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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6779.txt b/6779.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b8229a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/6779.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5258 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook Revolt of Netherlands, by Schiller, Book IV. + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**EBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These EBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers***** + + +Title: The Revolt of The Netherlands, Book IV. + +Author: Frederich Schiller + +Release Date: Oct, 2004 [EBook #6779] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on January 14, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + + + + + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REVOLT OF NETHERLANDS, BOOK IV. *** + + + +This eBook was produced by David Widger, widger@cecomet.net + + + + + + BOOK IV. + + + THE ICONOCLASTS. + + + +The springs of this extraordinary occurrence are plainly not to be +sought for so far back as many historians affect to trace them. It is +certainly possible, and very probable, that the French Protestants did +industriously exert themselves to raise in the Netherlands a nursery for +their religion, and to prevent by all means in their power an amicable +adjustment of differences between their brethren in the faith in that +quarter and the King of Spain, in order to give that implacable foe of +their party enough to do in his own country. It is natural, therefore, +to suppose that their agents in the provinces left nothing undone to +encourage their oppressed brethren with daring hopes, to nourish their +animosity against the ruling church, and by exaggerating the oppression +under which they sighed to hurry them imperceptibly into illegal +courses. It is possible, too, that there were many among the +confederates who thought to help out their own lost cause by increasing +the number of their partners in guilt; who thought they could not +otherwise maintain the legal character of their league unless the +unfortunate results against which they had warned the king really came +to pass, and who hoped in the general guilt of all to conceal their own +individual criminality. It is, however, incredible that the outbreak of +the Iconoclasts was the fruit of a deliberate plan, preconcerted, as it +is alleged, at the convent of St. Truyen. It does not seem likely that +in a solemn assembly of so many nobles and warriors, of whom the greater +part were the adherents of popery, an individual should be found insane +enough to propose an act of positive infamy, which did not so much +injure any religious party in particular, as rather tread under foot all +respect for religion in general, and even all morality too, and which +could have been conceived only in the mind of the vilest reprobate. +Besides, this outrage was too sudden in its outbreak, too vehement in +its execution altogether, too monstrous to have been anything more than +the offspring of the moment in which it saw the light; it seemed to flow +so naturally from the circumstances which preceded it that it does not +require to be traced far back to remount to its origin. + +A rude mob, consisting of the very dregs of the populace, made brutal by +harsh treatment, by sanguinary decrees which dogged them in every town, +scared from place to place and driven almost to despair, were compelled +to worship their God, and to hide like a work of darkness the universal, +sacred privilege of humanity. Before their eyes proudly rose the +temples of the dominant church, in which their haughty brethren indulged +in ease their magnificent devotion, while they themselves were driven +from the walls, expelled, too, by the weaker number perhaps, and forced, +here in the wild woods, under the burning heat of noon, in disgraceful +secrecy to worship the same God; cast out from civil society into a +state of nature, and reminded in one dread moment of the rights of that +state! The greater their superiority of numbers the more unnatural did +their lot appear; with wonder they perceive the truth. The free heaven, +the arms lying ready, the frenzy in their brains and fury in their +hearts combine to aid the suggestions of some preaching fanatic; the +occasion calls; no premeditation is necessary where all eyes at once +declare consent; the resolution is formed ere yet the word is scarcely +uttered; ready for any unlawful act, no one yet clearly knows what, +the furious band rushes onwards. The smiling prosperity of the hostile +religion insults the poverty of their own; the pomp of the authorized +temples casts contempt on their proscribed belief; every cross they set +up upon the highway, every image of the saints that they meet, is a +trophy erected over their own humiliation, and they all must be removed +by their avenging hands. Fanaticism suggests these detestable +proceedings, but base passions carry them into execution. + + +1566. The commencement of the attack on images took place in West +Flanders and Artois, in the districts between Lys and the sea. A +frantic herd of artisans, boatmen, and peasants, mixed with prostitutes, +beggars, vagabonds, and thieves, about three hundred in number, +furnished with clubs, axes, hammers, ladders, and cords (a few only +were provided with swords or fire arms), cast themselves, with fanatical +fury, into the villages and hamlets near St. Omer, and breaking open the +gates of such churches and cloisters as they find locked, overthrow +everywhere the altars, break to pieces the images of the saints, and +trample them under foot. With their excitement increased by its +indulgence, and reinforced by newcomers, they press on by the direct +road to Ypres, where they can count on the support of a strong body of +Calvinists. Unopposed, they break into the cathedral, and mounting on +ladders they hammer to pieces the pictures, hew down with axes the +pulpits and pews, despoil the altars of their ornaments, and steal the +holy vessels. This example was quickly followed in Menin, Comines, +Verrich, Lille, and Oudenard; in a few days the same fury spreads +through the whole of Flanders. At the very time when the first tidings +of this occurrence arrived Antwerp was swarming with a crowd of +houseless people, which the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin had +brought together in that city. Even the presence of the Prince of +Orange was hardly sufficient to restrain the licentious mob, who burned +to imitate the doings of their brethren in St. Omer; but an order from +the court which summoned him to Brussels, where the regent was just +assembling her council of state, in order to lay before them the royal +letters, obliged him to abandon Antwerp to the outrages of this band. +His departure was the signal for tumult. Apprehensive of the lawless +violence of which, on the very first day of the festival, the mob had +given indications in derisory allusions, the priests, after carrying +about the image of the Virgin for a short time, brought it for safety +to the choir, without, as formerly, setting it up in the middle of the +church. This incited some mischievous boys from among the people to pay +it a visit there, and jokingly inquire why she had so soon absented +herself from among them? Others mounting the pulpit, mimicked the +preacher, and challenged the papists to a dispute. A Roman Catholic +waterman, indignant at this jest, attempted to pull them down, and blows +were exchanged in the preacher's seat. Similar scenes occurred on the +following evening. The numbers increased, and many came already +provided with suspicious implements and secret weapons. At last it came +into the head of one of them to cry, "Long live the Gueux!" immediately +the whole band took up the cry, and the image of the Virgin was called +upon to do the same. The few Roman Catholics who were present, and who +had given up the hope of effecting anything against these desperadoes, +left the church after locking all the doors except one. So soon as they +found themselves alone it was proposed to sing one of the psalms in the +new version, which was prohibited by the government. While they were +yet singing they all, as at a given signal, rushed furiously upon the +image of the Virgin, piercing it with swords and daggers, and striking +off its head; thieves and prostitutes tore the great wax-lights from the +altar, and lighted them to the work. The beautiful organ of the church, +a masterpiece of the art of that period, was broken to pieces, all the +paintings were effaced, the statues smashed to atoms. A crucifix, the +size of life, which was set up between the two thieves, opposite the +high altar, an ancient and highly valued piece of workmanship, was +pulled to the ground with cords, and cut to pieces with axes, while the +two malefactors at its side were respectfully spared. The holy wafers +were strewed on the ground and trodden under foot; in the wine used for +the Lord's Supper, which was accidentally found there, the health of the +Gueux was drunk, while with the holy oil they rubbed their shoes. The +very tombs were opened, and the half-decayed corpses torn up and +trampled on. All this was done with as much wonderful regularity as if +each had previously had his part assigned to him; every one worked into +his neighbor's hands; no one, dangerous as the work was, met with +injury; in the midst of thick darkness, which the tapers only served to +render more sensible, with heavy masses falling on all sides, and though +on the very topmost steps of the ladders, they scuffled with each other +for the honors of demolition--yet no one suffered the least injury. In +spite of the many tapers which lighted them below in their villanous +work not a single individual was recognized. With incredible rapidity +was the dark deed accomplished; a number of men, at most a hundred, +despoiled in a few hours a temple of seventy altars--after St. Peter's +at Rome, perhaps the largest and most magnificent in Christendom. + +The devastation of the cathedral did not content them; with torches and +tapers purloined from it they set out at midnight to perform a similar +work of havoc on the remaining churches, cloisters, and chapels. The +destructive hordes increased with every fresh exploit of infamy, and +thieves were allured by the opportunity. They carried away whatever +they found of value--the consecrated vessels, altar-cloths, money, and +vestments; in the cellars of the cloisters they drank to intoxication; +to escape greater indignities the monks and nuns abandoned everything to +them. The confused noises of these riotous acts had startled the +citizens from their first sleep; but night made the danger appear more +alarming than it really was, and instead of hastening to defend their +churches the citizens fortified themselves in their houses, and in +terror and anxiety awaited the dawn of morning. The rising sun at +length revealed the devastation which had been going on during the +night; but the havoc did not terminate with the darkness. Some churches +and cloisters still remained uninjured; the same fate soon overtook them +also. The work of destruction lasted three whole days. Alarmed at last +lest the frantic mob, when it could no longer find anything sacred to +destroy, should make a similar attack on lay property and plunder their +ware houses; and encouraged, too, by discovering how small was the +number of the depredators, the wealthier citizens ventured to show +themselves in arms at the doors of their houses. All the gates of the +town were locked but one, through which the Iconoclasts broke forth to +renew the same atrocities in the rural districts. On one occasion only +during all this time did the municipal officers venture to exert their +authority, so strongly were they held in awe by the superior power of +the Calvinists, by whom, as it was believed, this mob of miscreants +was hired. The injury inflicted by this work of devastation was +incalculable. In the church of the Virgin it was estimated at not less +than four hundred thousand gold florins. Many precious works of art +were destroyed; many valuable manuscripts; many monuments of importance +to history and to diplomacy were thereby lost. The city magistrate +ordered the plundered articles to be restored on pain of death; in +enforcing this restitution he was effectually assisted by the preachers +of the Reformers, who blushed for their followers. Much was in this +manner recovered, and the ringleaders of the mob, less animated, +perhaps, by the desire of plunder than by fanaticism and revenge, or +perhaps being ruled by some unseen head, resolved for the future to +guard against these excesses, and to make their attacks in regular bands +and in better order. + +The town of Ghent, meanwhile, trembled for a like destiny. Immediately +on the first news of the outbreak of the Iconoclasts in Antwerp the +magistrate of the former town with the most eminent citizens had bound +themselves to repel by force the church spoilers; when this oath was +proposed to the commonalty also the voices were divided, and many +declared openly that they were by no means disposed to hinder so devout +a work. In this state of affairs the Roman Catholic clergy found it +advisable to deposit in the citadel the most precious movables of their +churches, and private families were permitted in like manner to provide +for the safety of offerings which had been made by their ancestors. +Meanwhile all the services were discontinued, the courts of justice were +closed; and, like a town in momentary danger of being stormed by the +enemy, men trembled in expectation of what was to come. At last an +insane band of rioters ventured to send delegates to the governor with +this impudent message: "They were ordered," they said, "by their chiefs +to take the images out of the churches, as had been done in the other +towns. If they were not opposed it should be done quietly and with as +little injury as possible, but otherwise they would storm the churches;" +nay, they went so far in their audacity as to ask the aid of the +officers of justice therein. At first the magistrate was astounded at +this demand; upon reflection, however, and in the hope that the presence +of the officers of law would perhaps restrain their excesses, he did not +scruple to grant their request. + +In Tournay the churches were despoiled of their ornaments within sight +of the garrison, who could not be induced to march against the +Iconoclasts. As the latter had been told that the gold and silver +vessels and other ornaments of the church were buried underground, they +turned up the whole floor, and exposed, among others, the body of the +Duke Adolph of Gueldres, who fell in battle at the head of the +rebellious burghers of Ghent, and had been buried herein Tournay. This +Adolph had waged war against his father, and had dragged the vanquished +old man some miles barefoot to prison--an indignity which Charles the +Bold afterwards retaliated on him. And now, again, after more than half +a century fate avenged a crime against nature by another against +religion; fanaticism was to desecrate that which was holy in order to +expose once more to execration the bones of a parricide. Other +Iconoclasts from Valenciennes united themselves with those of Tournay to +despoil all the cloisters of the surrounding district, during which a +valuable library, the accumulation of centuries, was destroyed by fire. +The evil soon penetrated into Brabant, also Malines, Herzogenbusch, +Breda, and Bergen-op-Zoom experienced the same fate. The provinces, +Namur and Luxemburg, with a part of Artois and of Hainault, had alone +the good fortune to escape the contagion of those outrages. In the +short period of four or five days four hundred cloisters were plundered +in Brabant and Flanders alone. + +The northern Netherlands were soon seized with the same mania which had +raged so violently through the southern. The Dutch towns, Amsterdam, +Leyden, and Gravenhaag, had the alternative of either voluntarily +stripping their churches of their ornaments, or of seeing them violently +torn from there; the determination of their magistrates saved Delft, +Haarlem, Gouda, and Rotterdam from the devastation. The same acts of +violence were practised also in the islands of Zealand; the town of +Utrecht and many places in Overyssel and Groningen suffered the same +storms. Friesland was protected by the Count of Aremberg, and Gueldres +by the Count of Megen from a like fate. An exaggerated report of these +disturbances which came in from the provinces spread the alarm to +Brussels, where the regent had just made preparations for an +extraordinary session of the council of state. Swarms of Iconoclasts +already penetrated into Brabant; and the metropolis, where they were +certain of powerful support, was threatened by them with a renewal of +the same atrocities then under the very eyes of majesty. The regent, in +fear for her personal safety, which, even in the heart of the country, +surrounded by provincial governors and Knights of the Fleece, she +fancied insecure, was already meditating a flight to Mons, in Hainault, +which town the Duke of Arschot held for her as a place of refuge, that +she might not be driven to any undignified concession by falling into +the power of the Iconoclasts. In vain did the knights pledge life and +blood for her safety, and urgently beseech her not to expose them to +disgrace by so dishonorable a flight, as though they were wanting in +courage or zeal to protect their princess; to no purpose did the town of +Brussels itself supplicate her not to abandon them in this extremity, +and vainly did the council of state make the most impressive +representations that so pusillanimous a step would not fail to encourage +still more the insolence of the rebels; she remained immovable in this +desperate condition. As messenger after messenger arrived to warn her +that the Iconoclasts were advancing against the metropolis, she issued +orders to hold everything in readiness for her flight, which was to take +place quietly with the first approach of morning. At break of day the +aged Viglius presented himself before her, whom, with the view of +gratifying the nobles, she had been long accustomed to neglect. He +demanded to know the meaning of the preparations he observed, upon which +she at last confessed that she intended to make her escape, and assured +him that he would himself do well to secure his own safety by +accompanying her. "It is now two years," said the old man to her, "that +you might have anticipated these results. Because I have spoken more +freely than your courtiers you have closed your princely ear to me, +which has been open only to pernicious suggestions." The regent allowed +that she had been in fault, and had been blinded by an appearance of +probity; but that she was now driven by necessity. "Are you resolved," +answered Viglius, "resolutely to insist upon obedience to the royal +commands?" "I am," answered the duchess. "Then have recourse to the +great secret of the art of government, to dissimulation, and pretend to +join the princes until, with their assistance, you have repelled this +storm. Show them a confidence which you are far from feeling in your +heart. Make them take an oath to you that they will make common cause +in resisting these disorders. Trust those as your friends who show +themselves willing to do it; but be careful to avoid frightening away +the others by contemptuous treatment." Viglius kept the regent engaged +in conversation until the princes arrived, who he was quite certain +would in nowise consent to her flight. When they appeared he quietly +withdrew in order to issue commands to the town council to close the +gates of the city and prohibit egress to every one connected with the +court. This last measure effected more than all the representations had +done. The regent, who saw herself a prisoner in her own capital, now +yielded to the persuasions of the nobles, who pledged themselves to +stand by her to the last drop of blood. She made Count Mansfeld +commandant of the town, who hastily increased the garrison and armed her +whole court. + +The state council was now held, who finally came to a resolution that it +was expedient to yield to the emergency; to permit the preachings in +those places where they had already commenced; to make known the +abolition of the papal Inquisition; to declare the old edicts against +the heretics repealed, and before all things to grant the required +indemnity to the confederate nobles, without limitation or condition. +At the same time the Prince of Orange, Counts Egmont and Horn, with some +others, were appointed to confer on this head with the deputies of the +league. Solemnly and in the most unequivocal terms the members of the +league were declared free from all responsibility by reason of the +petition which had been presented, and all royal officers and +authorities were enjoined to act in conformity with this assurance, +and neither now nor for the future to inflict any injury upon any +of the confederates on account of the said petition. In return, +the confederates bound themselves to be true and loyal servants of +his majesty, to contribute to the utmost of their power to the +re-establishment of order and the punishment of the Iconiclasts, +to prevail on the people to lay down their arms, and to afford +active assistance to the king against internal and foreign enemies. +Securities, formally drawn up and subscribed by the plenipotentiaries +of both sides, were exchanged between them; the letter of indemnity, in +particular, was signed by the duchess with her own hand and attested by +her seal. It was only after a severe struggle, and with tears in her +eyes, that the regent, as she tremblingly confessed to the king, was at +last induced to consent to this painful step. She threw the whole blame +upon the nobles, who had kept her a prisoner in Brussels and compelled +her to it by force. Above all she complained bitterly of the Prince of +Orange. + +This business accomplished, all the governors hastened to their +provinces; Egmont to Flanders, Orange to Antwerp. In the latter city +the Protestants had seized the despoiled and plundered churches, and, +as if by the rights of war, had taken possession of them. The prince +restored them to their lawful owners, gave orders for their repair, and +re-established in them the Roman Catholic form of worship. Three of the +Iconoclasts, who had been convicted, paid the penalty of their sacrilege +on the gallows; some of the rioters were banished, and many others +underwent punishment. Afterwards he assembled four deputies of each +dialect, or nations, as they were termed, and agreed with them that, as +the approaching winter made preaching in the open air impossible, three +places within the town should be granted then, where they might either +erect new churches, or convert private houses to that purpose. That +they should there perform their service every Sunday and holiday, and +always at the same hour, but on no other days. If, however, no holiday +happened in the week, Wednesday should be kept by them instead. No +religious party should maintain more than two clergymen, and these must +be native Netherlanders, or at least have received naturalization from +some considerable town of the provinces. All should take an oath to +submit in civil matters to the municipal authorities and the Prince of +Orange. They should be liable, like the other citizens, to all imposts. +No one should attend sermons armed; a sword, however, should be allowed +to each. No preacher should assail the ruling religion from the pulpit, +nor enter upon controverted points, beyond what the doctrine itself +rendered unavoidable, or what might refer to morals. No psalm should be +sung by them out of their appointed district. At the election of their +preachers, churchwardens, and deacons, as also at all their other +consistorial meetings, a person from the government should on each +occasion be present to report their proceedings to the prince and the +magistrate. As to all other points they should enjoy the same +protection as the ruling religion. This arrangement was to hold good +until the king, with consent of the states, should determine otherwise; +but then it should be free to every one to quit the country with his +family and his property. From Antwerp the prince hastened to Holland, +Zealand, and Utrecht, in order to make there similar arrangements for +the restoration of peace; Antwerp, however, was, during his absence, +entrusted to the superintendence of Count Howstraten, who was a mild +man, and although an adherent of the league, had never failed in loyalty +to the king. It is evident that in this agreement the prince had far +overstepped the powers entrusted to him, and though in the service of +the king had acted exactly like a sovereign lord. But he alleged in +excuse that it would be far easier to the magistrate to watch these +numerous and powerful sects if he himself interfered in their worship, +and if this took place under his eyes, than if he were to leave the +sectarians to themselves in the open air. + +In Gueldres Count Megen showed more severity, and entirely suppressed +the Protestant sects and banished all their preachers. In Brussels the +regent availed herself of the advantage derived from her personal +presence to put a stop to the public preaching, even outside the town. +When, in reference to this, Count Nassau reminded her in the name of the +confederates of the compact which had been entered into, and demanded if +the town of Brussels had inferior rights to the other towns? she +answered, if there were public preachings in Brussels before the treaty, +it was not her work if they were now discontinued. At the same time, +however, she secretly gave the citizens to understand that the first who +should venture to attend a public sermon should certainly be hung. Thus +she kept the capital at least faithful to her. + +It was more difficult to quiet Tournay, which office was committed to +Count Horn, in the place of Montigny, to whose government the town +properly belonged. Horn commanded the Protestants to vacate the +churches immediately, and to content themselves with a house of worship +outside the walls. To this their preachers objected that the churches +were erected for the use of the people, by which terms, they said, not +the heads but the majority were meant. If they were expelled from the +Roman Catholic churches it was at least fair that they should be +furnished with money for erecting churches of their own. To this the +magistrate replied even if the Catholic party was the weaker it was +indisputably the better. The erection of churches should not be +forbidden them; they could not, however, after the injury which the town +had already suffered from their brethren, the Iconoclasts, very well +expect that it should be further burdened by the erection of their +churches. After long quarrelling on both sides, the Protestants +contrived to retain possession of some churches, which, for greater +security, they occupied with guards. In Valenciennes, too, the +Protestants refused submission to the conditions which were offered to +them through Philip St. Aldegonde, Baron of Noircarmes, to whom, in the +absence of the Marquis of Bergen, the government of that place was +entrusted. A reformed preacher, La Grange, a Frenchman by birth, who by +his eloquence had gained a complete command over them, urged them to +insist on having churches of their own within the town, and to threaten +in case of refusal to deliver it up to the Huguenots. A sense of the +superior numbers of the Calvinists, and of their understanding with the +Huguenots, prevented the governor adopting forcible measures against +them. + +Count Egmont, also to manifest his zeal for the king's service, did +violence to his natural kind-heartedness. Introducing a garrison into +the town of Ghent, he caused some of the most refractory rebels to be +put to death. The churches were reopened, the Roman Catholic worship +renewed, and all foreigners, without exception, ordered to quit the +province. To the Calvinists, but to them alone, a site was granted +outside the town for the erection of a church. In return they were +compelled to pledge themselves to the most rigid obedience to the +municipal authorities, and to active co-operation in the proceedings +against the Iconoclasts. He pursued similar measures through all +Flanders and Artois. One of his noblemen, John Cassembrot, Baron of +Beckerzeel, and a leaguer, pursuing the Iconoclasts at the head of some +horsemen of the league, surprised a band of them just as they were about +to break into a town of Hainault, near Grammont, in Flanders, and took +thirty of them prisoners, of whom twenty-two were hung upon the spot, +and the rest whipped out of the province. + +Services of such importance one would have thought scarcely deserved to +be rewarded with the displeasure of the king; what Orange, Egmont, and +Horn performed on this occasion evinced at least as much zeal and had +as beneficial a result as anything that was accomplished by Noircarmes, +Megen, and Aremberg, to whom the king vouchsafed to show his gratitude +both by words and deeds. But their zeal, their services came too late. +They had spoken too loudly against his edicts, had been too vehement in +their opposition to his measures, had insulted him too grossly in the +person of his minister Granvella, to leave room for forgiveness. No +time, no repentance, no atonement, however great, could efface this one +offence from the memory of their sovereign. + +Philip lay sick at Segovia when the news of the outbreak of the +Iconoclasts and the uncatholic agreement entered into with the Reformers +reached him. At the same time the regent renewed her urgent entreaty +for his personal visit, of which also all the letters treated, which the +President Viglius exchanged with his friend Hopper. Many also of the +Belgian nobles addressed special letters to the king, as, for instance, +Egmont, Mansfeld, Megen, Aremberg, Noircarmes, and Barlaimont, in which +they reported the state of their provinces, and at once explained and +justified the arrangements they had made with the disaffected. Just at +this period a letter arrived from the German Emperor, in which he +recommended Philip to act with clemency towards his Belgian subjects, +and offered his mediation in the matter. He had also written direct to +the regent herself in Brussels, and added letters to the several leaders +of the nobility, which, however, were never delivered. Having conquered +the first anger which this hateful occurrence had excited, the king +referred the whole matter to his council. + +The party of Granvella, which had the preponderance in the council, was +diligent in tracing a close connection between the behavior of the +Flemish nobles and the excesses of the church desecrators, which showed +itself in similarity of the demands of both parties, and especially the +time which the latter chose for their outbreak. In the same month, +they observed, in which the nobles had sent in their three articles of +pacification, the Iconoclasts had commenced their work; on the evening +of the very day that Orange quitted Antwerp the churches too were +plundered. During the whole tumult not a finger was lifted to take up +arms; all the expedients employed were invariably such as turned to the +advantage of the sects, while, on the contrary, all others were +neglected which tended to the maintenance of the pure faith. Many of +the Iconoclasts, it was further said, had confessed that all that they +had done was with the knowledge and consent of the princes; though +surely nothing was more natural, than for such worthless wretches to +seek to screen with great names a crime which they had undertaken solely +on their own account. A writing also was produced in which the high +nobility were made to promise their services to the "Gueux," to procure +the assembly of the states general, the genuineness of which, however, +the former strenuously denied. Four different seditious parties were, +they said, to be noticed in the Netherlands, which were all more or +less connected with one another, and all worked towards a common end. +One of these was those bands of reprobates who desecrated the churches; +a second consisted of the various sects who had hired the former to +perform their infamous acts; the "Gueux," who had raised themselves to +be the defenders of the sects were the third; and the leading nobles who +were inclined to the "Gueux" by feudal connections, relationship, and +friendship, composed the fourth. All, consequently, were alike fatally +infected, and all equally guilty. The government had not merely to +guard against a few isolated members; it had to contend with the whole +body. Since, then, it was ascertained that the people were the seduced +party, and the encouragement to rebellion came from higher quarters, it +would be wise and expedient to alter the plan hitherto adopted, which +now appeared defective in several respects. Inasmuch as all classes had +been oppressed without distinction, and as much of severity shown to the +lower orders as of contempt to the nobles, both had been compelled to +lend support to one another; a party had been given to the latter and +leaders to the former. Unequal treatment seemed an infallible expedient +to separate them; the mob, always timid and indolent when not goaded by +the extremity of distress, would very soon desert its adored protectors +and quickly learn to see in their fate well-merited retribution if only +it was not driven to share it with them. It was therefore proposed to +the king to treat the great multitude for the future with more leniency, +and to direct all measures of severity against the leaders of the +faction. In order, however, to avoid the appearance of a disgraceful +concession, it was considered advisable to accept the mediation of the +Emperor, and to impute to it alone and not to the justice of their +demands, that the king out of pure generosity had granted to his Belgian +subjects as much as they asked. + +The question of the king's personal visit to the provinces was now again +mooted, and all the difficulties which had formerly been raised on this +head appeared to vanish before the present emergency. "Now," said +Tyssenacque and Hopper, "the juncture has really arrived at which the +king, according to his own declaration formerly made to Count Egmont, +will be ready to risk a thousand lives. To restore quiet to Ghent +Charles V. had undertaken a troublesome and dangerous journey through an +enemy's country. This was done for the sake of a single town; and now +the peace, perhaps even the possession, of all the United Provinces was +at stake." This was the opinion of the majority; and the journey of the +king was looked upon as a matter from which he could not possibly any +longer escape. + +The question now was, whether he should enter upon it with a numerous +body of attendants or with few; and here the Prince of Eboli and Count +Figueroa were at issue with the Duke of Alva, as their private interests +clashed. If the king journeyed at the head of an army the presence of +the Duke of Alva would be indispensable, who, on the other hand, if +matters were peaceably adjusted, would be less required, and must make +room for his rivals. "An army," said Figueroa, who spoke first, "would +alarm the princes through whose territories it must march, and perhaps +even be opposed by them; it would, moreover, unnecessarily burden the +provinces for whose tranquillization it was intended, and add a new +grievance to the many which had already driven the people to such +lengths. It would press indiscriminately upon all of the king's +subjects, whereas a court of justice, peaceably administering its +office, would observe a marked distinction between the innocent and +the guilty. The unwonted violence of the former course would tempt the +leaders of the faction to take a more alarming view of their behavior, +in which wantonness and levity had the chief share, and consequently +induce them to proceed with deliberation and union; the thought of +having forced the king to such lengths would plunge them into despair, +in which they would be ready to undertake anything. If the king placed +himself in arms against the rebels he would forfeit the most important +advantage which he possessed over them, namely, his authority as +sovereign of the country, which would prove the more powerful in +proportion as he showed his reliance upon that alone. He would place +himself thereby, as it were, on a level with the rebels, who on their +side would not be at a loss to raise an army, as the universal hatred of +the Spanish forces would operate in their favor with the nation. By +this procedure the king would exchange the certain advantage which his +position as sovereign of the country conferred upon him for the +uncertain result of military operations, which, result as they might, +would of necessity destroy a portion of his own subjects. The rumor of +his hostile approach would outrun him time enough to allow all who were +conscious of a bad cause to place themselves in a posture of defence, +and to combine and render availing both their foreign and domestic +resources. Here again the general alarm would do them important +service; the uncertainty who would be the first object of this warlike +approach would drive even the less guilty to the general mass of the +rebels, and force those to become enemies to the king who otherwise +would never have been so. If, however, he was coming among them without +such a formidable accompaniment; if his appearance was less that of a +sanguinary judge than of an angry parent, the courage of all good men +would rise, and the bad would perish in their own security. They would +persuade themselves what had happened was unimportant; that it did not +appear to the king of sufficient moment to call for strong measures. +They wished if they could to avoid the chance of ruining, by acts of +open violence, a cause which might perhaps yet be saved; consequently, +by this quiet, peaceable method everything would be gained which by the +other would be irretrievably lost; the loyal subject would in no degree +be involved in the same punishment with the culpable rebel; on the +latter alone would the whole weight of the royal indignation descend. +Lastly, the enormous expenses would be avoided which the transport of a +Spanish army to those distant regions would occasion. + +"But," began the Duke of Alva, "ought the injury of some few citizens to +be considered when danger impends over the whole? Because a few of the +loyally-disposed may suffer wrong are the rebels therefore not to be +chastised? The offence has been universal, why then should not the +punishment be the same? What the rebels have incurred by their actions +the rest have incurred equally by their supineness. Whose fault is it +but theirs that the former have so far succeeded? Why did they not +promptly oppose their first attempts? It is said that circumstances +were not so desperate as to justify this violent remedy; but who will +insure us that they will not be so by the time the king arrives, +especially when, according to every fresh despatch of the regent, all is +hastening with rapid strides to a-ruinous consummation? Is it a hazard +we ought to run to leave the king to discover on his entrance into the +provinces the necessity of his having brought with him a military force? +It is a fact only too well-established that the rebels have secured +foreign succors, which stand ready at their command on the first signal; +will it then be time to think of preparing for war when the enemy pass +the frontiers? Is it a wise risk to rely for aid upon the nearest +Belgian troops when their loyalty is so little to be depended upon? And +is not the regent perpetually reverting in her despatches to the fact +that nothing but the want of a suitable military force has hitherto +hindered her from enforcing the edicts, and stopping the