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diff --git a/6780.txt b/6780.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0d81dd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/6780.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11758 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Revolt of The Netherlands, Complete +by Frederich Schiller + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Revolt of The Netherlands, Complete + +Author: Frederich Schiller + +Release Date: October 25, 2006 [EBook #6780] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REVOLT OF NETHERLANDS *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + + THE WORKS + + OF + + FREDERICK SCHILLER + + + + Translated from the German + + + + Illustrated + + + + + +PREFACE TO THE EDITION. + + + +The present is the best collected edition of the important works of +Schiller which is accessible to readers in the English language. +Detached poems or dramas have been translated at various times since +the first publication of the original works; and in several instances +these versions have been incorporated into this collection. Schiller +was not less efficiently qualified by nature for an historian than for +a dramatist. He was formed to excel in all departments of literature, +and the admirable lucidity of style and soundness and impartiality of +judgment displayed in his historical writings will not easily be +surpassed, and will always recommend them as popular expositions of the +periods of which they treat. + +Since the publication of the first English edition many corrections and +improvements have been made, with a view to rendering it as acceptable +as possible to English readers; and, notwithstanding the disadvantages +of a translation, the publishers feel sure that Schiller will be +heartily acceptable to English readers, and that the influence of his +writings will continue to increase. + +THE HISTORY OF THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS was translated by Lieut. +E. B. Eastwick, and originally published abroad for students' use. But +this translation was too strictly literal for general readers. It has +been carefully revised, and some portions have been entirely rewritten +by the Rev. A. J. W. Morrison, who also has so ably translated the +HISTORY OF THE THIRTY YEARS WAR. + +THE CAMP OF WALLENSTEIN was translated by Mr. James Churchill, and first +appeared in "Frazer's Magazine." It is an exceedingly happy version of +what has always been deemed the most untranslatable of Schiller's works. + +THE PICCOLOMINI and DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN are the admirable version of +S. T. Coleridge, completed by the addition of all those passages which +he has omitted, and by a restoration of Schiller's own arrangement of +the acts and scenes. It is said, in defence of the variations which +exist between the German original and the version given by Coleridge, +that he translated from a prompter's copy in manuscript, before the +drama had been printed, and that Schiller himself subsequently altered +it, by omitting some passages, adding others, and even engrafting +several of Coleridge's adaptations. + +WILHELM TELL is translated by Theodore Martin, Esq., whose well-known +position as a writer, and whose special acquaintance with German +literature make any recommendation superfluous. + +DON CARLOS is translated by R. D. Boylan, Esq., and, in the opinion of +competent judges, the version is eminently successful. Mr. Theodore +Martin kindly gave some assistance, and, it is but justice to state, +has enhanced the value of the work by his judicious suggestions. + +The translation of MARY STUART is that by the late Joseph Mellish, +who appears to have been on terms of intimate friendship with Schiller. +His version was made from the prompter's copy, before the play was +published, and, like Coleridge's Wallenstein, contains many passages not +found in the printed edition. These are distinguished by brackets. On +the other hand, Mr. Mellish omitted many passages which now form part of +the printed drama, all of which are now added. The translation, as a +whole, stands out from similar works of the time (1800) in almost as +marked a degree as Coleridge's Wallenstein, and some passages exhibit +powers of a high order; a few, however, especially in the earlier +scenes, seemed capable of improvement, and these have been revised, +but, in deference to the translator, with a sparing hand. + +THE MAID OF ORLEANS is contributed by Miss Anna Swanwick, whose +translation of Faust has since become well known. It has been. +carefully revised, and is now, for the first time, published complete. + +THE BRIDE OF MESSINA, which has been regarded as the poetical +masterpiece of Schiller, and, perhaps of all his works, presents the +greatest difficulties to the translator, is rendered by A. Lodge, Esq., +M. A. This version, on its first publication in England, a few years +ago, was received with deserved eulogy by distinguished critics. To the +present edition has been prefixed Schiller's Essay on the Use of the +Chorus in Tragedy, in which the author's favorite theory of the "Ideal +of Art" is enforced with great ingenuity and eloquence. + + + + THE HISTORY + + OF THE + + REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS. + + + +CONTENTS. + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE + +INTRODUCTION + +BOOK I.