diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 01:12:50 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-22 01:12:50 -0800 |
| commit | 643f9e2be920bf79a4ae643f2ba65bdc732ef692 (patch) | |
| tree | 06fa5a2ce8c7094e6ebcb9f9fd4bd2a6f2d6a3e0 | |
| parent | 2284753e176f6486764a689ef758590498a6308e (diff) | |
30 files changed, 17 insertions, 9523 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d3fbfbe --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67768 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67768) diff --git a/old/67768-0.txt b/old/67768-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 58e6c42..0000000 --- a/old/67768-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3996 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hand-book of Sanitary Information for -Householders, by Roger Sherman Tracy - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Hand-book of Sanitary Information for Householders - Containing facts and suggestions about ventilation, drainage, - care of contageous diseases, - -Author: Roger Sherman Tracy - -Release Date: April 3, 2022 [eBook #67768] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HAND-BOOK OF SANITARY -INFORMATION FOR HOUSEHOLDERS *** - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_, bold thus =bold=. - -There are many apparent subsections within the text variously indicated -by bold, italic and capital text. There is some, inconsistent, -correspondence between these and the sup-topics in the Contents. -Because of this no attempt has been made to establish a hierarchy of -these headings and they remain as printed in the original. Equally, -paragraph numbering is not always consistent but remains unchanged. - - - - - HAND-BOOK - - OF - - SANITARY INFORMATION - - FOR - - HOUSEHOLDERS, - - CONTAINING - - FACTS AND SUGGESTIONS ABOUT VENTILATION, - DRAINAGE, CARE OF CONTAGIOUS DISEASES, - DISINFECTION, FOOD, AND WATER. - - WITH APPENDICES ON - - DISINFECTANTS AND PLUMBERS’ MATERIALS. - - BY - - ROGER S. TRACY, M. D., - - SANITARY INSPECTOR OF THE NEW YORK CITY HEALTH DEPARTMENT. - - NEW YORK: - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, - 1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. - 1884. - - - COPYRIGHT BY - ROGER S. TRACY, M. D. - 1884. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The preparation of this hand-book was suggested by persistent -questioning about the matters it contains. Its purpose is to furnish -householders with information which has been so scattered, or buried so -deep in technical discussions, that it has not been easy for them to -find it for themselves. It is, of course, mainly a compilation, and the -only difficulties met with have been those incident to the arrangement -and condensation of a large mass of material. I have intended to give -credit, where credit seemed to be due, for everything borrowed, and, -if I have failed to do so in any case, it is not my fault, but my -misfortune. - - R. S. T. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I.—AIR 7-21 - - Normal Air.—Contamination of the Air.—Test for - Carbonic Acid in Air.—Diseases caused by Foul - Air.—Composition of Sewer-Air.—Ground Air.—Ventilation.—Smoky - Chimneys. - - II.—DRAINAGE 21-66 - - Privy-Vaults.—Tanks.—Pails.—Earth-Closets.—Water-Carriage.—Plumbing - Regulations of New York City Board of Health.—Explanatory - Remarks.—Drainage of Country Houses.—Subsoil - Drainage.—Defective Drainage.—Sources of Bad - Odors.—Examination of House-Drainage.—Peppermint - Test.—Summary.—Exclusion of Ground-Air. - - III.—DISINFECTION 66-73 - - Directions issued by the National Board of - Health.—Comments.—Precautions in Special Diseases. - - IV.—FOOD 73-85 - - Adulterations, and Methods of detecting them. - - V.—WATER 86-90 - - Pollution of Water.—Filters.—Tests for Impurities.—Precautions. - - APPENDIX A.—DISINFECTANTS 91-99 - - ” B.—PLUMBERS’ MATERIALS 100-102 - - INDEX 103 - - - - - HAND-BOOK - - OF - - SANITARY INFORMATION. - - -Necessary to continued good health are GOOD AIR, GOOD FOOD, and GOOD -WATER. It is the object of Sanitary Science to secure these. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - AIR. - - -Normal air contains 79 per cent of nitrogen, 20.96 per cent of oxygen, -and .04 per cent (4 parts in 10,000) of carbonic acid. - -Oxygen supports animal life; carbonic acid, vegetable life; and the use -of the nitrogen, otherwise than as a diluent, is not known. - -Very pure air contains 78.98 per cent of nitrogen, 20.99 per cent of -oxygen, and .03 per cent of carbonic acid. - -Air begins to be very bad when the oxygen is reduced to 20.60 parts in -100. In mines, where candles go out, oxygen is reduced to 18.50 parts -in 100, and, in the worst specimen yet examined by Angus Smith, to -18.27. Air in which the percentage of oxygen has been reduced to 17.20 -is very difficult to remain in for many minutes. - -Aside from impurities due to local causes, the purest air is found from -six to forty feet above the ground, and the most impure from seventy to -ninety feet, where the air from chimneys is poured forth. - - -=Air is contaminated by the products of respiration and the bodily -emanations of healthy persons, and by the products of combustion.= - -An adult man, in ordinary work, gives off in twenty-four hours from -twelve to eighteen cubic feet of carbonic acid, according to his size; -women, children, and old persons less. - -Edward Smith found that an adult asleep exhaled about nineteen grains -of carbonic acid per hour, and, when he walked three miles an hour, the -amount was increased to 100.6 grains. - -W. R. Nichols, of Boston, found in passenger-cars 23.2 parts of -carbonic acid to 10,000 parts of air, and in the Berkeley Street sewer -10.4 parts per 10,000. Wilson found in Portsmouth Prison, in cells -containing six hundred and fourteen cubic feet of air, always occupied, -7.20 parts per 10,000, and in cells containing two hundred and ten -cubic feet, occupied only at night, 10.44 per 10,000. - -Besides the carbonic acid, there is exhaled from the lungs a small -amount of organic matter, of unknown composition. It forms a glutinous -coating on the furniture, walls, and windows of closed rooms, -decomposes rapidly, imparts a peculiarly offensive odor to the air of -a badly-ventilated room, and poisons those who inhale it. Its quantity -is so small that it has so far defied analysis. In a room contaminated -by respiration alone, the odor of this substance begins to be perceived -when the carbonic acid has increased to about 7 parts in 10,000, and 10 -parts in 10,000 may be considered the maximum amount of carbonic acid -allowable in dwellings. - -The following table shows how much carbonic acid artificial lights -produce per hour: - - Petroleum, slit-burner, 10 candle-light, 1.98 cubic feet, - Petroleum, round-burner, 7.6 ” 2.15 ” - Oil-lamp, 4 ” 1.09 ” - Candle, 1 ” .39 ” - Coal-gas, slit-burner, 7.8 ” 3.25 ” - Coal-gas, flat-burner, 10 ” 3 ” - -A five-foot gas-burner produces as much carbonic acid per hour as five -men. - -As the most poisonous element of the breath can not readily be detected -by analysis, the amount of carbonic acid is taken as a measure of the -impurity of air contaminated by respiration. - - -=Test for carbonic acid in air= (Pettenkofer’s method): - -Shake up a definite volume of the air in a closed vessel with a -definite amount of lime-water. The carbonic acid unites with the -lime, forming carbonate of lime. This compound, being insoluble in -water, renders it turbid. The degree of turbidity may be judged of -by looking through the water at a cross marked in lead-pencil on the -inside of a piece of paper pasted on the opposite side of the bottle, -and a standard may be fixed by shaking up ordinary external air in a -sixteen-ounce bottle, as described below, which will show the degree of -turbidity produced by 4 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000. Lime-water -can be bought of a druggist, or made by shaking distilled water with -slaked lime, allowing it to settle, and pouring off the clear liquid. -With a common hand-ball syringe, the end of the rubber tube resting -on the bottom of the bottle, pump in air, until the bottle is filled -with the air to be tested. Put in half an ounce of lime-water, cork the -bottle, and shake it up well. Let it stand for five minutes, and if the -water becomes turbid, as if a little milk had been dropped into it, the -presence of carbonic acid in the air will be indicated in the following -proportions. - - Size of bottle. Amount of lime-water. Parts in 10,000. - - 16 ounces 1-2 ounce A little less than 4 - 12 ” ” A little more than 5 - 10 ” ” ” ” ” 6 - 8 ” ” 8 - 6 ” ” A little more than 10 - 4 ” ” ” ” ” 15 - - - _Dangers of such Contamination._ - -Air contaminated by the products of respiration and by bodily -emanations (perspiration, etc.) contains substances which have been -ejected from human bodies as useless or injurious. What all systems -reject can not be healthy for any, and it is found that long-continued -exposure in an atmosphere laden with these impurities produces anæmia, -general debility, and poor nutrition, conditions likely to result in -the development of scrofula and consumption. It is believed, too, that -typhus fever may originate in this manner, while when such poisons are -inhaled in a more concentrated form, as in the famous Black Hole of -Calcutta, nausea, vertigo, convulsions, and even death are produced. - -=The air is at certain times and places contaminated by the products of -respiration and the bodily emanations of diseased persons.= - -In certain diseases, commonly known as =contagious=, organic matters -are thrown off by the lungs and skin of the sick, which tend to -reproduce these diseases in the bodies of other persons. The exact -nature of these poisons is in most cases unknown, but they are -generally believed to be living microscopic organisms (bacteria, -bacilli, micrococci, etc.), which multiply their kind in the blood of -the person who has inhaled them. - -Of such diseases, the dangerous ones are small-pox, measles, scarlet -fever, typhus fever, and diphtheria, and their contagious quality is -marked very nearly in the order in which they are here mentioned. - -The less harmful of these diseases are whooping-cough, chicken-pox, -mumps, and German measles. - -There is strong evidence that consumption is contagious, though not as -markedly so as the diseases above enumerated. - - -=The air may be contaminated by the products of the decomposition of -the excreta of healthy persons.= - -The contents of cesspools, privy-vaults, and sewers, are generally -composed of discharges from the bowels and kidneys, various matters -washed off from the bodies of animals and from culinary and household -utensils, and dissolved soap, constituting a mixture which rapidly -decomposes and affords a fine soil for the nourishment and propagation -of microscopic organisms. - -Air contaminated in this way, popularly known as =sewer-gas=, contains -sulphide of ammonium and sulphureted hydrogen (which cause the -characteristic odor of rotten eggs), carbureted hydrogen, nitrogen, and -carbonic acid (odorless), and certain undetermined organic matters. - -Professor Nichols analyzed the air of the Berkeley Street sewer in -Boston, a type of a badly-constructed and badly-ventilated sewer. The -sulphureted hydrogen, etc., were in too small quantity to be measured. -The highest percentages found were, of oxygen, 20.90; of nitrogen, -79.26; of carbonic acid, .4 (40 parts in 10,000). The lowest were, -oxygen, 20.48; nitrogen, 78.89; and carbonic acid, .05 (5 parts in -10,000). - -Letheby found that sewer-water (containing 128.8 grains of organic -matter to the gallon) excluded from air yielded, for nine weeks, 1.2 -cubic inches of gas per hour. In one hundred volumes of this mixture -there were 78.83 parts of marsh-gas (carbureted hydrogen), 15.90 parts -of carbonic acid, 10.19 parts of nitrogen, and .08 of sulphureted -hydrogen. Examination of sewage-mud in the Seine by Durand-Claye gave -72.88 parts of marsh-gas, 13.30 of carbonic acid, 6.70 of sulphureted -hydrogen, 2.54 of carbonic oxide, 4.58 of nitrogen, and some other -gases. Such mixtures are sometimes found in long-closed cesspools and -privy-vaults, but not in sewers proper. - -Of these gases, sulphureted hydrogen and carbonic acid are very -poisonous, and when they are inhaled in concentrated form produce -almost immediate unconsciousness, and often death. When less -concentrated, sewer-air may cause nausea and vomiting, followed by a -low fever which sometimes kills, and, if not, results in a tedious -convalescence. As a rule, it is so largely diluted that it produces no -immediate effects, excepting the discomfort due to offensive odor, and -the mental anxiety resulting therefrom. - -The effects usually attributed to the continued breathing of diluted -sewer-air are general _malaise_, loss of appetite, anæmia, impaired -nutrition, and therefore diminished power of resistance to attacks of -disease which are not directly attributable to sewer-air poisoning. It -is doubtful whether these effects are due to the constant introduction -of sewer-air in minute quantities into the blood, or to the inhalation -of particles of organic matter floating in such a contaminated -atmosphere. - -=The greatest danger, however, in the breathing of sewer-air is that of -inhaling with it the living particles= (bacilli, etc.) =contained or -developed in the excreta of diseased persons=. - -The diseases believed to be propagated in this way are =cholera=, -=typhoid fever=, and =dysentery=. The discharges both from the mouth -(stomach) and bowels are known to be poisonous. - -It believed by many that the poisons of typhoid fever and diphtheria -may be developed _de novo_ by the decomposition of the mixtures found -in cesspools and sewers. - -There also seems to be a connection, imperfectly understood, between -bad drainage and malarial fevers, and perhaps cerebro-spinal meningitis. - -The origin of yellow fever is not yet ascertained. - -Surgical erysipelas, puerperal fever, and hospital gangrene, are -only developed on and about wounded surfaces, and seem to be due to -the organisms developed in the secretions of such surfaces, where -ventilation and drainage are bad. - - -=Air may be contaminated by the products of organic decomposition -rising from the ground and drawn into the house through furnace-flues=, -etc. - -=Ground-air= contains from 1.49 to 80 parts per 1,000 of carbonic -acid, and frequently contains products of organic decomposition. A -damp soil is also very unhealthy, as shown by Bowditch and others. -“A persistently low ground-water, say fifteen feet down or more, is -healthy; a persistently high ground-water, less than five feet from -the surface, is unhealthy; and a fluctuating level, especially if the -changes are sudden and violent, is very unhealthy” (De Chaumont). Such -soils are especially productive of consumption. - - - VENTILATION. - -The contamination of the atmosphere by the respiration and bodily -emanations of human beings and other animals is unavoidable, but the -noxious matters thus added to the air are being constantly changed in -the following ways: - -=1. Oxidation.= The organic matters, which have been mentioned as -especially injurious, are gradually decomposed by the oxygen of the -air, and changed into harmless substances, which either remain as -constituents of the atmosphere, or are washed into the earth by rains. - -=2. Vegetable growth.= Plants absorb carbonic acid (which is composed -of carbon and oxygen) through their leaves, and give back oxygen -to the air, retaining the carbon for their own nourishment. There -is thus a constant interchange between animals and vegetables, the -former exhaling carbonic acid and appropriating oxygen, and the latter -appropriating carbonic acid and exhaling oxygen. The small percentage -of carbonic acid always found in the air is, therefore, essential to -vegetable life, while harmless to animals. - -It is necessary, for the proper purification of a contaminated -atmosphere, that it should be largely diluted with fresh air. Hence -arises the need of the constant change of air in dwellings. - -Air expands when heated and so becomes lighter. Local differences of -temperature, created by natural and artificial means, therefore bring -about currents in the atmosphere, the cooler and heavier column of air -always descending, and the warmer and lighter always rising. This fact -is taken advantage of in ventilation. - -It has been estimated that, to keep the air pure, three thousand cubic -feet of fresh air per hour are required for a male adult, and that a -sleeping-room should contain at least twelve hundred cubic feet of -air-space for each occupant. - -When the temperature of the external air is such that the doors -and windows can be constantly open, they afford the best means of -ventilation for dwellings. An exposure to draughts, however, is -dangerous to many persons, and it is desirable, therefore, in cooler -weather, to devise means of admitting fresh air without creating a -draught. At a temperature of 60°, a draught is perceived when the air -moves at a higher rate of speed than three feet a second. Now it is -obvious that a draught may be rendered harmless if the entering current -of air is guided in such a direction as not to strike the occupants -of a room. This is accomplished simply and cheaply by either of two -devices: If the lower sash of a window is raised a few inches (say -four), and the space between the bottom of the sash and the window-sill -is filled by an accurately fitted board, there will be a space between -the panes of the two sashes, through which air will enter, spouting -upward toward the ceiling and not falling until its momentum is so much -diminished that it will not be felt as a draught. The other plan is to -make the upper portion of the upper sash movable, so that it can be -tilted inward at such an angle as to direct the entering current upward -(essentially the Sherringham valve, though this is made of iron, with -side-cheeks to prevent a lateral outflow of air). - -There are various patent apparatuses for the admission of fresh air -through windows without draught, but they are mostly modifications of -the methods above mentioned. - -In weather when artificial heat is necessary for comfort, thorough -ventilation is not difficult, provided expense is not considered. As -the removal of the foul air, however, involves a considerable waste -of heat and consumption of fuel, the means of procuring the best -ventilation at the least cost becomes a problem of great intricacy, -which has not yet been satisfactorily solved. - -=Fireplaces=, or open grates, are excellent ventilators. An ordinary -fireplace renews the air of the room four or five times hourly, -removing in that time from fifteen to twenty thousand cubic feet of -air. But only about 12 or 14 per cent. of the heat given off by the -fuel is utilized, the rest passing off by the chimney. The objections -to the fireplace as a sole means of heating are, its wastefulness, and -the fact that it warms only by radiation, so that the room is unequally -warmed, and may be too cold in one place and insupportably hot in -another. - -=Stoves= and =furnaces= can not be relied on for ventilation, the -ventilating power of a close stove being only one tenth of that -required for a single adult. - -Modern fireplaces are sometimes built with a metallic flue extending -upward into the chimney. Between this flue and the masonry is an -air-chamber opening to the external air and communicating with the -room near the ceiling, so that fresh air from outside the house is -continuously warmed, and discharged into the room at a temperature of -80° or 90°. The Galton fireplace (Fig. 1) is of this kind, and utilizes -35 per cent. of the fuel. - -The best combined heating and ventilating arrangement at present seems -to be that which warms the fresh air by means of a soapstone furnace -or steam-coils, and removes the foul air through a fireplace. In -milder weather, gas may be burned in the chimney at a slight expense. -According to Morin, seven cubic feet of gas burned in a flue eleven -inches square and sixty-six feet high, will draw thirteen thousand -three hundred cubic feet of air per hour from a room. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Galton’s fireplace.] - -The =dampers= of stoves should never be in the pipes, for they dam -back the gases which ought to enter the chimney, and force them into -the room. The fire should be regulated by dampers which prevent the -access of air, and not its escape after contamination. - -Ventilating =flues= in walls do very little good, unless special means -are provided to heat them (e. g., gas lights or lamps). - -The common whirling ventilators in window-panes are of very little use. - -As a rule, fresh air should enter a room near the ceiling, and foul air -be removed near the floor. - -In very cold climates, dangerous draughts are often produced by the -cooling of the air in contact with the window-panes, so that it falls -and sweeps along the floor. This danger may be prevented by double -windows, which also save fuel. Double windows may be utilized in -ventilation, by raising the lower outer sash a few inches, and lowering -the upper inner one. - - - _Smoky Chimneys._ - -When a chimney smokes, the draught is downward. This may be, caused—1. -By an obstruction in the flue or stove-pipe. 2. By a higher chimney in -the same house, the air coming down the shorter chimney, and going up -the other. The remedy is to equalize the heights, or close the doors -between the two. 3. If, when the fire is started, the air outside is -warmer than that in the chimney, the heavier column will of course -fall. This effect will vanish in a few minutes, when the flue becomes -heated. 4. The doors and windows of the room may be so tight as to -prevent a sufficient supply of fresh air to burn the fuel. If so, -they must be opened. 5. The chimney may be lower than the adjoining -wall, and the wind from certain directions, striking the wall, may be -directed down the flues. This may be remedied by extending the chimney -above the wall, or by capping the flues with one of the various cowls -that prevent a downward draught. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - DRAINAGE. - - -=How to prevent the contamination of the air by the products of -decomposition.= - -There is no evidence to show that the emanations from fresh -house-slops, or the excreta of healthy animals, are injurious to -health, but it has been proved that when these matters decompose they -become dangerous. The bubbles of gas which rise to the surface of -such decomposing matters, when they burst, throw up solid particles -of organic matter in the air, which float about for some time before -falling to the ground. It is, therefore, essential to health that -all such matters shall be removed from the vicinity of human beings -promptly, before decomposition sets in, or else so manipulated as to -prevent decomposition, or promote rapid oxidation. - -The lower animals seem to recognize by instinct that their excreta -are dangerous, and they deposit them (except when penned up by men) -in places remote from their abodes, or else carefully cover them with -fresh earth. Man alone retains his excreta in carefully prepared -receptacles near his place of residence, until the accumulation is so -large that he is forced to remove it. - -The ordinary =privy-vault= should never be allowed. Its only advantage -is its cheapness, while it involves constant danger of contamination of -the water of adjoining wells or cisterns. Many an epidemic of typhoid -fever has been unmistakably traced to this source. If such a vault is -a necessity, it should be made water-tight, be small and frequently -emptied, the contents should be frequently disinfected, preferably by -being covered with fresh earth, and it should be built in such a spot -that the current of ground-water (which furnishes the well-water) shall -be from the well toward the vault, and never in the opposite direction. -Better still is a =movable tank=, in which the excreta are received -and covered with fresh earth daily. This can be emptied over a garden -or field without offense. In villages where sewerage is impossible, -=pails= are sometimes used. They have tight covers, and are removed -frequently (once or twice a week, clean ones being substituted at -the time of removal by the proper authorities), the contents being -converted into poudrette at some place remote from habitations. - -A better means of disposing of the excreta, where water-closets -can not be had, is the =earth-closet=, of which there are several -varieties. These are so constructed that they resemble a water-closet -in appearance, but the excreta are caught in a receptacle beneath -the seat, and covered with earth, when the handle beside the seat is -raised. Dry earth is an excellent disinfectant,[1] and when excreta are -thus mingled with it they are gradually oxidized and disappear, so that -after a time the same earth may, with proper precautions, be used again. - -[1] Its disinfectant properties have been shown to be due to the -presence of microscopic organisms, which decompose the excreta in the -act of nourishing themselves. A little chloroform paralyzes them, -and deprives the earth of its disinfecting properties, which return, -however, when the chloroform is washed out, and the organisms recover -their natural vigor. - -The earth for these closets must be dry, and sifted of coarse -particles, and enough must be deposited upon the excreta to cover them -and to absorb the urine. - -Its advantages, as compared with the water-closet, are, that it is -cheaper, requires less repair, is not hurt by frost, is not injured -when improper substances are thrown down it, and requires no water. Its -disadvantages are, the trouble of collecting and drying the earth, the -necessity of frequently removing the soil, the dust sometimes caused -by its use, and the necessity of providing additional means for the -disposal of slops. - -A perfect method of disposal of excreta and other house refuse would -be one which would insure their prompt and rapid removal in such -a way as to prevent the contamination of the air of any inhabited -locality during such removal, or after their final deposition. The most -convenient and economical means yet invented of accomplishing this -object is =water-carriage=; i. e., the matters referred to are conveyed -from the house, with the addition of sufficient water to insure a -rapid flow, through a series of pipes and tunnels into a large body of -running water, or over the surface of the earth, under conditions which -insure their rapid conversion into harmless substances. - -The water-carriage system includes bowls or sinks for the deposit -of refuse matters, connecting-pipes to remove such matters from the -house, and public sewers for their further conveyance away from human -abodes. The construction and care of public sewers belong to the local -government; we have here only to do with house-drainage. - -The essentials of house-drainage are: 1. The primary receptacles -(bowls, sinks, water-closets, etc.) should be of such material and so -constructed as to be impervious to fluids, and easy to clean and keep -clean. 2. The pipes should be of such material as to be as durable as -possible, and so laid and connected as to form gas-tight conduits, and -to insure the rapid passage of whatever enters them, so as to prevent -the formation of deposits or incrustations. 3. The drainage system -should be so planned and constructed that neither the atmosphere of the -house nor the drinking-water can be polluted by anything escaping from -it, and no noxious matters can enter it from any other house. - -The following plan of construction is that recommended by the Board of -Health of New York city: - -1. All materials must be of good quality and free from defects; the -work must be executed in a thorough and workmanlike manner. - -2. The arrangement of soil and waste pipes must be as direct as -possible. - -3. The drain, soil, and waste pipes, and the traps, must, if -practicable, be exposed to view for ready inspection at all times, and -for convenience in repairing. When necessarily placed within partitions -or in recesses of walls, soil and waste pipes must be covered with -wood-work, so fastened with screws as to be readily removed. In no case -shall they be absolutely inaccessible. - -4. It is recommended to place the soil and other vertical pipes in -a special shaft, between or adjacent to the water-closet and the -bath-room, and serving as a ventilating shaft for them. This shaft -should be at least two and a half feet square. It should extend from -the cellar through the roof, and should be covered by a louvered -sky-light. It should be accessible at every story, and should have a -very open but strong grating at each floor to stand upon. - -Shafts not less than three feet square in area are required in -tenement-houses, to ventilate interior water-closets. - -5. Every house or building must be separately and independently -connected with the street-sewer. - -6. Where the ground is made or filled in, the house-sewer—that is to -say, the portion of the drain extending from the public sewer to the -front wall—must be of cast-iron, with the joints properly calked with -lead. - -7. Where the soil consists of a natural bed of loam, sand, or rock, the -house-sewer may be of hard, salt-glazed, and cylindrical earthenware -pipe, laid on a smooth bottom, free from all projections of rock, -and with the soil well rammed to prevent any settling of the pipe. -Each section must be wetted before applying the cement, and the -space between each hub and the small end of the next section must -be completely and uniformly filled with the best hydraulic cement. -Care must be taken to prevent any cement being forced into the drain -to become an obstruction. No tempered-up cement shall be used. A -straight-edge must be used inside the pipe, and the different sections -must be laid in perfect line on the bottom and sides. - -8. Where there is no sewer in the street, and it is necessary to -construct a private sewer to connect with a sewer on an adjacent street -or avenue, it must be laid under the roadway of the street on which -the houses front, and not through the yards or under the houses. - -9. The house-drain must be of iron, with a fall of at least one quarter -inch to the foot, if possible, and not more than one inch to the foot. - -10. Where water-closets or a school-sink discharge into it, the drain -must be at least four inches in diameter. - -11. It must be hung on the cellar wall or ceiling, unless this is -impracticable, in which case it must be laid in a trench cut at a -uniform grade, walled upon the sides with brick laid in hydraulic -cement, and provided with movable covers, and with a hydraulic concrete -base of four inches in thickness, on which the pipe is to rest. - -12. It must be laid in a straight line, if possible. All changes in -direction must be made with curved pipes, and all connections with -Y-branch pipes and one-eighth bends. - -13. Any house-drain or house-sewer, put in and covered without due -notice to the Health Department, must be uncovered for inspection at -the direction of the inspector. - -14. A running or half S-trap must be placed on the house-drain at -an accessible point near the front of the house. This trap must be -furnished with a hand-hole for convenience in cleaning, the cover of -which must be properly fitted and made gas and air tight with some -proper cement. - -15. There must be an inlet for fresh air entering the drain just inside -the trap, of at least four inches in diameter, leading to the outer -air and opening at or near the street curb, or at a convenient place -not less than ten feet from the nearest window. No cold-air box for a -furnace shall be so placed that it can by any possibility draw air from -this inlet-pipe. The inlet-pipe should never be carried up to the roof -inside or outside the house. - -16. No brick, sheet-metal, earthenware, or chimney-flue shall be used -as a sewer-ventilator, nor to ventilate any trap, drain, soil, or waste -pipe. - -17. Every vertical soil-pipe and waste-pipe must be of iron, and, where -it receives the discharge of fixtures on two or more floors, it must -be extended at least two feet above the highest part of the roof or -coping, of undiminished size, with a return bend or cowl. It must not -open near a window, nor an air-shaft which ventilates livingrooms. - -18. Soil, waste, and vent pipes, in an extension, must be extended -above the roof of the main building, when otherwise they would open -within twenty feet of the windows of the main house or the adjoining -house. - -19. Horizontal soil and waste pipes are prohibited. - -20. The minimum diameter of soil-pipe permitted is four inches. A -vertical waste-pipe, into which a line of kitchen-sinks discharge, must -be at least two inches in diameter, with one inch and a half branches. - -21. Where lead pipe is used to connect fixtures with vertical soil or -waste pipes, or to connect traps with vertical vent-pipes, it must not -be lighter than D-pipe. - -22. There shall be no traps on vertical soil-pipes or vertical -waste-pipes. - -23. All iron pipes must be sound, free from holes, and of a uniform -thickness of not less than one eighth of an inch for a diameter of two, -three, or four inches, or five thirty-seconds of an inch for a diameter -of five or six inches; and, in case the building is over sixty-five -feet in height above the curb, the use of what is known as extra heavy -pipe, and corresponding fittings, are required, which weigh as follows: - - 2 inches, 5½ pounds per lineal foot. - 3 ” 9½ ” ” - 4 ” 13 ” ” - 5 ” 17 ” ” - 6 ” 20 ” ” - 7 ” 27 ” ” - 8 ” 33½ ” ” - 10 ” 45 ” ” - 12 ” 54 ” ” - -24. Before they are connected they must be thoroughly coated inside -and outside with coal-tar pitch, applied hot, or some other equivalent -substance. - -25. When required by an inspector from the Board of Health, the -plumbing must be tested with the peppermint or the water test, by the -plumber in the presence of the inspector, and all defective joints made -tight, and other openings made impermeable to gases. Defective pipe -discovered must be removed and replaced by sound pipe. - -26. All joints in the iron drain-pipes, soil-pipes, and waste-pipes -must be so calked with oakum and lead, or with cement made of iron -filings and sal-ammoniac, as to make them impermeable to gas. - -27. All connections of lead with iron pipes must be made with a brass -sleeve or ferrule, of the same size as the lead pipe, put in the hub -of the branch of the iron pipe, and calked in with lead. The lead pipe -must be attached to the ferrule by a wiped joint. - -28. All connections of lead pipe should be by wiped joints. - -29. Every water-closet, urinal, sink, basin, wash-tray, bath, and every -tub or set of tubs, must be separately and effectively trapped, except -where a sink and wash-tubs immediately adjoin each other, in which case -the waste-pipe from the tubs may be connected with the inlet side of -the sink-trap; in such a case the tub waste-pipe is not required to be -separately trapped. - -30. Traps must be placed as near the fixtures as practicable, and in no -case shall a trap be more than two feet from the fixture. - -31. All exit-pipes must be provided with strong metallic strainers. - -32. In no case shall the waste from a bath-tub or other fixture be -connected with a water-closet trap. - -33. Traps must be protected from siphonage, and the waste-pipe leading -from them ventilated, by a special air-pipe, in no case less than two -inches in diameter for water-closet traps, and one inch and a half for -other traps. Except in private dwellings, the vertical vent-pipes for -traps of water-closets in buildings more than four stories in height -must be at least three inches in diameter, with two-inch branches to -each trap, and for traps of other fixtures not less than two inches in -diameter, with branches one and a half inches in diameter, unless the -trap is smaller, in which case the diameter of branch vent-pipe must -be at least equal to the diameter of the trap. In all cases vertical -vent-pipes must be of cast or wrought iron. - -34. These pipes must either extend two feet above the highest part -of the roof or coping, the extension to be not less than four inches -in diameter to avoid obstruction from frost, or they may be branched -into a soil-pipe above the inlet from the highest fixture. They may be -combined by branching together those which serve several traps. These -air-pipes must always have a continuous slope, to avoid collecting -water by condensation. - -35. Traps of fixtures near the fresh-air inlet may be ventilated by -being connected with it. - -36. No trap vent-pipe shall be used as a waste or soil pipe. - -37. Overflow-pipes from fixtures must, in each case, be connected on -the inlet side of the trap. - -38. Every safe under a wash-basin, bath, urinal, water-closet, or other -fixture, must be drained by a special pipe not directly connected with -any soil-pipe, waste-pipe, drain, or sewer, but discharging into an -open sink, upon the cellar-floor, or outside the house. - -39. The waste-pipe from a refrigerator shall not be directly connected -with the soil or waste pipe, or with the drain or sewer, or discharge -into the soil; it should discharge into an open sink. Such waste-pipes -should be so arranged as to admit of frequent flushing, and should be -as short as possible, and disconnected from the refrigerator. - -40. The sediment-pipe from kitchen boilers must be connected on the -inlet side of the sink-trap. - -41. All water-closets within the house must be supplied with water from -special tanks or cisterns, the water of which is not used for any other -purpose. The closets must never be supplied directly from the Croton -supply-pipes. A group of closets may be supplied from one tank; but -water-closets on different floors are not permitted to be flushed from -one tank. - -42. The valves of cisterns must be so fitted and adjusted as to prevent -wasting of water, especially where cisterns are supplied from a tank on -the roof. - -43. The overflow-pipes from water-closet cisterns must discharge into -an open sink, or where its discharge will attract attention and -indicate that waste of water is occurring, but not into the bowl of -the water-closet, not into the soil or waste pipe, nor into the drain -or sewer. When the pressure of the Croton is not sufficient to supply -these tanks, a pump must be provided. - -44. Tanks for drinking-water are objectionable; if indispensable, -they must never be lined with lead, galvanized iron, or zinc. They -should be constructed of iron, or wood lined with tinned and planished -copper. The overflow should discharge upon the roof, or be trapped -and discharge into an open sink, never into any soil or waste pipe or -water-closet trap, nor into the drain or sewer. - -45. Rain-water leaders must never be used as soil, waste, or vent -pipes; nor shall any soil, waste, or vent pipe be used as a leader. - -46. When within the house, the leader must be of cast-iron, with leaded -joints; when outside of the house, and connected with the house-drain, -it must be trapped beneath the ground or just inside of the wall, the -trap being arranged in either case so as to prevent freezing. In every -case where a leader opens near a window or a light-shaft, it must be -properly trapped at its base. - -47. No steam exhaust or blow-off pipe from a steam-boiler will be -allowed to connect with any soil or waste pipe, or directly with the -house-drain. They should discharge into a tank or condenser, the -waste from which, if to be discharged into the sewer through the -house-drain, must be connected on the sewer side of the running trap. - -48. Subsoil drains must be provided whenever necessary. - -49. Yards and areas should always be properly graded, cemented, -flagged, or well paved, and properly drained; when the drain is -connected with the house-drain, it must be effectively trapped. -Front-area drains must, where practicable, be connected with the -house-drain inside of the running trap. - -50. Cellar and foundation walls must, where possible, be rendered -impervious to dampness, and the use of asphaltum or coal-tar pitch, in -addition to hydraulic cement, is recommended for that purpose. - -51. No privy-vault or school-sink will be allowed in any cellar or -basement; nor shall the general privy accommodation of a tenement or -lodging house be allowed to be in the cellar or basement. - -52. No privy-vault, or cesspool for sewage, will be permitted in any -part of the city where water-closets or a school-sink can be connected -with a public sewer in the street. - -53. School-sinks must be of cast-iron, not more than two feet in depth, -connected at the upper end with the Croton supply, and at the lower end -with a drain leading to the street-sewer, and provided with an outlet -at the lowest point and on the bottom so as to admit of a complete -discharge of the contents whenever the outlet is opened and the sink -flushed with water. - -54. The sink must be set so that the flange will be at least two feet -below the yard surface, to prevent freezing. It must be at least ten -feet from any window, or as near that distance as practicable. - -55. The waste-pipe from a hydrant-sink in the yard must be properly -trapped, especially where it discharges into a school-sink, a -privy-vault, or cesspool, or the house-drain. - -56. Open light and air courts must be properly drained. - -57. When a privy-vault or cesspool must necessarily be used, and the -water-supply of the premises is from a well, they must be at least -fifty feet from the well; and the privy-vault must be absolutely tight. - - - _Explanatory Remarks._ - -2. =As direct as possible.= To insure an uninterrupted flow. When a -pipe has to pass an obstruction (a beam or post) an =offset= is used -(Fig. 2). - -3. The =soil-pipe= is that which conveys the contents of water-closets -to the house-drain: the =waste-pipes= are intended to carry other -refuse fluids only. The =house-drain= is the large pipe which receives -the contents of the soil and waste pipes and conveys them outside the -house. - -A =trap= is a bend (with or without an enlargement) of the pipe, -intended to retain a sufficient amount of the fluids that enter it to -occlude the pipe and prevent the backward flow of air. The effective -=water-seal= is represented by the total depth of water in the trap, -minus the inside diameter of the pipe, and should be at least one inch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Offset.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.—S-trap.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Half S-trap.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.—D-trap.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Bag-trap.] - -Traps are of various kinds, and many are patented. The accompanying -figures represent the principal types. - -Fig. 3 is the S-trap. Fig. 4 is the half S-trap. There is also a -three-quarter S-trap. Fig. 5 is a D-trap, formerly much used, but now -mostly out of date, because it retains dirt. Fig. 6 is a =bag=-trap. -It has no advantage over the S-trap, and uses more material. Fig. 7 is -a =bottle=-trap, much used in Boston. This also retains dirt. There -are varieties of it, the distinguishing feature of all being that the -fluids enter them at the bottom and flow out at the top. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Bottle-trap.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Bell-trap.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.—Running-trap.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Mason’s trap.] - -Fig. 8 is the =bell=-trap, so called from its shape. Much used for the -drains of paved areas, yards, and cellars; liable to retain dirt, and -needs frequent cleaning; not a good trap. Fig. 9 is a =running=-trap, -used in house-drains and other pipes that are nearly horizontal. Fig. -10 represents a =mason’s= trap. Is built of brick or stone and cement. -Used in brick-drains and sewers, in receiving-basins at street corners, -etc. Requires frequent cleaning, and should never be used inside a -building. Fig. 11 represents the method of trapping a cesspool. The -same plan is also used for =grease=-traps, the outlet-pipe dipping -below the surface of the contents so that it is never obstructed by -the grease, which floats on top. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.—Trapped cesspool.] - -A few patent traps are shown as samples: - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Adee trap.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Bower trap.] - -Fig. 12 is the Adee trap, a modification of the D-trap. Fig. 13 is the -Bower trap, claimed to be secured against siphonage or back pressure by -a rubber ball which floats up against the entering-pipe. Modification -of the bottle-trap. Fig. 14 is Bedell’s trap, with a metallic flap -or valve, and an opening on the sewer side of the valve, to relieve -pressure. Fig. 15 is Stewart’s trap, intelligible from the diagram. -Traps are also made of iron or glass, with a mercury seal, which, it is -claimed, are proof against siphoning, pressure, or evaporation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.—Bedell’s trap.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.—Stewart’s trap.] - -4. A =louvered sky-light= is one with slats at the sides inclining -outward, so that air can escape but rain can not enter. - -6. =Calked with lead.= (See 26.) - -7. =Tempered-up cement.= Cement which has been used once, and has been -broken up and ground, for using a second time. - -9. =House-drain=, of iron. (See “Bad Odors, 2, _a_.”) - -10. =Water-closets.= Four principal classes, with innumerable -varieties, mostly patented. - -1. The =pan-closet= (Fig. 16). Its chief advantage is its cheapness -and the ease with which it can be repaired. Its disadvantage is the -odor that usually attends its use. When the handle (_a_) is raised, -the contents of the pan (_b_) are thrown against the side of the iron -container (_c_), and some filth adheres there and decomposes, filling -the container with a noisome stench, which escapes into the room every -time the closet is used. An abundant flush, an enameled container, and -proper ventilation of the container, reduce this nuisance materially. -Generally condemned by sanitarians. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.—Pan-closet.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.—Hopper-closet.] - -2. =Hopper-closets= (Fig. 17). Rather unsightly, because the water and -floating matter in the trap are visible, and matters often cling to -the sides, but, with an abundant flush suddenly discharged, are very -inoffensive. - -3. =Plunger-closets=, of which the Jennings closet (Fig. 18) may be -taken as a type. The handle lifts a plug, which allows the contents of -the bowl to run out, and, when the plug is dropped in place, the bowl -is filled again from a ball-cock. These closets are liable to get out -of order; the plungers or plugs lose their rubber flanges and leak, and -the plunger-chamber is apt to retain filth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.—Jennings closet.] - -4. It is evident that if the hopper-closet could have its trap bent -to one side out of sight, and its hopper enlarged toward the bottom, -so that nothing would strike and cling to its sides, it would be an -excellent one. Of such a type are the Tidal-Wave and National closets -(Fig. 19), _a_ being the water-pipe, which discharges into a flushing -rim, and _b_ a vent-pipe to relieve pressure between the two bodies of -water during a discharge, and prevent siphoning. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.—Tidal-wave closet.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.—Y-branch.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.—Quarter bend.] - -A water-closet, to be well flushed, should have a discharge of three -gallons of water in five seconds, sent directly downward all around the -rim. - -=School-sink= (also called trough-sink or privy-sink). An iron trough, -having a sewer-connected opening with a movable iron plug in the bottom -at one end, for the discharge of its contents, and a pipe at the other -end, from which it is filled with water. It is practically an elongated -water-closet. (See 53.) - -12. =Y-branch= (Fig. 20), so named from its shape. There are also half -Y-branches. - -=Eighth bends.= There are also quarter bends (Fig. 21), sixth bends, -and sixteenth bends. These are used in pipe-connections in order -to discharge the contents of the branch pipes in the same general -direction with the current in the main pipes, for, if the discharge -enters at a right angle, a deposit is apt to form opposite the point of -connection. - -14. =Trap in house-drain.= Intended to cut off all communication -between the house and the street sewer. If a contagious disease occurs -in one’s own house, he can be sure that the excreta are disinfected, -and that disease-germs can not escape into the air, even if the pipes -happen to be defective; but he can not be sure that such excreta are -properly disinfected in other houses. The only safe way, therefore, is -for each house to be cut off from all others by the means described. -The objections to the trap on the house-drain are, that it forms -a slight obstruction to the flow of drainage, and is liable to be -obstructed by deposits, and that it favors “cushioning,” i. e., the -forcing of smaller traps, when the air in the drain is compressed -between this trap and a down-coming mass of water. (See “Bad Odors,” -1, _d_.) The first of these objections is met by making the trap a half -S one, so that the fluids fall down one limb with sufficient force to -wash out the bottom of the trap thoroughly with each discharge, and -the second by the fresh-air inlet, which relieves the pressure that -otherwise might force the traps. - -15. The =fresh-air inlet= affords free entrance for air, and, as the -main lines of pipe are open above the roof, the difference in length -of the pipes will give rise to a constant current of fresh air through -them, in one direction or the other. (See “Bad Odors,” 1 _c_.) This -results in the oxidation of whatever filth may cling to the pipes, and -dilutes offensive gases so that they are rendered harmless. It has also -been shown that the various microscopic organisms, which are believed -to be the specific cause of certain diseases, increase in virulence, -when they propagate in the absence or with a deficient supply of -oxygen, while the intensity of their action is diminished if they grow -where oxygen is plentiful. - -16. =Ventilation in chimney-flues.= (See “Bad Odors,” 1, _c_.) - -17. =Vertical pipes of iron.= Iron resists corrosion and the assaults -of rats better than lead, and lead pipes are sometimes occluded by -pressure and settling. Branch wastes are generally of lead because it -is easily cut and bent, so as to be used in difficult situations. - -=Return-bend= or =cowl=. To prevent senseless persons from throwing -things down the pipe, and thus obstructing it. - -20. =Diameter of pipes.= The inside diameter is always meant. - -21. =D-pipe.= (See Appendix B.) - -22. =No traps on vertical pipes=,, at the foot of such pipes, because -they would prevent the free circulation of air, and thus render the -fresh-air inlet practically useless. Also to prevent “cushioning.” - -23. =Cast-iron= pipes are made in five-foot lengths, with an -enlargement at one end, called the hub or bell, and a bead around the -edge of the other end (the spigot-end). The spigot-end of one pipe -fits loosely into the hub of another, sufficient room being left for -calking. (See 26.) - -24. =Pipes= are =tarred= by being heated to 500° Fahr. and then dipped -perpendicularly into a hot bath of coal-tar pitch mixed with a small -proportion of heavy coal-oil. This coating prevents corrosion, or at -least greatly retards it. - -25. =Wrought-iron pipes=, with screw joints, are used by the Durham -House Drainage Company, the joints being gas-tight. They have the -advantage of being very durable and impervious to gases, but the -disadvantage of being too permanent. If it is desired to change the -position of a fixture, or to connect a new one, it is easy to break -a hole in a cast-iron pipe, or to remove a portion of it, but where -wrought-iron pipe is used this is almost impossible. The Durham system -also costs about twenty-five per cent more than the common one, and it -is not strictly correct to say that its use renders a house absolutely -secure against leakage of sewer-air, because it does not do away with -lead branch-pipes, in which frequent leakages occur, and all irregular -portions of pipe, with branches, etc., in this system are made of -cast-iron with calked joints, as in the ordinary system. - -The =water-test= is applied by plugging the pipe carefully, and closing -all openings below a certain point, and then filling it with water to -that level. If there is any leakage, the water-level will gradually -sink. If the pipes are tight, it will remain the same. - -=Peppermint-test.= (See hereafter.) - -26. Oakum is packed into the space between the spigot-end of one pipe -and the hub of the other, and driven against the bead above mentioned. -This packing is called a =gasket=. Melted lead is poured in on top of -the oakum, and, when it has cooled, is driven in tight with a calking -iron and mallet. When ordinary pipe is used, the calking will sometimes -split the hub, and this furnishes an argument for the general use of -extra-heavy pipe. - -=Iron-filings=, etc., making what is called a =rust-joint=. - -27. =Ferrules=, or =sleeves=, are used because lead pipes are too soft -and yielding to withstand the calking. Lead can not be soldered to -iron, and therefore brass or copper has to be used. If iron ferrules -are used, the lead pipe must be turned up on the outside far enough so -that its edge shall be covered by the melted lead used in calking, so -as to prevent leakage of gas, as hereafter described. (See “Bad Odors,” -1, _b_.) - -28. =Wiped-joints= are those always used for lead pipe, and are -indicated by a raised ring of solder surrounding the pipe. - -29. A =trap=, with a good water-seal, is an effective barrier -against the passage of sewer-air or particles of organic matter. The -experiments of Carmichael, confirmed by Wernich and Pumpelly, have -amply demonstrated that sewer-air passes through the water-seal in such -minute quantities that it can not possibly harm any one, and that solid -particles of matter can not pass at all. - -=Separate traps=, except, etc. (See “Bad Odors,” 1, _d_.) - -33. =Siphonage=. (See “Bad Odors,” 1, _d_ 37.) - -37. =Overflow-pipes= from fixtures. It is better to connect them with -the trap below the water-level. (See “Bad Odors,” 1, _d_.) - -38. =Safes= are sheets of metal (generally lead) with turned-up edges, -placed beneath basins, sinks, water-closets, etc., to protect the floor -in case of leakage. The waste-pipes of safes are common sources of -nuisance. (See “Bad Odors,” 1, _c_.) - -39. To prevent contamination of the contents of the refrigerator. - -41. When water-closets are flushed directly from the common supply-pipe -of the house, as in the different kinds of valve-closets, the water in -the pipes, under certain circumstances, will be contaminated: e. g., -if a person opens a faucet on one floor at the same moment that the -valve is opened to flush a water-closet on a higher floor, water will -be sucked back from the valve, and the air of the closet will follow -it. Check-valves have been used to prevent this, but they should not be -depended on. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -Various forms of =tanks= or =cisterns= for water-closets are here -shown. Fig. 22 represents a tank, _b_, which discharges water as long -as the handle (attached to the chain _a_) is raised. It gives a flush -also of the entire contents of the service-box _c_, after the handle -is lowered. Fig. 23 shows a waste-preventing tank, which is divided -into two compartments, _b_ and _d_. It will be seen that this allows -only the contents of _d_ to be discharged, with an after-flush from -_c_. Fig. 24 shows a tank, in which the chain _a_ is attached to the -seat, and is pulled down when the seat is depressed. It will be seen -that no water can flow while the closet is in use, but, when the seat -is released, the contents of _c_ are discharged with great force. In -all these figures, _e_ is a ball-cock. This cock is controlled by a -hollow copper ball, which floats on water, and is attached to the end -of a lever. When the water falls, the ball falls with it, and opens the -cock. When it is floated up to a certain point, it closes the cock and -stops the flow. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.—Drainage plan for dwellings.] - -45. =Leaders= should not be used as soil-pipes, because, during a rain, -the ventilation of the pipes is interfered with by the downward flow -of water, which will also empty unventilated traps by siphoning. The -necessity of having leaders open flush with the roof also interferes -with proper ventilation. - -47. If =steam= enters a soil-pipe, it heats the water in the traps, -injures joints on account of the extreme changes of temperature -induced, and hastens corrosion of the pipes. - -Fig. 25 shows a system of house-drainage for a city house planned in -accordance with the above rules. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.—Field’s flush-tank.] - -In =country houses=, where there are no sewers, the best method of -disposing of the house-slops is =subsoil drainage=. The house system -may be the same as that already explained for city houses. The fluids -are conducted by a pipe with tight joints to a =flush-tank= (Fig. 26) -near the house. This tank is so constructed that it empties itself, by -a siphon action, whenever it gets full, discharging all its contents -in a very short time, and thus washing out thoroughly the pipes into -which it empties. “The outlet-pipe from this tank is continued by a -cemented vitrified pipe to a point about twenty-five feet farther away. -Here it connects with a system of open-jointed drain-tiles, consisting -of one main, fifty feet long, and ten lateral drains, six feet apart, -and each about twenty feet long. These drains underlie a part of the -lawn, and are only about ten inches below the surface” (Waring). It -will be understood that the purpose of this method of drainage is to -have the organic matter contained in the house-refuse appropriated by -vegetation, and it must therefore be distributed within reach of the -grass-roots. - -If water-closets are used, the following system is recommended in “The -Sanitary Engineer”: Collect all the sewage of the house in a small and -perfectly tight tank or cesspool, in which the paper and fecal matter -soon become macerated by fermentation and reduced to a pulp. This tank -should overflow into the flush-tank, the overflow-pipe dipping at least -a foot below the point of discharge, to avoid the scum. The siphon of -the flush-tank should be accessible by a man-hole, so as to be readily -cleaned. If thus arranged, and if no roots of trees are in the soil, -the distribution-pipes will not clog for a year or more, sometimes not -for ten years. - -Pipes should be laid at a depth of eight inches, with a slight and -uniform descent of not over six or eight inches in one hundred feet. -Branches from a four-inch main to the two-inch distribution-pipes -should lead from the bottom of the former, instead of from the side, as -in ordinary drain connections. - -There should be a grease-trap (see “Explanatory Remarks,” 3) attached -to the kitchen waste-pipes, in order to prevent clogging of the tanks -and pipes by the congelation of fat. - - - _Bad Odors._ - -=When bad odors in a house are traceable to the drainage, they will -usually be found to be due to one or more of the following causes=: - -1. =To faulty construction.= (_a._) =Drains.=—These may be made of -brick or stone and cement. Such materials are pervious to gases, -even when sound, and are peculiarly liable to be channeled by rats, -especially where an iron or lead pipe enters them. Such a drain should -be replaced by an iron one. - -(_b._) =Joints.=—=Cement-joints= are pervious to gases. =Putty-joints= -crack and so become pervious. A =lead= pipe is sometimes connected with -an =iron= one by means of an iron ferrule, the lead pipe passing inside -the ferrule and being turned over its lower edge, extending up on the -outside, the ferrule then being calked into the hub. When paper is used -for the gasket or packing, it rots away in time, and a passage is left -through which gas can escape as follows: up between the hub and the -turned-over lead pipe, over its edge, between it and the calking, down -between the lead pipe and the ferrule, across the lower edge of the -ferrule, and out between the inner surface of the ferrule and the outer -surface of the lead pipe. (See Fig. 27.) Sometimes a connection of lead -with iron is made by means of a =lead flange= fastened around the iron -pipe with wire, and sometimes the lead pipe is simply stuck into a hole -in the iron pipe and fastened with cement or putty. Such work should be -replaced by properly made joints as described in the above regulations. -(Or in “Bad Odors,” 2, _c_.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.—Iron ferrule improperly calked.] - -(_c._) =Pipes.=—If the =leaders= are not trapped at the bottom, -offensive gases from them may enter the nearest windows. A leader is -never of the same length as the soil-pipe, and, if there is direct -communication between them through the house-drain, there will always -be a current of air through them in one direction or the other. If the -external air is colder than that inside the pipes, then the heavier -column of air will be over the shorter pipe, and the current will be -down that one and up the other. If the external air is warmer than that -in the pipes, the heavier column will be that which includes the longer -pipe, and the current will be down that one and up the shorter. So, as -a rule, the current in winter is down the short pipe and up the long -one, while in summer it is reversed, and, as the short pipe often ends -near windows, the nuisance is greatest when these windows are open. Of -course, in such cases, the leader must be trapped. - -=Ventilating-pipes= sometimes end in chimney-flues. This is a bad -plan, for, if the flue is in use, the open end of the pipe will become -choked with soot and finally be rendered useless. If the flue is not -used, there will often be a down draught in it, and the offensive gases -may be conveyed through stove-pipes or fireplaces into the rooms of -the house. Such gases may even penetrate the walls of the flue and so -enter the house. If such a pipe is ever run into a flue, it should be -extended at least two feet above the chimney-top. - -Ventilating-pipes are sometimes badly arranged, so that they actually -neutralize a trap and render it useless. (See Fig. 28.) In this figure -_a_ is the soil-pipe and _b_ the ventilating-pipe. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.—Faulty arrangement of ventilating pipes.] - -=Safe-wastes= and the =overflow-pipes= of tanks and cisterns may be -connected with the soil or waste pipe. When they are, they are usually -trapped. It will often be found that the traps are empty and useless, -so that offensive gases escape from the pipes. With tank-overflow pipes -this is generally the case. Safe-waste traps are sometimes provided -with small feed-pipes, intended to discharge water into them every -time the fixtures are used. It will often be found, however, if the -end of the feed-pipe is pulled up out of the waste, that no water runs -through it, and it is useless, sometimes because it is too small and -is choked with dust and sediment, and sometimes because it is wrongly -attached to the source of supply. Safe-wastes, discharging into the -kitchen or cellar, may convey to the rooms odors of cooking or of -articles stored in the cellar (onions, turnips, etc.), or from the -servants’ water-closet, which is often offensive. If urine or other -offensive liquids from leakage flow through them, the upward currents -of air will be impregnated with odors from the filth that has clung -to the pipe long after the leak has been repaired. In any event these -safe-wastes constitute a direct communication between different rooms -of a house, which is not always desirable. It is better to do without -them. They are rarely of any use. If required, however, they should -either be trapped under the safe, and means taken to insure a constant -water-seal, or they may be closed by a piece of paper pasted over the -lower opening, which will prevent the entrance of any odors from cellar -or kitchen, but will give way in case of leakage. The safe-wastes of -water-closets often discharge into the trap of the water-closet. This -is a bad plan, because, if there is an obstruction in the trap, the -safe-waste is, of course, useless. If offensive odors are traced to -safe-wastes, the openings had better be sealed. If overflow-pipes are -the source, they must be disconnected from the soil or waste pipe and -made to discharge elsewhere (e. g., into some sink or water-closet). - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.—Cushioning illustrated.] - -(_d._) =Traps.=—If two traps are so arranged that the air is compressed -between them by an oncoming rush of water, the trap containing the -shallowest water-seal will be forced, and a certain amount of air -will escape through it from the interior of the pipe. This result is -due to “cushioning,” as it is called, and is illustrated in Fig. 29. -Such a fault is to be remedied by connecting the crown of one of the -traps with a ventilating-pipe, so that any pressure of the kind is -immediately relieved without disturbing the seal of the trap. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.—Double-trapped waste-pipe (air-bound).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.—Two sinks with but one trap.] - -If there are two traps on the same line of pipe (Fig. 30), so that a -part of the interior of the pipe is cut off from the external air in -both directions, it becomes “air-bound,” and one of two results will -follow, viz.: water discharged into the fixture above the higher trap -will remain in the bowl and not run down, on account of the compression -of air between the traps; or, if it does run out of the fixture, it -will displace an equivalent bulk of foul air, which will bubble up -through the upper trap and cause offensive odors. In such a case, the -lower trap should be removed. - -If =two= or =more waste-pipes= (as in sets of tubs, in sinks, and -often in urinals) are provided with but =one trap= for all (Fig. 31), -there will be a constant current of air along the pipes, sometimes -emerging from one opening and sometimes from another. This air will -be contaminated by the filth that lines the pipes, and will often be -quite offensive. In such cases, each waste-pipe should be independently -trapped, or (as in the case of bath-tubs or urinals) the overflow-pipe -should be connected with the trap of the waste-pipe below the -water-seal, as in Fig. 25. - -When a body of water sufficiently large to nearly fill a pipe is -discharged into it, it drags air along with it, and exhausts the air -in all branch-pipes to a greater or less extent. When this exhaustion -amounts to a diminution of the pressure in the pipe of about 1/350, the -water in an ordinary trap (with a one-inch seal) will be forced out of -it by the pressure of the external atmosphere, or in other words will -be sucked out of the trap into the pipe, leaving no water-seal in the -trap, and, therefore, allowing free exit for sewer-air. This effect is -known as the “siphoning” of the trap, and is most likely to occur when -the main pipe is not open at its upper extremity (is not ventilated), -and when the branch wastes are of the same size with the main one. This -fault is remedied by the ventilation of the traps, and of the main -pipes, as described in the regulations above quoted (17 and 33). - -2. =To defects in the pipes.= (_a._) =Drains.=—Bad odors in cellars -often come from broken earthenware or tile drains, cracked by settling, -or from rat-holes in cemented drains. Earthenware or brick drains -inside a house should be replaced by iron ones. - -(_b._) =Joints.=—=Cement= or =putty= joints are often cracked. -=Water-closets= sometimes become loosened from the floor and leak -fluids and gases. The covers of =hand-holes= of traps sometimes get -loose and leak gas. Sometimes =trap-screws=, instead of being at the -bottom of the trap, where they are covered by water, are at the top; if -these are loose, gases may escape. All such defects should be repaired. - -(_c._) =Pipes.=—Both lead and iron pipes are corroded and in time -perforated by sewer-air. Such corrosion is most likely to occur at -points where gases come in contact with a dry part of the pipe, viz., -at the crowns or domes of traps, and in ventilating-pipes. For this -reason, ventilating-pipes should never be made of thin iron (galvanized -iron), and should always be protected by a tar-coating. The crowns -of lead traps (especially of water-closets) are often bitten into -by rats in search of water. In all cases when the crown of a trap -is perforated, there is rarely any leakage of fluid to indicate it, -but offensive gases escape. All corroded traps and pipes should be -replaced by new ones, and not patched up. Holes in iron pipes may be -closed by iron bands surrounding the pipe, and fastened with red-lead -putty and screw-bolts (Fig. 32). A new joint may be made by means of a -saddle-hub (Fig. 33) carefully secured in a similar manner. Lead pipes -are sometimes protected against rats by being encircled by tin, or -packed in pounded glass. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.—Bands.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.—Saddle-hub.] - -3. =To carelessness.= (_a._) =Evaporation.=—If fixtures are not in -constant use, the water soon evaporates from the traps and gives exit -to sewer-air. This often happens in warm weather, and when a house is -vacant for a time. To prevent evaporation, a little oil may be poured -into the trap, to protect the surface of the water-seal, or it may be -made the special duty of a servant to keep the traps full of water when -the fixtures are not in use. - -(_b._) =Dirt.=—The inside of a pipe often becomes coated with slime, -consisting largely of grease, especially in kitchens. This filthy -lining rapidly decomposes, and that portion above the trap may give -out bad odors. The pipes may be cleansed with a strong hot solution of -soda. - - - _Examination of House-Drainage._ - -If the object of an examination is to determine whether the drainage is -planned and constructed in accordance with the best methods of the day, -each point referred to in the above regulations should be carefully -investigated. - -If the object is to determine the source of offensive odors, or if -there has been sickness in the house of such a character as to indicate -possible defects in the plumbing, the several sources of bad odors just -enumerated should each be carefully inquired into. A few additional -suggestions as to the method of examination will not be out of place. - -It will be found much easier to determine the direction, number, and -situation of the main lines of pipe, if the examination is begun at -the roof and continued downward. If a beginning is made in the cellar, -confusion results. - -“=Cushioning=” is determined by causing the discharge of a considerable -mass of water (as from a bath-tub or water-closet) into the main -pipe, at some distance above the suspected fixture. If there is a -regurgitation in the fixture under observation, there is certainly -an obstruction in the pipe at some point below the fixture. If the -obstruction is caused by something lodged in the pipe, the back-flow in -the fixture will be a steady one, because there will be some leakage -through the obstruction, while if it is due to compressed air, which -is elastic, the regurgitation will be by spurts, and the water in the -trap may even be thrown up to a considerable height. - -“=Siphoning=” is also determined by filling the pipe with water in the -manner just explained. If the trap of the fixture under observation is -emptied by siphoning, a sucking or gurgling noise will be heard in it, -and a flame held over the outlet of the fixture will be drawn downward -by the inward current of air. - -=One trap to several pipes= (when it is suspected but not certainly -known because the trap is out of sight) may be detected by the fact -that there will always be a current of air in one direction or the -other through such pipes, and more or less odor will escape. If the -back of the hand is wet, it becomes very sensitive to such a current, -and by holding alternately the palm and the back of the hand, or even -of the forefinger (wet), over an opening, the existence and direction -of such a current can be easily determined. If the odors are from such -a source, it can then be made evident by covering all the outlets but -one with wet paper, so as to prevent the air-currents, when the odors -will temporarily disappear. - -If a trap is accessible, it is easy to determine whether its water-seal -is preserved or not by tapping it from top to bottom with some metallic -substance, when the difference in sound will indicate the exact level -of the water inside. - -Those parts of the plumbing which are not accessible to inspection -must be examined by introducing into the pipes some strong-smelling -substance, which will indicate defects by its escape through them into -the house. Oil of peppermint is often used for this purpose. - - - _The Peppermint-Test._ - -For testing the pipes of an ordinary dwelling, one ounce of the =oil= -of peppermint is sufficient. For a large building more may be needed. -The drug costs from twenty-five to seventy-five cents an ounce, -according to its quality and the place where it is bought. - -It is best to introduce the oil into the pipes from outside the house, -if possible, so that the odor which inevitably attends the process -may be dissipated in the external air. The object being to ascertain -the location of defects in the pipes inside the house, the examiner -must feel certain, if he detects the odor of peppermint anywhere, -that the vapor has come to him from inside the pipes, and not from -the outside. If the ventilating-pipes are so constructed that the oil -can not be poured in from the roof, then it must be poured into some -basin or water-closet in the upper portion of the house. The peppermint -should first be mingled with a pailful of hot water to promote rapid -volatilization, and poured slowly down the pipe. After it is poured -down, the openings at the upper extremities of the pipes should be -closed, so that the pressure of the vapor inside the pipes may not be -relieved in that direction. If the odor of peppermint, thus introduced -with the precautions mentioned below, is perceived anywhere in the -house, it is an indication that there is an opening in some pipe, -through which sewer-air may escape. This opening may be a defect, -or it may be due to siphoning of traps, or to faults of original -construction. There will not usually be much difficulty in locating it -with considerable exactness. - - - _Special Precautions._ - -The peppermint should be kept on the roof, or on a window-sill outside -the house, until needed, for it is so volatile that the vapor escapes -through the cork, and if the odor gets into the house in this way, it -will vitiate the examination. - -The person who pours the peppermint should remain on the roof or in the -room where he does it, with the doors closed, until the examination -is complete, for the odor will cling to his clothing and follow him -wherever he goes for an hour or more. - - - _Additional Remarks._ - -If bad odors have been noticed, and no defect can be found in the ways -above mentioned, they may be due to decaying animal matter (dead rats, -etc.), or (in the city) to defects in the plumbing of the adjoining -house, offensive gases from which may penetrate the wall. - -The source of bad odors need not necessarily be in the immediate -vicinity of the place where they are noticed, for the walls of -buildings are full of channels and openings, through which offensive -gases may be carried by currents of air, so as to emerge at a -considerable distance from their origin. Thus, in winter, they are apt -to be most noticeable near a fire. - - - SUMMARY OF THE BEST METHODS OF DRAINAGE. - -For =houses= where there are =public sewers=: water-carriage. - -For =country houses=, if =isolated from sewers=, and where expense is -no objection: water-carriage with subsoil drainage. - -In =villages= and =small towns, without sewers=: subsoil drainage (for -slops), and pails (for excreta), frequently removed by proper officers. - -For =farm-houses=: subsoil drainage for slops, and a movable tank, with -dry earth disinfection, for excreta. - -For =sea-side houses, isolated=: if there is vegetation, subsoil -drainage for slops, and earth-closets. - -For =sea-side villages=: subsoil drainage and the pail system. - -For =sea-side houses=, where there is =no vegetation=: for excreta, -earth-closets or a movable iron tank, with dry-earth disinfection; -for slops, a water-tight cesspool, with arrangements for emptying its -contents into the sea when the tide is ebbing. - - -=How to prevent contamination of the air from the ground.= - -Have the house separated from the soil on which it is built by a layer -of asphalt between two layers of cement, extending over the whole -cellar-floor, through the foundation-walls and up above the point where -the ground touches the walls outside. Or have the house built without -a cellar, and with perforated underpinning, so as to allow a free -circulation of air underneath it. The subsoil should also be drained by -tiles laid at least a foot lower than the cellar-bottom. - -The cold-air boxes of furnaces should draw their supply from the -external air. It is advisable to have a thin layer of cotton held in -place by wire gauze to filter the air as it enters them. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - DISINFECTION. - - -=How to prevent contamination of the air by the respiration, bodily -emanations, and excreta of diseased persons.= - -It is not possible with our present knowledge to prevent the -multiplication of morbid germs in the human body, when they are once -implanted there, nor to prevent their discharge; but we can destroy -them after their exit from the body, and so protect other persons who -are not yet affected. - -The following instructions for the management of contagious diseases -were prepared for the National Board of Health by Professors Chandler, -Henry Draper, Barker, Vander Poel, E. G. Janeway, and Ira Remsen. - - - _Instructions for Disinfection._ - -Disinfection is the destruction of the poisons of infectious and -contagious diseases. - -Deodorizers, or substances which destroy smells, are not necessarily -disinfectants, and disinfectants do not necessarily have an odor. - -Disinfection can not compensate for want of cleanliness nor of -ventilation. - - - I. _Disinfectants to be employed._ - -1. Roll-sulphur (brimstone) for fumigation. - -2. Sulphate of iron (copperas) dissolved in water in the proportion of -one and a half pounds to the gallon; for soil, sewers, etc. - -3. Sulphate of zinc and common salt, dissolved together in water in the -proportion of four ounces sulphate and two ounces salt to the gallon; -for clothing, bed-linen, etc. - - - II. _How to use Disinfectants._ - -1. In the sick-room. The most available agents are fresh air and -cleanliness. The clothing, towels, bed-linen, etc., should on removal -from the patient, and before they are taken from the room, be placed -in a pail or tub of the zinc solution, boiling-hot if possible. - -All discharges should either be received in vessels containing copperas -solution, or, when this is impracticable, should be immediately covered -with copperas solution. All vessels used about the patient should be -cleansed with the same solution. - -Unnecessary furniture, especially that which is stuffed, carpets and -hangings, should, when possible, be removed from the room at the -outset; otherwise they should remain for subsequent fumigation and -treatment. - -2. Fumigation with sulphur is the only practicable method for -disinfecting the house. For this purpose, the rooms to be disinfected -must be vacated. Heavy clothing, blankets, bedding, and other articles -which can not be treated with zinc solution, should be opened and -exposed during fumigation, as directed below. Close the rooms as -tightly as possible, place the sulphur in iron pans supported upon -bricks placed in wash-tubs containing a little water, set it on fire -by hot coals or with the aid of a spoonful of alcohol, and allow the -room to remain closed for twenty-four hours. For a room about ten feet -square, at least two pounds of sulphur should be used; for larger -rooms, proportionally increased quantities. - -3. Premises. Cellars, yards, stables, gutters, privies, cesspools, -water-closets, drains, sewers, etc., should be frequently and -liberally treated with copperas solution. The copperas solution is -easily prepared by hanging a basket containing about sixty pounds of -copperas in a barrel of water. - -4. Body and bed clothing, etc. It is =best= to =burn= all articles -which have been in contact with persons sick with contagious or -infectious diseases. Articles too valuable to be destroyed should be -treated as follows: - -(_a._) Cotton, linen, flannels, blankets, etc., should be treated -with the boiling-hot zinc solution; introduce piece by piece, secure -thorough wetting, and boil for at least half an hour. - -(_b._) Heavy woolen clothing, silks, furs, stuffed bed-covers, beds, -and other articles which can not be treated with the zinc solution, -should be hung in the room during fumigation, their surfaces thoroughly -exposed and pockets turned inside out. Afterward they should be hung -in the open air, beaten and shaken. Pillows, beds, stuffed mattresses, -upholstered furniture, etc., should be cut open, the contents spread -out and thoroughly fumigated. Carpets are best fumigated on the floor, -but should afterward be removed to the open air and thoroughly beaten. - -5. Corpses especially of persons that have died of any infectious or -malignant disease, should be thoroughly washed with a zinc solution of -double strength; should then be wrapped in a sheet, wet with the zinc -solution, and buried at once. - -Metallic, metal-lined, or air-tight coffins should be used when -possible; certainly when the body is to be transported for any -considerable distance. - - - _Comments._ - -SECTION I. 1. Copperas, also called green vitriol. - -2. About four tablespoonfuls of the zinc and two tablespoonfuls of the -salt, making a solution of the chloride of zinc. - -SECTION II. 1. The windows should be kept open, if possible, but in -such a way as to avoid draughts on the bed. A fire should be constantly -burning in an open fireplace. - -The room should be on the top floor, and all cracks and openings -communicating with other rooms should be closed tightly. The door which -has to be used should have a wet sheet hanging entirely over it, the -windows and fireplace being alone relied on for ventilation. - -2. The burning of sulphur produces sulphurous acid, which is an -irrespirable gas. The person who lights the sulphur must, therefore, -immediately leave the room, and after the lapse of the proper time, -must hold his breath as he enters the room to open the windows and let -out the gas. After fumigation, plastered walls should be whitewashed, -the wood-work well scrubbed with carbolic soap, and painted portions -repainted. - -3. Or put copperas in a pail of water, in such quantity that some may -constantly remain undissolved at the bottom. This makes a saturated -solution. To every privy or water-closet, allow one pint of the -solution for every four persons when cholera is about. To keep privies -from being offensive, pour one pint into each seat, night and morning. - -4. (_a._) Such articles should never be sent to a public laundry or -mingled with the family washing. - -(_b._) The cutting open of stuffed articles may seem unnecessary, but -it is not. The poison of contagious diseases clings to such stuffs -(called =fomites=) with great tenacity for years, and must be destroyed -before they are fit to be used again. - -5. It is also well to fill a large wad of cotton or fine shavings with -coal-tar powder or chloride of lime and place it beneath the hips, to -absorb fluids. - -Contagious diseases are often caught at the funerals of those who have -died of them, and the sanitary code of New York city forbids a public -funeral of any person who has died of small-pox, diphtheria, scarlet -fever, yellow fever, typhus fever, or Asiatic cholera. It is better to -limit the attendance at such funerals to as few as possible. - - - _Additional Precautions in Special Diseases._ - -=Small-pox.=—Every one in the vicinity should be vaccinated with fresh -virus. Every person should be vaccinated in infancy, again after -puberty, and again within four days after exposure to small-pox. -Special care should be paid to isolation. Inmates of the house should -neither make nor receive visits while the patient is sick. - -=Diphtheria= and =Consumption=.—Special care should be taken to avoid -inhaling the breath of the patient, as the diseases are communicated -through the secretions of the nose, throat, and lungs. The matter -coughed up should be received on rags and immediately burned. - -=Scarlet Fever= and =Measles=.—These are communicable during -convalescence, as well as during the illness. The body of the patient -should be anointed twice a day with sweet-oil, lard, or vaseline, -containing ten grains of carbolic acid or thymol to the ounce. This -should be continued until all bran-like scaling of the skin is at an -end. Before again associating with unprotected persons, the patient -should have several complete ablutions, including thorough washing of -the hair with soap or borax; and none of the clothing worn for several -days before the disease declared itself should be again used until -thoroughly disinfected, and ventilated in the open air several days -(New York State Board of Health circular). - -=Typhoid Fever=, =Asiatic Cholera=, and =Dysentery=.