progress of the +rebels? A well-disciplined and formidable army alone will disappoint +all their hopes of maintaining themselves in opposition to their lawful +sovereign, and nothing but the certain prospect of destruction will make +them lower their demands. Besides, without an adequate force, the king +cannot venture his person in hostile countries; he cannot enter into any +treaties with his rebellious subjects which would not be derogatory to +his honor." + +The authority of the speaker gave preponderance to his arguments, and +the next question was, when the king should commence his journey and +what road he should take. As the voyage by sea was on every account +extremely hazardous, he had no other alternative but either to proceed +thither through the passes near Trent across. Germany, or to penetrate +from Savoy over the Apennine Alps. The first route would expose him to +the danger of the attack of the German Protestants, who were not likely +to view with indifference the objects of his journey, and a passage over +the Apennines was at this late season of the year not to be attempted. +Moreover, it would be necessary to send for the requisite galleys from +Italy, and repair them, which would take several months. Finally, as +the assembly of the Cortes of Castile, from which he could not well be +absent, was already appointed for December, the journey could not be +undertaken before the spring. Meanwhile the regent pressed for explicit +instructions how she was to extricate herself from her present +embarrassment, without compromising the royal dignity too far; and it +was necessary to do something in the interval till the king could +undertake to appease the troubles by his personal presence. Two +separate letters were therefore despatched to the duchess; one public, +which she could lay before the states and the council chambers, and one +private, which was intended for herself alone. In the first, the king +announced to her his restoration to health, and the fortunate birth of +the Infanta Clara Isabella Eugenia, afterwards wife of the Archduke +Albert of Austria and Princess of the Netherlands. He declared to her +his present firm intention to visit the Netherlands in person, for which +he was already making the necessary preparations. The assembling of the +states he refused, as he had previously done. No mention was made in +this letter of the agreement which she had entered into with the +Protestants and with the league, because he did not deem it advisable at +present absolutely to reject it, and he was still less disposed to +acknowledge its validity. On the other hand, he ordered her to +reinforce the army, to draw together new regiments from Germany, and to +meet the refractory with force. For the rest, he concluded, he relied +upon the loyalty of the leading nobility, among whom he knew many who +were sincere in their attachment both to their religion and their king. +In the secret letter she was again enjoined to do all in her power to +prevent the assembling of the states; but if the general voice should +become irresistible, and she was compelled to yield, she was at least to +manage so cautiously that the royal dignity should not suffer, and no +one learn the king's consent to their assembly. + +While these consultations were held in Spain the Protestants in the +Netherlands made the most extensive use of the privileges which had been +compulsorily granted to them. The erection of churches wherever it was +permitted was completed with incredible rapidity; young and old, gentle +and simple, assisted in carrying stones; women sacrificed even their +ornaments in order to accelerate the work. The two religious parties +established in several towns consistories, and a church council of their +own, the first move of the kind being made in Antwerp, and placed their +form of worship on a well-regulated footing. It was also proposed to +raise a common fund by subscription to meet any sudden emergency of the +Protestant church in general. In Antwerp a memorial was presented by +the Calvinists of that town to the Count of Hogstraten, in which they +offered to pay three millions of dollars to secure the free exercise of +their religion. Many copies of this writing were circulated in the +Netherlands; and in order to stimulate others, many had ostentatiously +subscribed their names to large sums. Various interpretations of this +extravagant offer were made by the enemies of the Reformers, and all had +some appearance of reason. For instance, it was urged that under the +pretext of collecting the requisite sum for fulfilling this engagement +they hoped, without suspicion, to raise funds for military purposes; for +whether they should be called upon to contribute for or against they +would, it was thought, be more ready to burden themselves with a view of +preserving peace than for an oppressive and devasting war. Others saw +in this offer nothing more than a temporary stratagem of the Protestants +by which they hoped to bind the court and keep it irresolute until they +should have gained sufficient strength to confront it. Others again +declared it to be a downright bravado in order to alarm the regent, and +to raise the courage of their own party by the display of such rich +resources. But whatever was the true motive of this proposition, its +originators gained little by it; the contributions flowed in scantily +and slowly, and the court answered the proposal with silent contempt. +The excesses, too, of the Iconoclasts, far from promoting the cause of +the league and advancing the Protestants interests, had done irreparable +injury to both. The sight of their ruined churches, which, in the +language of Viglius, resembled stables more than houses of God, enraged +the Roman Catholics, and above all the clergy. All of that religion, +who had hitherto been members of the league, now forsook it, alleging +that even if it had not intentionally excited and encouraged the +excesses of the Iconoclasts it had beyond question remotely led to them. +The intolerance of the Calvinists who, wherever they were the ruling +party, cruelly oppressed the Roman Catholics, completely expelled the +delusion in which the latter had long indulged, and they withdrew their +support from a party from which, if they obtained the upper hand, their +own religion had so much cause to fear. Thus the league lost many of +its best members; the friends and patrons, too, which it had hitherto +found amongst the well-disposed citizens now deserted it, and its +character began perceptibly to decline. The severity with which some of +its members had acted against the Iconoclasts in order to prove their +good disposition towards the regent, and to remove the suspicion of any +connection with the malcontents, had also injured them with the people +who favored the latter, and thus the league was in danger of ruining +itself with both parties at the same time. The regent had no sooner +became acquainted with this change in the public mind than she devised a +plan by which she hoped gradually to dissolve the whole league, or at +least to enfeeble it through internal dissensions. For this end she +availed herself of the private letters which the king had addressed to +some of the nobles, and enclosed to her with full liberty to use them at +her discretion. These letters, which overflowed with kind expressions +were presented to those for whom they were intended, with an attempt at +secrecy, which designedly miscarried, so that on each occasion some one +or other of those who had received nothing of the sort got a hint of +them. In order to spread suspicion the more widely numerous copies of +the letters were circulated. This artifice attained its object. Many +members of the league began to doubt the honesty of those to whom such +brilliant promises were made; through fear of being deserted by their +principal members and supporters, they eagerly accepted the conditions +which were offered them by the regent, and evinced great anxiety for a +speedy reconciliation with the court. The general rumor of the +impending visit of the king, which the regent took care to have widely +circulated, was also of great service to her in this matter; many who +could not augur much good to themselves from the royal presence did not +hesitate to accept a pardon, which, perhaps, for what they could tell, +was offered them for the last time. Among those who thus received +private letters were Egmont and Prince of Orange. Both had complained +to the king of the evil reports with which designing persons in Spain +had labored to brand their names, and to throw suspicion on their +motives and intentions; Egmont, in particular, with the honest +simplicity which was peculiar to his character, had asked the monarch +only to point out to him what he most desired, to determine the +particular action by which his favor could be best obtained and zeal in +his service evinced, and it should, he assured him, be done. The king +in reply caused the president, Von Tyssenacque, to tell him that he +could do nothing better to refute his traducers than to show perfect +submission to the royal orders, which were so clearly and precisely +drawn up, that no further exposition of them was required, nor any +particular instruction. It was the sovereign's part to deliberate, to +examine, and to decide; unconditionally to obey was the duty of the +subject; the honor of the latter consisted in his obedence. It did not +become a member to hold itself wiser than the head. He was assuredly to +be blamed for not having done his utmost to curb the unruliness of his +sectarians; but it was even yet in his power to make up for past +negligence by at least maintaining peace and order until the actual +arrival of the king. In thus punishing Count Egmont with reproofs like +a disobedient child, the king treated him in accordance with what he +knew of his character; with his friend he found it necessary to call in +the aid of artifice and deceit. Orange, too, in his letter, had alluded +to the suspicions which the king entertained of his loyalty and +attachment, but not, like Egmont, in the vain hope of removing them; for +this, he had long given up; but in order to pass from these complaints +to a request for permission to resign his offices. He had already +frequently made this request to the regent, but had always received from +her a refusal, accompanied with the strongest assurance of her regard. +The king also, to whom he now at last addressed a direct application, +returned him the same answer, graced with similar strong assurances of +his satisfaction and gratitude. In particular he expressed the high +satisfaction he entertained of his services, which he had lately +rendered the crown in Antwerp, and lamented deeply that the private +affairs of the prince (which the latter had made his chief plea for +demanding his dismissal) should have fallen into such disorder; but +ended with the declaration that it was impossible for him to dispense +with his valuable services at a crisis which demanded the increase, +rather than diminution, of his good and honest servants. He had +thought, he added, that the prince entertained a better opinion of him +than to suppose him capable of giving credit to the idle talk of certain +persons, who were friends neither to the prince nor to himself. But, at +the same time, to give him a proof of his sincerity, he complained to +him in confidence of his brother, the Count of Nassau, pretended to ask +his advice in the matter, and finally expressed a wish to have the count +removed for a period from the Netherlands. + +But Philip had here to do with a head which in cunning was superior to +his own. The Prince of Orange had for a long time held watch over him +and his privy council in Madrid and Segovia, through a host of spies, +who reported to him everything of importance that was transacted there. +The court of this most secret of all despots had become accessible to +his intriguing spirit and his money; in this manner he had gained +possession of several autograph letters of the regent, which she had +secretly written to Madrid, and had caused copies to be circulated in +triumph in Brussels, and in a measure under her own eyes, insomuch that +she saw with astonishment in everybody's hands what she thought was +preserved with so much care, and entreated the king for the future to +destroy her despatches immediately they were read. William's vigilance +did not confine itself simply to the court of Spain; he had spies in +France, and even at more distant courts. He is also charged with not +being over scrupulous as to the means by which he acquired his +intelligence. But the most important disclosure was made by an +intercepted letter of the Spanish ambassador in France, Francis Von +Alava, to the duchess, in which the former descanted on the fair +opportunity which was now afforded to the king, through the guilt of +the Netherlandish people, of establishing an arbitrary power in that +country. He therefore advised her to deceive the nobles by the very +arts which they had hitherto employed against herself, and to secure +them through smooth words and an obliging behavior. The king, he +concluded, who knew the nobles to be the hidden springs of all the +previous troubles, would take good care to lay hands upon them at the +first favorable opportunity, as well as the two whom he had already in +Spain; and did not mean to let them go again, having sworn to make an +example in them which should horrify the whole of Christendom, even if +it should cost him his hereditary dominions. This piece of evil news +was strongly corroborated by the letters which Bergen and Montigny wrote +from Spain, and in which they bitterly complained of the contemptuous +behavior of the grandees and the altered deportment of the monarch +towards them; and the Prince of Orange was now fully sensible what he +had to expect from the fair promises of the king. + +The letter of the minister, Alava, together with some others from Spain, +which gave a circumstantial account of the approaching warlike visit of +the king, and of his evil intentions against the nobles, was laid by the +prince before his brother, Count Louis of Nassau, Counts Egmont, Horn, +and Hogstraten, at a meeting at Dendermonde in Flanders, whither these +five knights had repaired to confer on the measures necessary for their +security. Count Louis, who listened only to his feelings of +indignation, foolhardily maintained that they ought, without loss of +time, to take up arms and seize some strongholds. That they ought at +all risks to prevent the king's armed entrance into the provinces. That +they should endeavor to prevail on the Swiss, the Protestant princes of +Germany, and the Huguenots to arm and obstruct his passage through their +territories; and if, notwithstanding, he should force his way through +these impediments, that the Flemings should meet him with an army on the +frontiers. He would take upon himself to negotiate a defensive alliance +in France, in Switzerland, and in Germany, and to raise in the latter +empire four thousand horse, together with a proportionate body of +infantry. Pretexts would not be wanting for collecting the requisite +supplies of money, and the merchants of the reformed sect would, he felt +assured, not fail them. But William, more cautious and more wise, +declared himself against this proposal, which, in the execution, would +be exposed to numberless difficulties, and had as yet nothing to justify +it. The Inquisition, he represented, was in fact abolished, the edicts +were nearly sunk into oblivion, and a fair degree of religious liberty +accorded. Hitherto, therefore, there existed no valid or adequate +excuse for adopting this hostile method; he did not doubt, however, +that one would be presented to them before long, and in good time for +preparation. His own opinion consequently was that they should await +this opportunity with patience, and in the meanwhile still keep a +watchful eye upon everything, and contrive to give the people a hint of +the threatened danger, that they might be ready to act if circumstances +should call for their co-operation. If all present had assented to the +opinion of the Prince of Orange, there is no doubt but so powerful a +league, formidable both by the influence and the high character of its +members, would have opposed obstacles to the designs of the king which +would have compelled him to abandon them entirely. But the +determination of the assembled knights was much shaken by the +declaration with which Count Egmont surprised them. "Rather," said he, +"may all that is evil befall me than that I should tempt fortune so +rashly. The idle talk of the Spaniard, Alava, does not move me; how +should such a person be able to read the mind of a sovereign so reserved +as Philip, and to decipher his secrets? The intelligence which Montigny +gives us goes to prove nothing more than that the king has a very +doubtful opinion of our zeal for his service, and believes he has cause +to distrust our loyalty; and for this I for my part must confess that +we have given him only too much cause. And it is my serious purpose, +by redoubling my zeal, to regain his good opinion, and by my future +behavior to remove, if possible, the distrust which my actions have +hitherto excited. How could I tear myself from the arms of my numerous +and dependent family to wander as an exile at foreign courts, a burden +to every one who received me, the slave of every one who condescended to +assist me, a servant of foreigners, in order to escape a slight degree +of constraint at home? Never can the monarch act unkindly towards a +servant who was once beloved and dear to him, and who has established a +well-grounded claim to his gratitude. Never shall I be persuaded that +he who has expressed such favorable, such gracious sentiments towards +his Belgian subjects, and with his own mouth gave me such emphatic, +such solemn assurances, can be now devising, as it is pretended, such +tyrannical schemes against them. If we do but restore to the country +its former repose, chastise the rebels, and re-establish the Roman +Catholic form of worship wherever it has been violently suppressed, +then, believe me, we shall hear no more of Spanish troops. This is the +course to which I now invite you all by my counsel and my example, and +to which also most of our brethren already incline. I, for my part, +fear nothing from the anger of the king. My conscience acquits me. +I trust my fate and fortunes to his justice and clemency." In vain did +Nassau, Horn, and Orange labor to shake his resolution, and to open his +eyes to the near and inevitable danger. Egmont was really attached to +the king; the royal favors, and the condescension with which they were +conferred, were still fresh in his remembrance. The attentions with +which the monarch had distinguished him above all his friends had not +failed of their effect. It was more from false shame than from party +spirit that he had defended the cause of his countrymen against him; +more from temperament and natural kindness of heart than from tried +principles that he had opposed the severe measures of the government. +The love of the nation, which worshipped him as its idol, carried him +away. Too vain to renounce a title which sounded so agreeable, he had +been compelled to do something to deserve it; but a single look at his +family, a harsher designation applied to his conduct, a dangerous +inference drawn from it, the mere sound of crime, terrified him from his +self-delusion, and scared him back in haste and alarm to his duty. + +Orange's whole plan was frustrated by Egmont's withdrawal. The latter +possessed the hearts of the people and the confidence of the army, +without which it was utterly impossible to undertake anything effective. +The rest had reckoned with so much certainty upon him that his +unexpected defection rendered the whole meeting nugatory. They +therefore separated without coming to a determination. All who had met +in Dendermonde were expected in the council of state in Brussels; but +Egmont alone repaired thither. The regent wished to sift him on the +subject of this conference, but she could extract nothing further from +him than the production of the letter of Alava, of which he had +purposely taken a copy, and which, with the bitterest reproofs, he laid +before her. At first she changed color at sight of it, but quickly +recovering herself, she boldly declared that it was a forgery. "How can +this letter," she said, "really come from Alava, when I miss none? And +would he who pretends to have intercepted it have spared the other +letters? Nay, how can it be true, when not a single packet has +miscarried, nor a single despatch failed to come to hand? How, too, +can it be thought likely that the king would have made Alava master +of a secret which he has not communicated even to me?" + + + + + CIVIL WAR + +1566. Meanwhile the regent hastened to take advantage of the schism +amongst the nobles to complete the ruin of the league, which was already +tottering under the weight of internal dissensions. Without loss of +time she drew from Germany the troops which Duke Eric of Brunswick was +holding in readiness, augmented the cavalry, and raised five regiments +of Walloons, the command of which she gave to Counts Mansfeld, Megen, +Aremberg, and others. To the prince, likewise, she felt it necessary to +confide troops, both because she did not wish, by withholding them +pointedly, to insult him, and also because the provinces of which he was +governor were in urgent need of them; but she took the precaution of +joining with him a Colonel Waldenfinger, who should watch all his steps +and thwart his measures if they appeared dangerous. To Count Egmont the +clergy in Flanders paid a contribution of forty thousand gold florins +for the maintenance of fifteen hundred men, whom he distributed among +the places where danger was most apprehended. Every governor was +ordered to increase his military force, and to provide himself with +ammunition. These energetic preparations, which were making in all +places, left no doubt as to the measures which the regent would adopt in +future. Conscious of her superior force, and certain of this important +support, she now ventured to change her tone, and to employ quite +another language with the rebels. She began to put the most arbitrary +interpretation on the concessions which, through fear and necessity, she +had made to the Protestants, and to restrict all the liberties which she +had tacitly granted them to the mere permission of their preaching. All +other religious exercises and rites, which yet appeared to be involved +in the former privilege, were by new edicts expressly forbidden, and all +offenders in such matters were to be proceeded against as traitors. The +Protestants were permitted to think differently from the ruling church +upon the sacrament, but to receive it differently was a crime; baptism, +marriage, burial, after their fashion, were probibited under pain of +death. It was a cruel mockery to allow them their religion, and forbid +the exercise of it; but this mean artifice of the regent to escape from +the obligation of her pledged word was worthy of the pusillanimity with +which she had submitted to its being extorted from her. She took +advantage of the most trifling innovations and the smallest excesses to +interrupt the preachings; and some of the preachers, under the charge of +having performed their office in places not appointed to them, were +brought to trial, condemned, and executed. On more than one occasion +the regent publicly declared that the confederates had taken unfair +advantage of her fears, and that she did not feel herself bound by an +engagement which had been extorted from her by threats. + +Of all the Belgian towns which had participated in the insurrection of +the Iconoclasts none had caused the regent so much alarm as the town of +Valenciennes, in Hainault. In no other was the party of the Calvinists +so powerful, and the spirit of rebellion for which the province of +Hainault had always made itself conspicuous, seemed to dwell here as in +its native place. The propinquity of France, to which, as well by +language as by manners, this town appeared to belong, rather than to the +Netherlands, had from the first led to its being governed with great +mildness and forbearance, which, however, only taught it to feel its own +importance. At the last outbreak of the church-desecrators it had been +on the point of surrendering to the Huguenots, with whom it maintained +the closest understanding. The slightest excitement night renew this +danger. On this account Valenciennes was the first town to which the +regent proposed, as soon as should be in her power, to send a strong +garrison. Philip of Noircarmes, Baron of St. Aldegonde, Governor of +Hainault in the place of the absent Marquis of Bergen, had received this +charge, and now appeared at the head of an army before its walls. +Deputies came to meet him on the part of the magistrate from the town, +to petition against the garrison, because the Protestant citizens, who +were the superior number, had declared against it. Noircarnes +acquainted them with the will of the regent, and gave them the choice +between the garrison or a siege. He assured them that not more than +four squadrons of horse and six companies of foot should be imposed upon +the town; and for this he would give them his son as a hostage. These +terms were laid before the magistrate, who, for his part, was much +inclined to accept them. But Peregrine Le Grange, the preacher, and the +idol of the populace, to whom it was of vital importance to prevent a +submission of which he would inevitably become the victim, appeared at +the head of his followers, and by his powerful eloquence excited the +people to reject the conditions. When their answer was brought to +Noircarmes, contrary to all law of nations, he caused the messengers to +be placed in irons, and carried them away with him as prisoners; he was, +however, by express command of the regent, compelled to set them free +again. The regent, instructed by secret orders from Madrid to exercise +as much forbearance as possible, caused the town to be repeatedly +summoned to receive the garrison; when, however, it obstinately +persisted in its refusal, it was declared by public edict to be in +rebellion, and Noircarmes was authorized to commence the siege in form. +The other provinces were forbidden to assist this rebellious town with +advice, money, or arms. All the property contained in it was +confiscated. In order to let it see the war before it began in earnest, +and to give it time for rational reflection, Noircarmes drew together +troops from all Hainault and Cambray (1566), took possession of St. +Amant, and placed garrisons in all adjacent places. + +The line of conduct adopted towards Valenciennes allowed the other towns +which were similarly situated to infer the fate which was intended for +them also, and at once put the whole league in motion. An army of the +Gueux, between three thousand and four thousand strong, which was +hastily collected from the rabble of fugitives, and the remaining bands +of the Iconoclasts, appeared in the territories of Tournay and Lille, in +order to secure these two towns, and to annoy the enemy at Valenciennes. +The commandant of Lille was fortunate enough to maintain that place by +routing a detachment of this army, which, in concert with the Protestant +inhabitants, had made an attempt to get possession of it. At the same +time the army of the Gueux, which was uselessly wasting its time at +Lannoy, was surprised by Noircarmes and almost entirely annihilated. +The few who with desperate courage forced their way through the enemy, +threw themselves into the town of Tournay, which was immediately +summoned by the victor to open its gates and admit a garrison. Its +prompt obedience obtained for it a milder fate. Noircarmes contented +himself with abolishing the Protestant consistory, banishing the +preachers, punishing the leaders of the rebels, and again +re-establishing the Roman Catholic worship, which he found almost +entirely suppressed. After giving it a steadfast Roman Catholic as +governor, and leaving in it a sufficient garrison, he again returned +with his victorious army to Valenciennes to press the siege. + +This town, confident in its strength, actively prepared for defence, +firmly resolved to allow things to come to extremes before it +surrendered. The inhabitants had not neglected to furnish themselves +with ammunition and provisions for a long siege; all who could carry +arms (the very artisans not excepted), became soldiers; the houses +before the town, and especially the cloisters, were pulled down, that +the besiegers might not avail themselves of them to cover their attack. +The few adherents of the crown, awed by the multitude, were silent; no +Roman Catholic ventured to stir himself. Anarchy and rebellion had +taken the place of good order, and the fanaticism of a foolhardy priest +gave laws instead of the legal dispensers of justice. The male +population was numerous, their courage confirmed by despair, their +confidence unbounded that the siege would be raised, while their hatred +against the Roman Catholic religion was excited to the highest pitch. +Many had no mercy to expect; all abhorred the general thraldom of an +imperious garrison. Noircarmes, whose army had become formidable +through the reinforcements which streamed to it from all quarters, and +was abundantly furnished with all the requisites for a long blockade, +once more attempted to prevail on the town by gentle means, but in vain. +At last he caused the trenches to be opened and prepared to invest the +place. + +In the meanwhile the position of the Protestants had grown as much worse +as that of the regent had improved. The league of the nobles had +gradually melted away to a third of its original number. Some of its +most important defenders, Count Egmont, for instance, had gone over to +the king; the pecuniary contributions which had been so confidently +reckoned upon came in but slowly and scantily; the zeal of the party +began perceptibly to cool, and the close of the fine season made it +necessary to discontinue the public preachings, which, up to this time, +had been continued. These and other reasons combined induced the +declining party to moderate its demands, and to try every legal +expedient before it proceeded to extremities. In a general synod of the +Protestants, which was held for this object in Antwerp, and which was +also attended by some of the confederates, it was resolved to send +deputies to the regent to remonstrate with her upon this breach of +faith, and to remind her of her compact. Brederode undertook this +office, but was obliged to submit to a harsh and disgraceful rebuff, and +was shut out of Brussels. He had now recourse to a written memorial, in +which,--in the name of the whole league, he complained that the duchess +had, by violating her word, falsified in sight of all the Protestants +the security given by the league, in reliance on which all of them had +laid down their arms; that by her insincerity she had undone all the +good which the confederates had labored to effect; that she had sought +to degrade the league in the eyes of the people, had excited discord +among its members, and had even caused many of them to be persecuted as +criminals. He called upon her to recall her late ordinances, which +deprived the Protestants of the free exercise of their religion, but +above all to raise the siege of Valenciennes, to disband the troops +newly enlisted, and ended by assuring her that on these conditions and +these alone the league would be responsible for the general +tranquillity. + +To this the regent replied in a tone very different from her previous +moderation. "Who these confederates are who address me in this memorial +is, indeed, a mystery to me. The confederates with whom I had formerly +to do, for ought I know to the contrary, have dispersed. All at least +cannot participate in this statement of grievances, for I myself know of +many, who, satisfied in all their demands, have returned to their duty. +But still, whoever he may be, who without authority and right, and +without name addresses me, he has at least given a very false +interpretation to my word if he asserts that I guaranteed to the +Protestants complete religious liberty. No one can be ignorant how +reluctantly I was induced to permit the preachings in the places where +they had sprung up unauthorized, and this surely cannot be counted for a +concession of freedom in religion. Is it likely that I should have +entertained the idea of protecting these illegal consistories, of +tolerating this state within a state? Could I forget myself so far as +to grant the sanction of law to an objectionable sect; to overturn all +order in the church and in the state, and abominably to blaspheme my +holy religion? Look to him who has given you such permission, but you +must not argue with me. You accuse me of having violated the agreement +which gave you impunity and security. The past I am willing to look +over, but not what may be done in future. No advantage was to be taken +of you on account of the petition of last April, and to the best of my +knowledge nothing of the kind has as yet been done; but whoever again +offends in the same way against the majesty of the king must be ready to +bear the consequences of his crime. In fine, how can you presume to +remind me of an agreement which you have been the first to break? At +whose instigation were the churches plundered, the images of the saints +thrown down, and the towns hurried into rebellion? Who formed alliances +with foregn powers, set on foot illegal enlistments, and collected +unlawful taxes from the subjects of the king? These are the reasons +which have impelled me to draw together my troops, and to increase the +severity of the edicts. Whoever now asks me to lay down my arms cannot +mean well to his country or his king, and if ye value your own lives, +look to it that your own actions acquit you, instead of judging mine." + +All the hopes which the confederates might have entertained of an +amicable adjustment sank with this high-toned declaration. Without +being confident of possessing powerful support, the regent would not, +they argued, employ such language. An army was in the field, the enemy +was before Valenciennes, the members who were the heart of the league +had abandoned it, and the regent required unconditional submission. +Their cause was now so bad that open resistance could not make it worse. +If they gave themselves up defenceless into the hands of their +exasperated sovereign their fate was certain; an appeal to arms could at +least make it a matter of doubt; they, therefore, chose the latter, and +began seriously to take steps for their defence. In order to insure the +assistance of the German Protestants, Louis of Nassau attempted to +persuade the towns of Amsterdam, Antwerp, Tournay, and Valenciennes to +adopt the confession of Augsburg, and in this manner to seal their +alliance with a religious union. But the proposition was not +successful, because the hatred of the Calvinists to the Lutherans +exceeded, if possible, that which they bore to popery. Nassau also +began in earnest to negotiate for supplies from France, the Palatinate, +and Saxony. The Count of Bergen fortified his castles; Brederode threw +himself with a small force into his strong town of Vianne on the Leek, +over which he claimed the rights of sovereignty, and which he hastily +placed in a state of defense, and there awaited a reinforcement from the +league, and the issue of Nassua's negotiations. The flag of war was now +unfurled, everywhere the drum was heard to beat; in all parts troops +were seen on the march, contributions collected, and soldiers enlisted. +The agents of each party often met in the same place, and hardly had the +collectors and recruiting officers of the regent quitted a town when it +had to endure a similar visit from the agents of the league. + +From Valenciennes the regent directed her attention to Herzogenbusch, +where the Iconoclasts had lately committed fresh excesses, and the party +of the Protestants had gained a great accession of strength. In order +to prevail on the citizens peaceably to receive a garrison, she sent +thither, as ambassador, the Chancellor Scheiff, from Brabant, with +counsellor Merode of Petersheim, whom she appointed governor of the +town; they were instructed to secure the place by judicious means, and +to exact from the citizens a new oath of allegiance. At the same time +the Count of Megen, who was in the neighborhood with a body of troops, +was ordered to support the two envoys in effecting their commission, +and to afford the means of throwing in a garrison immediately. But +Brederode, who obtained information of these movements in Viane, had +already sent thither one of his creatures, a certain Anton von Bomber,-- +a hot Calvinist, but also a brave soldier, in order to raise the courage +of his party, and to frustrate the designs of the regent. This Bomberg +succeeded in getting possession of the letters which the chancellor +brought with him from the duchess, and contrived to substitute in their +place counterfeit ones, which, by their harsh and imperious language, +were calculated to exasperate the minds of the citizens. At the same +time he attempted to throw suspicion on both the ambassadors of the +duchess as having evil designs upon the town. In this he succeeded so +well with the mob that in their mad fury they even laid hands on the +ambassadors and placed them in confinement. He himself, at the head of +eight thousand men, who had adopted him as their leader, advanced +against the Count of Megen, who was moving in order of battle, and gave +him so warm a reception, with some heavy artillery, that he was +compelled to retire without accomplishing his object. The regent now +sent an officer of justice to demand the release of her ambassadors, and +in case of refusal to threaten the place with siege; but Bomberg with +his party surrounded the town hall and forced the magistrate to deliver +to him the key of the town. The messenger of the regent was ridiculed +and dismissed, and an answer sent through him that the treatment of the +prisoners would depend upon Brederode's orders. The herald, who was +remaining outside before the town, now appeared to declare war against +her, which, however, the chancellor prevented. + +After his futile attempt on Herzogenhusch the Count of Megen threw +himself into Utrecht in order to prevent the execution of a design which +Count Brederode had formed against that town. As it had suffered much +from the army of the confederates, which was encamped in its immediate +neighborhood, near Viane, it received Megen with open arms as its +protector, and conformed to all the alterations which he made in the +religious worship. Upon this he immediately caused a redoubt to be +thrown up on the bank of the Leek, which would command Viane. +Brederode, not disposed to await his attack, quitted that rendezvous +with the best part of his army and hastened to Amsterdam. + +However unprofitably the Prince of Orange appeared to be losing his +time in Antwerp during these operations he was, nevertheless, busily +employed. At his instigation the league had commenced recruiting, and +Brederode had fortified his castles, for which purpose he himself +presented him with three cannons which he had had cast at Utrecht. +His eye watched all the movements of the court, and he kept the league +warned of the towns which were next menaced with attack. But his chief +object appeared to be to get possession of the principal places in the +districts under his own government, to which end he with all his power +secretly assisted Brederode's plans against Utrecht and Amsterdam. The +most important place was the Island of Walcheren, where the king was +expected to land; and he now planned a scheme for the surprise of this +place, the conduct of which was entrusted to one of the confederate +nobles, an intimate friend of the Prince