----Earlier History of The Netherlands up to the Sixteenth Century + +BOOK II.---Cardinal Granvella + +BOOK III.--Conspiracy of the Nobles + +BOOK IV.---The Iconoclasts + Trial and Execution of Counts Egmont and Horn + Siege of Antwerp by the Prince of Parma, in the Years 1584 and 1585 + + + + +THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE. + +Many years ago, when I read the History of the Belgian Revolution in +Watson's excellent work, I was seized with an enthusiasm which political +events but rarely excite. On further reflection I felt that this +enthusiastic feeling had arisen less from the book itself than from the +ardent workings of my own imagination, which had imparted to the +recorded materials the particular form that so fascinated me. These +imaginations, therefore, I felt a wish to fix, to multiply, and to +strengthen; these exalted sentiments I was anxious to extend by +communicating them to others. This was my principal motive for +commencing the present history, my only vocation to write it. The +execution of this design carried me farther than in the beginning I had +expected. A closer acquaintance with my materials enabled me to +discover defects previously unnoticed, long waste tracts to be filled +up, apparent contradictions to be reconciled, and isolated facts to be +brought into connection with the rest of the subject. Not so much with +the view of enriching my history with new facts as of seeking a key to +old ones, I betook myself to the original sources, and thus what was +originally intended to be only a general outline expanded under my hands +into an elaborate history. The first part, which concludes with the +Duchess of Parma's departure from the Netherlands, must be looked upon +only as the introduction to the history of the Revolution itself, which +did not come to an open outbreak till the government of her successor. +I have bestowed the more care and attention upon this introductory +period the more the generality of writers who had previously treated of +it seemed to me deficient in these very qualities. Moreover, it is in +my opinion the more important as being the root and source of all the +subsequent events. If, then, the first volume should appear to any as +barren in important incident, dwelling prolixly on trifles, or, rather, +should seem at first sight profuse of reflections, and in general +tediously minute, it must be remembered that it was precisely out of +small beginnings that the Revolution was gradually developed; and that +all the great results which follow sprang out of a countless number of +trifling and little circumstances. + +A nation like the one before us invariably takes its first steps with +doubts and uncertainty, to move afterwards only the more rapidly for its +previous hesitation. I proposed, therefore, to follow the same method +in describing this rebellion. The longer the reader delays on the +introduction the more familiar he becomes with the actors in this +history, and the scene in which they took a part, so much the more +rapidly and unerringly shall I be able to lead him through the +subsequent periods, where the accumulation of materials will forbid +a slowness of step or minuteness of attention. + +As for the authorities of our history there is not so much cause to +complain of their paucity as of their extreme abundance, since it is +indispensable to read them all to obtain that clear view of the whole +subject to which the perusal of a part, however large, is always +prejudicial. From the unequal, partial, and often contradictory +narratives of the same occurrences it is often extremely difficult to +seize the truth, which in all is alike partly concealed and to be found +complete in none. In this first volume, besides de Thou, Strada, Reyd, +Grotius, Meteren, Burgundius, Meursius, Bentivoglio, and some moderns, +the Memoirs of Counsellor Hopper, the life and correspondence of his +friend Viglius, the records of the trials of the Counts of Hoorne and +Egmont, the defence of the Prince of Orange, and some few others have +been my guides. I must here acknowledge my obligations to a work +compiled with much industry and critical acumen, and written with +singular truthfulness and impartiality. I allude to the general history +of the United Netherlands which was published in Holland during the +present century. Besides many original documents which I could not +otherwise have had access to, it has abstracted all that is valuable in +the excellent works of Bos, Hooft, Brandt, Le Clerc, which either