—Poison contained -in discharges from the bowels. Particular attention should be paid to -the disinfection of such discharges by the zinc or copperas solution. - -=Yellow Fever.=—Poison possibly contained in discharges from stomach -and bowels, but requiring special conditions for development -outside the body before it can affect other persons. Excreta should -be immediately disinfected. Germs may be carried long distances in -=fomites= (clothing, bedding, and other porous substances), and -disinfection of such articles must be very thorough. - -=Typhus Fever.=—No visiting to be allowed. - -When there is small-pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, or typhus -fever in a house, immediate attendants on the sick should not leave the -house without a change of outside clothing. - - - _General Precautions for those entering a Sick-Room._ - -Never enter a sick-room with an empty stomach, or when very tired. - -Never eat or drink anything that has been long exposed to the air of -the sick-room. - -Breathe through your nose, and keep your mouth shut except when you are -talking. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - FOOD. - - -How to distinguish a good article of food from a bad one, when both -are in their natural state, is within the province of the cook-book. -In this place will be pointed out only the adulterations of food, and -those methods of detecting them which can be used by householders who -have no special knowledge of the instrumental and chemical means which -are generally necessary. - -Adulterations are of two kinds: those which injure the consumer, and -those which simply cheat him. The following details are chiefly taken -from the New York State Board of Health report for 1881-’82, the name -of the analyst being in each case appended. - -=Arrowroot.=—Often mixed with cheaper starches. Twenty-three samples -examined: seventeen were arrowroot, one was arrowroot and tapioca, two -arrowroot, tapioca, and potato, and three tapioca and potato. Harmless. -(E. G. Love, Ph. D.) - -=Bakers’ chemicals.=—(Saleratus.) This was originally bicarbonate of -potash, but the name is now applied to the bicarbonate of soda. Twenty -samples: none adulterated.—(Baking-soda.) Twenty-three samples: twenty -samples unadulterated. One contained 25 per cent of gypsum; one same -quantity of gypsum and a little starch; one a large amount of sulphate -of soda and 17 per cent of carbonate of lime.—(Cream of tartar.) This -is the bitartrate of potash. Twenty-seven samples: sixteen adulterated -and in some not a particle of cream of tartar found. Six adulterated -with terra alba (gypsum) and starch, one with starch alone, two with -starch, terra alba, and acid phosphate of lime. Six had tartaric acid -and no cream of tartar. In eight the amount of terra alba was found to -vary from 3.27 to 93 per cent. Five samples contained over 70 per cent -of this injurious adulteration. (Love.) - -=Baking-powders.=—Contain bicarbonate of soda and some acid or acid -salt, which combine when water is added and evolve carbonic-acid -gas. There are four classes in use. One contains cream of tartar, -one tartaric acid, one the acid phosphate of lime, and one potash or -ammonia alum. Many powders contain a salt of ammonia. The pungent odor -of this substance prevents its use in any but the smallest quantities, -and it can not affect the wholesomeness of the powder. Flour or starch -forms an ingredient of many powders to prevent a premature combination -of its constituents and a consequent deterioration of the powder. -Eighty-four samples: seventy-three had flour or starch; thirty-five -contained ammonia. Eight adulterated with terra alba, phosphate of -lime, or tartrate of lime. As a rule, these powders are harmless. -(Love.) - -(Alum.) There does not seem sufficient evidence as to the injurious -effects of alum upon the human system to warrant legislation against -it. (Love.) - -=Beer.=—Most adulterations are harmless. Corn, rice, wheat, glucose, -starch, potatoes, etc., are used in making beer, and in many countries -are allowed by special laws (as in England and Germany). The use of -substitutes for hops within the last few years is hardly possible to -believe, since hops have been so cheap, in fact, almost the cheapest -bitter, and are, moreover, as every brewer knows, the best material to -preserve his beer. (F. E. Engelhardt, Ph. D.) - -=Brandy.=—Cognac brandy is naturally colorless, but public taste -demands a brown color, which is imparted by a mixture of caramel -(burned sugar). A very large proportion of the brandy in the world is -made of corn-spirit colored with burned sugar and flavored with oil of -cognac (an essential oil derived from the lees of wine; twenty-five -hundred pounds of lees make one pound of oil.) Here is one recipe: “To -every ten gallons of pure spirits add two quarts New England rum or -one quart Jamaica rum, and from thirty to forty drops of oil of cognac -cut in one half pint of alcohol; color with burned sugar.” Twenty-five -samples examined: sixteen contained fusel-oil, six had traces of it, -and three none. (Engelhardt). The only injurious ingredient (besides -alcohol) in the artificial brandies seems to be the fusel-oil contained -in the corn-spirit or whisky used as a base. Rub suspected brandy on -the palm of the hand until it has evaporated. Fusel-oil may then still -be detected by the smell. Good brandy will leave no odor. - -=Bread.=—Ten samples: no adulteration. (Love.) In 1873, Elwyn Waller, -for the New York City Board of Health, examined fifty-one samples, of -which forty-one were unadulterated, and ten contained traces of copper -or alum. - -=Butter.=—May be mixed with oleomargarine, and the adulteration is hard -to detect. Oleomargarine is more crumbly than butter in cold weather. -Often colored with annotto, and, as this sometimes contains a little -sulphate of copper, a trace of copper may occasionally be found in -butter. As a rule, adulterations of butter are harmless. - -=Candy.=—“Taffy” and gum-drops are almost all glucose. Coloring-matters -usually harmless, but of ten samples of yellow candy, seven contained -chromate of lead. (W. H. Pitt,) Candy often contains terra alba, flour, -and gum-arabic. The only injurious ingredients usually found are terra -alba (recognized by its grittiness and insolubility) and the chromate -of lead. On account of the latter it is best to avoid yellow, green, -and orange candies. - -=Canned fruits= and =vegetables=.—Eighteen samples, including peaches, -plums, grapes, strawberries, cherries, blackberries, olives, mushrooms, -corn, beans, succotash, tomatoes, pumpkin, and peas. No adulteration -found. Attention was given to the possibility of the chemical reaction -of the fruit acids upon the inner surface of the cans, whereby salts -of tin and lead might be produced, rendering the contents in some -degree poisonous. There was no evidence of their presence. Some of the -articles were canned over a year before. (S. A. Lattimore, Ph. D.) =Per -contra=, other analysts have found from .1 to 2.3 grains of tin to the -can. There is no evidence, however, that this amount of tin in solution -is injurious, and the recent investigations of Hall seem to show that -the fruit acids do not act appreciably on the tin or the lead of -the solder, so long as the air is excluded. Cans once opened should -therefore be emptied, and not left partly full. - -=Canned meats.=—No adulterations and no tin or lead found. The heads of -all cans should be slightly concave. This shows that the contents were -hot when the can was sealed. If the heads are convex, the contents are -decomposing. - -=Cereals.=—Ninety-four samples, including wheat and Graham flour, -farina, oatmeal, rye, barley, corn-meal, rice, buckwheat, sago, and -tapioca. Two adulterated. Adulterations consisted in mixture of other -cereals, and were harmless. (Love.) - -=Cheese.=—Skim-milk cheese often contains lard, put in to replace -the butter which has been removed. This adulteration improves the -quality of the cheese and often can not be detected by experts. One -sample of cheese, which had caused sickness in those who ate it, -was examined, and, although it also made the analyst ill, no known -poisonous substance could be detected in it. (G. C. Caldwell, Ph. D.) -All yellow cheese is colored with annotto, which can therefore hardly -be considered an adulteration. The rind is sometimes washed with a -mercurial or arsenical solution, to protect it from insects, and should -therefore never be eaten. - -=Cocoa= and =chocolate=.—Six samples. None adulterated. (Lattimore.) - -=Coffee.=—Thirty-five samples of unroasted, three of roasted unground, -twenty-one of ground, three of coffee extract. Of the thirty-five -unroasted, in five a few grains were found which had been slightly -colored or faced, apparently with Prussian blue; the three roasted -unground were pure; of the twenty-one ground, nineteen contained -chiccory, beans, wheat, rye, etc. One sample consisted entirely of -roasted hominy. Three samples of coffee extract consisted chiefly of -caramel and licorice, and contained no coffee. (Lattimore.) Pure coffee -swims in water, and colors it slowly. Chiccory sinks and colors water -rapidly. Peas sink and color water slowly. Rye sinks more rapidly -than coffee, and colors water more quickly. Ground coffee is hard and -crumbles between the teeth; chiccory is soft and does not crumble. - -=Gin.=—No injurious adulterations detected. Twenty-five samples. -(Engelhardt.) - -=Honey.=—Three samples: two pure. One, labeled “white-clover honey,” -contained 50 per cent of artificial glucose. The presence of added -glucose is indicated by the turbidity produced by oxalic acid in a -solution of the honey in distilled water. This turbidity is due to -the presence of gypsum in artificial glucose—a substance which is not -contained in pure honey. (Pitt.) - -=Horse-radish.=—Often harmlessly adulterated with grated turnip. - -=Isinglass.=—Two samples. Both were common gelatine. (Chester.) - -=Jellies.=—Fruit-jellies are often simple apple-jelly, flavored with -artificial essences and colored with aniline. Safest not to use them -unless their source is known to be trustworthy. - -=Lard.=—Twenty-eight samples. Fifteen pure; the rest contained water. -Good lard should melt to a clear fat without sputtering. - -=Meat.=—Sound fresh meat is pale red when first cut, the surface -after exposure turning to a deep red. The meat of animals that have -died a natural death is of a deep purple color, not having been bled. -The greatest danger in meat, however, is that due to the presence -of trichinæ, which are killed by a temperature of 160° Fahr. All -forms of pork should therefore be cooked thoroughly before eating. -(Chester.) Poisoning (vomiting, cramps, and diarrhœa) produced by meat -is generally caused by some kind of preserved meat (sausages, pickled -meats, etc.), and is probably due to the presence of fungi. - -=Milk.=—Frauds consist generally in adding water or removing fat -(skimming). As the milk of healthy cows varies in composition within -certain limits, it is necessary to have a standard of purity, which -has been fixed upon in New York as follows: Nearly 1,000 cows have -been examined, with reference to the specific gravity of their milk, -in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. The maximum specific gravity -was 1.039 in milk of an Alderney cow. The minimum for normal milk -from a healthy cow was 1.029. The specific gravity is determined by -an instrument called a lactometer, on which 0 stands for 1,000, the -specific gravity of water, and 100 for 1,029, that of the poorest -milk from a healthy cow. The composition of such milk, adopted by the -English Society of Public Analysts and the New York City Board of -Health, as a result of fifty analyses, is as follows: - - Fat 2.5 - Solids, not fat (sugar, salt, etc.) 9.0 - Water 88.5 - ——- - 100.0 - -=Method of using the Lactometer.=—Put the milk in a vessel so deep that -the lactometer, when introduced and allowed to float, shall not touch -the bottom. Notice the reading of the scale at the surface of the milk. -If it is less than 100, it gives the percentage of milk in the sample. -For example, if the reading be 80, the sample contains 80 per cent of -milk and 20 per cent of water. - -=Sources of Error.=—Milk very rich in cream may possibly, though not -probably, register less than 100, but its very appearance will show -that it has not been thinned by water or by skimming. - -Skimmed milk, especially if a little salt has been added, may register -high above 100, but its thinness and blueness will show that it has -been doctored. - -Condensed milk was carefully analyzed, and found to be unobjectionable. -(C. E. Munsell, Ph. D.) - -=Olive-Oil.=—Often adulterated with poppy, cotton-seed, ground or -peanut, sesame, rape-seed, colza or beechnut oil, all harmless. -Sixteen samples; nine adulterated. (Caldwell.) - -=Pickles.=—Nine samples. None contained copper or any other metal. The -only sample that possessed a suspiciously green appearance was found to -contain alum. (Lattimore.) - -=Rum.=—Twenty-five samples. No objectionable additions found. -(Engelhardt.) - -=Sirups.=—Three samples of maple-sirup. Two were pure, and one, -manufactured in Chicago and sold in cans, contained 35 per cent of -artificial glucose. In 1870 Dr. Chandler found .02 per cent of tin in -each of two samples of sugar-house sirups. This represents .8 grain -of tin to the gallon. A common adulterant of sirups is glucose, which -diminishes their sweetening power, but is not considered injurious. - -=Spices.=—One hundred and eighty samples, comprising mustard, ginger, -allspice, cinnamon, cassia, cloves, white, black, and red pepper, mace, -and nutmeg. One hundred and twelve were adulterated from 40 to 81.8 per -cent. All the adulterations were harmless (wheat and buckwheat bran, -hulls of different seeds, middlings of corn-meal, stale ship’s bread, -peas, beans, etc.). No poisonous substance was found. (Lattimore.) - -=Sugar.=—One hundred and sixteen samples, principally collected in New -York city. Care was taken to secure the samples from different sections -of the city and from all classes of stores. Of these, thirtyfour were -microscopically clean, fifty-four slightly contaminated with dust, -twenty-two contained considerable dirt, and six were very dirty. But in -no case was there an intentional addition of insoluble mineral matters. -Of forty-nine white sugars, all were pure; of sixty-seven brown sugars, -four were adulterated with glucose. (A. L. Colby, Ph. B.) - -There have been many exaggerated statements put forth regarding the -adulteration of sugar. In 1870 Dr. Chandler reported to the New York -City Board of Health that sixty samples of sugar bought at small -groceries were found pure and unadulterated without exception. In 1872, -Elwyn Waller, for the same board, examined one hundred and nine samples -of powdered sugar, but found no adulteration. - -Powdered sugar is quite generally believed to be adulterated with -gypsum or flour. As both of these adulterants are insoluble in water, -it is easy for any one to convince himself of the purity of sugar by -dissolving it in water. - -=Teas.=—Forty-three samples of green tea, and eighteen of black. Many -were cheap and of very inferior quality, some mere tea rubbish, yet no -leaf, or fragment of a leaf, which was examined, could be considered -anything but tea. No adulterations were found, and even the admixture -of exhausted leaves could not be positively asserted. (Lattimore.) -Suspected leaves should be wet and spread out, and then compared with -leaves known to be genuine. It is said that exhausted leaves of -green tea are often colored or “faced” with plumbago, Prussian blue, -soapstone, etc., so artfully that only an expert can detect the fraud. -Black tea is generally pure. - -=Vinegar.=—Four samples, all poor, but not adulterated, unless with -water. (Lattimore.) - -=Whisky.=—Twenty-five samples. Fusel-oil decided in twenty, and traces -in the rest. No injurious adulteration found. “It is evident that the -addition of water and coloring-matter is practiced more than any other -adulteration.” (Engelhardt.) - -=Wine.=—“A good wine should be transparent, and should have a bouquet. -When pouring it into a glass, it should sparkle. A sour taste is -always a sign of poor wine. Dizziness and headache are not produced -by drinking pure wine. Cloudy, discolored, highly colored wines are -suspicious.” There are various substances used in the manufacture of -wine which should be classed as adulterations, e.g., calcined plaster -is added to the grape-juice during fermentation (so-called plastering); -in this way is formed an insoluble tartrate of lime, and a soluble -sulphate of potash, the latter having a bitter taste and acting as -a purgative even in small doses. The French Government forbids the -sale of wine containing over 0.2 per cent of sulphate of potash. -This process also leads to the formation of acid sulphates and free -sulphuric acid in wines. Plastering of wines is practiced in Spain, -Portugal, and the south of France. - -Wines are often fortified by the addition of brandy, cologne spirit, -or French spirit, to arrest fermentation. Ports and sherries are almost -invariably so. - -Red wines are often colored with logwood, Brazil-wood, fuchsine, -cochineal, black hollyhock and red poppy flowers, alkana-root, red -beets, cherries, whortleberries, elderberries, pokeberries, etc. It is -very difficult to detect these, and fuchsin is the only one that is -poisonous. Carpené gives the following very simple method to decide -whether a red wine is naturally or artificially colored: Take a piece -of good, white burned lime, break it into two pieces, smooth the -surfaces by a knife or file, and place a few drops in succession on the -same spot of the smooth surface, and observe after a few minutes the -color produced. Natural red wines give a yellowish-brown spot; colored -with fuchsine, or Brazil-wood, a rose-colored spot; colored with -logwood, a dark-violet spot; colored with cochineal, a reddish-violet -spot; colored with black hollyhock, a yellowish-brown spot; colored -with pokeberries, a yellowish somewhat red spot. (Engelhardt.) - -Another test is to concentrate the wine, and dip in a piece of pure -white woolen-yarn. The natural red coloring-matter of wine does not dye -without a mordant, while fuchsine and cochineal dye it red or pink. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - WATER. - - -In cities and towns which have a common water-supply, the water -sometimes contains impurities dissolved from the pipes through which it -runs, or dirt and vegetable _débris_ stirred up from the bottom of the -sources of supply, or brought down into them by heavy storms or melting -snows. - -Service-pipes are usually made of lead, and, after moderate use, become -coated on their internal surface with insoluble compounds (sulphate of -lead), which prevent contamination of the water by them. When the water -is not very hard, however, a slight amount of lead may be dissolved by -it. It is said that Cochituate water (Boston) always contains traces -of lead, but that no well-authenticated case of poisoning from this -source has ever been reported. Croton water (New York), which has -stood overnight in the pipes, is said to contain one tenth of a grain -of lead per gallon—sufficient to produce poisoning in some instances. -One case of this sort has been known. If drinking-water is drawn from -tanks, they should never be lined with lead, but should be made of -iron, or of wood lined with tinned and planished copper. (See “Plumbing -Regulations,” 44.) - -Water passing through galvanized-iron pipes always contains zinc -salts—not, however, in injurious amount. Such pipes soon rust. - -Dirt and other suspended matters should be removed by means of a -=filter=. A good household filter must be made of a material which -can not communicate any injurious or offensive quality to the water -that passes through it; it must remove all suspended particles, so as -to render the water bright and clear; it must be easy to clean, or so -arranged that the filtering material can be readily renewed. The action -of a filter is either mechanical or chemical; in the latter case, the -organic matters contained in the water are oxidized in the filter. -There are innumerable patent filters in the market, to be attached to -the faucet, but these can only act as strainers. There is no material -known which can be introduced into the small space of a tap-filter and -accomplish any real =purification= of the water which passes through -at the ordinary rate of flow. (Nichols.) The only points to be looked -to, therefore, in purchasing a tap-filter, are its efficiency as a -strainer, and the facility of cleansing or renewing the filtering -material. Where the pressure is not too great, a closely woven -cotton-flannel bag, fastened to the tap, makes as good a filter as -any. For large filters (in cisterns, etc.), those which contain animal -charcoal are the most efficient. - -In places where the drinking-water is drawn from wells, it is sometimes -polluted by leakage from cesspools, privy-vaults, stables, and refuse -matters lying on the surface of the ground in their vicinity. It has -been demonstrated beyond a doubt that epidemics of typhoid fever have -often originated and spread in this way. Even when no specific disease -is caused, water polluted from such sources often causes diarrhœal -disorders and various forms of indigestion in those who drink it. - -The determination of such pollution is a matter of great delicacy and -difficulty, and can only be trusted to an expert. Waters polluted by -organic matters often contain an excess of gaseous constituents, and -are clear, sparkling, and palatable, presenting to the uninstructed eye -no indication of impurity. There are certain tests, however, which can -be used by any person of intelligence, when, if positive results are -obtained, an expert should be called in to determine the source and -character of the contamination. - -The pollution of water by decomposing animal matters is always to -be suspected, if there are evidences of the presence of chlorine -or nitrogen in the water, as these are invariable constituents of -animal excreta. These substances are found in combination—the former -in chloride of sodium, and the latter in the so-called nitrites and -nitrates.[2] Their presence is determined as follows: - -[2] The albuminoid ammonia test is too technical for insertion here. - -=Chlorine.=—_Tests_: Nitrate of silver (twenty-five cents a drachm), -twenty-four grains to one ounce of distilled water, and dilute nitric -acid (ten cents an ounce). Pour a few drops of each into the suspected -water. If chlorine is present, there will be a cloudy-white precipitate -of chloride of silver, which will gradually turn darker. One grain -of chlorine to a gallon of water gives a haze; four grains a marked -turbidity, and ten grains a considerable precipitate. In case chlorine -is found, and any particular source is suspected, a pailful of salt -(chloride of sodium) and water may be thrown into the place from which -the leakage is supposed to come, and the water again examined, after a -few hours, to see whether the amount of chlorine has increased. - -=Nitrates.=—_Tests_: Pure sulphuric acid and a saturated solution of -sulphate of iron (copperas). Add an equal bulk of the acid to any -quantity of the water in a test-tube. The mixture will become very -hot. Wait until it is cool, and then pour in the iron solution gently, -so that it will float above the mixed acid and water. If nitrates are -present, there will be an olive-colored layer where the fluids meet. - -=Nitrites.=—_Test-mixture_: Iodide of potassium (fifty cents per -ounce), one part; starch, twenty parts; water, five hundred parts. -Make the starch-solution first, and filter when cold; then add the -iodide of potash. Add to the suspected water this mixture, and then a -little dilute sulphuric acid. If nitrites are present, there will be an -immediate blue color. - -=Organic Matters in general.=—_Test_: Eight grains of chemically pure -permanganate of potash in one ounce of distilled water. In half a pint -of the suspected water in a tumbler, put one drop of the solution. If -the red color disappears in one half hour, add more. For every drop -that loses color in the half-pint there will be found one and a half to -two grains of putrid organic matter in a gallon of the water. If the -action is rapid, the matter is probably animal; if slow, vegetable. - -To =purify= such water, if it must be used, drop in the solution until -a slight red tinge remains. The organic matter is then all oxidized -and rendered harmless. It is better, however to boil such water before -using it for drinking. - - - _Precautions with regard to Drinking-Water._ - -Do not drink water that has been standing long in lead pipes, or lead -cisterns or tanks. - -Filter it before drinking. - -See that the current of ground-water in the well from which you get -your drinking-water is from the well toward any possible source of -contamination (privy-vault, cesspool, etc.), and not _vice versa_. - -If the use of a suspected water is unavoidable, boil it first. It can -be rendered palatable by an infusion of tea or coffee. - - - - - APPENDIX A. - - ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE COMMON DISINFECTANTS, WITH A BRIEF - DESCRIPTION OF EACH, AND THE AVERAGE PRICE AT RETAIL. - - -=Carbolic Acid.=—A product of the distillation of coal-tar. When -pure and free from water, a transparent crystalline solid. Dissolves -in twenty parts of cold water. Coagulates albuminous matters. A -one-per-cent solution of it in water arrests putrefaction. For -disinfection use at least a one-per-cent solution. The chief -objection to its use is its odor. This may be modified to some extent -by mixing the pure acid with camphor, forming a liquid, which may -then be diluted. This acid is often used in combination with other -disinfectants. A preparation much used by the New York City Board -of Health for the disinfection of clothing contains eight ounces of -sulphate of zinc and three ounces of carbolic acid to three gallons of -water. Another for privies, water-closets, etc., is composed of ten -pounds of copperas, one pint of carbolic acid, and five gallons of -water. The strong acid injures iron pipe. Do not use in combination -with the permanganate of potash or the chloride of zinc. “=Dead Oil=” -(heavy oil of coal-tar) contains from 5 to 15 per cent of carbolic acid -mingled with impurities. It is used for the disinfection of drains, -streets, stables, etc. =Thymol= also occurs in coal-tar, but is usually -obtained from oil of thyme. Its action is similar to that of carbolic -acid. =Carbolic Powders= are made by mixing five parts of the pure -acid, or ten parts of the crude, with one hundred parts of sawdust, -clay, or lime. Squibb’s Carbolic Acid (No. 1), containing 77.90 per -cent of pure acid, costs $1 a pint; (No. 2), with 37.46 per cent of -pure acid, 75 cents a pint. Different samples examined (Waller), -containing from .20 to .78 per cent, cost from 50 cents to $1 a pint. -Crude acid, containing 50 per cent of acid, with many tarry impurities, -costs less than $1 a gallon. Thymol, $1 per ounce. - -=Charcoal.=—Absorbs putrid gases. See =Lime=. - -=Chloride of Lime.= See =Chlorine=. - -=Chloride of Zinc.= See =Zinc=. - -=Chlorine.=—A pale, yellowish-green gas, of a suffocating quality, -possessing great bleaching and disinfecting powers. When dry, it does -not bleach. When moist, it combines with the hydrogen of water or of -organic substances, and sets free the oxygen, which constitutes its -disinfecting power. It decomposes sulphureted hydrogen, ammonia, and -in general compounds arising from the putrid fermentation of organic -matter. It is obtained as follows: Pour one pound of sulphuric acid, -previously diluted with four times its volume of water, on three -pounds of chloride of lime. Mix in a large earthen dish to allow for -frothing up. Or mix two parts, by weight, of the black oxide (dioxide) -of manganese with three parts, by weight, of strong hydrochloric acid. -The gas is evolved very rapidly, so that it is difficult to make the -mixture complete before the fumes drive away the person manipulating -it. The colors of hangings, etc., are apt to be bleached out by it, -and metals are corroded. (See also =Sulphurous Acid=.) =Chloride of -Lime.=—Made by saturating slaked lime with chlorine-gas. It contains -on an average about 30 per cent of available chlorine, to be set free -by an acid. Very useful for disinfection of cellars, damp yards, and -areas. One half pound in a gallon of water may be used for washing -floors of sick-rooms, etc. Heat destroys its disinfecting properties. -=Chloride of Aluminum.=—Action similar to but weaker than the iron and -zinc salts, Sulphuric acid, black oxide of manganese, and hydrochloric -acid, each 5 cents an ounce. Chloride of lime, 15 cents a pound. - -=Copperas.= (Green vitriol, sulphate of iron.)—Comes in pale-green -crystals. It is an efficient disinfectant for privies, water-closets, -stables, etc. Stains white goods. Acts by destroying sulphureted -hydrogen and ammonia. Also oxidizes organic compounds and coagulates -albuminous matters. A good mixture is four pounds of copperas and -three ounces of carbolic acid to a gallon of water. Ten cents a pound. -One hundred pounds for $3 or less. - -=Corrosive Sublimate.= (Mercuric chloride.)—The most powerful -disinfectant known. Coagulates albuminous substances. A solution of -one part in 2,000 of water kills microscopic organisms. Two drachms of -this substance in a gallon of water (1 to 500) makes a solution sure -to destroy any disease-germ. It is a deadly poison, and can only be -purchased under legal restrictions. Fifteen cents an ounce. - -=Dead Oil.= See =Carbolic Acid=. - -=Green Vitriol.= See =Copperas=. - -=Gypsum.= See =Lime=. - -=Heat.=—Boiling is a good disinfectant. Boil for at least an hour. If -dry air is used, the temperature must be from 250° to 300° for five or -six hours. Cotton and silk will stand a temperature of 295° for three -hours without harm. Woolen suffers more. - -=Iron, Sulphate of.= See =Copperas=. - -=Lime.=—Twenty parts of quicklime, mixed with two parts of dry, fresh -charcoal, form the =calx-powder=, as sold in the shops. It is useful -to absorb putrid gases, when sprinkled in cellars, etc. =Sulphate of -lime=, or =gypsum= (plaster of Paris), mingled with coal-tar or impure -carbolic acid, is an effective deodorant for stables and manure-heaps. -It absorbs and retains ammonia, and therefore preserves to the manure -its most valuable constituent. =Chloride of lime.= See =Chlorine=. -Quicklime, 5 cents a pound. Gypsum, 10 cents a pound. - -=Nitrate of Lead.=—Theoretically a good disinfectant, but practically -of little use. Five cents an ounce. - -=Nitrous Acid.=—Evolved in the form of brownish-red fumes, when nitric -acid is poured on copper turnings. Very dangerous to inhale, and little -used as a disinfectant. - -=Ozone.=—Is a form of oxygen, supposed to be three volumes condensed -into two. Is a powerful oxidizer. Corrodes cork, paper, and other -organic substances. Oxidizes very rapidly compounds of ammonia, -phosphorus, and sulphur, which are offensive, instantly removing the -odor. Simple vegetables, like mould, are completely destroyed by it. -Obtained by gradually mixing three parts of sulphuric acid with two -parts of permanganate of potash. This mixture will continue to give off -ozone for several months. Or, put a piece of phosphorus on a plate, and -pour in water sufficient to cover two thirds of it. These methods are -used in the patented ozone generators. Phosphorus, 40 cents an ounce; -sulphuric acid, 5 cents an ounce. - -=Permanganate of Potash.=—Dark purple crystals, almost black. A -solution is of a beautiful purple color, but stains brown almost -everything it touches. Can not be used with carbolic acid or the -coal-tar disinfectants. Is a powerful oxidizer, and is used to -disinfect excreta, and to purify drinking-water. Fifty cents an ounce. - -=Sulphate of Iron.= See =Copperas=. - -=Sulphate of Lime.= See =Lime=. - -=Sulphate of Zinc.= See =Zinc=. - -=Sulphurous Acid.= An irrespirable gas, produced by burning sulphur. -Powerful disinfectant. Coagulates albuminous matters and probably -destroys germs. Destroys sulphureted hydrogen and ammonia. Dry articles -are not hurt by it, but wet clothes are bleached. Can not be used with -chlorine, as they neutralize each other. Chlorine is as effective, but -is so destructive that it can only be used in empty rooms. It requires -about a tablespoonful of alcohol to light a pound of sulphur. Sulphur -(roll-brimstone), 10 cents a pound. - -=Thymol.= See =Carbolic Acid=. - -=Zinc Salts.=—The sulphate and the chloride of zinc are excellent -disinfectants. They are colorless, and can therefore be used on -clothing. They form, with albuminous matters, extremely insoluble -compounds, and also absorb gases from putrefying material. They are the -best disinfectants of their class. The sulphate is cheaper, but the -chloride more efficient. Sulphate of zinc, 10 cents an ounce; chloride -of zinc, 20 cents an ounce. - -It is better and cheaper to buy and mix one’s own disinfectants. -The many proprietary articles are no more efficient, and are very -expensive. The composition of some of those most in use is here given. -(Analyses by Waller, of the New York City Health Department.) - -The first column gives parts in 100, and the second, ounces in a gallon -in the case of liquids, and ounces in a pound in case of powders. - -Bromo-chloralum (Tilden & Co.), 50 cents a pint. - - Chloride of aluminum 8.152 12.71 - Water, bromide of aluminum, lime salts, etc. 91.848 143.25 - ———- ——— - 100.000 155.96 - -Burnett’s Fluid is a solution of chloride of zinc (25 grains to the -drachm). - -Carbolate of lime, in three-quarter pound boxes, at 25 cents. - - Lime 64.245 10.28 - Magnesia 0.602 0.09 - Sand, oxide of iron, etc. 0.670 0.11 - Carbolic acid 0.472 0.07 - Carbonic acid and organic impurities 34.021 5.45 - ———- ——- - 100.000 16.00 - -Chloralum (English Chloralum Co.), 50 cents a pint. - - Chloride of aluminum 13.213 20.14 - Sulphate of lime 0.197 0.30 - Water, chloride of calcium, etc. 86.590 131.99 - ———- ——— - 100.000 152.43 - -Chloride of lime, 20 cents a pound. - - Available chlorine 31.38 5.02 - Lime salts, water, etc. 68.62 10.98 - ——— ——- - 100.00 16.00 - -Condy’s Fluid is a solution of permanganate of potash (9.26 grains to -a fluid ounce, about 2-1/2 drachms to the pint). - -Darby’s Prophylactic Fluid, 50 cents a half-pint. - - Permanganate of potash 0.055 0.08 - Sulphate of potash 1.750 2.50 - Chloride of potassium 1.270 1.81 - Carbonate of potash 6.570 9.40 - Water 90.355 129.24 - ———- ——— - 100.000 143.03 - -Egyptian Disinfectant, 25 cents a pound. - - Clay 87.810 14.05 - Lime 0.354 0.06 - Carbolic acid 0.320 0.05 - Other constituents of dead oil 5.685 0.91 - Organic matter and water 5.831 0.93 - ———- ——- - 100.000 16.00 - -Excelsior Disinfectant, 15 cents a pound. - - Protosulphate of iron (copperas) 31.464 5.03 - Chloride of sodium (salt) 19.251 3.08 - Flowers of sulphur 7.800 1.25 - Water of crystallization, cassia-oil, etc. 41.485 6.64 - ———- ——- - 100.000 16.00 - -The Germicide is a patented apparatus for discharging chloride of zinc -into the bowl of the water-closet, and impregnating the air at the same -time with the vapor of thymol. - -Girondin Disinfectant, 75 cents a quart. - - Sulphate of zinc 19.692 32.64 - Sulphate of copper 1.202 1.99 - Sulphate of lime 0.480 0.79 - Water, traces of calcium chloride, etc. 78.626 130.34 - ———- ——— - 100.000 165.76 - -Labarraque’s Solution, 50 cents a pint. - - Available chlorine 1.423 1.96 - Water and soda salts 98.577 135.54 - ———- ——— - 100.000 137.50 - - -Metropolitan Disinfectant, 30 cents a quart. - - Protosulphate of iron (copperas) 11.413 17.10 - Carbolic acid (about) 3.330 4.99 - Water, dead oil, and impurities 85.257 127.74 - ———- ——— - 100.000 149.83 - - -Phenix Disinfectant, 35 cents a pound. - - Silicate of alumina (clay) 56.876 9.10 - Sesquichloride of iron 1.192 0.19 - Sesquioxide of iron 7.102 1.14 - Lime 2.470 0.39 - Carbolic acid 0.400 0.06 - Carbonic acid and organic impurities 31.960 5.12 - ———- ——— - 100.000 16.00 - - -Phenol Sodique, 50 cents a half pint. - - Carbolic acid 1.177 1.61 - Soda salts, water, and impurities 98.823 134.29 - ———- ——— - 100.000 135.90 - - -Platt’s Chlorides, 50 cents a quart. - - Solution chloride of zinc (saturated) 40 parts. - ” ” ” lead ” 20 ” - ” ” ” calcium ” 15 ” - ” ” ” aluminum ” 15 ” - ” ” ” magnesium ” 5 ” - ” ” ” potassium ” 5 ” - —- - 100 ” - - - - - APPENDIX B. - - -List of the prices of plumber’s materials and labor, from which a rough -estimate may be formed of the probable cost of proposed plumbing. The -prices given are wholesale ones, and it must be remembered that every -plumber is also a retail merchant, who obtains his materials at a -discount, and charges them to his customer at an average advance of 10 -or 15 per cent on the prices here given. - -All measurements are of inside diameters. - - =Bands.=—Ordinary thickness, 2 by 2 inches, 75 cents; 6 by 6 inches, - $1.90. Intermediate sizes at corresponding prices. - - =Bends= and =Offsets=.—Two inches in diameter, 40 cents; extra heavy, - 50 cents. Six inches in diameter, $1.20; extra heavy, $1.75. - - =Cisterns= and =Service-boxes= (for water-closets), $10 to $20; - (waste-preventing), $13 to $26. - - =Offsets.= See =Bends=. - - =Pipe.=—Tile or earthenware (vitrified), in lengths of 2-1/2 feet - each, 2-inch, 13 cents a foot; 3-inch, 16 cents a foot; 4-inch, 20 - cents a foot; and 5 cents more per foot for each additional inch of - diameter. - - Iron, in lengths of 5 feet each: Ordinary, about 10 cents a foot for - every inch of diameter. Extra heavy, about twice as much. Double-hub - pipe, about 6 cents a foot more. The tar-coating costs about 3 cents a - foot for 2-inch pipe, 4 cents for 3-inch pipe, etc. - - Lead, about 9 cents a pound. Manufactured pipe (traps, etc.), 10 cents - a pound. Qualities are marked according to thickness—i. e., weight - for each size, AAA (best), AA, A, B, C, D, and E. 3/8-inch pipe, AAA - weighs 1 pound 12 ounces per foot; B weighs 1 pound per foot; C weighs - 14 ounces per foot; D weighs 7 ounces per foot. 5/8-inch pipe, AAA - weighs 3 pounds 8 ounces per foot; AA weighs 2 pounds 12 ounces per - foot; B weighs 2 pounds per foot. 3/4-inch pipe, AAA weighs 4 pounds - 14 ounces per foot; B weighs 2 pounds 3 ounces per foot. 1-inch pipe, - AAA weighs 6 pounds per foot; AA weighs 4 pounds 8 ounces per foot; - A weighs 4 pounds per foot; B weighs 3 pounds 4 ounces per foot; D - weighs 2 pounds 4 ounces per foot. 2-inch pipe, AAA weighs 10 pounds - 11 ounces per foot; AA weighs 8 pounds 14 ounces per foot; A weighs - 7 pounds per foot; B weighs 6 pounds per foot; D weighs 4 pounds per - foot. 3-inch pipe, 3/8 thick, weighs 19 pounds 9 ounces per foot. - 4-inch pipe, 3/8 thick, weighs 25 pounds 6 ounces per foot, and so on. - - For supply-pipes, AA pipe is generally used. - - =Privy-Sinks.=—About $5 for every foot in length. - - =Saddle-Hubs.=—2 by 2 inches, 30 cents; extra heavy, 40 cents. 6 by 6 - inches, $1.10; extra heavy, $1.40. - - =School-Sinks.= See =Privy-Sinks=. - - =Traps.=—Adee traps about 5 cents apiece less than ordinary S-traps, - and Bower traps about twice as much. - - Earthenware, 2-inch, $1 each; 6-inch, $3.25 each. - - Iron (S-traps), 2-inch, 80 cents; extra heavy, $1.25; 6-inch, $3.75; - extra heavy, $5. Running traps, with or without hand-holes, about the - same. - - Lead, made of 6-pound lead (lead weighing 6 pounds to the square - foot), 1-1/4-inch, 65 cents; 1-1/2-inch, 80 cents; 2-inch, $1.10; - 4-1/2-inch, $3.25, etc. - - =Urinals.=—(Earthenware), $5 to $6 each. - - =Wash-Basins.=—(Iron, enameled or marbled), $1.50 to $4.50. - - =Water-Closets.=—Demarest’s (plunger), $15 to $40. Earthenware hopper, - $10 to $12. Earthenware hopper, with trap, waste-preventing cistern, - chain and bracket, wood-seat, etc., $30. Hopper-valve closet, with - self-raising, round seat, $9. - - =Pan-Closets.