of Orange, John of Marnix, +Baron of Thoulouse, and brother of Philip of Aldegonde. + + +1567. Thoulouse maintained a secret understanding with the late mayor +of Middleburg, Peter Haak, by which he expected to gain an opportunity +of throwing a garrison into Middleburg and Flushing. The recruiting, +however, for this undertaking, which was set on foot in Antwerp, could +not be carried on so quietly as not to attract the notice of the +magistrate. In order, therefore, to lull the suspicions of the latter, +and at the same time to promote the success of the scheme, the prince +caused the herald by public proclamation to order all foreign soldiers +and strangers who were in the service of the state, or employed in other +business, forthwith to quit the town. He might, say his adversaries, by +closing the gates have easily made himself master of all these suspected +recruits; but be expelled them from the town in order to drive them the +more quickly to the place of their destination. They immediately +embarked on the Scheldt, and sailed down to Rammekens; as, however, a +marketvessel of Antwerp, which ran into Flushing a little before them +had given warning of their design they were forbidden to enter the port. +They found the same difficulty at Arnemuiden, near Middleburg, although +the Protestants in that place exerted themselves to raise an +insurrection in their favor. Thoulouse, therefore, without having +accomplished anything, put about his ships and sailed back down the +Scheldt as far as Osterweel, a quarter of a mile from Antwerp, where he +disembarked his people and encamped on the shore, with the hope of +getting men from Antwerp, and also in order to revive by his presence +the courage of his party, which had been cast down by the proceedings of +the magistrate. By the aid of the Calvinistic clergy, who recruited for +him, his little army increased daily, so that at last he began to be +formidable to the Antwerpians, whose whole territory he laid waste. The +magistrate was for attacking him here with the militia, which, however, +the Prince of Orange successfully opposed by the, pretext that it would +not be prudent to strip the town of soldiers. + +Meanwhile the regent had hastily brought together a small army under the +command of Philip of Launoy, which moved from Brussels to Antwerp by +forced marches. At the same time Count Megen managed to keep the army +of the Gueux shut up and employed at Viane, so that it could neither +hear of these movements nor hasten to the assistance of its +confederates. Launoy, on his arrival attacked by surprise the dispersed +crowds, who, little expecting an enemy, had gone out to plunder, and +destroyed them in one terrible carnage. Thoulouse threw himself with +the small remnant of his troops into a country house, which had served +him as his headquarters, and for a long time defended himself with the +courage of despair, until Launoy, finding it impossible to dislodge him, +set fire to the house. The few who escaped the flames fell on the +swords of the enemy or were drowned in the Scheldt. Thoulouse himself +preferred to perish in the flames rather than to fall into the hands of +the enemy. This victory, which swept off more than a thousand of the +enemy, was purchased by the conqueror cheaply enough, for he did not +lose more than two men. Three hundred of the leaguers who surrendered +were cut down without mercy on the spot, as a sally from Antwerp was +momentarily dreaded. + +Before the battle actually commenced no anticipation of such an event +had been entertained at Antwerp. The Prince of Orange, who had got +early information of it, had taken the precaution the day before of +causing the bridge which unites the town with Osterweel to be destroyed, +in order, as he gave out, to prevent the Calvinists within the town +going out to join the army of Thoulouse. A more probable motive seems +to have been a fear lest the Catholics should attack the army of the +Gueux general in the rear, or lest Launoy should prove victorious, and +try to force his way into the town. On the same pretext the gates of +the city were also shut by his orders, arnd the inhabitants, who did not +comprehend the meaning of all these movements, fluctuated between +curiosity and alarm, until the sound of artillery from Osterweel +announced to them what there was going on. In clamorous crowds they all +ran to the walls and ramparts, from which, as the wind drove the smoke +from the contending armies, they commanded a full view of the whole +battle. Both armies were so near to the town that they could discern +their banners, and clearly distinguish the voices of the victors and the +vanquished. More terrible even than the battle itself was the spectacle +which this town now presented. Each of the conflicting armies had its +friends and its enemies on the wall. All that went on in the plain +roused on the ramparts exultation or dismay; on the issue of the +conflict the fate of each spectator seemed to depend. Every movement on +the field could be read in the faces of the townsmen; defeat and +triumph, the terror of the conquered, and the fury of the conqueror. +Here a painful but idle wish to support those who are giving way, to +rally those who fly; there an equally futile desire to overtake them, +to slay them, to extirpate them. Now the Gueux fly, and ten thousand +men rejoice; Thoulouse's last place and refuge is in flames, and the +hopes of twenty thousand citizens are consumed with him. + +But the first bewilderment of alarm soon gave place to a frantic desire +of revenge. Shrieking aloud, wringing her hands and with dishevelled +hair, the widow of the slain general rushed amidst the crowds to implore +their pity and help. Excited by their favorite preacher, Hermann, the +Calvinists fly to arms, determined to avenge their brethren, or to +perish with them; without reflection, without plan or leader, guided by +nothing but their anguish, their delirium, they rush to the Red Gate of +the city which leads to the field of battle; but there is no egress, the +gate is shut and the foremost of the crowd recoil on those that follow. +Thousands and thousands collect together, a dreadful rush is made to the +Meer Bridge. We are betrayed! we are prisoners! is the general cry. +Destruction to the papists, death to him who has betrayed us!--a sullen +murmur, portentous of a revolt, runs through the multitude. They begin +to suspect that all that has taken place has been set on foot by the +Roman Catholics to destroy the Calvinists. They had slain their +defenders, and they would now fall upon the defenceless. With fatal +speed this suspicion spreads through the whole of Antwerp. Now they +can, they think, understand the past, and they fear something still +worse in the background; a frightful distrust gains possession of every +mind. Each party dreads the other; every one sees an enemy in his +neighbor; the mystery deepens the alarm and horror; a fearful condition +for a populous town, in which every accidental concourse instantly +becomes tumult, every rumor started amongst them becomes a fact, every +small spark a blazing flame, and by the force of numbers and collision +all passions are furiously inflamed. All who bore the name of +Calvinists were roused by this report. Fifteen thousand of them take +possession of the Meer Bridge, and plant heavy artillery upon it, which +they had taken by force from the arsenal; the same thing also happens at +another bridge; their number makes them formidable, the town is in their +hands; to escape an imaginary danger they bring all Antwerp to the brink +of ruin. + +Immediately on the commencement of the tumult the Prince of Orange +hastened to the Meer Bridge, where, boldly forcing his way through the +raging crowd, he commanded peace and entreated to be heard. At the +other bridge Count Hogstraten, accompanied by the Burgomaster Strahlen, +made the same attempt; but not possessing a sufficient share either of +eloquence or of popularity to command attention, he referred the +tumultuous crowd to the prince, around whom all Antwerp now furiously +thronged. The gate, he endeavored to explain to them, was shut simply +to keep off the victor, whoever he might be, from the city, which would +otherwise become the prey of an infuriated soldiery. In vain! the +frantic people would not listen, and one more daring than the rest +presented his musket at him, calling him a traitor. With tumultuous +shouts they demanded the key of the Red Gate, which he was ultimately +forced to deliver into the hands of the preacher Hermann. But, he added +with happy presence of mind, they must take heed what they were doing; +in the suburbs six hundred of the enemy's horse were waiting to receive +them. This invention, suggested by the emergency, was not so far +removed from the truth as its author perhaps imagined; for no sooner had +the victorous general perceived the commotion in Antwerp than he caused +his whole cavalry to mount in the hope of being able, under favor of the +disturbance, to break into the town. I, at least, continued the Prince +of Orange, shall secure my own safety in time, and he who follows my +example will save himself much future regret. These words opportunely +spoken and immediately acted upon had their effect. Those who stood +nearest followed him, and were again followed by the next, so that at +last the few who had already hastened out of the city when they saw no +one coming after them lost the desire of coping alone with the six +hundred horse. All accordingly returned to the Meer Bridge, where they +posted watches and videttes, and the night was passed tumultuously under +arms. + +The town of Antwerp was now threatened with fearful bloodshed and +pillage. In this pressing emergency Orange assembled an extraordinary +senate, to which were summoned all the best-disposed citizens of the +four nations. If they wished, said he, to repress the violence of the +Calvinists they must oppose them with an army strong enough and prepared +to meet them. It was therefore resolved to arm with speed the Roman +Catholic inhabitants of the town, whether natives, Italians, or +Spaniards, and, if possible, to induce the Lutherans also to join them. +The haughtiness of the Calvinists, who, proud of their wealth and +confident in their numbers, treated every other religious party with +contempt, had long made the Lutherans their enemies, and the mutual +exasperation of these two Protestant churches was even more inmplacable +than their common hatred of the dominant church. This jealousy the +magistrate had turned to advantage, by making use of one party to curb +the other, and had thus contrived to keep the Calvinists in check, who, +from their numbers and insolence, were most to be feared. With this +view, he had tacitly taken into his protection the Lutherans, as the +weaker and more peaceable party, having moreover invited for them, from +Germany, spiritual teachers, who, by controversial sermons, might keep +up the mutual hatred of the two bodies. He encouraged the Lutherans in +the vain idea that the king thought more favorably of their religious +creed than that of the Calvinists, and exhorted them to be careful how +they damaged their good cause by any understanding with the latter. It +was not, therefore, difficult to bring about, for the moment, a union +with the Roman Catholics and the Lutherans, as its object was to keep +down their detested rivals. At dawn of day an army was opposed to the +Calvinists which was far superior in force to their own. At the head of +this army, the eloquence of Orange had far greater effect, and found far +more attention than on the preceding evening, unbacked by such strong +persuasion. The Calvinists, though in possession of arms and artillery, +yet, alarmed at the superior numbers arrayed against them, were the +first to send envoys, and to treat for an amicable adjustment of +differences, which by the tact and good temper of the Prince of Orange, +he concluded to the satisfaction of all parties. On the proclamation of +this treaty the Spaniards and Italians immdiately laid down their arms. +They were followed by the Calvinists, and these again by the Roman +Catholics; last of all the Lutherans disarmed. + +Two days and two nights Antwerp had continued in this alarming state. +During the tumult the Roman Catholics had succeeded in placing barrels +of gunpowder under the Meer Bridge, and threatened to blow into the air +the whole army of the Calvinists, who had done the same in other places +to destroy their adversaries. The destruction of the town hung on the +issue of a moment, and nothing but the prince's presence of mind saved +it. + +Noircarmes, with his army of Walloons, still lay before Valenciennes, +which, in firm reliance on being relieved by the Gueux, obstinately +refused to listen to all the representations of the regent, and rejected +every idea of surrender. An order of the court had expressly forbidden +the royalist general to press the siege until he should receive +reinforcements from Germany. Whether from forbearance or fear, the king +regarded with abhorrence the violent measure of storming the place, as +necessarily involving the innocent in the fate of the guilty, and +exposing the loyal subject to the same ill-treatment as the rebel. As, +however, the confidence of the besieged augmented daily, and emboldened +by the inactivity of the besiegers, they annoyed him by frequent +sallies, and after burning the cloisters before the town, retired with +the plunder--as the time uselessly lost before this town was put to good +use by the rebels and their allies, Noircarmes besouht the duchess to +obtain immediate permission from the king to take it by storm. The +answer arrived more quickly than Philip was ever before wont to reply. +As yet they must be content, simply to make the necessary preparations, +and then to wait awhile to allow terror to have its effect; but if upon +this they did not appear ready to capitulate, the storming might take +place, but, at the same time, with the greatest possible regard for the +lives of the inhabitants. Before the regent allowed Noircarmes to +proceed to this extremity she empowered Count Egmont, with the Duke +Arschot, to treat once more with the rebels amicably. Both conferred +with the deputies of the town, and omitted no argument calculated to +dispel their delusion. They acquainted them with the defeat of +Thoulouse, their sole support, and with the fact that the Count of Megen +had cut off the army of the Gueux from the town, and assured them that +if they had held out so long they owed it entirely to the king's +forbearance. They offered them full pardon for the past; every one was +to be free to prove his innocence before whatever tribunal he should +chose; such as did not wish to avail themselves of this privilege were +to be allowed fourteen days to quit the town with all their effects. +Nothing was required of the townspeople but the admission of the +garrison. To give time to deliberate on these terms an armistice of +three days was granted. When the deputies returned they found their +fellow-citizens less disposed than ever to an accommodation, reports of +new levies by the Gueux having, in the meantime, gained currency. +Thoulouse, it was pretended, had conquered, and was advancing with a +powerful army to relieve the place. Their confidence went so far that +they even ventured to break the armistice, and to fire upon the +besiegers. At last the burgomaster, with difficulty, succeeded in +bringing matters so far towards a peaceful settlement that twelve of the +town counsellors were sent into the camp with the following conditions: +The edict by which Valenciennes had been charged with treason and +declared an enemy to the country was required to be recalled, the +confiscation of their goods revoked, and the prisoners on both sides +restored to liberty; the garrison was not to enter the town before every +one who thought good to do so had placed himself and his property in +security; and a pledge to be given that the inhabitants should not be +molested in any manner, and that their expenses should be paid by the +king. + +Noircarmes was so indignant with these conditions that he was almost on +the point of ill-treating the deputies. If they had not come, he told +them, to give up the place, they might return forthwith, lest he should +send them home with their hands tied behind their backs. Upon this the +deputies threw the blame on the obstinacy of the Calvinists, and +entreated him, with tears in their eyes, to keep them in the camp, as +they did not, they said, wish to have anything more to do with their +rebellious townsmen, or to be joined in their fate. They even knelt to +beseech the intercession of Egmont, but Noircarmes remained deaf to all +their entreaties, and the sight of the chains which he ordered to be +brought out drove them reluctantly enough back to Valenciennes. +Necessity, not severity, imposed this harsh procedure upon the general. +The detention of ambassadors had on a former occasion drawn upon him the +reprimand of the duchess; the people in the town would not have failed +to have ascribed the non-appearance of their present deputies to the +same cause as in the former case had detained them. Besides, he was +loath to deprive the town of any out of the small residue of well- +disposed citizens, or to leave it a prey to a blind, foolhardy mob. +Egmont was so mortified at the bad report of his embassy that he the +night following rode round to reconnoitre its fortifications, and +returned well satisfied to have convinced himself that it was no longer +tenable. + +Valenciennes stretches down a gentle acclivity into the level plain, +being built on a site as strong as it is delightful. On one side +enclosed by the Scheldt and another smaller river, and on the other +protected by deep ditches, thick walls, and towers, it appears capable +of defying every attack. But Noircarmes had discovered a few points +where neglect had allowed the fosse to be filled almost up to the level +of the natural surface, and of these he determined to avail himself in +storming. He drew together all the scattered corps by which he had +invested the town, and during a tempestuous night carried the suburb of +Berg without the loss of a single man. He then assigned separate points +of attack to the Count of Bossu, the young Charles of Mansfeld, and the +younger Barlaimont, and under a terrible fire, which drove the enemy +from his walls, his troops were moved up with all possible speed. Close +before the town, and opposite the gate under the eyes of the besiegers, +and with very little loss, a battery was thrown up to an equal height +with the fortifications. From this point the town was bombarded with an +unceasing fire for four hours. The Nicolaus tower, on which the +besieged had planted some artillery, was among the first that fell, and +many perished under its ruins. The guns were directed against all the +most conspicuous buildings, and a terrible slaughter was made amongst +the inhabitants. In a few hours their principal works were destroyed, +and in the gate itself so extensive a breach was made that the besieged, +despairing of any longer defending themselves, sent in haste two +trumpeters to entreat a parley. This was granted, but the storm was +continued without intermission. The ambassador entreated Noircarmes to +grant them the same terms which only two days before they had rejected. +But circumstances had now changed, and the victor would hear no more of +conditions. The unceasing fire left the inhabitants no time to repair +the ramparts, which filled the fosse with their debris, and opened many +a breach for the enemy to enter by. Certain of utter destruction, they +surrendered next morning at discretion after a bombardment of six-and- +thirty hours without intermission, and three thousand bombs had been +thrown into the city. Noircarmes marched into the town with his +victorious army under the strictest discipline, and was received by a +crowd of women and children, who went to meet him, carrying green +boughs, and beseeching his pity. All the citizens were immediately +disarmed, the commandant and his son beheaded; thirty-six of the most +guilty of the rebels, among whom were La Grange and another Calvinistic +preacher, Guido de Bresse, atoned for their obstinacy at the gallows; +all the municipal functionaries were deprived of their offices, and the +town of all its privileges. The Roman Catholic worship was immediately +restored in full dignity, and the Protestant abolished. The Bishop of +Arras was obliged to quit his residence in the town, and a strong +garrison placed in it to insure its future obedience. + +The fate of Valenciennes, towards which all eyes had been turned, was a +warning to the other towns which had similarly offended. Noircarmes +followed up his victory, and marched immediately against Maestricht, +which surrendered without a blow, and received a garrison. From thence +he marched to Tornhut to awe by his presence the people of Herzogenbusch +and Antwerp. The Gueux in this place, who under the command of Bomberg +had carried all things before them, were now so terrified at his +approach that they quitted the town in haste. Noircarmes was received +without opposition. The ambassadors of the duchess were immediately set +at liberty. A strong garrison was thrown into Tornhut. Cambray also +opened its gates, and joyfully recalled its archbishop, whom the +Calvinists had driven from his see, and who deserved this triumph as +he did not stain his entrance with blood. Ghent, Ypres, and Oudenarde +submitted and received garrisons. Gueldres was now almost entirely +cleared of the rebels and reduced to obedience by the Count of Megen. +In Friesland and Groningen the Count of Aremberg had eventually the same +success; but it was not obtained here so rapidly or so easily, since the +count wanted consistency and firmness, and these warlike republicans +maintained more pertinaciously their privileges, and were greatly +supported by the strength of their position. With the exception of +Holland all the provinces had yielded before the victorious arms of the +duchess. The courage of the disaffected sunk entirely, and nothing was +left to them but flight or submission. + + + + + RESIGNATION OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE. + +Ever since the establishment of the Guesen league, but more perceptibly +since the outbreak of the Iconoclasts, the spirit of rebellion and +disaffection had spread so rapidly among all classes, parties had become +so blended and confused, that the regent had difficulty in +distinguishing her own adherents, and at last hardly knew on whom to +rely. The lines of demarcation between the loyal and the disaffected +had grown gradually fainter, until at last they almost entirely +vanished. The frequent alterations, too, which she had been obliged to +make in the laws, and which were at most the expedients and suggestions +of the moment, had taken from them their precision and binding force, +and had given full scope to the arbitrary will of every individual whose +office it was to interpret them. And at last, amidst the number and +variety of the interpretations, the spirit was lost and the intention of +the lawgiver baffled. The close connection which in many cases +subsisted between Protestants and Roman Catholics, between Gueux and +Royalists, and which not unfrequently gave them a common interest, led +the latter to avail themselves of the loophole which the vagueness of +the laws left open, and in favor of their Protestant friends and +associates evaded by subtle distinctions all severity in the discharge +of their duties. In their minds it was enough not to be a declared +rebel, not one of the Gueux, or at least not a heretic, to be authorized +to mould their duties to their inclinations, and to set the most +arbitrary limits to their obedience to the king. Feeling themselves +irresponsible, the governors of the provinces, the civil functionaries, +both high and low, the municipal officers, and the military commanders +had all become extremely remiss in their duty, and presuming upon this +impunity showed a pernicious indulgence to the rebels and their +adherents which rendered abortive all the regent's measures of coercion. +This general indifference and corruption of so many servants of the +state had further this injurious result, that it led the turbulent to +reckon on far stronger support than in reality they had cause for, and +to count on their own side all who were but lukewarm adherents of the +court. This way of thinking, erroneous as it was, gave them greater +courage and confidence; it had the same effect as if it had been well +founded; and the uncertain vassals of the king became in consequence +almost as injurious to him as his declared enemies, without at the same +time being liable to the same measures of severity. This was especially +the case with the Prince of Orange, Counts Egmont, Bergen, Hogstraten, +Horn, and several others of the higher nobility. The regent felt the +necessity of bringing these doubtful subjects to an explanation, in +order either to deprive the rebels of a fancied support or to unmask the +enemies of the king. And the latter reason was of the more urgent +moment when being obliged to send an army into the field it was of the +utmost importance to entrust the command of the troops to none but those +of whose fidelity she was fully assured. She caused, therefore, an oath +to be drawn up which bound all who took it to advance the Roman Catholic +faith, to pursue and punish the Iconoclasts, and to help by every means +in their power in extirpating all kinds of heresy. It also pledged them +to treat the king's enemies as their own, and to serve without +distinction against all whom the regent in the king's name should point +out. By this oath she did not hope so much to test their sincerity, and +still less to secure them, as rather to gain a pretext for removing the +suspected parties if they declined to take it, and for wresting from +their hands a power which they abused, or a legitimate ground for +punishing them if they took it and broke it. This oath was exacted from +all Knights of the Fleece, all civil functionaries and magistrates, all +officers of the army--from every one in short who held any appointment +in the state. Count Mansfeld was the first who publicly took it in the +council of state at Brussels; his example was followed by the Duke of +Arschot, Counts Egmont, Megen, and Barlaimont. Hogstraten and Horn +endeavored to evade the necessity. The former was offended at a proof +of distrust which shortly before the regent had given him. Under the +pretext that Malines could not safely be left any longer without its +governor, but that the presence of the count was no less necessary in +Antwerp, she had taken from him that province and given it to another +whose fidelity she could better reckon upon. Hostraten expressed his +thanks that she had been pleased to release him from one of his burdens, +adding that she would complete the obligation if she would relieve him +from the other also. True to his determination Count Horn was living +on one of his estates in the strong town of Weerdt, having retired +altogether from public affairs. Having quitted the service of the +state, he owed, he thought, nothing more either to the republic or to +the king, and declined the oath, which in his case appears at last to +have been waived. + +The Count of Brederode was left the choice of either taking the +prescribed oath or resigning the command of his squadron of cavalry. +After many fruitless attempts to evade the alternative, on the plea that +he did not hold office in the state, he at last resolved upon the latter +course, and thereby escaped all risk of perjuring himself. + +Vain were all the attempts to prevail on the Prince of Orange to take +the oath, who, from the suspicion which had long attached to him, +required more than any other this purification; and from whom the great +power which it had been necessary to place in his hands fully justified +the regent in exacting it. It was not, however, advisable to proceed +against him with the laconic brevity adopted towards Brederode and the +like; on the other hand, the voluntary resignation of all his offices, +which he tendered, did not meet the object of the regent, who foresaw +clearly enough how really dangerous he would become, as soon as he +should feel himself independent, and be no longer checked by any +external considerations of character or duty in the prosecution of his +secret designs. But ever since the consultation in Dendermonde the +Prince of Orange had made up his mind to quit the service of the King of +Spain on the first favorable opportunity, and till better days to leave +the country itself. A very disheartening experience had taught him how +uncertain are hopes built on the multitude, and how quickly their zeal +is cooled by the necessity of fulfilling its lofty promises. An army +was already in the field, and a far stronger one was, he knew, on its +road, under the command of the Duke of Alva. The time for remonstrauces +was past; it was only at the head of an army that an advantageous treaty +could now be concluded with the regent, and by preventing the entrance +of the Spanish general. But now where was he to raise this army, in +want as he was of money, the sinews of warfare, since the Protestants +had retracted their boastful promises and deserted him in this pressing +emergency? + + [How valiant the wish, and how sorry the deed was, is proved by the + following instance amongst others. Some friends of the national + liberty, Roman Catholics as well as Protestants, had solemnly + engaged in Amsterdam to subscribe to a common fund the hundredth + penny of their estates, until a sum of eleven thousand florins + should be collected, which was to be devoted to the common cause + and interests. An alms-box, protected by three locks, was prepared + for the reception of these contributions. After the expiration of + the prescribed period it was opened, and a sum was found amounting + to seven hundred florins, which was given to the hostess of the + Count of Brederode, in part payment of his unliquidated score. + Univ. Hist. of the N., vol. 3.] + +Religious jealousy and hatred, moreover, separated the two Protestant +churches, and stood in the way of every salutary combination against +the common enemy of their faith. The rejection of the Confession of +Augsburg by the Calvinists had exasperated all the Protestant princes of +Germany, so that no support was to be looked for from the empire. With +Count Egmont the excellent army of Walloons was also lost to the cause, +for they followed with blind devotion the fortunes of their general, who +had taught them at St. Quentin and Gravelines to be invincible. And +again, the outrages which the Iconoclasts had perpetrated on the +churches and convents had estranged from the league the numerous, +wealthy, and powerful class of the established clergy, who, before this +unlucky episode, were already more than half gained over to it; while, +by her intrigues, the regent daily contrived to deprive the league +itself of some one or other of its most influential members. + +All these considerations combined induced the prince to postpone to +a more favorable season a project for which the present juncture was +little suited, and to leave a country where his longer stay could not +effect any advantage for it, but must bring certain destruction on +himself. After intelligence gleaned from so many quarters, after so +many proofs of distrust, so many warnings from Madrid, he could be no +longer doubtful of the sentiments of Philip towards him. If even he +had any doubt, his uncertainty would soon have been dispelled by the +formidable armament which was preparing in Spain, and which was to have +for its leader, not the king, as was falsely given out, but, as he was +better informed, the Duke of Alva, his personal enemy, and the very man +he had most cause to fear. The prince had seen too deeply into Philip's +heart to believe in the sincerity of his reconciliation after having +once awakened his fears. He judged his own conduct too justly to +reckon, like his friend Egmont, on reaping a gratitude from the king to +which he had not sown. He could therefore expect nothing but hostility +from him, and prudence counselled him to screen himself by a timely +flight from its actual outbreak. He had hitherto obstinately refused +to take the new oath, and all the written exhortations of the regent +had been fruitless. At last she sent to him at Antwerp her private +secretary, Berti, who was to put the matter emphatically to his +conscience, and forcibly remind him of all the evil consequences which +so sudden a retirement from the royal service would draw upon the +country, as well as the irreparable injury it would do to his own fair +fame. Already, she informed him by her ambassador, his declining the +required oath had cast a shade upon his honor, and imparted to the +general voice, which accused him of an understanding with the rebels, an +appearance of truth which this unconditional resignation would convert +to absolute certainty. It was for the sovereign to discharge his +servants, but it did not become the servant to abandon his sovereign. +The envoy of the regent found the prince in his palace at Antwerp, +already, as it appeared, withdrawn from the public service, and entirely +devoted to his private concerns. The prince told him, in the presence +of Hogstraten, that he had refused to take the required oath because he +could not find that such a proposition had ever before been made to a +governor of a province; because he had already bound himself, once for +all, to the king, and therefore, by taking this new oath, he would +tacitly acknowledge that he had broken the first. He had also refused +because the old oath enjoined him to protect the rights and privileges +of the country, but he could not tell whether this new one might not +impose upon him duties which would contravene the first; because, too, +the clause which bound him to serve, if required, against all without +distinction, did not except even the emperor, his feudal lord, against +whom, however, he, as his vassal, could not conscientiously make war. +He had refused to take this oath because it might impose upon him the +necessity of surrendering his friends and relations, his children, nay, +even his wife, who was a Lutheran, to butchery. According to it, +moreover, he must lend himself to every thing which it should occur to +the king's fancy or passion to demand. But the king might thus exact +from him things which he shuddered even to think of, and even the +severities which were now, and had been all along, exercised upon the +Protestants, were the most revolting to his heart. This oath, in short, +was repugnant to his feelings as a man, and he could not take it. In +conclusion, the name of the Duke of Alva dropped from his lips in a tone +of bitterness, and he became immediately silent. + +All these objections were answered, point by point, by Berti. Certainly +such an oath had never been required from a governor before him, because +the provinces had never been similarly circumstanced. It was not +exacted because the governors had broken the first, but in order to +remind them vividly of their former vows, and to freshen their activity +in the present emergency. This oath would not impose upon him anything +which offended against the rights and privileges of the country, for the +king had sworn to observe these as well as the Prince of Orange. The +oath did not, it was true, contain any reference to a war with the +emperor, or any other sovereign to whom the prince might be related; and +if he really had scruples on this point, a distinct clause could easily +be inserted, expressly providing against such a contingency. Care would +be taken to spare him any duties which were repugnant to his feelings as +a man, and no power on earth would compel him to act against his wife or +against his children. Berti was then passing to the last point, which +related to the Duke of Alva, but the prince, who did not wish to have +this part of his discourse canvassed, interrupted him. "The king was +coming to the Netherlands," he said, "and he knew the king. The king +would not endure that one of his servants should have wedded a Lutheran, +and he had therefore resolved to go with his whole family into voluntary +banishment before he was obliged to submit to the same by compulsion. +But," he concluded, "wherever he might be, he would always conduct +himself as a subject of the king." Thus far-fetched were the motives +which the prince adduced to avoid touching upon the single one which +really decided him. + +Berti had still a hope of obtaining, through Egmont's eloquence, what by +his own he despaired of effecting. He therefore proposed a meeting with +the latter (1567), which the prince assented to the more willingly as he +himself felt a desire to embrace his friend once more before his +departure, and if possible to snatch the deluded man from certain +destruction. This remarkable meeting, at which the private secretary, +Berti, and the young Count Mansfeld, were also present, was the last +that the two friends ever held, and took place in Villebroeck, a village +on the Rupel, between Brussels and Antwerp. The Calvinists, whose last +hope rested on the issue of this conference, found means to acquaint +themselves of its import by a spy, who concealed himself in the chimney +of the apartment where it was held. All three attempted to shake the +determination of the prince, but their united eloquence was unable to +move him from his purpose. "It will cost you your estates, Orange, if +you persist in this intention," said the Prince of Gaure, as he took him +aside to a window. "And you your life, Egmont, if you change not +yours," replied the former. "To me it will at least be a consolation in +my misfortunes that I desired, in deed as well as in word, to help my +country and my friends in the hour of need; but you, my friend, you are +dragging friends and country with you to destruction." And saying these +words, he once again exhorted him, still more urgently than ever, to +return to the cause of his country, which his arm alone was yet able to +preserve; if not, at least for his own sake to avoid the tempest which +was gathering against him from Spain. + +But all the arguments, however lucid, with which a far-discerning +prudence supplied him, and however urgently enforced, with all the ardor +and animation which the tender anxiety of friendship could alone +inspire, did not avail to destroy the fatal confidence which still +fettered Egmont's better reason. The warning of Orange seemed to come +from a sad and dispirited heart; but for Egmont the world still smiled. +To abandon the pomp and affluence in which he had grown up to youth and +manhood; to part with all the thousand conveniences of life which alone +made it valuable to him, and all this to escape an evil which his +buoyant spirit regarded as remote, if not imaginary; no, that was not a +sacrifice which could be asked from Egmont. But had he even been less +given to indulgence than he was, with what heart could he have consigned +a princess, accustomed by uninterrupted prosperity to ease and comfort, +a wife who loved him as dearly as she was beloved, the children on whom +his soul hung in hope and fondness, to privations at the prospect of +which his own courage sank, and which a sublime philosophy alone can +enable sensuality to undergo. "You will never persuade me, Orange," +said Egmont, "to see things in the gloomy light in which they appear to +thy mournful prudence. When I have succeeded in abolishing the public +preachings, and chastising the Iconoclasts, in crushing the rebels, and +restoring peace and order in the provinces, what can the king lay to my +charge? The king is good and just; I have claims upon his gratitude, +and I must not forget what I owe to myself." "Well, then," cried +Orange, indignantly and with bitter anguish, "trust, if you will, to +this royal gratitude; but a mournful presentiment tells me--and may +Heaven grant that I am deceived!