speaking. Asia and -Africa, we know, are joined together and are connected -with Norway and Russia with Europe, which disproves -the idea of the ancients that all this northern part had -been navigated from the promontory of Cimbri [Denmark] -eastward as far as the Caspian Sea. They also -maintained that the whole continent was surrounded -by two oceans, lying east and west of it, which seas in -fact do not surround either of the two continents, for as -we have already seen the land in the western hemisphere -at 54° south latitude extends eastwardly an unknown -distance, and that the land north of the equator, -beyond the sixty-sixth parallel, turns to the east and -does not terminate at the seventieth parallel.<a id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a></p> - -<p>“In a short time, I hope we shall have more satisfactory -information concerning these things by the aid -of your serene majesty, whom I pray Almighty God to -prosper in lasting glory, that we may see the most -important results of this our geography in the fulfillment -of the holy words of the gospel.</p> - -<p>“On board the ship Dauphine, in the port of Dieppe, -in Normandy, the 8th day of July, 1524.</p> - -<p class="center">“Your humble servant,</p> - -<p class="right">“Janus Verazzanus.”</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335"></a>[335]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="smaller">(<i>Addenda.</i>)<br /> -1524-1526.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The safe return of Verrazzano to France and his -remarkable discoveries along the new continent were -immediately heralded through Europe. The letter -which he wrote on his arrival at Dieppe was at once -eagerly copied and the transcripts widely circulated. -In less than a month’s time the news of the navigator’s -extensive explorations was spread over France, and -became a prominent topic of conversation. The commercial -advantages likely to accrue to France by the -important discovery of a country thickly populated and -rich in drugs, furs, and metals were everywhere discussed, -and Verrazzano’s presence at the chief centres -of trade was much desired that more information -might be obtained respecting the people and the productions -of the New Land.</p> - -<p>A Florentine, named Fernando Carli, a person -well acquainted with Verrazzano’s former voyages, was -in Lyons at the time when the surprising intelligence -reached that city. He obtained a copy of Verrazzano’s -letter, and sent it to his father in Florence, inclosed -in the following communication:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center">“In the name of God.</p> - -<p class="right">“August 4, 1524.</p> - -<p class="noindent">“Honored Father:—</p> - -<p>“Considering that when I was in the army in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336"></a>[336]</span> -Barbary, at Gierbe, the news was sent you every day -by the illustrious gentleman, Don Hugo de Moncada, -captain-general of his Cesarean majesty in those barbarous -parts, what followed contending with the Moors -of that island, which seemed to have pleased our -patrons and friends; and also the congratulatory news -of the subsequent victory; [I now send you] the -news [which] has recently reached this place, of the -arrival of Captain Giovanni da Verrazzano, our Florentine, -at the port of Dieppe, in Normandy, with his -ship, the Dauphine, with which he sailed from the -Canary Islands, the last of January, to go in search of -new lands for this most serene crown of France, in -which enterprise he displayed very noble and great -courage in undertaking such an unknown voyage with -only one ship, a caravel of hardly tons burden,<a id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> with -only fifty men, with the intention, if possible, to -discover Cathay, steering a course through climates -other than those frequented by the Portuguese in going -to it by the way of Calicut, by keeping more to the -northwest and north, believing that, although Ptolemy, -Aristotle, and other cosmographers assert that no land -is to be found toward such climates, he would nevertheless -find land there, which God has permitted him, -as he distinctly describes in his letter to his serene -majesty, a copy of which is inclosed in this communication. -After spending many months in exploring, he -asserts that he was compelled to return for want of provisions -from that hemisphere into this one, having been -seven months on the voyage, showing a very great -and rapid passage, having accomplished a wonderful -and most extraordinary undertaking in the opinion of -those who understand the navigation of the globe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337"></a>[337]</span></p> - -<p>“At the beginning of the voyage there was an unfavorable -opinion formed concerning it, many thinking -that there would be no more news respecting him and -his vessel, and that he would be lost on that side of -Norway, in consequence of the great ice which is in -the northern ocean.<a id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> However, the great God, as the -Moor said, in order to give us every day proofs of his -infinite power, and to show how admirable is this -mundane sphere, has disclosed to him a breadth of -land, as you will perceive, of great extent, as shown -by good reasoning and by degrees of latitude and -longitude.</p> - -<p>“He declares and shows it to be greater than -Europe, Africa, and a part of Asia; therefore a new -world (<i>ergo mundus novus</i>); and this exclusive of what -the Spaniards have discovered in several years in the -West; as it is hardly a year since Fernando Magellan -returned, who discovered a great country with one -ship out of the five sent on the discovery, from which -he brought spices much more excellent than the common -kind, and of his other ships no news has transpired -for five years. They are supposed to be lost.<a id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a></p> - -<p>“What this our captain has brought he does not -state in his letter, except a very young boy taken from -those countries; but it is supposed he has brought a -sample of gold, which they do not value in those parts, -and of drugs and other aromatic liquors, in order to -confer here with several merchants after he shall have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338"></a>[338]</span> -been in the presence of his most serene majesty. -And at this hour he should be with the king, and from -choice should come here soon, as he is much desired, -in order to be conversed with; moreover, here he will -find his majesty, the king, our sire, who is expected in -three or four days.<a id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> And we hope that his serene -majesty will intrust him with a half dozen good vessels, -and that he will go on the voyage. If our Francisco -Carli be returned from Cairo, advise him to go at a -venture on this voyage with him, for I believe they -were acquainted at Cairo, where he [Verrazzano] was -for several years, and not only in Egypt and Syria, -but almost in all parts of the known world. On account -of his merits, he is regarded as another Amerigo -Vespucci, another Magellan, and even more than they. -We hope that, being provided with other good ships -and vessels, well-built and properly provisioned, he -will discover and develop a profitable traffic, and will, -our Lord God preserving his life, do honor to our -country in acquiring immortal fame and memory. -Alderotto Brunelleschi, who started with him, and by -chance turned back unwilling to accompany him -farther, will, when he hears this news, be discontented.</p> - -<p>“Nothing else now occurs to me, as I have advised -you by others what is necessary. I commend -myself constantly to you, praying you to impart this -to our friends, not forgetting Pier Francisco Dagaghiano, -who, in consequence of being an experienced -person, will take much pleasure in it, and commend me -to him. Likewise to Rustichi, who will not be displeased,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339"></a>[339]</span> -if he delight, as usual, in learning matters of -cosmography. God guard you from all evil.</p> - -<p class="center">“Your son,</p> - -<p class="right">“Fernando Carli,</p> - -<p class="right">“In Lyons.”<a id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></p> - -</div> - -<p>The notable success attending Verrazzano’s voyage -in 1524, it seems, induced the celebrated navigator to -undertake another in 1526. For the furtherance of -this project, he and five other persons entered into an -agreement in which it was stipulated that Philippe -Chabot, baron of Apremont, knight of the Order of -the King, governor and lieutenant-general of Burgundy, -admiral of France and of Brittany,<a id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> was to furnish -him with two galleons then at Havre de Grace, -and a ship belonging to Jean Ango of Dieppe,<a id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> of seventy -tons burden, and that the admiral was also to equip -and victual them for the voyage to the New Land. -The three vessels were to be ready to sail within two -months.<a id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> Before setting sail on this voyage, Verrazzano, -on Friday, the eleventh of May, 1526, gave to -his brother, Hieronymus, and Zanobus de Rousselay,<a id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340"></a>[340]</span> -a power of attorney by which they were empowered to -act for him in any matter pertaining to his interest; -and also, on the following day, a similar instrument to -Adam Godeffroy of Rouen, which authorized him to -transact certain business for the navigator.<a id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> In each -of these legal instruments, Verrazzano is named “Jehan -de Varasenne, nobleman, captain of the ships equipped -to go on the voyage to the Indies.”</p> - -<p>The French sea-captain, Jean Ribaut, in his report -to Admiral Gaspard de Coligni, of his first voyage to -Florida, in 1562, says that Verrazzano, after his return -to France, in 1524, “neuer ceassed to make suite vntil -he was sent thither againe, where at last he died.”<a id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a></p> - -<p>The voyage of 1526 was the third made by Verrazzano -to America: the first in 1508, with Thomas -Aubert; the second, in 1524, in the Dauphine. This -fact is corroborated by the well-informed English collector, -Hakluyt, who says that he “had been thrise on -that coast.”<a id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a></p> - -<p>Of Verrazzano’s death, Ramusio gives this account: -“In the last voyage which he made, having gone on -land with some of his men, he and they were all put -to death by the inhabitants, and in the presence of -those who were on board the ship were roasted and -devoured. Such was the terrible death of this valiant -gentleman, who, had not this misfortune happened -him, would, by the great knowledge and experience -which he had of maritime affairs and of navigation,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341"></a>[341]</span> -attended and favored by the large liberality of King -Francis, have discovered and made known to the -world, all that part of the earth up to the north pole, -and would not have been contented with only the exploration -of the coast, but would have attempted to -penetrate far inland, and as far as he could go.</p> - -<p>“Many who had known and conversed with him, -have told me that he had declared that it was his -intention to persuade the most Christian king to send -from these parts a goodly number of people to settle -in some places of the new country which are of a temperate -climate and very fertile soil, with very beautiful -rivers and harbors capable of holding any fleet.</p> - -<p>“Settlers in these places would be the means of -effecting many good results, and among others that of -bringing those barbarous and ignorant tribes to know -God and our most holy religion, showing them how to -cultivate the land, transporting some of the animals of -Europe to those vast plains; and finally, in time, discovering -the inland parts, and seeing whether or not -among the many islands in that part of the world any -passage to the South Sea exists, or that the West -Indies extend as far north as the pole.</p> - -<p>“This and so much has been related respecting the -achievements and efforts of this brave gentleman, and -in order that his memory may not be buried and his -name pass into oblivion, we have desired to give to -the light the little information that has come into our -hands.”<a id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a></p> - -<p>Hakluyt, speaking of the map which Verrazzano -had made and presented to King Henry VIII. of -England, which as late as the year 1584 was still preserved -by an English cartographer, says: “There is a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342"></a>[342]</span> -mighty large olde mappe in parchemente, made as yt -shoulde seeme, by Verarsanus, traced all alonge the -coaste, from Florida to Cape Briton, with many Italian -names, which laieth oute the sea, makinge a little necke -of land in 40 degrees of latitude much like the streyte -necke or istmus of Dariena.” The English collector -also refers to a globe which he believed Verrazzano -made: “There is an old excellent globe in the Queens -privie gallery at Westminster, which also semeth to be -of Verarsanus makinge, having the coaste in Italian, -which laieth oute the very same straite necke of lande -in the latitude of 40 degrees, with the sea joyninge -harde on bothe sides, as it dothe on Panama and -Nombre di Dios; which were a matter of singular -importance, yf it shoulde be true, as it is not unlikely.”<a id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a></p> - -<p>Although the “mighty large olde mappe in parchemente” -of Verrazzano’s drafting is lost, there are several -maps extant which seemingly represent the territory -of North America as it was delineated by him. -The rarest and the most valuable of these is a vellum-map -of the world in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, -made in 1527. It is five feet seven inches long and -one foot eleven inches wide, and bears this inscription: -“<i>Vesconte de Maiollo conposuy hanc cartan. In Janua -anno dñy, 1527, die xx. decenbris.</i>” (Visconte de -Maiollo composed this chart, in Genoa, in the year -of the Lord, 1527, the twentieth day of December). -The narrow isthmus, near the fortieth parallel, and -the “number of Italian names” from “Tera Florida” -to “C. de Bertoni” on this map, fully agree with -Hakluyt’s description of Verrazzano’s chart.<a id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a></p> - -<p>Hieronymus, the brother of the navigator, it seems,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343"></a>[343]</span> -also made a map of the New Land, which, it is conjectured, -he drafted in 1529.<a id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> The original is a planisphere -delineated on parchment, fifty-one by one hundred -and two inches. This map is in the Borgian -museum in Rome. The inscription: “<i>Hieronimus de -Verrazanus faciebat</i>” (Hieronimus de Verrazano made -it), permits the inference that the map was not the one -which Hakluyt described, for had Hieronymus da -Verrazzano’s name been inscribed on it, the English -collector, it seems, would have mentioned the fact. -The representation of the so-called Western Sea, or -“Mare Indicum” (the Chesapeake Bay), with the explanatory -inscription on Hieronymus da Verazzano’s -map, indicates that he had some knowledge of the -cartographic features of his brother’s chart, and of the -geographical <i>memoranda</i> recorded in the little book -which the latter speaks of in his letter to King Francis -I., and which he thought would be serviceable to other -navigators.<a id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344"></a>[344]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">(<i>Addenda.</i>)<br /> -1526-1614.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>After the death of Verrazzano, the French, for a -time, made no attempt to search along the coast of the -new continent for a short and direct way to Cathay. -The losses sustained by the projectors of the expedition -of 1526, Ribaut says, gave “small courage to -sende thither agayne, and was the cause that this laudable -enterprise was left of, vntill the yeere 1534, at -which time his Maiestie [Francis I.] (desiring alwayes -to enlarge his kingdome, countreys, and dominions, -and the aduauncing the ease of his subiectes), sent -thither a Pilote of S. Mallowes, a Briton, named James -Cartier, well seene in the art and knowledge of Nauigation, -and especially of the North parts, commonly called -the new land, led by some hope to find passage that -waies to the south seas.”<a id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a></p> - -<p>The two ships commanded by Cartier sailed from -the port of St. Malo, on the twentieth of April, 1534.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345"></a>[345]</span> -Reaching Newfoundland on the tenth of May, Cartier -began to search for a navigable channel to India. -Three months were passed in exploring the coast of -Labrador and the Strait of Belle Isle and a part of the -Gulf of St. Lawrence. On the fifteenth of August, -Cartier set sail for France, and arrived in the port of -St. Malo, on the fifth of September. In the following -year, Cartier sailed again to New France and explored -the St. Lawrence River to the island of Hochelaga, the -site of the city of Montreal. It is said that he was -told by the natives that from there it was only “a -month’s sailing to go to a land where cinnamon and -cloves are gathered.”<a id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> Returning from this voyage, -Cartier reached St. Malo on the sixth of July, 1536.<a id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p> - -<p>The first explorers of the new continent called its -inhabitants by different names. Columbus and his -Spanish companions, imagining the field of their discoveries -to be in Eastern Asia, named the aborigines -Indians (<i>Indios</i>), believing them to be natives of India. -Seven of the people of Canada, carried to France, in -1509, were described by a contemporaneous Latin writer -as wood or wild men (<i>homines sylvestres</i>).<a id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> The French, -it appears, called the natives of New France <i>manants</i> -or <i>manans</i>, and <i>paysans</i>, peasants, the former name -being used in the middle ages as a designation for unintelligent -people or those of low condition. The -name <i>manants</i> was likewise a designation for persons -of this class living in villages and on farms. <i>Manants</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346"></a>[346]</span> -properly speaking were the natives of a place, and the -<i>habitans</i> were those who came to it to reside.<a id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> The -French appellation <i>manants</i> or <i>manans</i> not only fitly -expressed the low condition of the natives of New -France, but it also gave prominence to the fact that -they dwelt in villages and were indigenous people. -The French, as late as the year 1677, called the old -Indians, or rather the descendants of the Senecas, -<i>paisans</i>, peasants.<a id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> The Italians also called the natives -of North America peasants, <i>paesani</i>.<a id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a></p> - -<p>The Manants living on the island on which the city -of New York is built, were very friendly to the French -who came to the Grande River, in the sixteenth -century, to traffic for furs. The Hollanders, however, -found them to be quite hostile in the following century. -De Laet, the Dutch historian, describing the natives of -the Groote River in 1625, remarks: “On the east side, -upon the main-land, dwell the Manhattans, a bad race -of savages, who have always been very obstinate and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347"></a>[347]</span> -unfriendly toward our countrymen.”<a id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> He also says -that Hudson, in 1609, called the Great River “Manhattes -from the name of the people who dwelt at its -mouth.”<a id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a></p> - -<p>The wrong spelling of the French term <i>manant</i> -began with a misconception of its proper pronunciation. -The Dutch thinking that the <i>t</i> was sounded, -pronounced the name <i>man-ant</i>, whence “<i>man-hat</i>,” -“<i>man-ath</i>,” “<i>man-ad</i>,” and other strange forms of the -name. Wassenaer, the Dutch historian, in 1624, -speaking of the Indian tribes of New Netherland, -says: “The Manhates are situated at the mouth” of -the Mauritius River.<a id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> De Laet writes the name Manhattes, -Manatthans, Manatthanes, and Manhattans.<a id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> -De Vries, the Dutch navigator, who could speak -French, spells the appellation Menates and Minates.<a id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> -In the deposition of Catelyn Trico, a French woman, -who emigrated from Holland, in 1624, to New Netherland, -the term is written Mannantans.<a id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> Besides these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348"></a>[348]</span> -peculiar changes the name has many other anomalous -forms.<a id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a></p> - -<p>When the first French explorers sailed along that -massive bulwark of trap-rock, now called The Palisades, -rising on the west side of the Grande River to -varying altitudes from two to five hundred feet above -the level of the stream, and ranging northward and -southward a distance of more than ten miles, they were -peculiarly impressed with its grandeur, and figuratively -called it L’Anormée Berge, (The Grand Scarp.)</p> - -<p>The adjective <i>anormée</i> and the noun <i>berge</i> definitely -describe the steep and extensive wall of stone which -borders the noble river, now bearing the name of a -later explorer. <i>Anormé</i>, an obsolete form of the adjective -<i>énorme</i>, signifies that which is grand, vast, -majestic.<a id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> The noun <i>berge</i>, besides meaning an -elevated border of a river, a scarp of a fortification, a -steep side of a moat or of a road, is a designation for -certain rocks elevated perpendicularly above the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349"></a>[349]</span> -water.<a id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> In an old French lexicon it is said: “They -likewise call in marine phraseology <i>bèrges</i> or <i>barges</i> -those great rocks, rugged and perpendicularly elevated, -that is to say, uprightly and plumb, as the <i>bèrges</i> or -<i>barges</i> of Olone: such rocks as are Scylla and Charybdis, -toward Messina.”<a id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a></p> - -<p>A more appropriate name could not have been selected -to designate geographically this part of New -France than that of The Land of the Grand Scarp (<i>La -Terre d’Anormée Berge</i>), or, in more familiar phraseology, -The Land of the Palisades. The words, scarp -and palisade, are terms of fortification. The first designates -the steep slope below the parapet of a fortification, -next to the ditch; the second an upright row of -strong stakes set firmly in the ground in front of the -counter-scarp, on the opposite side of the moat from -the scarp.</p> - -<p>The mispronunciation of the peculiar geographical -name was evidently the cause of its orthography being -obscured so soon after it was used as the designation -for the elevated border of the Grande River. The more -frequent use thereafter of <i>énorme</i> for <i>anormé</i> made the -term more unfamiliar. It would seem also that when -the name should have been written <i>La Terre d’Énorme -Berge</i>, that it was inscribed, <i>La Terre de Normeberge</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350"></a>[350]</span> -The change of the qualifying term to a word of two -syllables, as <i>norom</i>, <i>norum</i>, <i>nurum</i>, and <i>norim</i>, rendered -the name more ambiguous. In like manner the -noun <i>berge</i> was corrupted, being spelled <i>bergue</i>, <i>bega</i>, -<i>berg</i>, and <i>bagra</i>. In this way the territorial designation -became <i>La Terre de Norumbega</i>, <i>La Terre de Norembegue</i>, -<i>La Terre de Noromberge</i>, and <i>La Terre de Norembergue</i>, -and its meaning and derivation incomprehensible -to the descendants of its originators.</p> - -<p>Gerard Mercator, on a terrestrial globe, (<i>globus -terrae</i>), made in 1541, represents the Grande River as if -its channel were filled with <i>anormée bèrges</i>, which he -designates with the misspelled name “Anorumbega.”<a id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> -On a map of the world, made about the year 1548, for -King Henry II. of France, the appellation “Anorobagra” -designates the river of the Grand Scarp.<a id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a></p> - -<p>In the sixteenth century proper names less peculiar -in construction than the appellation L’Anormée Berge, -were written very irregularly. It is said by Disraeli -that Leicester subscribed his name eight different -ways, and that Villers is spelled fourteen times differently -in the deeds of the family. Lower mentions -that the name of Mainwaring, has the remarkable number -of one hundred and thirty-one variations in different<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351"></a>[351]</span> -documents. Even in this age of dictionaries the -spelling of uncommon geographical names does not -always conform to their orthography. A record has -been kept for a number of years of the different ways -in which the name of the city of Cohoes, in the state -of New York, has been spelled on letters addressed to -that post-office, and the extraordinary number of one -hundred and ninety-seven changes in the form of the -appellation has been registered.</p> - -<p>There seems to be but a single statement that might -be used to support an assertion that the natives of the -country of New France originated the name “Norumbega.” -It is in Ramusio’s Italian translation of the -French sea-captain’s description of Francesca, in which -it is said: “This region is called by the peasants Norumbega.” -René Goulaine de Laudonnière, a well-informed -French naval officer, who had command of a -French fort in Florida, in 1564, contradicts the assertion -that the name was transferred from an early map -of the eastern coast of Asia, saying: “It is called by the -moderns Terre de Norumberge.” André Thevet, the -French geographer, who sailed along its coast in 1556, -declares that his countrymen called the Grande River -“Norombègue,” and the Indians, “Aggoncy.”</p> - -<p>One of the earliest accounts of the Land of the -Grand Scarp extant is in the discourse of the unnamed -sea-captain of Dieppe, written in 1539. Describing -the country of Francesca, he says: “Beyond Cape -Breton there is a region contiguous to this cape, the -coast of which extends west and a quarter southwest -as far as the region of Florida, and it stretches full -five hundred leagues, which coast was discovered -fifteen years ago, by Monsieur Giovanni da Verrazzano, -in the name of King Francis and of Madame, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352"></a>[352]</span> -regent, and this region is called by many the land of -the French (<i>la Francese</i>), and likewise by the Portuguese, -and its termination toward Florida is in 78° west -longitude and 30° north latitude.<a id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a></p> - -<p>“The inhabitants of this domain are a tractable -people, amiable and agreeable. The country abounds -with all kinds of fruit. Oranges and almonds grow in -wild forests, with many different varieties of odoriferous -trees. This region is called by the peasants (<i>paesani</i>) -Norumbega, and between it and Brazil there is a large -gulf, extending west as far as the ninety-second meridian.”<a id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a></p> - -<p>In 1540 Jacques Cartier again sailed to New -France and ascended the St. Lawrence River. Jean -François de la Roque, Sieur de Roberval, was placed -in command of this expedition, and, by letters-patent, -dated January 15, 1540, was commissioned viceroy -and lieutenant-general of the new lands belonging to -France in the western hemisphere. Jean Alphonse, -an experienced navigator, a native of Saintonge, near -the town of Cognac, France, accompanied Sieur de -Roberval as chief pilot.<a id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a></p> - -<p>In the manuscript of the cosmography of Raulin -Secalart, written about the year 1545, preserved in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353"></a>[353]</span> -National library, in Paris, is a short description of the -coast and people of La Terre d’Anormée Berge.<a id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a> -The writer, evidently Jean Alphonse, very faithfully -describes Long Island Sound, the eastern entrance to -the Grande River, when he says: “This river is wider -than forty leagues of latitude at its mouth, and within, -the width is as much as thirty or forty leagues, and it -is full of islands, which extend ten or twelve leagues in -the sea, and it is very dangerous on account of rocks -and swashings.” These observations are remarkably -consonant with those of a later writer: “Long Island -Sound, a Mediterranean Sea, separating the island -from the main-land of Connecticut, is connected with -the ocean at each end of the island and affords a sheltered -line of navigation of about one hundred and -twenty miles in extent.... Opposite Harlem -River is the noted pass or strait called Hell-Gate, -which is crooked, and from the numerous rocks, islands, -eddies, and currents, is somewhat difficult and dangerous.”<a id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a></p> - -<p>The identity of the river called by the French -writer “Norombègue,” now the Hudson, is satisfactorily -established by the statement that the water of the -river is salty to the height of forty leagues or eighty-eight -miles. This fact is incontrovertible. The -Hudson is salty or brackish beyond the city of Poughkeepsie, -which is about ninety-three miles north of -Sand Hook.<a id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> The assertion could not be verified<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354"></a>[354]</span> -were it assumed that the description applies to the -Penobscot, or the Kennebec, or the Merrimack, or the -Connecticut River. It would seem that the writer -speaks of the Palisades bordering the west side of the -river, opposite the Indian village of “Norombègue,” -when he says: “On the side toward the west of the -said town there are many rocks which extend to the -sea, about fifteen miles.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map7"> -<a href="images/map7-full.jpg"><img src="images/map7.jpg" width="300" height="125" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">Copy of the map of “Terre de la Franciscane” in the MS. of -the “Cosmographie de Jehan Allefonsce et Raulin Secalart,” 1545.</p> -</div> - -<p>“I say that the Cape of St. John, called Cape Breton, -and the Cape of the Franciscan, are northeast and -southwest, and range a point from an east and west -course, and there are one hundred and forty leagues -on the course, and which makes one cape, called the -Cape of Norombègue. The said cape is in forty-one -degrees of the height of the arctic pole. The said -coast [<i>i. e.</i> of Connecticut] is all sandy, ...<a id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> flat,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355"></a>[355]</span> -without any mountain. And along this coast there are -many isles of sand and the coast very dangerous on -account of banks and rocks.</p> - -<p>“The people of this coast and of Cape Breton are -an ill-disposed race, powerful, great arrow-makers, and -live on fish and on flesh, and are not talkative, and -speak almost the same language as those of Canada, -and are a great people. And those of Cape Breton go -to make war upon those of the New Land when they -are fishing, and not for any thing do they spare the life -of any one when they take him, unless it is a young -boy or a young girl; and they are so cruel that if they -take a man having a beard, they cut off his legs and -arms and carry them to their wives and children, in -order to be avenged in that way. And there are among -them many peltries of all animals.</p> - -<p>“Beyond the Cape of Norombègue, the river of the -said Norombègue descends about twenty-five leagues -from the cape. The said river is wider than forty -leagues of latitude at its mouth [entrance of Long -Island Sound], and within, this width is as much as -thirty or forty leagues, and it is full of isles which -stretch out ten or twelve leagues in the sea [or Sound], -and it is very dangerous on account of rocks and -swashings. The said river is in forty-two degrees of -the height of the arctic pole.</p> - -<p>“Up the said river, fifteen leagues, there is a town -which is called Norombègue, and there is in it a good<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356"></a>[356]</span> -people, and they have many peltries of all kinds of -animals. The inhabitants of the town are dressed in -skins, wearing mantles of martens. I think that the -said river runs into the river Hochelaga [the St. Lawrence], -for it is salt for more than forty leagues up, -according to the statement of the people of the town. -The people use many words which resemble the Latin, -and they worship the sun, and are a handsome people, -and large framed. The land of Norombègue is high -and good.</p> - -<p>“Before and on this side of the said river, one -hundred and fifty leagues, there is an island called -Vermonde [Bermuda?] which is in about thirty-three -degrees of the height of the arctic pole.<a id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> And on the -west side of the said town there are many rocks which -extend to the sea, about fifteen leagues, and north of -it there is a bay, in which there is a small island, which -is often subject to tempests and cannot be inhabited.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map8"> -<a href="images/map8-full.jpg"><img src="images/map8.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">A copy of the map of a part of North America, in the third -volume of Ramusio’s “Raccolta di Navigationi e Viaggi,” printed in 1556; -made by Giacomo de Gastaldi. (The original is about one-third larger.)</p> -</div> - -<p>While Jean Alphonse was exploring the coast of -La Terre d’Anormée Berge (which at this time geographically -included all the country between the Grande -River and the Gulf of St. Lawrence), he ascended the -Grande River to the height of its navigation, from -which point he inferred that the stream extended to -the St. Lawrence, as it is represented on the map -made by Giacomo de Gastaldi, a Piedmontese cartographer, -about the year 1553.<a id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> “I have been at a -bay as far as forty-two degrees, between Norumbega<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357"></a>[357]</span> -and Florida, and I have not searched the end thereof, -and I know not whether it [the river] pass through.... -I doubt not but [the river] Norumbega entereth -into the river of Canada, and unto the sea of -Saguenay.”<a id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a></p> - -<p>This opinion, that the Hudson was an outlet of the -St. Lawrence, was held by the Dutch as late as the -year 1625, for De Laet observes: “Judging from appearances -this river extends to the great river of St. -Lawrence, or Canada, since our skippers assure us -that the natives come to the fort [on the site of Albany] -from that river.”<a id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a></p> - -<p>René Goulaine de Laudonnière, a French officer, -commanding Fort Caroline, on the river May, in 1564, -gives, in his notable history of Florida, a short account -of Verrazanno’s discoveries in 1524.<a id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> He says that -the French planted in the New Land “the ensigns and -arms of the king of France, so that the Spaniards -themselves, who were there afterward, have called this -country French land (<i>nõmé ce païs terre Francesque</i>).... -The east part of it is named by the moderns -Terre de Norumberge, which ends at the Gulf of Gamas, -which separates it from the island of Canada.”<a id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a></p> - -<p>Not long after the discovery of Francesca by Verrazzano, -French barques were making voyages to its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358"></a>[358]</span> -coast, some to obtain cod-fish and others furs. As related -by Jean Alphonse, the people of the village of -L’Anormée Berge had “many peltries of all kinds of -animals.” The large quantities of beaver, otter, and -other skins obtained from the Manants, dwelling at the -mouth of the Grande River, induced the speculative -Frenchmen engaged in the traffic to erect at this -point a small fort, where their factors might reside and -more advantageously enlarge their purchases of furs. -The Indian village, on the island on which the city of -New York is built, was picturesquely situated on the -border of the deep, limpid lake, then covering the sites -of the plots of ground included between the lines of -Elm, Baxter, Worth, and Franklin streets. Near the -south end of the lake (which extended as far as the intersection -of Centre and Duane streets and emptied -into the Hudson at Canal Street) was a small island. -Eligible, and opposite the tongue of land on which the -Manants dwelt, the French fur factors selected it as the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359"></a>[359]</span> -site of the fortified trading house which they erected -and called Le Fort d’Anormée Berge (The Fort of the -Grand Scarp).<a id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<a href="images/map-nyc-full.jpg"><img src="images/map-nyc.jpg" width="200" height="270" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">Copy of a part of a map of the city of New York made by -James Lyne in 1728.</p> -</div> - -<p>The French geographer, André Thevet, who sailed -along the coast of La Terre d’Anormée Berge, in -1556, besides corroborating some of the preceding -statements respecting the discovery of New France, -and mentioning the fact that the Grande River was -called by his countrymen the river of “Norombègue,” -and by the Indians “Aggoncy,” says<a id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a>: “Having left -Florida on the left hand with a great number of -islands, islets, gulfs, and capes, a river presents itself, -one of the beautiful rivers that are in the world, -which we named Norombègue, and the Indians Aggoncy, -and which is marked on some marine charts -Grande river.<a id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> Several other beautiful rivers enter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360"></a>[360]</span> -this one, on which formerly the French had built a -small fort about ten or twelve leagues up it, which fort -was surrounded by fresh water that empties into the -river, and this place was called the fort of Norombègue.”<a id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a></p> - -<p>The site of the fort of L’Anormée Berge is indicated -by Gerard Mercator on his celebrated map of the -world, made at Duisburg, Germany, in 1569. The -famous cartographer not only designates the situation -of the French fort on the east side of the Grande River -with a conventional sign used by map-makers, but -also inscribes the name “Norombega” immediately -over it. As is seen, he outlines the Grande River to -the height of its navigation, at the confluence of the -Mohawk, as far as the French had explored it.<a id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map9"> -<a href="images/map9-full.jpg"><img src="images/map9.jpg" width="300" height="275" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">A part of Gerard Mercator’s map of the world, made in -Duisburg in 1569; copied from “Les monuments de la géographie recueil -d’anciennes cartes européennes et orientales, publiés en fac-similé.” par -M. Jomard, Paris.</p> -</div> - -<p>It seems that the French fur merchants undertook to -build, about the year 1540, a <i>château</i> or castle, at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361"></a>[361]</span> -height of the navigation of the Grande River. As it -appears, they selected a site for the building on the -long, low island lying in the bay, on the west side of -the river, near the present southern limits of the city -of Albany. The walls of the castle and its protecting -earthworks were almost completed when a great -freshet inundated the island and damaged the structure -so much that the French abandoned the occupation of -the island. Jean Alphonse evidently refers to the -abortive undertaking, when describing the situation of -the Indian village at the mouth of the Grande River, he -says: “North of it there is a bay, in which is a small -island that is often subject to storms, [those causing -freshets,] and cannot be inhabited.” The island bore -the name of Castle Island for more than a century thereafter, -but it is now known as Van Rensselaer’s Island.</p> - -<p>The fact that the French had ascended the Grande -River to the height of its navigation to trade with the -Indians long before Henry Hudson explored it, is corroborated -by still stronger testimony than that already -presented. One of the earliest maps representing the -territory of Nieu Nederlandt (New Netherland), or -that part of New France which the French had called -La Terre d’Anormée Berge, is the figurative chart -presented to their high mightinesses, the Lords States -General of the United Netherlands, on the eleventh of -October, 1614, by a number of Dutch merchants, -praying for a special license to navigate and traffic -within the limits of this part of North America.<a id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> Upon -this map, made in 1614, are inscribed “curious notes -and <i>memoranda</i> concerning the natives of the country,” -which the well-informed discoverer of the chart intimates<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362"></a>[362]</span> -were written by one of the Dutch companions -of Henry Hudson, who accompanied the English -navigator, on the voyage of 1609.<a id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> One of these explanatory -notes contains the undeniable testimony that -the French were the discoverers of the Grande River, -and that they had been trading with the Mohawks -long before the Half Moon sailed up the river. The -plain language of the inscription makes all explanation -of its meaning unnecessary: “But as far as one can -understand by what the Maquaas [Mohawks] <i>say and -show</i>, the French come with sloops as high up as their -country to trade with them.”<a id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a></p> - -<p>Among the things which were shown to the Dutch -explorers by the friendly Mohawks to confirm what -they had said concerning the French, were the conspicuous -ruins of the unfinished castle. The sagacious -Hollanders, not unlikely thinking that the dilapidated -building might be repaired with little expense, and -made useful to them as a trading house, should they -be licensed by the government of the Netherlands to -return there to trade for furs with the Indians, took -measurements of its walls and outworks. These <i>memoranda</i> -they also inscribed on the map of New Netherland. -The castle, as described on the chart, was fifty-eight -feet wide between the walls, and built in the form -of a square, surrounded by a moat eighteen feet wide.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363"></a>[363]</span> -The interior building was thirty-six feet long and -twenty-six wide.<a id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a></p> - -<p>Although the Dutch explorers never left any definite -information that they were personally the builders -of the fortification on Castle Island, yet by naming -it Fort Nassau, in honor of the stadtholder, Maurice, -prince of Orange and of Nassau, they permitted historians -to infer that they had constructed it, even before -they had been privileged by the government of -the Netherlands to occupy the country.</p> - -<p>As late as the year 1680, the Dutch residents of -Albany were unenlightened respecting the nationality -of the builders of the fort, some supposing that the -Spaniards had erected it. This assumption was not -generally credited, as there were no facts known that -would verify the presence of the Spaniards in this -part of the country. The two Labadist missionaries, -Jasper Dankers and Peter Sluyter, who visited Albany -in 1680, thus speak of the fort on Castle Island, and of -the conjecture concerning the people who had built it: -“In the afternoon [Sunday, April 28th] we took a -walk to an island upon the end of which there is a fort -built, they say, by the Spaniards. That a fort had been -there is evident enough from the earth thrown up, but -it is not to be supposed that the Spaniards came so far inland -to build forts when there are no monuments of them -to be seen on the sea-coasts, where, however, they -have been according to the tradition of the Indians.”<a id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364"></a>[364]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">FOOTNOTES</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> The Hebrew for man is derived from the verb (אדם), <i>to be red</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Solon, one of the seven sages of Greece, was born about the year <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> 639, -and died about the year <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> 558.