=—$4.50 to $22. - - A journeyman and helper are charged for at the rate of from $5 to $6 - per day. - - - - - INDEX. - - - Acid, carbolic, 72, 91. - carbonic, 7-9, 13, 15. - carbonic, test for, 9. - hydrochloric, 93. - nitric, 88. - nitrous, 95. - sulphuric, 89, 93, 95. - sulphurous, 70, 96. - - Adulterations of food, 73. - - Air, contaminated by combustion, 9. - contaminated by excreta, 12, 21. - contaminated by respiration, 8, 11. - contaminated by the sick, 11. - dangers of impure, 11-14. - - Air-bound pipes, 57. - - Air in ground, 15. - - Alum, 75. - - Aluminum, chloride of, 93. - - Annotto, 77, 78. - - Areas, drainage of, 34. - - Arrowroot, 74. - - Asphalt in walls, 34, 66. - - - Bacilli, 11, 14. - - Bacteria, 11. - - Bad odors, sources of, 52. - - Bakers’ chemicals, 74. - - Baking-powders, 75. - - Ball-cock, 48. - - Bands, 60, 100. - - Basins, 32, 102. - - Bath-tubs, 30. - - Bedclothing, disinfection of, 69. - - Beer, 75. - - Bends, 42, 100. - - Blow-offs, 33. - - Board of Health, plumbing rules of, 25. - - Boilers, sediment-pipe of, 32. - - Boiling, disinfection by, 94. - - Brandy, 76. - - Bread, 76. - - Brimstone, 67, 96. - - Bromo-chloralum, 97. - - Burnett’s Fluid, 97. - - Butter, 76. - - - Caldwell,, Ph. D., 78, 82. - - Calking of joints, 45. - - Calx-powder, 94. - - Candy, 77. - - Canned fruits and vegetables, 77. - - Canned meats, 78. - - Caramel, 76. - - Carbolate of lime, 97. - - Carbolic acid, 72, 91. - powders, 92. - - Carbonic acid, 7-9, 13, 15. - - Carbureted hydrogen, 12. - - - Carmichael, 46. - - Carpené, 85. - - Cast-iron pipes, 44, 101. - - Cellars, 34, 66. - - Cemented joints, 52. - - Cement, tempered-up, 26, 39. - - Cereals, 78. - - Cesspools, 12, 34, 35. - - Chandler,, Professor, 67, 82, 83. - - Charcoal, 94. - - Cheese, 78. - - Check-valves, 47. - - Chester,, Ph. D., 79, 80. - - Chiccory, 79. - - Chicken-pox, 12. - - Chimneys as pipe-vents, 44. - - Chimneys, smoky, 20. - - Chloralum, 97. - - Chloride of aluminum, 93. - of lime, 71, 93, 97. - mercuric, 94. - of sodium, 89. - of zinc, 70, 96. - - Chlorine, method of obtaining, 92. - properties of, 96. - test for, 88. - - Chocolate, 78. - - Cholera, precautions _vs._, 72. - propagation of, 14. - - Chromate of lead in candy, 77. - - Cisterns for water-closets, 32, 47. - - City houses, drainage of, 65. - - Closet, earth, 23. - - Closets, water, 39, 102. - - Clothing, disinfection of, 69. - - Cocoa, 78. - - Coffee, 78. - extract of, 79. - - Coffins, air-tight, 70. - - Cognac, 76. - - Colby,, Ph. B., 83. - - Combustion, 9. - - Condensers, 33. - - Condy’s fluid, 97. - - Confectionery, 77. - - Connections, pipe, 30, 52. - - Construction, faulty, 52. - - Consumption, precautions _vs._, 72. - propagation of, 12, 72. - - Contagious diseases, propagation of, 11. - - Copperas, 70, 93. - solution of, 67, 70. - - Copper, sulphate of, 77. - - Corpses, disinfection of, 69, 71. - - Corrosive sublimate, 94. - - Country houses, drainage of, 50, 65. - - Cream of tartar, 74. - - Cushioning, 42, 44, 56. - how determined, 61. - - - Damp soil, danger of, 15. - - Dampers, position of, 19. - - Darby’s Prophylactic Fluid, 98. - - Dead bodies, disinfection of, 69, 71. - - Dead oil, 92. - - Deodorizers, 67. - - Diphtheria, precautions _vs._, 72. - propagation of, 12, 72. - - Discharges, disinfection of, 68. - - Diseases, contagious, 11. - - Disinfectant, Egyptian, 98. - Excelsior, 98. - Girondin, 98. - Metropolitan, 99. - Phenix, 99. - - Disinfectants, 91. - how to use, 67. - - Disinfection, 66. - National Board of Health rules for, 67. - of bedclothing, 69. - - Disinfection of clothing, 69, 91. - of corpses, 69, 71. - of furniture, 69. - of premises, 68, 92, 94. - of privies, 71, 91. - of water-closets, 71, 91. - of woolen stuffs, etc., 69. - - Double windows, 20. - - Drain, fall of, 27. - house, 35. - house, trap in, 42. - location of, 27. - pipes, 59. - size of, 27. - - Drainage, 21. - diagram of, 49. - essentials of, 24. - examination of, 61. - of city houses, 65. - of country houses, 50, 65. - of farm-houses, 65. - of sea-side houses, 65. - New York City Board of Health, 25. - subsoil, 50. - - Drains, defective, 52, 59. - - Draughts, how produced, 17, 20. - how to avoid, 20. - when perceived, 17. - - Drinking-water, tanks for, 33, 86. - tests of, 89. - - Durand-Claye, 13. - - Durham house-drainage system, 44. - - Dysentery, precautions _vs._, 72. - propagation of, 14. - - - Earth as a disinfectant, 23. - closet, 23. - - Earthenware pipes, 26, 59, 100. - - Egyptian Disinfectant, 98. - - Engelhardt,, Ph. D., 76, 79, 82, 84, 85. - - Erysipelas, propagation of, 14. - - Evaporation from traps, 60. - - Excelsior Disinfectant, 98. - - Excreta, contamination of air by, 14, 21. - dangers from, 14, 21. - removal of, 24. - - Exhaust-steam in soil-pipes, 33, 50. - - - Farm-houses, drainage of, 65. - - Faulty construction of drains, 52. - - Ferrules, 30, 45, 52. - - Fever, malarial, 14. - puerperal, 14. - scarlet, 11, 72. - typhoid, 14, 72. - typhus, 11, 73. - yellow, 14, 72. - - Field’s flush-tank, 50. - - Filters, 87. - - Fireplace, Galton’s, 18, 19. - - Fireplaces, 18. - - Flanges, lead, 53. - - Flues for ventilation, 20. - - Flush-tank, 50. - - Fomites, 71, 73. - - Food, 73. - - Fresh-air inlet, 28, 43. - - Fruits, canned, 77. - - Fumigation, methods of, 68, 69. - precautions during, 70. - treatment of rooms after, 70. - - Funerals, 71. - - Furniture, disinfection of, 69. - of sick-room, 68. - - Fusel-oil, 76, 84. - - - Galton’s fireplace, 18, 19. - - Gas, sewer, composition of, 12. - - Gasket, 45. - - General debility, 11, 13. - - German measles, 12. - - Germicide, 98. - - Gin, 79. - - Girondin Disinfectant, 98. - - Glucose, 75, 79, 82. - - Grains, cereal, 78. - - Green vitriol, 70, 93. - - Ground air, danger of, 15. - air, exclusion of, 66. - water, high and low, 15. - - Gum-drops, 77. - - Gypsum, 74, 79, 94. - - - Hand-holes, 59. - - Heat, disinfection by, 94. - - Honey, 79. - - Hops, 75. - - Horizontal pipes, 28. - - Horse-radish, 79. - - Hospital gangrene, 14. - - House-drain, 35. - drain, trap in, 27, 42. - drainage, Durham system of, 44. - drainage, essentials of, 24. - sewer, material of, 26. - - Hydrant-sinks, 35. - - Hydrochloric acid, 93. - - - Impurity of air, measure of, 9. - - Inlet, fresh-air, 28, 43. - - Iodide of potassium, 89. - - Iron, sulphate of, 93. - - Iron pipes, weight of, 29. - - Isinglass, 79. - - - Jellies, 79. - - Joints, calking of, 45, 52. - cement, 52, 59. - imperfect, 59. - lead, 45, 52. - putty, 52, 59. - - Joints, rust, 30, 45. - wiped, 46. - - - Labarraque’s Solution, 99. - - Labor, plumber’s, 102. - - Lactometer, method of using, 81. - - Lard, 80. - - Lattimore,, Ph. D., 77-79, 82-84. - - Lead, chromate of, 77. - dissolving of, in water, 86. - flanges, 53. - nitrate of, 95. - - Leaders, bad odors from, 53. - as soil-pipes, 33, 49. - trapping of, 33, 53. - - Lead pipes, weight of, 101. - - Letheby, 13. - - Lime, 94. - chloride of, 93. - sulphate of, 94. - - Louvered sky-light, 39. - - Love,, Ph. D., 74-76, 78. - - - Malarial fevers, 14. - - Manganese, oxide of, 93. - - Marsh-gas, 13. - - Measles, precautions _vs._, 72. - propagation of, 11. - - Meat, 80. - - Meats, canned, 78. - preserved, poisoning by, 80. - - Mercuric chloride, 94. - - Mercury seal for traps, 39. - - Metropolitan Disinfectant, 99. - - Microscopic organisms, 11, 43. - - Milk, composition of, 81. - - Mines, air of, 7. - - Morin, estimate by, 19. - - Movable tanks for excreta, 22. - - Mumps, 12. - - Munsell,, Ph. D., 81. - - - National Board of Health, rules, etc., 67. - - Nichols, Professor, 8, 12, 87. - - Nitrate of lead, 95. - of silver, 88. - - Nitrates, tests for, 89. - - Nitric acid, 88. - - Nitrites, test for, 89. - - Nitrogen, 7. - in sewers, 12, 13. - - Nitrous acid, 95. - - New York City Board of Health, rules, etc., 25. - - New York State Board of Health, rules, etc., 74. - - - Oakum, 45. - - Odors, offensive, 52. - - Offsets, 35, 100. - - Oil, dead, 92. - fusel, 76, 84. - of cognac, 76. - of peppermint, 63. - olive, 81. - - Oleomargarine, 76. - - One trap, etc., how determined, 58, 62. - - Organic matter of respired air, 9. - matters, test for, 89. - - Organisms, microscopic, 11, 43. - - Overflow-pipes, 32, 33, 46, 54, 58. - - Oxidation, 15, 43. - - Oxide of manganese, 93. - - Oxygen, 7, 8, 13. - - Ozone, 95. - - - Pails for excreta, 22. - - Paris, plaster-of-, 94. - - Peppermint test, 63. - - Permanganate of potash, 95. - - Pettenkofer’s test for carbonic acid, 9. - - Phenix Disinfectant, 99. - - Phenol Sodique, 99. - - Phosphorus, 95. - - Pickles, 82. - - Pipe connections, 30, 52. - - Pipes, air, 31. - air-bound, 57. - cast-iron, 27, 28, 44, 101. - corrosion of, 50, 59. - drain, 27, 59. - earthenware, 26, 100. - galvanized iron, 59, 86. - hub-end of, 44. - iron, weight of, 29. - lead, weight of, 101. - obstruction of, 61. - overflow, 32, 33, 46, 54, 58. - rat-holes in, 59. - service, 86. - spigot-end of, 44. - tarring of, 44, 101. - traps on vertical, 29, 44. - ventilating, size of, 31. - waste, 28. - wrought-iron, 44. - - Pitt,,, 77, 79. - - Plants, action of air on, 15. - - Plaster-of-Paris, 94. - - Platt’s chlorides, 99. - - Plumber’s labor, 102. - materials, 101, 102. - - Pork, 80. - - Potash, permanganate of, 95. - - Potassium, iodide of, 89. - - Powders, calx, 94. - carbolic, 92. - - Premises, disinfection of, 68, 92, 94. - - Privies, disinfection of, 71. - - Privy-sinks, 42, 102. - - Privy-vaults, construction of, 22, 34, 35. - - contents of, 12. - dangers of, 22. - - Pumpelly, 46. - - Purification of water, 87, 90. - - Putty-joints, 52, 54. - - - Rat-holes in pipes, 59. - - Refrigerator wastes, 32. - - Respiration, organic matter of, 9. - - Return bend, 43. - - Rum, 82. - - - Saddle-hubs, 60, 102. - - Safes, 32, 46. - draining of, 32, 54. - - Safe-wastes, 32, 54. - - Saleratus, 74. - - Salt, 67, 70, 89. - - “Sanitary Engineer,” 51. - - Scarlet fever, precautions _vs._, 72. - propagation of, 11. - - School-sinks, 34, 42, 102. - - Seal of trap, 36. - - Sea-side houses, drainage of, 65. - - Seine, mud of, 13. - - Service-pipes, 86. - - Sewer-air, effects attributed to, 13. - - Sewer-gas, composition of, 12. - - Sewer, house, material of, 26. - - Sewer-water, 13. - - Sewers, contents of, 12. - private, 26. - - Sherringham valve, 17. - - Sick-room, care of, 67, 70. - precautions on entering, 73. - - Sinks, 30. - - Siphonage, 58. - how determined, 62. - prevention of, 31, 58. - - Sirups, 82. - - Sky-light, louvered, 39. - - Sleeves, 30, 45. - - Slops, dangers from, 21. - - Small-pox, precautions _vs._, 71. - propagation of, 11. - - Smoky chimneys, 20. - - Smith, Angus, 8. - - Soil, damp, danger of, 15. - - Soil-pipe, 35. - material and size of, 28. - - Spices, 82. - - Stables, disinfection of, 94. - - Starch, 75, 89. - - Squibb’s carbolic acid, 92. - - Steam in soil-pipes, 33, 50. - - Steam-coils, heating by, 19. - - Subsoil drainage, 50. - - Sugar, 82. - - Sulphate of copper, 77. - of iron, 89, 93. - of lime, 94. - of zinc, 67, 96. - - Sulphide of ammonium, 12. - - Sulphur, 67, 96. - use of, in disinfection, 68. - - Sulphureted hydrogen, 12, 13. - - Sulphuric acid, 89, 95. - - Sulphurous acid, 70, 96. - - Syrups (see Sirups). - - - Tanks for drinking-water, 33, 86. - lining of, 33. - movable, for excreta, 22. - - Tarring of pipes, 44, 101. - - Teas, 83. - - Terra alba, 74, 75, 77. - - Test, Carpené’s, for wine, 85. - for carbonic acid, 9. - for chlorine, 88. - for nitrates, 89. - for nitrites, 89. - - Test for organic matters in water, 89. - peppermint, 63. - water, 45. - - Thymol, 72, 92, 98. - - Tin in canned fruits, 77. - in sirups, 82. - - Traps, 35, 102. - cleaning of, 60. - efficiency of, 46. - empty, how to determine, 62. - in house-drains, 27, 42. - on vertical pipes, 29, 44. - position of, 30. - unsealing of, by cushioning, 56. - unsealing of, by evaporation, 60. - unsealing of, by siphoning, 58. - various kinds of, 36, 102. - ventilation of, 31. - - Trap-screws, 59. - - Trichinæ, 80. - - Typhoid fever caused by water, 88. - precautions _vs._, 72. - propagation of, 14. - - Typhus fever, precautions _vs._, 73. - propagation of, 11. - - - Urinals, 30, 102. - - - Valve-closets, dangers of, 47. - - Valves, check, 47. - - Vegetables, canned, 77. - - Ventilating shaft, 25. - - Ventilation, 15. - different methods of, 17-19. - flues for, 20. - - Ventilation of pipes, 31, 54, 58. - - Ventilators, whirling, 20. - - Vent-pipes, 54. - - Vertical pipes, traps on, 29, 44. - - Vinegar, 84. - - - Waller, Elwyn, Ph. D., 83, 97. - - Walls, damp-proof courses in, 66. - - Wash-trays and tubs, 30. - - Waste-pipes, 35. - material of, 28. - trapping of, 30. - - Water, 86. - drinking, tanks for, 33, 86. - drinking, tests of, 89. - impure, disorders due to, 88. - in lead pipes, 86. - iron pipes for, 86. - of sewers, 13. - pollution of, 87. - precautions regarding, 90. - purification of, 90. - typhoid fever caused by, 88. - - Water-carriage, 24. - - Water-closets, 39, 102. - cisterns for, 32, 47, 100. - disinfection of, 71, 91. - valve, dangers of, 47. - - Water-seal, 36, 46. - - Water test, the, 45. - - Weight of iron pipe, 29. - of lead pipe, 101. - - Wernich, 46. - - Whirling ventilators, 20. - - Whisky, 76, 84. - - Whooping-cough, propagation of, 12. - - Windows, double, 20. - - Wine, how to tell good, 84. - tests of, 85. - - Wiped joints, 46. - - Woolen stuffs, disinfection of, 69. - - Wrought-iron pipes, 44. - - - Y-branches, 42. - - Yards, drainage of, 34. - - Yellow fever, 14, 72. - - - Zinc, chloride of, 70, 96. - sulphate of, 67, 96. - - - THE END. - - - - - WORKS ON HYGIENE. - - - =Health Primers.= Edited by J. LANGDON DOWN,, F. P., HENRY POWER,, C. - S., J. MORTIMER-GRANVILLE, M. D., JOHN TWEEDY, C. S. In square 16mo. - volumes. Cloth, 40 cents each. - - I. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. - II. ALCOHOL: Its Use and Abuse. - III. PREMATURE DEATH: Its Promotion or Prevention. - IV. THE HOUSE AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. - V. PERSONAL APPEARANCE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. - VI. BATHS AND BATHING. - VII. THE SKIN AND ITS TROUBLES. - VIII. THE HEART AND ITS FUNCTIONS. - IX. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. - - =Hygiene for Girls.= By IRENÆUS P. DAVIS, 16mo. Cloth, $1.25. - - =Dangers to Health=: A Pictorial Guide to Domestic Sanitary Defects. - By T. PRIDGIN TEALE,, Surgeon to the General Infirmary at Leeds. With - 70 Lithographic Plates. 8vo. Cloth, $3.00. - - =Health and Education.= By Rev. C. KINGSLEY. 12mo. Cloth, $1.75. - - =Physical Education=; or, The Health Laws of Nature. By FELIX L. - OSWALD, 12mo. Cloth, $1.00. - - - THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. - - _CONDUCTED BY E. L. AND W. J. YOUMANS._ - - -THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY was established a dozen years ago to -bring before the general public the results of scientific thought on -many large and important questions which could find no expression in -the current periodicals. Scientific inquiry was penetrating many new -fields, extending important knowledge, and profoundly affecting opinion -upon numberless questions of speculative and practical interest. It -was the policy of this magazine at the outset, and has been constantly -adhered to since, to obtain the ablest statements from the most -distinguished scientific men of all countries in their bearing upon the -higher problems of investigation. Leaving the dry and technical details -of science, which are of chief concern to specialists, to the journals -devoted to them, THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY has dealt with those more -general and practical subjects which are of the greatest interest and -importance to the people at large. - -Science is the great agency of improvement in this age, private and -public, individual, social, professional, and industrial. In its -irresistible progress it touches everywhere, and affects everybody. It -gives law to the material interests of the community, and modifies its -ideas, opinions, and beliefs, so that all have an interest in being -informed of its advancement. Those, therefore, who desire to know what -is going on in the world of thought in these stirring times, when new -knowledge is rapidly extending, and old errors are giving way, will -find that they can keep informed only by subscribing for THE POPULAR -SCIENCE MONTHLY. - - -TERMS: $5.00 per annum, or 50 cents a number; cloth covers for the -volumes, 50 cents each. - -The volumes begin with May and November of each year, and subscriptions -may begin at any time. - -A club of five will be supplied for $20.00 per annum. - - - New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HAND-BOOK OF SANITARY -INFORMATION FOR HOUSEHOLDERS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/67768-0.zip b/old/67768-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1487583..0000000 --- a/old/67768-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h.zip b/old/67768-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ca3b494..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/67768-h.htm b/old/67768-h/67768-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index fc3dad7..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/67768-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5527 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hand-book of Sanitary Information for Householders, by Roger S. Tracy, M. D.. - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1 -{ - margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; - text-align: center; - font-size: x-large; - font-weight: normal; - line-height: 1.6; -} - - h2,h3{ - text-align: center; - clear: both; - } - -.half-title { - margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; - text-align: center; - font-size: x-large; - font-weight: normal; - line-height: 1.6; - } - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -/* Paragraphs */ - -p {text-indent: 1em; - margin-top: .75em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; - } - -.psig {text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;} -.hang {text-align: justify; padding-left: 1.75em; text-indent: -1.75em;} - - -.spaced {margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -hr.small {width: 25%; margin-left: 37.5%; margin-right: 37.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -ul {font-size: .9em; list-style-type: none; } -ul.indx { list-style-type: none; } -li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } -li.indx { margin-top: .5em; } -li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - } - -.standard { font-size: .9em; border-collapse: collapse; } -td {padding-left: 5px;} - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} -.tdr_bt {text-align: right; border-top: 1px solid black;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -div.hangsection p {text-indent: -3em; margin-left: 3em;} - -.blockquote { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - -.g2r {padding-right: 2em;} - -.g4r {padding-right: 4em;} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.xs {font-size: x-small;} -.small {font-size: small;} - -/* Images */ - -img {border: none; max-width: 100%} -.caption {font-size: smaller; font-weight: bold;} -w100 {width: 100%;} -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} -.figleft { - float: left; - clear: left; - margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} -/* comment out next line and uncomment the following one for floating figleft on ebookmaker output */ -/*.x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: none; text-align: center; margin-right: 0;}*/ - .x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: left;} - - - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} -/* comment out next line and uncomment the following one for floating figright on ebookmaker output */ -/*.x-ebookmaker .figright {float: none; text-align: center; margin-left: 0;}*/ - .x-ebookmaker .figright {float: right;} - - -/* Footnotes */ - - .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} - - .footnote { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; - } - -.footnote .label { - position: absolute; - right: 84%; - text-align: right; - } - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; - white-space: nowrap - } - -/* Transcriber's notes */ - -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; - } - -/* Illustration classes */ -.illowp100 {width: 100%;} -.illowp25 {width: 25%;} -.illowp60 {width: 60%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp60 {width: 100%;} -.illowp80 {width: 80%;} -.illowp90 {width: 90%;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hand-book of Sanitary Information for Householders, by Roger Sherman Tracy</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Hand-book of Sanitary Information for Householders</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Containing facts and suggestions about ventilation, drainage, care of contageous diseases,</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Roger Sherman Tracy</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 11, 2022 [eBook #67768]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Les Galloway and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HAND-BOOK OF SANITARY INFORMATION FOR HOUSEHOLDERS ***</div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber’s Notes</h3> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>There are many apparent subsections within the text variously -indicated by bold, italic and capital text. There is some, -inconsistent, correspondence between these and the sup-topics in the -Contents. Because of this no attempt has been made to establish a -hierarchy of these headings and they remain as printed in the original. -Equally, paragraph numbering is not always consistent but remains -unchanged. </p> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h1> -HAND-BOOK<br /> - -<small>OF</small><br /> - -SANITARY INFORMATION<br /> - -<small>FOR</small><br /> - -HOUSEHOLDERS,</h1> - -<p class="center"><small>CONTAINING</small></p> - -<p class="center">FACTS AND SUGGESTIONS ABOUT VENTILATION,<br /> -DRAINAGE, CARE OF CONTAGIOUS DISEASES,<br /> -DISINFECTION, FOOD, AND WATER.</p> - -<p class="center"><small>WITH APPENDICES ON</small></p> - -<p class="center">DISINFECTANTS AND PLUMBERS’ MATERIALS.</p> - -<p class="center">BY</p> - -<p class="center">ROGER S. TRACY, M. D.,<br /> - -<small>SANITARY INSPECTOR OF THE NEW YORK CITY HEALTH DEPARTMENT.</small></p> - -<p class="center">NEW YORK:<br /> -D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,<br /> -<small>1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.</small><br /> -<small>1884.</small> -</p> - - -<p class="center small spaced"> -COPYRIGHT BY<br /> -ROGER S. TRACY, M. D.<br /> -1884.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The preparation of this hand-book was suggested -by persistent questioning about the matters it contains. -Its purpose is to furnish householders with -information which has been so scattered, or buried -so deep in technical discussions, that it has not been -easy for them to find it for themselves. It is, of -course, mainly a compilation, and the only difficulties -met with have been those incident to the arrangement -and condensation of a large mass of -material. I have intended to give credit, where -credit seemed to be due, for everything borrowed, -and, if I have failed to do so in any case, it is not -my fault, but my misfortune.</p> - -<p class="psig"> -R. S. T.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><small>CHAPTER</small></td> -<td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I</a>.—</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Air</span></td> -<td class="tdr">7-21</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl">Normal Air.—Contamination of the Air.—Test for -Carbonic Acid in Air.—Diseases caused by Foul -Air.—Composition of Sewer-Air.—Ground Air.—Ventilation.—Smoky -Chimneys.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II</a>.—</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Drainage</span></td> -<td class="tdr">21-66</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl">Privy-Vaults.—Tanks.—Pails.—Earth-Closets.—Water-Carriage.—Plumbing -Regulations of New -York City Board of Health.—Explanatory Remarks.—Drainage -of Country Houses.—Subsoil -Drainage.—Defective Drainage.—Sources of Bad -Odors.—Examination of House-Drainage.—Peppermint -Test.—Summary.—Exclusion of Ground-Air.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III</a>.—</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Disinfection</span></td> -<td class="tdr">66-73</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl">Directions issued by the National Board of Health.—Comments.—Precautions -in Special Diseases.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV</a>.—</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Food</span></td> -<td class="tdr">73-85</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdr">Adulterations, and Methods of detecting them.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V</a>.—</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Water</span></td> -<td class="tdr">86-90</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl">Pollution of Water.—Filters.—Tests for Impurities.—Precautions.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX_A">APPENDIX A</a>.—<span class="smcap">Disinfectants</span></td> -<td class="tdr">91-99</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX_B">APPENDIX B</a>.—<span class="smcap">Plumbers’ Materials</span></td> -<td class="tdr">100-102</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td> -<td class="tdr">103</td> -</tr> -</table> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="half-title">HAND-BOOK<br /> - -<span class="xs">OF</span><br /> - -SANITARY INFORMATION.</p> - -<hr class="small" /> -<p>Necessary to continued good health are <span class="smcap">Good -Air</span>, <span class="smcap">Good Food</span>, and <span class="smcap">Good Water</span>. It is the -object of Sanitary Science to secure these.</p> - - -<hr class="small" /> - - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> - - -<small>AIR.</small></h2></div> - - -<p>Normal air contains 79 per cent of nitrogen, -20.96 per cent of oxygen, and .04 per cent (4 parts -in 10,000) of carbonic acid.</p> - -<p>Oxygen supports animal life; carbonic acid, -vegetable life; and the use of the nitrogen, otherwise -than as a diluent, is not known.</p> - -<p>Very pure air contains 78.98 per cent of nitrogen, -20.99 per cent of oxygen, and .03 per cent of carbonic -acid.</p> - -<p>Air begins to be very bad when the oxygen is -reduced to 20.60 parts in 100. In mines, where candles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -go out, oxygen is reduced to 18.50 parts in 100, -and, in the worst specimen yet examined by Angus -Smith, to 18.27. Air in which the percentage of -oxygen has been reduced to 17.20 is very difficult to -remain in for many minutes.</p> - -<p>Aside from impurities due to local causes, the -purest air is found from six to forty feet above -the ground, and the most impure from seventy to -ninety feet, where the air from chimneys is poured -forth.</p> - - -<p><b>Air is contaminated by the products of -respiration and the bodily emanations of -healthy persons, and by the products of combustion.</b></p> - -<p>An adult man, in ordinary work, gives off in -twenty-four hours from twelve to eighteen cubic -feet of carbonic acid, according to his size; women, -children, and old persons less.</p> - -<p>Edward Smith found that an adult asleep exhaled -about nineteen grains of carbonic acid per -hour, and, when he walked three miles an hour, the -amount was increased to 100.6 grains.</p> - -<p>W. R. Nichols, of Boston, found in passenger-cars -23.2 parts of carbonic acid to 10,000 parts of -air, and in the Berkeley Street sewer 10.4 parts per -10,000. Wilson found in Portsmouth Prison, in cells -containing six hundred and fourteen cubic feet of -air, always occupied, 7.20 parts per 10,000, and in -cells containing two hundred and ten cubic feet, occupied -only at night, 10.44 per 10,000.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - -<p>Besides the carbonic acid, there is exhaled from -the lungs a small amount of organic matter, of unknown -composition. It forms a glutinous coating -on the furniture, walls, and windows of closed rooms, -decomposes rapidly, imparts a peculiarly offensive -odor to the air of a badly-ventilated room, and poisons -those who inhale it. Its quantity is so small -that it has so far defied analysis. In a room contaminated -by respiration alone, the odor of this substance -begins to be perceived when the carbonic acid -has increased to about 7 parts in 10,000, and 10 parts -in 10,000 may be considered the maximum amount -of carbonic acid allowable in dwellings.</p> - -<p>The following table shows how much carbonic -acid artificial lights produce per hour:</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Petroleum, slit-burner,</td> -<td class="tdc">10</td> -<td class="tdc">candle-light,</td> -<td class="tdc">1.98</td> -<td class="tdc">cubic feet,</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Petroleum, round-burner,</td> -<td class="tdc">7.6</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">2.15</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Oil-lamp,</td> -<td class="tdc">4</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">1.09</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Candle,</td> -<td class="tdc">1</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">.39</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Coal-gas, slit-burner,</td> -<td class="tdc">7.8</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">3.25</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Coal-gas, flat-burner,</td> -<td class="tdc">10</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">3</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>A five-foot gas-burner produces as much carbonic -acid per hour as five men.</p> - -<p>As the most poisonous element of the breath can -not readily be detected by analysis, the amount of -carbonic acid is taken as a measure of the impurity -of air contaminated by respiration.</p> - - -<p><b>Test for carbonic acid in air</b> (Pettenkofer’s -method):</p> - -<p>Shake up a definite volume of the air in a closed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -vessel with a definite amount of lime-water. The -carbonic acid unites with the lime, forming carbonate -of lime. This compound, being insoluble in -water, renders it turbid. The degree of turbidity -may be judged of by looking through the water at -a cross marked in lead-pencil on the inside of a -piece of paper pasted on the opposite side of the -bottle, and a standard may be fixed by shaking up -ordinary external air in a sixteen-ounce bottle, as -described below, which will show the degree of turbidity -produced by 4 parts of carbonic acid in 10,000. -Lime-water can be bought of a druggist, or made by -shaking distilled water with slaked lime, allowing it -to settle, and pouring off the clear liquid. With a -common hand-ball syringe, the end of the rubber -tube resting on the bottom of the bottle, pump in air, -until the bottle is filled with the air to be tested. -Put in half an ounce of lime-water, cork the bottle, -and shake it up well. Let it stand for five minutes, -and if the water becomes turbid, as if a little milk -had been dropped into it, the presence of carbonic -acid in the air will be indicated in the following proportions.</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<th class="tdc">Size of bottle.<br />ounces</th> -<th class="tdc">Amount of<br />lime-water.</th> -<th class="tdc">Parts in<br /> 10,000.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">16</td> -<td class="tdc">1-2 ounce</td> -<td class="tdr">A little less than 4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">12</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">A little more than 5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">10</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">A little more than 6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">8</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">6</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">A little more than 10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">4</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">A little more than 15</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Dangers of such Contamination.</i></p> - -<p>Air contaminated by the products of respiration -and by bodily emanations (perspiration, etc.) contains -substances which have been ejected from human -bodies as useless or injurious. What all systems -reject can not be healthy for any, and it is -found that long-continued exposure in an atmosphere -laden with these impurities produces anæmia, -general debility, and poor nutrition, conditions likely -to result in the development of scrofula and consumption. -It is believed, too, that typhus fever may -originate in this manner, while when such poisons -are inhaled in a more concentrated form, as in the -famous Black Hole of Calcutta, nausea, vertigo, -convulsions, and even death are produced.</p> - -<p><b>The air is at certain times and places contaminated -by the products of respiration and -the bodily emanations of diseased persons.</b></p> - -<p>In certain diseases, commonly known as <b>contagious</b>, -organic matters are thrown off by the -lungs and skin of the sick, which tend to reproduce -these diseases in the bodies of other persons. The -exact nature of these poisons is in most cases unknown, -but they are generally believed to be living -microscopic organisms (bacteria, bacilli, micrococci, -etc.), which multiply their kind in the blood of the -person who has inhaled them.</p> - -<p>Of such diseases, the dangerous ones are small-pox, -measles, scarlet fever, typhus fever, and diph<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span>theria, -and their contagious quality is marked very -nearly in the order in which they are here mentioned.</p> - -<p>The less harmful of these diseases are whooping-cough, -chicken-pox, mumps, and German measles.</p> - -<p>There is strong evidence that consumption is -contagious, though not as markedly so as the diseases -above enumerated.</p> - - -<p><b>The air may be contaminated by the products -of the decomposition of the excreta of -healthy persons.</b></p> - -<p>The contents of cesspools, privy-vaults, and sewers, -are generally composed of discharges from the -bowels and kidneys, various matters washed off from -the bodies of animals and from culinary and household -utensils, and dissolved soap, constituting a mixture -which rapidly decomposes and affords a fine soil -for the nourishment and propagation of microscopic -organisms.</p> - -<p>Air contaminated in this way, popularly known -as <b>sewer-gas</b>, contains sulphide of ammonium and -sulphureted hydrogen (which cause the characteristic -odor of rotten eggs), carbureted hydrogen, nitrogen, -and carbonic acid (odorless), and certain undetermined -organic matters.</p> - -<p>Professor Nichols analyzed the air of the Berkeley -Street sewer in Boston, a type of a badly-constructed -and badly-ventilated sewer. The sulphureted -hydrogen, etc., were in too small quantity to -be measured. The highest percentages found were,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -of oxygen, 20.90; of nitrogen, 79.26; of carbonic -acid, .4 (40 parts in 10,000). The lowest were, -oxygen, 20.48; nitrogen, 78.89; and carbonic acid, -.05 (5 parts in 10,000).</p> - -<p>Letheby found that sewer-water (containing 128.8 -grains of organic matter to the gallon) excluded from -air yielded, for nine weeks, 1.2 cubic inches of gas -per hour. In one hundred volumes of this mixture -there were 78.83 parts of marsh-gas (carbureted hydrogen), -15.90 parts of carbonic acid, 10.19 parts of -nitrogen, and .08 of sulphureted hydrogen. Examination -of sewage-mud in the Seine by Durand-Claye -gave 72.88 parts of marsh-gas, 13.30 of carbonic acid, -6.70 of sulphureted hydrogen, 2.54 of carbonic oxide, -4.58 of nitrogen, and some other gases. Such mixtures -are sometimes found in long-closed cesspools and -privy-vaults, but not in sewers proper.</p> - -<p>Of these gases, sulphureted hydrogen and carbonic -acid are very poisonous, and when they are inhaled -in concentrated form produce almost immediate -unconsciousness, and often death. When less -concentrated, sewer-air may cause nausea and vomiting, -followed by a low fever which sometimes kills, -and, if not, results in a tedious convalescence. As -a rule, it is so largely diluted that it produces no -immediate effects, excepting the discomfort due to -offensive odor, and the mental anxiety resulting -therefrom.</p> - -<p>The effects usually attributed to the continued -breathing of diluted sewer-air are general <i>malaise</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -loss of appetite, anæmia, impaired nutrition, and -therefore diminished power of resistance to attacks -of disease which are not directly attributable to -sewer-air poisoning. It is doubtful whether these -effects are due to the constant introduction of sewer-air -in minute quantities into the blood, or to the -inhalation of particles of organic matter floating in -such a contaminated atmosphere.</p> - -<p><b>The greatest danger, however, in the -breathing of sewer-air is that of inhaling -with it the living particles</b> (bacilli, etc.) <b>contained -or developed in the excreta of diseased -persons</b>.</p> - -<p>The diseases believed to be propagated in this -way are <b>cholera</b>, <b>typhoid fever</b>, and <b>dysentery</b>. -The discharges both from the mouth (stomach) and -bowels are known to be poisonous.</p> - -<p>It is believed by many that the poisons of typhoid -fever and diphtheria may be developed <i>de novo</i> by -the decomposition of the mixtures found in cesspools -and sewers.</p> - -<p>There also seems to be a connection, imperfectly -understood, between bad drainage and malarial fevers, -and perhaps cerebro-spinal meningitis.</p> - -<p>The origin of yellow fever is not yet ascertained.</p> - -<p>Surgical erysipelas, puerperal fever, and hospital -gangrene, are only developed on and about wounded -surfaces, and seem to be due to the organisms developed -in the secretions of such surfaces, where -ventilation and drainage are bad.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span></p> - - -<p><b>Air may be contaminated by the products -of organic decomposition rising from the -ground and drawn into the house through -furnace-flues</b>, etc.</p> - -<p><b>Ground-air</b> contains from 1.49 to 80 parts per -1,000 of carbonic acid, and frequently contains products -of organic decomposition. A damp soil is also -very unhealthy, as shown by Bowditch and others. -“A persistently low ground-water, say fifteen feet -down or more, is healthy; a persistently high ground-water, -less than five feet from the surface, is unhealthy; -and a fluctuating level, especially if the -changes are sudden and violent, is very unhealthy” -(De Chaumont). Such soils are especially productive -of consumption.</p> - - -<p class="center">VENTILATION.</p> - -<p>The contamination of the atmosphere by the respiration -and bodily emanations of human beings and -other animals is unavoidable, but the noxious matters -thus added to the air are being constantly changed -in the following ways:</p> - -<p><b>1. Oxidation.</b> The organic matters, which have -been mentioned as especially injurious, are gradually -decomposed by the oxygen of the air, and -changed into harmless substances, which either remain -as constituents of the atmosphere, or are washed -into the earth by rains.</p> - -<p><b>2. Vegetable growth.</b> Plants absorb carbonic -acid (which is composed of carbon and oxy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span>gen) -through their leaves, and give back oxygen to -the air, retaining the carbon for their own nourishment. -There is thus a constant interchange between -animals and vegetables, the former exhaling carbonic -acid and appropriating oxygen, and the latter appropriating -carbonic acid and exhaling oxygen. The -small percentage of carbonic acid always found in -the air is, therefore, essential to vegetable life, while -harmless to animals.</p> - -<p>It is necessary, for the proper purification of a -contaminated atmosphere, that it should be largely -diluted with fresh air. Hence arises the need of the -constant change of air in dwellings.</p> - -<p>Air expands when heated and so becomes lighter. -Local differences of temperature, created by natural -and artificial means, therefore bring about currents -in the atmosphere, the cooler and heavier column of -air always descending, and the warmer and lighter -always rising. This fact is taken advantage of in -ventilation.</p> - -<p>It has been estimated that, to keep the air pure, -three thousand cubic feet of fresh air per hour are -required for a male adult, and that a sleeping-room -should contain at least twelve hundred cubic feet of -air-space for each occupant.</p> - -<p>When the temperature of the external air is such -that the doors and windows can be constantly open, -they afford the best means of ventilation for dwellings. -An exposure to draughts, however, is dangerous -to many persons, and it is desirable, therefore, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> -cooler weather, to devise means of admitting fresh -air without creating a draught. At a temperature of -60°, a draught is perceived when the air moves at a -higher rate of speed than three feet a second. Now -it is obvious that a draught may be rendered harmless -if the entering current of air is guided in such a -direction as not to strike the occupants of a room. -This is accomplished simply and cheaply by either -of two devices: If the lower sash of a window is -raised a few inches (say four), and the space between -the bottom of the sash and the window-sill is filled -by an accurately fitted board, there will be a space -between the panes of the two sashes, through which -air will enter, spouting upward toward the ceiling -and not falling until its momentum is so much diminished -that it will not be felt as a draught. The -other plan is to make the upper portion of the upper -sash movable, so that it can be tilted inward at such -an angle as to direct the entering current upward -(essentially the Sherringham valve, though this is -made of iron, with side-cheeks to prevent a lateral -outflow of air).</p> - -<p>There are various patent apparatuses for the admission -of fresh air through windows without draught, -but they are mostly modifications of the methods -above mentioned.</p> - -<p>In weather when artificial heat is necessary for -comfort, thorough ventilation is not difficult, provided -expense is not considered. As the removal -of the foul air, however, involves a considerable waste<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -of heat and consumption of fuel, the means of procuring -the best ventilation at the least cost becomes -a problem of great intricacy, which has not yet been -satisfactorily solved.</p> - -<p><b>Fireplaces</b>, or open grates, are excellent ventilators. -An ordinary fireplace renews the air of the -room four or five times hourly, removing in that time -from fifteen to twenty thousand cubic feet of air. -But only about 12 or 14 per cent. of the heat given -off by the fuel is utilized, the rest passing off by -the chimney. The objections to the fireplace as a -sole means of heating are, its wastefulness, and the -fact that it warms only by radiation, so that the room -is unequally warmed, and may be too cold in one -place and insupportably hot in another.</p> - -<p><b>Stoves</b> and <b>furnaces</b> can not be relied on for -ventilation, the ventilating power of a close stove -being only one tenth of that required for a single -adult.</p> - -<p>Modern fireplaces are sometimes built with a metallic -flue extending upward into the chimney. Between -this flue and the masonry is an air-chamber -opening to the external air and communicating with -the room near the ceiling, so that fresh air from outside -the house is continuously warmed, and discharged -into the room at a temperature of 80° or 90°. -The Galton fireplace (Fig. 1) is of this kind, and -utilizes 35 per cent. of the fuel.</p> - -<p>The best combined heating and ventilating arrangement -at present seems to be that which warms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -the fresh air by means of a soapstone furnace or -steam-coils, and removes the foul air through a fireplace. -In milder weather, gas may be burned in the -chimney at a slight expense. According to Morin, -seven cubic feet of gas burned in a flue eleven inches -square and sixty-six feet high, will draw thirteen -thousand three hundred cubic feet of air per hour -from a room.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="image019" style="max-width: 56.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image019.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 1.—Galton’s fireplace.</div> -</div> - -<p>The <b>dampers</b> of stoves should never be in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -pipes, for they dam back the gases which ought to -enter the chimney, and force them into the room. -The fire should be regulated by dampers which prevent -the access of air, and not its escape after contamination.</p> - -<p>Ventilating <b>flues</b> in walls do very little good, unless -special means are provided to heat them (e. g., -gas lights or lamps).</p> - -<p>The common whirling ventilators in window-panes -are of very little use.</p> - -<p>As a rule, fresh air should enter a room near the -ceiling, and foul air be removed near the floor.</p> - -<p>In very cold climates, dangerous draughts are -often produced by the cooling of the air in contact -with the window-panes, so that it falls and sweeps -along the floor. This danger may be prevented by -double windows, which also save fuel. Double windows -may be utilized in ventilation, by raising the -lower outer sash a few inches, and lowering the upper -inner one.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Smoky Chimneys.</i></p> - -<p>When a chimney smokes, the draught is downward. -This may be, caused—1. By an obstruction -in the flue or stove-pipe. 2. By a higher chimney in -the same house, the air coming down the shorter -chimney, and going up the other. The remedy is to -equalize the heights, or close the doors between the -two. 3. If, when the fire is started, the air outside is -warmer than that in the chimney, the heavier column<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -will of course fall. This effect will vanish in a few -minutes, when the flue becomes heated. 