--that you, Egmont, will be the bridge +by which the Spaniards will pass into our country to destroy it." After +these words, he drew him to his bosom, ardently clasping him in his +arms. Long, as though the sight was to serve for the remainder of his +life, did he keep his eyes fixed upon him; the tears fell; they saw each +other no more. + +The very next day the Prince of Orange wrote his letter of resignation +to the regent, in which he assured her of his perpetual esteem, and once +again entreated her to put the best interpretation on his present step. +He then set off with his three brothers and his whole family for his own +town of Breda, where he remained only as long as was requisite to +arrange some private affairs. His eldest son, Prince Philip William, +was left behind at the University of Louvain, where he thought him +sufficiently secure under the protection of the privileges of Brabant +and the immunities of the academy; an imprudence which, if it was really +not designed, can hardly be reconciled with the just estimate which, in +so many other cases, he had taken of the character of his adversary. In +Breda the heads of the Calvinists once more consulted him whether there +was still hope for them, or whether all was irretrievably lost. "He had +before advised them," replied the prince, "and must now do so again, to +accede to the Confession of Augsburg; then they might rely upon aid from +Germany. If they would still not consent to this, they must raise six +hundred thousand florins, or more, if they could." "The first," they +answered, "was at variance with their conviction and their conscience; +but means might perhaps be found to raise the money if he would only let +them know for what purpose he would use it." "No!" cried he, with the +utmost displeasure, "if I must tell you that, it is all over with the +use of it." With these words he immediately broke off the conference +and dismissed the deputies. + +The Prince of Orange was reproached with having squandered his fortune, +and with favoring the innovations on account of his debts; but he +asserted that he still enjoyed sixty thousand florins yearly rental. +Before his departure he borrowed twenty thousand florins from the states +of Holland on the mortgage of some manors. Men could hardly persuade +themselves that he would have succumbed to necessity so entirely, and +without an effort at resistance given up all his hopes and schemes. But +what he secretly meditated no one knew, no one had read in his heart. +Being asked how he intended to conduct himself towards the King of +Spain, "Quietly," was his answer, "unless he touches my honor or my +estates." He left the Netherlands soon afterwards, and betook himself +in retirement to the town of Dillenburg, in Nassau, at which place he +was born. He was accompanied to Germany by many hundreds, either as his +servants or as volunteers, and was soon followed by Counts Hogstraten, +Kuilemberg, and Bergen, who preferred to share a voluntary exile with +him rather than recklessly involve themselves in an uncertain destiny. +In his departure the nation saw the flight of its guardian angel; many +had adored, all had honored him. With him the last stay of the +Protestants gave way; they, however, had greater hopes from this man +in exile than from all the others together who remained behind. Even +the Roman Catholics could not witness his departure without regret. +Them also had he shielded from tyranny; he had not unfrequently +protected them against the oppression of their own church, and he had +rescued many of them from the sanguinary jealousy of their religious +opponents. A few fanatics among the Calvinists, who were offended with +his proposal of an alliance with their brethren, who avowed the +Confession of Augsburg, solemnized with secret thanksgivings the day on +which the enemy left them. (1567). + + + + + DECAY AND DISPERSION OF THE GEUSEN LEAGUE. + +Immediately after taking leave of his friend, the Prince of Gaure +hastened back to Brussels, to receive from the regent the reward of his +firmness, and there, in the excitement of the court and in the sunshine +of his good fortune, to dispel the light cloud which the earnest +warnings of the Prince of Orange had cast over his natural gayety. +The flight of the latter now left him in possession of the stage. +He had now no longer any rival in the republic to dim his glory. With +redoubled zeal he wooed the transient favor of the court, above which he +ought to have felt himself far exalted. All Brussels must participate +in his joy. He gave splendid banquets and public entertainments, at +which, the better to eradicate all suspicion from his mind, the regent +herself frequently attended. Not content with having taken the required +oath, he outstripped the most devout in devotion; outran the most +zealous in zeal to extirpate the Protestant faith, and to reduce by +force of arms the refractory towns of Flanders. He declared to his old +friend, Count Hogstraten, as also to the rest of the Gueux, that he +would withdraw from them his friendship forever if they hesitated any +longer to return into the bosom of the church, and reconcile themselves +with their king. All the confidential letters which had been exchanged +between him and them were returned, and by this last step the breach +between them was made public and irreparable. Egmont's secession, and +the flight of the Prince of Orange, destroyed the last hope of the +Protestants and dissolved the whole league of the Gueux. Its members +vied with each other in readiness--nay, they could not soon enough +abjure the covenant and take the new oath proposed to them by the +government. In vain did the Protestant merchants exclaim at this breach +of faith on the part of the nobles; their weak voice was no longer +listened to, and all the sums were lost with which they had supplied the +league. + +The most important places were quickly reduced and garrisoned; the +rebels had fled, or perished by the hand of the executioner; in the +provinces no protector was left. All yielded to the fortune of the +regent, and her victorious army was advancing against Antwerp. After a +long and obstinate contest this town had been cleared of the worst +rebels; Hermann and his adherents took to flight; the internal storms +had spent their rage. The minds of the people became gradually +composed, and no longer excited at will by every furious fanatic, began +to listen to better counsels. The wealthier citizens earnestly longed +for peace to revive commerce and trade, which had suffered severely from +the long reign of anarchy. The dread of Alva's approach worked wonders; +in order to prevent the miseries which a Spanish army would inflict upon +the country, the people hastened to throw themselves on the gentler +mercies of the regent. Of their own accord they despatched +plenipotentiaries to Brussels to negotiate for a treaty and to hear her +terms. Agreeably as the regent was surprised by this voluntary step, +she did not allow herself to be hurried away by her joy. She declared +that she neither could nor would listen to any overtures or +representations until the town had received a garrison. Even this was +no longer opposed, and Count Mansfeld marched in the day after with +sixteen squadrons in battle array. A solemn treaty was now made between +the town and duchess, by which the former bound itself to prohibit the +Calvinistic form of worship, to banish all preachers of that persuasion, +to restore the Roman Catholic religion to its former dignity, to +decorate the despoiled churches with their former ornaments, to +administer the old edicts as before, to take the new oath which the +other towns had sworn to, and, lastly, to deliver into the hands of +justice all who been guilty of treason, in bearing arms, or taking part +in the desecration of the churches. On the other hand, the regent +pledged herself to forget all that had passed, and even to intercede for +the offenders with the king. All those who, being dubious of obtaining +pardon, preferred banishment, were to be allowed a month to convert +their property into money, and place themselves in safety. From this +grace none were to be excluded but such as had been guilty of a capital +offence, and who were excepted by the previous article. Immediately +upon the conclusion of this treaty all Calvinist and Lutheran preachers +in Antwerp, and the adjoining territory, were warned by the herald to +quit the country within twenty-four hours. All the streets and gates +were now thronged with fugitives, who for the honor of their God +abandoned what was dearest to them, and sought a more peaceful home for +their persecuted faith. Here husbands were taking an eternal farewell +of their wives, fathers of their children; there whole families were +preparing to depart. All Antwerp resembled a house of mourning; +wherever the eye turned some affecting spectacle of painful separation +presented itself. A seal was set on the doors of the Protestant +churches; the whole worship seemed to be extinct. The 10th of April +(1567) was the day appointed for the departure of the preachers. In the +town hall, where they appeared for the last time to take leave of the +magistrate, they could not command their grief; but broke forth into +bitter reproaches. They had been sacrificed, they exclaimed, they had +been shamefully betrayed; but a time would come when Antwerp would pay +dearly enough for this baseness. Still more bitter were the complaints +of the Lutheran clergy, whom the magistrate himself had invited into the +country to preach against the Calvinists. Under the delusive +representation that the king was not unfavorable to their religion they +had been seduced into a combination against the Calvinists, but as soon +as the latter had been by their co-operation brought under subjection, +and their own services were no longer required, they were left to bewail +their folly, which had involved themselves and their enemies in common +ruin. + +A few days afterwards the regent entered Antwerp in triumph, accompanied +by a thousand Walloon horse, the Knights of the Golden Fleece, all the +governors and counsellors, a number of municipal officers, and her whole +court. Her first visit was to the cathedral, which still bore +lamentable traces of the violence of the Iconoclasts, and drew from her +many and bitter tears. Immediately afterwards four of the rebels, who +had been overtaken in their flight, were brought in and executed in the +public market-place. All the children who had been baptized after the +Protestant rites were rebaptized by Roman Catholic priests; all the +schools of heretics were closed, and their churches levelled to the +ground. Nearly all the towns in the Netherlands followed the example of +Antwerp and banished the Protestant preachers. By the end of April the +Roman Catholic churches were repaired and embellished more splendidly +than ever, while all the Protestant places of worship were pulled down, +and every vestige of the proscribed belief obliterated in the seventeen +provinces. The populace, whose sympathies are generally with the +successful party, was now as active in accelerating the ruin of the +unfortunate as a short time before it had been furiously zealous in its +cause; in Ghent a large and beautiful church which the Calvinists had +erected was attacked, and in less than an hour had wholly disappeared. +From the beams of the roofless churches gibbets were erected for those +who had profaned the sanctuaries of the Roman Catholics. The places of +execution were filled with corpses, the prisons with condemned victims, +the high roads with fugitives. Innumerable were the victims of this +year of murder; in the smallest towns fifty at least, in several of the +larger as many as three hundred, were put to death, while no account was +kept of the numbers in the open country who fell into the hands of the +provost-marshal and were immediately strung up as miscreants, without +trial and without mercy. + +The regent was still in Antwerp when ambassadors presented themselves +from the Electors of Brandenburg, Saxony, Hesse, Wurtemberg, and Baden +to intercede for their fugitive brethren in the faith. The expelled +preachers of the Augsburg Confession had claimed the rights assured to +them by the religious peace of the Germans, in which Brabant, as part of +the empire, participated, and had thrown themselves on the protection of +those princes. The arrival of the foreign ministers alarmed the regent, +and she vainly endeavored to prevent their entrance into Antwerp; under +the guise, however, of showing them marks of honor, she continued to +keep them closely watched lest they should encourage the malcontents in +any attempts against the peace of the town. From the high tone which +they most unreasonably adopted towards the regent it might almost be +inferred that they were little in earnest in their demand. "It was but +reasonable," they said, "that the Confession of Augsburg, as the only +one which met the spirit of the gospel, should be the ruling faith in +the Netherlands; but to persecute it by such cruel edicts as were in +force was positively unnatural and could not be allowed. They therefore +required of the regent, in the name of religion, not to treat the people +entrusted to her rule with such severity." She replied through the Count +of Staremberg, her minister for German affairs, that such an exordium +deserved no answer at all. From the sympathy which the German princes +had shown for the Belgian fugitives it was clear that they gave less +credit to the letters of the king, in explanation of his measures, than +to the reports of a few worthless wretches who, in the desecrated +churches, had left behind them a worthier memorial of their acts and +characters. It would far more become them to leave to the King of Spain +the care of his own subjects, and abandon the attempt to foster a spirit +of rebellion in foreign countries, from which they would reap neither +honor nor profit. The ambassadors left Antwerp in a few days without +having effected anything. The Saxon minister, indeed, in a private +interview with the regent even assured her that his master had most +reluctantly taken this step. + +The German ambassadors had not quitted Antwerp when intelligence from +Holland completed the triumph of the regent. From fear of Count Megen +Count Brederode had deserted his town of Viane, and with the aid of the +Protestants inhabitants had succeeded in throwing himself into +Amsterdam, where his arrival caused great alarm to the city magistrate, +who had previously found difficulty in preventing a revolt, while it +revived the courage of the Protestants. Here Brederode's adherents +increased daily, and many noblemen flocked to him from Utrecht, +Friesland, and Groningen, whence the victorious arms of Megen and +Aremberg had driven them. Under various disguises they found means to +steal into the city, where they gathered round Brederode, and served him +as a strong body-guard. The regent, apprehensive of a new outbreak, +sent one of her private secretaries, Jacob de la Torre, to the council +of Amsterdam, and ordered them to get rid of Count Brederode on any +terms and at any risk. Neither the magistrate nor de la Torre himself, +who visited Brederode in person to acquaint him with the will of the +duchess, could prevail upon him to depart. The secretary was even +surprised in his own chamber by a party of Brederode's followers, and +deprived of all his papers, and would, perhaps, have lost his life also +if he had not contrived to make his escape. Brederode remained in +Amsterdam a full month after this occurrence, a powerless idol of the +Protestants, and an oppressive burden to the Roman Catholics; while his +fine army, which he had left in Viane, reinforced by many fugitives from +the southern provinces, gave Count Megen enough to do without attempting +to harass the Protestants in their flight. At last Brederode resolved +to follow the example of Orange, and, yielding to necessity, abandon a +desperate cause. He informed the town council that he was willing to +leave Amsterdam if they would enable him to do so by furnishing him with +the pecuniary means. Glad to get quit of him, they hastened to borrow +the money on the security of the town council. Brederode quitted +Amsterdam the same night, and was conveyed in a gunboat as far as Vlie, +from whence he fortunately escaped to Embden. Fate treated him more +mildly than the majority of those he had implicated in his foolhardy +enterprise; he died the year after, 1568, at one of his castles in +Germany, from the effects of drinking, by which he sought ultimately to +drown his grief and disappoint ments. His widow, Countess of Moers in +her own right, was remarried to the Prince Palatine, Frederick III. The +Protestant cause lost but little by his demise; the work which he had +commenced, as it had not been kept alive by him, so it did not die with +him. + +The little army, which in his disgraceful flight he had deserted, was +bold and valiant, and had a few resolute leaders. It disbanded, indeed, +as soon as he, to whom it looked for pay, had fled; but hunger and +courage kept its parts together some time longer. One body, under +command of Dietrich of Battenburgh, marched to Amsterdam in the hope of +carrying that town; but Count Megen hastened with thirteen companies of +excellent troops to its relief, and compelled the rebels to give up the +attempt. Contenting themselves with plundering the neighboring +cloisters, among which the abbey of Egmont in particular was hardly +dealt with, they turned off towards Waaterland, where they hoped the +numerous swamps would protect them from pursuit. But thither Count +Megen followed them, and compelled them in all haste to seek safety in +the Zuyderzee. The brothers Van Battenburg, and two Friesan nobles, +Beima and Galama, with a hundred and twenty men and the booty they had +taken from the monasteries, embarked near the town of Hoorne, intending +to cross to Friesland, but through the treachery of the steersman, who +ran the vessel on a sand-bank near Harlingen, they fell into the hands +of one of Aremberg's captains, who took them all prisoners. The Count +of Aremberg immediately pronounced sentence upon all the captives of +plebeian rank, but sent his noble prisoners to the regent, who caused +seven of them to be beheaded. Seven others of the most noble, including +the brothers Van Battenburg and some Frieslanders, all in the bloom of +youth, were reserved for the Duke of Alva, to enable him to signalize +the commencement of his administration by a deed which was in every way +worthy of him. The troops in four other vessels which set sail from +Medenhlick, and were pursued by Count Megen in small boats, were more +successful. A contrary wind had forced them out of their course and +driven them ashore on the coast of Gueldres, where they all got safe to +land; crossing the Rhine, near Heusen, they fortunately escaped into +Cleves, where they tore their flags in pieces and dispersed. In North +Holland Count Megen overtook some squadrons who had lingered too long in +plundering the cloisters, and completely overpowered them. He +afterwards formed a junction with Noircarmes and garrisoned Amsterdam. +The Duke Erich of Brunswick also surprised three companies, the last +remains of the army of the Gueux, near Viane, where they were +endeavoring to take a battery, routed them and captured their leader, +Rennesse, who was shortly afterwards beheaded at the castle of +Freudenburg, in Utrecht. Subsequently, when Duke Erich entered Viane, +he found nothing but deserted streets, the inhabitants having left it +with the garrison on the first alarm. He immediately razed the +fortifications, and reduced this arsenal of the Gueux to an open town +without defences. All the originators of the league were now dispersed; +Brederode and Louis of Nassau had fled to Germany, and Counts +Hogstraten, Bergen, and Kuilemberg had followed their example. +Mansfeld had seceded, the brothers Van Battenburg awaited in prison an +ignomonious fate, while Thoulouse alone had found an honorable death on +the field of battle. Those of the confederates who had escaped the +sword of the enemy and the axe of the executioner had saved nothing but +their lives, and thus the title which they had assumed for show became +at last a terrible reality. + +Such was the inglorious end of the noble league, which in its beginning +awakened such fair hopes and promised to become a powerful protection +against oppression. Unanimity was its strength, distrust and internal +dissension its ruin. It brought to light and developed many rare and +beautiful virtues, but it wanted the most indispensable of all, prudence +and moderation, without which any undertaking must miscarry, and all the +fruits of the most laborious industry perish. If its objects had been +as pure as it pretended, or even had they remained as pure as they +really were at its first establishment, it might have defied the +unfortunate combination of circumstances which prematurely overwhelmed +it, and even if unsuccessful it would still have deserved an honorable +mention in history. But it is too evident that the confederate nobles, +whether directly or indirectly, took a greater share in the frantic +excesses of the Iconoclasts than comported with the dignity and +blamelessness of their confederation, and many among them openly +exchanged their own good cause for the mad enterprise of these worthless +vagabonds. The restriction of the Inquisition and a mitigation of the +cruel inhumanity of the edicts must be laid to the credit of the league; +but this transient relief was dearly purchased, at the cost of so many +of the best and bravest citizens, who either lost their lives in the +field, or in exile carried their wealth and industry to another quarter +of the world; and of the presence of Alva and the Spanish arms. Many, +too, of its peaceable citizens, who without its dangerous temptations +would never have been seduced from the ranks of peace and order, were +beguiled by the hope of success into the most culpable enterprises, and +by their failure plunged into ruin and misery. But it cannot be denied +that the league atoned in some measure for these wrongs by positive +benefits. It brought together and emboldened many whom a selfish +pusillanimity kept asunder and inactive; it diffused a salutary public +spirit amongst the Belgian people, which the oppression of the +government had almost entirely extinguished, and gave unanimity and a +common voice to the scattered members of the nation, the absence of +which alone makes despots bold. The attempt, indeed, failed, and the +knots, too carelessly tied, were quickly unloosed; but it was through +such failures that the nation was eventually to attain to a firm and +lasting union, which should bid defiance to change. + +The total destruction of the Geusen army quickly brought the Dutch towns +also back to their obedience, and in the provinces there remained not a +single place which had not submitted to the regent; but the increasing +emigration, both of the natives and the foreign residents, threatened +the country with depopulation. In Amsterdam the crowd of fugitives was +so great that vessels were wanting to convey them across the North Sea +and the Zuyderzee, and that flourishing emporium beheld with dismay the +approaching downfall of its prosperity. Alarmed at this general flight, +the regent hastened to write letters to all the towns, to encourage the +citizens to remain, and by fair promises to revive a hope of better and +milder measures. In the king's name she promised to all who would +freely swear to obey the state and the church complete indemnity, and by +public proclamation invited the fugitives to trust to the royal clemency +and return to their homes. She engaged also to relieve the nation from +the dreaded presence of a Spanish army, even if it were already on the +frontiers; nay, she went so far as to drop hints that, if necessary, +means might be found to prevent it by force from entering the provinces, +as she was fully determined not to relinquish to another the glory of a +peace which it had cost her so much labor to effect. Few, however, +returned in reliance upon her word, and these few had cause to repent it +in the sequel; many thousands had already quitted the country, and +several thousands more quickly followed them. Germany and England were +filled with Flemish emigrants, who, wherever they settled, retained +their usages and manners, and even their costume, unwilling to come to +the painful conclusion that they should never again see their native +land, and to give up all hopes of return. Few carried with them any +remains of their former affluence; the greater portion had to beg their +way, and bestowed on their adopted country nothing but industrious skill +and honest citizens. + +And now the regent hastened to report to the king tidings such as, +during her whole administration, she had never before been able to +gratify him with. She announced to him that she had succeeded in +restoring quiet throughout the provinces, and that she thought herself +strong enough to maintain it. The sects were extirpated, and the Roman +Catholic worship re-established in all its former splendor; the rebels +had either already met with, or were awaiting in prison, the punishment +they deserved; the towns were secured by adequate garrisons. There was +therefore no necessity for sending Spanish troops into the Netherlands, +and nothing to justify their entrance. Their arrival would tend to +destroy the existing repose, which it had cost so much to establish, +would check the much-desired revival of commerce and trade, and, while +it would involve the country in new expenses, would at the same time +deprive them of the only means of supporting them. The mere rumor of +the approach of a Spanish army had stripped the country of many +thousands of its most valuable citizens; its actual appearance would +reduce it to a desert. As there was no longer any enemy to subdue, or +rebellion to suppress, the people would see no motive for the march of +this army but punishment and revenge, and under this supposition its +arrival would neither be welcomed nor honored. No longer excused by +necessity, this violent expedient would assume the odious aspect of +oppression, would exasperate the national mind afresh, drive the +Protestants to desperation, and arm their brethren in other countries in +their defence. The regent, she said, had in the king's name promised +the nation it should be relieved from this foreign army, and to this +stipulation she was principally indebted for the present peace; she +could not therefore guarantee its long continuance if her pledge was not +faithfully fulfilled. The Netherlands would receive him as their +sovereign, the king, with every mark of attachment and veneration, but +he must come as a father to bless, not as a despot to chastise them. +Let him come to enjoy the peace which she had bestowed on the country, +but not to destroy it afresh. + + + + + ALVA'S ARMAMENT AND EXPEDITION TO THE NETHERLANDS. + +But it was otherwise determined in the council at Madrid. The minister, +Granvella, who, even while absent himself, ruled the Spanish cabinet by +his adherents; the Cardinal Grand Inquisitor, Spinosa, and the Duke of +Alva, swayed respectively by hatred, a spirit of persecution, or private +interest, had outvoted the milder councils of the Prince Ruy Gomes of +Eboli, the Count of Feria, and the king's confessor, Fresneda. The +insurrection, it was urged by the former, was indeed quelled for the +present, but only because the rebels were awed by the rumor of the +king's armed approach; it was to fear of punishment alone, and not to +sorrow for their crime, that the present calm was to be ascribed, and +it would soon again be broken if that feeling were allowed to subside. +In fact, the offences of the people fairly afforded the king the +opportunity he had so long desired of carrying out his despotic views +with an appearance of justice. The peaceable settlement for which the +regent took credit to herself was very far from according with his +wishes, which sought rather for a legitimate pretext to deprive the +provinces of their privileges, which were so obnoxious to his despotic +temper. + +With an impenetrable dissimulation Philip had hitherto fostered the +general delusion that he was about to visit the provinces in person, +while all along nothing could have been more remote from his real +intentions. Travelling at any time ill suited the methodical regularity +of his life, which moved with the precision of clockwork; and his narrow +and sluggish intellect was oppressed by the variety and multitude of +objects with which new scenes crowded it. The difficulties and dangers +which would attend a journey to the Netherlands must, therefore, have +been peculiarly alarming to his natural timidity and love of ease. Why +should he, who, in all that he did, was accustomed to consider himself +alone, and to make men accommodate themselves to his principles, not his +principles to men, undertake so perilous an expedition, when he could +see neither the advantage nor necessity of it. Moreover, as it had ever +been to him an utter impossibility to separate, even for a moment, his +person from his royal dignity, which no prince ever guarded so +tenaciously and pedantically as himself, so the magnificence and +ceremony which in his mind were inseparably connected with such a +journey, and the expenses which, on this account, it would necessarily +occasion, were of themselves sufficient motives to account for his +indisposition to it, without its being at all requisite to call in the +aid of the influence of his favorite, Ruy Gomes, who is said to have +desired to separate his rival, the Duke of Alva, from the king. Little, +however, as be seriously intended this journey, he still deemed it +advisable to keep up the expectation of it, as well with a view of +sustaining the courage of the loyal as of preventing a dangerous +combination of the disaffected, and stopping the further progress +of the rebels. + +In order to carry on the deception as long as possible, Philip made +extensive preparations for his departure, and neglected nothing which +could be required for such an event. He ordered ships to be fitted out, +appointed the officers and others to attend him. To allay the suspicion +such warlike preparations might excite in all foreign courts, they were +informed through his ambassadors of his real design. He applied to the +King of France for a passage for himself and attendants through that +kingdom, and consulted the Duke of Savoy as to the preferable route. He +caused a list to be drawn up of all the towns and fortified places that +lay in his march, and directed all the intermediate distances to be +accurately laid down. Orders were issued for taking a map and survey of +the whole extent of country between Savoy and Burgundy, the duke being +requested to furnish the requisite surveyors and scientific officers. +To such lengths was the deception carried that the regent was commanded +to hold eight vessels at least in readiness off Zealand, and to despatch +them to meet the king the instant she heard of his having sailed from +Spain; and these ships she actually got ready, and caused prayers to be +offered up in all the churches for the king's safety during the voyage, +though in secret many persons did not scruple to remark that in his +chamber at Madrid his majesty would not have much cause to dread the +storms at sea. Philip played his part with such masterly skill that the +Belgian ambassadors at Madrid, Lords Bergen and Montigny, who at first +had disbelieved in the sincerity of his pretended journey, began at last +to be alarmed, and infected their friends in Brussels with similar +apprehensions. An attack of tertian ague, which about this time the +king suffered, or perhaps feigned, in Segovia, afforded a plausible +pretence for postponing his journey, while meantime the preparations for +it were carried on with the utmost activity. At last, when the urgent +and repeated solicitations of his sister compelled him to make a +definite explanation of his plans, he gave orders that the Duke of Alva +should set out forthwith with an army, both to clear the way before him +of rebels, and to enhance the splendor of his own royal arrival. He did +not yet venture to throw off the mask and announce the duke as his +substitute. He had but too much reason to fear that the submission +which his Flemish nobles would cheerfully yield to their sovereign would +be refused to one of his servants, whose cruel character was well known, +and who, moreover, was detested as a foreigner and the enemy of their +constitution. And, in fact, the universal belief that the king was soon +to follow, which long survived Alva's entrance into the country, +restrained the outbreak of disturbances which otherwise would assuredly +have been caused by the cruelties which marked the very opening of the +duke's government. + +The clergy of Spain, and especially the Inquisition, contributed richly +towards the expenses of this expedition as to a holy war. Throughout +Spain the enlisting was carried on with the utmost zeal. The viceroys +and governors of Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, and Milan received orders to +select the best of their Italian and Spanish troops in the garrisons and +despatch them to the general rendezvous in the Genoese territory, where +the Duke of Alva would exchange them for the Spanish recruits which he +should bring with him. At the same time the regent was commanded to +hold in readiness a few more regiments of German infanty in Luxembourg, +under the command of the Counts Eberstein, Schaumburg, and Lodrona, and +also some squadrons of light cavalry in the Duchy of Burgundy to +reinforce the Spanish general immediately on his entrance into the +provinces. The Count of Barlaimont was commissioned to furnish the +necessary provision for the armament, and a sum of two hundred thousand +gold florins was remitted to the regent to enable her to meet these +expenses and to maintain her own troops. + +The French court, however, under pretence of the danger to be +apprehended from the Huguenots, had refused to allow the Spanish army to +pass through France. Philip applied to the Dukes of Savoy and Lorraine, +who were too dependent upon him to refuse his request. The former +merely stipulated that he should be allowed to maintain two thousand +infantry and a squadron of horse at the king's expense in order to +protect his country from the injuries to which it might otherwise be +exposed from the passage of the Spanish army. At the same time he +undertook to provide the necessary supplies for its maintenance during +the transit. + +The rumor of this arrangement roused the Huguenots, the Genevese, the +Swiss, and the Grisons. The Prince of Conde and the Admiral Coligny +entreated Charles IX. not to neglect so favorable a moment of inflicting +a deadly blow on the hereditary foe of France. With the aid of the +Swiss, the Genevese, and his own Protestant subjects, it would, they +alleged, be an easy matter to destroy the flower of the Spanish troops +in the narrow passes of the Alpine mountains; and they promised to +support him in this undertaking with an army of fifty thousand +Huguenots. This advice, however, whose dangerous object was not easily +to be mistaken, was plausibly declined by Charles IX., who assured them +that he was both able and anxious to provide for the security of his +kingdom. He hastily despatched troops to cover the French frontiers; +and the republics of Geneva, Bern, Zurich, and the Grisons followed his +example, all ready to offer a determined opposition to the dreaded enemy +of their religion and their liberty. + +On the 5th of May, 1567, the Duke of Alva set sail from Carthagena with +thirty galleys, which had been furnished by Andrew Doria and the Duke +Cosmo of Florence, and within eight days landed at Genoa, where the four +regiments were waiting to join him. But a tertian ague, with which he +was seized shortly after his arrival, compelled him to remain for some +days inactive in Lombardy--a delay of which the neighboring powers +availed themselves to prepare for defence. As soon as the duke +recovered he held at Asti, in Montferrat, a review of all his troops, +who were more formidable by their valor than by their numbers, since +cavalry and infantry together did not amount to much above ten thousand +men. In his long and perilous march he did not wish to encumber himself +with useless supernumeraries, which would only impede his progress and +increase the difficulty of supporting his army. These ten thousand +veterans were to form the nucleus of a greater army, which, according as +circumstances and occasion might require, he could easily assemble in +the Netherlands themselves. + +This array, however, was as select as it was small. It consisted of the +remains of those victorious legions at whose head Charles V. had made +Europe tremble; sanguinary, indomitable bands, in whose battalions the +firmness of the old Macedonian phalanx lived again; rapid in their +evolutions from long practice, hardy and enduring, proud of their +leader's success, and confident from past victories, formidable by their +licentiousness, but still more so by their discipline; let loose with +all the passions of a warmer climate upon a rich and peaceful country, +and inexorable towards an enemy whom the church had cursed. Their +fanatical and sanguinary spirit, their thirst for glory and innate +courage was aided by a rude sensuality, the instrument by which the +Spanish general firmly and surely ruled his otherwise intractable +troops. With a prudent indulgence he allowed riot and voluptuousness +to reign throughout the camp. Under his tacit connivance Italian +courtezans followed the standards; even in the march across the +Apennines, where the high price of the necessaries of life compelled him +to reduce his force to the smallest possible number, he preferred to +have a few regiments less rather than to leave behind these instruments +of voluptuousness. + + [The bacchanalian procession of this army contrasted strangely + enough with the gloomy seriousness and pretended sanctity of his + aim. The number of these women was so great that to restrain the + disorders and quarrelling among themselves they hit upon the + expedient of establishing a discipline of their own. They ranged + themselves under particular flags, marched in ranks and sections, + and in admirable military order, after each battalion, and classed + themselves with strict etiquette according to their rank and pay.] + +But industriously as Alva strove to relax the morals of his soldiers, +he enforced the more rigidly a strict military discipline, which was +interrupted only by a victory or rendered less severe by a battle. +For all this he had, he said, the authority of the Athenian General +Iphicrates, who awarded the prize of valor to the pleasure-loving and +rapacious soldier. The more irksome the restraint by which the passions +of the soldiers were kept in check, the greater must have been the +vehemence with which they broke forth at the sole outlet which was left +open to them. + +The duke divided his infantry, which was about nine thousand strong, and +chiefly Spaniards, into four brigades, and gave the command of them to +four Spanish officers. Alphonso of Ulloa led the Neapolitan brigade of +nine companies, amounting to three thousand two hundred and thirty men; +Sancho of Lodogno commanded the Milan brigade, three thousand two +hundred men in ten companies; the Sicilian brigade, with the same number +of companies, and consisting of sixteen hundred men, was under Julian +Romero, an experienced warrior, who had already fought on Belgian +ground. + + [The same officer who commanded one of the Spanish regiments about + which so much complaint had formerly been made in the States- + General.] + +Gonsalo of Braccamonte headed that of Sardinia, which was