</p> - -<p>Herodotus, the Greek historian, writing in the fifth century before the Christian -era, says: “When these were subdued, and Crœsus had joined them to the -Lydians, all the learned men at that time, especially those of Greece, resorted to -Sardis, which had then reached a high degree of eminence. Among them was -Solon, an Athenian, who, having made a code of laws for the Athenians at -their request, absented himself for ten years, having sailed away under pretense -of seeing the world, that he might not be compelled to abrogate any of the laws -he had established: for the Athenians could not do it themselves, as they -were bound by the most solemn oaths to preserve inviolate, for ten years, the -institutions of Solon. Therefore, having gone abroad for these reasons, as well -as to see the world, Solon had visited Amasis, in Egypt, and went from -there to Crœsus, at Sardis.”—Herodotus: Clio xxix, xxx.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Plutarch, the Greek biographer, says that Psenophis, the Heliopolitan, and -Senchis, the Saite, the most learned of the Egyptian priests, were the persons -who gave Solon this information.—Parallel Lives: Solon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> “If Solon ... had not considered the writing of poetry a recreation, -but had made it, as others do, an actual employment, and had completed the -history which he had brought from Egypt; and had not been forced to relinquish -it by seditions and many other troubles in which he found his country -involved, I do not think that either Hesiod, Homer, or any other poet would -have acquired more extensive fame.”—Plato: Timæus, or Concerning Nature.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Plato was born about the year <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> 430 and died about the year <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> 348. -He traced his descent from Solon through his mother.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> “These very writings, indeed, were in the possession of my grandfather, -and are now in mine, having been made the subject of much study during -my boyhood.”—Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> The so-called Pillars of Hercules were the two mountains, Calpe and Abyla, -on the opposite sides of the Strait of Gibraltar.</p> - -<p>“I wonder, therefore, at those,” says Herodotus, “who have described the -limits of and divided Libya, Asia, and Europe, for the difference between them -is trifling: for in length Europe extends along both of them, but respecting -width, it is evidently not to be compared. Libya shows itself to be surrounded -by water, except so much of it as borders Asia.”—Herodotus: Melpomene -xlii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Tyrrhenia or Umbria, in Italy, now Tuscany.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Plato: Timæus, or Concerning Nature.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Genesis xvi. 7; xviii. 1-8, 16-33; xix. 1-22; xxxii. 1, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Herodotus: Euterpe cxlii, cxliv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> Genesis vi. 1, 2, 4.</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Soc.</span> Do you know that heroes are half-gods?</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Herm.</span> What then?</p> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Soc.</span> All of them were doubtless begotten either from a god falling in love -with a mortal woman, or from a mortal man [falling in love] with a goddess.”</p> - -<p>—Plato: Cratylus, or Concerning the Correct Use of Words.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> A stadium is equal to 600 Greek or 625 Roman feet, or to 606 feet 9 inches -English measure.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Respecting the names of the persons appearing in the narrative Plato observes: -“We must briefly warn you not to be surprised at hearing Hellenic -names given to the barbarians; the cause of this you shall now hear. Solon, -intending to make use of this narrative in his poetry, made an investigation -into the signification of the names, and found that the early Egyptians who recorded -these facts transferred these names into their own language; and he -again receiving the meaning of each name transcribed it into our tongue.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> “Πᾶσα ἡ νῆσος τότε πέλαγος ἐσχεν ἑπωνυμίαν, Ἀτλαντικὸν -λεχθέν.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Gadeira, an ancient city built, it is said, by the Phœnicians, fifteen centuries -before the Christian era, on the site of Cadiz, Spain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Ὀρείχαλκος, ore of copper. From ὄρειος, mountain, and χαλκός, -brass.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> The remains of mammoths or elephants, <i>elephas primigenus</i>, have been exhumed -in different parts of the continent of America.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> A plethron is equal to a hundred feet.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> A trireme, a large-sized boat with three rows or benches of oars on its -sides.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> “This agreement of the traditions of the most diverse peoples manifests -itself in a striking manner when compared with the number assigned by the -Bible to the antediluvian patriarchs. There are ten in the account in Genesis, -and a singular persistence reproduces this number of ten in the legends of a very -great number of nations, whose primitive ancestors are still enveloped in the -mist of fables.... The preserved fragments of the celebrated historical -papyrus of Turin, containing a list of Egyptian dynasties traced in hieratic -writing, seem clearly to indicate that the editor of this canon gives ten gods, who -in the beginning ruled men.”—Les Origines de l’Histoire d’après la Bible et -les Traditions des Peuples Orientaux, par François Lenormant, professeur d’archéologie -près la Bibliothèque nationale. Deuxième édition, Paris, 1880. -pp. 214, 215, 227.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> “These figures of the mythic Egyptian chronology are still very imperfectly -known to us—too little indeed to affirm any thing satisfactorily concerning -the principle of their construction.... We must, therefore, wait for -some new discovery, like that of a royal canon similar to the one of Turin, in -good condition, before we can make a thorough examination of the principle -of the cyclic periods with which Egypt began her annals.”—Les Origines de -l’Histoire. Lenormant. p. 287.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Plato: Timæus, or Concerning Nature.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> The ships of the ancients, in the time of Herodotus, were vessels propelled -by oars and sails. Describing those used by the Egyptians on the Nile, he -says: “Their ships in which they convey merchandise are made of the -acacia, which in shape is similar to the Cyrenæan lotus, and its exudation is -gum. From this acacia they cut planks about two cubits in length, and join -them together as they do bricks, building their ships in the following manner: -They fasten the planks of two cubits length to stout and long ties; when -they have thus built the hulls, they lay rowing benches across them. They make -no use of ribs, but caulk the seams inside with byblus. They make only one -rudder, and that is driven through the keel. They use a mast of acacia, and -sails of byblus. These vessels cannot sail against the current of the stream -unless a fair wind prevails, but are towed from the shore. They are thus carried -down the stream: There is a hurdle made of tamarisk, wattled with a band of -reeds, and a stone bored through the middle, of about two talents in weight; -of these two, the hurdle is fastened to a cable, and let down at the prow of the -vessel to be carried on by the stream; and the stone by another cable at the -stern; and by this means the hurdle, by the stream bearing hard upon it, moves -quickly and draws along the ‘baris’, (for this is the name given to these vessels,) -but the stone, being dragged at the stern, and sunk to the bottom, keeps the -vessel in its course. They have a great number of these vessels, and some of -them carry many thousand talents.”—Euterpe xcvi.</p> - -<p>The vessels of the Phœnicians were of a better build, but they also were -fitted out with oars and sails.—Ezekiel xxvii. 3-9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> Genesis vi. 5, 6, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Plato: Critias, or the Atlantic.</p> - -<p><i>Vide</i> The Works of Plato. Bohn’s ed. London, 1849. vol. ii. Translated -by Henry Davis, pp. 413-429.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> The date of the accession of Seti I. or Sethos I. is variously given. M. -Champollion Figeac places it in 1473 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> Mure thinks it cannot be earlier -than 1410 nor later than 1400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology. t. iv. pp. 1-19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Les Origines de l’Histoire. Lenormant. pp. 448, 449.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> <i>Vide</i> Historia Verdadera de la Conqvista de la Nueva-España. Escrita -por el Capitan Bernal Diaz del Castillo, vno de sus Conquistadores. En -Madrid, 1632.</p> - -<p>Antiquities of Mexico: comprising fac-similes of ancient Mexican paintings -and hieroglyphics, preserved in the Royal libraries of Paris, Berlin, and -Dresden; in the Imperial library at Vienna; in the Vatican library; in the -Borgian museum at Rome; in the library of the Institute at Bologna; and in -the Bodleian library at Oxford. Together with the monuments of New Spain, -by M. Dupaix; with their respective scales of measurements and accompanying -descriptions. The whole illustrated by many valuable inedited manuscripts, -by Lord Kingsborough. In nine volumes. London, 1831-1848.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Now called the Shetland islands, but the name is printed on the early -maps Hetland; from Swedish <i>het</i>, hot, and <i>land</i>, land. The group lies about -180 miles from Norway, between 59° 50´ and 60° 50´ north latitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> The Fer öe or Far islands lie about 170 miles northwest of the Shetland -group, and are between 61° 20´ and 62° 25´ north latitude. The name is -derived from <i>fer</i>, far, (Swedish,) and <i>öe</i>, islands.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> Iceland lies between latitude 63° 24´ and 66° 33´ N. and longitude 13° -31´ and 24° 17´ W. It is one hundred and sixty miles east of Greenland, six -hundred west of Norway, and two hundred and fifty northwest of the Fer öe, -or Far islands.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> History of the Northmen, by Henry Wheaton. London, 1831. pp. 17, 18.</p> - -<p>Iceland, or the journal of a residence in that island, during the years 1814 -and 1815, by Ebenezer Henderson, vol. i. Intro. pp. xv. and 308.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> “Men of experience say, who have been born in Greenland, and have -recently come from Greenland, that from Stadt, in the north part of Norway, to -Horns, on the east coast of Iceland, is seven days’ sailing directly westward.”—Antiqvitates -Americanæ, sive scriptores septentrionales rerum Ante-Columbianarum -in America. Edidit Societas Regia Antiqvariorum Septentrionalium. -Hafniæ, 1837. Ivar Bardsen’s treatise. p. 302.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> “He who sails from Iceland [to Greenland] must steer his course from -Snefelsnes, which is twelve nautical miles (<i>tholldt soes</i>) farther to the west than -the mentioned Reychenes, and for a day and a night he will sail due west, but -then he must steer to the southwest to avoid the ice that adheres to Gunnbjörn’s -rocks. Then he must hold his course one day and one night to the northwest, -which will bring him straight to that high land of Greenland called Hvarf, -under which lie the mentioned Herjulfsnes and Sand-haffn.”</p> - -<p>“They who wish to sail direct from Bergen [in Norway] to Greenland without -touching Iceland, must sail due west until they find themselves twelve -nautical miles (<i>xii uger soes</i>) south of Reychenes, a promontory on the south -coast of Iceland, and by holding this course toward the west they will come to -the high land of Greenland called Hvarf.”—Antiq. Amer. Ivar Bardsen’s -treatise. pp. 304, 305; 303, 304.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> <i>Bygd</i>, inhabited land, a place of residence, an abode.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> <i>Ubygd</i>, an unpeopled tract, desert.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> “A day before you descry the said Hvarf you ought to see another high -mountain called Hvidserk. Under these two mountains—Hvard and Hvidserk—is -a promontory (<i>nes</i>) called Herjulfsnes, near which is a harbor called Sand-haffn.... -The inhabited part of Greenland lying eastwardly, next to -Herjulfsnes, is called Skagefjörd.”—Antiq. Amer. Ivar Bardsen’s treatise. pp. -304, 305.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Christianity, it is said, was introduced in Iceland in the year 1000.—Antiq. -Amer. pp. 10, 11, 14, and note <i>b</i>. The discovery of America by the -Northmen. By North Ludlow Beamish. London, 1841. pp. 47, 48.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> The traditions of the voyages of Bjarni, the son of Herjulf, and of Leif, -the son of Eric the Red, are contained in a large folio of manuscripts found in -the seventeenth century, in a monastery on the island called Flatö, north of -Breidafjörd, in Iceland. This book of Flatö was purchased, about the year -1660, by Bishop Brynjulf Sveinson of Skalholt, in Iceland, and was sent by him -as a gift to King Frederic III. of Denmark, and is now in the Royal Library -of Copenhagen. A part of the inscription on the first page of the volume -bears this translation: “This book, Jónn, the son of Hakon, owns.... -The priest, Jónn, the son of Thord, wrote out the narrative concerning Eric, -the traveller, and the histories of each of the Olafs; and the priest, Magnus, -the son of Thorhall, wrote out that which follows, also that which precedes, -and illuminated the whole. God Almighty and the Holy Virgin Mary bless -those who wrote and him who dictated.”</p> - -<p>It is supposed that these traditions, which are finely engrossed in Icelandic -on vellum, contained in the Codex Flateyensis, were compiled between -the years 1387 and 1395.—Antiq. Amer. pp. 1-4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> <i>Thaettir af Eireki Rauda ok Graenlendingum.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> <i>Bjarni leitadi Graenlands.</i>—Antiq. Amer. pp. 17-25. Discovery of -America. Beamish, pp. 47, 48.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> From <i>hella</i>, a flat stone.</p> - -<p>Certain writers believe that Newfoundland was called Helluland by the -Northmen. The island lies about six hundred miles south of Greenland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Nova Scotia is supposed by some writers to be the region named Markland -by the Northmen. It is about four hundred miles southwest of Newfoundland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> <i>Hèr Hefr Graenlendinga Thátt.</i> Antiq. Amer. pp. 26-40. Discovery -of America. Beamish, pp. 59-70.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Narrative of an expedition to the east coast of Greenland, sent by order -of the king of Denmark, in search of the lost colonies, under the command of -Captain W. A. Graah, of the Danish royal navy. Translated from the -Danish by the late G. Gordon Macdougall, F.R.S.N.A., for the Royal Geographical -Society of London. London, 1837. pp. 106, 107.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> “<i>Meira var thar jafndaegri enn á Graenlandi edr Íslandi, sól hafdi thar -eyktarstad ok dagmálastad um skamdegi.</i>”</p> - -<p>“Dag-mál, n. (<i>vide</i> dagr), prop. ‘<i>day-meal</i>,’ one of the divisions of the day, -usually about eight or nine o’clock, <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>; the Latin <i>hora tertia</i> is rendered by -‘er vér köllum dagmál,’ <i>which we call d.</i>, Hom. [Homiliu-bók], 142; enn er -ekki lidit af dagmálum, Hom. (St.) 10. Acts 11, 15; in Glúm. [Viga-Glúms -Saga], 342, we are told that the young Glúm was very lazy, and lay in bed till -day-meal every morning, cp. also 343; Hrafn. [Hrafnkéls Saga] 28 and O. H. -L. [Olafs Saga Helga Legendaria] 18—áeinum morni milli rismála ok dagmála—where -distinction is made between rismal (<i>rising time</i>) and dagmál, so -as to make a separate dagsmark (q. v.) of each of them; and again, a distinction -is made between ‘midday’ and dagmal, Ísl. [Islenzkar], 11, 334. The dagmal -is thus midway between ‘rising’ and ‘midday,’ which accords well with the -present use. The word is synonymous with dagver darmál, <i>breakfast-time</i>, and -denotes the hour when the ancient Icelanders used to take their chief meal, -opposed to náttmál, <i>night-meal</i> or <i>supper-time</i>, Fms. [Fornmanna Sögur], viii, -330; even the MSS. use dagmál and dagverdarmál indiscriminately; cp. also -Sturl. [Sturlunga Saga] 111, 4 C; Rb. [Rimbegla], 452 says that at full moon -the ebb takes place ‘at dagmá-lum.’ To put the dagmál at 7:30 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, as Pál -Vidalin does, seems neither to accord with the present use nor the passage in -Glúm or the eccl. <i>hora tertia</i>, which was the nearest hour answering to the Icel. -calculation of the day. In Fb. [Flateyjar bók] 1,539, it is said that the sun set -at ‘eykd’ (<i>i. e.</i> half-past three o’clock), but rose at ‘dagmál,’ which puts the -dagmal at 8:30 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> Compds. dagmála-stadr, m. <i>the place of d. in the horizon</i>, -Fb. [Flateyjar bók].”</p> - -<p>“Eykt, eykd, f. <i>three or half-past three o’clock</i>, <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>; many commentaries -have been written upon this word, as by Pál Vidalin Skyr, Finn Johnson in H. -E. [Historia Ecclesiastica Islandiæ] 1. 153 sqq. note 6, and in Horologium, -etc. The time of eykd is clearly defined in K. Th. K. [Kristinnrettr Thorláks -ok Ketils], 92 as the time <i>when the sun has past two parts of the</i> ‘utsudr’ (q. v.) -<i>and has one part left</i>, that is to say, <i>half-past three o’clock</i>, <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>: it thus nearly -coincides with the eccl. Lat. <i>nona</i> (three o’clock, <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>); and both eykt and nona -are therefore used indiscriminately in some passages. Sunset at the time of -‘eykd’ is opposed to sunrise at the time of ‘dagmal,’ q. v. In Norway ‘ykt’ -means a luncheon taken about half-past three o’clock. But the passage in -Edda—that autumn ends and winter begins at sunset at the time of eykt—confounded -the commentators who believed it to refer to the conventional Icel. -winter, which (in the old style) begins with the middle of October, and lasts six -months. In the latitude of Reykholt—the residence of Snorri—the sun at this -time sets about half-past four. Upon this statement the commentators have -based their reasoning both in regard to dagmál and eykt, placing the eykt at -half-past four, <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>, and dagmal at half-past seven, <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, although this contradicts -the definition of these terms in the law. The passage in Edda probably -came from a foreign source, and refers not to the Icel. winter but to the astronomical -winter, viz., the winter solstice or the shortest day; for sunset at -half-past three is suited not to Icel., but to the latitude of Scotland and the -southern parts of Scandinavia. The word is also curious from its bearing -upon the discovery of America by the ancients, <i>vide</i> Fb. [Flateyjar-bók] l. c. -This sense (<i>half-past three</i>) is now obsolete in Icel., but eykt is in freq. use in -the sense of <i>trihorium</i>, <i>a time of three hours</i>; whereas in the oldest sagas no -passage has been found bearing this sense,—the Bs. [Biskupa Sögur] 1, 385, -446, and Hem. [Hemings-thattr] l. c., are of the 13th and 14th centuries. In -Norway ykt is freq. used metaph. of all the four meal times in the day, morning-ykt, -midday-ykt, afternoon-ykt (or ykt proper), and even-ykt. In old MSS., -Grág., K. Th. K. Hem. Heid. S. [Grágás, Kristinnrettr, Thorláks ok Ketils, -Hemings-thattr, Heidarviga Saga], this word is always spelt eykd or eykth, -shewing the root to be ‘auk’ with the fem. inflex. added; it probably first -meant the <i>eke</i>-meal, answering to Engl. <i>lunch</i>, and thence came to mean the -time of day at which this meal was taken. The eccl. law dilates upon the word, -as the Sabbath was to begin at ‘<i>hora nona</i>’; hence the phrase, eykt helgr dagr....</p> - -<p>“Eyktar-stadr. m. <i>the place of the sun at half-past three</i>, <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>; meira var, -thar jafndaegri enn á Graenlandi edr Íslandi, sól hafdi thar eyktar-stad ok dagmála-stad -um skamdegi, Fb. [Flateyjar bók] 1, 539,—this passage refers to the -discovery of America; but in A. A. [Antiquitates Americanæ], l. c., it is -wrongly explained as denoting the shortest day nine hours long, instead of -seven; it follows that the latitude fixed by the editors of A. A. [Antiquitates -Americanæ] is too far to the south.”</p> - -<p>“Dagr, m. ... a day, ... 5. the day is in Icel. divided according -to the position of the sun above the horizon; these fixed traditional -marks are called dags-mörk, <i>day-marks</i>, and are substitutes for the hours of -modern times, viz. ris-mál or midr-morgun, dag-mál, há-degi, mid-degi or mid-mundi, -nón, midr-aptan, nátt-mál.”</p> - -<p>“Stadr, m., gen. stadar, dat. stad, and older stadi, pl. stadir: ... a -‘stead,’ place, abode.”—An Icelandic-English dictionary based on the MS. collections -of the late Richard Cleasby, enlarged and completed by Gudbrand Vigfusson, -M. A. Oxford, 1874.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Thormod Torfason, or Torfæus, as his name is Latinized, in the addenda -of his History of Ancient Vinland (Historia Vinlandiæ Antiquæ), printed at -Copenhagen, in 1705, explains the meaning of the words, saying that the sun in -Vinland, on the shortest day, was six hours above the horizon, which would imply -that this land lay between the fifty-eighth and sixty-first parallels of north -latitude. “Torfæus confirms his interpretation by the authority of Arngrim -Jonas, a learned Icelander who flourished at the end of the sixteenth and beginning -of the seventeenth century, and who was deemed a profound astronomer. -In his ‘History of Greenland,’ he thus renders the passage we are considering: -‘There is in Vinland no winter, no cold, no frost as in Iceland or Greenland; -inasmuch as the sun, on the very day of the winter solstice (they had no dials -there), passes about six hours above the horizon.’ Having cited this passage -from Arngrim Jonas, Torfæus proceeds: ‘This meaning I had long ago given -this passage, first on the authority (if I rightly understood him) of Bryniulf -Sveinson, the most learned of all the bishops of Skalkholt, to whom I was sent, -while yet a youth, in the year 1662, with royal letters from my gracious -master, King Frederick the Third, for the purpose of learning the genuine signification -of the more difficult ancient words and phrases; and, then, from the -necessary correspondence of the time of sunset with that of sunrise.’”—(The -Discovery of America by the Northmen. By E. Everett. North American Review. -January, 1838. vol. xlvi. pp. 179-188. <i>Vide</i> Historia Vinlandiæ -Antiquæ, seu partis Americæ Septentrionalis. Per Thormodum Torfæum. -Havniæ, 1705. Addenda.)</p> - -<p>Professor Charles C. Rafn, secretary of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, -gives this rendition of the passage: “When the day is shortest the -sun there has a place (is above the horizon) from half-past seven before noon -till half-past four in the afternoon.”—Antiq. Amer. p. 436. <i>Vide</i> Discovery -of America. Beamish. pp. 64, 65. According to Prof. Rafn, the Northmen -built their winter-quarters on the shore of Mount Hope bay, Rhode Island; -the day, nine hours long, indicating the latitude of 41° 24´ 10´´.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> The saga of Thorfinn Karlsefne and Snorro Thorbrandson (<i>Saga Thorfinns -Karlsefnis ok Snorra Thorbrandssonar</i>). This legend is written on vellum, -and is one of the valuable Icelandic manuscripts called the Arna-Magnœan collection, -which is preserved in the library of the university of Copenhagen. -The manuscripts were bequeathed to the university by Arne Magnussen, or, as -his name is Latinized, Arnus Magnœus, an Icelandic scholar. The saga of -Thorfinn is supposed to have been compiled in the fourteenth century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> In the treatise of Ivar Bardsen, it is said that in Greenland “is found -the best of wheat, (<i>beste Hvede</i>).”—Antiq. Amer. pp. 302-318.</p> - -<p>The wild wheat (<i>elymus arenarius</i>) growing on the sand flats of Iceland -is thus described: “This plant, the <i>melur</i> of the natives, is a kind of grass, -with a spike or ear four or five inches long, and generally appears in a sandy -soil. The sea-shore and tracts of volcanic ashes in the interior are equally -favorable to its growth, though it is principally from the latter that the seeds -used for bread are obtained; and the natives regard it as a great gift wherewith -the wise Creator has blessed those mournful wastes. The harvest is in August, -when it becomes white in the ear, but as it is seldom fully ripe, it requires to -be dried before grinding. It is cut with a sickle, made up in bundles, and -carried home on the backs of horses. It is then separated from the straw, -and ground in hand-mills cut out of a block of lava, into fine meal of a grayish -color.”—Historical and descriptive account of Iceland, Greenland, and the -Faroe islands. pp. 385, 386.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> From <i>hópa</i> to recede. <i>Hóp</i>, a recess, haven, bay, inlet.</p> - -<p>Certain writers assume this place Hóp to be the country around Mount -Hope bay, in Rhode Island.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> This statement does not agree with the one preceding it,—that “they remained -at this place a half-month.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Skraelingar, m. pl. Esquimaux.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Antiq. Amer. pp. 136-163. Discovery of America. Beamish. pp. 87-103.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> “<i>Præterea unam adhuc insulam recitavit a multis in eo repertam oceano, -quæ dicitur Winland, eo quod ibi vites sponte nascantur, vinum optimum -ferentes. Nam et fruges ibi non seminatas habundare, non fabulosa opinione, -sed certa comperimus relatione Danosum.</i>”—M. Adamigesta Hammenburgensis -ecclesiæ pontificum. Edente M. Lappenburg. I. U. D. Reipublicæ Hamburgensis -tabulario. Monumenta Germaniæ historica. By George Henry -Pertz. Hannoveræ, 1846.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> This fragment of a geographical or historical work is supposed to have -been written before the time of Columbus.—Gripla C. Antiq. Amer. pp. 280, -281, 293, 296. Discovery of America. Beamish. pp. 114, 115.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> The map marked Tab. ii. is contained in the historical work entitled: -Gronlandia Antiqva, seu veteris Gronlandiæ Descriptio.... Authore -Thormodo Torfaeo. Havniæ, 1715. p. 21.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> If they were grapes, it does not follow that they were found on the eastern -coast of the present territory of the United States. The French navigator, -Jacques Cartier, in September, 1535, found “vines laden as full of grapes as -could be all along the riuer [St. Lawrence], which rather seemed to haue bin -planted by mans hand than otherwise.”—The third and last volume of the -voyages, navigations, traffiques, and discoueries of the English nation. By -Richard Hakluyt. London, 1600. p. 218.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> The rock writing, as interpreted by an Indian, is an account of a battle -fought by the people of two tribes, and was engraved by some or one of the -members of the victorious party.—Archives of aboriginal knowledge. By Henry -R. Schoolcraft. 1860. vol. i. pp. 112-124; vol. iv. pp. 119. Antiq. Amer. -pp. 373-403.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Benedict Arnold, the first governor of Rhode Island, living at Newport, -in his will, dated December 20, 1677, directed that his body should be buried -at a certain spot, “being and lying in my land, in or near the line or path from -my dwelling-house leading to my stone-built windmill, in the town of Newport.” -Another mill of similar construction is near Leamington, in the parish of Chesterton, -in Warwickshire, England, where Benedict Arnold lived when a boy. -This mill was built according to a plan first introduced into England by Inigo -Jones.—History of New England, by John Gorham Palfrey. Boston, 1859. -vol. i. Note. pp. 57-59.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> History of Wales, written by Caradoc of Llancarvan, Glamorganshire, -in the British Language, translated into English by Humphry Llwyd, and published -by Dr. David Powel in the year 1584.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> “The most ancient Discouery of the West Indies by Madoc, the sonne of -Owen Guyneth Prince of North-wales, in the yeere 1170: taken out of the history -of Wales, lately published by M. Dauid Powel Doctor of Diuinity.... -Madoc another of Owen Guyneth his sonnes left the land in contention betwixt -his brethren, & prepared certaine ships with men and munition, and sought -aduentures by Seas, sailing West, and leauing the coast of Ireland so farre -North, that he came vnto a land vnknowen, where he saw many strange -things....</p> - -<p>“Of the voyage and returne of this Madoc there are many fables fained, -as the common people doe vse in distance of place and length of time rather to -augment then to diminish: but sure it is there he was. And after he had returned -home, and declared the pleasant and fruitfull countreys that he had -seene without inhabitants, and vpon the contrary part, for what barren & wild -ground his brethren and nephewes did murther one another, he prepared a -number of ships, and got with him such men and women as were desirous to -liue in quietnesse: and taking leaue of his friends, tooke his journey thitherward -againe.... This Madoc arriving in that Western country, vnto his -people there, and returning back for more of his owne nation, acquaintance, & -friends to inhabit that faire & large countrey, went thither again with ten sailes, -as I find noted by Gutyn Owen.”—Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> Kosmos: Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung. Alexander von -Humboldt. 1845-1858. Trans. by E. C. Otté. Bohn’s ed. vol. ii. pp. -608, 609.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> The history of the voyages of the Zeni brothers was first published with -another work entitled: Dei Commentarij del Viaggio in Persia. Venezia, 1558.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> The name is evidently a designation for Iceland. <i>Frislanda</i>, the cold or -frozen land; Anglo-Saxon, <i>frysan</i>; Icelandic, <i>friosa</i>; Swedish, <i>frysa</i>; Danish, -<i>fryse</i>; and <i>land</i>, land.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Estotiland seems to be an anomalous form of the name Scotland, from -Anglo-Saxon, <i>scot</i>; Spanish and Portuguese, <i>escote</i>; Italian, <i>scotto</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Dello Scoprimento dell’ Isole Frislanda, Eslanda, Engronelanda, Estotilanda, -& Icaria, fatto per due fratelli Zeni, M. Nicolò il Caualiere, & M. Antonio. -Libro Vno, col disegno di dette Isole.</p> - -<p>The Voyages of the Venetian Brothers, Nicolò and Antonio Zeno to the -Northern Seas. By Richard Henry Major. London, 1873. Hakluyt Soc. -pub. pp. 1-24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> In 1260, the two brothers, Nicolò and Maffeo Polo, departed from Constantinople, -on a trading expedition to the Euxine Sea; thence they travelled -through the western dominions of the Grand Khan of the Tartars. In 1269 -they returned home with letters from this sovereign to Pope Clement IV. On -their arrival in Venice, Nicolò found that his wife had died in giving birth to -his son, Marco, then a lad of fifteen years. In 1271 the brothers (Maffeo -being a bachelor) again left home for the Orient, taking Marco with them. -In 1295 the three returned to Venice after an absence of twenty-four years.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Giovanni Battista Ramusio was born at Tevisa in 1485. For a decade of -years he was secretary to the Venetian Council of Ten. His valuable collection -of voyages and travels, entitled “Raccolta di Navigationi e Viaggi,” comprises -three volumes. Volume I. was published in 1554, volume II. in 1559, and -volume III. in 1556. Ramusio died in 1557.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> China. “For about three centuries,” says Yule, “the Northern provinces -of China had been detached from native rule, and subject to foreign dynasties; -first to the <i>Khitau</i>, a people from the basin of the Sungari River, and supposed -(but doubtfully) to have been akin to the Tunguses, whose rule subsisted for 200 -years, and originated the name <i>Khitai</i>, Khata, or Cathay, by which for nearly -1000 years China has been known to the nations of Inner Asia, and to those -whose acquaintance with it was got by that channel.”—The book of Ser Marco -Polo. By Henry Yule. London, 1875. Introd. p. 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Ramusio: Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. vol. ii. Prefatione.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> Concerning Marco Polo, Humboldt remarks: “Jacquet, who was unhappily -too early removed by a premature death from the investigation of -Asiatic languages, and who, like Klaproth and myself, was long occupied -with the work of the great Venetian traveller, wrote to me, as follows, shortly -before his decease: ‘I am as much struck as yourself by the composition of the -<i>Milione</i>. It is undoubtedly founded on the direct and personal observation of -the traveller, but he probably also made use of documents either officially or -privately communicated to him. Many things appear to have been borrowed -from Chinese and Mongolian works, although it is difficult to determine their -precise influence on the composition of the <i>Milione</i>; owing to the successive -translations from which Polo took his extracts. Whilst our modern travellers -are only too well pleased to occupy their readers with their personal adventures, -Marco Polo takes pains to blend his own observations with the official data communicated -to him, of which, as Governor of the city of Yangui, he was able to -have a large number.’ (See my <i>Asie Centrale</i>, t. ii. p. 395.) The compiling -method of the celebrated traveller likewise explains the possibility of his being -able to dictate his book at Genoa, in 1295, to his fellow-prisoner and friend, -Messer Rustizielo of Pisa, as if the documents had been lying before him. -(Compare Marsden, <i>Travels of Marco Polo</i>, p. xxxiii).” Humboldt: Cosmos. -Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 625. Note.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Ser Marco Polo. Yule. Second ed. vol. i. pp. 103, 104.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> “I John Maundevylle, knight, alle be it I be not worthi, that was born in -England, in the Town of Seynt Albones, passed the See, in the zeer of our Lord -Jesu Crist mcccxxii, in the Day of Seynt Michelle; and hidre to have ben -long tyme over the See, and have seyn and gon thorghe manye dyverse Londes, -and many Provynces and Kingdomes and Iles, and have passed thorghe Tartarye, -Percye, Ermonye, the litylle and the grete; thorghe Lybye, Caldee, -and a gret partie of Ethiope; thorghe Amazoyne, Inde the lasse and -the more, a gret partie; and thorghe out many othere Iles, that ben -abouten Inde.... And zee schulle undirstonde, that I have put this Boke -out of Latyn into Frensche and translated it azen out of Frensche into Englyssche, -that every Man of my Nacioun may undirstonde it.”—MS. in Cottonian -library, marked Titus. c. xvi. The Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Maundevile, -Kt. By J. O. Halliwell. London, 1849. Prologue. pp. 4, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Herodotus: Melpomene xlii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> Caius Plinius Secundus, a Roman writer, born <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 23, and died <span class="allsmcap">A. D.</span> 79. -Hanno’s expedition was undertaken about 570 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> Eudoxus of Cyzicus, a Greek navigator, lived about 130 <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> Ptolemy -Lathyrus began his reign <span class="allsmcap">B. C.</span> 117. Cornelius Nepos flourished in the century -before the Christian era.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> Supposed to have been in the year of the building of Rome, 691.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Suevi, the ancient inhabitants of that part of Germany between the Danube -and the Baltic Sea.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> Historia Naturalis. lib. ii. cap. lxvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> “In Christian Europe the earliest mention of the use of the magnetic -needle occurs in the politico-satirical poem, called <i>La Bible</i>, by Guyot, of -Provence, in 1190, and in the description of Palestine by Jacobus, of Vitry, -Bishop of Ptolemais, between 1204 and 1215. Dante (in his <i>Parad.</i> xii., 29) -refers, in a simile, to the needle (<i>ago</i>) ‘which points to the star.’”</p> - -<p>“Navarrete, in his <i>Discurso histórico sobre los progresos del Arte de Navegar -en España</i>, 1802, p. 28, recalls a remarkable passage in the Spanish <i>Leyes -de las Partidas</i> (II. tit. ix., ley 28), of the middle of the thirteenth century: -‘The needle, which guides the seaman in the dark night, and shows him, both -in good and bad weather, how to direct his course, is the intermediary agent -(<i>medianera</i>) between the loadstone (<i>la piedra</i>) and the north star.’ ... -See the passage in <i>Las Siete Partidas del sabio Rey Don Alonso el ix.</i> (according -to the usually adopted chronological order, Alonso the Xth). Madrid, -1829. t. i. p. 473.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 629, and -note.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> “<i>La magnete piere laide et noire. Ob ete fer volenters se joint. Lon touchet -ob une aguilet. Et en festue lon fischie. Puis lon mette en laigue et se tient -desus. Et la point se torne contre lestoille. Quant la nuit feit tenebrous et lon -ne voie estoile ne lune, poet li mariner tenir droite voie.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> The Monthly Magazine, or British Register. London, 1802. vol. xiii. -part 1. p. 449. The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal. By Henry Major. -London, 1868. pp. 58, 59.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> “We are told by Antonio Beccadelli, surnamed Il Panormita from his -birthplace, Palermo, and who was a contemporary of Prince Henry, that sailors -were first indebted to Amalfi for the use of the magnet—‘<i>Prima dedit nautis -usum magnetis Amalphis</i>’; and ‘<i>Inventrix prœclara fuit magnetis Amalphis</i>.’ ... -The former of these lines is quoted from Il Panormita by Henricus -Brenemanus, in his Dissertatio de Republica Amalfitana, and Klaproth has -added the latter.” Life of Prince Henry of Portugal. Major. p. 59.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> Dom Henrique was born at Oporto, March 4, 1394.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> “<i>Quem passar o Cabo de Nao, ou voltara ou nao.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Chronica do descobrimento e conquista de Guiné, escripta por mandado -de el Rey. D. Affonso V. sob a direcçao scientifica e secundo as instrucçoes do -illustre infante D. Henrique, pelo chronista Gomes Eannes de Azurara, fielmente -transladada do manuscrito original contemporaneo que se conserva na -Bibliotheca Real de Pariz. Edited by the Visconde da Carreira, with introduction -and notes by the Vicomte de Santarem. Paris, 1841. cap. viii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> Antonio Galvano was born about the year 1502. In 1538 he was appointed -by the king of Portugal governor of the Moluccas or Spice Islands. He was -recalled about the year 1545, and died in 1557.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Tratado, que compōs o nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão, dos -diuersos & desuayrados caminhos, por onde nos tempos passados a pimenta -& especearia veyo da India ás nossas partes, & assi de todos os descobrimentos -antigos & modernos, que são feitos ate a era de mil & quinhentos & -cincoenta.... Impressa em casa de Joam de Barreira impressor del rey -nosso senhor, na Rua de Sā Mameda. [Lisboa.]</p> - -<p><i>Vide</i> The discoveries of the world, from their first original unto the year -of our Lord 1555, by Antonio Galvano, governor of Ternate. Corrected, -quoted, and published in England, by Richard Hakluyt, (1610). Now reprinted, -with the original Portuguese text, and edited by Vice-admiral Bethune, -C. B. London, 1862. Hakluyt Society publication.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Chronica do descobrimento e conquista de Guiné. cap. ix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> Historia Naturalis. lib. ii. cap. lxviii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> The distance of a place, north or south of the equator, was determined by -ascertaining with the astrolabe the elevation of the pole of the heavens above -the plane of the horizon.</p> - -<p>The distance of one place from another, east or west of a meridian, was -obtained by ascertaining the difference of time at the two points; the difference -of time being one hour to each space of fifteen degrees of longitude. Although -a navigator in the latter part of the fifteenth century could determine with his -astrolabe the time of the place where he was in port, from the altitude of the sun -or other heavenly bodies, the want of an accurate chronometer made it impossible -for him to know the exact time of a place elsewhere. Pigafetta, who -sailed round the world in 1519-1522, says in his treatise on navigation: -“Pilots now are satisfied with knowing the latitude, and are so presumptuous -that they refuse to hear longitude mentioned.”—MS. in Ambrosian -Library, Milan.</p> - -<p>To obtain a practical solution of the difficulties which perplexed seamen in -determining the longitude of places, the Spanish government offered a thousand -crowns, in 1598, for an accurate method of ascertaining the time of distant -places. Not long afterward the government of the United Provinces of the -Netherlands offered ten thousand florins for similar information, and, in 1714, -the parliament of Great Britain passed an act proffering a gift of money to any -person who should discover the best means of ascertaining longitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Joam II. of Portugal reigned from 1481 to 1495.</p> - -<p>“Astrolabes designed for the determination of time and geographical latitudes -by meridian altitudes, and capable of being employed at sea, underwent -gradual improvement from the time that the astrolabium of the Majorican -pilots was in use, which is described by Raymond Lully, in 1295, in his <i>Arte -de navegar</i>, till the invention of the instrument made by Martin Behaim, in -1484, at Lisbon, and which was, perhaps, only a simplification of the meteoroscope -of his friend Regiomontanus.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. -vol. ii. pp. 630, 631.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Martin Behaim was born in Nuremberg about the year 1459. His commercial -business induced him to visit Portugal about the year 1480, where, it is -said, he became a pupil of Johann Müller, known as Regiomontanus. He accompanied -Diogo Cam to the Congo, in 1484. He afterward resided on the island -of Fayal, one of the Azores, for a number of years. His celebrated terrestrial -globe was constructed by him, at Nuremberg, about the year 1492. He died at -Lisbon, on the twenty-ninth of July, 1506.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> Asia de Joam de Barros dos fectos que os Portugueses fizeram no descobrimento -& conquista dos mares & terras do Oriente. Impressa per Germao Galharde -em Lixboa: a xxviij. de Junho anno de m. vᶜ. lij. dec. i. lib. iv. -cap. ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Arte de nauegar. Por el maestro Pedro de Medina. Valladolid. 1545.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> “I find the first mention of the application of the log in a passage of -Pigafetta’s journal of Magellan’s voyage of circumnavigation, which long lay -buried among the manuscripts in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. It is there -said that in the month of January, 1521, when Magellan had already arrived in -the Pacific, ‘<i>Seconda la misura che facevamo del viaggio colla catena a poppa noi -percorrevamo da 60 in 70 leghe al giorno</i>,’ [following the measure which we made -of our progress with the chain at the stern, we ran from sixty to seventy leagues -a day]. (Amoretti. Primo Viaggio intorno al Globo terracqueo ossia Navigazione -fatta dal Cavaliere Antonio Pigafetta sulla squadra del Magaglianes, 1800. -p. 46.) What can this arrangement of a chain at the hinder part of the ship -(<i>catena a poppa</i>), ‘which we used throughout the entire voyage to measure the -way,’ have been except an apparatus similar to our log?”—Humboldt: Cosmos. -Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 633.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> The Cape of Good Hope is in 34° 22´ south latitude.