4. The -doors and windows of the room may be so tight as -to prevent a sufficient supply of fresh air to burn the -fuel. If so, they must be opened. 5. The chimney -may be lower than the adjoining wall, and the wind -from certain directions, striking the wall, may be directed -down the flues. This may be remedied by -extending the chimney above the wall, or by capping -the flues with one of the various cowls that prevent -a downward draught.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> - - -<small>DRAINAGE.</small></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>How to prevent the contamination of the -air by the products of decomposition.</b></p> - -<p>There is no evidence to show that the emanations -from fresh house-slops, or the excreta of healthy -animals, are injurious to health, but it has been -proved that when these matters decompose they become -dangerous. The bubbles of gas which rise to -the surface of such decomposing matters, when they -burst, throw up solid particles of organic matter in -the air, which float about for some time before falling -to the ground. It is, therefore, essential to -health that all such matters shall be removed from -the vicinity of human beings promptly, before de<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>composition -sets in, or else so manipulated as to prevent -decomposition, or promote rapid oxidation.</p> - -<p>The lower animals seem to recognize by instinct -that their excreta are dangerous, and they deposit -them (except when penned up by men) in places remote -from their abodes, or else carefully cover them -with fresh earth. Man alone retains his excreta in -carefully prepared receptacles near his place of residence, -until the accumulation is so large that he is -forced to remove it.</p> - -<p>The ordinary <b>privy-vault</b> should never be allowed. -Its only advantage is its cheapness, while it -involves constant danger of contamination of the -water of adjoining wells or cisterns. Many an epidemic -of typhoid fever has been unmistakably traced -to this source. If such a vault is a necessity, it -should be made water-tight, be small and frequently -emptied, the contents should be frequently disinfected, -preferably by being covered with fresh earth, -and it should be built in such a spot that the current -of ground-water (which furnishes the well-water) -shall be from the well toward the vault, and never in -the opposite direction. Better still is a <b>movable -tank</b>, in which the excreta are received and covered -with fresh earth daily. This can be emptied over a -garden or field without offense. In villages where -sewerage is impossible, <b>pails</b> are sometimes used. -They have tight covers, and are removed frequently -(once or twice a week, clean ones being substituted -at the time of removal by the proper authorities),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -the contents being converted into poudrette at some -place remote from habitations.</p> - -<p>A better means of disposing of the excreta, where -water-closets can not be had, is the <b>earth-closet</b>, -of which there are several varieties. These are so -constructed that they resemble a water-closet in appearance, -but the excreta are caught in a receptacle -beneath the seat, and covered with earth, when the -handle beside the seat is raised. Dry earth is an -excellent disinfectant,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and when excreta are thus -mingled with it they are gradually oxidized and disappear, -so that after a time the same earth may, with -proper precautions, be used again.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Its disinfectant properties have been shown to be due to -the presence of microscopic organisms, which decompose the -excreta in the act of nourishing themselves. A little chloroform -paralyzes them, and deprives the earth of its disinfecting -properties, which return, however, when the chloroform is -washed out, and the organisms recover their natural vigor.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The earth for these closets must be dry, and -sifted of coarse particles, and enough must be deposited -upon the excreta to cover them and to absorb -the urine.</p> - -<p>Its advantages, as compared with the water-closet, -are, that it is cheaper, requires less repair, is not -hurt by frost, is not injured when improper substances -are thrown down it, and requires no water. -Its disadvantages are, the trouble of collecting and -drying the earth, the necessity of frequently removing -the soil, the dust sometimes caused by its use,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -and the necessity of providing additional means for -the disposal of slops.</p> - -<p>A perfect method of disposal of excreta and -other house refuse would be one which would insure -their prompt and rapid removal in such a way -as to prevent the contamination of the air of any -inhabited locality during such removal, or after their -final deposition. The most convenient and economical -means yet invented of accomplishing this object -is <b>water-carriage</b>; i. e., the matters referred to are -conveyed from the house, with the addition of sufficient -water to insure a rapid flow, through a series of -pipes and tunnels into a large body of running water, -or over the surface of the earth, under conditions -which insure their rapid conversion into harmless substances.</p> - -<p>The water-carriage system includes bowls or -sinks for the deposit of refuse matters, connecting-pipes -to remove such matters from the house, and -public sewers for their further conveyance away -from human abodes. The construction and care of -public sewers belong to the local government; we -have here only to do with house-drainage.</p> - -<p>The essentials of house-drainage are: 1. The -primary receptacles (bowls, sinks, water-closets, etc.) -should be of such material and so constructed as to -be impervious to fluids, and easy to clean and keep -clean. 2. The pipes should be of such material as -to be as durable as possible, and so laid and connected -as to form gas-tight conduits, and to insure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -the rapid passage of whatever enters them, so as to -prevent the formation of deposits or incrustations. -3. The drainage system should be so planned and -constructed that neither the atmosphere of the house -nor the drinking-water can be polluted by anything -escaping from it, and no noxious matters can enter -it from any other house.</p> - - -<p>The following plan of construction is that recommended -by the Board of Health of New York -city:</p> - -<p>1. All materials must be of good quality and free -from defects; the work must be executed in a thorough -and workmanlike manner.</p> - -<p>2. The arrangement of soil and waste pipes must -be as direct as possible.</p> - -<p>3. The drain, soil, and waste pipes, and the traps, -must, if practicable, be exposed to view for ready -inspection at all times, and for convenience in repairing. -When necessarily placed within partitions -or in recesses of walls, soil and waste pipes must be -covered with wood-work, so fastened with screws as -to be readily removed. In no case shall they be -absolutely inaccessible.</p> - -<p>4. It is recommended to place the soil and other -vertical pipes in a special shaft, between or adjacent -to the water-closet and the bath-room, and serving -as a ventilating shaft for them. This shaft should -be at least two and a half feet square. It should -extend from the cellar through the roof, and should -be covered by a louvered sky-light. It should be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -accessible at every story, and should have a very -open but strong grating at each floor to stand upon.</p> - -<p>Shafts not less than three feet square in area are -required in tenement-houses, to ventilate interior -water-closets.</p> - -<p>5. Every house or building must be separately -and independently connected with the street-sewer.</p> - -<p>6. Where the ground is made or filled in, the -house-sewer—that is to say, the portion of the drain -extending from the public sewer to the front wall—must -be of cast-iron, with the joints properly calked -with lead.</p> - -<p>7. Where the soil consists of a natural bed of -loam, sand, or rock, the house-sewer may be of hard, -salt-glazed, and cylindrical earthenware pipe, laid on -a smooth bottom, free from all projections of rock, -and with the soil well rammed to prevent any settling -of the pipe. Each section must be wetted before -applying the cement, and the space between -each hub and the small end of the next section must -be completely and uniformly filled with the best -hydraulic cement. Care must be taken to prevent -any cement being forced into the drain to become -an obstruction. No tempered-up cement shall be -used. A straight-edge must be used inside the pipe, -and the different sections must be laid in perfect -line on the bottom and sides.</p> - -<p>8. Where there is no sewer in the street, and it -is necessary to construct a private sewer to connect -with a sewer on an adjacent street or avenue, it must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -be laid under the roadway of the street on which the -houses front, and not through the yards or under -the houses.</p> - -<p>9. The house-drain must be of iron, with a fall -of at least one quarter inch to the foot, if possible, -and not more than one inch to the foot.</p> - -<p>10. Where water-closets or a school-sink discharge -into it, the drain must be at least four inches -in diameter.</p> - -<p>11. It must be hung on the cellar wall or ceiling, -unless this is impracticable, in which case it must be -laid in a trench cut at a uniform grade, walled upon -the sides with brick laid in hydraulic cement, and -provided with movable covers, and with a hydraulic -concrete base of four inches in thickness, on which -the pipe is to rest.</p> - -<p>12. It must be laid in a straight line, if possible. -All changes in direction must be made with curved -pipes, and all connections with Y-branch pipes and -one-eighth bends.</p> - -<p>13. Any house-drain or house-sewer, put in and -covered without due notice to the Health Department, -must be uncovered for inspection at the direction -of the inspector.</p> - -<p>14. A running or half S-trap must be placed on -the house-drain at an accessible point near the front -of the house. This trap must be furnished with a -hand-hole for convenience in cleaning, the cover of -which must be properly fitted and made gas and air -tight with some proper cement.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span></p> - -<p>15. There must be an inlet for fresh air entering -the drain just inside the trap, of at least four inches -in diameter, leading to the outer air and opening at -or near the street curb, or at a convenient place not -less than ten feet from the nearest window. No -cold-air box for a furnace shall be so placed that it -can by any possibility draw air from this inlet-pipe. -The inlet-pipe should never be carried up to the -roof inside or outside the house.</p> - -<p>16. No brick, sheet-metal, earthenware, or chimney-flue -shall be used as a sewer-ventilator, nor to -ventilate any trap, drain, soil, or waste pipe.</p> - -<p>17. Every vertical soil-pipe and waste-pipe must -be of iron, and, where it receives the discharge -of fixtures on two or more floors, it must be extended -at least two feet above the highest part -of the roof or coping, of undiminished size, with -a return bend or cowl. It must not open near -a window, nor an air-shaft which ventilates livingrooms.</p> - -<p>18. Soil, waste, and vent pipes, in an extension, -must be extended above the roof of the main building, -when otherwise they would open within twenty -feet of the windows of the main house or the adjoining -house.</p> - -<p>19. Horizontal soil and waste pipes are prohibited.</p> - -<p>20. The minimum diameter of soil-pipe permitted -is four inches. A vertical waste-pipe, into -which a line of kitchen-sinks discharge, must be at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -least two inches in diameter, with one inch and a -half branches.</p> - -<p>21. Where lead pipe is used to connect fixtures -with vertical soil or waste pipes, or to connect traps -with vertical vent-pipes, it must not be lighter than -D-pipe.</p> - -<p>22. There shall be no traps on vertical soil-pipes -or vertical waste-pipes.</p> - -<p>23. All iron pipes must be sound, free from holes, -and of a uniform thickness of not less than one eighth -of an inch for a diameter of two, three, or four inches, -or five thirty-seconds of an inch for a diameter of -five or six inches; and, in case the building is over -sixty-five feet in height above the curb, the use of -what is known as extra heavy pipe, and corresponding -fittings, are required, which weigh as follows:</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">2</td> -<td class="tdc">inches,</td> -<td class="tdc">5½</td> -<td class="tdc">pounds per lineal foot.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">3</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">9½</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">4</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">13</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">5</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">17</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">6</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">20</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">7</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">27</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">8</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">33½</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">10</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">45</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">12</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdc">54</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>24. Before they are connected they must be thoroughly -coated inside and outside with coal-tar pitch, -applied hot, or some other equivalent substance.</p> - -<p>25. When required by an inspector from the -Board of Health, the plumbing must be tested with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -the peppermint or the water test, by the plumber in -the presence of the inspector, and all defective joints -made tight, and other openings made impermeable -to gases. Defective pipe discovered must be removed -and replaced by sound pipe.</p> - -<p>26. All joints in the iron drain-pipes, soil-pipes, -and waste-pipes must be so calked with oakum and -lead, or with cement made of iron filings and sal-ammoniac, -as to make them impermeable to gas.</p> - -<p>27. All connections of lead with iron pipes must -be made with a brass sleeve or ferrule, of the same -size as the lead pipe, put in the hub of the branch -of the iron pipe, and calked in with lead. The -lead pipe must be attached to the ferrule by a wiped -joint.</p> - -<p>28. All connections of lead pipe should be by -wiped joints.</p> - -<p>29. Every water-closet, urinal, sink, basin, wash-tray, -bath, and every tub or set of tubs, must be -separately and effectively trapped, except where a -sink and wash-tubs immediately adjoin each other, -in which case the waste-pipe from the tubs may be -connected with the inlet side of the sink-trap; in -such a case the tub waste-pipe is not required to be -separately trapped.</p> - -<p>30. Traps must be placed as near the fixtures as -practicable, and in no case shall a trap be more than -two feet from the fixture.</p> - -<p>31. All exit-pipes must be provided with strong -metallic strainers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span></p> - -<p>32. In no case shall the waste from a bath-tub or -other fixture be connected with a water-closet trap.</p> - -<p>33. Traps must be protected from siphonage, and -the waste-pipe leading from them ventilated, by a -special air-pipe, in no case less than two inches in -diameter for water-closet traps, and one inch and a -half for other traps. Except in private dwellings, -the vertical vent-pipes for traps of water-closets in -buildings more than four stories in height must be at -least three inches in diameter, with two-inch branches -to each trap, and for traps of other fixtures not less -than two inches in diameter, with branches one and -a half inches in diameter, unless the trap is smaller, -in which case the diameter of branch vent-pipe must -be at least equal to the diameter of the trap. In all -cases vertical vent-pipes must be of cast or wrought -iron.</p> - -<p>34. These pipes must either extend two feet above -the highest part of the roof or coping, the extension -to be not less than four inches in diameter to avoid -obstruction from frost, or they may be branched into -a soil-pipe above the inlet from the highest fixture. -They may be combined by branching together those -which serve several traps. These air-pipes must always -have a continuous slope, to avoid collecting -water by condensation.</p> - -<p>35. Traps of fixtures near the fresh-air inlet may -be ventilated by being connected with it.</p> - -<p>36. No trap vent-pipe shall be used as a waste or -soil pipe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p> - -<p>37. Overflow-pipes from fixtures must, in each -case, be connected on the inlet side of the trap.</p> - -<p>38. Every safe under a wash-basin, bath, urinal, -water-closet, or other fixture, must be drained by a -special pipe not directly connected with any soil-pipe, -waste-pipe, drain, or sewer, but discharging -into an open sink, upon the cellar-floor, or outside -the house.</p> - -<p>39. The waste-pipe from a refrigerator shall not -be directly connected with the soil or waste pipe, or -with the drain or sewer, or discharge into the soil; -it should discharge into an open sink. Such waste-pipes -should be so arranged as to admit of frequent -flushing, and should be as short as possible, and disconnected -from the refrigerator.</p> - -<p>40. The sediment-pipe from kitchen boilers must -be connected on the inlet side of the sink-trap.</p> - -<p>41. All water-closets within the house must be -supplied with water from special tanks or cisterns, -the water of which is not used for any other purpose. -The closets must never be supplied directly -from the Croton supply-pipes. A group of closets -may be supplied from one tank; but water-closets -on different floors are not permitted to be flushed -from one tank.</p> - -<p>42. The valves of cisterns must be so fitted and -adjusted as to prevent wasting of water, especially -where cisterns are supplied from a tank on the roof.</p> - -<p>43. The overflow-pipes from water-closet cisterns -must discharge into an open sink, or where its dis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>charge -will attract attention and indicate that waste -of water is occurring, but not into the bowl of the -water-closet, not into the soil or waste pipe, nor into -the drain or sewer. When the pressure of the Croton -is not sufficient to supply these tanks, a pump must -be provided.</p> - -<p>44. Tanks for drinking-water are objectionable; -if indispensable, they must never be lined with lead, -galvanized iron, or zinc. They should be constructed -of iron, or wood lined with tinned and planished -copper. The overflow should discharge upon the -roof, or be trapped and discharge into an open sink, -never into any soil or waste pipe or water-closet trap, -nor into the drain or sewer.</p> - -<p>45. Rain-water leaders must never be used as -soil, waste, or vent pipes; nor shall any soil, waste, -or vent pipe be used as a leader.</p> - -<p>46. When within the house, the leader must be -of cast-iron, with leaded joints; when outside of the -house, and connected with the house-drain, it must -be trapped beneath the ground or just inside of the -wall, the trap being arranged in either case so as to -prevent freezing. In every case where a leader opens -near a window or a light-shaft, it must be properly -trapped at its base.</p> - -<p>47. No steam exhaust or blow-off pipe from a -steam-boiler will be allowed to connect with any soil -or waste pipe, or directly with the house-drain. They -should discharge into a tank or condenser, the waste -from which, if to be discharged into the sewer through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -the house-drain, must be connected on the sewer -side of the running trap.</p> - -<p>48. Subsoil drains must be provided whenever -necessary.</p> - -<p>49. Yards and areas should always be properly -graded, cemented, flagged, or well paved, and properly -drained; when the drain is connected with the -house-drain, it must be effectively trapped. Front-area -drains must, where practicable, be connected -with the house-drain inside of the running trap.</p> - -<p>50. Cellar and foundation walls must, where possible, -be rendered impervious to dampness, and the -use of asphaltum or coal-tar pitch, in addition to -hydraulic cement, is recommended for that purpose.</p> - -<p>51. No privy-vault or school-sink will be allowed -in any cellar or basement; nor shall the general privy -accommodation of a tenement or lodging house be -allowed to be in the cellar or basement.</p> - -<p>52. No privy-vault, or cesspool for sewage, will -be permitted in any part of the city where water-closets -or a school-sink can be connected with a -public sewer in the street.</p> - -<p>53. School-sinks must be of cast-iron, not more -than two feet in depth, connected at the upper end -with the Croton supply, and at the lower end with a -drain leading to the street-sewer, and provided with -an outlet at the lowest point and on the bottom so -as to admit of a complete discharge of the contents -whenever the outlet is opened and the sink flushed -with water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span></p> - -<p>54. The sink must be set so that the flange will -be at least two feet below the yard surface, to prevent -freezing. It must be at least ten feet from any -window, or as near that distance as practicable.</p> - -<p>55. The waste-pipe from a hydrant-sink in the -yard must be properly trapped, especially where it -discharges into a school-sink, a privy-vault, or cesspool, -or the house-drain.</p> - -<p>56. Open light and air courts must be properly -drained.</p> - -<p>57. When a privy-vault or cesspool must necessarily -be used, and the water-supply of the premises -is from a well, they must be at least fifty feet from -the well; and the privy-vault must be absolutely -tight.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Explanatory Remarks.</i></p> - -<p>2. <b>As direct as possible.</b> To insure an uninterrupted -flow. When a pipe has to pass an obstruction -(a beam or post) an <b>offset</b> is used (Fig. 2).</p> - -<p>3. The <b>soil-pipe</b> is that which conveys the contents -of water-closets to the house-drain: the <b>waste-pipes</b> -are intended to carry other refuse fluids only. -The <b>house-drain</b> is the large pipe which receives -the contents of the soil and waste pipes and conveys -them outside the house.</p> - -<p>A <b>trap</b> is a bend (with or without an enlargement) -of the pipe, intended to retain a sufficient -amount of the fluids that enter it to occlude the pipe -and prevent the backward flow of air. The effective<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -<b>water-seal</b> is represented by the total depth of -water in the trap, minus the inside diameter of the -pipe, and should be at least one inch.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="i036-1" style="max-width: 56.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image036-1b.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="g4r">Fig. 2.—Offset.</span> -<span class="g4r">Fig. 3.—S-trap.</span> Fig. 4.—Half S-trap. -</div></div> - -<p>Traps are of various kinds, and many are patented. -The accompanying figures represent the principal -types.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="image036-2" style="max-width: 52.0625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image036-2.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> <span class="g4r">Fig. 5.—D-trap.</span> Fig. 6.—Bag-trap.</div> -</div> - -<p>Fig. 3 is the S-trap. Fig. 4 is the half S-trap. -There is also a three-quarter S-trap. Fig. 5 is a D-trap, -formerly much used, but now mostly out of -date, because it retains dirt. Fig. 6 is a <b>bag</b>-trap. -It has no advantage over the S-trap, and uses more -material. Fig. 7 is a <b>bottle</b>-trap, much used in Boston. -This also retains dirt. There are varieties of -it, the distinguishing feature of all being that the -fluids enter them at the bottom and flow out at the -top.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image037a1" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image037a1.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="g4r">Fig. 7.—Bottle-trap. </span> Fig. 8.—Bell-trap.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image037b1" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image037b1.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="g4r">Fig. 9.—Running-trap. </span> Fig. 10.—Mason’s trap.</div> -</div> - -<p>Fig. 8 is the <b>bell</b>-trap, so called from its shape. -Much used for the drains of paved areas, yards, -and cellars; liable to retain dirt, and needs frequent -cleaning; not a good trap. Fig. 9 is a <b>running</b>-trap, -used in house-drains and other pipes that are -nearly horizontal. Fig. 10 represents a <b>mason’s</b> -trap. Is built of brick or stone and cement. Used -in brick-drains and sewers, in receiving-basins at -street corners, etc. Requires frequent cleaning, and -should never be used inside a building. Fig. 11 -represents the method of trapping a cesspool. The -same plan is also used for <b>grease</b>-traps, the outlet-pipe -dipping below the surface of the contents so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -that it is never obstructed by the grease, which floats -on top.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image038a" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image038a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 11.—Trapped cesspool.</div> -</div> - -<p>A few patent traps are shown as samples:</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="image038" style="max-width: 50.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image038.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="g4r">Fig. 12.—Adee trap.</span> Fig. 13.—Bower trap.</div> -</div> - -<p>Fig. 12 is the Adee trap, a modification of the D-trap. -Fig. 13 is the Bower trap, claimed to be secured -against siphonage or back pressure by a rubber -ball which floats up against the entering-pipe. -Modification of the bottle-trap. Fig. 14 is Bedell’s -trap, with a metallic flap or valve, and an opening on -the sewer side of the valve, to relieve pressure. Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -15 is Stewart’s trap, intelligible from the diagram. -Traps are also made of iron or glass, with a mercury -seal, which, it is claimed, are proof against siphoning, -pressure, or evaporation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image039" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image039.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="g4r">Fig. 14.—Bedell’s trap. </span> Fig. 15.—Stewart’s trap.</div> -</div> - -<p>4. A <b>louvered sky-light</b> is one with slats at the -sides inclining outward, so that air can escape but -rain can not enter.</p> - -<p>6. <b>Calked with lead.</b> (See 26.)</p> - -<p>7. <b>Tempered-up cement.</b> Cement which has -been used once, and has been broken up and ground, -for using a second time.</p> - -<p>9. <b>House-drain</b>, of iron. (See “Bad Odors, -2, <i>a</i>.”)</p> - -<p>10. <b>Water-closets.</b> Four principal classes, -with innumerable varieties, mostly patented.</p> - -<p>1. The <b>pan-closet</b> (Fig. 16). Its chief advantage -is its cheapness and the ease with which it can -be repaired. Its disadvantage is the odor that usually -attends its use. When the handle (<i>a</i>) is raised, -the contents of the pan (<i>b</i>) are thrown against the -side of the iron container (<i>c</i>), and some filth adheres -there and decomposes, filling the container with a -noisome stench, which escapes into the room every -time the closet is used. An abundant flush, an en<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span>ameled -container, and proper ventilation of the container, -reduce this nuisance materially. Generally -condemned by sanitarians.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image040.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="g4r">Fig. 16.—Pan-closet.</span> Fig. 17.—Hopper-closet.</div> -</div> - -<p>2. <b>Hopper-closets</b> (Fig. 17). Rather unsightly, -because the water and floating matter in the trap -are visible, and matters often cling to the sides, but, -with an abundant flush suddenly discharged, are very -inoffensive.</p> - -<p>3. <b>Plunger-closets</b>, of which the Jennings closet -(Fig. 18) may be taken as a type. The handle lifts a -plug, which allows the contents of the bowl to run -out, and, when the plug is dropped in place, the bowl -is filled again from a ball-cock. These closets are -liable to get out of order; the plungers or plugs lose -their rubber flanges and leak, and the plunger-chamber -is apt to retain filth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="image041a" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image041a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 18.—Jennings closet.</div> -</div> - -<p>4. It is evident that if the hopper-closet could -have its trap bent to one side out of sight, and its -hopper enlarged toward the bottom, so that nothing -would strike and cling to its sides, it would be an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -excellent one. Of such a type are the Tidal-Wave and -National closets (Fig. 19), <i>a</i> being the water-pipe, -which discharges into a flushing rim, and <i>b</i> a vent-pipe -to relieve pressure between the two bodies of -water during a discharge, and prevent siphoning.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image041" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image041.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="g2r">Fig. 19.—Tidal-wave closet.</span> <span class="g2r">Fig. 20.—Y-branch. -</span> Fig. 21.—Quarter bend.</div> -</div> - -<p>A water-closet, to be well flushed, should have a -discharge of three gallons of water in five seconds, -sent directly downward all around the rim.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span></p> - - -<p><b>School-sink</b> (also called trough-sink or privy-sink). -An iron trough, having a sewer-connected -opening with a movable iron plug in the bottom at -one end, for the discharge of its contents, and a pipe -at the other end, from which it is filled with water. -It is practically an elongated water-closet. (See 53.)</p> - -<p>12. <b>Y-branch</b> (Fig. 20), so named from its shape. -There are also half Y-branches.</p> - -<p><b>Eighth bends.</b> There are also quarter bends -(Fig. 21), sixth bends, and sixteenth bends. These -are used in pipe-connections in order to discharge -the contents of the branch pipes in the same general -direction with the current in the main pipes, for, if -the discharge enters at a right angle, a deposit is apt -to form opposite the point of connection.</p> - -<p>14. <b>Trap in house-drain.</b> Intended to cut off -all communication between the house and the street -sewer. If a contagious disease occurs in one’s own -house, he can be sure that the excreta are disinfected, -and that disease-germs can not escape into the air, -even if the pipes happen to be defective; but he can -not be sure that such excreta are properly disinfected -in other houses. The only safe way, therefore, is -for each house to be cut off from all others by the -means described. The objections to the trap on the -house-drain are, that it forms a slight obstruction to -the flow of drainage, and is liable to be obstructed by -deposits, and that it favors “cushioning,” i. e., the -forcing of smaller traps, when the air in the drain is -compressed between this trap and a down-coming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -mass of water. (See “Bad Odors,” 1, <i>d</i>.) The first -of these objections is met by making the trap a -half S one, so that the fluids fall down one limb with -sufficient force to wash out the bottom of the trap -thoroughly with each discharge, and the second by -the fresh-air inlet, which relieves the pressure that -otherwise might force the traps.</p> - -<p>15. The <b>fresh-air inlet</b> affords free entrance for -air, and, as the main lines of pipe are open above the -roof, the difference in length of the pipes will give -rise to a constant current of fresh air through them, -in one direction or the other. (See “Bad Odors,” -1 <i>c</i>.) This results in the oxidation of whatever filth -may cling to the pipes, and dilutes offensive gases so -that they are rendered harmless. It has also been -shown that the various microscopic organisms, which -are believed to be the specific cause of certain diseases, -increase in virulence, when they propagate in -the absence or with a deficient supply of oxygen, -while the intensity of their action is diminished if -they grow where oxygen is plentiful.</p> - -<p>16. <b>Ventilation in chimney-flues.</b> (See “Bad -Odors,” 1, <i>c</i>.)</p> - -<p>17. <b>Vertical pipes of iron.</b> Iron resists corrosion -and the assaults of rats better than lead, and -lead pipes are sometimes occluded by pressure and -settling. Branch wastes are generally of lead because -it is easily cut and bent, so as to be used in -difficult situations.</p> - -<p><b>Return-bend</b> or <b>cowl</b>. To prevent senseless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -persons from throwing things down the pipe, and -thus obstructing it.</p> - -<p>20. <b>Diameter of pipes.</b> The inside diameter -is always meant.</p> - -<p>21. <b>D-pipe.</b> (See Appendix B.)</p> - -<p>22. <b>No traps on vertical pipes</b>,i. e., at the -foot of such pipes, because they would prevent the -free circulation of air, and thus render the fresh-air -inlet practically useless. Also to prevent “cushioning.”</p> - -<p>23. <b>Cast-iron</b> pipes are made in five-foot lengths, -with an enlargement at one end, called the hub or -bell, and a bead around the edge of the other end -(the spigot-end). The spigot-end of one pipe fits -loosely into the hub of another, sufficient room being -left for calking. (See 26.)</p> - -<p>24. <b>Pipes</b> are <b>tarred</b> by being heated to 500° -Fahr. and then dipped perpendicularly into a hot -bath of coal-tar pitch mixed with a small proportion -of heavy coal-oil. This coating prevents corrosion, -or at least greatly retards it.</p> - -<p>25. <b>Wrought-iron pipes</b>, with screw joints, are -used by the Durham House Drainage Company, the -joints being gas-tight. They have the advantage of being -very durable and impervious to gases, but the disadvantage -of being too permanent. If it is desired -to change the position of a fixture, or to connect a -new one, it is easy to break a hole in a cast-iron pipe, -or to remove a portion of it, but where wrought-iron -pipe is used this is almost impossible. The Durham<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -system also costs about twenty-five per cent more -than the common one, and it is not strictly correct -to say that its use renders a house absolutely secure -against leakage of sewer-air, because it does not -do away with lead branch-pipes, in which frequent -leakages occur, and all irregular portions of pipe, -with branches, etc., in this system are made of cast-iron -with calked joints, as in the ordinary system.</p> - -<p>The <b>water-test</b> is applied by plugging the pipe -carefully, and closing all openings below a certain -point, and then filling it with water to that level. If -there is any leakage, the water-level will gradually -sink. If the pipes are tight, it will remain the same.</p> - -<p><b>Peppermint-test.</b> (See hereafter.)</p> - -<p>26. Oakum is packed into the space between the -spigot-end of one pipe and the hub of the other, and -driven against the bead above mentioned. This -packing is called a <b>gasket</b>. Melted lead is poured -in on top of the oakum, and, when it has cooled, is -driven in tight with a calking iron and mallet. When -ordinary pipe is used, the calking will sometimes -split the hub, and this furnishes an argument for the -general use of extra-heavy pipe.</p> - -<p><b>Iron-filings</b>, etc., making what is called a <b>rust-joint</b>.</p> - -<p>27. <b>Ferrules</b>, or <b>sleeves</b>, are used because lead -pipes are too soft and yielding to withstand the calking. -Lead can not be soldered to iron, and therefore -brass or copper has to be used. If iron ferrules are -used, the lead pipe must be turned up on the outside<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -far enough so that its edge shall be covered by the -melted lead used in calking, so as to prevent leakage -of gas, as hereafter described. (See “Bad Odors,” -1, <i>b</i>.)</p> - -<p>28. <b>Wiped-joints</b> are those always used for lead -pipe, and are indicated by a raised ring of solder -surrounding the pipe.</p> - -<p>29. A <b>trap</b>, with a good water-seal, is an effective -barrier against the passage of sewer-air or particles -of organic matter. The experiments of Carmichael, -confirmed by Wernich and Pumpelly, have -amply demonstrated that sewer-air passes through -the water-seal in such minute quantities that it can -not possibly harm any one, and that solid particles -of matter can not pass at all.</p> - -<p><b>Separate traps</b>, except, etc. (See “Bad Odors,” -1, <i>d</i>.)</p> - -<p>33. <b>Siphonage</b>. (See “Bad Odors,” 1, <i>d</i> 37.)</p> - -<p>37. <b>Overflow-pipes</b> from fixtures. It is better -to connect them with the trap below the water-level. -(See “Bad Odors,” 1, <i>d</i>.)</p> - -<p>38. <b>Safes</b> are sheets of metal (generally lead) -with turned-up edges, placed beneath basins, sinks, -water-closets, etc., to protect the floor in case of -leakage. The waste-pipes of safes are common -sources of nuisance. (See “Bad Odors,” 1, <i>c</i>.)</p> - -<p>39. To prevent contamination of the contents of -the refrigerator.</p> - -<p>41. When water-closets are flushed directly from -the common supply-pipe of the house, as in the dif<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span>ferent -kinds of valve-closets, the water in the pipes, -under certain circumstances, will be contaminated: -e. g., if a person opens a faucet on one floor at the -same moment that the valve is opened to flush a -water-closet on a higher floor, water will be sucked -back from the valve, and the air of the closet will -follow it. Check-valves have been used to prevent -this, but they should not be depended on.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="image047" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image047.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 22.</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="image048a" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image048a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 23.</div> -</div> -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="image048b" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image048b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 24.</div> -</div> - -<p>Various forms of <b>tanks</b> or <b>cisterns</b> for water-closets -are here shown. Fig. 22 represents a tank, -<i>b</i>, which discharges water as long as the handle (attached -to the chain <i>a</i>) is raised. It gives a flush also -of the entire contents of the service-box <i>c</i>, after the -handle is lowered. Fig. 23 shows a waste-preventing -tank, which is divided into two compartments, <i>b</i> and -<i>d</i>. It will be seen that this allows only the contents -of <i>d</i> to be discharged, with an after-flush from <i>c</i>. -Fig. 24 shows a tank, in which the chain <i>a</i> is attached<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -to the seat, and is pulled down when the seat is depressed. -It will be seen that no water can flow -while the closet is in use, but, when the seat is released, -the contents of <i>c</i> are discharged with great -force. In all these figures, <i>e</i> is a ball-cock. This -cock is controlled by a hollow copper ball, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -floats on water, and is attached to the end of a lever. -When the water falls, the ball falls with it, and opens -the cock. When it is floated up to a certain point, -it closes the cock and stops the flow.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image049" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image049.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 25.—Drainage plan for dwellings.</div> -</div> - -<p>45. <b>Leaders</b> should not be used as soil-pipes, -because, during a rain, the ventilation of the pipes -is interfered with by the downward flow of water,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -which will also empty unventilated traps by siphoning. -The necessity of having leaders open flush with -the roof also interferes with proper ventilation.</p> - -<p>47. If <b>steam</b> enters a soil-pipe, it heats the water -in the traps, injures joints on account of the extreme -changes of temperature induced, and hastens corrosion -of the pipes.</p> - -<p>Fig. 25 shows a system of house-drainage for a -city house planned in accordance with the above -rules.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="image050" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image050.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 26.—Field’s flush-tank.</div> -</div> - -<p>In <b>country houses</b>, where there are no sewers, -the best method of disposing of the house-slops is -<b>subsoil drainage</b>. The house system may be the -same as that already explained for city houses. The -fluids are conducted by a pipe with tight joints to a -<b>flush-tank</b> (Fig. 26) near the house. This tank is -so constructed that it empties itself, by a siphon -action, whenever it gets full, discharging all its contents -in a very short time, and thus washing out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -thoroughly the pipes into which it empties. “The -outlet-pipe from this tank is continued by a cemented -vitrified pipe to a point about twenty-five feet farther -away. Here it connects with a system of open-jointed -drain-tiles, consisting of one main, fifty feet -long, and ten lateral drains, six feet apart, and each -about twenty feet long. These drains underlie a -part of the lawn, and are only about ten inches below -the surface” (Waring). It will be understood that -the purpose of this method of drainage is to have -the organic matter contained in the house-refuse -appropriated by vegetation, and it must therefore be -distributed within reach of the grass-roots.