raised by +three companies of recruits to the full complement of the former. To +every company, moreover, were added fifteen Spanish musqueteers. The +horse, in all twelve hundred strong, consisted of three Italian, two +Albanian, and seven Spanish squadrons, light and heavy cavalry, and the +chief command was held by Ferdinand and Frederick of Toledo, the two +sons of Alva. Chiappin Vitelli, Marquis of Cetona, was field-marshal; +a celebrated general whose services had been made over to the King of +Spain by Cosmo of Florence; and Gabriel Serbellon was general of +artillery. The Duke of Savoy lent Alva an experienced engineer, Francis +Pacotto, of Urbino, who was to be employed in the erection of new +fortifications. His standard was likewise followed by a number of +volunteers, and the flower of the Spanish nobility, of whom the greater +part had fought under Charles V. in Germany, Italy, and before Tunis. +Among these were Christopher Mondragone, one of the ten Spanish heroes +who, near Mithlbehg, swam across the Elbe with their swords between +their teeth, and, under a shower of bullets from the enemy, brought over +from the opposite shore the boats which the emperor required for the +construction of a bridge. Sancho of Avila, who had been trained to war +under Alva himself, Camillo of Monte, Francis Ferdugo, Karl Davila, +Nicolaus Basta, and Count Martinego, all fired with a noble ardor, +either to commence their military career under so eminent a leader, or +by another glorious campaign under his command to crown the fame they +had already won. After the review the army marched in three divisions +across Mount Cenis, by the very route which sixteen centuries before +Hannibal is said to have taken. The duke himself led the van; Ferdinand +of Toledo, with whom was associated Lodogno as colonel, the centre; and +the Marquis of Cetona the rear. The Commissary General, Francis of +Ibarra, was sent before with General Serbellon to open the road for the +main body, and get ready the supplies at the several quarters for the +night. The places which the van left in the morning were entered in the +evening by the centre, which in its turn made room on the following day +for the rear. Thus the army crossed the Alps of Savoy by regular +stages, and with the fourteenth day completed that dangerous passage. +A French army of observation accompanied it side by side along the +frontiers of Dauphins, and the course of the Rhone, and the allied army +of the Genevese followed it on the right, and was passed by it at a +distance of seven miles. Both these armies of observation carefully +abstained from any act of hostility, and were merely intended to cover +their own frontiers. As the Spanish legions ascended and descended the +steep mountain crags, or while they crossed the rapid Iser, or file by +file wound through the narrow passes of the rocks, a handful of men +would have been sufficient to put an entire stop to their march, and to +drive them back into the mountains, where they would have been +irretrievably lost, since at each place of encampment supplies were +provided for no more than a single day, and for a third part only of the +whole force. But a supernatural awe and dread of the Spanish name +appeared to have blinded the eyes of the enemy so that they did not +perceive their advantage, or at least did not venture to profit by it. +In order to give them as little opportunity as possible of remembering +it, the Spanish general hastened through this dangerous pass. + +Convinced, too, that if his troops gave the slightest umbrage he was +lost, the strictest discipline was maintained during the march; not a +single peasant's hut, not a single field was injured; and never, +perhaps, in the memory of man was so numerous an army led so far in such +excellent order. + + [Once only on entering Lorraine three horsemen ventured to drive + away a few sheep from a flock, of which circumstance the duke was + no sooner informed than he sent back to the owner what had been + taken from him and sentenced the offenders to be hung. This + sentence was, at the intercession of the Lorraine general, who had + come to the frontiers to pay his respects to the duke, executed on + only one of the three, upon whom the lot fell at the drum-head.] + +Destined as this army was for vengeance and murder, a malignant and +baleful star seemed to conduct it safe through all dangers; and it would +be difficult to decide whether the prudence of its general or the +blindness of its enemies is most to be wondered at. + +In Franche Comte, four squadrons of Burgundian cavalry, newly-raised, +joined the main army, which, at Luxembourg, was also reinforced by three +regiments of German infantry under the command of Counts Eberstein, +Schaumburg, and Lodrona. From Thionville, where he halted a few days, +Alva sent his salutations to the regent by Francis of Ibarra, who was, +at the same time, directed to consult her on the quartering of the +troops. On her part, Noircarmes and Barlairnont were despatched to the +Spanish camp to congratulate the duke on his arrival, and to show him +the customary marks of honor. At the same time they were directed to +ask him to produce the powers entrusted to him by the king, of which, +however, he only showed a part. The envoys of the regent were followed +by swarms of the Flemish nobility, who thought they could not hasten +soon enough to conciliate the favor of the new viceroy, or by a timely +submission avert the vengeance which was preparing. Among them was +Count Egmont. As he came forward the duke pointed him out to the +bystanders. "Here comes an arch-heretic," he exclaimed, loud enough to +be heard by Egmont himself, who, surprised at these words, stopped and +changed color. But when the duke, in order to repair his imprudence, +went up to him with a serene countenance, and greeted him with a +friendly embrace, the Fleming was ashamed of his fears, and made light +of this warning, by putting some frivolous interpretation upon it. +Egmont sealed this new friendship with a present of two valuable +chargers, which Alva accepted with a grave condescension. + +Upon the assurance of the regent that the provinces were in the +enjoyment of perfect peace, and that no opposition was to be apprehended +from any quarter, the duke discharged some German regiments, which had +hitherto drawn their pay from the Netherlands. Three thousand six +hundred men, under the command of Lodrona, were quartered in Antwerp, +from which town the Walloon garrison, in which full reliance could not +be placed, was withdrawn; garrisons proportionably stronger were thrown +into Ghent and other important places; Alva himself marched with the +Milan brigade towards Brussels, whither he was accompanied by a splendid +cortege of the noblest in the land. + +Here, as in all the other towns of the Netherlands, fear and terror had +preceded him, and all who were conscious of any offences, and even those +who were sensible of none, alike awaited his approach with a dread +similar to that with which criminals see the coming of their day of +trial. All who could tear themselves from the ties of family, property, +and country had already fled, or now at last took to flight. The +advance of the Spanish army had already, according to the report of the +regent, diminished the population of the provinces by the loss of one +hundred thousand citizens, and this general flight still continued. But +the arrival of the Spanish general could not be more hateful to the +people of the Netherlands than it was distressing and dispiriting to the +regent. At last, after so many years of anxiety, she had begun to taste +the sweets of repose, and that absolute-authority, which had been the +long-cherished object of eight years of a troubled and difficult +administration. This late fruit of so much anxious industry, of so many +cares and nightly vigils, was now to be wrested from her by a stranger, +who was to be placed at once in possession of all the advantages which +she had been forced to extract from adverse circumstances, by a long +and tedious course of intrigue and patient endurance. Another was +lightly to bear away the prize of promptitude, and to triumph by more +rapid success over her superior but less glittering merits. Since the +departure of the minister, Granvella, she had tasted to the full the +pleasures of independence. The flattering homage of the nobility, which +allowed her more fully to enjoy the shadow of power, the more they +deprived her of its substance, had, by degrees, fostered her vanity to +such an extent, that she at last estranged by her coldness even the most +upright of all her servants, the state counsellor Viglius, who always +addressed her in the language of truth. All at once a censor of her +actions was placed at her side, a partner of her power was associated +with her, if indeed it was not rather a master who was forced upon her, +whose proud, stubborn, and imperious spirit, which no courtesy could +soften, threatened the deadliest wounds to her self-love and vanity. To +prevent his arrival she had, in her representations to the king, vainly +exhausted every political argument. To no purpose had she urged that +the utter ruin of the commerce of the Netherlands would be the +inevitable consequence of; this introduction of the Spanish troops; in +vain had she assured the king that peace was universally restored, and +reminded him of her own services in procuring it, which deserved, she +thought, a better guerdon than to see all the fruits of her labors +snatched from her and given to a foreigner, and more than all, to behold +all the good which she had effected destroyed by a new and different +line of conduct. Even when the duke had already crossed Mount Cenis she +made one more attempt, entreating him at least to diminish his army; but +that also failed, for the duke insisted upon acting up to the powers +entrusted to him. In poignant grief she now awaited his approach, and +with the tears she shed for her country were mingled those of offended +self-love. + +On the 22d of August, 1567, the Duke of Alva appeared before the gates +of Brussels. His army immediately took up their quarters in the +suburbs, and he himself made it his first duty to pay his respects to +the sister of his king. She gave him a private audience on the plea of +suffering from sickness. Either the mortification she had undergone had +in reality a serious effect upon her health, or, what is not improbable, +she had recourse to this expedient to pain his haughty spirit, and in +some degree to lessen his triumph. He delivered to her letters from the +king, and laid before her a copy of his own appointment, by which the +supreme command of the whole military force of the Netherlands was +committed to him, and from which, therefore, it would appear, that the +administration of civil affairs remained, as heretofore, in the hands of +the regent. But as soon as he was alone with her he produced a new +commission, which was totally different from the former. According to +this, the power was delegated to him of making war at his discretion, +of erecting fortifications, of appointing and dismissing at pleasure the +governors of provinces, the commandants of towns, and other officers of +the king; of instituting inquiries into the past troubles, of punishing +those who originated them, and of rewarding the loyal. Powers of this +extent, which placed him almost on a level with a sovereign prince, and +far surpassed those of the regent herself, caused her the greatest +consternation, and it was with difficulty that she could conceal her +emotion. She asked the duke whether he had not even a third commission, +or some special orders in reserve which went still further, and were +drawn up still more precisely, to which he replied distinctly enough in +the affirmative, but at the same time gave her to understand that this +commission might be too full to suit the present occasion, and would be +better brought into play hereafter with due regard to time and +circumstances. A few days after his arrival he caused a copy of the +first instructions to be laid before the several councils and the +states, and had them printed to insure their rapid circulation. As the +regent resided in the palace, he took up his quarters temporarily in +Kuilemberg house, the same in which the association of the Gueux had +received its name, and before which, through a wonderful vicissitude, +Spanish tyranny now planted its flag. + +A dead silence reigned in Brussels, broken only at times by the unwonted +clang of arms. The duke had entered the town but a few hours when his +attendants, like bloodhounds that have been slipped, dispersed +themselves in all directions. Everywhere foreign faces were to be seen; +the streets were empty, all the houses carefully closed, all amusements +suspended, all public places deserted. The whole metropolis resembled a +place visited by the plague. Acquaintances hurried on without stopping +for their usual greeting; all hastened on the moment a Spaniard showed +himself in the streets. Every sound startled them, as if it were the +knock of the officials of justice at their doors; the nobility, in +trembling anxiety, kept to their houses; they shunned appearing in +public lest their presence should remind the new viceroy of some past +offence. The two nations now seemed to have exchanged characters. The +Spaniard had become the talkative man and the Brabanter taciturn; +distrust and fear had scared away the spirit of cheerfulness and mirth; +a constrained gravity fettered even the play of the features. Every +moment the impending blow was looked for with dread. + +This general straining of expectation warned the duke to hasten the +accomplishment of his plans before they should be anticipated by the +timely flight of his victims. His first object was to secure the +suspected nobles, in order, at once and forever, to deprive the faction +of its leaders, and the nation, whose freedom was to be crushed, of all +its supporters. By a pretended affability he had succeeded in lulling +their first alarm, and in restoring Count Egmont in particular to his +former perfect confidence, for which purpose he artfully employed his +sons, Ferdinand and Frederick of Toledo, whose companionableness and +youth assimilated more easily with the Flemish character. By this +skilful advice he succeeded also in enticing Count Horn to Brussels, +who had hitherto thought it advisable to watch the first measures of the +duke from a distance, but now suffered himself to be seduced by the good +fortune of his friend. Some of the nobility, and Count Egmont at the +head of them, even resumed their former gay style of living. But they +themselves did not do so with their whole hearts, and they had not many +imitators. Kuilemberg house was incessantly besieged by a numerous +crowd, who thronged around the person of the new viceroy, and exhibited +an affected gayety on their countenances, while their hearts were wrung +with distress and fear. Egmont in particular assumed the appearance of +a light heart, entertaining the duke's sons, and being feted by them in +return. Meanwhile, the duke was fearful lest so fair an opportunity for +the accomplishment of his plans might not last long, and lest some act +of imprudence might destroy the feeling of security which had tempted +both his victims voluntarily to put themselves into his power; he only +waited for a third; Hogstraten also was to be taken in the same net. +Under a plausible pretext of business he therefore summoned him to the +metropolis. At the same time that he purposed to secure the three +counts in Brussels, Colonel Lodrona was to arrest the burgomaster, +Strahlen, in Antwerp, an intimate friend of the Prince of Orange, and +suspected of having favored the Calvinists; another officer was to seize +the private secretary of Count Egmont, whose name was John Cassembrot +von Beckerzeel, as also some secretaries of Count Horn, and was to +possess themselves of their papers. + +When the day arrived which had been fixed upon for the execution of this +plan, the duke summoned all the counsellors and knights before him to +confer with them upon matters of state. On this occasion the Duke of +Arschot, the Counts Mansfeld, Barlaimont, and Aremberg attended on the +part of the Netherlands, and on the part of the Spaniards besides the +duke's sons, Vitelli, Serbellon, and Ibarra. The young Count Mansfeld, +who likewise appeared at the meeting, received a sign from his father to +withdraw with all speed, and by a hasty flight avoid the fate which was +impending over him as a former member of the Geusen league. The duke +purposely prolonged the consultation to give time before he acted for +the arrival of the couriers from Antwerp, who were to bring him the +tidings of the arrest of the other parties. To avoid exciting any +suspicion, the engineer, Pacotto, was required to attend the meeting to +lay before it the plans for some fortifications. At last intelligence +was brought him that Lodrona had successfully executed his commission. +Upon this the duke dexterously broke off the debate and dismissed the +council. And now, as Count Egmont was about to repair to the apartment +of Don Ferdinand, to finish a game that he had commenced with him, the +captain of the duke's body guard, Sancho D'Avila, stopped him, and +demanded his sword in the king's name. At the same time he was +surrounded by a number of Spanish soldiers, who, as had been +preconcerted, suddenly advanced from their concealment. So unexpected +a blow deprived Egmont for some moments of all powers of utterance and +recollection; after a while, however, he collected himself, and taking +his sword from his side with dignified composure, said, as he delivered +it into the hands of the Spaniard, "This sword has before this on more +than one occasion successfully defended the king's cause." Another +Spanish officer arrested Count Horn as he was returning to his house +without the least suspicion of danger. Horn's first inquiry was after +Egmont. On being told that the same fate had just happened to his +friend he surrendered himself without resistance. "I have suffered +myself to be guided by him," he exclaimed, "it is fair that I should +share his destiny." The two counts were placed in confinement in +separate apartments. While this was going on in the interior of +Kuilemberg house the whole garrison were drawn out under arms in front +of it. No one knew what had taken place inside, a mysterious terror +diffused itself throughout Brussels until rumor spread the news of this +fatal event. Each felt as if he himself were the sufferer; with many +indignation at Egmont's blind infatuation preponderated over sympathy +for his fate; all rejoiced that Orange had escaped. The first question +of the Cardinal Granvella, too, when these tidings reached him in Rome, +is said to have been, whether they had taken the Silent One also. On +being answered in the negative he shook his head "then as they have let +him escape they have got nothing." Fate ordained better for the Count +of Hogstraten. Compelled by ill-health to travel slowly, he was met by +the report of this event while he was yet on his way. He hastily turned +back, and fortunately escaped destruction. Immediately after Egmont's +seizure a writing was extorted from him, addressed to the commandant of +the citadel of Ghent, ordering that officer to deliver the fortress to +the Spanish Colonel Alphonso d'Ulloa. Upon this the two counts were +then (after they had been for some weeks confined in Brussels) conveyed +under a guard of three thousand Spaniards to Ghent, where they remained +imprisoned till late in the following year. In the meantime all their +papers had been seized. Many of the first nobility who, by the +pretended kindness of the Duke of Alva, had allowed themselves to be +cajoled into remaining experienced the same fate. Capital punishment +was also, without further delay, inflicted on all who before the duke's +arrival had been taken with arms in their hands. Upon the news of +Egmont's arrest a second body of about twenty thousand inhabitants took +up the wanderer's staff, besides the one hundred thousand who, prudently +declining to await the arrival of the Spanish general, had already +placed themselves in safety. + + [A great part of these fugitives helped to strengthen the army of + the Huguenots, who had taken occasion, from the passage of the + Spanish army through Lorraine, to assemble their forces, and now + pressed Charles IX. hard. On these grounds the French court + thought it had a right to demand aid from the regent of the + Netherlands. It asserted that the Huguenots had looked upon the + march of the Spanish army as the result of a preconcerted plan + which had been formed against them by the two courts at Bayonne and + that this had roused them from their slumber. That consequently it + behooved the Spanish court to assist in extricating the French king + from difficulties into which the latter had been brought simply by + the march of the Spanish troops. Alva actually sent the Count of + Aremberg with a considerable force to join the army of the Queen + Mother in France, and even offered to command these subsidiaries in + person, which, however, was declined. Strada, 206. Thuan, 541.] + +After so noble a life had been assailed no one counted himself safe any +longer; but many found cause to repent that they had so long deferred +this salutary step; for every day flight was rendered more difficult, +for the duke ordered all the ports to be closed, and punished the +attempt at emigration with death. The beggars were now esteemed +fortunate, who had abandoned country and property in order to preserve +at least their liberty and their lives. + + + + + ALVA'S FIRST MEASURES, AND DEPARTURE OF THE DUCHESS OF PARMA. + +Alva's first step, after securing the most suspected of the nobles, was +to restore the Inquisition to its former authority, to put the decrees +of Trent again in force, abolish the "moderation," and promulgate anew +the edicts against heretics in all their original severity. The court +of Inquisition in Spain had pronounced the whole nation of the +Netherlands guilty of treason in the highest degree, Catholics and +heterodox, loyalists and rebels, without distinction; the latter as +having offended by overt acts, the former as having incurred equal guilt +by their supineness. From this sweeping condemnation a very few were +excepted, whose names, however, were purposely reserved, while the +general sentence was publicly confirmed by the king. Philip declared +himself absolved from all his promises, and released from all +engagements which the regent in his name had entered into with the +people of the Netherlands, and all the justice which they had in future +to expect from him must depend on his own good-will and pleasure. All +who had aided in the expulsion of the minister, Granvella, who had taken +part in the petition of the confederate nobles, or had but even spoken +in favor of it; all who had presented a petition against the decrees of +Trent, against the edicts relating to religion, or against the +installation of the bishops; all who had permitted the public +preachings, or had only feebly resisted them; all who had worn the +insignia of the Gueux, had sung Geusen songs, or who in any way +whatsoever had manifested their joy at the establishment of the league; +all who had sheltered or concealed the reforming preachers, attended +Calvinistic funerals, or had even merely known of their secret meetings, +and not given information of them; all who had appealed to the national +privileges; all, in fine, who had expressed an opinion that they ought +to obey God rather than man; all these indiscriminately were declared +liable to the penalties which the law imposed upon any violation of the +royal prerogative, and upon high treason; and these penalties were, +according to the instruction which Alva had received, to be executed on +the guilty persons without forbearance or favor; without regard to rank, +sex, or age, as an example to posterity, and for a terror to all future +times. According to this declaration there was no longer an innocent +person to be found in the whole Netherlands, and the new viceroy had it +in his power to make a fearful choice of victims. Property and life +were alike at his command, and whoever should have the good fortune to +preserve one or both must receive them as the gift of his generosity and +humanity. By this stroke of policy, as refined as it was detestable, +the nation was disarmed, and unanimity rendered impossible. As it +absolutely depended on the duke's arbitrary will upon whom the sentence +should be carried in force which had been passed without exception upon +all, each individual kept himself quiet, in order to escape, if +possible, the notice of the viceroy, and to avoid drawing the fatal +choice upon himself. Every one, on the other hand, in whose favor he +was pleased to make an exception stood in a degree indebted to him, and +was personally under an obligation which must be measured by the value +he set upon his life and property. As, however, this penalty could only +be executed on the smaller portion of the nation, the duke naturally +secured the greater by the strongest ties of fear and gratitude, and for +one whom he sought out as a victim he gained ten others whom he passed +over. As long as he continued true to this policy he remained in quiet +possession of his rule, even amid the streams of blood which he caused +to flow, and did not forfeit this advantage till the want of money +compelled him to impose a burden upon the nation which oppressed all +indiscriminately. + +In order to be equal to this bloody occupation, the details of which +were fast accumulating, and to be certain of not losing a single victim +through the want of instruments; and, on the other hand, to render his +proceedings independent of the states, with whose privileges they were +so much at variance, and who, indeed, were far too humane for him, he +instituted an extraordinary court of justice. This court consisted of +twelve criminal judges, who, according to their instructions, to the +very letter of which they must adhere, were to try and pronounce +sentence upon those implicated in the past disturbances. The mere +institution of such a board was a violation of the liberties of the +country, which expressly stipulated that no citizen should be tried out +of his own province; but the duke filled up the measure of his injustice +when, contrary to the most sacred privileges of the nation, he proceeded +to give seats and votes in that court to Spaniards, the open and avowed +enemies of Belgian liberty. He himself was the president of this court, +and after him a certain licentiate, Vargas, a Spaniard by birth, of +whose iniquitous character the historians of both parties are unanimous; +cast out like a plague-spot from his own country, where he had violated +one of his wards, he was a shameless, hardened villain, in whose mind +avarice, lust, and the thirst for blood struggled for ascendancy. The +principal members were Count Aremberg, Philip of Noircarmes, and Charles +of Barlaimont, who, however, never sat in it; Hadrian Nicolai, +chancellor of Gueldres; Jacob Mertens and Peter Asset, presidents of +Artois and Flanders; Jacob Hesselts and John de la Porte, counsellors of +Ghent; Louis del Roi, doctor of theology, and by birth a Spaniard; John +du Bois, king's advocate; and De la'Torre, secretary of the court. In +compliance with the representations of Viglius the privy council was +spared any part in this tribunal; nor was any one introduced into it +from the great council at Malines. The votes of the members were only +recommendatory, not conclusive, the final sentence being reserved by the +duke to himself. No particular time was fixed for the sitting of the +court; the members, however, assembled at noon, as often as the duke +thought good. But after the expiration of the third month Alva began to +be less frequent in his attendance, and at last resigned his place +entirely to his favorite, Vargas, who filled it with such odious fitness +that in a short time all the members, with the exception merely of the +Spanish doctor, Del Rio, and the secretary, De la Torre, weary of the +atrocities of which they were compelled to be both eyewitnesses and +accomplices, remained away from the assembly. + + [The sentences passed upon the most eminent persons (for example, + the sentence of death passed upon Strahlen, the burgomaster of + Antwerp), were signed only by Vargas, Del Rio, and De la Torre.] + +It is revolting to the feelings to think how the lives of the noblest +and best were thus placed at the mercy of Spanish vagabonds, and how +even the sanctuaries of the nation, its deeds and charters, were +unscrupulously ransacked, the seals broken, and the most secret +contracts between the sovereign and the state profaned and exposed. + + [For an example of the unfeeling levity with which the most + important matters, even decisions in cases of life and death, were + treated in this sanguinary council, it may serve to relate what is + told of the Counsellor Hesselts. He was generally asleep during + the meeting, and when his turn came to vote on a sentence of death + he used to cry out, still half asleep: "Ad patibulum! Ad + patibulum!" so glibly did his tongue utter this word. It is + further to be remarked of this Hesselts, that his wife, a daughter + of the President Viglius, had expressly stipulated in the marriage- + contract that he should resign the dismal office of attorney for + the king, which made him detested by the whole nation. Vigl. ad + Hopp. lxvii., L.] + +From the council of twelve (which, from the object of its institution, +was called the council for disturbances, but on account of its +proceedings is more generally known under the appellation of the council +of blood, a name which the nation in their exasperation bestowed upon +it), no appeal was allowed. Its proceedings could not be revised. Its +verdicts were irrevocable and independent of all other authority. No +other tribunal in the country could take cognizance of cases which +related to the late insurrection, so that in all the other courts +justice was nearly at a standstill. The great council at Malines was +as good as abolished; the authority of the council of state entirely +ceased, insomuch that its sittings were discontinued. On some rare +occasions the duke conferred with a few members of the late assembly, +but even when this did occur the conference was held in his cabinet, and +was no more than a private consultation, without any of the proper forms +being observed. No privilege, no charter of immunity, however carefully +protected, had any weight with the council for disturbances. + + [Vargas, in a few words of barbarous Latin, demolished at once the + boasted liberties of the Netherlands. "Non curamus vestros + privilegios," he replied to one who wished to plead the immunities + of the University of Louvain.] + +It compelled all deeds and contracts to be laid before it, and often +forced upon them the most strained interpetations and alterations. If +the duke caused a sentence to be drawn out which there was reason to +fear might be opposed by the states of Brabant, it was legalized without +the Brabant seal. The most sacred rights of individuals were assailed, +and a tyranny without example forced its arbitrary will even into the +circle of domestic life. As the Protestants and rebels had hitherto +contrived to strengthen their party so much by marriages with the first +families in the country, the duke issued an edict forbidding all +Netherlanders, whatever might be their rank or office, under pain of +death and confiscation of property, to conclude a marriage without +previously obtaining his permission. + +All whom the council for disturbances thought proper to summon before it +were compelled to appear, clergy as well as laity; the most venerable +heads of the senate, as well as the reprobate rabble of the Iconoclasts. +Whoever did not present himself, as indeed scarcely anybody did, was +declared an outlaw, and his property was confiscated; but those who were +rash or foolish enough to appear, or who were so unfortunate as to be +seized, were lost without redemption. Twenty, forty, often fifty were +summoned at the same time and from the same town, and the richest were +always the first on whom the thunderbolt descended. The meaner +citizens, who possessed nothing that could render their country and +their homes dear to them, were taken unawares and arrested without any +previous citation. Many eminent merchants, who had at their disposal +fortunes of from sixty thousand to one hundred thousand florins, were +seen with their hands tied behind their backs, dragged like common +vagabonds at the horse's tail to execution, and in Valenciennes fifty- +five persons were decapitated at one time. All the prisons--and the +duke immediately on commencing his administration had built a great +number of them--were crammed full with the accused; hanging, beheading, +quartering, burning were the prevailing and ordinary occupations of the +day; the punishment of the galleys and banishment were more rarely heard +of, for there was scarcely any offence which was reckoned too trival to +be punished with death. Immense sums were thus brought into the +treasury, which, however, served rather to stimulate the new viceroy's +and his colleagues' thirst for gold than to quench it. It seemed to be +his insane purpose to make beggars of the whole people, and to throw all +their riches into the hands of the king and his servants. The yearly +income derived from these confiscations was computed to equal the +revenues of the first kingdoms of Europe; it is said to have been +estimated, in a report furnished to the king, at the incredible amount +of twenty million of dollars. But these proceedings were the more +inhuman, as they often bore hardest precisely upon the very persons who +were the most peaceful subjects, and most orthodox Roman Catholics, whom +they could not want to injure. Whenever an estate was confiscated all +the creditors who had claims upon it were defrauded. The hospitals, +too, and public institutions, which such properties had contributed to +support, were now ruined, and the poor, who had formerly drawn a +pittance from this source, were compelled to see their only spring of +comfort dried up. Whoever ventured to urge their well-grounded claims +on the forfeited property before the council of twelve (for no other +tribunal dared to interfere with these inquiries), consumed their +substance in tedious and expensive proceedings, and were reduced to +beggary before they saw the end of them. The histories of civilized +states furnish but one instance of a similar perversion of justice, of +such violation of the rights of property, and of such waste of human +life; but Cinna, Sylla, and Marius entered vanquished Rome as incensed +victors, and practised without disguise what the viceroy of the +Netherlands performed under the venerable veil of the laws. + +Up to the end of the year 1567 the king's arrival had been confidently +expected, and the well-disposed of the people had placed all their last +hopes on this event. The vessels, which Philip had caused to be +equipped expressly for the purpose of meeting him, still lay in the +harbor of Flushing, ready to sail at the first signal; and the town of +Brussels had consented to receive a Spanish garrison, simply because the +king, it was pretended, was to reside within its walls. But this hope +gradually vanished, as he put off the journey from one season to the +next, and the new viceroy very soon began to exhibit powers which +announced him less as a precursor of royalty than as an absolute +minister, whose presence made that of the monarch entirely superfluous. +To compete the distress of the provinces their last good angel was now +to leave them in the person of the regent. From the moment when the +production of the duke's extensive powers left no doubt remaining as to +the practical termination of her own rule, Margaret had formed the +resolution of relinquishing the name also of regent. To see a successor +in the actual possession of a dignity which a nine years' enjoyment had +made indispensable to her; to see the authority, the glory, the +splendor, the adoration, and all the marks of respect, which are the +usual concomitants of supreme power, pass over to another; and to feel +that she had lost that which she could never forget she had once held, +was more than a woman's mind could endure; moreover, the Duke of Alva +was of all men the least calculated to make her feel her privation the +less painful by a forbearing use of his newly-acquired dignity. The +tranquillity of the country, too, which was put in jeopardy by this +divided rule, seemed to impose upon the duchess the necessity of +abdicating. Many governors of provinces refused, without an express +order from the court, to receive commands from the duke and to recognize +him as co-regent. + +The rapid change of their point of attraction could not be met by the +courtiers so composedly and imperturbably but that the duchess observed +the alteration, and bitterly felt it. Even the few who, like State +Counsellor Viglius, still firmly adhered to her, did so less from +attachment to her person than from vexation at being displaced by +novices and foreigners, and from being too proud to serve a fresh +apprenticeship under a new viceroy. But far the greater number, with +all their endeavors to keep an exact mean, could not help making a +difference between the homage they paid to the rising sun and that which +they bestowed on the setting luminary. The royal palace in Brussels +became more and more deserted, while the throng at Kuilemberg house +daily increased. But what wounded the sensitiveness of the duchess most +acutely was the arrest of Horn and Egmont, which was planned and +executed by the duke without her knowledge or consent, just as if there +had been no such person as herself in existence. Alva did, indeed, +after the act was done, endeavor to appease her by declaring that the +design had been purposely kept secret from her in order to spare her +name from being mixed up in so odious a transaction; but no such +considerations of delicacy could close the wound which had been +inflicted on her pride. In order at once to escape all risk of similar +insults, of which the present was probably only a forerunner, she +despatched her private secretary, Macchiavell, to the court of her +brother, there to solicit earnestly for permission to resign the +regency. The request was granted without difficulty by the king, who +accompanied his consent with every mark of his highest esteem. He would +put aside (so the king expressed himself) his own advantage and that of +the provinces in order to oblige his sister. He sent a present of +thirty thousand dollars, and allotted to her a yearly pension of twenty +thousand. + + [Which, however, does not appear to have been very punctually paid, + if a pamphlet maybe trusted which was printed during her lifetime. + (It bears the title: Discours sur la Blessure de Monseigneur Prince + d'Orange, 1582, without notice of the place where it was printed, + and is to be found in the Elector's library at Dresden.) She + languished, it is there stated, at Namur in poverty, and so ill- + supported by her son (the then governor of the Netherlands), that + her own secretary, Aldrobandin, called her sojourn there an exile. + But the writer goes on to ask what better treatment could she + expect from a son who, when still very young, being on a visit to + her at Brussels, snapped his fingers at her behind her back.] + +At the same time a diploma was forwarded to the Duke of Alva, +constituting him, in her stead, viceroy of all the Netherlands, with +unlimited powers. + +Gladly would Margaret have learned that she was permitted to resign the +regency before a solemn assembly of the states, a wish which she had not +very obscurely hinted to the king. But she was not gratified. She was +particularly fond of solemnity, and the example