</p> - -<p>It is said that Dias found by the astrolabe that the cape was in 45° south -latitude, and that it was 3,100 leagues distant from Lisbon. This distance, it is -related, Dias set down, league by league, on a marine chart, which he presented -to King John II. Historia General de las Indias. Bartolomé de las Casas. -lib. i. cap. vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Cristoforo Colombo was born in the city of Genoa, about the year 1435. -His father, Dominico Colombo, was a wool-comber. The navigator married, in -Lisbon, Doña Felipa, the daughter of Bartolomeo Moñis de Perestrello, a distinguished -mariner, who had been in the service of Prince Henry of Portugal.</p> - -<p>Ferdinand Columbus, in his history of the life and achievements of his father, -remarks: “So it is that some, who would cast a cloud upon his fame, say he -was of Nervi, others of Cugureo, and others of Bugiesco, all small towns near -the city of Genoa, and upon its coast. Others, who wish to exalt him, say he -was a native of Savona, others of Genoa, and others, more vain, make him of -Piacenza, in which city there are some honorable persons of his family and -tombs with the arms and inscriptions of the family of Colombi, this being the -common surname of his ancestors, though he, complying with the customs of the -country where he went to live and begin a new condition of life, altered the -word that it might be like the old name, and designated the direct from the -collateral line, calling himself Colon.... And the surname of Colon -which he revived was appropriate, which in Greek signifies a member, and his -Christian name being Christopher, designate him as being a member of Christ, -by whom salvation was conveyed to those Indian people.”—Histoire del Signore -Don Fernando Colombo. cap. 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> Fernando Colombo, an illegitimate son of the admiral, was born in Cordova -about the year 1487. After his father’s discovery of the New World, he -was made page to Prince Juan, the son of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. -He accompanied his father in his fourth voyage, in 1502, and after the latter’s -death, sailed twice to the West Indies. He was excellently educated, and was -the author of several works. His library, it is said, contained more than twenty -thousand books and manuscripts, which, after his death, became the property -of the cathedral of Seville. The manuscript of his history of the life of his -father was lost before the work appeared in Spanish. It is said that Luis Colon, -duke of Veragua, a dissipated grandson of the navigator, went to Genoa about -the year 1568, taking Fernando’s manuscript with him, and placed it in the hands -of Baltano de Fornari, by whom it was transferred to Giorgio Baptista Marini, -who had it translated into Italian, after which it was printed in Venice in this -language, and also in Latin. Alfonso de Ulloa’s Italian translation of it was -published, in Venice, in 1571, entitled Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo; -nelli quali s’ ha particolare, & vera relatione della vita, & de’ fatti dell’ Ammiraglio -D. Cristoforo Colombo, suo padre. There are several English translations -of Fernando Colombo’s history. <i>Vide</i> Collection of voyages and travels by -[A. & J.] Churchhill. London, 1732. vol. ii. pp. 499-628. Pinkerton’s Collection -of voyages and travels. London, 1819. vol. ii. pp. 1-155.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Columbus, in his investigations, no doubt, became informed concerning -the arguments advanced by the Greek astronomer, Anaximander, in the sixth -century before the Christian era, respecting the globular form of the earth. He -evidently read what Aristotle wrote in the fifth century of the Christian era: -“As to the figure of the earth, it must necessarily be spherical.... And, -moreover, from the visible phenomena, for if it were not so, the eclipses of the -moon would not have such sections as they have. For in the configurations in -the course of a month, the deficient part takes all different shapes; it is straight, -and concave, and convex; but in eclipses it always has the line of division convex; -wherefore, since the moon is eclipsed in consequence of the interposition -of the earth, the periphery of the earth must be the cause of this by having a -spherical form. And again, from the appearance of the stars, it is clear not only -that the earth is round, but that its size is not very great; for when we go a little -distance to the south or to the north, the circle of the horizon becomes palpably -different, so that the stars overheard undergo a great change, and are not the -same to those that travel to the north and to the south. For some stars are seen -in Egypt and at Cyprus, but are not seen in the countries north of them; and the -stars that in the north are visible while they make a complete circuit there [in -Egypt and at Cyprus], undergo a setting. So that from this it is manifest, not -only that the form of the earth is round, but also that it is not a very large sphere; -for otherwise the difference would not be so obvious to persons making so small -a change of place. Wherefore we may judge that those persons who connect the -region in the neighborhood of the Pillars of Hercules with that toward India, and -who assert that in this way the sea is one, do not assert things very improbable. -They confirm this conjecture, moreover, by elephants, which are said to be of -the same species toward each extreme of the earth, as if this circumstance was -a consequence of the conjunction of the extreme parts. The mathematicians, who -try to calculate the measure of the circumference, make it amount to 400,000 -stadia; whence we infer that the earth is not only spherical, but that it is not -large compared with the magnitude of the other stars,”—De Cœlo. lib. ii. -cap. xiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo, cap. v.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo, cap. iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Iceland lies between 63° 24´ and 66° 33´ north latitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> The Azores or Western Islands, about eight hundred miles west of Portugal, -lie in an oblique line, northwest and southeast, between 36° 50´ and 39° -50´ north latitude and 24° 30´ and 31° 20´ west longitude. The Azores, frequently -called Terceiras, were discovered in 1439 by Josua van der Berg, a -Flemish merchant, who was carried in his ship to them in a storm. They were -named Açores from the number of goshawks found on them. They were not -inhabited when discovered.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> The Cape Verd Islands, three hundred and twenty miles west of Cape -Verd on the west coast of Africa, lie between 14° 45´ and 17° 13´ north latitude -and between 22° 45´ and 25° 25’ west longitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> Claudius Ptolemæus, an Egyptian astronomer and geographer, lived, in -the second century at Alexandria. His System of Geography, (Γεωγραφική -Ἀφήγησις,) contained in eight books, was a standard work for fourteen -centuries. During the first part of the sixteenth century twenty-one editions -of the geography, with editions and emendations, were published. According to -Ptolemy, all the known part of the earth, from the first meridian, or the Canary -Islands, eastwardly, on the parallel of Rhodes, measured seventy-two thousand -stadia, or one hundred and eighty degrees, which he deemed to be the half of the -circumference of the globe. But the extent he was acquainted with was really -measured by one hundred and twenty degrees, which made the circumference -one third less than it is.</p> - -<p>Marinus of Tyre, a Greek geographer, lived about 150 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> This cosmographer -supposed that the country of the Seres, or Sinae (China), the farthest -part of India known to the ancients, was fifteen hours, by the course of -the sun, or two hundred and twenty-five degrees east of the first meridian passing -through the Fortunate (Canary) Islands. According to our present geographical -measurements, the distance given by Marinus was not more than one -hundred and thirty degrees, leaving two hundred and thirty the remaining -distance from China eastwardly to the Canary Islands. Following the deductions -of Marinus, there were only one hundred and thirty-five degrees of -distance between China, going eastwardly, and the Fortunate Islands.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> “Marinus, the Tyrian, misled by the length of time occupied in the navigation -from Myos Hormos to India, by the erroneously assumed direction of the -major axis of the Caspian from west to east, and by the over-estimation of the -length of the land route to the country of the Seres, gave the old continent a -breadth of 225°, instead of 129°. The Chinese coast was thus advanced to -the Sandwich Islands. Columbus naturally preferred this result to that of -Ptolemy, according to which Quinsay should have been found in the meridian -of the eastern part of the archipelago of the Carolinas. Ptolemy, in the Almagest -(ii. 1), places the coast of Sinae at 180°, and in his Geography (lib. i. cap. -12) at 177¼°.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 645. Note.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Alfraganius or Al Fergani, an Arabian astronomer, lived in the earlier -part of the ninth century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> Medea, act. ii.</p> - -<p>Lucius Annæus Seneca, a Stoic philosopher and tragic poet, was born at -Corduba, Spain, about 5 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and died 65 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p> - -<p>Tiphys was the name of the pilot of the ship of the Argonauts.</p> - -<p>Thule, an island in the extreme part of Northern Europe, as known in the -time of Ptolemy. The island is supposed by some to have been the Shetland -Islands, by others the Faroe group, and by others Iceland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. vi, vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> Porto Santo, a small island northeast of the island of Madeira.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> The island of Madeira (Wood) lies off the west coast of Africa, between -32° 37´ and 32° 52´ north latitude and 16° 38´ and 17° 16´ west longitude. It is -thirty-four miles long. The island of Porto Santo is twenty-five miles northeast -of it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Various fictions were current in the middle ages respecting the situation -of the island of the Seven Cities, and a number of expeditions went in search -of it with unsuccessful results. Mercator, Ortelius, and Locke place the island -in 28° north latitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> Thucydides, a Greek historian, born <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 471.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo, cap. ix, x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> “Paolo Toscanelli was so greatly distinguished as an astronomer that -Behaim’s teacher, Regiomontanus, dedicated to him, in 1463, his work, <i>De -Quadratura Circuli</i>, directed against the Cardinal Nicolaus de Cusa. He constructed -the great gnomon in the church of Santa Maria Novella at Florence, -and died in 1482, at the age of eighty-five, without having lived long enough to -enjoy the pleasure of learning the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Diaz, -and of the tropical part of the new continent by Columbus.”—Humboldt: -Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 644. Note.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> Zacton, in China, is now called Tsiuenchau. “At this city” says Marco -Polo, “is the haven of Zayton, frequented by all of the ships from India, ... -and by all the merchants of Manzi, for hither is imported the most -astonishing quantity of goods and of precious stones and pearls.... -For it is one of the two greatest havens in the world for commerce.”—Ser -Marco Polo. Yule. Second ed. vol. ii. p. 186. On Ruysch’s map of 1508, Zaiton -is placed on the east coast of China, west of the island of Cuba. <i>Vide</i> map.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> The city is now called Hangchau, and is in the province of Chehkiang. -As described by Marco Polo, the city was “the finest and the noblest in the -world.”—Ser Marco Polo. Yule. Second ed. vol. ii. p. 145. Quinsai -on Ruysch’s map of 1508, is northwest of Zaiton.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> Antonio Pigafetta, in his Treatise on navigation, written about the year -1523, says: “The circumference of the earth is supposed to be divided into -three hundred and sixty degrees, and to each degree are assigned seventeen -leagues and a half; the circumference of the earth is consequently six thousand -three hundred leagues. The land league is three miles, the sea league is -four.”—MS. in Ambrosian library, Milan.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Cipango (Japan), now called by the natives Dai Nippon or Dai Nihon, is -a group of islands lying between the twenty-third and fiftieth parallels of north -latitude and the one hundred and twenty-second and one hundred and fifty-third -meridians of east longitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> From Lisbon, Spain, in 38° 42´ north latitude and 9° 8´ west longitude -(first meridian at Greenwich), to Tokio, Japan, in 35° 40´ north latitude and -139° 40´ east longitude, the westward distance is about eleven thousand six -hundred statute miles; and from Lisbon to Peking, China, in 39° 56´ north -latitude and 116° 27´ east longitude, about twelve thousand one hundred -miles. From Liverpool, England, to New York, on the sailing route, the distance -is about three thousand and twenty-three miles, and from New York to -Canton, China, <i>via</i> the Isthmus of Panama and the Sandwich Islands, the distance -is about ten thousand six hundred miles.</p> - -<p>“As the old continent, from the western extremity of the Iberian peninsula -[Portugal], to the coast of China, comprehends almost 130° of longitude, there -remain about 230° for the distance which Columbus would have had to traverse -if he wished to reach Cathai (China); but less if he only desired to reach Zipangi -(Japan). This difference of 230°, which I have indicated, depends on the position -of the Portuguese Cape St. Vincent (11° 20´ W. of Paris), and the far -projecting part of the Chinese coast, near the then celebrated port of Quinsay, so -often named by Columbus and Toscanelli (lat. 30° 28´, long. 117° 47´ E. of -Paris).... The distance of Cape St. Vincent from Zipangi (Niphon) is -22° of longitude less than Quinsay, therefore about 209° instead of 230° 53´.”—Humboldt: -Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 264. Note.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. viii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Diego Ortiz de Cazadilla, bishop of Ceuta.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> This conclave of the learned men of Spain held its meetings in the -Dominican convent of St. Stephen, in Salamanca.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> “But as to the fable that there are antipodes—that is to say, men on the -opposite side of the earth, where the sun rises when it sets to us—men who -walk with their feet opposite ours, that is on no ground credible. And, indeed, -it is not affirmed that this has been learned by historical knowledge, but by -scientific conjecture, on the ground that the earth is suspended within the concavity -of the sky, and that it has as much room on the one side of it as on the -other; hence they say that the part which is beneath must be inhabited. But they -do not remark that, although it be supposed or scientifically demonstrated that -the world is of a round and spherical form, yet it does not follow that the other -side of the earth is bare of water; nor even, though it be bare, does it immediately -follow that it is peopled. For Scripture, which proves the truth of its -historical statements by the accomplishment of its prophecies, gives no false -information; and it is too absurd to say that some men might have taken ship -and traversed the whole wide ocean, and crossed from this side of the world to -the other, and that thus even the inhabitants of that distant region are descended -from the first man.”—Sancti Aurelii Augustini Hipponensis episcopi -operum. Tomus Septimus. Antwerpiæ. 1700. De Civitate Dei. lib. xvi. -cap. ix. The works of Aurelius Augustine, bishop of Hippo. Trans. by the -Rev. Marcus Dods. Edinburgh. 1871.</p> - -<p>Lactantius, another theologian, in the fourth century, argued in the same -way: “Is it possible that men can be so absurd as to believe that the plants and -trees on the other side of the earth hang downward, and that men there have -their feet higher than their heads? If you ask of them how they defend these -monstrosities, how things do not fall away from the earth on that side, they reply -that the nature of things is such that heavy bodies tend toward the centre, like -the spokes of a wheel, while light bodies, as clouds, smoke, fire, tend from the -centre it toward the heavens on all sides. Now I am really at a loss what to say -of those who, when they have once gone wrong, steadily persevere in their folly -and defend one absurd opinion by another.”—Div. Institutiones. lib. iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xi, xii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> In a letter, addressed to the king and queen describing his fourth voyage, -Columbus remarks: “For seven years I was at your royal court, where every -one to whom the enterprise was mentioned treated it as ridiculous, but now -there is not a man, down to the very tailors, who does not beg to be allowed to -become a discoverer.”—Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos, que hicieron -por mar los Españoles desde fines del siglo xv., por Don Martin Fernandez de -Navarrete. Madrid, 1825. tom. i. p. 311.</p> - -<p>Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xiii, xiv, xv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> “<i>Tengo propósito de hacer carta nueva de navegar, en la cual situaré toda -la mar y tierras del mar Océano en sus propios lugares debajo su viento; y mas -componer un libro, y poner todo por el semejante por pintura, por latitud del equinocial -y longitud del Occidente, y sobre todo cumple mucho que yo olvide el sueño y -tiente mucho el navegar porque asi cumple, las cuales serán gran trabajo.</i>”—Coleccion -de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. i. pp. 1-3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Columbus, speaking of the progress of the ship, on the twenty-fourth of -October, remarks: “I carried all the sail of the ship, the mainsail, and two -bonnets, the foresail, and the spritsail, and the mizzen and the main-top-sail. -<i>Llevaba todas mis velas de la nao, maestra, y dos bonetas, y trinquete, y cebadera, -y mezana, y vela de gavia.</i>” A bonnet was a sail placed beneath the mainsail -in fine weather to increase the speed of a ship.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> On the pavement of the cathedral of Seville is inscribed: “<i>Con tres -galeras y 90 personas</i>,” with three galleys and ninety persons.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xvi, xvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> The island of Ferro is the most westerly of the Canary group. The Canaries -lie off the west coast of Africa, between 27° and 30° north latitude and 13° -and 19° west longitude. The principal islands are: Teneriffe, Grand Canary, -Palma, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gomera, and Ferro. Through the last island -the ancient geographers drew the first meridian of longitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> According to Columbus’s statement, 56⅔ miles were equal to a degree, and -four miles to a marine league. It has been assumed that the Italian mile used -in measurements by Columbus equalled 4,842 English feet, and the Italian -marine league 19,368 English feet.—<i>Vide</i> An attempt to solve the problem of -the first landing-place of Columbus in the New World. By Captain G. V. Fox, -Assistant Secretary of the United States Navy. United States Coast and -Geodetic Survey. Appendix No. 18. Report for 1880. Washington, 1882. -pp. 58, 59.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> “On September 13, 1492, he had reached far enough to the westward to -come from a previously eastern declination within a region of westerly declination, -and that on September 17 it amounted to a whole point (11¼°).” This -constitutes his well-known discovery of a part of a line of no-declination. -“Two hundred and twenty-four leagues or, near enough for our purpose, -672 nautical miles, west of the island of Gomera would place him on September -13, in latitude 28° 06´ north, and in longitude 12° 42´ + 17° 08´ = 29° 50´, according -to Bowditch, or if we take the position of the harbor of Sebastian near -the eastern point of Gomera Island, according to admiralty chart No. 1873, -viz.: latitude 28° 05´ 5 and longitude 17° 06´ 3 and considering that 11° 12´ -correspond to 12° 42´ of difference of longitude in that latitude, we have for -a point in the line of no-declination the latitude of 28° 05´ and longitude -29° 48´. In E. Walker’s treatise on Terrestrial and Cosmical Magnetism, -Cambridge (England), 1866, p. 300, we read: ‘The history of this line dates -from the 13th of September, 1492, when Columbus observed the needle pass -from the east to the west of the meridian, in latitude 28° N. longitude 28° W. -(probably roughly adding 11° of difference of longitude to 17° for longitude of -Gomera). According to my computation of the daily position of the Admiral’s -flagship, and based upon his log-book, he was on September 13 in latitude -28° 21´ longitude 29° 16´.... According to my computation of the -daily track, Columbus was on September 17, 1492, in latitude 27° 38´ and in -longitude 36° 30´, when he noted 11° west declination.”—An inquiry into the -variation of the compass off the Bahama Islands, at the time of the landfall of -Columbus in 1492. By Charles A. Schott. United States Coast and Geodetic -Survey. Appendix No. 19. Report for 1880. Washington, 1882. p. 5.</p> - -<p>“Christopher Columbus has not only the merit of being the first to discover -<i>a line without magnetic</i> variation, but also of having excited a taste for the study -of terrestrial magnetism in Europe, by means of his observations on the progressive -increase of western declination in receding from that line.”—Humboldt: -Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 656.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> “Men also became acquainted with those great banks of sea-weed (<i>Fucus -natans</i>),—the oceanic meadows which presented the singular spectacle of the -accumulation of a social plant over an extent of space almost seven times greater -than the area of France. The <i>great Fucus Bank</i>, the <i>Mar de Sargasso</i>, extends -between 19° and 34° north latitude. The major axis is situated about 7° west -of the island of Corvo. The <i>lesser Fucus Bank</i> lies in a space between the -Bermudas and the Bahamas. Winds and partial currents variously affect, according -to the character of the season, the length and circumference of these -Atlantic fucoid meadows.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 663.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xviii, xix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xx, xxii.</p> - -<p>The discovery of land was made on Friday morning, the twelfth of October, -<i>old style</i>. According to the calendar of Julius Cæsar, every fourth year had -three hundred and sixty-six days; the others three hundred and sixty-five. Pope -Gregory XIII. changed this method of reckoning time by dropping ten days in -October, 1582, in order to bring back the day of the vernal equinox to the same -day, in the year 325, in which the council of Nice was convened. By an act -of the parliament of Great Britain, in 1751, eleven days, in September, 1752, -were dropped, and the third day of the month was reckoned the fourteenth of -the <i>new style</i>. This mode of reckoning time is called the <i>new style</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Bartolomé de las Casas was born at Seville, in 1474. In 1502 he made -his first voyage to the New World, and quitted its shores for the last time in -1547. His history of the Indies,—Historia general de las Indias,—written -between the years 1527 and 1562, was not printed until 1875-’76, when it was -issued, in five volumes, at Madrid. Before his death, in 1566, he gave the -manuscript of this work to the convent of San Gregorio, at Valladolid, with the -request that it should not be published for forty years. A manuscript in Las -Casas’s hand-writing, apparently an abridgment of Columbus’s journal of his -first voyage, which the former evidently had made while obtaining material for -his history of the Indies, was found by Martin Fernandez de Navarrete, the -Spanish historian, in the archives of Spain, when making, about the year 1790, -researches for information respecting the marine history of Spain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> This island is believed by Munoz to be Watling Island; by Navarrete, -Grand Turk Island; by Humboldt and Irving, Cat Island. The Bahamas lie -between the island of Hayti or San Domingo and the east coast of Florida, or -between 21° and 27° 30´ north latitude and 70° 30´ and 79° 5´ west longitude. -The principal islands of the group are the Grand Bahama, Great and Little -Abaco, Andros, New Providence, San Salvador, Rum Cay, Great Exuma, Watling, -Long, Crooked, Atwood’s Key, Great and Little Magua islands.</p> - -<p>The identity of the island is discussed at some length by Captain G. V. -Fox, of the United States Navy, who remarks: “The study that I gave to the -subject in the winter of 1878-’79 in the Bahamas, which had been familiar -cruising-ground to me, has resulted in the selection of Samana or Atwood Cay -for the first landing-place. It is a little island, 8.8 miles east and west, 1.6 -extreme breadth, and averaging 1.2 north and south. It has 8.6 square miles. -The east end is in latitude 23° 05´ N.; longitude, 73° 37´ west of Greenwich.... -Turk is smaller than Samana, and Cat very much longer.”—An -attempt to solve the problem of the first landing-place of Columbus in the -New World. By Captain G. V. Fox, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. -Appendix No. 18. Report for 1880. Washington, 1882. pp. 43, 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> F and Y: Fernando and Ysabel.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> The real position of this island, in respect to that of Ferro, is E. 5° N. -The port of Ferro is in latitude 27° 46´ 2´´ N. and longitude 17° 54´ 2´´ W.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> <i>Vide</i> Personal narrative of the first voyage of Columbus to America. -From a manuscript recently discovered in Spain. Translated from the Spanish. -[By Samuel Kettell.] Boston, 1827. pp. 33-38.</p> - -<p>Historia general de las Indias. Por Bartolomé de las Casas. lib. 1. -cap. xxxix-xli. Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> A coin of less value than a mill.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> From this point, says Humboldt, as related by Columbus’s friend, the -Cura de los Palacios, “he proposed, if he had provision enough ‘to continue his -course westward, and to return to Spain, either by water, by way of Ceylon -(Taprobane) <i>rodeando todo la tierra de los Negros</i>, or by land, through Jerusalem -and Jaffa.’ ... See the important manuscript of Andres Bernaldez, Cura -de la villa de los Palacios (Historia de los Reyes Catolicos, cap. 123). This -history comprises the years from 1488 to 1513. Bernaldez had received Columbus -into his house, in 1496, on his return from his second voyage.”—Humboldt: -Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. p. 640, and note.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> The real distance is said to be eleven hundred and five leagues.—<i>Vide</i> Personal -narrative of the first voyage of Columbus to America. [Kettell.] pp. 38-73.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Historia general de las Indias. Las Casas. cap. xlvi. Coleccion de los -viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> An arroba is equal to twenty-five pounds.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> Las Casas remarks: “From what he here relates, it appears that had he -proceeded farther northerly he would undoubtedly, in two more days, have discovered -Florida.”—MS. of Las Casas. <i>Vide</i> Personal narrative of the first -voyage of Columbus to America. [Kettell.] pp. 73-86.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> Letter of Columbus to Rafael (or Gabriel) Sanchez, dated Lisbon, March -14, 1493.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> “Only 21° of latitude.”—Navarrete.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> A blank space in the original.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> The island of Cuba lies between 19° 50´ and 23° 10´ north latitude, and -74° 7´ and 84° 58´ west longitude. Florida is about one hundred and thirty -miles north of Cuba.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> The argument of Las Casas concerning the heat at forty-two degrees -north latitude is invalidated by Columbus’s reasons for not sailing farther to the -north. In his letter to Rafael Sanchez he says: “Finding myself proceeding -toward the north, which I was desirous to avoid <i>on account of the cold</i>, and, -moreover, meeting with a contrary wind, I determined to return to the south.” -It would seem that Columbus was unable to satisfy his own doubts respecting -the latitude of the places in the North to which he had sailed. If he had not -mentioned that he was in doubt respecting the working condition of his quadrant, -the question of his sailing as far north as the forty-second parallel would -be an important matter for geographical discussion. Navarrete says: “The -quadrants of that time measured the double altitude, and consequently the -forty-two degrees which Columbus says he was distant from the equator are to -be reduced to twenty-one north latitude, which is the parallel to which he had -sailed.”—<i>Vide</i> Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete, tom. i. -pp. 44, 47, 62. Personal narrative of the first voyage of Columbus to America. -[Kettell.] p. 95.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> Ferdinand Columbus says the admiral called the island of Cuba, Juana, -in honor of Prince Juan, heir of Castile.—<i>Vide</i> Histoire del S. D. Fernando -Colombo. cap. xxvi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> The island of Española, which the natives called Haiti, lies between -17° 36´ and 19° 59´ north latitude, and 68° 20´ and 74° 38´ west longitude. It -is about fifty miles east-southeast of Cuba and about seventy-five west-northwest -of Porto Rico. It is now called Hayti or San Domingo.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> Apparently the original name of Jamaica. The island of Jamaica is about -eighty-five miles from Cuba.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> On the twenty-first of November, 1492, Martin Alonso Pinzon, in the -Pinta, had left the other vessels and remained away from them until the sixth -of January, 1493.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> MS. of Las Casas.—<i>Vide</i> Personal narrative of the first voyage of Columbus -to America. [Kettell.] pp. 86-205.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> Columbus’s letter to Rafael Sanchez.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Columbus’s letter to Rafael Sanchez.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> MS. of Las Casas.—<i>Vide</i> Personal narrative of the first voyage of Columbus -to America. [Kettell.] pp. 215-222.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Martin Alonso Pinzon had previously arrived in Galicia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xli, xlii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Epistola Christofori Colom: cui etas nostra multu debit: de Insulis Indie -supra Gangem nuper inuētis. Ad quas perqrendas octauo antea mense auspicies -& ere invictissimor’ Fernãdi & Helisabet Hispaniar’ Regu missus -fuerat: ad magnificum dum Gabrielem Sanchis eorundē Serenissimor’ Regum -Tesaurariu missa: quiā nobilis ac literatus vir Leander de Cosco ab Hispano -ideomate in latinum cōuertit tertio kal’s Maii m.cccc.xciii Pontificatus Alexandri -Sexti anno primo.</p> - -<p>A letter of Christopher Columbus, to whom our age is greatly indebted, -respecting the islands of India lately found beyond the Ganges. In search of -which he was sent eight months ago under the auspices and at the expense of -the most invincible Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of Spain. Sent to the -magnificent lord, Gabriel Sanchez, treasurer of the same most serene king, and -which the noble and learned man, Leander de Cosco, translated from the -Spanish idiom into Latin. The third day of the calends of May, 1493. Pontificate -of Alexander VI., first year.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xlii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Tratado, que compōs o nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xlvi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xlvi, xlvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. l.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. li.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. liii-lviii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> “<i>Que esta tierra de Cuba fuesa la tierra firme al comienzo de las Indias y -fin á quien en estas partes quisiere venir de España por tierra.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> Informacion del escribano publico. Fernando Perez de Luna. Coleccion -de los viages y descubrimientos de los Espagñoles. tom. ii. pp. 143, 149.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> In August, 1495, Peter Martyr, writing to Cardinal Bernardino, says: -“Columbus asserts that this region is the continent of the Ganges of India,—<i>Indiæ -Gangetidis continentem eam esse plagam contendit Colonus</i>.”—Opvs, -epistolaru Petri Martyris Anglerii Mediolanēsis Protonotarij Aplici atque a -cōsilijs reru Indicaru: nuc pmu et natu y mediocri cura excursum: quod q dē -preterstili venustatē, nostroru quoque tēporum histori loco esse poterit. Cōpluti -Anno dni <span class="allsmcap">MDXXX</span>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lviii-lxiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Columbus writing from Española in October, 1498, says: “Each time -that I sail from Spain to India, as soon as I have proceeded about a hundred -nautical miles to the west of the Azores, I perceive an extraordinary alteration -in the movement of the heavenly bodies, in the temperature of the air, and in -the character of the sea. I have observed these alterations with especial care, -and I notice that the mariner’s compass, whose declination had hitherto been -northeast, was now changed to northwest; and when I had crossed this line, as -if in passing the brow of a hill, I found the ocean covered with such a mass of -sea-weed, similar to small branches of pine covered with pistachio nuts, that we -were apprehensive that for want of a sufficiency of water our ships would run upon -a shoal. Before we reached the line of which I speak, there was no trace of any -such sea-weed. On the boundary line, one hundred miles west of the Azores, -the ocean is found still and calm, being scarcely ever moved by a breeze. On -my passage from the Canary Islands to the parallel of Sierra Leone, we had -to endure a frightful degree of heat, but as soon as we had crossed the above-mentioned -line, the climate changed, the air became temperate, and the freshness -increased the farther we proceeded.”</p> - -<p>“It is evident that the extract from the third voyage is but an amplification -of his first account, and expresses his conviction that west of the Azores, where -the declination was a little easterly, it changed to the westward, being nearly -zero at Corvo, and gradually increasing to one point or 11° W., at a distance of -300 nautical miles W. of the longitude of Corvo. The position of Rosario on -the S.E. part of the island of Corvo is, according to the <i>Carta Esferica de las -Islas Azores</i>, Madrid, 1855, in latitude 39° 41´ and longitude 24° 53´ west of -San Fernando, or in 31° 07´ west of Greenwich (according to the <i>Conn. des -Temps</i>), 100 leagues or 300 nautical miles west of this longitude would correspond -(in latitude 28°) to 5° 40´, and would bring the Columbus line in longitude -36° 47´ W.”—An inquiry into the variation of the compass off the Bahama -Islands at the land fall of Columbus in 1492. By Charles A. Schott. p. 51.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> Histoire del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxiv.</p> - -<p>“The necessity for attaching a special and well-informed astronomer to -every great expedition was so generally felt that Queen Isabella wrote to Columbus -on the 5th of September, 1493, ‘that although he had shown in his undertakings -that he knew more than any other living being (<i>que ninguno de los nacidos</i>), -she counselled him, nevertheless, to take with him Fray Antonio de -Marchena, as being a learned and skillful astronomer.’ Columbus writes in the -narrative of his fourth voyage that ‘there was only one infallible method of -taking a ship’s reckoning, viz., that employed by astronomers. He who understands -it may rest satisfied; for that which it yields is like unto a prophetic -vision (<i>vision profetica</i>). Our ignorant pilots, when they have lost sight of land -for several days know not where they are. They would not be able to find the -countries again which I have discovered. To navigate a ship requires the compass -(<i>compas y arte</i>) and the knowledge or art of the astronomer.’”—Humboldt: -Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. pp. 671-673.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> “That any individual among our subjects and natives, that desires, may -go hereafter (according to our pleasure and will) to discover islands and the -mainland in the said part of the aforesaid Indies, either to those already discovered -or to any other, and to traffic in them, provided it be not in the aforesaid -island of Española. He may buy from the Christians there or from those who -may hereafter be there any article and merchandise, provided it be not gold; -and this he may and shall do with any suitable ship, provided that at the time -he leaves our kingdom he depart from the city of Cadiz, and there present himself -before our officers. And they must carry thence in each of such vessels one -or two persons named by our officers.... And it is our will and pleasure -that of all which the said persons shall find in the aforesaid islands and mainland -they shall have for themselves nine parts, and the tenth shall be our part.”—<i>Vide</i> -Memorials of Columbus; or a collection of authentic documents of that -celebrated navigator. London, 1823. pp. 88-95.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Amerigo Vespucci, the third son of Anastasio Vespucci and Elizabetta -Mina, was born in Florence, March 9, 1451. In his boyhood he attended the -school taught by his uncle, Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, a monk of the order of -St. Mark. About the year 1493 Vespucci went to Seville, and engaged in the -business of furnishing and equipping vessels for voyages of discovery. He died -in Seville, February 22, 1512.—<i>Vide</i> The life and voyages of Americus Vepucius. -By C. Edwards Lester and Andrew Foster. New York, 1846. Amerigo Vespucci. -Son caractère, ses écrits (même les moins authentiques), sa vie, et ses -navigations, par F. A. de Varnhagen. Lima, 1865.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> <i>Vide</i> Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima.—A description of works -relating to America published between the years 1492 and 1551. [By Henry -Harrisse.] New York, 1866. pp. 55-68.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> “<i>Electo per sua alteza che io fussi in essa flocta per adiutare a discoprire.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> “<i>Partimo del porto di Calis adi 10 maggio</i>, 1497.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> Likely the double altitude, and therefore eight degrees of north latitude, or -near the mouths of the Orinoco River.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> “<i>Una terra, ch’ la giudica’mo essere terra ferma: la quale dista dalle -isole d’Canaria piu allo occidente a circha di mille leghe fuora dello habitato d’ -rento della torrida zona: perche trouva’mo el polo del septentrione al zare fuora -del suo orizonte 16. gradi, & piu occide’tale che le isole di Canaria, seco’do che -mostrouano e nostri instrumenti 75. gradi.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> “<i>Nauiga’mo per el maestrale, che cosi sicorreua la costa sempre a uista di -terra.</i>”</p> - -<p>In Italy the different points of the compass were designated by the winds: -North, <i>tramontana</i>; northeast, <i>greco</i>; east, <i>levante</i>; southeast, <i>sirocco</i>; south, -<i>ostro</i>; southwest, <i>libeccio</i>; west, <i>ponente</i>; northwest, <i>maestro</i> or <i>maestrale</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> Evidently the Gulf of Coquibacoa, called shortly afterward by the -Spaniards the Gulf of Venezuela—the Gulf of Little Venice.—<i>Vide</i> Juan de la -Cosa’s map in the cover-pocket.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> “<i>Questa terra sta dentro del la torrida zona giuntamente, o di basso del -paralello, che descriue el tropico di cancer: doue alza el polo dello orizonte 23 -gradi nel fine del secondo clyma.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> “<i>Tanto che corremo dessa 870 leghe tutta uerso el maestrale.</i>”</p> - -<p>The end of the second climate was at 8° 25´ north latitude. Ptolemy, the -geographer, divided the surface of the globe, from the equator to the sixty-sixth -parallel, into zones, called climates, to represent the successive increase of -fifteen minutes in the length of a mid-summer day. The first climate extended -to 4° 15´, on the north side of the equator; the second, from 4° 15´ to 8° 25´; -and the third, to 12° 30´.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> “<i>Noi alsi facemo uela p, Spagna con 222 prigioni schiaui: & giugnemo -nel porto di Calis adi 15 doctobre 1498.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci delle isole nuouamente trouate in quattro -suoi viaggi. Primo viaggio.</p> - -<p><i>Vide</i> Amerigo Vespucci. Varnhagen. pp. 34-48. Bibliotheca Americana -Vetustissima. [Harrisse.] pp. 55-68, 149, 150.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> <i>Vide</i> Memorials of Columbus. pp. 96, 97.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> At this time, says Ferdinand Columbus, “in order that Don Diego, my -brother, and I, who had served as pages to Prince Juan, who was now dead, -might not suffer by his delays or be absent from court until the time of his departure, -he [the admiral] sent us, on the second of November, 1497, from -Seville, to serve as pages to her majesty, Queen Isabella.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> Although, according to Ferdinand Columbus’s statement, his father -called the firm land (or rather an island) at the mouths of the Orinoco River, -Isla Santa (Holy Island), Columbus really called the continent, La Tierra de -Gracia (Land of Grace).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> Letter from the island of Española.—<i>Vide</i> Select letters of Christopher -Columbus, with other original documents relating to his four voyages to the -New World. Translated and edited by R. H. Major. London, 1870. Second -edition. Hakluyt Society pub.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxv-lxxiii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxxiv-lxxxvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci. Secundo viaggio.—<i>Vide</i> Historie del S. -D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxxxiv. Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. -Navarrete. tom. iii. pp. 4-9; 543-545.</p> - -<p>In December, 1499, Vincente Yañez Pinzon sailed from Palos, and came -in sight of the coast of Brazil at a point of land which he called Cabo Santa -Maria de la Consolacion. The same month Diego de Lepe sailed from Palos -and made discoveries south of this cape. Rodrigo de Bastidas sailed from -Cadiz in October, 1500, and explored the coast of Paria westward to the isthmus -of Darien.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> Nueva España (New Spain), was the name which the Spaniards gave to -Yucatan and Mexico when they first explored these countries.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> Mar del Sur, the early Spanish name for the Pacific Ocean.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxxxviii-xc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xcii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xciv-xcvi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> <i>Vide</i> Select letters of Christopher Columbus. Major.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> Columbus, in his letter to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, from -Jamaica, dated July 7, 1503, says: “This is the account I have to give of my -voyage. The men who accompanied me were a hundred and fifty in number, -among whom were many considered to be pilots and good sailors, but none of -them can explain whither I went nor whence I came. The explanation is -simply this: I sailed from a point above the port of Brazil, and while I was in -Española, a storm prevented me from following my intended route, for I was -compelled to go wherever the wind drove me. At the same time I became very -sick, and there was no one who had sailed in these parts before. However, -after some days the wind and sea became tranquil, but there were rapid currents. -I put into a harbor at the island called Isla de las Bocas, and afterward steered -for Tierra-firme. However, it is impossible to give a correct account of all our -movements, for I was carried away by the current for many days without -seeing land.