were +impossible for me to procure or were not available to my use, as being +written in Dutch, which I do not understand. An otherwise ordinary +writer, Richard Dinoth, has also been of service to me by the many +extracts he gives from the pamphlets of the day, which have been long +lost. I have in vain endeavored to procure the correspondence of +Cardinal Granvella, which also would no doubt have thrown much light +upon the history of these times. The lately published work on the +Spanish Inquisition by my excellent countryman, Professor Spittler of +Gottingen, reached me too late for its sagacious and important contents +to be available for my purpose. + +The more I am convinced of the importance of the French history, the +more I lament that it was not in my power to study, as I could have +wished, its copious annals in the original sources and contemporary +documents, and to reproduce it abstracted of the form in which it was +transmitted to me by the more intelligent of my predecessors, and +thereby emancipate myself from the influence which every talented author +exercises more or less upon his readers. But to effect this the work of +a few years must have become the labor of a life. My aim in making this +attempt will be more than attained if it should convince a portion of +the reading public of the possibility of writing a history with historic +truth without making a trial of patience to the reader; and if it should +extort from another portion the confession that history can borrow from +a cognate art without thereby, of necessity, becoming a romance. + +WEIMAR, Michaelmas Fair, 1788. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +Of those important political events which make the sixteenth century to +take rank among the brightest of the world's epochs, the foundation of +the freedom of the Netherlands appears to me one of the most remarkable. +If the glittering exploits of ambition and the pernicious lust of power +claim our admiration, how much more so should an event in which +oppressed humanity struggled for its noblest rights, where with the good +cause unwonted powers were united, and the resources of resolute despair +triumphed in unequal contest over the terrible arts of tyranny. + +Great and encouraging is the reflection that there is a resource left us +against the arrogant usurpations of despotic power; that its +best-contrived plans against the liberty of mankind may be frustrated; +that resolute opposition can weaken even the outstretched arm of tyranny; +and that heroic perseverance can eventually exhaust its fearful +resources. Never did this truth affect me so sensibly as in tracing the +history of that memorable rebellion which forever severed the United +Netherlands from the Spanish Crown. Therefore I thought it not unworth +the while to attempt to exhibit to the world this grand memorial of +social union, in the hope that it may awaken in the breast of my reader a +spirit-stirring consciousness of his own powers, and give a new and +irrefragible example of what in a good cause men may both dare and +venture, and what by union they may accomplish. It is not the +extraordinary or heroic features of this event that induce me to describe +it. The annals of the world record perhaps many similar enterprises, +which may have been even bolder in the conception and more brilliant in +the execution. Some states have fallen after a nobler struggle; others +have risen with more exalted strides. Nor are we here to look for eminent +heroes, colossal talents, or those marvellous exploits which the history +of past times presents in such rich abundance. Those times are gone; such +men are no more. In the soft lap of refinement we have suffered the +energetic powers to become enervate which those ages called into action +and rendered indispensable. With admiring awe we wonder at these gigantic +images of the past as a feeble old man gazes on the athletic sports of +youth. + +Not so, however, in the history before us. The people here presented to +our notice were the most peaceful in our quarter of the globe, and less +capable than their neighbors of that heroic spirit which stamps a lofty +character even on the most insignificant actions. The pressure of +circumstances with its peculiar influence surprised them and forced a +transitory greatness upon them, which they never could have possessed +and perhaps will never possess again. It is, indeed, exactly this want +of heroic grandeur which renders this event peculiarly instructive; and +while others aim at showing the superiority of genius over chance, I +shall here paint a scene where necessity creates genius and accident +makes heroes. + +If in any case it be allowable to recognize the intervention of +Providence in human affairs it is certainly so in the present history, +its course appears so contradictory to reason and experience. Philip +II., the most powerful sovereign of his line--whose dreaded supremacy +menaced the independence of