</p> - -<p>If water-closets are used, the following system is -recommended in “The Sanitary Engineer”: Collect -all the sewage of the house in a small and perfectly -tight tank or cesspool, in which the paper and fecal -matter soon become macerated by fermentation and -reduced to a pulp. This tank should overflow into -the flush-tank, the overflow-pipe dipping at least a -foot below the point of discharge, to avoid the scum. -The siphon of the flush-tank should be accessible -by a man-hole, so as to be readily cleaned. If thus -arranged, and if no roots of trees are in the soil, the -distribution-pipes will not clog for a year or more, -sometimes not for ten years.</p> - -<p>Pipes should be laid at a depth of eight inches, -with a slight and uniform descent of not over six or -eight inches in one hundred feet. Branches from -a four-inch main to the two-inch distribution-pipes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -should lead from the bottom of the former, instead -of from the side, as in ordinary drain connections.</p> - -<p>There should be a grease-trap (see “Explanatory -Remarks,” 3) attached to the kitchen waste-pipes, -in order to prevent clogging of the tanks and pipes -by the congelation of fat.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Bad Odors.</i></p> - -<p><b>When bad odors in a house are traceable -to the drainage, they will usually be found -to be due to one or more of the following -causes</b>:</p> - -<p>1. <b>To faulty construction.</b> (<i>a.</i>) <b>Drains.</b>—These -may be made of brick or stone and cement. -Such materials are pervious to gases, even when -sound, and are peculiarly liable to be channeled by -rats, especially where an iron or lead pipe enters -them. Such a drain should be replaced by an iron -one.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp25" id="image053" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img src="images/image053.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 27.—Iron ferrule improperly calked.</div> -</div> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) <b>Joints.</b>—<b>Cement-joints</b> are pervious to -gases. <b>Putty-joints</b> crack and so become pervious. -A <b>lead</b> pipe is sometimes connected with an <b>iron</b> -one by means of an iron ferrule, the lead pipe passing -inside the ferrule and being turned over its lower -edge, extending up on the outside, the ferrule then -being calked into the hub. When paper is used for -the gasket or packing, it rots away in time, and a -passage is left through which gas can escape as follows: -up between the hub and the turned-over lead -pipe, over its edge, between it and the calking, down<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -between the lead pipe and the ferrule, across the -lower edge of the ferrule, and out between the inner -surface of the ferrule and the outer -surface of the lead pipe. (See Fig. -27.) Sometimes a connection of lead -with iron is made by means of a <b>lead -flange</b> fastened around the iron pipe -with wire, and sometimes the lead -pipe is simply stuck into a hole in the -iron pipe and fastened with cement -or putty. Such work should be replaced -by properly made joints as -described in the above regulations. (Or in “Bad -Odors,” 2, <i>c</i>.)</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) <b>Pipes.</b>—If the <b>leaders</b> are not trapped at -the bottom, offensive gases from them may enter the -nearest windows. A leader is never of the same -length as the soil-pipe, and, if there is direct communication -between them through the house-drain, -there will always be a current of air through them in -one direction or the other. If the external air is -colder than that inside the pipes, then the heavier -column of air will be over the shorter pipe, and the -current will be down that one and up the other. If -the external air is warmer than that in the pipes, the -heavier column will be that which includes the longer -pipe, and the current will be down that one and up -the shorter. So, as a rule, the current in winter is -down the short pipe and up the long one, while in -summer it is reversed, and, as the short pipe often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -ends near windows, the nuisance is greatest when -these windows are open. Of course, in such cases, -the leader must be trapped.</p> - -<p><b>Ventilating-pipes</b> sometimes end in chimney-flues. -This is a bad plan, for, if the flue is in use, -the open end of the pipe will become choked with -soot and finally be rendered useless. If the flue is -not used, there will often be a down draught in it, -and the offensive gases may be conveyed through -stove-pipes or fireplaces into the rooms of the house. -Such gases may even penetrate the walls of the flue -and so enter the house. If such a pipe is ever run -into a flue, it should be extended at least two feet -above the chimney-top.</p> - -<p>Ventilating-pipes are sometimes badly arranged, -so that they actually neutralize a trap and render it -useless. (See Fig. 28.) In this figure <i>a</i> is the soil-pipe -and <i>b</i> the ventilating-pipe.</p> -<div class="figcenter illowp80" id="image055" style="max-width: 50em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image055.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 28.—Faulty arrangement of ventilating pipes.</div> -</div> - -<p><b>Safe-wastes</b> and the <b>overflow-pipes</b> of tanks -and cisterns may be connected with the soil or waste -pipe. When they are, they are usually trapped. It -will often be found that the traps are empty and -useless, so that offensive gases escape from the pipes. -With tank-overflow pipes this is generally the case. -Safe-waste traps are sometimes provided with small -feed-pipes, intended to discharge water into them -every time the fixtures are used. It will often be -found, however, if the end of the feed-pipe is pulled -up out of the waste, that no water runs through it, -and it is useless, sometimes because it is too small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -and is choked with dust and sediment, and sometimes -because it is wrongly attached to the source of -supply. Safe-wastes, discharging into the kitchen or -cellar, may convey to the rooms odors of cooking or -of articles stored in the cellar (onions, turnips, etc.), -or from the servants’ water-closet, which is often -offensive. If urine or other offensive liquids from -leakage flow through them, the upward currents of -air will be impregnated with odors from the filth that -has clung to the pipe long after the leak has been -repaired. In any event these safe-wastes constitute -a direct communication between different rooms of -a house, which is not always desirable. It is better -to do without them. They are rarely of any use. If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -required, however, they should either be trapped -under the safe, and means taken to insure a constant -water-seal, or they may be closed by a piece of paper -pasted over the lower opening, which will prevent -the entrance of any odors from cellar or kitchen, but -will give way in case of leakage. The safe-wastes of -water-closets often discharge into the trap of the -water-closet. This is a bad plan, because, if there -is an obstruction in the trap, the safe-waste is, of -course, useless. If offensive odors are traced to -safe-wastes, the openings had better be sealed. If -overflow-pipes are the source, they must be disconnected -from the soil or waste pipe and made to discharge -elsewhere (e. g., into some sink or water-closet).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="image056" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image056.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 29.—Cushioning illustrated.</div> -</div> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) <b>Traps.</b>—If two traps are so arranged that -the air is compressed between them by an oncoming -rush of water, the trap containing the shallowest water-seal -will be forced, and a certain amount of air -will escape through it from the interior of the pipe. -This result is due to “cushioning,” as it is called, -and is illustrated in Fig. 29. Such a fault is to be -remedied by connecting the crown of one of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> -traps with a ventilating-pipe, so that any pressure of -the kind is immediately relieved without disturbing -the seal of the trap.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="image057" style="max-width: 62.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/image057.jpg" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"> <span class="g4r">Fig. 30.—Double-trapped waste-pipe -(air-bound).</span> Fig. 31.—Two sinks with but one trap.</div> -</div> - -<p>If there are two traps on the same line of pipe -(Fig. 30), so that a part of the interior of the pipe is -cut off from the external air in both directions, it -becomes “air-bound,” and one of two results will -follow, viz.: water discharged into the fixture above -the higher trap will remain in the bowl and not run -down, on account of the compression of air between -the traps; or, if it does run out of the fixture, it will -displace an equivalent bulk of foul air, which will -bubble up through the upper trap and cause offen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span>sive -odors. In such a case, the lower trap should -be removed.</p> - -<p>If <b>two</b> or <b>more waste-pipes</b> (as in sets of tubs, -in sinks, and often in urinals) are provided with but -<b>one trap</b> for all (Fig. 31), there will be a constant -current of air along the pipes, sometimes emerging -from one opening and sometimes from another. -This air will be contaminated by the filth that lines -the pipes, and will often be quite offensive. In such -cases, each waste-pipe should be independently -trapped, or (as in the case of bath-tubs or urinals) -the overflow-pipe should be connected with the -trap of the waste-pipe below the water-seal, as in -Fig. 25.</p> - -<p>When a body of water sufficiently large to nearly -fill a pipe is discharged into it, it drags air along -with it, and exhausts the air in all branch-pipes to a -greater or less extent. When this exhaustion amounts -to a diminution of the pressure in the pipe of about -1/350, the water in an ordinary trap (with a one-inch -seal) will be forced out of it by the pressure of the -external atmosphere, or in other words will be sucked -out of the trap into the pipe, leaving no water-seal -in the trap, and, therefore, allowing free exit for -sewer-air. This effect is known as the “siphoning” -of the trap, and is most likely to occur when -the main pipe is not open at its upper extremity (is -not ventilated), and when the branch wastes are of -the same size with the main one. This fault is remedied -by the ventilation of the traps, and of the main<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -pipes, as described in the regulations above quoted -(17 and 33).</p> - -<p>2. <b>To defects in the pipes.</b> (<i>a.</i>) <b>Drains.</b>—Bad -odors in cellars often come from broken earthenware -or tile drains, cracked by settling, or from -rat-holes in cemented drains. Earthenware or brick -drains inside a house should be replaced by iron -ones.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) <b>Joints.</b>—<b>Cement</b> or <b>putty</b> joints are often -cracked. <b>Water-closets</b> sometimes become loosened -from the floor and leak fluids and gases. The -covers of <b>hand-holes</b> of traps sometimes get loose -and leak gas. Sometimes <b>trap-screws</b>, instead of -being at the bottom of the trap, where they are covered -by water, are at the top; if these are loose, -gases may escape. All such defects should be repaired.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) <b>Pipes.</b>—Both lead and iron pipes are corroded -and in time perforated by sewer-air. Such -corrosion is most likely to occur at points where -gases come in contact with a dry part of the pipe, -viz., at the crowns or domes of traps, and in ventilating-pipes. -For this reason, ventilating-pipes should -never be made of thin iron (galvanized iron), and -should always be protected by a tar-coating. The -crowns of lead traps (especially of water-closets) are -often bitten into by rats in search of water. In all -cases when the crown of a trap is perforated, there -is rarely any leakage of fluid to indicate it, but offensive -gases escape. All corroded traps and pipes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> -should be replaced by new ones, and not patched up. -Holes in iron pipes may be closed by iron bands -surrounding the pipe, and fastened with red-lead -putty and screw-bolts (Fig. 32). A new joint may -be made by means of a saddle-hub (Fig. 33) carefully -secured in a similar manner. Lead pipes are -sometimes protected against rats by being encircled -by tin, or packed in pounded glass.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp25" id="image060a" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img src="images/image060a.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 32.—Bands.</div> -</div> -<div class="figright illowp25" id="image060b" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img src="images/image060b.jpg" alt="" /> - <div class="caption">Fig. 33.—Saddle-hub.</div> -</div> - -<p>3. <b>To carelessness.</b> (<i>a.</i>) <b>Evaporation.</b>—If -fixtures are not in constant use, the water soon -evaporates from the traps and gives exit to sewer-air. -This often happens in warm weather, and -when a house is vacant for a time. To prevent -evaporation, a little oil may be poured into the trap, -to protect the surface of the water-seal, or it may be -made the special duty of a servant to keep the traps -full of water when the fixtures are not in use.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) <b>Dirt.</b>—The inside of a pipe often becomes -coated with slime, consisting largely of grease, especially -in kitchens. This filthy lining rapidly decomposes, -and that portion above the trap may give out -bad odors. The pipes may be cleansed with a strong -hot solution of soda.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span></p> - - -<p><i>Examination of House-Drainage.</i></p> - -<p>If the object of an examination is to determine -whether the drainage is planned and constructed in -accordance with the best methods of the day, each -point referred to in the above regulations should be -carefully investigated.</p> - -<p>If the object is to determine the source of offensive -odors, or if there has been sickness in the house -of such a character as to indicate possible defects in -the plumbing, the several sources of bad odors just -enumerated should each be carefully inquired into. -A few additional suggestions as to the method of examination -will not be out of place.</p> - -<p>It will be found much easier to determine the -direction, number, and situation of the main lines of -pipe, if the examination is begun at the roof and -continued downward. If a beginning is made in the -cellar, confusion results.</p> - -<p>“<b>Cushioning</b>” is determined by causing the -discharge of a considerable mass of water (as from a -bath-tub or water-closet) into the main pipe, at some -distance above the suspected fixture. If there is a -regurgitation in the fixture under observation, there -is certainly an obstruction in the pipe at some point -below the fixture. If the obstruction is caused by -something lodged in the pipe, the back-flow in the -fixture will be a steady one, because there will be -some leakage through the obstruction, while if it is -due to compressed air, which is elastic, the regurgi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span>tation -will be by spurts, and the water in the trap -may even be thrown up to a considerable height.</p> - -<p>“<b>Siphoning</b>” is also determined by filling the -pipe with water in the manner just explained. If -the trap of the fixture under observation is emptied -by siphoning, a sucking or gurgling noise will be -heard in it, and a flame held over the outlet of the -fixture will be drawn downward by the inward current -of air.</p> - -<p><b>One trap to several pipes</b> (when it is suspected -but not certainly known because the trap is -out of sight) may be detected by the fact that there -will always be a current of air in one direction or -the other through such pipes, and more or less odor -will escape. If the back of the hand is wet, it becomes -very sensitive to such a current, and by holding -alternately the palm and the back of the hand, -or even of the forefinger (wet), over an opening, the -existence and direction of such a current can be -easily determined. If the odors are from such a -source, it can then be made evident by covering all -the outlets but one with wet paper, so as to prevent -the air-currents, when the odors will temporarily disappear.</p> - -<p>If a trap is accessible, it is easy to determine -whether its water-seal is preserved or not by tapping -it from top to bottom with some metallic substance, -when the difference in sound will indicate the exact -level of the water inside.</p> - -<p>Those parts of the plumbing which are not ac<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span>cessible -to inspection must be examined by introducing -into the pipes some strong-smelling substance, -which will indicate defects by its escape -through them into the house. Oil of peppermint -is often used for this purpose.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>The Peppermint-Test.</i></p> - -<p>For testing the pipes of an ordinary dwelling, -one ounce of the <b>oil</b> of peppermint is sufficient. -For a large building more may be needed. The -drug costs from twenty-five to seventy-five cents an -ounce, according to its quality and the place where -it is bought.</p> - -<p>It is best to introduce the oil into the pipes from -outside the house, if possible, so that the odor which -inevitably attends the process may be dissipated in -the external air. The object being to ascertain the -location of defects in the pipes inside the house, the -examiner must feel certain, if he detects the odor of -peppermint anywhere, that the vapor has come to him -from inside the pipes, and not from the outside. If -the ventilating-pipes are so constructed that the oil -can not be poured in from the roof, then it must be -poured into some basin or water-closet in the upper -portion of the house. The peppermint should first -be mingled with a pailful of hot water to promote -rapid volatilization, and poured slowly down the pipe. -After it is poured down, the openings at the upper -extremities of the pipes should be closed, so that the -pressure of the vapor inside the pipes may not be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -relieved in that direction. If the odor of peppermint, -thus introduced with the precautions mentioned below, -is perceived anywhere in the house, it is an indication -that there is an opening in some pipe, -through which sewer-air may escape. This opening -may be a defect, or it may be due to siphoning of -traps, or to faults of original construction. There -will not usually be much difficulty in locating it -with considerable exactness.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Special Precautions.</i></p> - -<p>The peppermint should be kept on the roof, or -on a window-sill outside the house, until needed, for -it is so volatile that the vapor escapes through the -cork, and if the odor gets into the house in this way, -it will vitiate the examination.</p> - -<p>The person who pours the peppermint should remain -on the roof or in the room where he does it, -with the doors closed, until the examination is complete, -for the odor will cling to his clothing and follow -him wherever he goes for an hour or more.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Additional Remarks.</i></p> - -<p>If bad odors have been noticed, and no defect -can be found in the ways above mentioned, they may -be due to decaying animal matter (dead rats, etc.), -or (in the city) to defects in the plumbing of the adjoining -house, offensive gases from which may penetrate -the wall.</p> - -<p>The source of bad odors need not necessarily be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -in the immediate vicinity of the place where they -are noticed, for the walls of buildings are full of -channels and openings, through which offensive -gases may be carried by currents of air, so as to -emerge at a considerable distance from their origin. -Thus, in winter, they are apt to be most noticeable -near a fire.</p> - - -<p class="center">SUMMARY OF THE BEST METHODS OF DRAINAGE.</p> - -<p>For <b>houses</b> where there are <b>public sewers</b>: -water-carriage.</p> - -<p>For <b>country houses</b>, if <b>isolated from sewers</b>, -and where expense is no objection: water-carriage -with subsoil drainage.</p> - -<p>In <b>villages</b> and <b>small towns, without sewers</b>: -subsoil drainage (for slops), and pails (for excreta), -frequently removed by proper officers.</p> - -<p>For <b>farm-houses</b>: subsoil drainage for slops, -and a movable tank, with dry earth disinfection, for -excreta.</p> - -<p>For <b>sea-side houses, isolated</b>: if there is -vegetation, subsoil drainage for slops, and earth-closets.</p> - -<p>For <b>sea-side villages</b>: subsoil drainage and -the pail system.</p> - -<p>For <b>sea-side houses</b>, where there is <b>no vegetation</b>: -for excreta, earth-closets or a movable -iron tank, with dry-earth disinfection; for slops, a -water-tight cesspool, with arrangements for emptying -its contents into the sea when the tide is ebbing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span></p> - - -<p><b>How to prevent contamination of the air -from the ground.</b></p> - -<p>Have the house separated from the soil on which -it is built by a layer of asphalt between two layers -of cement, extending over the whole cellar-floor, -through the foundation-walls and up above the point -where the ground touches the walls outside. Or -have the house built without a cellar, and with perforated -underpinning, so as to allow a free circulation -of air underneath it. The subsoil should also -be drained by tiles laid at least a foot lower than the -cellar-bottom.</p> - -<p>The cold-air boxes of furnaces should draw their -supply from the external air. It is advisable to have -a thin layer of cotton held in place by wire gauze to -filter the air as it enters them.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> - - -<small>DISINFECTION.</small></h2> -</div> - -<p><b>How to prevent contamination of the air -by the respiration, bodily emanations, and -excreta of diseased persons.</b></p> - -<p>It is not possible with our present knowledge to -prevent the multiplication of morbid germs in the -human body, when they are once implanted there, -nor to prevent their discharge; but we can destroy -them after their exit from the body, and so protect -other persons who are not yet affected.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span></p> - -<p>The following instructions for the management -of contagious diseases were prepared for the National -Board of Health by Professors Chandler, -Henry Draper, Barker, Vander Poel, E. -G. Janeway, and Ira Remsen.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Instructions for Disinfection.</i></p> - -<p>Disinfection is the destruction of the poisons of -infectious and contagious diseases.</p> - -<p>Deodorizers, or substances which destroy smells, -are not necessarily disinfectants, and disinfectants -do not necessarily have an odor.</p> - -<p>Disinfection can not compensate for want of -cleanliness nor of ventilation.</p> - - -<p class="center">I. <i>Disinfectants to be employed.</i></p> - -<p>1. Roll-sulphur (brimstone) for fumigation.</p> - -<p>2. Sulphate of iron (copperas) dissolved in water -in the proportion of one and a half pounds to the -gallon; for soil, sewers, etc.</p> - -<p>3. Sulphate of zinc and common salt, dissolved -together in water in the proportion of four ounces -sulphate and two ounces salt to the gallon; for -clothing, bed-linen, etc.</p> - - -<p class="center">II. <i>How to use Disinfectants.</i></p> - -<p>1. In the sick-room. The most available agents -are fresh air and cleanliness. The clothing, towels, -bed-linen, etc., should on removal from the patient,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -and before they are taken from the room, be placed -in a pail or tub of the zinc solution, boiling-hot if -possible.</p> - -<p>All discharges should either be received in vessels -containing copperas solution, or, when this is -impracticable, should be immediately covered with -copperas solution. All vessels used about the patient -should be cleansed with the same solution.</p> - -<p>Unnecessary furniture, especially that which is -stuffed, carpets and hangings, should, when possible, -be removed from the room at the outset; otherwise -they should remain for subsequent fumigation and -treatment.</p> - -<p>2. Fumigation with sulphur is the only practicable -method for disinfecting the house. For this -purpose, the rooms to be disinfected must be vacated. -Heavy clothing, blankets, bedding, and other -articles which can not be treated with zinc solution, -should be opened and exposed during fumigation, as -directed below. Close the rooms as tightly as possible, -place the sulphur in iron pans supported upon -bricks placed in wash-tubs containing a little water, -set it on fire by hot coals or with the aid of a spoonful -of alcohol, and allow the room to remain closed -for twenty-four hours. For a room about ten feet -square, at least two pounds of sulphur should be -used; for larger rooms, proportionally increased -quantities.</p> - -<p>3. Premises. Cellars, yards, stables, gutters, -privies, cesspools, water-closets, drains, sewers, etc.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> -should be frequently and liberally treated with copperas -solution. The copperas solution is easily prepared -by hanging a basket containing about sixty -pounds of copperas in a barrel of water.</p> - -<p>4. Body and bed clothing, etc. It is <b>best</b> to -<b>burn</b> all articles which have been in contact with -persons sick with contagious or infectious diseases. -Articles too valuable to be destroyed should be -treated as follows:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Cotton, linen, flannels, blankets, etc., should -be treated with the boiling-hot zinc solution; introduce -piece by piece, secure thorough wetting, and -boil for at least half an hour.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Heavy woolen clothing, silks, furs, stuffed -bed-covers, beds, and other articles which can not -be treated with the zinc solution, should be hung in -the room during fumigation, their surfaces thoroughly -exposed and pockets turned inside out. Afterward -they should be hung in the open air, beaten -and shaken. Pillows, beds, stuffed mattresses, upholstered -furniture, etc., should be cut open, the -contents spread out and thoroughly fumigated. Carpets -are best fumigated on the floor, but should afterward -be removed to the open air and thoroughly -beaten.</p> - -<p>5. Corpses, especially of persons that have died -of any infectious or malignant disease, should be -thoroughly washed with a zinc solution of double -strength; should then be wrapped in a sheet, wet -with the zinc solution, and buried at once.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span></p> - -<p>Metallic, metal-lined, or air-tight coffins should -be used when possible; certainly when the body is -to be transported for any considerable distance.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Comments.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Section I.</span> 1. Copperas, also called green vitriol.</p> - -<p>2. About four tablespoonfuls of the zinc and two -tablespoonfuls of the salt, making a solution of the -chloride of zinc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Section II.</span> 1. The windows should be kept -open, if possible, but in such a way as to avoid -draughts on the bed. A fire should be constantly -burning in an open fireplace.</p> - -<p>The room should be on the top floor, and all -cracks and openings communicating with other -rooms should be closed tightly. The door which -has to be used should have a wet sheet hanging entirely -over it, the windows and fireplace being alone -relied on for ventilation.</p> - -<p>2. The burning of sulphur produces sulphurous -acid, which is an irrespirable gas. The person who -lights the sulphur must, therefore, immediately leave -the room, and after the lapse of the proper time, -must hold his breath as he enters the room to open -the windows and let out the gas. After fumigation, -plastered walls should be whitewashed, the wood-work -well scrubbed with carbolic soap, and painted -portions repainted.</p> - -<p>3. Or put copperas in a pail of water, in such -quantity that some may constantly remain undis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span>solved -at the bottom. This makes a saturated solution. -To every privy or water-closet, allow one pint -of the solution for every four persons when cholera -is about. To keep privies from being offensive, pour -one pint into each seat, night and morning.</p> - -<p>4. (<i>a.</i>) Such articles should never be sent to a -public laundry or mingled with the family washing.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) The cutting open of stuffed articles may -seem unnecessary, but it is not. The poison of contagious -diseases clings to such stuffs (called <b>fomites</b>) -with great tenacity for years, and must be destroyed -before they are fit to be used again.</p> - -<p>5. It is also well to fill a large wad of cotton -or fine shavings with coal-tar powder or chloride -of lime and place it beneath the hips, to absorb -fluids.</p> - -<p>Contagious diseases are often caught at the funerals -of those who have died of them, and the sanitary -code of New York city forbids a public funeral -of any person who has died of small-pox, diphtheria, -scarlet fever, yellow fever, typhus fever, or Asiatic -cholera. It is better to limit the attendance at such -funerals to as few as possible.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Additional Precautions in Special Diseases.</i></p> - -<p><b>Small-pox.</b>—Every one in the vicinity should -be vaccinated with fresh virus. Every person should -be vaccinated in infancy, again after puberty, and -again within four days after exposure to small-pox. -Special care should be paid to isolation. Inmates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -of the house should neither make nor receive visits -while the patient is sick.</p> - -<p><b>Diphtheria</b> and <b>Consumption</b>.—Special care -should be taken to avoid inhaling the breath of the -patient, as the diseases are communicated through -the secretions of the nose, throat, and lungs. The -matter coughed up should be received on rags and -immediately burned.</p> - -<p><b>Scarlet Fever</b> and <b>Measles</b>.—These are communicable -during convalescence, as well as during -the illness. The body of the patient should be -anointed twice a day with sweet-oil, lard, or vaseline, -containing ten grains of carbolic acid or thymol to -the ounce. This should be continued until all bran-like -scaling of the skin is at an end. Before again -associating with unprotected persons, the patient -should have several complete ablutions, including -thorough washing of the hair with soap or borax; -and none of the clothing worn for several days before -the disease declared itself should be again used -until thoroughly disinfected, and ventilated in the -open air several days (New York State Board of -Health circular).</p> - -<p><b>Typhoid Fever</b>, <b>Asiatic Cholera</b>, and <b>Dysentery</b>.—Poison -contained in discharges from the -bowels. Particular attention should be paid to the -disinfection of such discharges by the zinc or copperas -solution.</p> - -<p><b>Yellow Fever.</b>—Poison possibly contained in -discharges from stomach and bowels, but requiring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -special conditions for development outside the body -before it can affect other persons. Excreta should -be immediately disinfected. Germs may be carried -long distances in <b>fomites</b> (clothing, bedding, and -other porous substances), and disinfection of such -articles must be very thorough.</p> - -<p><b>Typhus Fever.</b>—No visiting to be allowed.</p> - -<p>When there is small-pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, -measles, or typhus fever in a house, immediate attendants -on the sick should not leave the house -without a change of outside clothing.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>General Precautions for those entering a Sick-Room.</i></p> - -<p>Never enter a sick-room with an empty stomach, -or when very tired.</p> - -<p>Never eat or drink anything that has been long -exposed to the air of the sick-room.</p> - -<p>Breathe through your nose, and keep your mouth -shut except when you are talking.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> - - -<small>FOOD.</small></h2> -</div> - -<p>How to distinguish a good article of food from -a bad one, when both are in their natural state, is -within the province of the cook-book. In this place -will be pointed out only the adulterations of food, -and those methods of detecting them which can be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -used by householders who have no special knowledge -of the instrumental and chemical means which are -generally necessary.</p> - -<p>Adulterations are of two kinds: those which injure -the consumer, and those which simply cheat -him. The following details are chiefly taken from -the New York State Board of Health report for -1881-’82, the name of the analyst being in each case -appended.</p> - -<p><b>Arrowroot.</b>—Often mixed with cheaper starches. -Twenty-three samples examined: seventeen were -arrowroot, one was arrowroot and tapioca, two arrowroot, -tapioca, and potato, and three tapioca and -potato. Harmless. (E. G. Love, Ph. D.)</p> - -<p><b>Bakers’ chemicals.</b>—(Saleratus.) This was -originally bicarbonate of potash, but the name is -now applied to the bicarbonate of soda. Twenty -samples: none adulterated.—(Baking-soda.) Twenty-three -samples: twenty samples unadulterated. One -contained 25 per cent of gypsum; one same quantity -of gypsum and a little starch; one a large amount -of sulphate of soda and 17 per cent of carbonate of -lime.—(Cream of tartar.) This is the bitartrate of -potash. Twenty-seven samples: sixteen adulterated -and in some not a particle of cream of tartar found. -Six adulterated with terra alba (gypsum) and starch, -one with starch alone, two with starch, terra alba, -and acid phosphate of lime. Six had tartaric acid -and no cream of tartar. In eight the amount of -terra alba was found to vary from 3.27 to 93 per cent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -Five samples contained over 70 per cent of this injurious -adulteration. (Love.)</p> - -<p><b>Baking-powders.</b>—Contain bicarbonate of -soda and some acid or acid salt, which combine -when water is added and evolve carbonic-acid gas. -There are four classes in use. One contains cream -of tartar, one tartaric acid, one the acid phosphate -of lime, and one potash or ammonia alum. Many -powders contain a salt of ammonia. The pungent -odor of this substance prevents its use in any but -the smallest quantities, and it can not affect the -wholesomeness of the powder. Flour or starch forms -an ingredient of many powders to prevent a premature -combination of its constituents and a consequent -deterioration of the powder. Eighty-four samples: -seventy-three had flour or starch; thirty-five contained -ammonia. Eight adulterated with terra alba, -phosphate of lime, or tartrate of lime. As a rule, -these powders are harmless. (Love.)</p> - -<p>(Alum.) There does not seem sufficient evidence -as to the injurious effects of alum upon the human -system to warrant legislation against it. (Love.)</p> - -<p><b>Beer.</b>—Most adulterations are harmless. Corn, -rice, wheat, glucose, starch, potatoes, etc., are used -in making beer, and in many countries are allowed -by special laws (as in England and Germany). The -use of substitutes for hops within the last few years -is hardly possible to believe, since hops have been -so cheap, in fact, almost the cheapest bitter, and -are, moreover, as every brewer knows, the best ma<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span>terial -to preserve his beer. (F. E. Engelhardt, -Ph. D.)</p> - -<p><b>Brandy.</b>—Cognac brandy is naturally colorless, -but public taste demands a brown color, which is -imparted by a mixture of caramel (burned sugar). A -very large proportion of the brandy in the world is -made of corn-spirit colored with burned sugar and -flavored with oil of cognac (an essential oil derived -from the lees of wine; twenty-five hundred pounds of -lees make one pound of oil.) Here is one recipe: -“To every ten gallons of pure spirits add two quarts -New England rum or one quart Jamaica rum, and -from thirty to forty drops of oil of cognac cut in -one half pint of alcohol; color with burned sugar.” -Twenty-five samples examined: sixteen contained -fusel-oil, six had traces of it, and three none. (Engelhardt). -The only injurious ingredient (besides -alcohol) in the artificial brandies seems to be the -fusel-oil contained in the corn-spirit or whisky used -as a base. Rub suspected brandy on the palm of -the hand until it has evaporated. Fusel-oil may -then still be detected by the smell. Good brandy -will leave no odor.</p> - -<p><b>Bread.</b>—Ten samples: no adulteration. (Love.) -In 1873, Elwyn Waller, for the New York City Board -of Health, examined fifty-one samples, of which -forty-one were unadulterated, and ten contained -traces of copper or alum.</p> - -<p><b>Butter.</b>—May be mixed with oleomargarine, and -the adulteration is hard to detect. Oleomargarine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -is more crumbly than butter in cold weather. Often -colored with annotto, and, as this sometimes contains -a little sulphate of copper, a trace of copper may -occasionally be found in butter. As a rule, adulterations -of butter are harmless.</p> - -<p><b>Candy.</b>—“Taffy” and gum-drops are almost all -glucose. Coloring-matters usually harmless, but of -ten samples of yellow candy, seven contained chromate -of lead. (W. H. Pitt, M. D.) Candy often -contains terra alba, flour, and gum-arabic. The only -injurious ingredients usually found are terra alba -(recognized by its grittiness and insolubility) and -the chromate of lead. On account of the latter it is -best to avoid yellow, green, and orange candies.</p> - -<p><b>Canned fruits</b> and <b>vegetables</b>.—Eighteen -samples, including peaches, plums, grapes, strawberries, -cherries, blackberries, olives, mushrooms, corn, -beans, succotash, tomatoes, pumpkin, and peas. No -adulteration found. Attention was given to the -possibility of the chemical reaction of the fruit acids -upon the inner surface of the cans, whereby salts of -tin and lead might be produced, rendering the contents -in some degree poisonous. There was no evidence -of their presence. Some of the articles were -canned over a year before. (S. A. Lattimore, Ph. D.) -<b>Per contra</b>, other analysts have found from .1 to -2.3 grains of tin to the can. There is no evidence, -however, that this amount of tin in solution is injurious, -and the recent investigations of Hall seem -to show that the fruit acids do not act appreciably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -on the tin or the lead of the solder, so long as the -air is excluded. Cans once opened should therefore -be emptied, and not left partly full.</p> - -<p><b>Canned meats.</b>—No adulterations and no tin -or lead found. The heads of all cans should be -slightly concave. This shows that the contents were -hot when the can was sealed. If the heads are convex, -the contents are decomposing.</p> - -<p><b>Cereals.</b>—Ninety-four samples, including wheat -and Graham flour, farina, oatmeal, rye, barley, corn-meal, -rice, buckwheat, sago, and tapioca. Two -adulterated. Adulterations consisted in mixture of -other cereals, and were harmless. (Love.)</p> - -<p><b>Cheese.</b>—Skim-milk cheese often contains lard, -put in to replace the butter which has been removed. -This adulteration improves the quality of the cheese -and often can not be detected by experts. One -sample of cheese, which had caused sickness in those -who ate it, was examined, and, although it also made -the analyst ill, no known poisonous substance could -be detected in it. (G. C. Caldwell, Ph. D.) All yellow -cheese is colored with annotto, which can therefore -hardly be considered an adulteration. The rind -is sometimes washed with a mercurial or arsenical solution, -to protect it from insects, and should therefore -never be eaten.</p> - -<p><b>Cocoa</b> and <b>chocolate</b>.—Six samples. None -adulterated. (Lattimore.)</p> - -<p><b>Coffee.</b>—Thirty-five samples of unroasted, three -of roasted unground, twenty-one of ground, three of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -coffee extract. Of the thirty-five unroasted, in five -a few grains were found which had been slightly -colored or faced, apparently with Prussian blue; the -three roasted unground were pure; of the twenty-one -ground, nineteen contained chiccory, beans, wheat, -rye, etc. One sample consisted entirely of roasted -hominy. Three samples of coffee extract consisted -chiefly of caramel and licorice, and contained no -coffee. (Lattimore.) Pure coffee swims in water, and -colors it slowly. Chiccory sinks and colors water -rapidly. Peas sink and color water slowly. Rye -sinks more rapidly than coffee, and colors water -more quickly. Ground coffee is hard and crumbles -between the teeth; chiccory is soft and does not -crumble.</p> - -<p><b>Gin.</b>—No injurious adulterations detected. -Twenty-five samples. (Engelhardt.)</p> - -<p><b>Honey.</b>—Three samples: two pure. One, labeled -“white-clover honey,” contained 50 per cent -of artificial glucose. The presence of added glucose -is indicated by the turbidity produced by oxalic acid -in a solution of the honey in distilled water. This -turbidity is due to the presence of gypsum in artificial -glucose—a substance which is not contained in -pure honey. (Pitt.)</p> - -<p><b>Horse-radish.</b>—Often harmlessly adulterated -with grated turnip.</p> - -<p><b>Isinglass.</b>—Two samples. Both were common -gelatine. (Chester.)</p> - -<p><b>Jellies.</b>—Fruit-jellies are often simple apple-jel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span>ly, -flavored with artificial essences and colored with -aniline. Safest not to use them unless their source -is known to be trustworthy.</p> - -<p><b>Lard.</b>—Twenty-eight samples. Fifteen pure; -the rest contained water. Good lard should melt to -a clear fat without sputtering.</p> - -<p><b>Meat.</b>—Sound fresh meat is pale red when first -cut, the surface after exposure turning to a deep red. -The meat of animals that have died a natural death -is of a deep purple color, not having been bled. The -greatest danger in meat, however, is that due to the -presence of trichinæ, which are killed by a temperature -of 160° Fahr. All forms of pork should therefore -be cooked thoroughly before eating. (Chester.) -Poisoning (vomiting, cramps, and diarrhœa) -produced by meat is generally caused by some kind -of preserved meat (sausages, pickled meats, etc.), -and is probably due to the presence of fungi.