</p> - -<p>“I ascertained, notwithstanding, by the compass and by observation, that I -was running parallel with the coast of Tierra-firme. No one could tell under -what part of the heavens we were, nor at what time I changed my course for -the island of Española. The pilots thought we had arrived at the island of St. -John, whereas it was the land of Mango, four hundred leagues westward of the -place mentioned by them. Let them answer and say if they know where -Veragua is situated. I assert that they can give no other information than that -they went to lands where there was plenty of gold, and this they can surely -affirm; but they do not know the way to return there for it. They would be -obliged to go on a voyage of discovery as if they had never been there before. -There is a way of reckoning [the course and distance sailed] derived from -astronomy which is trustworthy and safe, and a sufficient guide to any one who -understands it. This resembles prophetic vision.</p> - -<p>“The vessels of India do not sail except with the wind abaft. This is done, -not because they are badly built or clumsy, but because the strong currents in -those parts, together with the wind, make it impracticable for them to sail with -the bowline (<i>con bolina</i>), for in one day they would lose as much way as they -might have made in seven. For a similar reason I could not use caravels, -even though they were Portuguese lateens. This is the reason for their [the -vessels of India] not sailing except with a favorable wind, and they will sometimes -remain in port, waiting for one, seven or eight months at a time, nor is -this particularly strange, for the same occurs often in Spain.”—<i>Vide</i> Select letters -of Christopher Columbus. Major.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. xcvii-c.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Letter from Jamaica, July 7, 1503.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> Pietro Martire d’Anghiera, commonly called Peter Martyr, a descendant -of an illustrious Milanese family originally from Anghiera, on the eastern shore -of Lake Maggiore, in upper Italy, was born in 1455 at Arona, on the western -border of the lake. He was carried to the baptismal font by a friar of the -Dominican order and christened with the name of Peter, that of the martyr of -1252, whose feast-day falls on the twenty-ninth of April. In 1477, he went to -Rome to fit himself for the priesthood. There he became acquainted with the -Castilian embassador, the Count of Tendilla, and was induced to return with him -to Spain, in 1487. From King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella he received a -number of honoring commissions. He followed the royal standard through -two campaigns. In 1501 he was sent to Egypt to conciliate the sultan. He -returned to Spain in August, 1502. The mission to Egypt furnished him with -some of the material for his Latin work, entitled: “P. Martyris Angli Mediolanensis -opera Legatio Babylonica, Oceani decas, poemata, epigrammata.” -In 1505 he was made prior of the cathedral of Granada. Pope Leo X. -honored him with the office of apostolical prothonotary. As a royal counsellor -in the affairs of the Indies he acquired a very extensive range of information -respecting the early voyages of discovery made to the New World. His work: -“De Orbe Novo Petri Martyris ab Angleria Mediolanensis protonotarij Cesaris -senatoris decades,” contains valuable historical matter. His letters, eight hundred -and more, in the collection entitled “Opus epistolarum,” the first dated -January 1, 1488, the last May, 1525, throw considerable light upon the numerous -facts relating to the voyages of Columbus and other navigators of his time. -His “Legatio Babylonica” was first printed at Seville (Hispalis) in 1511; his -“De Orbe Novo” and letters at Alcala (Complutum) in 1530. He died in 1525, -and was entombed in the cathedral of Grenada.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> “<i>Quanuis huius Christophori Coloni opinio, magnitudini sphaere & opinion, -veterum de subnauigabili orbe, videatur aduersari, psittaci tamen inde absportatii -atque alia multa, vel propinquitate vel natura solum Indicum has insulas sapere -indicant.</i>”—De Orbe Novo decades. dec. i. cap. i.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> “<i>Tengo propósito de hacer carta nueva de navegar, en la cual situaré toda -la mar y tierras del mar Océanus en sus propios lugares debajo su viento.</i>”—Coleccion -de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. i. p. 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> <i>Vide</i> Géographie du moyen âge, etudiée par Joachim Lelewel. Atlas. -Bruxelles, 1850. Orbis typus universalis, 1501-1504. Hydrographia charta -marina Portugalensium. Planche xliii. p. xiii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> Claudii Ptolemei viri Alexandrini mathematicae disciplinae philosophi -doctissimi geographiae opus novissima traductione e Graecorum archetypis -castigatissime pressum: cæteris ante lucubratorum multo praestantius.... -Anno Christi Opt. Max. <span class="allsmcap">MDXIII.</span> Marcii xii. Pressus hic Ptolemæus Argentinae -vigilantissima castigatione, industriaque Joannis Schotti urbis indigenae.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> <i>Vide</i> Map: Universalior cogniti orbis tabula ex recentibus confecta -observationibus: in cover-pocket.</p> - -<p>The somewhat similar inscriptions on the maps of 1501-1504 and 1513: -“<i>Hec terra cum ad iacentib’ insulis inuenta est per Columbu ianuensem ex mandato -Regis Castelle.</i>”—This land with the adjacent islands was discovered by Columbus, -a Genoese, by the command of the king of Spain,—are authoritative declarations -that the admiral was the discoverer of the represented territory.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Ruysch has printed on his map these words on a scroll, on the west side -of Cuba: “<span class="allsmcap">HVC VSQ NAVES FERDINADI REGIS HISPANIE PVENERVT</span>,”—As far as -this place the ships of Ferdinand, king of Spain, come.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> Juan de la Cosa, in 1493, accompanied Columbus, on his second voyage, -as a cartographer. In 1499 he explored the coast of Paria with Alonso -de Hojeda and Amerigo Vespucci. In November, 1509, he again sailed with -Hojeda to South America, and heroically met his death while defending himself, -when surrounded by a party of assailing savages, in the village of Yurbaco, -in the province called Castilla del Oro by the Spaniards.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Examen critique de l’histoire de la géographie du nouveau continent et -des progrès de l’astronomie nautique aux quinzième et seizième siècles. Par -Alexandre de Humboldt. Paris, 1836. tome troisième. pp. 167, 174, 183.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> <i>Vide</i> Notes on Columbus. [By Henry Harrisse.] New York, 1866. -Jean et Sébastien Cabot, leur origine et leurs voyages. Par Henri Harrisse. -Paris, 1881. pp. 52, 103, 156.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> <i>Vide</i> Historical and geographical notes, 1453-1530. By Henry Stevens. -New Haven, 1869. p. 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> St. Christopher, it is said, after he was baptized by the bishop of Antioch, -took up his abode in a desert, near a rapid stream, over which he carried travellers -on his back. While bearing, one day, a child across the swollen flood, -he discovered that it was the Christ, hence his name Christophorus, the -Christ-bearer.</p> - -<p>Speaking of his father’s name, Ferdinand Columbus remarks: “As St. -Christopher is reported to have received that name because he carried Christ -over the deep waters with great danger to himself, whence came the name of -Christopher, and as he conveyed over the people whom no other could have -carried, so Admiral Christophorus Colonus, imploring the assistance of Christ -in that dangerous voyage, went over safely himself and his company, that those -Indian nations might become citizens and inhabitants of the church triumphant -in heaven.”—Historie del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. i.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> Abaco is one of the Bahama islands.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> La Cosa’s map, on three large sheets of paper, is contained in Les monuments -de la géographie ou recueil d’anciennes cartes européennes et orientales ... -publiés en fac-similé de la grandeur des originaux par M. Jomard, -membre de l’institut de France, Paris. Imprimerie de Beau, a Saint-Germain-en-Laye.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> <i>Vide</i> Section of La Cosa’s map in the cover-pocket.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. i. fol. 374.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> Little is known concerning the early history of Giovanni Caboto. In the -archives of Venice is the record of his naturalization, dated March 28, 1476, -which shows that he had lived in that city more than fifteen years before the -privilege of citizenship was granted to him. Archives of Venice: Senato Terra -1473-1477. tom. vii. p. 109.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> An effaced part of the dispatch.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Archives of Simancas. Capitulaciones con Inglaterra. Legajo ii. -fol. 16.</p> - -<p>Calendar of letters, dispatches, and state papers relating to the negotiations -between England and Spain, preserved in the archives of Simancas and elsewhere. -Edited by G. A. Bergenroth. London, 1862. vol. i. p. 89.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> Public Records. Bill number 51.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> Hakluyt. vol. iii. pp. 4, 5. Rymer’s Foedera. London, 1727. fols. -595, 596.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> The history and antiquities of the city of Bristol. By William Barrett. -1789. p. 172.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> In the privy-purse accounts of King Henry VII. is this entry: “Aug. -10, 1497. To hym that found the new Isle, 10 £.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Diarii di Marin Sanuto. tom. i. fol. 374. MS. in Marciana library, -Venice.</p> - -<p>Calendar of state papers and manuscripts relating to English affairs in the -archives and collections of Venice and other libraries of northern Italy. Edited -by Rawdon Brown. London, 1864. vol. ii. p. 262.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> Sforza archives, Milan. Calendar of state papers. London, 1864. vol. -ii. p. 260.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> “<i>Esta tierra fue descubierta por Ioan Caboto Veneciano, y Sebastian Caboto -su hijo, anno del nascimierte de nuestro Saluador Iesu Christo de m. cccc. -xciiii. a ueinte y quatro de lunio por la mannana, ala qual pusieron nobre -prima tierra uista, y a una isla grade que esta par de la dha tierra, le pusieron -nombre sánt Ioan, por auer sido descubierta el mismo dia.</i>”—Tabla primera. -No. 8.</p> - -<p>The Latin inscription, which seems to be a translation of the Spanish one, -reads: “<i>Terram hanc olim nobis clausam, aperuit, Ioannes Cabotus Venetus, -necno Sebastianus Cabotus eius filius, anno ab orbe redempto 1494. die uero 24. -Iuly, hora 5. sub dilùculo, qua terra primu uisam appellarut & Insula quanda -magna ei opposita, Insula diui Ioannis nominarut, quippe quæ solenni die festo -diui Ioannis aperta fuit.</i>”—Tabula prima. No. 8.</p> - -<p>“John Caboto, a Venetian, and also Sebastian Caboto, his son, made the -land accessible which formerly was closed to us, in the year of the redemption -of the world 1494 [1497?], on the twenty-fourth day of July [June?] at five -o’clock in the morning, which land he called the first seen, <i>primum visam</i>, and -a large island opposite to it, he named the island of Saint John, because it was -found on the day of the feast of Saint John.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> “<i>Sebastian Caboto capitan, y piloto mayor de la S. c. c. m. del Imperador -don Carlos quinto deste nombre, y Rey nuestro sennor hizo esta figura extensa -en plano, anno del nasciemᵒ de nro saluador Iesu Christo de m.d. xliiii. annos, -tirada por grados de latitud y longitud con sus uientos como carta de marear, -imitando en parte al Ptolomeo, y en parte alos modernos descobridores, asi Espannoles -como Portugueses, y parte por su padre, y por el descubierto.</i>”—Retulo del -auctor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Archives of Milan. Annuario scientifico. Milan, 1866. p. 700.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> The thirteenth year of the reign of Henry VII. began on the twenty-fifth -of August, 1497.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> “Henry VII., 1498, March 22. To Lanslot Thirkill of London, upon -a Prest for his shipp going towards the new Ilande, £. 20.—Item delivered to -Launcelot Thirkill going towards the new Ile in Prest, £. 20.—April 1. Item -to Thomas Bradley and Louncelot Thirkill going to the new Isle, £. 30.—To -John Carter going to the newe Ile in reward 40. s.”—Excerpta historica. -London, 1831. pp. 116, 117.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> Public Records. Bill number 6. Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 5. Memoir of -Sebastian Cabot. [Richard Biddle.] Phila. 1831. pp. 74, 75.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> Pedro de Ayala, the Spanish Ambassador, was sent to London in 1497.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> Bernardo Buil, a Benedictine monk, who accompanied Columbus on his -second voyage, in 1493, and returned to Spain in 1494.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> Archives of Simancas. Tratado con Inglaterra. Leg. ii. Calendar of -letters, dispatches, and state papers. London, 1862. vol. i. pp. 176, 177.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> The fourteenth year of the reign of Henry VII. began August 21, 1498, -and ended August 21, 1499.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> The Chronicle of England, from Brute vnto this present yeare of Christ -1580. By John Stow. London, 1580. p. 862.</p> - -<p>Robert Fabian, from whose work Stow obtained the information concerning -Caboto’s voyage, was the author of the “Chronicle of England and France,” -or, as he called it, “The concordance of stories.” He was born in London -about the year 1450. Besides being an alderman of the city, he was one of its -sheriffs in 1493. He died in London in 1512, and was buried in St. Michael’s, -Cornhill.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> “<i>Quare coactus fuit, uti ait, vela vertere et occidentem isequ tetenditque -tamen ad meridiem, littore sese incurvante, ut Herculei freti latitudine ferè -gradus æquarit ad occidentemque profectus tantum est, ut Cubam insulam à -læua longitudine graduum penè parem habuerit.</i>”</p> - -<p>The Strait of Gibraltar (Strait of Hercules) is in 36° north latitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> Demorgorgon, the spirit of the earth.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> The name <i>bacallaos</i>, or <i>baccallaos</i>, is evidently derived from the Greek word -βάκὴλος, a large, lusty fellow. Names similar to this appellation were used -by the Greeks as early as the third century of the Christian era. Athenæus, in -his work entitled Δειπνοσοφισταί (the learned men at supper), presents -this information respecting certain fish: “They say that they are usually caught -in couples, and that one is always found following at the tail of the other; and, -therefore, from the fact of one following close on the tail of the other, some -ancients call men who are intemperate and libidinous by the same name.... -Euthydemus, in his work on Cured Fish, says: ‘Some call this fish [the cod] -the <i>bacchus</i>, and some the <i>gelaria</i>, and some the hake.’”—The Deipnosophists -or banquet of the learned of Athenæus. Literally translated by C. D. Yonge. -London, 1854. vol. ii. pp. 442, 496.</p> - -<p>Great numbers of the common cod [<i>morrhua vulgaris</i>] are annually caught -on the fishing-banks off the coast of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. This fish -is very prolific. It is said that eight millions of eggs have been counted in the -roe of a female cod. Cod are sometimes caught that weigh ninety pounds.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> De Orbe Novo decades. dec. iii. cap. vi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> The birthplace of Sebastian Caboto’s is not definitely known. Richard -Eden, in his translation of the Decades of the New World of Peter Martyr, -says that Sebastiano Caboto told him that he was born at Bristol, England; and -Gasparo Contarini, the embassador of Charles V., avers that he informed him -that Venice was his birthplace. It is conjectured that he was born about the -year 1476. On the twentieth of October, 1512, Sebastiano Caboto was appointed -a sea-captain by King Ferdinand of Spain. In the service of Charles -V., he sailed on the fifth of April, 1526, to search for a navigable strait along -the coast of South America. On this voyage, in 1527, he explored the Rio de -la Plata. In July, 1530, he returned to Spain. In 1548 he went to England, -where he died some time after the year 1557.—<i>Vide</i> The Decades of the Newe -Worlde or West India. Translated into Englysshe by Richarde Eden. Londoni, -1555. f. 255. Dispatch of Contarini from Valladolid, December 31, 1522. -MS. Marciana library, Venice. cod. 1019. cart. 281-283. Jean et Sébastien -Cabot. Harrisse. pp. 109-133.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias con todo el -descubrimiento y cosas notables que han acaecido dende que se ganaron ata et -año de 1551. [Por Francisco Lopez de Gomara.] Çaragoça, 1552. primera -parte. cap. de los Bacallaos.</p> - -<p>Francisco Lopez de Gomara was born at Seville in 1510. Hernando -Cortes, on his return to Spain after the conquest of Mexico, made Gomara his -chaplain. Gomara’s General history of the Indies (La historia general de las -Indias), and the Conquest of Mexico and New Spain (La conquista de Mexico, -y de la Nueua España), were first published at Saragossa, (Çaragoça), Spain, in -1552. Gomara died about the year 1560.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> Tratado, que compõs o nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> <i>Terra de Lavrador</i>, Portuguese: Land of the Farmer.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> A Discovrse of a Discouerie for a new Passage to Cataia. Written by -Sir Hvmfrey Gilbert, Knight. Imprinted at London by Henry Middleton for -Richarde Ihones. 1576. sig. D iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> The eighteenth year of the reign of King Henry VII. began August 21, -1502, and ended August 21, 1503.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> Chronicle of England. Stow. p. 875.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> Cape Breton Island lies between 45° 27´ and 47° 41´ north latitude. Its -greatest length is one hundred miles, and its greatest breadth eighty-five miles. -The island is isolated from the mainland by the Strait of Canso, which is -twenty-one miles long, and from one mile to one and a half in width. Cape -North is about sixty miles from Cape Ray, Newfoundland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> The representation of the coast of Cape Breton Island and of Nova Scotia -as trending eastward and westward, as delineated on La Cosa’s map, evidently -exemplifies the incorrect conjecture made by Giovanni Caboto respecting the -situation of the first land seen by him. Columbus’s delineation of the island of -Cuba, as having an east coast that extended far toward the north, was a similar -personal assumption which afterward was found to be false.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> “These regiōs are cauled Terra Florida and Regio Baccalearum or Bacchallaos -of the which you may reade sumwhat in this booke in the vyage of the -woorthy owlde man yet lyuing Sebastiane Cabote, in the vi. booke of the thyrde -Decade. But Cabote touched only in the north corner and most barbarous parte -hereof, from whense he was repulsed with Ise in the moneth of July. Neuer the -lesse, the west and south partes of these regions haue sence byn better searched -by other.”—The Decades of the Newe Worlde or West India. Eden. The -preface to the reader. ci.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> “<i>La gente della andan uestidos de pieles de animales, usan en sus guèrras -arcos, y flechas, lancas, y dardos, y unas porras de palo, y hondas. Es tierra muy -steril, ay en ella muchos orsos plancos, y cieruos muy grandes como cauallos, y -otras muchas animales, y semeiantemete ay pescado infinito, sollos; salmoes lenguados, -muy grandes de uara en largo y otras muchas diuersidades de pescados, y la -mayor multitud dellos se dizen baccallaos, y asi mismo ay en la dha tierra Halcones -prietos como cueruos Aguillas, Perdices, Pardillas, y otras muchas aues -de diuersas maneras.</i>”—Tabla primera. No. 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> William Worthington was joined to Sebastiano Caboto in the pension given -by Philip and Mary, May 29, 1557. Rymer. vol. xvi. p. 466. Divers voyages -touching the discouerie of America.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> Navigations, voyages, and discoveries, p. 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> Richard Hakluyt was born at Yatton, England, in 1553. He took a -remarkable interest in geography and navigation, and for a time held a professor’s -chair of these branches at Oxford. In 1582 his “Divers voyages touching -the discouerie of America and Ilands adiacent vnto the same,” was published -in London. He was also the author of “A particular discourse concerninge the -greate necessitie and manifolde comodyties that are like to growe to this Realme -of England by the Westerne discoueries lately attempted, written in the year -1584.” In 1589, he published his celebrated work, entitled: The principal -navigations, voiages, and discoveries of the English nation, made by sea or -ouer Land, to the most remote and farthest distant quarters of the earth at any -time within the compasse of these 1500 yeeres. Deuided into three Seuerall -parts, according to the positions of the Regions whereunto they were directed. -This work was further enlarged in 1599 and 1600. He was appointed prebendary -of Westminster in 1605. He died October 23, 1616, and was buried in -Westminster Abbey.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> Calicut is on the west coast of India, in 11° 15´ north latitude, and 75° 50´ -east longitude.</p> - -<p>Paesi nouamente retrouati. Et Nouo Mondo da Alberico Vesputio Florentino -intitulato. Stampato in Vicentia cu la impressa de Mgrō Henrico -Vicentino: & diligente cura & industria de Zamaria suo fiol nel mcccccvii. a di -iii de Nouember. lib. ii. cap. li-lx. The three voyages of Vasco da Gama. -From the Lendas da India of Gaspar Corvea. Translated from the Portuguese -by Henry E. J. Stanley. London, 1879. Hakluyt. Soc. pub.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> <i>Vide</i> Ruysch’s map of 1508.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Paesi Nouamente retrouati. lib. iii. cap. lxi-lxxxiiii. Raccolta di navigationi -e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. i. fol. 132-139. Coleccion de los viages y -descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. iii. pp. 94, 101.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> Gaspar Cortereal was the son of João Vaz Cortereal, who, it is said, had -previously made a voyage to the Land of Bacalhão (Terra de Bacalhão).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> Tratado, que compõs o-nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> “<i>Huma terra que por ser muito fresca e de grandes aruoredos como o sao -todas as que jazem pera aquella banda lhe pos nome terra verde.</i>”—Chronica do -felicissimo rei Dom Emanuel. Lisboa, 1566. tomo i. fol. 65.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 346.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> It seems that the writer was ignorant of the fields of the discoveries of the -English in 1497 and 1498. Giovanni Caboto, the Venetian navigator, no doubt -had made the presents found in the possession of the inhabitants.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> Paesi nouamente retrouati. lib. vi. cap. cxxvi.—<i>Vide</i> Letter of Alberto -Cantino. Archives of Modena. Cancelleria ducale. Dispacci dalla Spagna. -Jean et Sébastien Cabot. Harrisse. pp. 262-264.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> “<i>Che fu tenuta a male la mia uenuta da quanti miconosceuano: perche -miparti di Castiglia, doue mi era facto honore, & il re miteneua i’ buona possessione.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> “<i>Sta q’sto cauo 8. gradi fuori della linea equinoctiale uerso laustro.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> “<i>Tanto fumo uerso laustro, che gia stauamo fuora del tropico di capricorno: -a donde el polo del Meridione salzaua sopra lo Orizonte 32. gradi: et di gia -hauamo perduio del tucto lorsa minore, & la maggiore chi staua molto bassa, -& quasi cisimonstraua al fine delle orizonte.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> André Gonçalves, it is said, had command of the fleet.—<i>Vide</i> O Brazil -no seculo xvi. Estudos de Capistrano de Abreu. Rio de Janeiro, 1880. pp. -9-23.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci. Terzo viaggio.—<i>Vide</i> Tratado, que compõs -o nobre & notauel Capitão Antonio Galuão.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci. Quarto viaggio.—<i>Vide</i> Chronica do felicissimo -rei Dom Emanuel. Damião de Góes. tomo i. fol. 65.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> Ferdinand Columbus gives 1508 as the date of the voyage.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas tierra firme -del mar oceano escrita por Antonio de Herrera. Madrid, 1601-1615. dec. i. -lib. vi. cap. xvii. Historia del S. D. Fernando Colombo. cap. lxxxix. Coleccion -de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. iii. p. 46.</p> - -<p>Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas was born in Cuellar, in Spain, in 1549, -and died in 1625. His General history of the acts of the Spaniards on the -islands and continent of the ocean-sea, is divided into eight decades, from -1492 to 1554, contained in four volumes, the first one of which was published -in Madrid, in 1601.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> Claudius Ptolemy. In hoc opere haec continentvr geographiae Cl. -Ptolemiæi a plurima uiris utriusque linguae doctiss. emēdata: & cu archetypo -graeco ab ipsis collata. Schemata cu demostrationibus suis correcta a Marco -Beneuentano monacho coelestino, & Ioanne Cotta Veronensis iuris mathematicis -consultissimis ... Noua & universalior orbis cogniti tabula Ioā -Ruysch Germano elaborata.... Anno Virginei Partvs <span class="allsmcap">MDVIII.</span> Rome.</p> - -<p>The map is twenty-two by sixteen inches. The copy of one half of the fan-shaped -map in the cover-pocket is a reduced fac-simile of the original section.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> The names inscribed along the coast of Terra Nova are: C. Glaciato -(Ice cape), Baia de Rockas (Bay of Rocks), R. Grado, In. Baccalavras (Codfish -island), C. de Portogesi (Cape of the Portuguese), Barbatos In., and -Biggety In.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> The voyage of Nicholas de Lynna, a Franciscan monk, to the regions -near the north pole.—<i>Vide</i> Hakluyt. vol. i. pp. 121, 122. Inscription on -Mercator’s map of the world of 1569.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci delle isole nuoumente trouate in quattro -suoi viaggi.—<i>Vide</i> Amerigo Vespucci. Varnhagen. pp. 33-64. Bibliotheca -Americana vetustissima. [Harrisse.] pp. 149, 150.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> Cosmographiae introdvctio cvm qvibvsdam geometriae ac astronomiae -principiis ad eam rem necessariis. Insuper quatuor Americi Vespuccij nauigationes -Vniversalis cbosmographiae descriptio tam in solido qzplano eis etiam -insertis quæ Ptholomeo ignota a nuperis reperta sunt.... Finitu. vij. -kl’ Maij. Anno supra sesqui Millesium. vij.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> Baron von Humboldt furnishes the information that Martin Waldseemüller -of Freiburg, diocese of Constantius, was a student under the rectorship -of Conrad Knoll of Grüningen, the seventh of December, 1490, and had established -a bookstore at St. Dié, shortly before 1507.—Examen critique de l’histoire -de la géographie du nouveau continent. Humboldt. vol. iv. pp. 104-106.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> Hylacomylus, the forest-lake miller.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> “<i>Nūc vo & he partes sunt latius lustratae & alia quarta pars per Americū -Vesputiū (vt in sequentibus audietur) inuenta est quā non video cur quis -iūre vetet ab Americo inuentore sagacis ingenij viro Amerigen quasi Americi -terra siue Americam dicendā: cū & Europa & Asia a mulieribus sua sortita -sint nomina.</i>”</p> - -<p>Herodotus, speaking of the designations of the other divisions of the earth, -says: “Nor can I conjecture for what reason these different names have been -given to the earth, which is one, and those derived from the names of women.... -Nor can I learn the names of those who made this division, nor -whence they derived the appellations. Libya [Africa] is said by most of the -Greeks to take its name from a native woman of the name of Libya; and Asia, -from the wife of Prometheus. But the Lydians claim this name, saying that -Asia was called after Asius, son of Cotys, son of Manes, and not after Asia, -the wife of Prometheus; from whom also a tribe of Sardis is called the -Asian tribe. Whether Europe, then, is surrounded by water is known by no -man, nor is it clear whence it received this name, nor who gave it, unless we -will say that the region received the name from the Tyrian Europa, and that it -was previously without a name like other regions, for she evidently belonged to -Asia, and never came into the country which is now called Europe by the -Grecians, and only passed from Phœnicia to Crete, and from Crete to Lycia.”—Herodotus: -Melpomene xlv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> Until recently the map made by Petrus Apianus (Peter Benewitz), in the -Polyhistor of C. Julius Solinus, printed in Vienna, in 1520, was supposed to be -the earliest on which the name of America was engraved. However, the discovery, -in France, in 1880, of a copy of the “Cosmographiae introductio,” -printed by Jean de la Place, without a title or colophon-date, containing a map -of the world, supposed to have been made by Ludovicus Boulenger, between the -years 1514 and 1520, disentitled the former to its celebrity. The map is divided -into twelve sections or gores which can be cut and pasted on a globe. The -represented territory of North and South America is shown in two divisions, -separated by a large body of water, between the tenth and twentieth parallels -of north latitude. The word “Nova” appears on the northern division; and -on the southern, “America noviter reperta.” A similar inscription it is said is -on a cartographic representation of the world, in Vienna, made in 1509: “<i>Une -semblable appellation se lit sur la projection, également imprimée en fuseaux, d’un -globe terrestre à la date de 1509 qui fait partie de la collectione de M. le -général de Hauslab à Vienne.</i>”—Jean et Sébastien Cabot. Harrisse. p. 182. -Note.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> “<i>Americus Vesputius maritima loca Indiæ superioris ex Hispaniis navigio -ad occidentem perlustrans, eam partem quæ superioris Indiæ est credidit esse -Insulam quam a suo nomine vocari instituit.</i>”—Ioannis Schoneri Carolostadii -opvscvlvm geographicvm ex diversorum libris ac cartis. [Nuremberg, 1533.]</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> Schoner’s globe is still preserved in the library of Nuremberg.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas tierra firme -del mar oceano. Herrera. dec. i. lib. iv. cap. i, ii. Amerigo Vespucci. -Varnhagen. pp. 33-64. Bibliotheca Americana. [Harrisse.] pp. 62-68, -149, 150, 304, 305. O Brazil no seculo xvi. Capistrano de Abreu. pp. 1-39. -Descobrimento do Brasil e seu deseuvolvimento no seculo xvi. Capistrano de -Abreu. Rio de Janeiro, 1883. pp. 17-66.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> De Orbo Novo decades. dec. ii. cap. x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> The map is found on the reverse page of the forty-fifth leaf of Peter -Martyr’s rare book, entitled: P. Martyris Angli Mediolanensis opera Legatio -Babylonica, Oceani decas, poemata, epigrammata. Impressum Hispali cu summa -diligencia Jacobu Corumberger, Alemanu. Anno Millesimo quingentissimo. -xi. meso vero Aprili. The chart measures seven and a half by eleven inches.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> Juan Ponce was born at Leon, Spain, about 1460.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> Historia general. Herrera. dec. i. lib. ix. cap. x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> The Indians called this region <i>Cautio</i>. Historia general. Herrera. -dec. i. lib. ix. cap. x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> The Gulf Stream, which at this point is quite deep and narrow, has a -velocity varying from four to five miles an hour.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> “On Sunday, the eighth of May, they doubled the Cape of Florida, giving -it the name of the Cape of the Currents (Cabo de Corrientes), because they -are stronger there than the wind, and came to an anchorage near a town called -Abaiòa. All this coast, from the Point of Reefs (Punta de Arracifes) to the -Cape of the Currents, trending north and south one point to the eastward, is -clean, and has six fathoms water, the cape lying in twenty-eight degrees fifteen -minutes. They sailed on till they met with two islands to the southward, in -twenty-seven degrees, one of which, being a league in compass, they named -Santa Marta, and took in water there.</p> - -<p>“On Friday, the thirteenth of May, they sailed along a shoal and a row of -islands as far as the island which they called Pola, lying in twenty-six degrees -and a half. Between the shoal and the row of islands and the continent is a -spacious sea, like a bay.</p> - -<p>“On Sunday, the day of the Feast of the Holy Spirit, the fifteenth of May, -they coasted ten leagues along a row of small islands as far as two white ones, -and they called them all the Martyrs, (las Martires), because the high rocks, at -a distance, look like men suffering, and the name has suited them well on account -of the large number of persons who have since been lost there. The rocks lie -in twenty-six degrees fifteen minutes. The ships held on, sometimes north and -sometimes northeast, until the twenty-third of May; and on the twenty-fourth -they ran along the coast to the southward as far as some small islands which -lay out at sea, and still they did not perceive that it was the main-land.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> Historia general. Herrera. dec. i. lib. ix. cap. x, xii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias. Gomara. -cap. x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> Ten years before this, says Humboldt, “Columbus distinctly learned, -when he was coasting along the eastern shores of Veragua, that to the west of -this land there was a sea ‘which in less than nine days’ sail would bear ships to -the <i>Chersonesus aurea</i> of Ptolemy and to the mouth of the Ganges.’ In the -same <i>Carta rarissima</i>, which contains the beautiful and poetic narration of a -dream, the admiral says that ‘the opposite coasts of Veragua, near the Rio de -Belen, are situated relatively to another, as Tortosa on the Mediterranean and -Fuenterabia in Biscay, or as Venice and Pisa.’ The great ocean, the South -Pacific, was even at that time regarded as merely a continuation of the <i>Sinus -magnus</i> (μέγας κόλπος) of Ptolemy, situated before the golden Chersonesus, -whilst Cattigara and the land of the Sines (Thinae) were supposed to constitute -its eastern boundary.”—Humboldt: Cosmos. Otté’s trans. vol. ii. pp. 642, 643.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> Historia general. Herrera. dec. i. lib. x. cap. i, ii, iv. dec. ii. lib. i. -cap. iv, xi. De Orbe Novo decades. Martire. dec. iii. cap. ii, iii, vi, x. -dec. iv. cap. vi. dec. vii. cap. x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> Historia general. Herrera. dec. ii. lib. i. cap. vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> Bernal Diaz del Castillo, a native of Medina del Campo, Spain, came to -the New World, in 1514, with Pedro Arias de Avila, who had been appointed -governor of Terra Firma. He sailed with Cordoba and Grijalva on their expeditions -of discovery, and was with Cortes in his Mexican campaign, and participated -in more than a hundred engagements. He was <i>regidor</i> of the city of -Guatemala, where, on the twenty-sixth day of February, 1568, he completed -his True history of the conquest of New Spain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Escrita por el -Capitan Bernal Diaz del Castillo, vno de sus conquistadores. En Madrid, 1632. -cap. i-vi.</p> - -<p><i>Vide</i> The memoirs of the conquistador, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, written -by himself, containing a true and full account of the discovery and conquest of -Mexico and New Spain. Translated from the original Spanish by John Ingrim -Lockhart. London, 1844. vol. i. chap. i-vi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> “The dollar of exchange (<i>peso de plata</i>) is worth 8 reals of old plate, or -15 reals 2 maravedis vellon.... The value of the peso of plate, or dollar -of exchange, in English silver coin, is 39½d.” [about seventy-four cents -United States money].—The universal cambist and commercial instructor. -By Patrick Kelly. London, 1811. vol. i. pp. 388, 389.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Diaz. cap. -viii-xvi.—<i>Vide</i> The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. viii-xvi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> “He said, though still in broken Spanish, that his name was Geronimo -de Aguilar, and was a native of Ecija. About eight years ago he had been shipwrecked -with fifteen men and two women, on a voyage between Darien and the -island of St. Domingo.... The ship struck against a rock, and they -had not been able to get her off again. The whole of the crew then got into -the boat, with the hope of reaching the island of Cuba or Jamaica, but were -driven on the coast of Yucatan, where the Calachionies had taken them prisoners -and distributed them among the people. The most of his unfortunate companions -had been sacrificed to their gods. Some had died of grief and the -women had pined away, being worn out by the hard labor of grinding which -they had forced them to do. He had been doomed to be sacrificed to their -idols, but had made his escape at night, and fled to the cacique, with whom he -had been living.... He had tried to induce Gonzalo Guerrero to leave -the Indians, but had failed.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> The name is spelled by Diaz “Monteçuma.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> An Indian woman presented to Cortes by the cacique of Tabasco. She -had readily learned to speak in Spanish, and being conversant with the language -of the Mexicans, was of great value to Cortes, who made her his secretary and -then his mistress.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> Charles V. ascended the Spanish throne in 1516.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Diaz. cap. -xix-xxxix.—<i>Vide</i> The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. xxx-xxxix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> “The Castilian mark weighs 3557 English troy grains.”—The universal -cambist. Kelly. vol. i. pp. 391, 292.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> Primera parte de los veinte īvn lībros rituales ī monarchia Indiana compuesto -por Juan de Torquemada. En Madrid, 1723. lib. iv. cap. xvii. fol. -389, 390.</p> - -<p>“The ducat of exchange (<i>ducado de plata</i>) is worth 11 reals, maravedi of -old plate, or 20 reals 25¹⁵⁄₁₇ maravedis vellon.... The value of the -ducat of plate in English silver coin is 4<i>s.</i> 6½<i>d.</i> [or one dollar and one cent in -United States money].”—The universal cambist. Kelly. vol. i. pp. 388-392.</p> - -<p>Diaz gives this description of the presents: “The first was a disk about -the size of a carriage-wheel, representing the sun, the entire plate being of the -finest gold and of the most beautiful workmanship,—a most extraordinary work -of art, which, according to the account of those who weighed it, was worth more -than twenty thousand <i>pesos de oro</i>. The second was a disk, even larger than -the former, of massive silver, representing the moon, with rays and figures on -it, and of great value. The third was a casque, filled with grains of pure gold -as they were found in the mine, worth about three thousand <i>pesos</i>, which gold -was of more importance to us than if it had been ten times this value, for we -were now assured that there were rich gold-mines in the country. Among the -other presents there were thirty golden ducks in every way resembling the living -fowl, very elaborately made. Besides, there were figures of lions, tigers, dogs, -and monkeys. There were also ten chains with lockets, all of gold, and of the -most costly workmanship; a bow with the string and twelve arrows; two staffs -like those used by justices, five palms in length; all of which were made of the -purest gold. They also brought small cases containing the most beautiful green -feathers, interwoven with gold and silver, and fans similarly made, and figures -of all kinds of game made of gold.”</p> - -<p>Peter Martyr, who had inspected the presents, says: “<i>Si quid unquam -honoris humana ingenia in huiuscemodi artibus sunt adepta, principatum iure -merito ista consequentur. Aurum, gemmasque non admiror quidem, qua industria, -quove studio superet opus materiam, stupeo. Mille figuras et facies mille -prospexi quæ scribera nequeo. Quid oculos hominum sua pulchritudine aeque -possit allicere meo iudicio vidi nunquam.</i>—De Orbe Novo decades. dec. i. cap. xi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> <i>Teules</i>, according to Diaz, meant gods or celestial beings.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> From Villa Rica de Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico the distance was -about one hundred and seventy-five miles. By the route of the Mexican railroad -the distance from the present city of Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico is -two hundred and sixty-three miles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> A stone of a light green color.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> Paper made from the leaves of the maguey or agave-plant.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> Cortes conjectured the city contained twenty thousand houses. The -temple of Quetzalcoatl was built on a terraced mound about two hundred feet -high, and was reached by ascending one hundred and twenty steps.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> The name of the city is written Tenustitlan Mexico by Diaz. It is -spelled Tenuchtitlan Mexico by some Spanish writers.</p> - -<p>“In the spelling of the names of Indian chiefs, the townships, and of the -provinces, we have mostly followed Torquemada, who is considered more correct -on this point, for he lived fifty years in New Spain.”—The memoirs of the -conquistador. Lockhart. Preface. vol. i. p. vi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> This name, says Diaz, was given to Cortes “because our interpreter, -Doña Marina, was always near him, particularly when embassadors arrived, -and in our negotiations with the different caciques she interpreted for both -parties. They therefore called him the captain of Marina, and contracted that -appellation into the word Malinche.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> It is said that the slimy substance mentioned by Diaz was called <i>tecuitlatl</i>, -the excrement of stone. It was variously fashioned, and dried in the sun.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> <i>Xiquipiles</i>, according to Torquemada, expressed the number of 8,000 of -any thing.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> Cacao-beans were used by the Mexicans in lieu of small coin.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Diaz. cap. -xxxix-clix.—<i>Vide</i> The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. xxxix-clix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España. Diaz. cap. lx, -clxii.—<i>Vide</i> The memoirs of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. lx, clxii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> Tratado, que compõs e nobre & notauel capitão Antonio Galuão.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> In June, 1523, Francisco de Garay sailed with a fleet and a large number -of troops from Jamaica to take possession of the province of Panuco, of which -he had been appointed governor. He failed to accomplish his purpose, and -died in the city of Mexico, at the end of December, 1523. Historia verdadera -de la conquista de la Nueva España. cap. cxxxiii, clxii. <i>Vide</i> The memoirs -of the conquistador. Lockhart. chap. cxxxiii, clxii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. iii. pp. -64-69; 147-153.