of the Emperor, her +father, who had exhibited the extraordinary spectacle of his abdication +of the crown in this very city, seemed to have great attractions for +her. As she was compelled to part with supreme power, she could +scarcely be blamed for wishing to do so with as much splendor as +possible. Moreover, she had not failed to observe how much the general +hatred of the duke had effected in her own favor, and she looked, +therefore, the more wistfully forward to a scene, which promised to be +at once so flattering to her and so affecting. She would have been glad +to mingle her own tears with those which she hoped to see shed by the +Netherlanders for their good regent. Thus the bitterness of her descent +from the throne would have been alleviated by the expression of general +sympathy. Little as she had done to merit the general esteem during the +nine years of her administration, while fortune smiled upon her, and the +approbation of her sovereign was the limit to all her wishes, yet now +the sympathy of the nation had acquired a value in her eyes as the only +thing which could in some degree compensate to her for the +disappointment of all her other hopes. Fain would she have persuaded +herself that she had become a voluntary sacrifice to her goodness of +heart and her too humane feelings towards the Netherlanders. As, +however, the king was very far from being disposed to incur any danger +by calling a general assembly of the states, in order to gratify a mere +caprice of his sister, she was obliged to content herself with a +farewell letter to them. In this document she went over her whole +administration, recounted, not without ostentation, the difficulties +with which she had had to struggle, the evils which, by her dexterity, +she had prevented, and wound up at last by saying that she left a +finished work, and had to transfer to her successor nothing but the +punishment of offenders. The king, too, was repeatly compelled to hear +the same statement, and she left nothing undone to arrogate to herself +the glory of any future advantages which it might be the good fortune of +the duke to realize. Her own merits, as something which did not admit +of a doubt, but was at the same time a burden oppressive to her modesty, +she laid at the feet of the king. + +Dispassionate posterity may, nevertheless; hesitate to subscribe +unreservedly to this favorable opinion. Even though the united voice of +her contemporaries, and the testimony of the Netherlands themselves +vouch for it, a third party will not be denied the right to examine her +claims with stricter scrutiny. The popular mind, easily affected, is +but too ready to count the absence of a vice as an additional virtue, +and, under the pressure of existing evil, to give excess of praise for +past benefits. + +The Netherlander seems to have concentrated all his hatred upon the +Spanish name. To lay the blame of the national evils on the regent +would tend to remove from the king and his minister the curses which he +would rather shower upon them alone and undividedly; and the Duke of +Alva's government of the Netherlands was, perhaps, not the proper point +of view from which to test the merits of his predecessor. It was +undoubtedly no light task to meet the king's expectations without +infringing the rights of the people and the duties of humanity; but +in struggling to effect these two contradictory objects Margaret had +accomplished neither. She had deeply injured the nation, while +comparatively she had done little service to the king. It is true that +she at last crushed the Protestant faction, but the accidental outbreak +of the Iconoclasts assisted her in this more than all her dexterity. +She certainly succeeded by her intrigues in dissolving the league of the +nobles, but not until the first blow had been struck at its roots by +internal dissensions. The object, to secure which she had for many +years vainly exhaused her whole policy, was effected at last by a single +enlistment of troops, for which, however, the orders were issued from +Madrid. She delivered to the duke, no doubt, a tranquillized country; +but it cannot be denied that the dread of his approach had the chief +share in tranquillizing it. By her reports she led the council in Spain +astray; because she never informed it of the disease, but only of the +occasional symptoms; never of the universal feeling and voice of the +nation, but only of the misconduct of factions. Her faulty +administration, moreover, drew the people into the crime, because +she exasperated without sufficiently awing them. She it was that +brought the murderous Alva into the country by leading the king to +believe that the disturbances in the provinces were to be ascribed, not +so much to the severity of the royal ordinances, as to the unworthiness +of those who were charged with their execution. Margaret possessed +natural capacity and intellect; and an acquired political tact enabled +her to meet any ordinary case; but she wanted that creative genius +which, for new and extraordinary emergencies, invents new maxims, or +wisely oversteps old ones. In a country where honesty was the best +policy, she adopted the unfortunate plan of practising her insidious +Italian policy, and thereby sowed the seeds of a fatal distrust in the +minds of the people. The indulgence which has been so liberally imputed +to her as a merit was, in truth, extorted from her weakness and timidity +by the courageous opposition of the nation; she had never departed from +the strict letter of the royal commands by her own spontaneous +resolution; never did the gentle feelings of innate humanity lead her +to misinterpret the cruel purport of her instructions. Even the few +concessions to which necessity compelled her were granted with an +uncertain and shrinking hand, as if fearing to give too much; and she +lost the fruit of her benefactions because she mutilated them by a +sordid closeness. What in all the other relations of her life she was +too little, she was on the throne too much--a woman! She had it in her +power, after Granvella's expulsion, to become the benefactress of the +Belgian nation, but she did not. Her supreme good was the approbation +of her king, her greatest misfortune his displeasure; with all the +eminent qualities of her mind she remained an ordinary character because +her heart was destitute of native nobility. She used a melancholy power +with much moderation, and stained her government with no deed of +arbitrary cruelty; nay, if it had depended on her, she would have always +acted humanely. Years afterwards, when her idol, Philip II., had long +forgotten her, the Netherlanders still honored her memory; but she was +far from deserving the glory which her successor's inhumanity reflected +upon her. + +She left Brussels about the end of December, 1567. The duke escorted +her as far as the frontiers of Brabant, and there left her under the +protection of Count Mansfeld in order to hasten back to the metropolis +and show himself to the Netherlanders as sole regent. + + + + + TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF COUNTS EGMONT AND HORN. + +The two counts were a few weeks after their arrest conveyed to Ghent +under an escort of three thousand Spaniards, where they were confined in +the citadel for more than eight months. Their trial commenced in due +form before the council of twelve, and the solicitor-general, John Du +Bois, conducted the proceedings. The indictment against Egmont +consisted of ninety counts, and that against Horn of sixty. It would +occupy too much space to introduce them here. Every action, however +innocent, every omission of duty, was interpreted on the principle which +had been laid down in the opening of the indictment, "that the two +counts, in conjunction with the Prince of Orange, had planned the +overthrow of the royal authority in the Netherlands, and the usurpation +of the government of the country;" the expulsion of Granvella; the +embassy of Egmont to Madrid; the confederacy of the Gueux; the +concessions which they made to the Protestants in the provinces under +their government--all were made to have a connection with, and reference +to, this deliberate design. Thus importance was attached to the most +insignificant occurrences, and one action made to darken and discolor +another. By taking care to treat each of the charges as in itself a +treasonable offence it was the more easy to justify a sentence of high +treason by the whole. + +The accusations were sent to each of the prisoners, who were required to +reply to them within five days. After doing so they were allowed to +employ solicitors and advocates, who were permitted free access to them; +but as they were accused of treason their friends were prohibited from +visiting them. Count Egmont employed for his solicitor Von Landas, and +made choice of a few eminent advocates from Brussels. + +The first step was to demur against the tribunal which was to try them, +since by the privilege of their order they, as Knights of the Golden +Fleece, were amenable only to the king himself, the grand master. But +this demurrer was overruled, and they were required to produce their +witnesses, in default of which they were to be proceeded against /in +contumaciam./ Egmont had satisfactorily answered to eighty-two counts, +while Count Horn had refuted the charges against him, article by +article. The accusation and the defence are still extant; on that +defence every impartial tribunal would have acquitted them both. The +Procurator Fiscal pressed for the production of their evidence, and the +Duke of Alva issued his repeated commands to use despatch. They +delayed, however, from week to week, while they renewed their protests +against the illegality of the court. At last the duke assigned them +nine days to produce their proofs; on the lapse of that period they were +to be declared guilty, and as having forfeited all right of defence. + +During the progress of the trial the relations and friends of the two +counts were not idle. Egmont's wife, by birth a duchess of Bavaria, +addressed petitions to the princes of the German empire, to the Emperor, +and to the King of Spain. The Countess Horn, mother of the imprisoned +count, who was connected by the ties of friendship or of blood with the +principal royal families of Germany, did the same. All alike protested +loudly against this illegal proceeding, and appealed to the liberty of +the German empire, on which Horn, as a count of the empire, had special +claims; the liberty of the Netherlands and the privileges of the Order +of the Golden Fleece were likewise insisted upon. The Countess Egmont +succeeded in obtaining the intercession of almost every German court in +behalf of her husband. The King of Spain and his viceroy were besieged +by applications in behalf of the accused, which were referred from one +to the other, and made light of by both. Countess Horn collected +certificates from all the Knights of the Golden Fleece in Spain, +Germany, and Italy to prove the privileges of the order. Alva rejected +them with a declaration that they had no force in such a case as the +present. "The crimes of which the counts are accused relate to the +affairs of the Belgian provinces, and he, the duke, was appointed by the +king sole judge of all matters connected with those countries." + +Four months had been allowed to the solicitor-general to draw up the +indictment, and five were granted to the two counts to prepare for their +defence. But instead of losing their time and trouble in adducing their +evidence, which, perhaps, would have profited then but little, they +preferred wasting it in protests against the judges, which availed them +still less. By the former course they would probably have delayed the +final sentence, and in the time thus gained the powerful intercession of +their friends might perhaps have not been ineffectual. By obstinately +persisting in denying the competency of the tribunal which was to try +them, they furnished the duke with an excuse for cutting short the +proceedings. After the last assigned period had expired, on the 1st of +June, 1658, the council of twelve declared them guilty, and on the 4th +of that month sentence of death was pronounced against them. + +The execution of twenty-five noble Netherlanders, who were beheaded in +three successive days in the marketplace at Brussels, was the terrible +prelude to the fate of the two counts. John Casembrot von Beckerzeel, +secretary to Count Egmont, was one of the unfortunates, who was thus +rewarded for his fidelity to his master, which he steadfastly maintained +even upon the rack, and for his zeal in the service of the king, which +he had manifested against the Iconoclasts. The others had either been +taken prisoners, with arms in their hands, in the insurrection of the +"Gueux," or apprehended and condemned as traitors on account of having +taken a part in the petition of the nobles. + +The duke had reason to hasten the execution of the sentence. Count +Louis of Nassau had given battle to the Count of Aremberg, near the +monastery of Heiligerlee, in Groningen, and had the good fortune to +defeat him. Immediately after his victory he had advanced against +Groningen, and laid siege to it. The success of his arms had raised the +courage of his faction; and the Prince of Orange, his brother, was close +at hand with an army to support him. These circumstances made the +duke's presence necessary in those distant provinces; but he could not +venture to leave Brussels before the fate of two such important +prisoners was decided. The whole nation loved them, which was not a +little increased by their unhappy fate. Even the strict papists +disapproved of the execution of these eminent nobles. The slightest +advantage which the arms of the rebels might gain over the duke, or even +the report of a defeat, would cause a revolution in Brussels, which +would immediately set the two counts at liberty. Moreover, the +petitions and intercessions which came to the viceroy, as well as to +the King of Spain, from the German princes, increased daily; nay, the +Emperor, Maximilian II., himself caused the countess to be assured "that +she had nothing to fear for the life of her spouse." These powerful +applications might at last turn the king's heart in favor of the +prisoners. The king might, perhaps, in reliance on his viceroy's usual +dispatch, put on the appearance of yielding to the representations of so +many sovereigns, and rescind the sentence of death under the conviction +that his mercy would come too late. These considerations moved the duke +not to delay the execution of the sentence as soon as it was pronounced. + +On the day after the sentence was passed the two counts were brought, +under an escort of three thousand Spaniards, from Ghent to Brussels, and +placed in confinement in the Brodhause, in the great market-place. The +next morning the council of twelve were assembled; the duke, contrary to +his custom, attended in person, and both the sentences, in sealed +envelopes, were opened and publicly read by Secretary Pranz. The two +counts were declared guilty of treason, as having favored and promoted +the abominable conspiracy of the Prince of Orange, protected the +confederated nobles, and been convicted of various misdemeanors against +their king and the church in their governments and other appointments. +Both were sentenced to be publicly beheaded, and their heads were to be +fixed upon pikes and not taken down without the duke's express command. +All their possessions, fiefs, and rights escheated to the royal +treasury. The sentence was signed only by the duke and the secretary, +Pranz, without asking or caring for the consent of the other members of +the council. + +During the night between the 4th and 5th of June the sentences were +brought to the prisoners, after they had already gone to rest. The duke +gave them to the Bishop of Ypres, Martin Rithov, whom he had expressly +summoned to Brussels to prepare the prisoners for death. When the +bishop received this commission he threw himself at the feet of the +duke, and supplicated him with tears in his eyes for mercy, at least for +respite for the prisoners; but he was answered in a rough and angry +voice that he had been sent for from Ypres, not to oppose the sentence, +but by his spiritual consolation to reconcile the unhappy noblemen to +it. + +Egmont was the first to whom the bishop communicated the sentence of +death. "That is indeed a severe sentence," exclaimed the count, turning +pale, and with a faltering voice. "I did not think that I had offended +his majesty so deeply as to deserve such treatment. If, however, it +must be so I submit to my fate with resignation. May this death atone +for my offence, and save my wife and children from suffering. This at +least I think I may claim for my past services. As for death, I will +meet it with composure, since it so pleases God and my king." He then +pressed the bishop to tell him seriously and candidly if there was no +hope of pardon. Being answered in the negative, he confessed and +received the sacrament from the priest, repeating after him the mass +with great devoutness. He asked what prayer was the best and most +effective to recommend him to God in his last hour. On being told that +no prayer could be more effectual than the one which Christ himself had +taught, he prepared immediately to repeat the Lord's prayer. The +thoughts of his family interrupted him; he called for pen and ink, and +wrote two letters, one to his wife, the other to the king. The latter +was as follows: + +"Sire,--This morning I have heard the sentence which your majesty has +been pleased to pass upon me. Far as I have ever been from attempting +anything against the person or service of your majesty, or against the +true, old, and Catholic religion, I yet submit myself with patience to +the fate which it has pleased God to ordain should suffer. If, during +the past disturbances, I have omitted, advised, or done anything that +seems at variance with my duty, it was most assuredly performed with the +best intentions, or was forced upon me by the pressure of circumstances. +I therefore pray your majesty to forgive me, and, in consideration of my +past services, show mercy to my unhappy wife, my poor children, and +servants. In a firm hope of this, I commend myself--to the infinite +mercy of God. + +"Your majesty's most faithful vassal and servant, + +"LAMORAL COUNT EGMONT. + +"BRUSSELS, June 5, 1568, near my last moments." + + +This letter he placed in the hands of the bishop, with the strongest +injunctions for its safe delivery; and for greater security he sent a +duplicate in his own handwriting to State Counsellor Viglius, the most +upright man in the senate, by whom, there is no doubt, it was actually +delivered to the king. The family of the count were subsequently +reinstated in all his property, fiefs, and rights, which, by virtue of +the sentence, had escheated to the royal treasury. + +Meanwhile a scaffold had been erected in the marketplace, before the +town hall, on which two poles were fixed with iron spikes, and the whole +covered with black cloth. Two-and-twenty companies of the Spanish +garrison surrounded the scaffold, a precaution which was by no means +superfluous. Between ten and eleven o'clock the Spanish guard appeared +in the apartment of the count; they were provided with cords to tie his +hands according to custom. He begged that this might be spared him, and +declared that he was willing and ready to die. He himself cut off the +collar from his doublet to facilitate the executioner's duty. He wore a +robe of red damask, and over that a black Spanish cloak trimmed with +gold lace. In this dress he appeared on the scaffold, and was attended +by Don Julian Romero, maitre-de-camp; Salinas, a Spanish captain; and +the Bishop of Ypres. The grand provost of the court, with a red wand in +his hand, sat on horseback at the foot of the scaffold; the executioner +was concealed beneath. + +Egmont had at first shown a desire to address the people from the +scaffold. He desisted, however, on the bishop's representing to him +that either he would not be heard, or that if he were, he might--such at +present was the dangerous disposition of the people--excite them to acts +of violence, which would only plunge his friends into destruction. For +a few moments he paced the scaffold with noble dignity, and lamented +that it had not been permitted him to die a more honorable death for his +king and his country. Up to the last he seemed unable to persuade +himself that the king was in earnest, and that his severity would be +carried any further than the mere terror of execution. When the +decisive period approached, and he was to receive the extreme unction, +he looked wistfully round, and when there still appeared no prospect of +a reprieve, he turned to Julian Romero, and asked him once more if there +was no hope of pardon for him. Julian Romero shrugged his shoulders, +looked on the ground, and was silent. + +He then closely clenched his teeth, threw off his mantle and robe, knelt +upon the cushion, and prepared himself for the last prayer. The bishop +presented him the crucifix to kiss, and administered to him extreme +unction, upon which the count made him a sign to leave him. He drew a +silk cap over his eyes, and awaited the stroke. Over the corpse and the +streaming blood a black cloth was immediately thrown. + +All Brussels thronged around the scaffold, and the fatal blow seemed to +fall on every heart. Loud sobs alone broke the appalling silence. The +duke himself, who watched the execution from a window of the townhouse, +wiped his eyes as his victim died. + +Shortly afterwards Count Horn advanced on the scaffold. Of a more +violent temperament than his friend, and stimulated by stronger reasons +for hatred against the king, he had received the sentence with less +composure, although in his case, perhaps, it was less unjust. He burst +forth in bitter reproaches against the king, and the bishop with +difficulty prevailed upon him to make a better use of his last moments +than to abuse them in imprecations on his enemies. At last, however, he +became more collected, and made his confession to the bishop, which at +first he was disposed to refuse. + +He mounted the scaffold with the same attendants as his friend. In +passing he saluted many of his acquaintances; his hands were, like +Egmont's, free, and he was dressed in a black doublet and cloak, with a +Milan cap of the same color upon his head. When he had ascended, he +cast his eyes upon the corpse, which lay under the cloth, and asked one +of the bystanders if it was the body of his friend. On being answered +in the affirmative, he said some words in Spanish, threw his cloak from +him, and knelt upon the cushion. All shrieked aloud as he received the +fatal blow. + +The heads of both were fixed upon the poles which were set up on the +scaffold, where they remained until past three in the afternoon, when +they were taken down, and, with the two bodies, placed in leaden coffins +and deposited in a vault. + +In spite of the number of spies and executioners who surrounded the +scaffold, the citizens of Brussels would not be prevented from dipping +their handkerchiefs in the streaming blood, and carrying home with them +these precious memorials. + + + + + SIEGE OF ANTWERP BY THE PRINCE OF PARMA, IN THE YEARS 1584 AND 1585. + +It is an interesting spectacle to observe the struggle of man's +inventive genius in conflict with powerful opposing elements, and to +see the difficulties which are insurmountable to ordinary capacities +overcome by prudence, resolution, and a determined will. Less +attractive, but only the more instructive, perhaps, is the contrary +spectacle, where the absence of those qualities renders all efforts of +genius vain, throws away all the favors of fortune, and where inability +to improve such advantages renders hopeless a success which otherwise +seemed sure and inevitable. Examples of both kinds are afforded by the +celebrated siege of Antwerp by the Spaniards towards the close of the +sixteenth century, by which that flourishing city was forever deprived +of its commercial prosperity, but which, on the other hand, conferred +immortal fame on the general who undertook and accomplished it. + +Twelve years had the war continued which the northern provinces of +Belgium had commenced at first in vindication simply of their religious +freedom, and the privileges of their states, from the encroachments of +the Spanish viceroy, but maintained latterly in the hope of establishing +their independence of the Spanish crown. Never completely victors, but +never entirely vanquished, they wearied out the Spanish valor by tedious +operations on an unfavorable soil, and exhausted the wealth of the +sovereign of both the Indies while they themselves were called beggars, +and in a degree actually were so. The league of Ghent, which had united +the whole Netherlands, Roman Catholic and Protestant, in a common and +(could such a confederation have lasted) invincible body, was indeed +dissolved; but in place of this uncertain and unnatural combination the +northern provinces had, in the year 1579, formed among themselves the +closer union of Utrecht, which promised to be more lasting, inasmuch as +it was linked and held together by common political and religious +interests. What the new republic had lost in extent through this +separation from the Roman Catholic provinces it was fully compensated +for by the closeness of alliance, the unity of enterprise, and energy of +execution; and perhaps it was fortunate in thus timely losing what no +exertion probably would ever have enabled it to retain. + +The greater part of the Walloon provinces had, in the year 1584, partly +by voluntary submission and partly by force of arms, been again reduced +under the Spanish yoke. The northern districts alone had been able at +all successfully to oppose it. A considerable portion of Brabant and +Flanders still obstinately held out against the arms of the Duke +Alexander of Parma, who at that time administered the civil government +of the provinces, and the supreme command of the army, with equal energy +and prudence, and by a series of splendid victories had revived the +military reputation of Spain. The peculiar formation of the country, +which by its numerous rivers and canals facilitated the connection of +the towns with one another and with the sea, baffled all attempts +effectually to subdue it, and the possession of one place could only be +maintained by the occupation of another. So long as this communication +was kept up Holland and Zealand could with little difficulty assist +their allies, and supply them abundantly by water as well as by land +with all necessaries, so that valor was of no use, and the strength of +the king's troops was fruitlessly wasted on tedious sieges. + +Of all the towns in Brabant Antwerp was the most important, as well +from, its wealth, its population, and its military force, as by its +position on the mouth of the Scheldt. This great and populous town, +which at this date contained more than eighty thousand inhabitants, was +one of the most active members of the national league, and had in the +course of the war distinguished itself above all the towns of Belgium by +an untamable spirit of liberty. As it fostered within its bosom all the +three Christian churches, and owed much of its prosperity to this +unrestricted religious liberty, it had the more cause to dread the +Spanish rule, which threatened to abolish this toleration, and by the +terror of the Inquisition to drive all the Protestant merchants from its +markets. Moreover it had had but too terrible experience of the +brutality of the Spanish garrisons, and it was quite evident that if it +once more suffered this insupportable yoke to be imposed upon it it +would never again during the whole course of the war be able to throw it +off. + +But powerful as were the motives which stimulated Antwerp to resistance, +equally strong were the reasons which determined the Spanish general to +make himself master of the place at any cost. On the possession of this +town depended in a great measure that of the whole province of Brabant, +which by this channel chiefly derived its supplies of corn from Zealand, +while the capture of this place would secure to the victor the command +of the Scheldt. It would also deprive the league of Brabant, which held +its meetings in the town, of its principal support; the whole faction of +its dangerous influence, of its example, its counsels, and its money, +while the treasures of its inhabitants would open plentiful supplies for +the military exigencies of the king. Its fall would sooner or later +necessarily draw after it that of all Brabant, and the preponderance of +power in that quarter would decide the whole dispute in favor of the +king. Determined by these grave considerations, the Duke of Parma drew +his forces together in July, 1584, and advanced from his position at +Dornick to the neighborhood of Antwerp, with the intention of investing +it. + +But both the natural position and fortifications of the town appeared to +defy attacks. Surrounded on the side of Brabant with insurmountable +works and moats, and towards Flanders covered by the broad and rapid +stream of the Scheldt, it could not be carried by storm; and to blockade +a town of such extent seemed to require a land force three times larger +than that which the duke had, and moreover a fleet, of which he was +utterly destitute. Not only did the river yield the town all necessary +supplies from Ghent, it also opened an easy communication with the +bordering province of Zealand. For, as the tide of the North Sea +extends far up the Scheldt, and ebbs and flows regularly, Antwerp enjoys +the peculiar advantage that the same tide flows past it at different +times in two opposite directions. Besides, the adjacent towns of +Brussels, Malines, Ghent, Dendermonde, and others, were all at this time +in the hands of the league, and could aid the place from the land side +also. To blockade, therefore, the town by land, and to cut off its +communication with Flanders and Brabant, required two different armies, +one on each bank of the river. A sufficient fleet was likewise needed +to guard the passage of the Scheldt, and to prevent all attempts at +relief, which would most certainly be made from Zealand. But by the war +which he had still to carry on in other quarters, and by the numerous +garrisons which he was obliged to leave in the towns and fortified +places, the army of the duke was reduced to ten thousand infantry and +seventeen hundred horse, a force very inadequate for an undertaking of +such magnitude. Moreover, these troops were deficient in the most +necessary supplies, and the long arrears of pay had excited them to +subdued murmurs, which hourly threatened to break out into open mutiny. +If, notwithstanding these difficulties, he should still attempt the +seige, there would be much occasion to fear from the strongholds of the +enemy, which were left in the rear, and from which it would be easy, by +vigorous sallies, to annoy an army distributed over so many places, and +to expose it to want by cutting off its supplies. + +All these considerations were brought forward by the council of war, +before which the Duke of Parrna now laid his scheme. However great the +confidence which they placed in themselves, and in the proved abilities +of such a leader, nevertheless the most experienced generals did not +disguise their despair of a fortunate result. Two only were exceptions, +Capizucchi and Mondragone, whose ardent courage placed them above all +apprehensions; the rest concurred in dissuading the duke from attempting +so hazardous an enterprise, by which they ran the risk of forfeiting the +fruit of all their former victories and tarnishing the glory they had +already earned. + +But objections, which he had already made to himself and refuted, could +not shake the Duke of Parma in his purpose. Not in ignorance of its +inseparable dangers, not from thoughtless overvaluing his forces had he +taken this bold resolve. But that instinctive genius which leads great +men by paths which inferior minds either never enter upon or never +finish, raised him above the influence of the doubts which a cold and +narrow prudence would oppose to his views; and, without being able to +convince his generals, he felt the correctness of his calculations in a +conviction indistinct, indeed, but not on that account less indubitable. +A succession of fortunate results had raised his confidence, and the +sight of his army, unequalled in Europe for discipline, experience, and +valor, and commanded by a chosen body of the most distinguished +officers, did not permit him to entertain fear for a moment. To those +who objected to the small number of his troops, he answered, that +however long the pike, it is only the point that kills; and that in +military enterprise, the moving power was of more importance than the +mass to be moved. He was aware, indeed, of the discontent of his +troops, but he knew also their obedience; and he thought, moreover, that +the best means to stifle their murmurs was by keeping them employed in +some important undertaking, by stimulating their desire of glory by the +splendor of the enterprise, and their rapacity by hopes of the rich +booty which the capture of so wealthy a town would hold out. + +In the plan which he now formed for the conduct of the siege he +endeavored to meet all these difficulties. Famine was the only +instrument by which he could hope to subdue the town; but effectually to +use this formidable weapon, it would be expedient to cut off all its +land and water communications. With this view, the first object was to +stop, or at least to impede, the arrival of supplies from Zealand. It +was, therefore, requisite not only to carry all the outworks, which the +people of Antwerp had built on both shores of the Scheldt for the +protection of their shipping; but also, wherever feasible, to throw up +new batteries which should command the whole course of the river; and to +prevent the place from drawing supplies from the land side, while +efforts were being made to intercept their transmission by sea, all the +adjacent towns of Brabant and Flanders were comprehended in the plan of +the siege, and the fall of Antwerp was based on the destruction of all +those places. A bold and, considering the duke's scanty force, an +almost extravagant project, which was, however, justified by the genius +of its author, and crowned by fortune with a brilliant result. + +As, however, time was required to accomplish a plan of this magnitude, +the Prince of Parma was content, for the present, with the erection of +numerous forts on the canals and rivers which connected Antwerp with +Dendermonde, Ghent, Malines, Brussels, and other places. Spanish +garrisons were quartered in the vicinity, and almost at the very gates +of those towns, which laid waste the open country, and by their +incursions kept the surrounding territory in alarm. Thus, round Ghent +alone were encamped about three thousand men, and proportionate numbers +round the other towns. In this way, and by means of the secret +understanding which he maintained with the Roman Catholic inhabitants of +those towns, the duke hoped, without weakening his own forces, gradually +to exhaust their strength, and by the harassing operations of a petty +but incessant warfare, even without any formni siege, to reduce them at +last to capitulate. + +In the meantime the main force was directed against Antwerp, which he +now closely invested. He fixed his headquarters at Bevern in Flanders, +a few miles from Antwerp, where he found a fortified camp. The +protection of the Flemish bank of the Scheldt was entrusted to the +Margrave of Rysburg, general of cavalry; the Brabant bank to the Count +Peter Ernest Von Mansfeld, who was joined by another Spanish leader, +Mondragone. Both the latter succeeded in crossing the Scheldt upon +pontoons, notwithstanding the Flemish admiral's ship was sent to oppose +them, and, passing Antwerp, took up their position at Stabroek in +Bergen. Detached corps dispersed themselves along the whole Brabant +side, partly to secure the dykes and the roads. + +Some miles below Antwerp the Scheldt was guarded by two strong forts, of +which one was situated at Liefkenshoek on the island Doel, in Flanders, +the other at Lillo, exactly opposite the coast of Brabant. The last had +been erected by Mondragone himself, by order of the Duke of Alvaa, when +the latter was still master of Antwerp, and for this very reason the +Duke of Parma now entrusted to him the attack upon it. On the +possession of these two forts the success of the siege seemed wholly to +depend, since all the vessels sailing from Zealand to Antwerp must pass +under their guns. Both forts had a short time before been strengthened +by the besieged, and the former was scarcely finished when the Margrave +of Rysburg attacked it. The celerity with which he went to work +surprised the enemy before they were sufficiently prepared for defence, +and a brisk assault quickly placed Liefkenshoek in the hands of the +Spaniards. The confederates sustained this loss on the same fatal day +that the Prince of Orange fell at Delft by the hands of an assassin. +The other batteries, erected on the island of Doel, were partly +abandoned by their defenders, partly taken by surprise, so that in a +short time the whole Flemish side was cleared of the enemy. But the +fort at Lillo, on the Brabant shore, offered a more vigorous resistance, +since the people of Antwerp had had time to strengthen its +fortifications and to provide it with a strong garrison. Furious +sallies of the besieged, led by Odets von Teligny, supported by the +cannon of the fort, destroyed all the works of the Spaniards, and an +inundation, which was effected by opening the sluices, finally drove +them away from the place after a three weeks' siege, and with the loss +of nearly two thousand killed. They now retired into their fortified +camp at Stabroek, and contented themselves with taking possession of the +dams which run across the lowlands of Bergen, and oppose a breastwork to +the encroachments of the East Scheldt. + +The failure of his attempt upon the fort of Lillo compelled the Prince +of Parma to change his measures. As he could not succeed in stopping +the passage of the Scheldt by his original plan, on which the success of +the siege entirely depended, he determined to effect his purpose by +throwing a bridge across the whole breadth of the river. The thought +was bold, and there were many who held it to be rash. Both the breadth +of the stream, which at this part exceeds twelve hundred paces, as well +as its violence, which is still further augmented by the tides of the +neighboring sea, appeared to render every attempt of this kind +impracticable. Moreover, he had to contend with a deficiency of timber, +vessels, and workmen, as well as with the dangerous position between the +fleets of Antwerp and of Zealand, to which it would necessarily be an +easy task, in combination with a boisterous element, to interrupt so +tedious a work. But the Prince of Parma knew his power, and his settled +resolution would yield to nothing short of absolute impossibility. +After he had caused the breadth as well as the depth of the river to be +measured, and had consulted with two of his most skilful engineers, +Barocci and Plato, it was settled that the bridge should be constructed +between Calloo in Flanders and Ordain in Brabant. This spot was +selected because the river is here narrowest, and bends a little to the +right, and so detains vessels a while by compelling them to tack. To +cover the bridge strong bastions were erected at both ends, of which the +one on the Flanders side was named Fort St. Maria, the other, on the +Brabant side, Fort St. Philip, in honor of the king. + +While active preparations were making in the Spanish camp for the +execution of this scheme, and the whole attention of the enemy was +directed to it, the duke made an unexpected attack upon Dendermonde, a +strong town between Ghent and Antwerp, at the confluence of the Dender +and the Scheldt. As long as this important place was in the hands of +the enemy the towns of Ghent and Antwerp could mutually support each +other, and by the facility of their communication frustrate all the +efforts of the besiegers. Its capture would leave the prince free to +act against both towns, and might decide the fate of his undertaking. +The rapidity of his attack left the besieged no time to open their +sluices and lay the country under water. A hot cannonade was opened +upon the chief bastion of the town before the Brussels gate, but was +answered by the fire of the besieged, which made great havoc amongst the +Spaniards. It increased, however, rather than discouraged their ardor, +and the insults of the garrison, who mutilated the statue of a saint +before their eyes, and after treating it with the most contumelious +indignity, hurled it down from the rampart, raised their fury to the +highest pitch. Clamorously they demanded to be led against the bastion +before their fire had made a sufficient breach in it, and the prince, to +avail himself of the first ardor of their impetuosity, gave the signal +for the assault. After a sanguinary contest of two hours the rampart +was mounted, and those who were not sacrificed to the first fury of the +Spaniards threw themselves into the town. The latter was indeed now +more exposed, a fire being directed upon it from the works which had +been carried; but its strong walls and the broad moat which surrounded +it gave reason to expect a protracted resistance. The inventive +resources of the Prince of Parma soon overcame this obstacle also. +While the bombardment was carried on night and day, the troops were +incessantly employed in diverting the course of the Dender, which +supplied the fosse with water, and the besieged were seized with despair +as they saw the water of the trenches, the last defence of the town, +gradually disappear. They hastened to capitulate, and in August, 1584, +received a Spanish garrison. Thus, in the space of eleven days, the +Prince of Parrna accomplished an undertaking which, in the opinion of +competent judges, would require as many weeks. + +The town of Ghent, now cut off from Antwerp and the sea, and hard +pressed by the troops of the king, which were encamped in its vicinity, +and without hope of immediate succor, began to despair, as famine, with +all its dreadful train, advanced upon them with rapid steps. The +inhabitants therefore despatched deputies to the Spanish camp at Bevern, +to tender its submission to the king upon the same terms as the prince +had a short time previously offered. The deputies were informed that +the time for treaties was past, and that an unconditional submission +alone could appease the just anger of the monarch whom they had offended +by their rebellion. Nay, they were even given to understand that it +would be only through his great mercy if the same humiliation were not +exacted from them as their rebellious ancestors were forced to undergo +under Charles V., namely, to implore pardon half-naked, and with a cord +round their necks. The deputies returned to Ghent in despair, but three +days afterwards a new deputation was sent to the Spanish camp, which at +last, by the intercession of one of the prince's friends, who was a +prisoner in Ghent, obtained peace upon moderate terms. The town was to +pay a fine of two hundred thousand florins, recall the banished papists, +and expel the Protestant inhabitants, who, however, were to be allowed +two years for the settlement of their affairs. All the inhabitants +except six, who were reserved for capital punishment (but afterwards +pardoned), were included in a general amnesty, and the garrison, which +amounted to two thousand men, was allowed to evacuate the place with the +honors of war. This treaty was concluded in September of the same year, +at the headquarters at Bevern, and immediately three thousand Spaniards +marched into the town as a garrison. + +It was more by the terror of his name and the dread of famine than by +the force of arms that the Prince of Parma had succeeded in reducing +this city to submission, the largest and strongest in the Netherlands, +which was little inferior to Paris within the barriers of its inner +town, consisted of thirty-seven thousand houses, and was built on twenty +islands, connected by ninety-eight stone bridges. The important +privileges which in the course of several centuries this city had +contrived to extort from its rulers fostered in its inhabitants a spirit +of independence, which not unfrequently degenerated into riot and +license, and naturally brought it in collision with the Austrian-Spanish +government. And it was exactly this bold spirit of liberty which +procured for the Reformation the rapid and extensive success it met with +in this town, and the combined incentives of civil and religious freedom +produced all those scenes of violence by which, during the rebellion, it +had unfortunately distinguished itself. Besides the fine levied, the +prince found within the walls a large store of artillery, carriages, +ships, and building materials of all kinds, with numerous workmen and +sailors, who materially aided him in his plans against Antwerp. + +Before Ghent surrendered to the king Vilvorden and Herentals had fallen +into the hands of the Spaniards, and the capture of the block-houses +near the village of Willebrock had cut off Antwerp from Brussels and +Malines. The loss of these places within so short a period deprived +Antwerp of all hope of succor from Brabant and Flanders, and limited all +their expectations to the assistance which might be looked for from +Zealand. But to deprive them also of this the Prince of Parma was now +making the most energetic preparations. + +The citizens of Antwerp had beheld the first operations of the enemy +against their town with the proud security with which the sight of their +invincible river inspired them. This confidence was also in a degree +justified by the opinion of the Prince of Orange, who, upon the first +intelligence of the design, had said that the Spanish army would +inevitably perish before the walls of Antwerp. That nothing, however, +might be neglected, he sent, a short time before his assassination, for +the burgomaster of Antwerp, Philip Marnix of St. Aldegonde, his intimate +friend, to Delft, where he consulted with him as to the means of +maintaining defensive operations. It was agreed between then that it +would be advisable to demolish forthwith the great dam between Sanvliet +and Lillo called the Blaaugarendyk, so as to allow the waters of the +East Scheldt to inundate, if necessary, the lowlands of Bergen, and +thus, in the event of the Scheldt being closed, to open a passage for +the Zealand vessels to the town across the inundated country. Aldegonde +had, after his return, actually persuaded the magistrate and the +majority of the citizens to agree to this proposal, when it was resisted +by the guild of butchers, who claimed that they would be ruined by such +a measure; for the plain which it was wished to lay under water was a +vast tract of pasture land, upon which about twelve thousand oxen--were +annually put to graze. The objection of the butchers was successful, +and they managed to prevent the execution of this salutary scheme until +the enemy had got possession of the dams as well as the pasture land. + +At the suggestion of the burgomaster St. Aldegonde, who, himself a +member of the states of Brabant, was possessed of great authority in +that council, the fortifications on both sides the Scheldt had, a short +time before the arrival of the Spaniards, been placed in repair, and +many new redoubts erected round the town. The dams had been cut through +at Saftingen, and the water of the West Scheldt let out over nearly the +whole country of Waes. In the adjacent Marquisate of Bergen troops had +been enlisted by the Count of Hohenlohe, and a Scotch regiment, under +the command of Colonel Morgan, was already in the pay of the republic, +while fresh reinforcements were daily expected from England and France. +Above all, the states of Holland and Zealand were called upon to hasten +their supplies. But after the enemy had taken strong positions on both +sides of the river, and the fire of their batteries made the navigation +dangerous, when place after place in Brabant fell into their hands, and +their cavalry had cut off all communication on the land side, the +inhabitants of Antwerp began at last to entertain serious apprehensions +for the future. The town then contained eighty-five thousand souls, and +according to calculation three hundred thousand quarters of corn were +annually required for their support. At the beginning of the siege +neither the supply nor the money was wanting for the laying in of such a +store; for in spite of the enemy's fire the Zealand victualing ships, +taking advantage of the rising tide, contrived to make their way to the +town. All that was requisite was to prevent any of the richer citizens +from buying up these supplies, and, in case of scarcity, raising the +price. To secure his object, one Gianibelli from Mantua, who had +rendered important services in the course of the siege, proposed a +property tax of one penny in every hundred, and the appointment of a +board of respectable persons to purchase corn with this money, and +distribute it weekly. And until the returns of this tax should be +available the richer classes should advance the required sum, holding +the corn purchased, as a deposit, in their own magazines; and were also +to share in the profit. But this plan was unwelcome to the wealthier +citizens, who had resolved to profit by the general distress. They +recommended that every individual should be required to provide himself +with a sufficient supply for two years; a proposition which, however it +might suit their own circumstances, was very unreasonable in regard to +the poorer inhabitants, who, even before the siege, could scarcely find +means to supply themselves for so many months. They obtained indeed +their object, which was to reduce the poor to the necessity of either +quitting the place or becoming entirely their dependents. But when they +afterwards reflected that in the time of need the rights of property +would not be respected, they found it advisable not to be over-hasty in +making their own purchases. + +The magistrate, in order to avert an evil that would have pressed upon +individuals only, had recourse to an expedient which endangered the +safety of all. Some enterprising persons in Zealand had freighted a +large fleet with provisions, which succeeded in passing the guns of the +enemy, and discharged its cargo at Antwerp. The hope of a large profit +had tempted the merchants to enter upon this hazardous speculation; in +this, however, they were disappointed, as the magistrate of Antwerp had, +just before their arrival, issued an edict regulating the price of all +the necessaries of life. At the same time to prevent individuals from +buying up the whole cargo and storing it in their magazines with a view +of disposing of it afterwards at a dearer rate, he ordered that the +whole should be publicly sold in any quantities from the vessels. The +speculators, cheated of their hopes of profit by these precautions, set +sail again, and left Antwerp with the greater part of their cargo, which +would have sufficed for the support of the town for several months. + +This neglect of the most essential and natural means of preservation can +only be explained by the supposition that the inhabitants considered it +absolutely impossible ever to close the Scheldt completely, and +consequently had not the least apprehension that things would come to +extremity. When the intelligence arrived in Antwerp that the prince +intended to throw a bridge over the Scheldt the idea was universally +ridiculed as chimerical. An arrogant comparison was drawn between the +republic and the stream, and it was said that the one would bear the +Spanish yoke as little as the other. "A river which is twenty-four +hundred feet broad, and, with its own waters alone, above sixty feet +deep, but which with the tide rose twelve feet more--would such a +stream," it was asked, "submit to be spanned by a miserable piece of +paling? Where were beams to be found high enough to reach to the bottom +and project above the surface? and how was a work of this kind to stand +in winter, when whole islands and mountains of ice, which stone walls +could hardly resist, would be driven by the flood against its weak +timbers, and splinter them to pieces like glass? Or, perhaps, the +prince purposed to construct a bridge of boats; if so, where would he +procure the latter, and how bring them into his intrenchments? They +must necessarily be brought past Antwerp, where a fleet was ready to +capture or sink them." + +But while they were trying to prove the absurdity of the Prince of +Parma's undertaking he had already completed it. As soon as the forts +St. Maria and St. Philip were erected, and protected the workmen and the +work by their fire, a pier was built out into the stream from both +banks, for which purpose the masts of the largest vessels were employed; +by a skilful arrangement of the timbers they contrived to give the whole +such solidity that, as the result proved, it was able to resist the +violent pressure of the ice. These timbers, which rested firmly and +securely on the bottom of the river, and projected a considerable height +above it, being covered with planks, afforded a commodious roadway. It +was wide enough to allow eight men to cross abreast, and a balustrade +that ran along it on both sides, protected them from the fire of small- +arms from the enemy's vessels. This "stacade," as it was called, ran +from the two opposite shores as far as the increasing depth and force of +the stream allowed. It reduced the breadth of the river to about eleven +hundred feet; as, however, the middle and proper current would not admit +of such a barrier, there remained, therefore, between the two stacades a +space of more than six hundred paces through which a whole fleet of +transports could sail with ease. This intervening space the prince +designed to close by a bridge of boats, for which purpose the craft must +be procured from Dunkirk. But, besides that they could not be obtained +in any number at that place, it would be difficult to bring them past +Antwerp without great loss. He was, therefore, obliged to content +himself for the time with having narrowed the stream one-half, and +rendered the passage of the enemy's vessels so much the more difficult. +Where the stacades terminated in the middle of the stream they spread +out into parallelograms, which were mounted with heavy guns, and served +as a kind of battery on the water. From these a heavy fire was opened +on every vessel that attempted to pass through this narrow channel. +Whole fleets, however, and single vessels still attempted and succeeded +in passing this dangerous strait. + +Meanwhile Ghent surrendered, and this unexpected success at once rescued +the prince from his dilemma. He found in this town everything necessary +to complete his bridge of boats; and the only difficulty now was its +safe transport, which was furnished by the enemy themselves. By cutting +the dams at Saftingen a great part of the country of Waes, as far as the +village of Borcht, had been laid under water, so that it was not +difficult to cross it with flat-bottomed boats. The prince, therefore, +ordered his vessels to run out from Ghent, and after passing Dendermonde +and Rupelmonde to pass through the left dyke of the Scheldt, leaving +Antwerp to the right, and sail over the inundated fields in the +direction of Borcht. To protect this passage a fort was erected at the +latter village, which would keep the enemy in check. All succeeded to +his wishes, though not without a sharp action with the enemy's flotilla, +which was sent out to intercept this convoy. After breaking through a +few more dams on their route, they reached the Spanish quarters at +Calloo, and successfully entered the Scheldt again. The exultation of +the army was greater when they discovered the extent of the danger the +vessels had so narrowly escaped. Scarcely had they got quit of the +enemy's vessels when a strong reinforcement from Antwerp got under +weigh, commanded by the valiant defender of Lillo, Odets von Teligny. +When this officer saw that the affair was over, and that the enemy had +escaped, he took possession of the dam through which their fleet had +passed, and threw up a fort on the spot in order to stop the passage of +any vessels from Ghent which might attempt to follow them. + +By this step the prince was again thrown into embarrassment. He was far +from having as yet a sufficient number of vessels, either for the +construction of the bridge or for its defence, and the passage by which +the former convoy had arrived was now closed by the fort erected by +Teligny. While he was reconnoitring the country to discover a new way +for his, fleets an idea occurred to him which not only put an end to his +present dilemma, but greatly accelerated the success of his whole plan. +Not far from the village of Stecken, in Waes, which is within some five +thousand paces of the commencement of the inundation, flows a small +stream called the Moer, which falls into the Scheldt near Ghent. From +this river he caused a canal to be dug to the spot where the inundations +began, and as the water of these was not everywhere deep enough for the +transit of his boats, the canal between Bevern and Verrebroek was +continued to Calloo, where it was met by the Scheldt. At this work five +hundred pioneers labored without intermission, and in order to cheer the +toil of the soldiers the prince himself took part in it. In this way +did he imitate the example of the two celebrated Romans, Drusus and +Corbulo, who by similar works had united the Rhine with the Zuyder Zee, +and the Maes with the Rhine? + +This canal, which the army in honor of its projector called the canal of +Parma, was fourteen thousand paces in length, and was of proportion able +depth and breadth, so as to be navigable for ships of a considerable +burden. It afforded to the vessels from Ghent not only a more secure, +but also a much shorter course to the Spanish quarters, because it was +no longer necessary to follow the many windings of the Scheldt, but +entering the Moer at once near Ghent, and from thence passing close to +Stecken, they could proceed through the canal and across the inundated +country as far as Calloo. As the produce of all Flanders was brought to +the town of Ghent, this canal placed the Spanish camp in communication +with the whole province. Abundance poured into the camp from all +quarters, so that during the whole course of the siege the Spaniards +suffered no scarcity of any kind. But the greatest benefit which the +prince derived from this work was an adequate supply of flat-bottomed +vessels to complete his bridge. + +These preparations were overtaken by the arrival of winter, which, as +the Scheldt was filled with drift-ice, occasioned a considerable delay +in the building of the bridge. The prince had contemplated with anxiety +the approach of this season, lest it should prove highly destructive to +the work he had undertaken, and afford the enemy a favorable opportunity +for making a serious attack upon it. But the skill of his engineers +saved him from the one danger, and the strange inaction of the enemy +freed him from the other. It frequently happened, indeed, that at +flood-time large pieces of ice were entangled in the timbers, and shook +them violently, but they stood the assault of the furious element, which +only served to prove their stability. + +In Antwerp, meanwhile, important moments had been wasted in futile +deliberations; and in a struggle of factions the general welfare was +neglected. The government of the town was divided among too many heads, +and much too great a share in it was held by the riotous mob to allow +room for calmness of deliberation or firmness of action. Besides the +municipal magistracy itself, in which the burgomaster had only a single +voice, there were in the city a number of guilds, to whom were consigned +the charge of the internal and external defence, the provisioning of the +town, its fortifications, the marine, commerce, etc.; some of whom must +be consulted in every business of importance. By means of this crowd of +speakers, who intruded at pleasure into the council, and managed to +carry by clamor and the number of their adherents what they could not +effect by their arguments, the people obtained a dangerous influence +in the public debates, and the natural struggle of such discordant +interests retarded the execution of every salutary measure. +A government so vacillating and impotent could not command the respect +of unruly sailors and a lawless soldiery. The orders of the state +consequently were but imperfectly obeyed, and the decisive moment was +more than once lost by the negligence, not to say the open mutiny, both +of the land and sea forces. The little harmony in the selection of the +means by which the enemy was to be opposed would not, however, have +proved so injurious had there but existed unanimity as to the end. But +on this very point the wealthy citizens and poorer classes were divided; +so the former, having everything to apprehend from allowing matters to +be carried to extremity, were strongly inclined to treat with the Prince +of Parma. This disposition they did not even attempt to conceal after +the fort of Liefkenshoek had fallen into the enemy's hands, and serious +fears were entertained for the navigation of the Scheldt. Some of them, +indeed, withdrew entirely from the danger, and left to its fate the +town, whose prosperity they had been ready enough to share, but in whose +adversity they were unwilling to bear a part. From sixty to seventy of +those who remained memorialized the council, advising that terms should +be made with the king. No sooner, however, had the populace got +intelligence of it than their indignation broke out in a violent uproar, +which was with difficulty appeased by the imprisonment and fining of the +petitioners. Tranquillity could only be fully restored by publication +of an edict, which imposed the penalty of death on all who either +publicly or privately should countenance proposals for peace. + +The Prince of Parma did not fail to take advantage of these +disturbances; for nothing that transpired within the city escaped his +notice, being well served by the agents with whom he maintained a secret +understanding with Antwerp, as well as the other towns of Brabant and +Flanders. Although he had already made considerable progress in his +measures for distressing the town, still he had many steps to take +before he could actually make himself master of it; and one unlucky +moment might destroy the work of many months. Without, therefore, +neglecting any of his warlike preparations, he determined to make one +more serious attempt to get possession by fair means. With this object +he despatched a letter in November to the great council of Antwerp, in +which he skilfully made use of every topic likely to induce the citizens +to come to terms, or at least to increase their existing dissensions. +He treated them in this letter in the light of persons who had been led +astray, and threw the whole blame of their revolt and refractory conduct +hitherto upon the intriguing spirit of the Prince of Orange, from whose +artifices the retributive justice of heaven had so lately liberated +them. "It was," he said, "now in their power to awake from their long +infatuation and return to their allegiance to a monarch who was ready +and anxious to be reconciled to his subjects. For this end he gladly +offered himself as mediator, as he had never ceased to love a country in +which he had been born, and where he had spent the happiest days of his +youth. He therefore exhorted them to send plenipotentiaries with whom +he could arrange the conditions of peace, and gave them hopes of +obtaining reasonable terms if they made a timely submission, but also +threatened them with the severest treatment if they pushed matters to +extremity." + +This letter, in which we are glad to recognize a language very different +from that which the Duke of Alva held ten years before on a similar +occasion, was answered by the townspeople in a respectful and dignified +tone. While they did full justice to the personal character of the +prince, and acknowledged his favorable intentions towards them with +gratitude, they lamented the hardness of the times, which placed it out +of his power to treat them in accordance with his character and +disposition. They declared that they would gladly place their fate in +his hands if he were absolute master of his actions, instead of being +obliged to obey the will of another, whose proceedings his own candor +would not allow him to approve of. The unalterable resolution of the +King of Spain, as well as the vow which he had made to the pope, were +only too well known for them to have any hopes in that quarter. They at +the same time defended with a noble warmth the memory of the Prince of +Orange, their benefactor and preserver, while they enumerated the true +cases which had produced this unhappy war, and had caused the provinces +to revolt from the Spanish crown. At the same time they did not +disguise from him that they had hopes of finding a new and a milder +master in the King of France, and that, if only for this reason, they +could not enter into any treaty with the Spanish king without incurring +the charge of the most culpable fickleness and ingratitude. + +The united provinces, in fact, dispirited by a succession of reverses, +had at last come to the determination of placing themselves under the +protection and sovereignty of France, and of preserving their existence +and their ancient privileges by the sacrifice of their independence. +With this view an embassy had some time before been despatched to Paris, +and it was the prospect of this powerful assistance which principally +supported the courage of the people of Antwerp. Henry III., King of +France, was personally disposed to accept this offer; but the troubles +which the intrigues of the Spaniards contrived to excite within his own +kingdom compelled him against his will to abandon it. The provinces now +turned for assistance to Queen Elizabeth of England, who sent them some +supplies, which, however, came too late to save Antwerp. While the +people of this city were awaiting the issue of these negotiations, and +expecting aid from foreign powers, they neglected, unfortunately, the +most natural and immediate means of defence; the whole winter was lost, +and while the enemy turned it to greater advantage the more complete was +their indecision and inactivity. + +The burgomaster of Antwerp, St. Aldegonde, had, indeed, repeatedly urged +the fleet of Zealand to attack the enemy's works, which should be +supported on the other side from Antwerp. The long and frequently +stormy nights would favor this attempt, and if at the same time a sally +were made by the garrison at Lillo, it seemed scarcely possible for +the enemy to resist this triple assault. But unfortunately +misunderstandings had arisen between the commander of the fleet, William +von Blois von Treslong, and the admiralty of Zealand, which caused the +equipment of the fleet to be most unaccountably delayed. In order to +quicken their movements Teligny at last resolved to go himself to +Middleburg, were the states of Zealand were assembled; but as the enemy +were in possession of all the roads the attempt cost him his freedom and +the republic its most valiant defender. However, there was no want of +enterprising vessels, which, under the favor of the night and the +floodtide, passing through the still open bridge in spite of the enemy's +fire, threw provisions into the town and returned with the ebb. But as +many of these vessels fell into the hands of the enemy the council gave +orders that they should never risk the passage unless they amounted to a +certain number; and the result, unfortunately, was that none attempted +it because the required number could not be collected at one time. +Several attacks were also made from Antwerp on the ships of the +Spaniards, which were not entirely unsuccessful; some of the latter were +captured, others sunk, and all that was required was to execute similar +attempts on a grand scale. But however zealously St. Aldegonde urged +this, still not a captain was to be found who would command a vessel for +that purpose. + +Amid these delays the winter expired, and scarcely had the ice begun to +disappear when the construction of the bridge of boats was actively +resumed by the besiegers. Between the two piers a space of more than +six hundred paces still remained to be filled up, which was effected in +the following manner: Thirty-two flat-bottomed vessels, each sixty-six +feet long and twenty broad, were fastened together with strong cables +and iron chains, but at a distance from each other of about twenty feet +to allow a free passage to the stream. Each boat, moreover, was moored +with two cables, both up and down the stream, but which, as the water +rose with the tide, or sunk with the ebb, could be slackened or +tightened. Upon the boats great masts were laid which reached from one +to another, and, being covered with planks, formed a regular road, +which, like that along the piers, was protected with a balustrade. This +bridge of boats, of which the two piers formed a continuation, had, +including the latter, a length of twenty-four thousand paces. This +formidable work was so ingeniously constructed, and so richly furnished +with the instruments of destruction, that it seemed almost capable, like +a living creature, of defending itself at the word of command, +scattering death among all who approached. Besides the two forts of St. +Maria and St. Philip, which terminated the bridge on either shore, and +the two wooden bastions on the bridge itself, which were filled with +soldiers and mounted with guns on all sides, each of the two-and-thirty +vessels was manned with thirty soldiers and four sailors, and showed the +cannon's mouth to the enemy, whether he carne up from Zealand or down +from Antwerp. There were in all ninety-seven cannon, which were +distributed beneath and above the bridge, and more than fifteen hundred +men who were posted, partly in the forts, partly in the vessels, and, in +case of necessity, could maintain a terrible fire of small-arms upon the +enemy. + +But with all this the prince did not consider his work sufficiently +secure. It was to be expected that the enemy would leave nothing +unattempted to burst by the force of his machines the middle and weakest +part. To guard against this, he erected in a line with the bridge of +boats, but at some distance from it, another distinct defence, intended +to break the force of any attack that might be directed against the +bridge itself. This work consisted of thirty-three vessels of +considerable magnitude, which were moored in a row athwart the stream +and fastened in threes by masts, so that they formed eleven different +groups. Each of these, like a file of pikemen, presented fourteen long +wooden poles with iron heads to the approaching enemy. These vessels +were loaded merely with ballast, and were anchored each by a double but +slack cable, so as to be able to give to the rise and fall of the tide. +As they were in constant motion they got from the soldiers the name of +"swimmers." The whole bridge of boats and also a part of the piers were +covered by these swimmers, which were stationed above as well as below +the bridge. To all these defensive preparations was added a fleet of +forty men-of-war, which were stationed on both coasts and served as a +protection to the whole. + +This astonishing work was finished in March, 1585, the seventh month of +the siege, and the day on which it was completed was kept as a jubilee +by the troops. The great event was announced to the besieged by a grand +/fete de joie/, and the army, as if to enjoy ocular demonstration of its +triumph, extended itself along the whole platform to gaze upon the proud +stream, peacefully and obediently flowing under the yoke which had been +imposed upon it. All the toil they had undergone was forgotton in the +delightful spectacle, and every man who had had a hand in it, however +insignificant he might be, assumed to himself a portion of the honor +which the successful execution of so gigantic an enterprise conferred on +its illustrious projector. On the other hand, nothing could equal the +consternation which seized the citizens of Antwerp when intelligence was +brought them that the Scheldt was now actually closed, and all access +from Zealand cut off. To increase their dismay they learned the fall of +Brussels also, which had at last been compelled by famine to capitulate. +An attempt made by the Count of Hohenlohe about the same time on +Herzogenbusch, with a view to recapture the town, or at least form a +diversion, was equally unsuccessful; and thus the unfortunate city lost +all hope of assistance, both by sea and land. + +These evil tidings were brought them by some fugitives who had succeeded +in passing the Spanish videttes, and had made their way into the town; +and a spy, whom the burgomaster had sent out to reconnoitre the enemy's +works, increased the general alarm by his report. He had been seized +and carried before the Prince of Parma, who commanded him to be +conducted over all the works, and all the defences of the bridge to be +pointed out to him. After this had been done he was again brought +before the general, who dismissed him with these words: "Go," said he, +"and report what you have seen to those who sent you. And tell them, +too, that it is my firm resolve to bury myself under the ruins of this +bridge or by means of it to pass into your town." + +But the certainty of danger now at last awakened the zeal of the +confederates, and it was no fault of theirs if the former half of the +prince's vow was not fulfilled. The latter had long viewed with +apprehension the preparations which were making in Zealand for the +relief of the town. He saw clearly that it was from this quarter that +he had to fear the most dangerous blow, and that with all his works he +could not make head against the combined fleets of Zealand and Antwerp +if they were to fall upon him at the same time and at the proper moment. +For a while the delays of the admiral of Zealand, which he had labored +by all the means in his power to prolong, had been his security, but now +the urgent necessity accelerated the expedition, and without waiting for +the admiral the states at Middleburg despatched the Count Justin of +Nassau, with as many ships as they could muster, to the assistance of +the besieged. This fleet took up a position before Liefkenshoek, which +was in possession of the Spaniards, and, supported by a few vessels from +the opposite fort of Lillo, cannonaded it with such success that the +walls were in a short time demolished, and the place carried by storm. +The Walloons who formed the garrison did not display the firmness which +might have been expected from soldiers of the Duke of Parma; they +shamefully surrendered the fort to the enemy, who in a short time were +in possession of the whole island of Doel, with all the redoubts +situated upon it. The loss of these places, which were, however, soon +retaken, incensed the Duke of Parma so much that he tried the officers +by court-martial, and caused the most culpable among them to be +beheaded. Meanwhile this important conquest opened to the Zealanders a +free passage as far as the bridge, and after concerting with the people +of Antwerp the time was fixed for a combined attack on this work. It +was arranged that, while the bridge of boats was blown up by machines +already prepared in Antwerp, the Zealand fleet, with a sufficient supply +of provisions, should be in the vicinity, ready to sail to the town +through the opening. + +While the Duke of Parma was engaged in constructing his bridge an +engineer within the walls was already preparing the materials for its +destruction. Frederick Gianibelli was the name of the man whom fate had +destined to be the Archimedes of Antwerp, and to exhaust in its defence +the same ingenuity with the same want of success. He was born in +Mantua, and had formerly visited Madrid for the purpose, it was said, +of offering his services to King Philip in the Belgian war. But wearied +with waiting the offended engineer left the court with the intention of +making the King of Spain sensibly feel the value of talents which he had +so little known how to appreciate. He next sought the service of Queen +Elizabeth of England, the declared enemy of Spain, who, after witnessing +a few specimens of his skill, sent him to Antwerp. He took up his +residence in that town, and in the present extremity devoted to its +defence his knowledge, his energy, and his zeal. + +As soon as this artist perceived that the project of erecting the bridge +was seriously intended, and that the work was fast approaching to +completion, he applied to the magistracy for three large vessels, from a +hundred and fifty to five hundred tons, in which he proposed to place +mines. He also demanded sixty boats, which, fastened together with +cables and chains, furnished with projecting grappling-irons, and put in +motion with the ebbing of the tide, were intended to second the +operation of the mine-ships by being directed in a wedgelike form +against the bridge. But he had to deal with men who were quite +incapable of comprehending an idea out of the common way, and even where +the salvation of their country was at stake could not forget the +calculating habits of trade. + +His scheme was rejected as too expensive, and with difficulty he at last +obtained the grant of two smaller vessels, from seventy to eighty tons, +with a number of flat-bottomed boats. With these two vessels, one of +which he called the "Fortune" and the other the "Hope," he proceeded in +the following manner: In the hold of each he built a hollow chamber of +freestone, five feet broad, three and a half high, and forty long. This +magazine he filled with sixty hundredweight of the finest priming powder +of his own compounding, and covered it with as heavy a weight of large +slabs and millstones as the vessels could carry. Over these he further +added a roof of similar stones, which ran up to a point and projected +six feet above the ship's side. The deck itself was crammed with iron +chains and hooks, knives, nails, and other destructive missiles; the +remaining space, which was not occupied by the magazine, was likewise +filled up with planks. Several small apertures were left in the chamber +for the matches which were to set fire to the mine. For greater +certainty he had also contrived a piece of mechanism which, after the +lapse of a given time, would strike out sparks, and even if the matches +failed would set the ship on fire. To delude the enemy into a belief +that these machines were only intended to set the bridge on fire, a +composition of brimstone and pitch was placed in the top, which could +burn a whole hour. And still further to divert the enemy's attention +from the proper seat of danger, he also prepared thirty-two flatbottomed +boats, upon which there were only fireworks burning, and whose sole +object was to deceive the enemy. These fire-ships were to be sent down +upon the bridge in four separate squadrons, at intervals of half an +hour, and keep the enemy incessantly engaged for two whole hours, so +that, tired of firing and wearied by vain expectation, they might at +last relax their vigilance before the real fire-ships came. In addition +to all this he also despatched a few vessels in which powder was +concealed in order to blow up the floating work before the bridge, and +to clear a passage for the two principal ships. At the same time he +hoped by this preliminary attack to