</p> - -<p><b>Milk.</b>—Frauds consist generally in adding water -or removing fat (skimming). As the milk of healthy -cows varies in composition within certain limits, it is -necessary to have a standard of purity, which has -been fixed upon in New York as follows: Nearly -1,000 cows have been examined, with reference to -the specific gravity of their milk, in New York, New -Jersey, and Connecticut. The maximum specific -gravity was 1.039 in milk of an Alderney cow. The -minimum for normal milk from a healthy cow was -1.029. The specific gravity is determined by an instrument -called a lactometer, on which 0 stands for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -1,000, the specific gravity of water, and 100 for 1,029, -that of the poorest milk from a healthy cow. The -composition of such milk, adopted by the English -Society of Public Analysts and the New York City -Board of Health, as a result of fifty analyses, is as -follows:</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Fat</td> -<td class="tdr">2.5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Solids, not fat (sugar, salt, etc.)</td> -<td class="tdr">9.0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water</td> -<td class="tdr">88.5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.0</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><b>Method of using the Lactometer.</b>—Put the -milk in a vessel so deep that the lactometer, when -introduced and allowed to float, shall not touch the -bottom. Notice the reading of the scale at the surface -of the milk. If it is less than 100, it gives the -percentage of milk in the sample. For example, if -the reading be 80, the sample contains 80 per cent -of milk and 20 per cent of water.</p> - -<p><b>Sources of Error.</b>—Milk very rich in cream -may possibly, though not probably, register less than -100, but its very appearance will show that it has not -been thinned by water or by skimming.</p> - -<p>Skimmed milk, especially if a little salt has been -added, may register high above 100, but its thinness -and blueness will show that it has been doctored.</p> - -<p>Condensed milk was carefully analyzed, and -found to be unobjectionable. (C. E. Munsell, Ph. D.)</p> - -<p><b>Olive-Oil.</b>—Often adulterated with poppy, cotton-seed, -ground or peanut, sesame, rape-seed, colza<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -or beechnut oil, all harmless. Sixteen samples; nine -adulterated. (Caldwell.)</p> - -<p><b>Pickles.</b>—Nine samples. None contained copper -or any other metal. The only sample that possessed -a suspiciously green appearance was found to -contain alum. (Lattimore.)</p> - -<p><b>Rum.</b>—Twenty-five samples. No objectionable -additions found. (Engelhardt.)</p> - -<p><b>Sirups.</b>—Three samples of maple-sirup. Two -were pure, and one, manufactured in Chicago and -sold in cans, contained 35 per cent of artificial glucose. -In 1870 Dr. Chandler found .02 per cent of -tin in each of two samples of sugar-house sirups. -This represents .8 grain of tin to the gallon. A -common adulterant of sirups is glucose, which diminishes -their sweetening power, but is not considered -injurious.</p> - -<p><b>Spices.</b>—One hundred and eighty samples, comprising -mustard, ginger, allspice, cinnamon, cassia, -cloves, white, black, and red pepper, mace, and nutmeg. -One hundred and twelve were adulterated -from 40 to 81.8 per cent. All the adulterations -were harmless (wheat and buckwheat bran, hulls -of different seeds, middlings of corn-meal, stale -ship’s bread, peas, beans, etc.). No poisonous substance -was found. (Lattimore.)</p> - -<p><b>Sugar.</b>—One hundred and sixteen samples, principally -collected in New York city. Care was taken -to secure the samples from different sections of the -city and from all classes of stores. Of these, <span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -thirty-four were microscopically clean, fifty-four slightly -contaminated with dust, twenty-two contained considerable -dirt, and six were very dirty. But in no -case was there an intentional addition of insoluble -mineral matters. Of forty-nine white sugars, all were -pure; of sixty-seven brown sugars, four were adulterated -with glucose. (A. L. Colby, Ph. B.)</p> - -<p>There have been many exaggerated statements -put forth regarding the adulteration of sugar. In -1870 Dr. Chandler reported to the New York City -Board of Health that sixty samples of sugar bought -at small groceries were found pure and unadulterated -without exception. In 1872, Elwyn Waller, for -the same board, examined one hundred and nine -samples of powdered sugar, but found no adulteration.</p> - -<p>Powdered sugar is quite generally believed to be -adulterated with gypsum or flour. As both of these -adulterants are insoluble in water, it is easy for any -one to convince himself of the purity of sugar by dissolving -it in water.</p> - -<p><b>Teas.</b>—Forty-three samples of green tea, and -eighteen of black. Many were cheap and of very -inferior quality, some mere tea rubbish, yet no leaf, -or fragment of a leaf, which was examined, could be -considered anything but tea. No adulterations were -found, and even the admixture of exhausted leaves -could not be positively asserted. (Lattimore.) Suspected -leaves should be wet and spread out, and -then compared with leaves known to be genuine. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -is said that exhausted leaves of green tea are often -colored or “faced” with plumbago, Prussian blue, -soapstone, etc., so artfully that only an expert can -detect the fraud. Black tea is generally pure.</p> - -<p><b>Vinegar.</b>—Four samples, all poor, but not adulterated, -unless with water. (Lattimore.)</p> - -<p><b>Whisky.</b>—Twenty-five samples. Fusel-oil decided -in twenty, and traces in the rest. No injurious -adulteration found. “It is evident that the addition -of water and coloring-matter is practiced more -than any other adulteration.” (Engelhardt.)</p> - -<p><b>Wine.</b>—“A good wine should be transparent, -and should have a bouquet. When pouring it into a -glass, it should sparkle. A sour taste is always a sign -of poor wine. Dizziness and headache are not produced -by drinking pure wine. Cloudy, discolored, -highly colored wines are suspicious.” There are -various substances used in the manufacture of wine -which should be classed as adulterations, e.g., calcined -plaster is added to the grape-juice during fermentation -(so-called plastering); in this way is formed -an insoluble tartrate of lime, and a soluble sulphate -of potash, the latter having a bitter taste and acting -as a purgative even in small doses. The French -Government forbids the sale of wine containing over -0.2 per cent of sulphate of potash. This process -also leads to the formation of acid sulphates and free -sulphuric acid in wines. Plastering of wines is practiced -in Spain, Portugal, and the south of France.</p> - -<p>Wines are often fortified by the addition of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -brandy, cologne spirit, or French spirit, to arrest fermentation. -Ports and sherries are almost invariably -so.</p> - -<p>Red wines are often colored with logwood, Brazil-wood, -fuchsine, cochineal, black hollyhock and -red poppy flowers, alkana-root, red beets, cherries, -whortleberries, elderberries, pokeberries, etc. It is -very difficult to detect these, and fuchsin is the only -one that is poisonous. Carpené gives the following -very simple method to decide whether a red wine is -naturally or artificially colored: Take a piece of -good, white burned lime, break it into two pieces, -smooth the surfaces by a knife or file, and place a -few drops in succession on the same spot of the -smooth surface, and observe after a few minutes the -color produced. Natural red wines give a yellowish-brown -spot; colored with fuchsine, or Brazil-wood, -a rose-colored spot; colored with logwood, a dark-violet -spot; colored with cochineal, a reddish-violet -spot; colored with black hollyhock, a yellowish-brown -spot; colored with pokeberries, a yellowish -somewhat red spot. (Engelhardt.)</p> - -<p>Another test is to concentrate the wine, and dip -in a piece of pure white woolen-yarn. The natural -red coloring-matter of wine does not dye without a -mordant, while fuchsine and cochineal dye it red or -pink.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> - - -<small>WATER.</small></h2> -</div> - -<p>In cities and towns which have a common water-supply, -the water sometimes contains impurities dissolved -from the pipes through which it runs, or dirt -and vegetable <i>débris</i> stirred up from the bottom of -the sources of supply, or brought down into them by -heavy storms or melting snows.</p> - -<p>Service-pipes are usually made of lead, and, after -moderate use, become coated on their internal surface -with insoluble compounds (sulphate of lead), -which prevent contamination of the water by them. -When the water is not very hard, however, a slight -amount of lead may be dissolved by it. It is said -that Cochituate water (Boston) always contains traces -of lead, but that no well-authenticated case of poisoning -from this source has ever been reported. -Croton water (New York), which has stood overnight -in the pipes, is said to contain one tenth of a -grain of lead per gallon—sufficient to produce poisoning -in some instances. One case of this sort has -been known. If drinking-water is drawn from tanks, -they should never be lined with lead, but should be -made of iron, or of wood lined with tinned and planished -copper. (See “Plumbing Regulations,” 44.)</p> - -<p>Water passing through galvanized-iron pipes always -contains zinc salts—not, however, in injurious -amount. Such pipes soon rust.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p> - -<p>Dirt and other suspended matters should be removed -by means of a <b>filter</b>. A good household -filter must be made of a material which can not -communicate any injurious or offensive quality to -the water that passes through it; it must remove all -suspended particles, so as to render the water bright -and clear; it must be easy to clean, or so arranged -that the filtering material can be readily renewed. -The action of a filter is either mechanical or chemical; -in the latter case, the organic matters contained -in the water are oxidized in the filter. There are -innumerable patent filters in the market, to be attached -to the faucet, but these can only act as strainers. -There is no material known which can be introduced -into the small space of a tap-filter and accomplish -any real <b>purification</b> of the water which -passes through at the ordinary rate of flow. (Nichols.) -The only points to be looked to, therefore, in -purchasing a tap-filter, are its efficiency as a strainer, -and the facility of cleansing or renewing the filtering -material. Where the pressure is not too great, a -closely woven cotton-flannel bag, fastened to the tap, -makes as good a filter as any. For large filters (in -cisterns, etc.), those which contain animal charcoal -are the most efficient.</p> - -<p>In places where the drinking-water is drawn from -wells, it is sometimes polluted by leakage from cesspools, -privy-vaults, stables, and refuse matters lying -on the surface of the ground in their vicinity. It -has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that epi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span>demics -of typhoid fever have often originated and -spread in this way. Even when no specific disease -is caused, water polluted from such sources often -causes diarrhœal disorders and various forms of indigestion -in those who drink it.</p> - -<p>The determination of such pollution is a matter -of great delicacy and difficulty, and can only be -trusted to an expert. Waters polluted by organic -matters often contain an excess of gaseous constituents, -and are clear, sparkling, and palatable, presenting -to the uninstructed eye no indication of impurity. -There are certain tests, however, which can be used -by any person of intelligence, when, if positive results -are obtained, an expert should be called in to -determine the source and character of the contamination.</p> - -<p>The pollution of water by decomposing animal -matters is always to be suspected, if there are evidences -of the presence of chlorine or nitrogen in the -water, as these are invariable constituents of animal -excreta. These substances are found in combination—the -former in chloride of sodium, and the latter -in the so-called nitrites and nitrates.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Their -presence is determined as follows:</p> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> The albuminoid ammonia test is too technical for insertion -here.</p> - -</div></div> - -<p><b>Chlorine.</b>—<i>Tests</i>: Nitrate of silver (twenty-five -cents a drachm), twenty-four grains to one ounce of -distilled water, and dilute nitric acid (ten cents an -ounce). Pour a few drops of each into the suspected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -water. If chlorine is present, there will be a cloudy-white -precipitate of chloride of silver, which will -gradually turn darker. One grain of chlorine to a -gallon of water gives a haze; four grains a marked -turbidity, and ten grains a considerable precipitate. -In case chlorine is found, and any particular source -is suspected, a pailful of salt (chloride of sodium) -and water may be thrown into the place from which -the leakage is supposed to come, and the water again -examined, after a few hours, to see whether the -amount of chlorine has increased.</p> - -<p><b>Nitrates.</b>—<i>Tests</i>: Pure sulphuric acid and a -saturated solution of sulphate of iron (copperas). -Add an equal bulk of the acid to any quantity of -the water in a test-tube. The mixture will become -very hot. Wait until it is cool, and then pour in the -iron solution gently, so that it will float above the -mixed acid and water. If nitrates are present, there -will be an olive-colored layer where the fluids meet.</p> - -<p><b>Nitrites.</b>—<i>Test-mixture</i>: Iodide of potassium -(fifty cents per ounce), one part; starch, twenty -parts; water, five hundred parts. Make the starch-solution -first, and filter when cold; then add the -iodide of potash. Add to the suspected water this -mixture, and then a little dilute sulphuric acid. If -nitrites are present, there will be an immediate blue -color.</p> - -<p><b>Organic Matters in general.</b>—<i>Test</i>: Eight -grains of chemically pure permanganate of potash -in one ounce of distilled water. In half a pint of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -the suspected water in a tumbler, put one drop of -the solution. If the red color disappears in one half -hour, add more. For every drop that loses color in -the half-pint there will be found one and a half to -two grains of putrid organic matter in a gallon of the -water. If the action is rapid, the matter is probably -animal; if slow, vegetable.</p> - -<p>To <b>purify</b> such water, if it must be used, drop in -the solution until a slight red tinge remains. The -organic matter is then all oxidized and rendered -harmless. It is better, however to boil such water -before using it for drinking.</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Precautions with regard to Drinking-Water.</i></p> - -<p>Do not drink water that has been standing long -in lead pipes, or lead cisterns or tanks.</p> - -<p>Filter it before drinking.</p> - -<p>See that the current of ground-water in the well -from which you get your drinking-water is from the -well toward any possible source of contamination -(privy-vault, cesspool, etc.), and not <i>vice versa</i>.</p> - -<p>If the use of a suspected water is unavoidable, -boil it first. It can be rendered palatable by an infusion -of tea or coffee.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX_A">APPENDIX A.</h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE COMMON DISINFECTANTS, -WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF EACH, -AND THE AVERAGE PRICE AT RETAIL.</p> -</div> - - -<p><b>Carbolic Acid.</b>—A product of the distillation of -coal-tar. When pure and free from water, a transparent -crystalline solid. Dissolves in twenty parts of -cold water. Coagulates albuminous matters. A one-per-cent -solution of it in water arrests putrefaction. -For disinfection use at least a one-per-cent solution. -The chief objection to its use is its odor. This may -be modified to some extent by mixing the pure acid -with camphor, forming a liquid, which may then be -diluted. This acid is often used in combination -with other disinfectants. A preparation much used -by the New York City Board of Health for the disinfection -of clothing contains eight ounces of sulphate -of zinc and three ounces of carbolic acid to -three gallons of water. Another for privies, water-closets, -etc., is composed of ten pounds of copperas, -one pint of carbolic acid, and five gallons of water.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -The strong acid injures iron pipe. Do not use in -combination with the permanganate of potash or the -chloride of zinc. “<b>Dead Oil</b>” (heavy oil of coal-tar) -contains from 5 to 15 per cent of carbolic acid -mingled with impurities. It is used for the disinfection -of drains, streets, stables, etc. <b>Thymol</b> also -occurs in coal-tar, but is usually obtained from oil of -thyme. Its action is similar to that of carbolic acid. -<b>Carbolic Powders</b> are made by mixing five parts -of the pure acid, or ten parts of the crude, with one -hundred parts of sawdust, clay, or lime. Squibb’s -Carbolic Acid (No. 1), containing 77.90 per cent of -pure acid, costs $1 a pint; (No. 2), with 37.46 per -cent of pure acid, 75 cents a pint. Different samples -examined (Waller), containing from .20 to .78 -per cent, cost from 50 cents to $1 a pint. Crude -acid, containing 50 per cent of acid, with many tarry -impurities, costs less than $1 a gallon. Thymol, $1 -per ounce.</p> - -<p><b>Charcoal.</b>—Absorbs putrid gases. See <b>Lime</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Chloride of Lime.</b> See <b>Chlorine</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Chloride of Zinc.</b> See <b>Zinc</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Chlorine.</b>—A pale, yellowish-green gas, of a suffocating -quality, possessing great bleaching and disinfecting -powers. When dry, it does not bleach. -When moist, it combines with the hydrogen of water -or of organic substances, and sets free the oxygen, -which constitutes its disinfecting power. It decomposes -sulphureted hydrogen, ammonia, and in general -compounds arising from the putrid fermentation of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> -organic matter. It is obtained as follows: Pour one -pound of sulphuric acid, previously diluted with four -times its volume of water, on three pounds of chloride -of lime. Mix in a large earthen dish to allow -for frothing up. Or mix two parts, by weight, of the -black oxide (dioxide) of manganese with three parts, -by weight, of strong hydrochloric acid. The gas is -evolved very rapidly, so that it is difficult to make -the mixture complete before the fumes drive away -the person manipulating it. The colors of hangings, -etc., are apt to be bleached out by it, and metals are -corroded. (See also <b>Sulphurous Acid</b>.) <b>Chloride -of Lime.</b>—Made by saturating slaked lime with -chlorine-gas. It contains on an average about 30 -per cent of available chlorine, to be set free by an -acid. Very useful for disinfection of cellars, damp -yards, and areas. One half pound in a gallon of -water may be used for washing floors of sick-rooms, -etc. Heat destroys its disinfecting properties. -<b>Chloride of Aluminum.</b>—Action similar to but -weaker than the iron and zinc salts, q. v. Sulphuric -acid, black oxide of manganese, and hydrochloric -acid, each 5 cents an ounce. Chloride of lime, 15 -cents a pound.</p> - -<p><b>Copperas.</b> (Green vitriol, sulphate of iron.)—Comes -in pale-green crystals. It is an efficient -disinfectant for privies, water-closets, stables, etc. -Stains white goods. Acts by destroying sulphureted -hydrogen and ammonia. Also oxidizes organic -compounds and coagulates albuminous matters. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -good mixture is four pounds of copperas and three -ounces of carbolic acid to a gallon of water. Ten -cents a pound. One hundred pounds for $3 or -less.</p> - -<p><b>Corrosive Sublimate.</b> (Mercuric chloride.)—The -most powerful disinfectant known. Coagulates -albuminous substances. A solution of one part in -2,000 of water kills microscopic organisms. Two -drachms of this substance in a gallon of water (1 to -500) makes a solution sure to destroy any disease-germ. -It is a deadly poison, and can only be purchased -under legal restrictions. Fifteen cents an -ounce.</p> - -<p><b>Dead Oil.</b> See <b>Carbolic Acid</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Green Vitriol.</b> See <b>Copperas</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Gypsum.</b> See <b>Lime</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Heat.</b>—Boiling is a good disinfectant. Boil for -at least an hour. If dry air is used, the temperature -must be from 250° to 300° for five or six hours. -Cotton and silk will stand a temperature of 295° for -three hours without harm. Woolen suffers more.</p> - -<p><b>Iron, Sulphate of.</b> See <b>Copperas</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Lime.</b>—Twenty parts of quicklime, mixed with -two parts of dry, fresh charcoal, form the <b>calx-powder</b>, -as sold in the shops. It is useful to absorb -putrid gases, when sprinkled in cellars, etc. <b>Sulphate -of lime</b>, or <b>gypsum</b> (plaster of Paris), mingled -with coal-tar or impure carbolic acid, is an effective -deodorant for stables and manure-heaps. It -absorbs and retains ammonia, and therefore pre<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span>serves -to the manure its most valuable constituent. -<b>Chloride of lime.</b> See <b>Chlorine</b>. Quicklime, 5 -cents a pound. Gypsum, 10 cents a pound.</p> - -<p><b>Nitrate of Lead.</b>—Theoretically a good disinfectant, -but practically of little use. Five cents an -ounce.</p> - -<p><b>Nitrous Acid.</b>—Evolved in the form of brownish-red -fumes, when nitric acid is poured on copper -turnings. Very dangerous to inhale, and little used -as a disinfectant.</p> - -<p><b>Ozone.</b>—Is a form of oxygen, supposed to be -three volumes condensed into two. Is a powerful -oxidizer. Corrodes cork, paper, and other organic -substances. Oxidizes very rapidly compounds of -ammonia, phosphorus, and sulphur, which are offensive, -instantly removing the odor. Simple vegetables, -like mould, are completely destroyed by it. -Obtained by gradually mixing three parts of sulphuric -acid with two parts of permanganate of potash. -This mixture will continue to give off ozone for several -months. Or, put a piece of phosphorus on a -plate, and pour in water sufficient to cover two -thirds of it. These methods are used in the patented -ozone generators. Phosphorus, 40 cents an ounce; -sulphuric acid, 5 cents an ounce.</p> - -<p><b>Permanganate of Potash.</b>—Dark purple -crystals, almost black. A solution is of a beautiful -purple color, but stains brown almost everything it -touches. Can not be used with carbolic acid or the -coal-tar disinfectants. Is a powerful oxidizer, and is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -used to disinfect excreta, and to purify drinking-water. -Fifty cents an ounce.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphate of Iron.</b> See <b>Copperas</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphate of Lime.</b> See <b>Lime</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphate of Zinc.</b> See <b>Zinc</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Sulphurous Acid.</b> An irrespirable gas, produced -by burning sulphur. Powerful disinfectant. -Coagulates albuminous matters and probably destroys -germs. Destroys sulphureted hydrogen and -ammonia. Dry articles are not hurt by it, but wet -clothes are bleached. Can not be used with chlorine, -as they neutralize each other. Chlorine is as effective, -but is so destructive that it can only be used in -empty rooms. It requires about a tablespoonful of -alcohol to light a pound of sulphur. Sulphur (roll-brimstone), -10 cents a pound.</p> - -<p><b>Thymol.</b> See <b>Carbolic Acid</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Zinc Salts.</b>—The sulphate and the chloride of -zinc are excellent disinfectants. They are colorless, -and can therefore be used on clothing. They form, -with albuminous matters, extremely insoluble compounds, -and also absorb gases from putrefying material. -They are the best disinfectants of their class. -The sulphate is cheaper, but the chloride more efficient. -Sulphate of zinc, 10 cents an ounce; chloride -of zinc, 20 cents an ounce.</p> - -<p>It is better and cheaper to buy and mix one’s -own disinfectants. The many proprietary articles -are no more efficient, and are very expensive. The -composition of some of those most in use is here<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -given. (Analyses by Waller, of the New York City -Health Department.)</p> - -<p>The first column gives parts in 100, and the second, -ounces in a gallon in the case of liquids, and -ounces in a pound in case of powders.</p> - -<p>Bromo-chloralum (Tilden & Co.), 50 cents a pint.</p> - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Chloride of aluminum</td> -<td class="tdr">8.152</td> -<td class="tdr">12.71</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water, bromide of aluminum, lime salts, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr">91.848</td> -<td class="tdr">143.25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">155.96</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Burnett’s Fluid is a solution of chloride of zinc -(25 grains to the drachm).</p> - -<p>Carbolate of lime, in three-quarter pound boxes, -at 25 cents.</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Lime</td> -<td class="tdr">64.245</td> -<td class="tdr">10.28</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Magnesia</td> -<td class="tdr">0.602</td> -<td class="tdr">0.09</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sand, oxide of iron, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr">0.670</td> -<td class="tdr">0.11</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbolic acid</td> -<td class="tdr">0.472</td> -<td class="tdr">0.07</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbonic acid and organic impurities</td> -<td class="tdr">34.021</td> -<td class="tdr">5.45</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">16.00</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Chloralum (English Chloralum Co.), 50 cents a -pint.</p> - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Chloride of aluminum</td> -<td class="tdr">13.213</td> -<td class="tdr">20.14</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sulphate of lime</td> -<td class="tdr">0.197</td> -<td class="tdr">0.30</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water, chloride of calcium, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr">86.590</td> -<td class="tdr">131.99</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">152.43</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Chloride of lime, 20 cents a pound.</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Available chlorine</td> -<td class="tdr">31.38</td> -<td class="tdr">5.02</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Lime salts, water, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr">68.62</td> -<td class="tdr">10.98</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.00</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">16.00</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Condy’s Fluid is a solution of permanganate of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> -potash (9.26 grains to a fluid ounce, about 2½ -drachms to the pint).</p> - -<p>Darby’s Prophylactic Fluid, 50 cents a half-pint.</p> - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Permanganate of potash</td> -<td class="tdr">0.055</td> -<td class="tdr">0.08</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sulphate of potash</td> -<td class="tdr">1.750</td> -<td class="tdr">2.50</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Chloride of potassium</td> -<td class="tdr">1.270</td> -<td class="tdr">1.81</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbonate of potash</td> -<td class="tdr">6.570</td> -<td class="tdr">9.40</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water</td> -<td class="tdr">90.355</td> -<td class="tdr">129.24</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">143.03</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Egyptian Disinfectant, 25 cents a pound.</p> - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Clay</td> -<td class="tdr">87.810</td> -<td class="tdr">14.05</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Lime</td> -<td class="tdr">0.354</td> -<td class="tdr">0.06</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbolic acid</td> -<td class="tdr">0.320</td> -<td class="tdr">0.05</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Other constituents of dead oil</td> -<td class="tdr">5.685</td> -<td class="tdr">0.91</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Organic matter and water</td> -<td class="tdr">5.831</td> -<td class="tdr">0.93</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">16.00</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Excelsior Disinfectant, 15 cents a pound.</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Protosulphate of iron (copperas)</td> -<td class="tdr">31.464</td> -<td class="tdr">5.03</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Chloride of sodium (salt)</td> -<td class="tdr">19.251</td> -<td class="tdr">3.08</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Flowers of sulphur</td> -<td class="tdr">7.800</td> -<td class="tdr">1.25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water of crystallization, cassia-oil, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr">41.485</td> -<td class="tdr">6.64</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">16.00</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>The Germicide is a patented apparatus for discharging -chloride of zinc into the bowl of the water-closet, -and impregnating the air at the same time -with the vapor of thymol.</p> - -<p>Girondin Disinfectant, 75 cents a quart.</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sulphate of zinc</td> -<td class="tdr">19.692</td> -<td class="tdr">32.64</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sulphate of copper</td> -<td class="tdr">1.202</td> -<td class="tdr">1.99</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sulphate of lime</td> -<td class="tdr">0.480</td> -<td class="tdr">0.79</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water, traces of calcium chloride, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr">78.626</td> -<td class="tdr">130.34</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">165.76</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span></p> - -<p>Labarraque’s Solution, 50 cents a pint.</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Available chlorine</td> -<td class="tdr">1.423</td> -<td class="tdr">1.96</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water and soda salts</td> -<td class="tdr">98.577</td> -<td class="tdr">135.54</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">137.50</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Metropolitan Disinfectant, 30 cents a quart.</p> - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Protosulphate of iron (copperas)</td> -<td class="tdr">11.413</td> -<td class="tdr">17.10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbolic acid (about)</td> -<td class="tdr">3.330</td> -<td class="tdr">4.99</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Water, dead oil, and impurities</td> -<td class="tdr">85.257</td> -<td class="tdr">127.74</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">149.83</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Phenix Disinfectant, 35 cents a pound.</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Silicate of alumina (clay)</td> -<td class="tdr">56.876</td> -<td class="tdr">9.10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sesquichloride of iron</td> -<td class="tdr">1.192</td> -<td class="tdr">0.19</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Sesquioxide of iron</td> -<td class="tdr">7.102</td> -<td class="tdr">1.14</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Lime</td> -<td class="tdr">2.470</td> -<td class="tdr">0.39</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbolic acid</td> -<td class="tdr">0.400</td> -<td class="tdr">0.06</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbonic acid and organic impurities</td> -<td class="tdr">31.960</td> -<td class="tdr">5.12</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">16.00</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Phenol Sodique, 50 cents a half pint.</p> - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Carbolic acid</td> -<td class="tdr">1.177</td> -<td class="tdr">1.61</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Soda salts, water, and impurities</td> -<td class="tdr">98.823</td> -<td class="tdr">134.29</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100.000</td> -<td class="tdr_bt">135.90</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Platt’s Chlorides, 50 cents a quart.</p> - - -<table class="standard" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Solution chloride of</td> -<td class="tdl">zinc</td> -<td class="tdl">(saturated)</td> -<td class="tdr">40</td> -<td class="tdl">parts.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">lead</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">20</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">calcium</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">15</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">aluminum</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">15</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">magnesium</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">5</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdl">potassium</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -<td class="tdr">5</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="3"></td> -<td class="tdr_bt">100</td> -<td class="tdc">”</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX_B">APPENDIX B.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>List of the prices of plumber’s materials and -labor, from which a rough estimate may be formed -of the probable cost of proposed plumbing. The -prices given are wholesale ones, and it must be remembered -that every plumber is also a retail merchant, -who obtains his materials at a discount, and -charges them to his customer at an average advance -of 10 or 15 per cent on the prices here given.</p> - -<p>All measurements are of inside diameters.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p><b>Bands.</b>—Ordinary thickness, 2 by 2 inches, 75 -cents; 6 by 6 inches, $1.90. Intermediate sizes -at corresponding prices.</p> - -<p><b>Bends</b> and <b>Offsets</b>.—Two inches in diameter, 40 -cents; extra heavy, 50 cents. Six inches in -diameter, $1.20; extra heavy, $1.75.</p> - -<p><b>Cisterns</b> and <b>Service-boxes</b> (for water-closets), -$10 to $20; (waste-preventing), $13 to $26.</p> - -<p><b>Offsets.</b> See <b>Bends</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Pipe.</b>—Tile or earthenware (vitrified), in lengths of -2½ feet each, 2-inch, 13 cents a foot; 3-inch, 16 -cents a foot; 4-inch, 20 cents a foot; and 5 -cents more per foot for each additional inch of -diameter.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span></p> - -<p>Iron, in lengths of 5 feet each: Ordinary, about -10 cents a foot for every inch of diameter. Extra -heavy, about twice as much. Double-hub -pipe, about 6 cents a foot more. The tar-coating -costs about 3 cents a foot for 2-inch pipe, 4 -cents for 3-inch pipe, etc.</p> - -<p>Lead, about 9 cents a pound. Manufactured -pipe (traps, etc.), 10 cents a pound. Qualities -are marked according to thickness—i. e., weight -for each size, AAA (best), AA, A, B, C, D, and -E. ⅜-inch pipe, AAA weighs 1 pound 12 ounces -per foot; B weighs 1 pound per foot; C weighs -14 ounces per foot; D weighs 7 ounces per foot. -⅝-inch pipe, AAA weighs 3 pounds 8 ounces per -foot; AA weighs 2 pounds 12 ounces per foot; -B weighs 2 pounds per foot. ¾-inch pipe, AAA -weighs 4 pounds 14 ounces per foot; B weighs 2 -pounds 3 ounces per foot. 1-inch pipe, AAA -weighs 6 pounds per foot; AA weighs 4 pounds -8 ounces per foot; A weighs 4 pounds per foot; -B weighs 3 pounds 4 ounces per foot; D weighs -2 pounds 4 ounces per foot. 2-inch pipe, AAA -weighs 10 pounds 11 ounces per foot; AA weighs -8 pounds 14 ounces per foot; A weighs 7 pounds -per foot; B weighs 6 pounds per foot; D weighs -4 pounds per foot. 3-inch pipe, ⅜ thick, weighs -19 pounds 9 ounces per foot. 4-inch pipe, ⅜ -thick, weighs 25 pounds 6 ounces per foot, and -so on.</p> - -<p>For supply-pipes, AA pipe is generally used.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span></p> - - -<p><b>Privy-Sinks.</b>—About $5 for every foot in length.</p> - -<p><b>Saddle-Hubs.</b>—2 by 2 inches, 30 cents; extra -heavy, 40 cents. 6 by 6 inches, $1.10; extra -heavy, $1.40.</p> - -<p><b>School-Sinks.</b> See <b>Privy-Sinks</b>.</p> - -<p><b>Traps.</b>—Adee traps about 5 cents apiece less than -ordinary S-traps, and Bower traps about twice -as much.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Earthenware, 2-inch, $1 each; 6-inch, $3.25 -each.</p> - -<p>Iron (S-traps), 2-inch, 80 cents; extra heavy, -$1.25; 6-inch, $3.75; extra heavy, $5. Running -traps, with or without hand-holes, about the -same.</p> - -<p>Lead, made of 6-pound lead (lead weighing -6 pounds to the square foot), 1¼-inch, 65 cents; -1½-inch, 80 cents; 2-inch, $1.10; 4½-inch, $3.25, -etc.</p> -</div> - -<p><b>Urinals.</b>—(Earthenware), $5 to $6 each.</p> - -<p><b>Wash-Basins.</b>—(Iron, enameled or marbled), $1.50 -to $4.50.</p> - -<p><b>Water-Closets.</b>—Demarest’s (plunger), $15 to $40. -Earthenware hopper, $10 to $12. Earthenware -hopper, with trap, waste-preventing cistern, chain -and bracket, wood-seat, etc., $30. Hopper-valve -closet, with self-raising, round seat, $9.</p> - -<p><b>Pan-Closets.</b>—$4.50 to $22.</p> -</div> - -<p>A journeyman and helper are charged for at the -rate of from $5 to $6 per day.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<div class="index"> -<ul class="indx"> -<li class="ifrst">Acid, carbolic, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">carbonic, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>-9, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">carbonic, test for, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">hydrochloric, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nitric, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nitrous, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sulphuric, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sulphurous, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - -<li>Adulterations of food, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> - -<li>Air, contaminated by combustion, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">contaminated by excreta, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">contaminated by respiration, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">contaminated by the sick, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dangers of impure, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>-14.</li> - -<li>Air-bound pipes, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> - -<li>Air in ground, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - -<li>Alum, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - -<li>Aluminum, chloride of, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - -<li>Annotto, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li>Areas, drainage of, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> - -<li>Arrowroot, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - -<li>Asphalt in walls, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Bacilli, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - -<li>Bacteria, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - -<li>Bad odors, sources of, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li>Bakers’ chemicals, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - -<li>Baking-powders, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - -<li>Ball-cock, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>.