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> The situation of certain places along the coast of the present states of -Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, is thus described by -Gomara: “From Santa Elena to Rio Seco, in 31°, are other forty leagues, -and thence to La Cruz are twenty, and thence to Cañaveral, forty; and from -Punta Cañaveral, in 28°, are other forty to Punta de la Florida (the peninsula -of Florida).... This is in 25°, which is twenty leagues in length, and -from it are a hundred or more leagues to Ancon bajo, which is fifty leagues -from Rio Seco, from east to west, across Florida. From Ancon bajo they estimate -it to be a hundred leagues to Rio de Nieves, and thence to that of Flores -more than twenty, from which river it is seventy leagues to the Bay of the Holy -Spirit (Baya del Espiritu Sancto), called by another name, La Culata (the breech -of a gun), which river flows out into the ocean thirty leagues, and is in 29°, and -thence it is more than seventy to Rio de Pescadores. From Rio de Pescadores, -in 28° 30´, are a hundred leagues to Rio de las Palmas, near which crosses the -tropic of Cancer; thence to Rio Panuco are more than thirty leagues; and -thence to Villa Rica or Vera Cruz, seventy leagues.”—Primera y segunda parte -de la historia general de las Indias. Gomara. cap. xii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, a native of Toledo, Spain, was one of the -licentiates appointed by King Ferdinand to act as auditors of the royal court of -appeal (audiencia), afterward sitting in San Domingo. In March, 1520, Ayllon -went with Pamfilo de Narvaez to New Spain, who was sent there by Diego -Velasquez to administer the affairs of that country. When Ayllon landed in -Mexico he became so inimical to the purposes of Velasquez that Narvaez put -him under arrest and sent him back to Cuba, where he arrived in August, 1520.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> “So designated,” says Herrera, “because Jordan was the name of one of -the captains or masters of the ships.”</p> - -<p>Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias. Gomara. -cap. vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> Ayllon, in 1523, was made governor (<i>adelantado</i>) of the provinces and -islands of Suache, Chicora, Xapira, Tatancal, Anicatiye, Cocayo, Guacaya, -Xoxi, Sona, Pasqui, Arambe, Xamunambe, Huag, Tanzaca, Yenyohol, Paor, -Yamiscaron, Carixagusignanin and Anoxa, that were said to lie between the -thirty-fifth and thirty-seventh parallels of north latitude. In 1524 it is said -that he sent two ships to some of these places. In July, 1526, he sailed himself -from Española, with six vessels, having on board five hundred men and -ninety horses. Diego Miruelo, the pilot of this fleet, it is said, failed to find -the coast of Chicora, which he had visited in 1520. The natives, where the -Spaniards landed, manifested toward them the greatest friendliness, and so deceived -Ayllon with their unbounded hospitality that he sent two hundred of his -men into the interior on an exploring expedition. While they were sleeping -the savages fell upon them and murdered them to a man. They then attacked -those near the ships, who, being outnumbered, fled before their assailants. -One hundred and fifty escaped, and in a suffering condition returned to San -Domingo. It is further related that Ayllon died on the eighteenth of October, -1526.—Coleccion de los viages y descubrimientos. Navarrete. tom. iii. pp. -69-74; 153-160.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> De Orbe Novo decades. dec. ii. cap. vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> “Thence to Puerto del Principe are more than a hundred leagues, and from -it to the Rio Jordan, seventy, and thence to Cabo de Santa Elena, which is in -32°, there are forty leagues.”—Primera y segunda parte de la historia general -de las Indias. Gomara. cap. xii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> Pigafetta writes the name “Magaglianes,” the Portuguese “Magalhaens,” -the Spaniards “Magallanes,” and the French “Magellan.” The English -follow the French spelling.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> Fernam de Magalhaens was born at Oporto, about the year 1470. After -entering the Portuguese navy, he sailed to the East Indies and served -under Affonso d’Albuquerque. He returned to Spain about the year -1517.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> Before Brazil was discovered, red wood was brought to Europe from Asia -and Africa.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> In the edition of Ptolemy’s geography, printed at Rome in 1508, it is said: -“The Land of the Holy Cross diminishes all the way to south latitude 37°; -although, according to navigators who have explored it, it is said all the way -to south latitude 50°; of which remaining part no description is found.—<i>Terra -Sanctæ Crucis decrescit usque ad latitudinem 37° aust.; quamquam ad -Archiploi usque ad 50° austr., navigarint, ut ferunt; quam reliquam portionem -descriptam non reperi.</i>” cap. xiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> The eastern entrance to the strait lies between the Cape of the Virgins, on -the north, and the Cape of the Holy Spirit, on the south, and is about twenty -miles wide. The strait is three hundred and fifteen miles long.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> On the Maiollo map of 1527, the following inscription is placed near the -delineated strait: “<i>Streito doute pasas Magaianes Portogese per andare in le -isole de Maluchi de le spesarie de Re de Spania</i>,” the strait passed by Magaianes, -a Portuguese, to go to the Molucca Islands for spices for the king of Spain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> “<i>Il capitano-generale, che sapeva de dover fare la sua navegazione per uno -streto molto ascoso, como vite ne la thesararia del re de Portugal in una carta -fata per quello excellentissimo huomo Martino di Boemia.</i>”</p> - -<p>The chart was evidently one drafted to exhibit the field of the explorations -of Cabral and other Portuguese navigators along the eastern coast of Brazil.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> The fifth vessel, the Santiago, while exploring the coast, when the other -ships were at anchor in the harbor of St. Julian, was wrecked.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> Gomez, after deserting the squadron with the San Antonio, returned to -the port of St. Julian, and there took on board Gaspar de Casada and the priest -whom Magalhaens had put on shore. On Gomez’s return to Spain, the sixth of -May, 1521, he told “the emperor that Magalhaens was crazy and had lied to -his majesty, for he did not know where Banda was nor the Moluccas.”—Letter -of Transylvanus and Castanheda.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> Spanish, Las Islas Desdichados.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> “<i>Seconda la misura che facevamo del viaggio colla catena a poppa, noi -percorrevamo da 60 in 70 leghe algiorno.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> Sir Francis Drake followed Magalhaens a half century later. The -former departed from England on the thirteenth of December, 1577, and returned -there on the third of November, 1580.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> Cape Cattigara was, according to Ptolemy, in one hundred and eighty -degrees of longitude from the Canaries and south of the equator. It is now -known as Cape Comorin, being the southern extremity of Hindostan, in north -latitude 8° 5´, and in east longitude 77° 30´.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> Spanish, de los Ladrones. The Ladrone Islands, about twenty in number, -lie between 13° and 21° north latitude, and 144° and 146° east longitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> The Moluccas or Spice Islands, more than two hundred in number, lie -between 3° north and 9° south latitude, and 122° and 133° east longitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> Juan Sebastian del Cano was honored for the notable part he took in this -famous voyage by being permitted to display, as his coat of arms, the figure of -a globe, on which was inscribed: “<i>Primus circumdedisti me.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> Primo viaggio intorno al globo terracqueo ossia ragguaglio della navigazione -alle indie orientali per la via d’occidente fatta dal cavaliere Antonio -Pigafetta patrizio Vicentino sulla squadra del Capit. Magaglianes negli anni -1519-1522 ora publicato per la prima volta, tratto da un codice MS. della -Biblioteca Ambrosiana di Milano e corredota di note da Carlo Amoretti. In -Milano, 1800.—<i>Vide</i> The first voyage round the world by Magellan, translated -from the accounts of Pigafetta and other contemporary writers. By Lord -Stanley of Alderley. London, 1874. Hakluyt Soc. pub. <i>Vide</i> Pinkerton’s -voyages and travels. vol. i. pp. 288-381.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias. Gomara. -cap. x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> According to Jacques Cartier’s statement, the Cape of Buona Vista was -in 48° 30´ north latitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 359.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> “<i>Les Dieppois continuoient leur commerce dans les Indes Orientales, lorsqu’ils -apprirent les découvertes que les Espagnols avoient faites en Amérique: -leur émulation s’en trouva piquée, & ils armèrent deux vaisseaux, pour connoître -si cette partie du monde ne s’étendoit pas du côte du Nord; ils en confièrent -le commandement à deux de leurs plus habiles Capitaines, nommés Thomas -Aubert & Jean Vérassen. Ces deux navires partirent de Dieppe au commencement -de 1508, & découvrirent, la même année, le Fleuve Saint-Laurent, auquei -ils donnérent ce nom, parce que ce fut ce jour-là qu’ils commencèrent à le -remonter; ce qu’ils firent jusqu’ à plus de quatre-vingt lieues, trouvant des habitants -affables, avec lesquels ils firent des èchanges les plus avantageux en pelleteries.</i>”—Mémoires -chronologiques pour servir à l’historie de Dieppe et à celle -de la navigation Françoise. Jean Antoine Desmarquets. À Paris, 1785. tom. -i. pp. 99, 100.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> “One of thirty regions or zones of the earth, parallel to the equator, corresponding -to the successive increase of a quarter of an hour in the length of -the midsummer day.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> West coast of Ireland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> Eusebii Caesariensis episcopi chronicon.... In alma Parisiorū -academia. Millesimo quingentesimo duodecimo Idibus vero Iunij. fol. 172.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> Giovanni da Verrazzano, the son of Pier Andrea da Verrazzano, was -born at Florence about the year 1480.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> Henry Hudson, the navigator. By G. M. Asher. London, 1860. -Hakluyt Society pub. Introduction. p. 79.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> The voyage of Pedro Alvarez Cabral, in 1500.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Cronica do muyto alto e muyto poderoso rey destes regnos de Portugal -Dom João o III. deste nome. Francisco d’Andrada. Lisboa, 1613. part. i. -cap. 13, 14.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> Letter of João da Silveyra to Dom João III. Archivo de Torre de -Tombo. Corp. Chron. part. i. ma. 29. doc. 54.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> The ship La Dauphine is spoken of in the Italian text of Verrazzano’s -letter as “<i>la nave Dalfina</i>.” <i>Dalfina</i> is the feminine form of the Italian word -<i>dalfino</i>, a dolphin.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> A manuscript containing the Italian text of Verrazzano’s letter was found in -1837, by G. W. Greene, consul from the United States at Rome, in the Magliabecchian -library of Florence, in a volume of miscellanies, marked “Class xiii. -Cod. 89. Verraz.” With this letter was another written by Fernando Carli to -his father, dated Lyons, August 4, 1524. As Carli remarks in his communication -that it inclosed a copy of Verrazzano’s letter to Francis I., it is believed that the -transcript he speaks of is the copy found in the Magliabecchian library.—Vide -Life and voyages of Verrazzano, by G. W. Greene. North American Review. -vol. xlv. October, 1837.</p> - -<p>Ramusio placed in the third volume of his collection of voyages and travels -a condensed form of Verrazzano’s letter, entitled “The relation of Giovanni da -Verrazzano, Florentine, to the most Christian king of France, Francis I., of -the land by him discovered in the name of his majesty; written at Dieppe, -July 8, 1524.—<i>Al Christianissimo Re Di Francia Francesco Primo, Relatione -di Giovanni da Verrazano Fiorentino della terra per lui scoperta in nome di sua -Maesta scritta in Dieppa, adi 8. Luglio</i> <span class="allsmcap">M.D.XXIIII</span>.”—Raccolta di navigationi e -viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 350.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> The copy of Verrazzano’s letter has this superscription: “<i>Il Capitano -Giovanni da Verrazzano, fiorentino di Normandie, al la serenissima corona di -Francia, dice</i>”:—Captain Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine, from Normandy, -to the most serene crown of France, says.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> Hakluyt’s translation of the letter published by Ramusio, in 1556, begins -with these words.</p> - -<p>“I wrote not to your Maiesty, most Christian King, since the time we -suffered the Tempest in the North partes, of the successe of the foure shippes, -which your Maiestie sent forth to discouer new lands by the Ocean, thinking -your Maiestie had bene already duely enformed thereof. Now by these presents -I will give your Maiestie to understand how by the violence of the Windes -we were forced with the two shippes, the Norman and the Dolphin (in such -euill case as they were), to land in Britaine. Where after wee had repayred -them in all poynts as was needful, and armed them very well, we took our -course along the coast of Spaine, which your Maiestie shall understand by the -profite that we receiued thereby. Afterwards with the Dolphin alone we determined -to make discouerie of new Countries, to prosecute the Nauigation we -had already begun, which I purpose at the present to recount unto to your -Maiestie, to make manifest the whole proceeding of the matter.</p> - -<p>“The 17 of January, the yeere 1524, by the Grace of God, we departed -from the dishabited rocke by the isle of Madeira (<i>Alli, 17. Genaro, 1524. Dio -gratia partimmo dallo scoglio dishabitato</i>), appertaining to the king of Portugal, -with 50 men, with victuals, weapons, and other ship-munition very well prouided -and furnished for eight months; and sailing Westward with a faire Easterly -winde (<i>per Ponente nauigando con vento di Leuante assai piaceuole</i>), in 25 -dayes we ran 500 leagues, and the 20 of Februarie (<i>alli 20 Febraro</i>), we were -ouertaken with as sharpe and terrible a tempest as euer any saylers suffered, -whereof with the diuine helpe and mercifull assistance of Almighty God, and -the goodnesse of our shippe, accompanied with the good happe of her fortunate -name we were delivered.”—<i>Vide</i> Voyages. London, 1600. vol. ii. p. 295.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> One of three islands lying in a row from north to south, southeast of the -island of Madeira, in north latitude 32° 30´, off the west coast of Africa. The -islands are called Ilhas Dezertas, and are only inhabited by sea-fowl.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> In Verrazzano’s geographical explanation of the voyage, he assigns 62½ -miles to a degree and 4 miles to a marine league. According to this <i>data</i>, 15⅝ -marine leagues equal a degree. On Thevet’s map of the fourth part of the -world, printed in 1575, is a scale of leagues which shows that a marine league -was double the length of a French league. With this information it is easy to -ascertain the length of a degree in French leagues of Verrazzano’s day; 31¼, -according to his explanation, equalling a degree. Columbus made 56⅔ miles -equal an equinoctial degree and 60 miles equal to 15 leagues. Pigafetta assigned -17½ leagues to a degree. “The land-league is three miles,” he says, “the -sea-league is four.” The modern nautical league is one-twentieth of a degree, -or three equatorial miles or 3.45785 statute miles. A sea-mile, according to the -United States standard, is equal to 1.152664 common statute or land-miles. -One degree of longitude at the equator is equal to 69.160 land-miles. A French -geographical league, according to Verrazzano’s reckoning, equals 2⅕ land-miles -of the United States standard.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> Cape Fear is in 33° 48´ north latitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> The translation of Verrazzano’s letter by Joseph G. Cogswell, contained -in the New York Historical Society’s collections, second series, vol. i. pp. 37-54, -will be followed hereafter, except when a better rendering may be presented.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> <i>Vide</i> section of Maiollo map in the cover-pocket. The scale of latitudes -on the margin of this part of the map has been appended to indicate the position -given to places by Visconte de Maiollo. A similar scale is engraved on -another part of the rare map.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> Palmetto trees.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> It was not until 1728 that this conception of the navigator was disproved. -Then Vitus Behring discovered the strait which divides the two continents. -The distance between East Cape in Asia and Cape Prince of Wales on the continent -of America is forty-five miles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> “<i>Nè pensiamo participando dello oriente per la circumferenza sieno senza -qualche drogheria o liquore aromatico, et altre divitie oro ed altro del quale colore -la terra tutta tende.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> Historical collections of South Carolina. By B. R. Carroll. vol. i. p. xxi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> In Ramusio’s text the word is <i>oriente</i>, east. Raccolta di navigationi e -viaggi. Ramusio. vol. ii. fol. 350.</p> - -<p>It was the custom of the aborigines to set fire to the underbrush in spring to -enable them to hunt and to inclose game within the limits of the burning wood.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> The harbor of Beaufort was too far inland to be seen by Verrazzano.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> In Hakluyt’s translation of the text of Ramusio’s condensed copy of Verrazzano’s -letter is the following respecting the vines of Virginia: “We saw in -this country many vines growing naturally, which, growing up, took holde of -the trees as they doe in Lombardie, which if by husbandmen they were dressed -in good order, without all doubt they would yeeld excellent wines; for hauing -oftentimes seene the fruit thereof dryed; which was sweete and pleasant, and -not differing from ours, we thinke that they doe esteeme the same, because -in euery place where they growe, they take away the under branches growing -round about, that the fruit thereof may ripen the better.”—Voyages. Hakluyt. -vol. ii. p. 297.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> Chesapeake Bay “extends 190 miles from its mouth, into the States of -Virginia and Maryland; it is from 7 to twenty miles broad, and generally 9 -fathoms deep.”</p> - -<p>The peninsula is “about 60 miles long, and from 10 to 15 wide, and -bounded toward the sea by a string of low sandy islets. The waters of the -Chesapeake enter the sea between Cape Charles and Cape Henry, forming a -strait of fifteen miles in width.”—Gazetteer of Virginia and the District of -Columbia. By Joseph Martin. 1835. pp. 23, 18.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> <i>Vide</i> Maiollo map of 1527 in the cover-pocket.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> “Epistle dedicatorie” to Hakluyt’s Divers voyages, 1582.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> “<i>Da questo mare orientale si vede il mare occidentale; sono 6 miglia di -terra infra l’uno a l’altro.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> Hakluyt’s Particular discourse, 1584.</p> - -<p>The English collector illustrates his Divers voyages with Locke’s map, -which the English cartographer dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> Sandy Hook light-house is in 40° 27´ 39´´ north latitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> At Sandy Hook, a low, sandy point of land, eighteen miles from the city -of New York, are two ship-channels through which vessels of the heaviest -tonnage can pass. Immediately north of Sandy Hook is the spacious roadstead -called the Lower Bay. Between Staten Island, north of it, and Long -Island is the Narrows, a channel about one mile and a half long by one wide. -North of it is the Upper Bay or harbor of New York.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> The Upper Bay or harbor of New York, about eight miles long by five -wide, lies between the mouth of the Hudson River on the north and the -Narrows on the south. From the bay, vessels can pass into the East River -and thence to Long Island Sound, between Long Island and the main-land. -Westward is Newark Bay, through which vessels can pass from the Upper Bay -of New York, thence into Staten Island Sound, thence into Raritan Bay and -the Lower Bay. The rise and fall of the tide in the harbor of New York is -about four and a half feet.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> Belgische ofte Nederlandsche oorlogen ende geschiedenissen beginnende -van ’t jaer 1595 tot 1611.—Door Emanuel van Meteren. 1611. Boek xxx. -fol. 327.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> Purchas his Pilgrimes. vol. iii. p. 595.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> “<i>De groote noordt rievier van Nieuw-Nederlandt wordt by eenighe -ghenoemt de Manhattes rieviere naer volckeren die by naer aen’t begin ofte de -mout van de rieviere woonen; by andere oock Rio de Montaigne; doch by de ouse -wordt meest genoemt de groote rieviere.</i>”—Nieuwe Wereldt. Door Johannes de -Laet. Tot Leyden, 1625. Boeck iii. cap. ix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> <i>Vide</i> map entitled: ’t Noorder deel van West-Indien, contained in the -rare work in Dutch: West-Indische Spieghel. Door Athanasium Inga, -Peruen, van Cusco. Amsterdam, 1624. The map-maker’s name, A. Goos, -is inscribed on the chart.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> Angoulême, a town on the Charente River, in France, sixty-six miles -northeast of Bordeaux. Angoulême, with the territory of Angoumois, was -governed from the ninth to the fourteenth century by counts. Francis I., before -he became king of France, was Comte d’Angoulême.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> The island of Rhodes, lying off the southwest coast of Asia Minor, between -35° 50´ and 36° 30´ north latitude, has an area of about 452 square miles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> Blank space in the original copy.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> Newport is in 41° 29´, and the city of Providence in 41° 49´ 22´´ north -latitude.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> <i>Vide</i> Gastaldi’s map.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> As described by a late writer: “Narragansett Bay is one of the most -beautiful sheets of water in the United States; it is unrivalled for its navigable -advantages, affording at all times a safe and ready communication with the -ocean; and its shores, which are indented with innumerable bays and inlets -containing many excellent harbors. This bay ... extends more -than thirty miles into the interior of the state, and for this distance affords -superior advantages for ship-navigation. The whole extent of the bay and -river, from Point Judith to Providence, is about thirty-six miles. The average -breadth of the lower section of the bay is nearly ten miles; but the upper part -is narrow. Exclusive of the islands, of which there are about fifteen in number, -and some of considerable extent, the waters of the bay comprise an area of -about one hundred and thirty square miles.”—Gazetteer of Connecticut and -Rhode Island. 1819. pp. 302, 303, 349, 359.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> See note, page 293.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> The distance given by the Spanish historian, Francisco Lopez de Gomara, -in 1552, from the Point of Baccalaos, in 48° 30´ to Cape St. Helen, in 32° north -latitude, is more than seven hundred and sixty Spanish leagues, measured as -the coast trended: “From the Point of Baccallaos are set down eight hundred -and seventy leagues to Florida, counting as follows: From the Point of Baccallaos -which is in 48° 30´ are seventy leagues of coast to La Baya del Rio, which -is in more than 45°. Thence are seventy to another bay called Isleos which is -in less than 44°. From Baya Isleos to Rio Fonda are seventy leagues, and -thence to Rio de las Gamas, are other seventy, both rivers being in 43°. From -Rio de los Gamas are fifty leagues to Cabo Bajo, and thence to Rio de San Anton, -they reckon more than a hundred leagues. From Rio de San Anton are -eighty leagues along the shore of a gulf to Cabo de Arenas, which is in nearly -39°, thence to Puerto del Principe are more than a hundred leagues, and from -it to Rio Jordan seventy, and thence to Cabo de Santa Elena, which is in 32°, -there are forty leagues. From Santa Elena to Rio Seco, which is in 31°, are -forty leagues.”—La historia general de las Indias. Gomara. cap. xii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> The name Francesca is used on the Maiollo map of 1527. Hieronymus -da Verrazzano called the region “<i>Verrazana seu Gallia nova</i>,”—Verrazana or -New Gaul. By some French writers it was denominated in the sixteenth century, -“<i>Terre Francesque</i>.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> “This distance,” he remarks, “calculated geometrically upon the ratio -that three and one seventh times the diameter of a circle is equal to its circumference, -gives 92⁵⁴¹⁶⁴⁄₄₇₂₇₃₃ degrees. For if we take 114⁶⁄₁₁ degrees as the chord of -an arc of a great circle, we have by the same ratio 95²⁴⁸³⁄₄₉₅₀ degrees as the chord -of an arc on the parallel of 34°, being that on which we first made land, and -300²³³⁄₁₅₇₅ degrees as the circumference of the whole circle, passing through this -plane. Allowing then, as actual observations show, that 62½ terrestrial miles -correspond to a celestial degree, we find the whole circumference of 300²³³⁄₁₅₇₅ -degrees, as just given, to be 18,759³¹⁄₁₂₆ miles, which, divided by 360, makes the -length of a degree of longitude on the parallel of 34° to be 52⁹⁸⁹⁄₉₀₇₂ miles, and -that is the true measure. Therefore, by a right line to the said rock which -stands in 32°, we have to calculate the distance, the said 1,200 leagues which -we have found, from the thirty-fourth parallel, from west to east, hence I -should have run 92⁵⁴¹⁶⁴⁄₄₇₂₇₃₃ degrees, and this many therefore we have sailed to -the West, which was not known to the ancients.”</p> - -<p>114⁶⁄₁₁ × 3¹⁄₇ = 360. 300²³³⁄₁₅₇₅ × 7 ÷ 22 = 95²⁴⁸³⁄₄₉₅₀. 300²³³⁄₁₅₇₅ × 62½ = 18,759³¹⁄₁₂₆. 18,759³¹⁄₁₂₆ -÷ 560 = 52⁹⁸⁹⁄₉₀₇₂. 4,800 by 52⁹⁸⁹⁄₉₀₇₂ = 92⁵⁴¹⁶⁴⁄₄₇₂₇₃₃.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410" class="label">[410]</a> “The Spaniards have sailed south beyond the equator, on a meridian -20³²⁰⁶⁰/₄₇₂₈₁ degrees west of the Fortunate Islands to the latitude of 54° and there -still found land. Turning about they steered northward on the same meridian -and along the coast to the eighth parallel, and then along the coast more to the -west, and north to the latitude of 21° [31°?], without finding a termination to the -continent. They estimated the distance run as 89²⁹⁷⁰⁹/₄₆₇₈₁ which added to the -20³²⁰⁶⁰/₄₇₂₈₁ first run make 110¹⁴⁴⁸⁸/₄₆₇₈₁, but this may vary somewhat from the truth. -We did not make this voyage, and therefore cannot speak from experience. -We calculated it geometrically from the observations furnished by many navigators, -who have made the voyage and affirm the distance to be 1600 leagues, due -allowance being made for the deviations of the ship from a straight course by -reason of contrary winds. I hope that we shall now obtain accurate information -on these points, by new voyages to be made on the same coasts.”—<i>Vide</i> -Maiollo map of 1527.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411" class="label">[411]</a> Verrazzano’s argument is based upon the supposition that the extent of the -land of the new continent was greater than it really was, for at this time the -Pacific coast of the New Land had not been explored. Verrazzano believed -that the New World extended much farther westward than it does.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412" class="label">[412]</a> Tierra del Fuego, south of the Strait of Magellan, had not yet been explored, -and it was not known how far it extended, or in what direction.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413" class="label">[413]</a> The number of tons is not mentioned.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414" class="label">[414]</a> According to Carli’s statement, Verrazzano at first attempted to sail to -the west by going through the North Sea. Here, as Verrazzano relates, his -vessels were disabled, and he proceeded southward toward the desert-rock, -whence he steered toward the west in quest of new lands.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415" class="label">[415]</a> Carli evidently was not well informed concerning Magellan’s expedition, -for although he speaks of the five ships of the fleet, and of the return of the -one commanded by Del Cano, he appears to be ignorant of the death of -Magellan, and of the arrival of Estevan Gomez, in 1521, with the ship San -Antonio.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416" class="label">[416]</a> King Francis wrote to his parliament, on the second of July, 1524, saying: -“I am going to Lyons to prevent the enemy from entering the kingdom, -and I can assure you that Charles de Bourbon is not yet in France.”—Historie -de François Premier. Gaillard. Paris, 1769. tom. iii. p. 172.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417" class="label">[417]</a> Lettera di Fernando Carli a suo padre. Archivo storico Italiano ossia -raccolta di opere e documenti fiuora inediti o divenuti rarissimi risguardanti -la storia d’Italia. Appendice. tomo ix. Firenze. Gio. Pietro Vieusseux, -direttore-editore al suo gabinetto scientifico letterario. 1853.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418" class="label">[418]</a> Philippe Chabot, Sieur de Brion, admiral of France, was given command -of the French marine, March 23, 1526.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419" class="label">[419]</a> Ango & Son was a noted firm of ship-builders in Dieppe.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420" class="label">[420]</a> Twenty thousand pounds, Tours currency, were to be advanced to meet -the expenses of the undertaking. The admiral of France contributed four -thousand pounds, Guillaume Preudhomme, general of Normandy, two thousand; -Pierre Despinolles, one thousand; Jean Ango, two thousand; Jacques -Boursier, two thousand; and Verrazzano (Jehan de Varesam, as his name is -written in the agreement), chief pilot, two thousand pounds. Verrazzano, having -agreed to provide competent pilots for the other two vessels, was to receive -one sixth of all the goods which should be brought back, and one tenth of any -booty taken at sea from the Moors, or other enemies of France. Foutette collection. -xxx. 770. fol. 60. Bibliothèque nationale. Paris.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421" class="label">[421]</a> Zanobus de Rousselay, a merchant of Rouen, in a legal instrument, dated -September 30, 1526, gave bonds that “Messire Jehan de Verrassane” was entitled -“to defend a certain <i>clameur de haro</i>, obtained against him by Guillaume -Eynoult, called Cornete, living in Dieppe.” The bonds were placed in the -hands of Fremyn Poree and Robert Tassel, sergeant royal, at Rouen, until the -matter could be legally settled. MS. in archives of Rouen.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422" class="label">[422]</a> Foutette collection. xxx. 770. fol. 60. Bibliothèque nationale. -Paris.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423" class="label">[423]</a> Hakluyt’s Divers voyages, 1582.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424" class="label">[424]</a> “Epistle dedicatorie” to Divers voyages.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425" class="label">[425]</a> Raccolta di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. <i>Discorso sopra la nuova -Francia.</i> vol. iii. fol. 438.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426" class="label">[426]</a> Hakluyt’s Particular discourse, 1584.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427" class="label">[427]</a> In the cover-pocket is a copy of the part of the Maiollo map representing -the continent in the western hemisphere.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428" class="label">[428]</a> The inscription on the chart contains this information: “<i>Verrazana seu -Gallia nova quale discopri 5 anni fa Giovanni di Verrazzano fiorentino per -ordine et comandamēto del Chrystiannissimo Re di Francia</i>” (Verrazana or New -Gaul, which Giovanni di Verrazano, a Florentine, discovered five years ago, by -the order and commandment of the most Christian king of France).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429" class="label">[429]</a> The value of the map made by Hieronymus da Verrazzano is fully discussed -in Notes on Giovanni da Verrazano, and on a planisphere of 1529 illustrating -his American voyage in 1524, with a reduced copy of the map, by -James Carson Brevoort. New York, 1874.</p> - -<p><i>Vide</i> Voyage of Verrazzano: A chapter in the early history of maritime -discovery in America. By Henry C. Murphy. New York, 1873.</p> - -<p><i>Vide</i> Verrazano, the Explorer: being a vindication of his letter and voyage, -with an examination of the map of Hieronimo da Verrazano and a dissertation -upon the globe of Vlpius. By B. F. De Costa. New York, 1880.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430" class="label">[430]</a> The true and last discouerie of Florida made by Captain John Ribault in -the yeere 1562. Dedicated to a great noble man of Fraunce, and translated -into Englishe by one Thomas Hackit. Hakluyt’s Divers voyages. 1582.</p> - -<p>The whole and true discoverye of Terra Florida (Englished, the Florishing -Land) conteyning as well the wonderful straunge Natures and Maners of the -People, with the mervylous Commodities and Treasures of the Country; as -also the pleasaunt Portes and Havens, and Wayes thereunto never found out -before the last year, 1562. Written in French by Captain Ribauld, the fyrst -that whollye discovered the same, and now newly set forthe in Englishe, the -xxx. of May, 1563.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431" class="label">[431]</a> Voyages. Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 232.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432" class="label">[432]</a> Brief recit, and succincte narration de la nauigation faicte es ysles de -Canada, Hochelage, and Saguenay & autres, auec particulieres meurs, langaige -& cerimonies des habitans d’icelles: fort delectable à veoir. Auec priuilege. -On les uend à Paris au second pillier en la grand salle du Palais, & en -la rue neufue Nostre dame à l’enseigne de lescu de Frāce, par Ponce Roffet -dict Fanchuer & Anthoine le Clerc frères. 1545.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433" class="label">[433]</a> “<i>Septem hoies syluestres ex ea isula (que terra noua dicit) Rothomagu adducti -sunt.</i>”—Eusebii Caesariensis episcopi chronicon. Paris. 1512. p. 172.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434" class="label">[434]</a> “<i>Manant, s. m. Paysan habitant en un village ou en une metairie à la -campagne. Indigena, incola rusticus.... On appelle proprement manans, -ceux qui sont originaires du lieu; & habitans, ceux qui y sont venus demeurer.</i>”—Dictionnaire -Trevoux. Nancy, 1740.</p> - -<p>“<i>Manant (ma-nan), s. m. 1° Terme d’ancienne pratique. Habitant d’un -bourg ou d’un village.... 2° Absolument, dans le langage ordinaire, mais -archaïque, un paysan.... 3° Aujourd’hui, par extension, homme grossier, -mal élevé.</i>”—Dictionnaire de la langue Française. Par É. Littré, de l’académie -Française. Paris, 1874.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435" class="label">[435]</a> “The French call the Maques, <i>les Aniuez</i>, the Oneydes, <i>les Onoyants</i>, -the Onondagas, <i>les Montagneurs</i>, ... the Caiougas, <i>les Petuneurs</i>, the -Senegues, <i>les Paisans</i>.”—Observations of Wenworth Greenhalgh in a journey -from Albany to ye Indyans westward. 1677. London documents in the office -of the Secretary of State, Albany, N. Y. vol. iii. p. 167.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436" class="label">[436]</a> “This region is called by the peasants (<i>paesani</i>) Norumbega.”—Raccolta -di navigationi e viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 353.</p> - -<p>“<i>Quando per sua buona uentura intese da paesani, che erano giunto alla -marina alcuni nauiglia.</i>” “Here by good luck he heard from the <i>natives</i> that -some boats had arrived off the coast.”—Dello Scoprimento dell’ Isole Frislanda, -Eslanda, Engronelanda, Estotilanda, & Icaria, fatto per due fratelli Zeni.—<i>Vide</i> -Voyages of the Venetian brothers. Major. p. 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437" class="label">[437]</a> Nieuwe Wereldt. Door Johannes de Laet. Tot Leyden. 1625. boek. -iii. cap. ix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438" class="label">[438]</a> Novus Orbis, seu descriptionis Indiæ Occidentalis, autore Joanne de -Laet. Antuerpiensi, 1633. lib. iii. cap. vii.</p> - -<p>When the island in 1625 was purchased from the Manants by the agents -of the Dutch West India Company, the transaction is spoken of in a letter -addressed to their high mightinesses, the Lords States General of the -United Netherlands, as follows: “Our people have bought the island Manhattes -from the Wilden (wild men) for the value of sixty guilders [about -twenty-four dollars].”—Holland documents, in the office of the Secretary of -State, Albany, N. Y. vol. i. p. 155.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439" class="label">[439]</a> Historische Verhael door Nicolaes à Wassenaer. Amsterdam. 1621-1632. -deel vi. fol. 144.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440" class="label">[440]</a> Nieuwe Wereldt. boeck. iii. cap. ix. Novus Orbis. lib. iii. cap. ix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441" class="label">[441]</a> Korte historial ende journals. Door David Pietersz. de Vries. Hoorn, -1655. pp. 146, 151.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442" class="label">[442]</a> New York Colonial MSS. xxxv.</p> - -<p>Samuel de Champlain, the French explorer, describing in 1632 the coast of -America in the vicinity of St. John’s River, New Brunswick, writes: “I was at -four islands near the river St. John.... Farther west there are other islands, -one of which extends six leagues, which is called by the savages, <i>Menane</i>.” -Opposite this word, Champlain writes on the marginal space, “<i>L’isle de Manthane</i>,” -adding a <i>t</i> and an <i>h</i> to the second syllable of the words.—Les voyages -de la Nouvelle France occidentale, dicte Canada, faits par le Sr. de Champlain, -Sanctongeois. Paris, 1632. chap. ii. p. 58.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443" class="label">[443]</a> In different historical works and documents the following modes of -spelling the word appear: Manatans, Manates, Manate, Manath, Manathans, -Manathe, Manathes, Manatte, Manetto, Menates, Minates, Manhates, Manhatas, -Manna-hatta, Manhattes, Manahattes, Manahatta, Mahates, Manahatas, -Manahatans, Manahata, Manhatens, Manhathans, Manhatoes, Manhatoos, -Manhatos, Manhattans, Manhatten, Manhattoes, Manhattons, Manhattos, -Manhuttons, Manahactas, Manchatas, Manades, Manadoes, Manados, Menade, -Monhatous, Munhaddon, and Manhattan.—<i>Vide</i> General index to documents -relating to the colonial history of the State of New York.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444" class="label">[444]</a> “<i>Anormé, ée, & anormal, adj. Ces mots ne sont plus en usage. Borel dit -qu’ils signifient qui est contre la régle commune, & qu’ énorme vient de ces -mots.... Énorme, adj. m & f. Prodigieux, éxcessif. Immanis, immensus.</i>”—Dictionnaire -Trevoux.</p> - -<p>“<i>Par extension de la signification morale à la signification physique, extraordinaire -par sa grosseur ou par sa grandeur. Un énorme bloc de -granit.... Rem. Quand énorme signifie excessif en grandeur ou en -grosseur, il se met avant ou après son substantif.</i>”—Dictionnaire de la langue -Française. Littré.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445" class="label">[445]</a> “<i>Berge (bèr-j’). s. f. 1°. Bord relevé, escarpé, d’une rivière, d’un fossé, -d’un chemin. 2°. Terme de marine. Certains rochers élevés à pic sur -l’eau....</i></p> - -<p>“<i>Etym. Espagn. et ital. barga. Diez ne veut pas qu’ il soit d’origine -germanique, et il en rapproche le kymri bargodi, surplomber, bargod, bord. -Cependant le bas-latin berga, garde, défense (qui vient de l’allemand bergen, -défendre, protéger), n’ aurait-il pas pu donner, par une série de sens, défense, -fortification, meule, et finalement bord escarpé?</i>”—Dictionnaire de la langue -Française. Littré.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446" class="label">[446]</a> “<i>On appelle aussi en tèrme de Mèr, bèrges, ou barges, les grands rochers, -âpres & rélevez à pic; c’est-à-dire, droitement & à plomb, comme les bèrges ou -barges d’Olone: telles sont Sylla & Carybde vers Messine.</i>”—Dictionnaire -Trevoux.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447" class="label">[447]</a> Gerard Mercator was born at Rupelmonde, in East Flanders, on the fifth -of March, 1512. Mercator is the Latinized form of his German name, <i>Kremer</i>, -a tradesman, merchant. After studying at Bois-le-Duc, in Brabant, he entered -the university of Louvain. He selected for his profession the manufacture of -mathematical instruments and the art of drawing and engraving. His cartographic -fame began with the engraving of a map of Palestine, in 1537. Next -followed a map of Flanders, in 1540. Then in 1541, a large terrestrial globe, -which he dedicated to the “<i>Illustriss Dno Nicolao Perrenoto, Domino à Granuella</i>”; -the original drawings of which are preserved in the Royal library of -Belgium, in Brussels. In 1552, Mercator removed from Louvain to Duisburg, -where, in 1569, he made his famous map of the world. He died in December, -1594.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448" class="label">[448]</a> The original map is now in the possession of the count of Crawford and -Balcarres, Scotland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449" class="label">[449]</a> The edict of Francis I., appointing his mother, Louise of Savoy, regent, -is dated October, 17, 1524, but before this time she had virtually assumed in -part the direction of the government.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450" class="label">[450]</a> The large gulf is that which is now called the Gulf of Mexico.</p> - -<p>“A discourse of a great French sea-captain of the town of Dieppe concerning -the voyages made to the New World of the West Indies called New France, -from the fortieth to the forty-seventh parallel under the arctic pole, and concerning -the country of Brazil, Guinea, Isle of St. Lawrence and that of Sumatra -as far as the French caravels and ships have sailed.”—Discorso d’vn gran -capitano di mare Francese del Lvogno di Dieppa. Raccolta di navigationi et -viaggi. Ramusio. vol. iii. fol. 353.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451" class="label">[451]</a> Les voyages auantureaux dv capitaine Ian Alfonce, Sainctongeois. Auec -Priuilege du Roy. A Poitiers, au Pelican par Ian de Marnef.</p> - -<p>Jean Alphonse died about the year 1548.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452" class="label">[452]</a> The two first leaves of the manuscript are lost and with them the title of -the work. Inasmuch as the subject of the work is defined in what may be said -is the preface, and as the manuscript at the beginning and at the end bears the -names of “Jehan Allefonsce” and “Raulin Secalart, cosemographe de Honnefleur, -1545,” the title of the work maybe reconstructed and written: Cosmographie -de Jehan Allefonsce et Raulin Secalart. 1545. The manuscript is a folio of -one hundred and ninety-four leaves. It is designated MS. No. 676.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453" class="label">[453]</a> History of Long Island by Benjamin F. Thompson. 1843. p. 26.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454" class="label">[454]</a> The tide flows up the Hudson as far as the city of Troy, about one hundred -and seventy-four miles from the ocean.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455" class="label">[455]</a> An undeciphered word in the manuscript.</p> - -<p>“<i>Je ditz que le cap de Saint Jehan, dict Cap à Breton, et le cap de la Franciscane, -sont nord-est et sud-ouest et prennent un quart de est à ouest, et y a en -la route cent quarante lieues et icy faict ung cap appelé le cap de Norombègue. -Le dict cap est par quarante et ung degrez de la haulteur du polle artique. La -dicte coste est toute sableuse ... basse, sans nulle montaigne. Et au long -laquelle coste y a plusieurs isles de sable et coste fort dangereuse de bancs et rochiers.</i></p> - -<p>“<i>Les gens de ceste coste et de Cap à Breton sont maulvaises gens, puissans, -grandz fleschiers, et sont gens qui vivent de poissons et de chair, et ont aulcun -motz et parlent quasi le mesme langaige de ceux de Canada et sont grand peuple. -Et ceux de Cap à Breton vont donner la guerre à ceulx de la Terre neufve quand -ils peschent et pour nulle chose ne saulveroyent la vie à ung homme quand ilz le -prennent, si n’est jeune enfant ou jeune fille et sont si cruels que si prennent -ung homme portant barbe, ilz luy couppent les membres et les portent à leurs -femmes et enffans, affin d’estre vengez en cela. Et y a entre eux force pelleteries -de toustes bestes.</i></p> - -<p>“<i>Audela du cap de Norombègue descend la rivière dudict Norombègue, -environ vingt et cinq lieues du cap. La dicte rivière est large de plus de -quarante lieues de latitude en son entrée et ceste largeur au dedans bien trente ou -quarante lieues el est toute pleine d’isles qui entrent bien dix ou douze lieues en -la mer et est fort dangereuse de rochers et baptures. La dicte rivière est par -quarante et deux degrez de la haulteur du polle artique.