engage the enemy's attention, to +draw them out, and expose them to the full deadly effect of the volcano. + +The night between the 4th and 5th of April was fixed for the execution +of this great undertaking. An obscure rumor of it had already diffused +itself through the Spanish camp, and particularly from the circumstance +of many divers from Antwerp having been detected endeavoring to cut the +cables of the vessels. They were prepared, therefore, for a serious +attack; they only mistook the real nature of it, and counted on having +to fight rather with man than the elements. In this expectation the +duke caused the guards along the whole bank to be doubled, and drew up +the chief part of his troops in the vicinity of the bridge, where he was +present in person; thus meeting the danger while endeavoring to avoid +it. + +No sooner was it dark than three burning vessels were seen to float down +from the city towards the bridge, then three more, and directly after +the same number. They beat to arms throughout the Spanish camp, and the +whole length of the bridge was crowded with soldiers. Meantime the +number of the fire-ships increased, and they came in regular order down +the stream, sometimes two and sometimes three abreast, being at first +steered by sailors on board them. The admiral of the Antwerp fleet, +Jacob Jacobson (whether designedly or through carelessness is not +known), had committed the error of sending off the four squadrons of +fire-ships too quickly one after another, and caused the two large mine- +ships also to follow them too soon, and thus disturbed the intended +order of attack. + +The array of vessels kept approaching, and the darkness of night still +further heightened the extraordinary spectacle. As far as the eye could +follow the course of the stream all was fire; the fire-ships burning as +brilliantly as if they were themselves in the flames; the surface of the +water glittered with light; the dykes and the batteries along the shore, +the flags, arms, and accoutrements of the soldiers who lined the rivers +as well as the bridges were clearly distinguishable in the glare. With +a mingled sensation of awe and pleasure the soldiers watched the unusual +sight, which rather resembled a fete than a hostile preparation, but +from the very strangeness of the contrast filled the mind with a +mysterious awe. When the burning fleet had come within two thousand +paces of the bridge those who had the charge of it lighted the matches, +impelled the two mine-vessels into the middle of the stream, and leaving +the others to the guidance of the current of the waves, they hastily +made their escape in boats which had been kept in readiness. + +Their course, however, was irregular, and destitute of steersmen they +arrived singly and separately at the floating works, where they +continued hanging or were dashed off sidewise on the shore. The +foremost powder-ships, which were intended to set fire to the floating +works, were cast, by the force of a squall which arose at that instant, +on the Flemish coast. One of the two, the "Fortune," grounded in its +passage before it reached the bridge, and killed by its explosion some +Spanish soldiers who were at work in a neighboring battery. The other +and larger fire-ship, called the "Hope," narrowly escaped a similar +fate. The current drove her against the floating defences towards the +Flemish bank, where it remained hanging, and had it taken fire at that +moment the greatest part of its effect would have been lost. Deceived +by the flames which this machine, like the other vessels, emitted, the +Spaniards took it for a common fire-ship, intended to burn the bridge of +boats. And as they had seen them extinguished one after the other +without further effect all fears were dispelled, and the Spaniards began +to ridicule the preparations of the enemy, which had been ushered in +with so much display and now had so absurd an end. Some of the boldest +threw themselves into the stream in order to get a close view of the +fire-ship and extinguish it, when by its weight it suddenly broke +through, burst the floating work which had detained it, and drove with +terrible force on the bridge of boats. All was now in commotion on the +bridge, and the prince called to the sailors to keep the vessel off with +poles, and to extinguish the flames before they caught the timbers. + +At this critical moment he was standing at the farthest end of the left +pier, where it formed a bastion in the water and joined the bridge of +boats. By his side stood the Margrave of Rysburg, general of cavalry +and governor of the province of Artois, who had formerly-served the +states, but from a protector of the republic had become its worst enemy; +the Baron of Billy, governor of Friesland and commander of the German +regiments; the Generals Cajetan and Guasto, with several of the +principal officers; all forgetful of their own danger and entirely +occupied with averting the general calamity. At this moment a Spanish +ensign approached the Prince of Parma and conjured him to remove from a +place where his life was in manifest and imminent peril. No attention +being paid to his entreaty he repeated it still more urgently, and at +last fell at his feet and implored him in this one instance to take +advice from his servant. While he said this he had laid hold of the +duke's coat as though he wished forcibly to draw him away from the spot, +and the latter, surprised rather at the man's boldness than persuaded by +his arguments, retired at last to the shore, attended by Cajetan and +Guasto. He had scarcely time to reach the fort St. Maria at the end of +the bridge when an explosion took place behind him, just as if the earth +had burst or the vault of heaven given way. The duke and his whole army +fell to the ground as dead, and several minutes elapsed before they +recovered their consciousness. + +But then what a sight presented itself! The waters of the Scheldt had +been divided to its lowest depth, and driven with a surge which rose +like a wall above the dam that confined it, so that all the +fortifications on the banks were several feet under water. The earth +shook for three miles round. Nearly the whole left pier, on which the +fire-ship had been driven, with a part of the bridge of boats, had been +burst and shattered to atoms, with all that was upon it; spars, cannon, +and men blown into the air. Even the enormous blocks of stone which had +covered the mine had, by the force of the explosion, been hurled into +the neighboring fields, so that many of them were afterwards dug out of +the ground at a distance of a thousand paces from the bridge. Six +vessels were buried, several had gone to pieces. But still more +terrible was the carnage which the murderous machine had dealt amongst +the soldiers. Five hundred, according to other reports even eight +hundred, were sacrificed to its fury, without reckoning those who +escaped with mutilated or injured bodies. The most opposite kinds of +death were combined in this frightful moment. Some were consumed by the +flames of the explosion, others scalded to death by the boiling water of +the river, others stifled by the poisonous vapor of the brimstone; some +were drowned in the stream, some buried under the hail of falling masses +of rock, many cut to pieces by the knives and hooks, or shattered by the +balls which were poured from the bowels of the machine. Some were found +lifeless without any visible injury, having in all probability been +killed by the mere concussion of the air. The spectacle which presented +itself directly after the firing of the mine was fearful. Men were seen +wedged between the palisades of the bridge, or struggling to release +themselves from beneath ponderous masses of rock, or hanging in the +rigging of the ships; and from all places and quarters the most +heartrending cries for help arose, but as each was absorbed in his own +safety these could only be answered by helpless wailings. + +Many had escaped in the most wonderful manner. An officer named Tucci +was carried by the whirlwind like a feather high into the air, where he +was for a moment suspended, and then dropped into the river, where he +saved himself by swimming. Another was taken up by the force of the +blast from the Flanders shore and deposited on that of Brabant, +incurring merely a slight contusion on the shoulder; he felt, as he +afterwards said, during this rapid aerial transit, just as if he had +been fired out of a cannon. The Prince of Parma himself had never been +so near death as at that moment, when half a minute saved his life. He +had scarcely set foot in the fort of St. Maria when he was lifted off +his feet as if by a hurricane, and a beam which struck him on the head +and shoulders stretched him senseless on the earth. For a long time he +was believed to be actually killed, many remembering to have seen him on +the bridge only a few minutes before the fatal explosion. He was found +at last between his attendants, Cajetan and Guasto, raising himself up +with his hand on his sword; and the intelligence stirred the spirits of +the whole army. But vain would be the attempt to depict his feelings +when he surveyed the devastation which a single moment had caused in the +work of so many months. The bridge of boats, upon which all his hopes +rested, was rent asunder; a great part of his army was destroyed; +another portion maimed and rendered ineffective for many days; many of +his best officers were killed; and, as if the present calamity were not +sufficient, he had now to learn the painful intelligence that the +Margrave of Rysburg, whom of all his officers he prized the highest, was +missing. And yet the worst was still to come, for every moment the +fleets of the enemy were to be expected from Antwerp and Lillo, to which +this fearful position of the army would disable him from offering any +effectual resistance. The bridge was entirely destroyed, and nothing +could prevent the fleet from Zealand passing through in full sail; while +the confusion of the troops in this first moment was so great and +general that it would have been impossible to give or obey orders, as +many corps had lost their commanding officers, and many commanders their +corps; and even the places where they had been stationed were no longer +to be recognized amid the general ruin. Add to this that all the +batteries on shore were under water, that several cannon were sunk, that +the matches were wet, and the ammunition damaged. What a moment for the +enemy if they had known how to avail themselves of it! + +It will scarcely be believed, however, that this success, which +surpassed all expectation, was lost to Antwerp, simply because nothing +was known of it. St. Aldegonde, indeed, as soon as the explosion of the +mine was heard in the town, had sent out several galleys in the +direction of the bridge, with orders to send up fire-balls and rockets +the moment they had passed it, and then to sail with the intelligence +straight on to Lillo, in order to bring up, without delay, the Zealand +fleet, which had orders to co-operate. At the same time the admiral of +Antwerp was ordered, as soon as the signal was given, to sail out with +his vessels and attack the enemy in their first consternation. But +although a considerable reward was promised to the boatmen sent to +reconnoitre they did not venture near the enemy, but returned without +effecting their purpose, and reported that the bridge of boats was +uninjured, and the fire-ship had had no effect. Even on the following +day also no better measures were taken to learn the true state of the +bridge; and as the fleet at Lillo, in spite of the favorable wind, was +seen to remain inactive, the belief that the fire-ships had accomplished +nothing was confirmed. It did not seem to occur to any one that this +very inactivity of the confederates, which misled the people of Antwerp, +might also keep back the Zealanders at Lille, as in fact it did. So +signal an instance of neglect could only have occurred in a government, +which, without dignity of independence, was guided by the tumultuous +multitude it ought to have governed. The more supine, however, they +were themselves in opposing the enemy, the more violently did their rage +boil against Gianibelli, whom the frantic mob would have torn in pieces +if they could have caught him. For two days the engineer was in the +most imminent danger, until at last, on the third morning, a courier +from Lillo, who had swam under the bridge, brought authentic +intelligence of its having been destroyed, but at the same time +announced that it had been repaired. + +This rapid restoration of the bridge was really a miraculous effort of +the Prince of Parma. Scarcely had he recovered from the shock, which +seemed to have overthrown all his plans, when he contrived, with +wonderful presence of mind, to prevent all its evil consequences. The +absence of the enemy's fleet at this decisive moment revived his hopes. +The ruinous state of the bridge appeared to be a secret to them, and +though it was impossible to repair in a few hours the work of so many +months, yet a great point would be gained if it could be done even in +appearance. All his men were immediately set to work to remove the +ruins, to raise the timbers which had been thrown down, to replace those +which were demolished, and to fill up the chasms with ships. The duke +himself did not refuse to share in the toil, and his example was +followed by all his officers. Stimulated by this popular behavior, the +common soldiers exerted themselves to the utmost; the work was carried +on during the whole night under the constant sounding of drums and +trumpets, which were distributed along the bridge to drown the noise of +the work-people. With dawn of day few traces remained of the night's +havoc; and although the bridge was restored only in appearance, it +nevertheless deceived the spy, and consequently no attack was made upon +it. In the meantime the prince contrived to make the repairs solid, +nay, even to introduce some essential alterations in the structure. In +order to guard against similar accidents for the future, a part of the +bridge of boats was made movable, so that in case of necessity it could +be taken away and a passage opened to the fire-ships. His loss of men +was supplied from the garrisons of the adjoining places, and by a German +regiment which arrived very opportunely from Gueldres. He filled up the +vacancies of the officers who were killed, and in doing this he did not +forget the Spanish ensign who had saved his life. + +The people of Antwerp, after learning the success of their mine-ship, +now did homage to the inventor with as much extravagance as they had a +short time before mistrusted him, and they encouraged his genius to new +attempts. Gianibelli now actually obtained the number of flat-bottomed +vessels which he had at first demanded in vain, and these he equipped in +such a manner that they struck with irresistible force on the bridge, +and a second time also burst and separated it. But this time, the wind +was contrary to the Zealand fleet, so that they could not put out, and +thus the prince obtained once more the necessary respite to repair the +damage. The Archimedes of Antwerp was not deterred by any of these +disappointments. Anew he fitted out two large vessels which were armed +with iron hooks and similar instruments in order to tear asunder the +bridge. But when the moment came for these vessels to get under weigh +no one was found ready to embark in them. The engineer was therefore +obliged to think of a plan for giving to these machines such a self- +impulse that, without being guided by a steersman, they would keep the +middle of the stream, and not, like the former ones, be driven on the +bank by the wind. One of his workmen, a German, here hit upon a strange +invention, if Strada's description of it is to be credited. He affixed +a sail under the vessel, which was to be acted upon by the water, just +as an ordinary sail is by the wind, and could thus impel the ship with +the whole force of the current. The result proved the correctness of +his calculation; for this vessel, with the position of its sails +reversed, not only kept the centre of the stream, but also ran against +the bridge with such impetuosity that the enemy had not time to open it +and was actually burst asunder. But all these results were of no +service to the town, because the attempts were made at random and were +supported by no adequate force. A new fire-ship, equipped like the +former, which had succeeded so well, and which Gianibelli had filled +with four thousand pounds of the finest powder was not even used; for a +new mode of attempting their deliverance had now occurred to the people +of Antwerp. + +Terrified by so many futile attempts from endeavoring to clear a +passage for vessels on the river by force, they at last came to the +determination of doing without the stream entirely. They remembered the +example of the town of Leyden, which, when besieged by the Spaniards ten +years before, had saved itself by opportunely inundating the surrounding +country, and it was resolved to imitate this example. Between Lillo and +Stabroek, in the district of Bergen, a wide and somewhat sloping plain +extends as far as Antwerp, being protected by numerous embankments and +counter-embankments against the irruptions of the East Scheldt. Nothing +more was requisite than to break these dams, when the whole plain would +become a sea, navigable by flat-bottomed vessels almost to the very +walls of Antwerp. If this attempt should succeed, the Duke of Parma +might keep the Scheldt guarded with his bridge of boats as long as he +pleased; a new river would be formed, which, in case of necessity, would +be equally serviceable for the time. This was the very plan which the +Prince of Orange had at the commencement of the siege recommended, and +in which he had been strenuously, but unsuccessfully, seconded by St. +Aldegonde, because some of the citizens could not be persuaded to +sacrifice their own fields. In the present emergency they reverted to +this last resource, but circumstances in the meantime had greatly +changed. + +The plain in question is intersected by a broad and high dam, which +takes its name from the adjacent Castle of Cowenstein, and extends for +three miles from the village of Stabroek, in Bergen, as far as the +Scheldt, with the great dam of which it unites near Ordam. Beyond this +dam no vessels can proceed, however high the tide, and the sea would be +vainly turned into the fields as long as such an embankment remained in +the way, which would prevent the Zealand vessels from descending into +the plain before Antwerp. The fate of the town would therefore depend +upon the demolition of this Cowenstein dam; but, foreseeing this, the +Prince of Parma had, immediately on commencing the blockade, taken +possession of it, and spared no pains to render it tenable to the last. +At the village of Stabroek, Count Mansfeld was encamped with the +greatest part of his army, and by means of this very Cowenstein dam kept +open the communication with the bridge, the headquarters, and the +Spanish magazines at Calloo. Thus the army formed an uninterrupted line +from Stabroek in Brabant, as far as Bevern in Flanders, intersected +indeed, but not broken by the Scheldt, and which could not be cut off +without a sanguinary conflict. On the dam itself within proper +distances five different batteries had been erected, the command of +which was given to the most valiant officers in the army. Nay, as the +Prince of Parma could not doubt that now the whole fury of the war would +be turned to this point, he entrusted the defence of the bridge to Count +Mansfeld, and resolved to defend this important post himself. The war, +therefore, now assumed a different aspect, and the theatre of it was +entirely changed. + +Both above and below Lillo, the Netherlanders had in several places cut +through the dam, which follows the Brabant shore of the Scheldt; and +where a short time before had been green fields, a new element now +presented itself, studded with masts and boats. A Zealand fleet, +commanded by Count Hohenlohe, navigated the inundated fields, and made +repeated movements against the Cowenstein dam, without, however, +attempting a serious attack on it, while another fleet showed itself in +the Scheldt, threatening the two coasts alternately with a landing, and +occasionally the bridge of boats with an attack. For several days this +manoeuvre was practised on the enemy, who, uncertain of the quarter +whence an attack was to be expected, would, it was hoped, be exhausted +by continual watching, and by degrees lulled into security by so many +false alarms. Antwerp had promised Count Hohenlohe to support the +attack on the dam by a flotilla from the town; three beacons on the +principal tower were to be the signal that this was on the way. When, +therefore, on a dark night the expected columns of fire really ascended +above Antwerp, Count Hohenlohe immediately caused five hundred of his +troops to scale the dam between two of the enemy's redoubts, who +surprised part of the Spanish garrison asleep, and cut down the others +who attempted to defend themselves. In a short time they had gained a +firm footing upon the dam, and were just on the point of disembarking +the remainder of their force, two thousand in number, when the Spaniards +in the adjoining redoubts marched out and, favored by the narrowness of +the ground, made a desperate attack on the crowded Zealanders. The guns +from the neighboring batteries opened upon the approaching fleet, and +thus rendered the landing of the remaining troops impossible; and as +there were no signs of co-operation on the part of the city, the +Zealanders were overpowered after a short conflict and again driven down +from the dam. The victorious Spaniards pursued them through the water +as far as their boats, sunk many of the latter, and compelled the rest +to retreat with heavy loss. Count Hohenlohe threw the blame of this +defeat upon the inhabitants of Antwerp, who had deceived him by a false +signal, and it certainly must be attributed to the bad arrangement of +both parties that the attempt failed of better success. + +But at last the allies determined to make a systematic assault on the +enemy with their combined force, and to put an end to the siege by a +grand attack as well on the dam as on the bridge. The 16th of May, +1585, was fixed upon for the execution of this design, and both armies +used their utmost endeavors to make this day decisive. The force of the +Hollanders and Zealanders, united to that of Antwerp, exceeded two +hundred ships, to man which they had stripped their towns and citadels, +and with this force they purposed to attack the Cowenstein dam on both +sides. The bridge over the Scheldt was to be assailed with new machines +of Gianibelli's invention, and the Duke of Parma thereby hindered from +assisting the defence of the dam. + +Alexander, apprised of the danger which threatened him, spared nothing +on his side to meet it with energy. Immediately after getting +possession of the dam he had caused redoubts to be erected at five +different, places, and had given the command of them to the most +experienced officers of the army. The first of these, which was called +the Cross battery, was erected on the spot where the Cowenstein darn +enters the great embankment of the Scheldt, and makes with the latter +the form of a cross; the Spaniard, Mondragone, was appointed to the +command of this battery. A thousand paces farther on, near the castle +of Cowenstein, was posted the battery of St. James, which was entrusted +to the command of Camillo di Monte. At an equal distance from this lay +the battery of St. George, and at a thousand paces from the latter, the +Pile battery, under the command of Gamboa, so called from the pile-work +on which it rested; at the farthest end of the darn, near Stabroek, was +the fifth redoubt, where Count Mansfeld, with Capizuechi, an Italian, +commanded. All these forts the prince now strengthened with artillery +and men; on both sides of the dam, and along its whole extent, he caused +piles to be driven, as well to render the main embankment firmer, as to +impede the labor of the pioneers, who were to dig through it. + +Early on the morning of the 16th of May the enemy's forces were in +motion. With the dusk of dawn there came floating down from Lillo, over +the inundated country, four burning vessels, which so alarmed the guards +upon the dams, who recollected the former terrible explosion, that they +hastily retreated to the next battery. This was exactly what the enemy +desired. In these vessels, which had merely the appearance of fire- +ships, soldiers were concealed, who now suddenly jumped ashore, and +succeeded in mounting the dam at the undefended spot, between the St. +George and Pile batteries. Immediately afterward the whole Zealand +fleet showed itself, consisting of numerous ships-of-war, transports, +and a crowd of smaller craft, which were laden with great sacks of +earth, wool, fascines, gabions, and the like, for throwing up +breastworks wherever necessary, The ships-of-war were furnished with +powerful artillery, and numerously and bravely manned, and a whole army +of pioneers accompanied it in order to dig through the dam as soon as it +should be in their possession. + +The Zealanders had scarcely begun on their side to ascend the dam when +the fleet of Antwerp advanced from Osterweel and attacked it on the +other. A high breastwork was hastily thrown up between the two nearest +hostile batteries, so as at once to divide the two garrisons and to +cover the pioneers. The latter, several hundreds in number, now fell to +work with their spades on both sides of the dam, and dug with such +energy that hopes were entertained of soon seeing the two seas united. +But meanwhile the Spaniards also had gained time to hasten to the spot +from the two nearest redoubts, and make a spirited assault, while the +guns from the battery of St. George played incessantly on the enemy's +fleet. A furious battle now raged in the quarter where they were +cutting through the dike and throwing up the breastworks. The +Zealanders had drawn a strong line of troops round the pioneers to keep +the enemy from interrupting their work, and in this confusion of battle, +in the midst of a storm of bullets from the enemy, often up to the +breast in water, among the dead and dying, the pioneers pursued their +work, under the incessant exhortations of the merchants, who impatiently +waited to see the dam opened and their vessels in safety. The +importance of the result, which it might be said depended entirely upon +their spades, appeared to animate even the common laborers with heroic +courage. Solely intent upon their task, they neither saw nor heard the +work of death which was going on around them, and as fast as the +foremost ranks fell those behind them pressed into their places. Their +operations were greatly impeded by the piles which had been driven in, +but still more by the attacks of the Spaniards, who burst with desperate +courage through the thickest of the enemy, stabbed the pioneers in the +pits where they were digging, and filled up again with dead bodies the +cavities which the living had made. At last, however, when most of +their officers were killed or wounded, and the number of the enemy +constantly increasing, while fresh laborers were supplying the place of +those who had been slain, the courage of these valiant troops began to +give way, and they thought it advisable to retreat to their batteries. +Now, therefore, the confederates saw themselves masters of the whole +extent of the dam, from Fort St. George as far as the Pile battery. As, +however, it seemed too long to wait for the thorough demolition of the +dam, they hastily unloaded a Zealand transport, and brought the cargo +over the dam to a vessel of Antwerp, with which Count Hohenlohe sailed +in triumph to that city. The sight of the provisions at once filled the +inhabitants with joy, and as if the victory was already won, they gave +themselves up to the wildest exultation. The bells were rung, the +cannon discharged, and the inhabitants, transported by their unexpected +success, hurried to the Osterweel gate, to await the store-ships which +were supposed to be at hand. + +In fact, fortune had never smiled so favorably on the besieged as at +that moment. The enemy, exhausted and dispirited, had thrown themselves +into their batteries, and, far from being able to struggle with the +victors for the post they had conquered, they found themselves rather +besieged in the places where they had taken refuge. Some companies of +Scots, led by their brave colonel, Balfour, attacked the battery of St. +George, which, however, was relieved, but not without severe loss, by +Camillo di Monte, who hastened thither from St. James' battery. The +Pile battery was in a much worse condition, it being hotly cannonaded by +the ships, and threatened every moment to crumble to pieces. Gainboa, +who commanded it, lay wounded, and it was unfortunately deficient in +artillery to keep the enemy at a distance. The breastwork, too, which +the Zealanders had thrown up between this battery and that of St. +George cut off all hope of assistance from the Scheldt. If, therefore, +the Belgians had only taken advantage of this weakness and inactivity of +the enemy to proceed with zeal and perseverance in cutting through the +dam, there is no doubt that a passage might have been made, and thus put +an end to the whole siege. But here also the same want of consistent +energy showed itself which had marked the conduct of the people of +Antwerp during the whole course of the siege. The zeal with which the +work had been commenced cooled in proportion to the success which +attended it. It was soon found too tedious to dig through the dyke; it +seemed far easier to transfer the cargoes from the large store-ships +into smaller ones, and carry these to the town with the flood tide. St. +Aldegonde and Hohenlohe, instead of remaining to animate the industry of +the workmen by their personal presence, left the scene of action at the +decisive moment, in order, by sailing to the town with a corn vessel, to +win encomiums on their wisdom and valor. + +While both parties were fighting on the dam with the most obstinate fury +the bridge over the Scheldt had been attacked from Antwerp with new +machines, in order to give employment to the prince in that quarter. +But the sound of the firing soon apprised him of what was going on at +the dyke, and as soon as he saw the bridge clear he hastened to support +the defence of the dyke. Followed by two hundred Spanish pikemen, he +flew to the place of attack, and arrived just in time to prevent the +complete defeat of his troops. He hastily posted some guns which he had +brought with him in the two nearest redoubts, and maintained from thence +a heavy fire upon the enemy's ships. He placed himself at the head of +his men, and, with his sword in one hand and shield in the other, led +them against the enemy. The news of his arrival, which quickly spread +from one end of the dyke to the other, revived the drooping spirits of +his troops, and the conflict recommenced with renewed violence, made +still more murderous by the nature of the ground where it was fought. +Upon the narrow ridge of the dam, which in many places was not more than +nine paces broad, about five thousand combatants were fighting; so +confined was the spot upon which the strength of both armies was +assembled, and which was to decide the whole issue of the siege. With +the Antwerpers the last bulwark of their city was at stake; with the +Spaniards it was to determine the whole success of their undertaking. +Both parties fought with a courage which despair alone could inspire. +From both the extremities of the dam the tide of war rolled itself +towards the centre, where the Zealanders and Antwerpers had the +advantage, and where they had collected their whole strength. The +Italians and Spaniards, inflamed by a noble emulation, pressed on from +Stabroek; and from the Scheldt the Walloons and Spaniards advanced, with +their general at their head. While the former endeavored to relieve the +Pile battery, which was hotly pressed by the enemy, both by sea and +land, the latter threw themselves on the breastwork, between the St. +George and the Pile batteries, with a fury which carried everything +before it. Here the flower of the Belgian troops fought behind a well- +fortified rampart, and the guns of the two fleets covered this important +post. The prince was already pressing forward to attack this formidable +defence with his small army when he received intelligence that the +Italians and Spaniards, under Capizucchi and Aquila, had forced their +way, sword in hand, into the Pile battery, had got possession of it, and +were now likewise advancing from the other side against the enemy's +breastwork. Before this intrenchment, therefore, the whole force of +both armies was now collected, and both sides used their utmost efforts +to carry and to defend this position. The Netherlanders on board the +fleet, loath to remain idle spectators of the conflict, sprang ashore +from their vessels. Alexander attacked the breastwork on one side, +Count Mansfeld on the other; five assaults were made, and five times +they were repulsed. The Netherlanders in this decisive moment surpassed +themselves; never in the whole course of the war had they fought with +such determination. But it was the Scotch and English in particular who +baffled the attempts of the enemy by their valiant resistance. As no +one would advance to the attack in the quarter where the Scotch fought, +the duke himself led on the troops, with a javelin in his hand, and up +to his breast in water. At last, after a protracted struggle, the +forces of Count Mansfeld succeeded with their halberds and pikes in +making a breach in the breastwork, and by raising themselves on one +another's shoulders scaled the parapet. Barthelemy Toralva, a Spanish +captain, was the first who showed himself on the top; and almost at the +same instant the Italian, Capizucchi, appeared upon the edge of it; and +thus the contest of valor was decided with equal glory for both nations. +It is worth while to notice here the manner in which the Prince of +Parma, who was made arbiter of this emulous strife, encouraged this +delicate sense of honor among his warriors. He embraced the Italian, +Capizucchi, in presence of the troops, and acknowledged aloud that it +was principally to the courage of this officer that he owed the capture +of the breastwork. He caused the Spanish captain, Toralva, who was +dangerously wounded, to be conveyed to his own quarters at Stabroek, +laid on his own bed, and covered with the cloak which he himself had +worn the day before the battle. + +After the capture of the breastwork the victory no longer remained +doubtful. The Dutch and Zealand troops, who had disembarked to come to +close action with the enemy, at once lost their courage when they looked +about them and saw the vessels, which were their last refuge, putting +off from the shore. + +For the tide had begun to ebb, and the commanders of the fleet, from +fear of being stranded with their heavy transports, and, in case of an +unfortunate issue to the engagement, becoming the prey of the enemy, +retired from the dam, and made for deep water. No sooner did Alexander +perceive this than he pointed out to his troops the flying vessels, and +encouraged them to finish the action with an enemy who already despaired +of their safety. The Dutch auxiliaries were the first that gave way, +and their example was soon followed by the Zealanders. Hastily leaping +from the dam they endeavored to reach the vessels by wading or swimming; +but from their disorderly flight they impeded one another, and fell in +heaps under the swords of the pursuers. Many perished even in the +boats, as each strove to get on board before the other, and several +vessels sank under the weight of the numbers who rushed into them. The +Antwerpers, who fought for their liberty, their hearths, their faith, +were the last who retreated, but this very circumstance augmented their +disaster. Many of their vessels were outstripped by the ebb-tide, and +grounded within reach of the enemy's cannon, and were consequently +destroyed with all on board. Crowds of fugitives endeavored by swimming +to gain the other transports, which had got into deep water; but such +was the rage and boldness of the Spaniards that they swam after them +with their swords between their teeth, and dragged many even from the +ships. The victory of the king's troops was complete but bloody; for of +the Spaniards about eight hundred, of the Netherlanders some thousands +(without reckoning those who were drowned), were left on the field, and +on both sides many of the principal nobility perished. More than thirty +vessels, with a large supply of provisions for Antwerp, fell into the +hands of the victors, with one hundred and fifty cannon and other +military stores. The dam, the possession of which had been so dearly +maintained, was pierced in thirteen different places, and the bodies of +those who had cut through it were now used to stop up the openings. + +The following day a transport of immense size and singular construction +fell into the hands of the royalists. It formed a floating castle, and +had been destined for the attack on the Cowenstein dam. The people of +Antwerp had built it at an immense expense at the very time when the +engineer Gianibelli's useful proposals had been rejected on account of +the cost they entailed, and this ridiculous monster was called by the +proud title of "End of the War," which appellation was afterwards +changed for the more appropriate sobriquet of "Money lost!" When this +vessel was launched it turned out, as every sensible person had +foretold, that on account of its unwieldly size it was utterly +impossible to steer it, and it could hardly be floated by the highest +tide. With great difficulty it was worked as far as Ordain, where, +deserted by the tide, it went aground, and fell a prey to the enemy. + +The attack upon the Cowenstein dam was the last attempt which was made +to relieve Antwerp. From this time the courage of the besieged sank, +and the magistracy of the town vainly labored to inspirit with distant +hopes the lower orders, on whom the present distress weighed heaviest. +Hitherto the price of bread had been kept down to a tolerable rate, +although the quality of it continued to deteriorate; by degrees, +however, provisions became so scarce that a famine was evidently near at +hand. Still hopes were entertained of being able to hold out, at least +until the corn between the town and the farthest batteries, which was +already in full ear, could be reaped; but before that could be done the +enemy had carried the last outwork, and had appropriated the whole +harvest to their use. At last the neighboring and confederate town of +Malines fell into the enemy's hands, and with its fall vanished the only +remaining hope of getting supplies from Brabant. As there was, +therefore, no longer any means of increasing the stock of provisions +nothing was left but to diminish the consumers. All useless persons, +all strangers, nay even the women and children were to be sent away out +of the town, but this proposal was too revolting to humanity to be +carried into execution. Another plan, that of expelling the Catholic +inhabitants, exasperated them so much that it had almost ended in open +mutiny. And thus St. Aldegonde at last saw himself compelled to yield +to the riotous clamors of the populace, and on the 17th of August, 1585, +to make overtures to the Duke of Parma for the surrender of the town. + + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REVOLT OF NETHERLANDS, BOOK IV. *** + +********** This file should be named 6779.txt or 6779.zip ********** + +This eBook was produced by David Widger, widger@cecomet.net + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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