</li> - -<li>Bands, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - -<li>Basins, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - -<li>Bath-tubs, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> - -<li>Bedclothing, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - -<li>Beer, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - -<li>Bends, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - -<li>Blow-offs, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li>Board of Health, plumbing rules of, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li>Boilers, sediment-pipe of, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - -<li>Boiling, disinfection by, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Brandy, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li>Bread, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li>Brimstone, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - -<li>Bromo-chloralum, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li>Burnett’s Fluid, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li>Butter, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Caldwell, G. C., Ph. D., <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - -<li>Calking of joints, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li>Calx-powder, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Candy, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Canned fruits and vegetables, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Canned meats, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li>Caramel, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li>Carbolate of lime, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li>Carbolic acid, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">powders, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - -<li>Carbonic acid, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>-9, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - -<li>Carbureted hydrogen, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>. - -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span></li> - -<li>Carmichael, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - -<li>Carpené, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - -<li>Cast-iron pipes, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> - -<li>Cellars, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> - -<li>Cemented joints, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li>Cement, tempered-up, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> - -<li>Cereals, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li>Cesspools, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> - -<li>Chandler, C. F., Professor, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - -<li>Charcoal, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Cheese, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li>Check-valves, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - -<li>Chester, A. H., Ph. D., <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li>Chiccory, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - -<li>Chicken-pox, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li>Chimneys as pipe-vents, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li>Chimneys, smoky, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - -<li>Chloralum, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li>Chloride of aluminum, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of lime, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">mercuric, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of sodium, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of zinc, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - -<li>Chlorine, method of obtaining, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">properties of, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">test for, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - -<li>Chocolate, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li>Cholera, precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - -<li>Chromate of lead in candy, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Cisterns for water-closets, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - -<li>City houses, drainage of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> - -<li>Closet, earth, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> - -<li>Closets, water, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - -<li>Clothing, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - -<li>Cocoa, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li>Coffee, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">extract of, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - -<li>Coffins, air-tight, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> - -<li>Cognac, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li>Colby, A. L., Ph. B., <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - -<li>Combustion, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> - -<li>Condensers, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> - -<li>Condy’s fluid, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li>Confectionery, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Connections, pipe, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li>Construction, faulty, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li>Consumption, precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> - -<li>Contagious diseases, propagation of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - -<li>Copperas, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">solution of, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> - -<li>Copper, sulphate of, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Corpses, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - -<li>Corrosive sublimate, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Country houses, drainage of, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> - -<li>Cream of tartar, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - -<li>Cushioning, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">how determined, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Damp soil, danger of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - -<li>Dampers, position of, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li>Darby’s Prophylactic Fluid, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - -<li>Dead bodies, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - -<li>Dead oil, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - -<li>Deodorizers, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li> - -<li>Diphtheria, precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> - -<li>Discharges, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> - -<li>Diseases, contagious, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - -<li>Disinfectant, Egyptian, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Excelsior, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Girondin, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Metropolitan, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Phenix, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - -<li>Disinfectants, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">how to use, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li> - -<li>Disinfection, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">National Board of Health rules for, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></li> -<li class="isub1">of bedclothing, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - -<li>Disinfection of clothing, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of corpses, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of furniture, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of premises, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of privies, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of water-closets, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of woolen stuffs, etc., <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - -<li>Double windows, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - -<li>Drain, fall of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">house, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">house, trap in, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">location of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pipes, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">size of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>.</li> - -<li>Drainage, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">diagram of, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">essentials of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">examination of, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of city houses, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of country houses, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of farm-houses, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of sea-side houses, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">New York City Board of Health, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">subsoil, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li>Drains, defective, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - -<li>Draughts, how produced, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">how to avoid, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">when perceived, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - -<li>Drinking-water, tanks for, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tests of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>Durand-Claye, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Durham house-drainage system, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li>Dysentery, precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Earth as a disinfectant, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">closet, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>.</li> - -<li>Earthenware pipes, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - -<li>Egyptian Disinfectant, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - -<li>Engelhardt, F. E., Ph. D., <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - -<li>Erysipelas, propagation of, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - -<li>Evaporation from traps, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> - -<li>Excelsior Disinfectant, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - -<li>Excreta, contamination of air by, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dangers from, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">removal of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> - -<li>Exhaust-steam in soil-pipes, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Farm-houses, drainage of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> - -<li>Faulty construction of drains, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li>Ferrules, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li>Fever, malarial, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">puerperal, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">scarlet, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">typhoid, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">typhus, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">yellow, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> - -<li>Field’s flush-tank, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li>Filters, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li> - -<li>Fireplace, Galton’s, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li>Fireplaces, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>.</li> - -<li>Flanges, lead, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> - -<li>Flues for ventilation, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - -<li>Flush-tank, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li>Fomites, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> - -<li>Food, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> - -<li>Fresh-air inlet, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - -<li>Fruits, canned, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Fumigation, methods of, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">precautions during, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">treatment of rooms after, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> - -<li>Funerals, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - -<li>Furniture, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of sick-room, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> - -<li>Fusel-oil, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Galton’s fireplace, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li>Gas, sewer, composition of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li>Gasket, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li>General debility, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>]</span></li> - -<li>German measles, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li>Germicide, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - -<li>Gin, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - -<li>Girondin Disinfectant, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - -<li>Glucose, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - -<li>Grains, cereal, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - -<li>Green vitriol, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - -<li>Ground air, danger of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">air, exclusion of, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">water, high and low, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - -<li>Gum-drops, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Gypsum, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Hand-holes, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - -<li>Heat, disinfection by, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Honey, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - -<li>Hops, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>.</li> - -<li>Horizontal pipes, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - -<li>Horse-radish, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - -<li>Hospital gangrene, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - -<li>House-drain, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">drain, trap in, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">drainage, Durham system of, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">drainage, essentials of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sewer, material of, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - -<li>Hydrant-sinks, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> - -<li>Hydrochloric acid, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Impurity of air, measure of, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> - -<li>Inlet, fresh-air, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - -<li>Iodide of potassium, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>Iron, sulphate of, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - -<li>Iron pipes, weight of, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> - -<li>Isinglass, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Jellies, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - -<li>Joints, calking of, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cement, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">imperfect, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lead, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">putty, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - -<li>Joints, rust, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">wiped, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Labarraque’s Solution, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - -<li>Labor, plumber’s, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - -<li>Lactometer, method of using, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - -<li>Lard, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li>Lattimore, S. A., Ph. D., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>-79, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>-84.</li> - -<li>Lead, chromate of, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dissolving of, in water, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">flanges, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">nitrate of, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - -<li>Leaders, bad odors from, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">as soil-pipes, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">trapping of, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>.</li> - -<li>Lead pipes, weight of, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> - -<li>Letheby, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Lime, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">chloride of, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sulphate of, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Louvered sky-light, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> - -<li>Love, E. G., Ph. D., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>-76, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Malarial fevers, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - -<li>Manganese, oxide of, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - -<li>Marsh-gas, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Measles, precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - -<li>Meat, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li>Meats, canned, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">preserved, poisoning by, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li>Mercuric chloride, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Mercury seal for traps, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> - -<li>Metropolitan Disinfectant, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - -<li>Microscopic organisms, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - -<li>Milk, composition of, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - -<li>Mines, air of, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> - -<li>Morin, estimate by, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li>Movable tanks for excreta, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li> - -<li>Mumps, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li>Munsell, C. E., Ph. D., <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>]</span></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">National Board of Health, rules, etc., <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>.</li> - -<li>Nichols, Professor, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li> - -<li>Nitrate of lead, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of silver, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - -<li>Nitrates, tests for, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>Nitric acid, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - -<li>Nitrites, test for, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>Nitrogen, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in sewers, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Nitrous acid, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - -<li>New York City Board of Health, rules, etc., <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li>New York State Board of Health, rules, etc., <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Oakum, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li>Odors, offensive, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li>Offsets, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> - -<li>Oil, dead, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">fusel, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of cognac, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of peppermint, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">olive, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>.</li> - -<li>Oleomargarine, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>.</li> - -<li>One trap, etc., how determined, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> - -<li>Organic matter of respired air, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">matters, test for, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>Organisms, microscopic, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - -<li>Overflow-pipes, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - -<li>Oxidation, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - -<li>Oxide of manganese, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> - -<li>Oxygen, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Ozone, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Pails for excreta, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li> - -<li>Paris, plaster-of-, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Peppermint test, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li> - -<li>Permanganate of potash, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - -<li>Pettenkofer’s test for carbonic acid, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> - -<li>Phenix Disinfectant, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - -<li>Phenol Sodique, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - -<li>Phosphorus, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - -<li>Pickles, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - -<li>Pipe connections, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>.</li> - -<li>Pipes, air, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">air-bound, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cast-iron, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">corrosion of, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">drain, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">earthenware, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">galvanized iron, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">hub-end of, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">iron, weight of, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lead, weight of, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">obstruction of, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">overflow, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">rat-holes in, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">service, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">spigot-end of, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tarring of, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">traps on vertical, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ventilating, size of, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">waste, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">wrought-iron, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li>Pitt, W. H., M. D., <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>.</li> - -<li>Plants, action of air on, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - -<li>Plaster-of-Paris, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Platt’s chlorides, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>.</li> - -<li>Plumber’s labor, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">materials, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - -<li>Pork, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li>Potash, permanganate of, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - -<li>Potassium, iodide of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>Powders, calx, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">carbolic, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - -<li>Premises, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Privies, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> - -<li>Privy-sinks, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - -<li>Privy-vaults, construction of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>]</span></li> - -<li class="isub1">contents of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">dangers of, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li> - -<li>Pumpelly, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - -<li>Purification of water, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> - -<li>Putty-joints, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Rat-holes in pipes, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - -<li>Refrigerator wastes, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>.</li> - -<li>Respiration, organic matter of, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> - -<li>Return bend, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>.</li> - -<li>Rum, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Saddle-hubs, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - -<li>Safes, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">draining of, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - -<li>Safe-wastes, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - -<li>Saleratus, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>.</li> - -<li>Salt, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>“Sanitary Engineer,” <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.</li> - -<li>Scarlet fever, precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - -<li>School-sinks, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - -<li>Seal of trap, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>.</li> - -<li>Sea-side houses, drainage of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>.</li> - -<li>Seine, mud of, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Service-pipes, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> - -<li>Sewer-air, effects attributed to, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Sewer-gas, composition of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li>Sewer, house, material of, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - -<li>Sewer-water, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Sewers, contents of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">private, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>.</li> - -<li>Sherringham valve, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.</li> - -<li>Sick-room, care of, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">precautions on entering, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> - -<li>Sinks, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> - -<li>Siphonage, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">how determined, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">prevention of, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - -<li>Sirups, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - -<li>Sky-light, louvered, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>.</li> - -<li>Sleeves, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li>Slops, dangers from, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>.</li> - -<li>Small-pox, precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - -<li>Smoky chimneys, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - -<li>Smith, Angus, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>.</li> - -<li>Soil, damp, danger of, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> - -<li>Soil-pipe, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">material and size of, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> - -<li>Spices, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - -<li>Stables, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> - -<li>Starch, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>Squibb’s carbolic acid, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.</li> - -<li>Steam in soil-pipes, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li>Steam-coils, heating by, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>.</li> - -<li>Subsoil drainage, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>.</li> - -<li>Sugar, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - -<li>Sulphate of copper, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of iron, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of lime, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of zinc, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - -<li>Sulphide of ammonium, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li>Sulphur, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">use of, in disinfection, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.</li> - -<li>Sulphureted hydrogen, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> - -<li>Sulphuric acid, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>.</li> - -<li>Sulphurous acid, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> - -<li>Syrups (see Sirups).</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Tanks for drinking-water, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">lining of, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">movable, for excreta, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>.</li> - -<li>Tarring of pipes, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> - -<li>Teas, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>.</li> - -<li>Terra alba, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Test, Carpené’s, for wine, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">for carbonic acid, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">for chlorine, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">for nitrates, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span></li> -<li class="isub1">for nitrites, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> - -<li>Test for organic matters in water, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">peppermint, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">water, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li>Thymol, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>.</li> - -<li>Tin in canned fruits, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in sirups, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>.</li> - -<li>Traps, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cleaning of, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">efficiency of, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">empty, how to determine, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in house-drains, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">on vertical pipes, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">position of, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">unsealing of, by cushioning, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">unsealing of, by evaporation, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">unsealing of, by siphoning, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">various kinds of, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">ventilation of, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.</li> - -<li>Trap-screws, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>.</li> - -<li>Trichinæ, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>.</li> - -<li>Typhoid fever caused by water, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>.</li> - -<li>Typhus fever, precautions <i>vs.</i>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">propagation of, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Urinals, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Valve-closets, dangers of, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - -<li>Valves, check, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - -<li>Vegetables, canned, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>.</li> - -<li>Ventilating shaft, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>.</li> - -<li>Ventilation, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">different methods of, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>-19.</li> -<li class="isub1">flues for, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - -<li>Ventilation of pipes, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>.</li> - -<li>Ventilators, whirling, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - -<li>Vent-pipes, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>.</li> - -<li>Vertical pipes, traps on, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - -<li>Vinegar, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Waller, Elwyn, Ph. D., <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.</li> - -<li>Walls, damp-proof courses in, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>.</li> - -<li>Wash-trays and tubs, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> - -<li>Waste-pipes, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">material of, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">trapping of, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>.</li> - -<li>Water, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">drinking, tanks for, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">drinking, tests of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">impure, disorders due to, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">in lead pipes, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">iron pipes for, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of sewers, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">pollution of, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">precautions regarding, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">purification of, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">typhoid fever caused by, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>.</li> - -<li>Water-carriage, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>.</li> - -<li>Water-closets, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">cisterns for, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">disinfection of, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">valve, dangers of, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>.</li> - -<li>Water-seal, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - -<li>Water test, the, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.</li> - -<li>Weight of iron pipe, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">of lead pipe, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>.</li> - -<li>Wernich, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - -<li>Whirling ventilators, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.</li> - -<li>Whisky, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> - -<li>Whooping-cough, propagation of, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>.</li> - -<li>Windows, double, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>]</span></li> - -<li>Wine, how to tell good, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">tests of, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>.</li> - -<li>Wiped joints, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>.</li> - -<li>Woolen stuffs, disinfection of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>.</li> - -<li>Wrought-iron pipes, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Y-branches, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a>.</li> - -<li>Yards, drainage of, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.</li> - -<li>Yellow fever, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Zinc, chloride of, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">sulphate of, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>.</li> -</ul> -</div> - - - -<p class="center">THE END.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span></p> - -<p class="half-title">WORKS ON HYGIENE.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="hang"><b>Health Primers.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">J. Langdon Down</span>, M. D., -F. R. C.P., <span class="smcap">Henry Power</span>, M. B., F. R. C. S., <span class="smcap">J. Mortimer-Granville</span>, -M. D., <span class="smcap">John Tweedy</span>, F. R. C. S. In -square 16mo. volumes. Cloth, 40 cents each.</p> -</div> - - -<ul> -<li>I. <span class="smcap">Exercise and Training.</span></li> -<li>II. <span class="smcap">Alcohol</span>: Its Use and Abuse.</li> -<li>III. <span class="smcap">Premature Death</span>: Its Promotion or Prevention.</li> -<li>IV. <span class="smcap">The House and its Surroundings.</span></li> -<li>V. <span class="smcap">Personal Appearance in Health and Disease.</span></li> -<li>VI. <span class="smcap">Baths and Bathing.</span></li> -<li>VII. <span class="smcap">The Skin and its Troubles.</span></li> -<li>VIII. <span class="smcap">The Heart and its Functions.</span></li> -<li>IX. <span class="smcap">The Nervous System.</span></li> -</ul> - - -<div class="hangsection"> - -<p><b>Hygiene for Girls.</b> By <span class="smcap">Irenæus P. Davis</span>, -16mo. Cloth, $1.25.</p> - -<p><b>Dangers to Health</b>: A Pictorial Guide to Domestic -Sanitary Defects. By <span class="smcap">T. Pridgin Teale</span>, M. A., Surgeon -to the General Infirmary at Leeds. With 70 Lithographic -Plates. 8vo. Cloth, $3.00.</p> - -<p><b>Health and Education.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">C. Kingsley</span>. -12mo. Cloth, $1.75.</p> - -<p><b>Physical Education</b>; or, The Health Laws of Nature. -By <span class="smcap">Felix L. Oswald</span>, 12mo. Cloth, $1.00.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span></p> - -<p class="half-title">THE -POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY.</p> -</div> - -<p class="center"><i>CONDUCTED BY E. L. AND W. J. YOUMANS.</i></p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The Popular Science Monthly</span> was established a dozen years -ago to bring before the general public the results of scientific thought -on many large and important questions which could find no expression -in the current periodicals. Scientific inquiry was penetrating -many new fields, extending important knowledge, and profoundly -affecting opinion upon numberless questions of speculative and practical -interest. It was the policy of this magazine at the outset, and -has been constantly adhered to since, to obtain the ablest statements -from the most distinguished scientific men of all countries in their -bearing upon the higher problems of investigation. Leaving the dry -and technical details of science, which are of chief concern to specialists, -to the journals devoted to them, <span class="smcap">The Popular Science -Monthly</span> has dealt with those more general and practical subjects -which are of the greatest interest and importance to the people at -large.</p> - -<p>Science is the great agency of improvement in this age, private and -public, individual, social, professional, and industrial. In its irresistible -progress it touches everywhere, and affects everybody. It gives -law to the material interests of the community, and modifies its ideas, -opinions, and beliefs, so that all have an interest in being informed of -its advancement. Those, therefore, who desire to know what is -going on in the world of thought in these stirring times, when new -knowledge is rapidly extending, and old errors are giving way, will -find that they can keep informed only by subscribing for <span class="smcap">The Popular -Science Monthly</span>.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Terms</span>: $5.00 per annum, or 50 cents a number; cloth covers for -the volumes, 50 cents each.</p> - -<p>The volumes begin with May and November of each year, and -subscriptions may begin at any time.</p> - -<p>A club of five will be supplied for $20.00 per annum.</p> - - -<p class="center">New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HAND-BOOK OF SANITARY INFORMATION FOR HOUSEHOLDERS ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin-top:1em; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2b3687f..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image019.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image019.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f4ddf8d..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image019.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image036-1b.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image036-1b.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d82832f..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image036-1b.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image036-2.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image036-2.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1763463..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image036-2.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image037a1.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image037a1.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 66fde51..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image037a1.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image037b1.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image037b1.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6d82602..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image037b1.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image038.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image038.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a64738e..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image038.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image038a.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image038a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index da5bcbd..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image038a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image039.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image039.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6f6ea6b..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image039.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image040.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image040.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 42f04ab..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image040.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image041.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image041.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 94e23e9..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image041.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image041a.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image041a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 95b1392..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image041a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image047.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image047.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 90a5b6f..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image047.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image048a.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image048a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9a79da5..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image048a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image048b.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image048b.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8035220..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image048b.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image049.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image049.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e604a01..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image049.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image050.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image050.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0fbc5d4..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image050.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image053.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image053.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 67bb31d..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image053.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image055.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image055.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 18b5743..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image055.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image056.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image056.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 48e0a9d..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image056.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image057.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image057.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 06ab74c..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image057.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image060a.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image060a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 09b3dec..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image060a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/67768-h/images/image060b.jpg b/old/67768-h/images/image060b.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4be0df8..0000000 --- a/old/67768-h/images/image060b.jpg +++ /dev/null |