</i></p> - -<p>“<i>Audedans de la dicte rivière quinze lieues y a une ville qui s’ appelle Norombègue -et y a en elle de bonnes gens et y a force pelleteries de toutes bestes. Les -gens de la ville sont vestuz de pelleteries, portans manteaulx de martres. Je me -doubte que la dicte rivière va entrer en la rivière de Hochelaga, car elle est sallée -plus de quarante lieues en dedans selon la dict des gens de la ville. Les gens -parlent beaucoup de motz qui approuchent du latin et adorent le soleil et sont belles -gens et grandz hommes. La terre de Norombègue est haulte et bonne.</i></p> - -<p>“<i>En avant et audeça de la dicte rivière cent cinquante lieues y a une isle qui -s’ appelle la Vermonde qui est par les trente et trois degrez de la haulteur du polle -artique. Et du couste devers louest de la dicte ville, y a forces rochiers qui s’ avancent -dans la mer bien quinze lieues, et du coste vers le nort y a une anse en laquelle -y a une petite isle laquelle est fort subjecte a tempester et n’ y peut habiter.</i>”—Cosmographie -de Jehan Allefonsce et Raulin Secarlart. 1545. fol. 184-189.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456" class="label">[456]</a> The Bermudas or Somers’s islands lie between 32° 14´ and 32° 25´ north -latitude, and 64° 38´ and 64° 52´ west longitude. In 1522, Juan Bermudez, a -Spaniard, while on a voyage from Spain to Cuba, was wrecked on them. In -1609 Sir George Somers, sailing to Virginia, met with a similar misfortune -among them. They are said to number three hundred and sixty-five, and are -formed by coral reefs. The principal islands are Bermuda or Long Island, St. -George’s, Ireland, Somerset, and St. David’s Island.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457" class="label">[457]</a> The map is contained in the third volume of Ramusio’s Raccolta di navigationi -e viaggi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458" class="label">[458]</a> Voyages. Hakluyt. vol. iii. pp. 239, 240.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459" class="label">[459]</a> Nieuwe Wereldt. boek iii. cap. ix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460" class="label">[460]</a> In the dedication of Laudonnière’s notable history to Sir Walter Raleigh, -dated March 1, 1586, the delayed publication of the work is thus adverted -to: “It having been suppressed and forgotten for nearly twenty years, -I have, with the diligence of Mr. Hakluyt, a gentleman well-versed in geographical -history and in various languages and sciences, disinterred it, as it -were, from the tomb, where it has lain so long in useless repose, and brought it -before the world.” M. Basanier, the publisher, says he followed the text of the -manuscript <i>literatim</i>, without any emendation or changes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461" class="label">[461]</a> “That which is toward the arctic or north pole is called New France -insomuch as in the the year 1524, Jean Verrazano, a Florentine, was sent by -King Francis I. and Madame, the regent, his mother, to the new countries, on -which he landed and explored the whole coast extending from the tropic of -Cancer, namely, from the twenty-eighth to the fiftieth degree, and still more -toward the north.</p> - -<p>“He planted at this place the ensigns and arms of the king of France, so -that the Spaniards themselves, who were there afterward, have called this -country French land. It extends in latitude from the twenty-fifth to the fifty-fourth -degree toward the north; and in longitude, from the two hundred and -tenth to the three hundred and thirtieth degree. The east part of it is called -by the moderns the land of Norumberge, which ends at the Gulf of Gamas, -which separates it from the island of Canada.”</p> - -<p>“<i>Celle qui est vers le pole Arctique ou Septentrion, est nommee la nouuelle -France, pour autant que l’an mil cinq ces vingt quatre, Jean Verrazano Florentin -fut enuoyé par le Roy François premier, & par Madame la Regente sa -mere aux terres neuues, ausquelles il prit terre & descouurit toute la coste qui -est depuis le Tropique de Cancer, à scauoir depuis le vingt-huictiesme degrè iusques -au cinquantiesme: & encore plus deuers le North. Il planta en ce païs les enseignes, -& armoiries du Roy de Frāce: de sorte que les Espagnols mesmes qui y -furent depuis ont nomé ce païs terre Francesque.... La partie Orientale d’ -icelle est nommee par les modernes terre de Norumberge, laquelle abortit au Golphe -de Gamas, qui la separe d’auec l’Isle de Canada.</i>”—L’historie notable de la -Florida sitvee es Indes Occidentales. Par le Capitaine Laudonnière. Mise -en lumiere par M. Basanier. Paris, 1586. pp. 1, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462" class="label">[462]</a> The Dutch, when they took possession of Manants Island, in the seventeenth -century, called the lake <i>het Versch water</i> (the Fresh water). The island -on which the French built the fort was, in 1728, selected as the site of a powder-house, -which was erected there to isolate it from common intruders. John -Fitch, in the summer of 1796, navigated his small steamboat on the Fresh -water lake.—<i>Vide</i> History of the city of New York. By David T. Valentine. -1853. pp. 11, 282-284. History of the city of New York. By Mrs. Martha J. -Lamb. New York and Chicago, 1877-1880. vol. ii. pp. 423, 424, 565, 736. -Documentary history of New York. vol. ii. p. 603.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463" class="label">[463]</a> André Thevet was born at Angoulême, France, about the second year of -the sixteenth century. He visited Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine, and on -his return to France, in 1554, published an account of his travels. In July, -1555, he accompanied Chevalier Villegagnon to Brazil to plant a colony there -of French Protestants. When Thevet arrived at Rio Janeiro in November, he -was taken sick, and to hasten his recovery he embarked for France on the last -day of January, 1556. The vessel sailed on the home voyage northward along -the coast of North America as far as Newfoundland. Thevet died in Paris, -November 23, 1590. He was the author of the following works: “Cosmographie -du Levant,” Lyons, 1554; “Les singulairités de la France antarctique, -autrement nommée Amérique, et de plusieurs autres terres et îles découvertes -de notre temps,” Paris, 1556; “Discours de la bataille de Dreux,” -Paris, 1563; “Cosmographie universelle, illustrée de diverses figures des choses -les plus remarquables vues par l’auteur,” Paris, 1571; and “Les vrais portraits -et vies des hommes illustres, grecs, latins, et païens, recueillés de leurs tableaux, -livres, médailles, antiques et modernes,” Paris, 1584.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464" class="label">[464]</a> <i>Aggoncy</i> or <i>Aggonzi</i> signified the head. Voyages. Hakluyt. vol. iii. p. 231.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465" class="label">[465]</a> “<i>Ayant laissé la Florida à main gaulche, auec grand nombre d’Isles, -Islettes, Goulphes, & Promontoires, se presente l’vne des belles riuieres qui soit en -toute la terre, nómee de nous Norombègue, & des Barbares Aggoncy, & marquee -en quelques Cartes marines riuiere grande. Il entre plusieurs autres belles -riuieres dans ceste cy, & sur laquelle iades les François feirent bastir vn petit -fort, quelque dix ou douze lieuës en icelle, lequel estoit enuironé d’eau doulce, qui -se va desgorger das icelle: & fut nommee ceste place le fort de Norombègue.</i>”—La -cosmographie vniverselle. D’André Thevet. A Paris, 1575. tom. ii. chap. -iii. fol. 1008, b.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466" class="label">[466]</a> The copy of Mercator’s map preserved in the National library, in Paris, -which is entitled “<i>Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio at usum navigantium -emendeté accommodata</i>,” measures seventy-eight and a half inches by fifty -inches. On this map is represented the earth <i>in plano</i>, the meridians being -paralleled and the parallels of latitude straight lines, according to those -principles of projection known as Mercator’s projection. Respecting the latter, -he says, in an inscription on the chart: “On account of which considerations, -we have increased gradually the length of the degrees of latitude toward each -pole proportionate to the increase of the parallels beyond the length which -they have on the globe, relatively to the equator:—“<i>Quibus consideratis, -gradus latitudinum versus utrumque polum paulatim auximus pro incremento -parallelorum supra rationem quam habint ad acquinoctialem.</i>” Abraham -Ortelius, the eminent cartographer, speaks of this map of Mercator’s as “his -never-enough-praised universal chart,—<i>Sua nunquam satis laudata universalis -tabula.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467" class="label">[467]</a> A copy of this chart in the general library of the State of New York, at -Albany, is entitled: “The Original Carte Figurative, of which the above is -an accurate fac-simile, was found on the 26th of June, 1841, in the Locket-kas, -of the States General, in the Royal archives at the Hague.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468" class="label">[468]</a> “This map,” says John Romeyn Brodhead, the historian, “is undoubtedly -one of the most interesting memorials we have. It is about three -feet long, and shows, very minutely, the course of the Hudson River from -Manhattan to above Albany, as well as a portion of the sea-coast; and contains, -likewise, curious notes and memoranda about the neighboring Indians,—the -work, perhaps, of one of the companions of Hudson ... and made -within five years of the discovery of our river, its fidelity of delineation is -scarcely less remarkable than its high antiquity.”—Address of J. Romeyn -Brodhead, November 20, 1844. Coll. New York Historical Soc. 1845. p. 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469" class="label">[469]</a> “<i>Ma so vele men heeft connen verstaen uyt i seggen ende beduyen van de -Maquaas so comen de Françoysen met sloupen tot bovem aen haer land met -haerluy handelen.</i>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470" class="label">[470]</a> “<i>Fort van Nassoureen is binnen de wallen 58 voeten wydt in ’t viercant -de gracht is wydt 18 voeten.</i>” Fort Nassau is 58 feet wide between the walls -and built as a square; the moat is 18 feet wide. “<i>’t hujs is 36 voeten lanch en -26 wyt in t fort.</i>” The house in the fort is 36 feet long and 26 wide.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471" class="label">[471]</a> Journal of a voyage to New York and a tour in several of the American -colonies in 1679 and 1680, by Jasper Dankers and Peter Sluyter of Wiewerd in -Friesland. Translated from the original MSS. in the Dutch for the Long -Island Historical Society by Henry C. Murphy. Memoirs of Long Island Hist. -Soc. 1867. vol. i. p. 318.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365"></a>[365]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2> - -</div> - -<ul> - -<li class="ifrst">Abaco, Great and Little, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Abaiòa, town, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aborigines, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Indians"><i>Indians</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Abraham, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Abreu, Capistrano de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Abyla, mountain, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Acla, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adam, tomb of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adam of Bremen, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adamanai, island, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adams, Clement, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Æthiopia, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Africa, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Afranius, L., <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agave, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agesingue, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aggoncy, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agnaneo, island, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aguados, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aguajaluco, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aguilar, Geronimo de, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aguino, Marcos de, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ajes, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alabama, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alaminos, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Albany, N. Y., <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Albuquerque, Affonso d’, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alderley, Lord Stanley of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alexander VI., Pope, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alfonce, Jan. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Alphonse"><i>Alphonse</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Alfragranus, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Allfonsce, Jehan. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Alphonse"><i>Alphonse</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Aloe, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alonso X., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Alphonse">Alphonse, Jean, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353-356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Altars, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alvarador, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amalfi, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amasis, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amatl, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amber, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">America, name, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amerige, name, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amoretti, Carlo, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ampheres, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ampolletas, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anaximander, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ancon bajo, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Andaman, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Andrada, Francisco d’, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Andros, island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Angelo, Michael, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Angels, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anghiera, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ango, Jean, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ango & Son, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Angoulême, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Animals, domesticated, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Animals, wild, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anicatiye, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aniuez, les, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anormée Berge, L’, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">le fort d’, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anoxa, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antediluvians, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antilla, island, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antipater, Cælius, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antipodes, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antiquaries, Royal Soc. of Northern, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apianus, Petrus, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Appalachee Bay, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Appalachicola Bay, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aqueducts, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arabian Gulf, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arabian Sea, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arambe, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arctic Ocean, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristotle, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arna-Magnœan collection, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arnold, Governor Benedict, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arona, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arana, Diego, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arroba, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arrows. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Indians"><i>Indians</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366"></a>[366]</span>Arsenals, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Asher, G. M., <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Asia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wife of Prometheus, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Asius, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Astrolabe, <a href="#Page_66">66-68</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Athenæus, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Athens, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atlantic empire, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island, <a href="#Page_4">4-21</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ocean, early navigation of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">name, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">impassable, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">navigated, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">race, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atlas, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atwood’s key, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aubert, Thomas, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Autochthon, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Avila, Pedro Arias de, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Axes, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ayala, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ayllon, Lucas Vasquez de, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Azaës, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Azores, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bacallaos or baccallaos, land of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bachian, island, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bacon, Roger, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Badajos, congress of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Badakhshan, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bahamas, the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bahia de todos os Santos, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bakelos, name, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, <a href="#Page_225">225-228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Banda, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bardsen, Ivar, treatise of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barges or bèrges, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barrett, William, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barros, Joam de, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bartolomé, Francisco, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Basanier, M., <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bastidas, Rodrigo de, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baths, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baya Isleos, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beamish, North Ludlow, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bear, the Great and Little, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bears, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beaufort, N. C., <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Behaim, Martin, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Behring’s Strait, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Behring, Vitus, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beimeni, island of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Belem, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Belle Isle, Strait of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bells, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beneventanus, Marcus, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Benewitz, Peter, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Berg, Joshua van, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bergenroth, G. A., <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bermudas, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bermudez, Juan, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bernaldez, Andres, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bernardino, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Berruguette, Alonso, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beseneghe, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bethlem, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bethune, Vice-admiral, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bible, La, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Biddle, Richard, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bimini, fountain of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birds, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bjanneyjar, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bjarni, voyages of, <a href="#Page_25">25-27</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Block Island, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blood-letting, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bobadilla, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boemia, Martin of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bohemia, Martin of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bohio or Bosio, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boiuca, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Borriquen, island of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boulenger, Ludovicus, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bourbon, Charles de, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boursier, Jacques, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bows. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Indians"><i>Indians</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Bradley, Thomas, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brahmans, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brass, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brattahlid, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brazil, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">port of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brazil-wood, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Breidafjörd, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bretons, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brevoort, James Carson, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bridges, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brisa or Briso, island, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bristol, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Britons, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brittany, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brodhead, John Romeyn, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brown, Rawdon, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brunelleschi, Alderotto, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buil, Friar Bernardo, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burma, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bygd, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cabo Bajo, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo Casinas, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de Arenas, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de Boa Esperança, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de Campana, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de Cinquin, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de Corrientes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de Cuba, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de las Conchas, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367"></a>[367]</span>Cabo de las Higueras, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo del Elefante, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo del Estrella, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo del Isles, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo del Monte, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo del Pico, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de Palmas, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de San Nicolas, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo de Santa Elena, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo Deseado, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo Fuerte, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo Hermoso, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo Lindo, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo Santa Cruz, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo Santa Maria de la Consolacion, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Caboto">Caboto, Giovanni, his proposals to Henry VII. of England; sails from Bristol, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his voyage, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Prima Tierra Vista, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island of Sant Joan, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">maps, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Soncino’s account of his discoveries, <a href="#Page_192">192-194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his globe, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Cabot’s second voyage, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">described, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">field of his discoveries, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caboto, Ludovicus (Lewis), <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caboto, Sanctus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caboto, Sebastiano, his voyages, <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">extent of his explorations, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his maps and discoveries, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">congress of Badajos, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabo Tormentoso, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabot. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Caboto"><i>Caboto</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cacamatzin, prince of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cacao, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">liquor, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">nuts, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cadamosto, Luigi da, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cadiz, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>. (<i>See</i> <i>Gades</i>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Cæsar, calendar of Julius, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caiougas, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calachionies, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calicut, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calpe, mountain, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cam, Diogo, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cambaluc, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Camos, Martin, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Campeachy, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canada, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">river of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canals, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canary Islands, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cañaveral, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cannibals. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Indians"><i>Indians</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Canoes. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Indians"><i>Indians</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Cano, Sebastian del, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Canso, Strait of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cantino, Alberto, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Capac, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cap de la Franciscane, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Bojador, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Cape_Breton">Cape Breton, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Breton Island, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Briton. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Cape_Breton"><i>Cape Breton</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Buona Vista, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Catticara, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Charles, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Comorin, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape de Bertoni. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Cape_Breton"><i>Cape Breton</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape de Não, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">C. de S. Maria, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Fear, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Henry, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Lookout, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Neddock, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape North, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of England, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of Florida, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of Norombègue, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of St. John, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of St. Mary, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of the Bretons, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Cape_Breton"><i>Cape Breton</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of the Franciscan, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of the Holy Spirit, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape of the Virgins, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Prince of Wales, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Ras, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Ray, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape St. Augustine, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape St. Roque, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape St. Vincent, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Verd, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cape Verd Islands, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caradoc of Llancarvan, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caravels, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caria, sierras of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cariay, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caribbees, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caribbean Islands, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caribi, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caris, island of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carixagusignanin, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carli, Fernando, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carli, Francisco, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carolinas, archipelago, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carpets, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carreira, Visconde da, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carroll, B. R., <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carthagena, Juan de, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carthaginian merchants, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cartier, Jacques, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cartier, John, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carvajal, Alonzo Sanchez de, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casada, Caspar de, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Casas, Bartolomé de las, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368"></a>[368]</span>Caspian Sea, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cassava, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cassia, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Castellanos de Oro, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Castilblanco, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Castilla del Oro, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Castle Island, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cathay, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cat Island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cattigara, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caunaboa, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Causeways, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cautio, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cavalcanti, Guido, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cavo de Inglaterra, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cāzabi, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cazadilla, Diego Ortiz de, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Celer, Q. Metellus, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cemies, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cempoalla, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ceuta, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chabot Philippe, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chalchihuis stones, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Champlain, Samuel de, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Champoton, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chapultepec, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charles V., of Spain, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charles’s wain, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Charybdis, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chehkiang, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chersonesus aurea, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chesapeake Bay, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chiahuitzla, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chicora, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chila, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">China, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cholula, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Churchhill, collections of A. and J., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cibao, mines of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cimbri, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cinnamon, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cintra, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Cipango">Cipango, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Circumnavigation of the earth, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Claude, wife of Francis I., <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Claude or Claudia, island, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cleasby, Richard, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cleito, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clement IV., Pope, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Climates, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cloves, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cocayo, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cocca, Antonia, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cochin China, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Codfish, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coelho, Gonçalo, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coelho, Nicolas, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cogswell, Joseph G., <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cohoes, N. Y., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cojohuacan, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">prince of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colba, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colibre, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coligni, Admiral Gaspard de, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coloma, Juan de, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colombo, Cristoforo. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Columbus_Christopher"><i>Christopher Columbus</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Colombo, Dominico, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colombo, Fernando. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Columbus_Ferdinand"><i>Ferdinand Columbus</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Colon, Cristobal. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Columbus_Christopher"><i>Christopher Columbus</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Colon, Diego. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Columbus_Diego"><i>Diego Columbus</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Colon, Luis, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Columbus, Bartolomé, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Columbus_Christopher">Columbus, Christopher, birthplace, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">parents, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sea-faring, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">geographical knowledge, <a href="#Page_74">74-80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">correspondence with Toscanelli, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proposals to King John II., of Portugal, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sends his brother to England, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">goes to Spain, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his project discussed at Salamanca, <a href="#Page_87">87-90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its consideration postponed by Ferdinand and Isabella, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">intends to go to France, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">befriended by Friar Juan Perez, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">another conference, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unfavorable decision, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Luis de Santángel’s help, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Columbus commissioned, <a href="#Page_93">93-95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">intends to make a sea-chart, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sails from Palos, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">keeps his reckoning short, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">observes the variations of the magnetic needle, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">conduct of his crew, <a href="#Page_100">100-102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers island of Guanahani, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his landing, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the people, <a href="#Page_108">108-110</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">calls the island San Salvador, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers the islands of Santa Maria de la Concepcion, Fernandina, Isabela, and Cuba, <a href="#Page_113">113-116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">believes he has reached Asia, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sends embassadors to the Grand Khan of Cathay, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">productions of Cuba, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">natives, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">returns from the north, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his high latitudes, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explores the coast of Española, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its natives, productions, and soil, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">builds Villa de la Navidad, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sails for Spain, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the voyage, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">anchors in the Tagus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">visits the king of Portugal, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">arrives at Palos, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369"></a>[369]</span>celebration of his discoveries, <a href="#Page_142">142-144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Columbus’s second voyage, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers the islands of Dominica, Marigalante, Santa Maria de Guadalupe, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his sea-chart, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">arrives at Villa de la Navidad, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">builds the town of Isabela and castle of San Tomas, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">appoints a council, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coasts Cuba, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">believes it to be Asia, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sails for Spain, his compasses, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his pilots, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">arrives at Cadiz, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">goes to Burgos, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his privileges prejudiced, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Columbus’s third voyage, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers the island of Trinidad, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sees the continent, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Tierra de Gracia, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">enters the Gulf of Paria, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">map of the country, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">reaches Española, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sent in chains to Spain, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Columbus’s fourth voyage, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers the island of Mantinino, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">reaches Española, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sails to the Guanaia islands, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">captures a canoe laden with Indian commodities, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explores the coast of Veragua, <a href="#Page_177">177-187</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sails to Jamaica, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">returns to Spain, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dies at Valladolid, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his map, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Columbus_Diego">Columbus, Diego, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Columbus_Ferdinand">Columbus, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Comargo, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Combahee River, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Comogre, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Compass. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Mariners_compass"><i>Mariner’s compass</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Conchillos, Lopez de, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Connecticut, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">river, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Contarini, Gasparo, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Copper, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coquibacoa, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cordoba, Francisco Hernando de, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corn, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coronel, Pedro Fernandez, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Correa, Pedro, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cortereal, Gaspar, <a href="#Page_207">207-211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cortereal, João Vaz, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cortereal, Miguel, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cortes, Hernando. Diego Velasquez appoints him captain-general, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sails to the island of Cozumel, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">receives embassadors from Montezuma, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the presents, <a href="#Page_243">243-245</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explores the coast of Mexico, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">builds Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">begins his march toward the city of Mexico, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">engagements with the Tlascallans, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">enters Tlascalla, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">marches to Cholula, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">escorted into the city of Mexico by Montezuma, <a href="#Page_259">259-261</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">visits the market-place and the temple of Huitzilopochtli, <a href="#Page_267">267-272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">besieges the city, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sends presents to the emperor, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corvea, Gaspar, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corvo, island, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cosa, Juan de la, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cosco, Leander de, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cotastlan, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cotta, Joannes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cotton, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cotys, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coyba, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cozumel, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crato, prior of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crawford and Balcarres, count of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Critias, or the Atlantic, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crœsus, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crooked Island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crosses, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cruz, Juan de la, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuba, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuitlahuac, prince of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuitlahuatzin, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Culba, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Culhua, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Culua, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cusa, Cardinal Nicolaus de, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dagaghiano, Pier Francisco, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dagmala-stad, <a href="#Page_31">31-33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Datha, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Damascus, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dankers, Jasper, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Darien, isthmus, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Davila, Pedrarias, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Davis, Henry, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Davis’s Strait, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Declination, line of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">De Costa, B. F., <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Degree, measures of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delaware Bay, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Demons, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Demorgorgon, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Denis, Jean, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Denmark, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Desmarquets, Jean Antoine, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Despinolles, Pierre, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diaprepes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dias, Bartolomeu, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Diaz, Bernal, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Father Juan, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370"></a>[370]</span>Diepa or Dieppe, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dighton rock, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Disraeli, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dods, Marcus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dogs, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dominica, island of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Doña Marina, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drake, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Drogio, island of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ducats, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Duero, Andres de, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Duharhe, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Duisburg, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dwarfs, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Eannes, Gil, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eannes de Azurara, Gomes, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Earth, globular form of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">circumference of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">circumnavigation of, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">East Cape, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">East Indies, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">East River, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eden, Richard, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Egypt, priests of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">invaded, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gods rule in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stars seen in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Egyptians, chroniclers, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chronology of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ships of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hermetic books of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eider-ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ekallumiut, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elasippus, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">El Crespello, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elephants, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">El Gran Cairo, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">El Marien, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elohim, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emeralds, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Emmanuel, king of Portugal, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">England, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eric, the Red, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the wanderer, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Escovedo, Rodrigo de, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Española, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Espiritu Santo, Rio del, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Baya del, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Estotiland, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Estrithson, Sveyn, king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ethiopia, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eudæmon, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eudoxus, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Euenor, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eugene IV., Pope, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eumelus, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Europa, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Europe, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eusebius, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Euthydemus, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Euxine Sea, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evangelista, island of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Everett, E., <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eyktar-stad, <a href="#Page_31">31-33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eynoult, Guillaume, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ezcapuzalco, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fabian, Robert, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Faroe islands, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fayal, island of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ferdinand, king of Spain, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fernandina, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fish, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fitch, John, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flateyensis, codex, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flatö, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">book of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Floki, the viking, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flores island, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Florida, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223-225</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flowers, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fonseca, Juan Rodriguez de, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fornari, Baltano de, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fort Caroline, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fort Nassau, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fortunate Islands, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foster, Andrew, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fowls, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fox, G. V., <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Francis I., king of France, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Francesca, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frederic III., of Denmark, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freydis, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frisland, island of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">story of a fisherman of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46-50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Frizeland, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fruits, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fucus natans, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fuenterabia, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fuerteventura, island of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fundy, Bay of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Furdustrandir, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gadeira, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gadeirica, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Galleys, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Galicia, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gallia Nova, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Galvano, Antonio, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gama, Vasco da, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gamart of Rouen, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gamlason, Thorhall, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371"></a>[371]</span>Gamas, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ganges, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gardens, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garay, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gastaldi, Giacomo de, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gaul, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Georgia, State of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Germany, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Giants, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ginnungagap, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gioja, Flavia, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Godeffroy, Adam, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gods, divide the earth, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">marry the daughters of man, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">rule in Egypt, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">half-gods, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Góes, Damião de, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golfo de las Flechas, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golfo de las Perlas, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Golfo Dulce, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gold, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gomara, Francisco Lopez de, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gomera, island of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gomez, Estevan, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gonçalves, André, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Graah, Captain W. A., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gracia, Tierra de, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greenland, from Iceland, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovered, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">eastern district in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sea of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grain, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grand Canary, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grande River, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grand Khan of Cathay, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grand Scarp, the, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grand Turk Island, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grapes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gratiosa, island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Great Exuma Island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greco, wind, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greece, invasion of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greeks, early civilization of the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greene, G. W., <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greenhalgh, Wenworth, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gregory XIII., calendar of Pope, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grijalva, Juan de, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grimolfson, Bjarni, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Groote River, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guacanagari, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guacasualco River, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guacaya, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guadalupe, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gualdape, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guanaco, the, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guanahani, the island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guanaia islands, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guazpaltepec, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gudrid, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guerrero, Gonzalo, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guinea, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guisay, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Quinsay"><i>Quinsay</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf of Castles, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf of Coquibacoa, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf of Gamas, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf of Mexico, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf of St. Lawrence, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf of Venezuela, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf Stream, the, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gunnbjörn, the Norwegian, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">skerries, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gutierrez, Pedro, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guyneth, Madoc, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Owen, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guyot, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Habacoa, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hackit, Thomas, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Haki, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hakluyt, Richard, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hakon, Jónn, son of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Half Moon, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hamacas, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hammocks, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hangchau, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hanno, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harlem River, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harrisse, Henry, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hatchets, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hauslab, M. le général de, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Havannah, the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hawks, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hayti, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hekja, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hell-Gate, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Helluland, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Henderson, Ebenezer, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Henry, prince of Portugal, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Henry II. of France, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Henry VII., king of England, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">VIII., <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Herbs, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hercules, pillars of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Herjulf, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Herjulfsnes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Herodotus, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heroes, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Herrera y Tordesillas, Antonio de, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hetland, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372"></a>[372]</span>Hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hitha, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hochelaga, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">river of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hojeda, Alonzo de, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Holy Sepulchre, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Honduras, Bay of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Honfleur, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hóp, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horns, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horses, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huag, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hudson, Henry, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hudson River, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269-272</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huexotzinco, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huitzilopochtli, idol, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">temple of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hvarf, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hvidserk, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hylacomylus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Ibernia">Ibernia, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Icaria, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Iceland">Iceland, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Island"><i>Island</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Ignami, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Incense, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">India, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Indian Ocean, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Indians">Indians (<i>See also</i> <a href="#Manants"><i>Manants</i></a>, <a href="#Paesani"><i>Paesani</i></a>, <a href="#Paysans"><i>Paysans</i></a>, <a href="#Wild_men"><i>Wild Men</i></a>, <a href="#Wilden"><i>Wilden</i></a>);</li> -<li class="isub1">ancestors, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">axes, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ball-players, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bows and arrows, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">burial, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caciques, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cannibals, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">canoes, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carpenters, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">carpets, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cities, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clothing, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">clubs, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">color, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">concubines, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">courts, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cuirasses, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">darts, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dwellings, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">edifices, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">enchanters, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">eyes, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fabrics, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">faces, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fans, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">farmer-generals, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">feather-work, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fishing-hooks, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fishing-nets, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">flags, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">food, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">friendliness, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">furniture, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">giants, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">goldsmiths, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hair, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hammocks, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">helmets, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">idols, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">implements, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">javelins, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">kidnaped, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">kings, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">knives, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lances, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">language, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">lapidaries, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">liquors, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">longevity, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">magistrates, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">markets, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">masks, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">medicine, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">merchandize, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mirrors, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">money, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">morions, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">musical instruments, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">name, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">oars, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">occupation, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ornaments, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">palaces, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">papermakers, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">painters, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">painted faces, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">paintings, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">phlebotomy practised, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pikes, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pipes, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">plantations, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">police-system, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">priests, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">public works, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">religion, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sacrifices, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270-272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sculptors, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sculptures, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sepulchre, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">servants, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shields, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shoes, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">silversmiths, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">slaves, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">slings, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">snares, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">songs, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spinners, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stature, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stone-cutters, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">superstitions, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">swords, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tanners, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373"></a>[373]</span>temples, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">theatres, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">thread, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tobacco, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">traditions, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">traffic, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">utensils, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">villages, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wares, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">warlike, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">warriors, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">weaving, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wines, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wives, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">women, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Indies, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Infante Fortuna, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Insubria, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Inzignanin, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ilhas Dezertas, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ireland, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Ibernia"><i>Ibernia</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Isabela, island of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">town of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isabella, queen of Spain, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isla Blanca, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isla de las Bocas, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Island">Island, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Iceland"><i>Iceland</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Isla Rica, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isla Santa, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isole de Ladroni, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Isole Sfortunato, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ithaca, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iti, island of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iuca, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iucatan, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Yucatan"><i>Yucatan</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Iztapalapan, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jackals, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jacobus, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jacquet, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Japan, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Java, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jerez of Ayamonte, Rodrigo de, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jerusalem, conquest of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jesters, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">John I., king of Portugal, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">II., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">III., <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jomard, M., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jonas, Arngrim, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jones, Inigo, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jordan River, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Joseph, Master, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juan, Prince, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juana, island, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juanillo, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Juet, Robert, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Karlsefne, Snorro, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Thorfinn, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kelly, Patrick, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kennebec River, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kettell, Samuel, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Khotan, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kingsborough, collection of Lord, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kjalarnes, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Klaproth, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Knoll, Conrad, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">La Baya del Rio, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Labrador, cape of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">land of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Boca de la Drago, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Sierpe, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">de Terminos, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Cruz, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lactantius, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Culata, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ladrone islands, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laet, Johannes de, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Isla de Trinidad, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lake Maggiore, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lamb, Mrs. Martha J., <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of Ayllon, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of Codfish, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of Cortereal, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of Fire, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of Grace, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of Pearls, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of Red wood, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of the Farmer, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of the Grand Scarp, <a href="#Page_349">349-351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of the Holy Cross, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land of the Palisades, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Nouvelle France, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lanzarote, island, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lares, Almador de, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Rabida, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laos, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lapidaries, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">La Plata, port of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lappenburg, M., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lariab, country of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Las Barbas, islands, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Las Islas Desdichados, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lateens, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lathyrus, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Latini, Brunetto, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Latitude, <a href="#Page_66">66-68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laudonnière, René Goulaine de, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leagues, land, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sea, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leather, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leicester, earl of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leif, son of Eric the Red, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lelewel, Joachim, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lemos, Gaspar de, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lenormant, François, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leo X., Pope, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374"></a>[374]</span>Leon, Juan Ponce de, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223-225</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lester, C. Edwards, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leucippe, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Levante, wind, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lepe, Diego de, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Libeccio, wind, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Libya, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Line of declination, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Line of demarkation, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lings, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lions, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Liquors, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lisbon, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Littré, É., <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Liverpool, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Llwyd, Humphry, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Locke, Michael, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lockhart, John Ingrim, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">London, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Longitude, <a href="#Page_66">66-68</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Long Island, N. Y., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Long Island, West Indies, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Long Island Sound, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Looms, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Louise of Savoy, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Louisiana, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luisa, island of, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lully, Raymond, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luna, Fernando Perez de, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luxan, Juan de, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lynna, Nicholas de, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lynx, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Machian, island, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Madagascar, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Madeira, island, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Madoc, Guyneth, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maestrale, wind, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maestro, wind, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Magalhaens">Magalhaens, Fernam de, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284-294</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magellan: (<i>See</i> <a href="#Magalhaens"><i>Magalhaens</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Magellan’s Strait, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magnetic needle, <a href="#Page_61">61-63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magnetism, terrestrial, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magua, island, Great and Little, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maguey, plant, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">root, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Magnussen, Arne, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maine, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mainwaring, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maiollo, Visconte de, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maize, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Major, Richard Henry, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malinche, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malpiero, Gasparo, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malvas, port of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mames, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mamre, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mandeville, Sir John, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mango, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Manants">Manants or Manans, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Indians"><i>Indians</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Manants Island, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manhattan, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manhattans, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manhattes, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">river of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mantinino, island, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manzi, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maques, or Maquaas, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maravedi, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marchena, Fray Antonio de, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mar del Sur, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mar de Sargasso, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mar Dulce, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mare de Verrazana, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mare Oceanum, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Margarita, Don Pedro, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Margarita, island, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Margarita of Austria, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marigalante, island, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Mariners_compass">Mariner’s compass, <a href="#Page_61">61-63</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mar Indicum, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marini, Giorgio Baptista, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marinus of Tyre, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mark, a weight, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Markland, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marmora, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marnef, Jan de, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mar pacifico, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martens, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martha’s Vineyard, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martin, Joseph, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martinez, Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martin V, Pope, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martin of Bohemia, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Martire">Martire d’Anghiera, Pietro, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martires, islands of las, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martyr, Peter. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Martire"><i>Pietro Martire d’Anghiera</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Mastic, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mataia, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Matan, island, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maurice, prince of Orange and Nassau, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mauritius River, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">May River, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mecca, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medea, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medina, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mediterranean Sea, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Melchorejo, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Melaccha, island of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mendoza, Luis de, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mercator, Gerard, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mercator’s projection, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375"></a>[375]</span>Meredith ap Rhees, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Merrimack River, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Meschita, Alvaro de, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mestor, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Meteren, Emanuel van, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mexico, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256-274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Gulf of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Midjökul, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miles, sea and land, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Millet, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Miruelo, Diego, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mississippi, state, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">river, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mnesis, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mohawk River, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moluccas, islands, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mona, island, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moncada, Don Hugo de, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montagneurs, les, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montauk Point, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monte Cristo, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montejo, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monte Pascoal, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Monteregius, John of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montezuma, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260-273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montreal, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moors, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Morales, Gaspar, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moses, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mount Hope Bay, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Müller, Johann, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Murphy, Henry C., <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mutir, island, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Myos Hormos, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Myrrh, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Naddoddr, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nantucket, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Napkins, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Narragansett Bay, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Narrows, The, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Narvaez, Pamfilo de, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Navarrete, Martin Fernandez de, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Navidad, Villa de la, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Naville, Edward, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Necho, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Negropont, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nepos, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nequen, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newark Bay, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New France, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Gaul, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Land, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Netherland, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Newport, stone tower of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">situation, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Providence, island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New Spain, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New World, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">New York City, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bays, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">site, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nicobar, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nile, navigation of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">canal from, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nirando, Alonso Perez, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nombre de Dios, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Normans, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Norombègue, cape of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">town of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">river of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">North America, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">North Carolina, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Northmen, galleys of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">deported, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">voyages, <a href="#Page_25">25-41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">North Sea, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Norumbega, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Norway, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Noun, the god, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nova Scotia, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Novaya Zemlya, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nucay, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nuestra Senora, La Mar de, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nueva España, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nuova Terra, <a href="#Page_306">306-330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nuremberg, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Olafs, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Olone, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oneydes, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Onondagas, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Onoyants, les, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Onslow Bay, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orichalcum, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orinoco River, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orteguilla, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ortelius, Abraham, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ortubia, Juan Perez de, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ostro, the wind, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Otté, E. C., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Otters, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oxford, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pachol, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pacific Ocean, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Paesani">Paesani, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Paysans">Paisans or paysans, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palisades, the, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palfrey, John Gorham, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palos, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palma, island, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palmetto trees, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panama, isthmus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panic, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panuco, province, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">river, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paor, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paper, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paria, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376"></a>[376]</span>country of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pascua Florida, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pasqualigo, Alvise, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Francesco, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Pietro, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pasqui, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Patagonians, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pearls, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peasants, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Indians"><i>Indians</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Peking, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peltry, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Penobscot River, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perestrello, Bartolomeo Moñis de, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perez, Friar Juan, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Fray Rodrigo, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perpignan, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Persia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pertz, George Henry, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peso, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peter, the Martyr, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Petuneurs, les, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Philippe, duke of Savoy, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Philippine Islands, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phœnicians, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pigafetta, Antonio, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pillars of Hercules, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pilots, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pineda, Alonso Alvarez de, <a href="#Page_275">275-279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pinkerton’s collections, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pinzon, Martin, Alonso, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Vicente Yañez, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pisa, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pizarro, Francisco, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Place, Jean de la, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plato, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plethron, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pliny, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plutarch, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pocorosa, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Point Judith, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pola, island, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pole, antarctic, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">arctic, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polo, Maffeo, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Marco, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Nicolò, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ponente, wind, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Potonchan, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porcelain, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poree, Fremyn, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porland, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Port du Refuge, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porto Bello, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porto Santo, island, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porto Seguro, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Portugal, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poseidon, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Potatoes, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poughkeepsie, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Powel, David, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prado, prior of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Preudhomme, Guillaume, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prima Tierra Vista, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Providence, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Psenophis, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ptolemy, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puebla, Ruy Gonzales de, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puertocarrero, Alonso, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto de la Concepcion, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto del Principe, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto de Mares, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto de San Nicolas, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto de Santa Catalina, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto Grande, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto Maria, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Puerto Santo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pumpkins, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Punta de Arenal, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Punta de Arracifes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Punta de Cotoche, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Punta de la Aguda, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Punta de la Galera, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Punta de la Playa, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Punta Santa, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Quetzalcoatl, temple of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Quinsay">Quinsay, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quintalbor, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quitlalpitoc, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quohathe, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Râ, the god, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Race-course, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rafn, Charles C., <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ramusio, Giovanni Battista, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Raritan Bay, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ravens, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Razors, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Real, money, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Red race, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Red Sea, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Red wood, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Refugio, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Regiomontanus, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Retrete, port, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reychenes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rhodes, island of, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ribauld. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Ribaut"><i>Ribaut</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Ribault. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Ribaut"><i>Ribaut</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Ribaut">Ribaut, Jean, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ribero, Diego, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio Coatzacoalcos, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Banderas, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Belen, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Flores, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de la Cruz, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377"></a>[377]</span>Rio de la Plata, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de las Gamas, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de las Palmas, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio del Espiritu Santo, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio del Sol, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Luna, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Mares, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Montaignes, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Nieves, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de Pescadores, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio de San Anton, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio Fonda, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio Grande, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio Janeiro, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio Jordan, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio Nevado, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio Panuco, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rio Seco, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roanoke, island, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roberval, Sieur de, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roderic, Master, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roffet, Ponce, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roque, Jean François de la, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rousselay, Zanobus de, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rum Cay, island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rustichi, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rustizielo, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ruysch, Johann, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rymer’s Foedera, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Saint Amaro, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Augustine, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Christopher, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. David’s island, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Dié, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. George’s island, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Germain, port of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Iago de la Spata, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. John’s island, W. Indies, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Canada, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Julian, port of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Lawrence, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">isle of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">river of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Malo, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Lucy’s day, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saga of Eric the Red, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Thorfinn Karlsefne, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sagres, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saguenay, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sea of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salamanca, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Samana, island, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salmon, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sanchez, Rafael, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sand-glass, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sand-haffn, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandwich islands, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sandy Hook, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Juan de Ulua, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Salt, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saltes, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Domingo, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Juan Baptista, island, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Lazaro, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Lucar de Berrameda, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Miguel, bay of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Pablo River, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Pedro River, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Salvador, Cuba, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Elena, cape of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Fé, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Maria de Guadalupe, island, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Maria de la Concepcion, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Maria, island, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">port, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Marta, island, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santángel, Luis de, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santarem, Visconte de, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santee River, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santiago, Cuba, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sant Joan, island, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Tomas, fort of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santonge or Santongeois, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Saomete, island, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sardis, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scandinavia, seamen of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schooner, Johannes, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schoolcraft, Henry R., <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schott, Charles A., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schotti, Joannis, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scio, island, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scotland, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scylla, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sea-weed, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sebastian, harbor of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Secalart, Raulin, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sanchis, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seneca, Lucius Annæus, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Senecas, Indians, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seres, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seti I., of Egypt, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seven Cities, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Seville, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shetland Islands, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ships, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Phœnician, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Northmen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">speed of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of India, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siam, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siberia, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sidney, Sir Philip, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sierra de Quarequa, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sierra Leone, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silver, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silveyra, Fernão de, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sinae, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sines, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sirocco, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skagefjörd, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skalholt, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378"></a>[378]</span>Skraelings, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skraelings’ land, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skulls, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Slaves, Indian, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sluyter, Peter, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, Captain John, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sneeland, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Snefelsnes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Snorrason, Thorbrand, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Snorro, Thorbrandson, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Socotra, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soles, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Solinus, C. Julius, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Solis, Juan Diaz de, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Solon, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Somerset island, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Somers, Sir George, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Somer’s Island, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sona, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soncino, Raimondo di, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">South America, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">South Carolina, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">South Sea, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, early voyages from, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">conquered, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spices, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spice Islands, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stadium, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stanley, Henry E. J., <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Staten Island, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Sound, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stephanius, Sigurd, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Steppes, Mongolian, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stevens, Henry, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stock-fish, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stow, John, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strait of Belle Isle, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strait of Magellan, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Strait of the Eleven Thousand Virgins, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Straumey, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Straumfjörd, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Style, old and new, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suache, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Suevi, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sveinson, Bishop Brynjulf, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tabasco, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tadore, island, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tahout, sacred books of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tale, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tanais, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tanzaca, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tarenate, island, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tassel, Robert, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tatancal, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tehuacacinco, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tendilla, count of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Teneriffe, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tepeaquilla, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terceira, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra de Lavrador, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra delle Perle, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra del Verzino, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra de Santa Cruz, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra de Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra dos Cortereals, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra Florida, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra ferma, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra Nova, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra Sanctæ Crucis, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terra Verde, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terre d’Anormée Berge, La, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terre de Norumberge, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terre Francesque, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terre Neufve, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tetzcat, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tetzcatlipuca, the god, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Teules, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Teuthlille, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Texas, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tezcuco, lake, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Theatres, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thebes, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thevet, André, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thinae, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thirkill, Launcelot, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thompson, Benjamin F., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thor, the god, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thorbrandson, Snorro, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thord, Jónn, son of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thorhall, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thorvard, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thucydides, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thule, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tibet, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra de Ayllon, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra de Gracia, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra de los Bacallaos, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tierra firme, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tigers, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tihe, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tin, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tiphys, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Titus, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tlacupa, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tlalmanalco, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tlascalla, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tlatateteclo, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tlatelulco, the, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tobacco, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tordesillas, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torfæus, or Torfason, Thormod, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tokio, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torquemada, Juan de, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379"></a>[379]</span>Torralva, Juan de, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Torres, Antonio de, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Luis de, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tortosa, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tortuga, island, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Toscanelli, Paolo, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tramontana, wind, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trees, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Triana, Rodrigo de, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trico, Catelyn, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trinidad, island of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trireme, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Troy, N. Y., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tryggvason, King Olaf, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tsiuenchau, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tunguses, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turk Island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turkeys, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turin, papyrus of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tuspa, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tusta, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tustepec, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tyrker, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tyrrhenia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ubygd, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ulloa, Alfonso de, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ulysses, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Uraba, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Valentine, David T., <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Valladolid, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Valparaiso, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Van Rensselaer Island, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vargas, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Varnhagen, F. A. de, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vegetables, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Velasquez, Diego, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Venice, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">land of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Veragua, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vermonde, isle de, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verrazana seu Gallia nova, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verrazzano, Giovanni da:</li> -<li class="isub1">Varasenne, Jean de, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Varesam, Jehan de, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Varezano, João, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Verarsanus, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Vérassen, Jean, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Verazano, João, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Verazanus, John, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Verrassane, Jehan de, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Verrazano, Jean, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">First voyage to America, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">second voyage, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">his ship, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">letter to Francis I., <a href="#Page_301">301-303</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">discovers land, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">map, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">on peninsula of Virginia, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Sea of Verrazzano, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">enters New York Bay, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">discovers the Hudson, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">gives a name to Block Island, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">anchors in Narragansett Bay, <a href="#Page_321">321-326</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">sails along the coast of Maine, <a href="#Page_327">327-329</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">extent of land discovered, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">geographical explanation, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">news of his return, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">unfavorable opinions concerning the voyage, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">his former voyages, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">agreement for a third voyage to America, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">his death, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">map and globe, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verrazzano, Hieronymus da, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">map, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verrazzano, Pier da, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Verzino, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vespasian, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vespucci Amerigo, his first voyage, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">reaches the continent of America, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explorations, <a href="#Page_161">161-165</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">land of Lariab, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island of Iti, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">returns to Spain, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vespucci’s second voyage, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explorations along the coast of South America, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">returns to Spain, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vespucci’s third voyage, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explores the east coast of Brazil, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">returns to Lisbon, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vespucci’s fourth voyage, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sails southward along the coast of Brazil, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Bay of All Saints, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">returns to Portugal, account of his four voyages, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his name given to the continent, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">false imputations, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vicente, Martin, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vieusseux, Geo. Pietro, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vigfusson, Gudbrand, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vikings, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villa, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villa de la Navidad, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villalan, Doctor, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villa Rica de Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villa Segura, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villegagnon, Chevalier, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Villers, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vinland discovered, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shortest day in, <a href="#Page_31">31-34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">promontory, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Virginia, peninsula of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vision, prophetic, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vries, David Pieterse, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380"></a>[380]</span>Walckenaër, Baron de, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Waldseemüller, Martin, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Walker, E., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wassenaer, Nicolaes à, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Watling Island, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wells, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Western Sea, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">West Indies, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Westminster, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wheat, in Vinland, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Greenland, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Iceland, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wheaton, Henry, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitehall, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Wilden">Wilden, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Wild_men">Wild-men, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wine, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wine-berries, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wine-land, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wine-wood, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Worthington, William, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Xamunabe, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xamunambe, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xapida, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xapira, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xathi, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xicales, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xiquipiles, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xocotlan, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xoxi, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yahveh, sees the wickedness of man, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yamaye, island of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yamiscaron, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yebra River, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yenyohol, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yonge, C. D., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yuca, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx" id="Yucatan">Yucatan, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yule, Henry, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yurbaco, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Zacton, or Zayton, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zanzibar, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zapata, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeno, Antonio, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Carlo, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Nicolò, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeni brothers’ voyage, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zeus, assembles the gods, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zichmni, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zipangi, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Cipango"><i>Cipango</i></a>.)</li> - -<li class="indx">Zodiac, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zuanta, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Zubu, island, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> - -</ul> - -<p class="titlepage">THE END.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;" id="map10"> -<a href="images/map10-full.jpg"><img src="images/map10.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">A copy of one half of the map of the world made by Johann -Ruysch, contained in the edition of Ptolemy’s Geography printed at Rome -in 1508. The map is entitled: “Vniversalior cogniti orbis tavula ex -recentibvs confecta observationibvs.”</p> -<p class="caption">(The copy is nearly as large as the original.)</p> -<p class="caption">[Copyright. “Discoveries of America.” Weise. <span class="smcap">G. P. Putnam’s -Sons</span>, New York, 1884.]</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map11"> -<a href="images/map11-full.jpg"><img src="images/map11.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">A copy of a part of the map of the world made by Visconte -de Maiollo in Genoa in 1527. (The scale of latitudes was copied from one -on another part of the map. The original in the Ambrosian Library, Milan, -is twenty-three inches wide.)</p> -<p class="caption">[Copyright. “Discoveries of America.” Weise. <span class="smcap">G. P. Putnam’s -Sons.</span> New York, 1884.]</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;" id="map12"> -<a href="images/map12-full.jpg"><img src="images/map12.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption">A copy of a part of the map of the world made by Juan de -la Cosa in the port of St. Mary, Spain, in 1500. (The original is about -one-third larger.)</p> -<p class="caption">[Copyright. “Discoveries of America.” Weise. <span class="smcap">G. P. Putnam’s -Sons.</span> New York, 1884.]</p> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DISCOVERIES OF AMERICA TO THE YEAR 1525 ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin:0.83em 0; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE<br /> -<span style='font-size:smaller'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br /> -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</span> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/astrolabe.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/astrolabe.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 92baff2..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/astrolabe.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 207ea99..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map-mercator-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map-mercator-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cd01dbe..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map-mercator-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map-mercator.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map-mercator.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 01cb2d7..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map-mercator.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map-nyc-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map-nyc-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e8e9e7c..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map-nyc-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map-nyc.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map-nyc.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f5cf15c..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map-nyc.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map1-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map1-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e4ee1cd..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map1-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map1.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map1.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 92c1c08..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map1.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map10-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map10-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1c7d983..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map10-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map10.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map10.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2eafe52..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map10.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map11-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map11-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f9b966e..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map11-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map11.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map11.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0908053..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map11.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map12-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map12-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 026cc15..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map12-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map12.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map12.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5414c7d..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map12.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map2-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map2-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9745b04..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map2-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map2.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map2.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e09982c..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map2.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map3-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map3-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 72a6dc6..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map3-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map3.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map3.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 79419f1..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map3.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map4-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map4-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 353f3cd..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map4-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map4.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map4.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ea113df..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map4.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map5-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map5-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 39ecbf9..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map5-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map5.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map5.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6255ebf..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map5.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map6-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map6-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 835de12..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map6-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map6.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map6.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5ce2618..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map6.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map7-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map7-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index db19cfa..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map7-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map7.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map7.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5b79553..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map7.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map8-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map8-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 130fca6..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map8-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map8.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map8.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9914b92..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map8.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map9-full.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map9-full.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b3aa254..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map9-full.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67766-h/images/map9.jpg b/old/67766-h/images/map9.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 225201b..0000000 --- a/old/67766-h/images/map9.jpg +++ /dev/null |