Europe--whose treasures surpassed the +collective wealth of all the monarchs of Christendom besides--whose +ambitious projects were backed by numerous and well-disciplined armies +--whose troops, hardened by long and bloody wars, and confident in past +victories and in the irresistible prowess of this nation, were eager for +any enterprise that promised glory and spoil, and ready to second with +prompt obedience the daring genius of their leaders--this dreaded +potentate here appears before us obstinately pursuing one favorite +project, devoting to it the untiring efforts of a long reign, and +bringing all these terrible resources to bear upon it; but forced, in +the evening of his reign, to abandon it--here we see the mighty Philip +II. engaging in combat with a few weak and powerless adversaries, and +retiring from it at last with disgrace. + +And with what adversaries? Here, a peaceful tribe of fishermen and +shepherds, in an almost-forgotten corner of Europe, which with +difficulty they had rescued from the ocean; the sea their profession, +and at once their wealth and their plague; poverty with freedom their +highest blessing, their glory, their virtue. There, a harmless, moral, +commercial people, revelling in the abundant fruits of thriving +industry, and jealous of the maintenance of laws which had proved their +benefactors. In the happy leisure of affluence they forsake the narrow +circle of immediate wants and learn to thirst after higher and nobler +gratifications. The new views of truth, whose benignant dawn now broke +over Europe, cast a fertilizing beam on this favored clime, and the free +burgher admitted with joy the light which oppressed and miserable slaves +shut out. A spirit of independence, which is the ordinary companion of +prosperity and freedom, lured this people on to examine the authority of +antiquated opinions and to break an ignominious chain. But the stern +rod of despotism was held suspended over them; arbitrary power +threatened to tear away the foundation of their happiness; the guardian +of their laws became their tyrant. Simple in their statecraft no less +than in their manners, they dared to appeal to ancient treaties and to +remind the lord of both Indies of the rights of nature. A name decides +the whole issue of things. In Madrid that was called rebellion which in +Brussels was simply styled a lawful remonstrance. The complaints of +Brabant required a prudent mediator; Philip II. sent an executioner. +The signal for war was given. An unparalleled tyranny assailed both +property and life. The despairing citizens, to whom the choice of +deaths was all that was left, chose the nobler one on the battle-field. +A wealthy and luxurious nation loves peace, but becomes warlike as soon +as it becomes poor. Then it ceases to tremble for a life which is +deprived of everything that had made it desirable. In an instant the +contagion of rebellion seizes at once the most distant provinces; trade +and commerce are at a standstill, the ships disappear from the harbors, +the artisan abandons his workshop, the rustic his uncultivated fields. +Thousands fled to distant lands, a thousand victims fell on the bloody +field, and fresh thousands pressed on. Divine, indeed, must that +doctrine be for which men could die so joyfully. All that was wanting +was the last finishing hand, the enlightened, enterprising spirit, to +seize on this great political crisis and to mould the offspring of +chance into the ripe creation of wisdom. William the Silent, like a +second Brutus, devoted himself to the great cause of liberty. Superior +to all selfishness, he resigned honorable offices which entailed on him +obectionable duties, and, magnanimously divesting himself of all his +princely dignities, he descended to a state of voluntary poverty, and +became but a citizen of the world. The cause of justice was staked upon +the hazardous game of battle; but the newly-raised levies of mercenaries +and peaceful husbandmen were unable to withstand the terrible onset of +an experienced force. Twice did the brave William lead his dispirited +troops against the tyrant. Twice was he abandoned by them, but not by +his courage. + +Philip II. sent as many reinforcements as the dreadful importunity of +his viceroy demanded. Fugitives, whom their country rejected, sought a +new home on the ocean, and turned to the ships of their enemy to satisfy +the cravings both of vengeance and of want. Naval heroes were now +formed out of corsairs, and a marine collected out of piratical vessels; +out of morasses arose a republic. Seven provinces threw off the yoke at +the same time, to form a new, youthful state, powerful by its waters and +its union and despair. A solemn decree of the whole nation deposed the +tyrant, and the Spanish name was erased from all its laws. + +For such acts no forgiveness remained; the republic became formidable +only because it was impossible for her to retrace her steps. But +factions distracted her within; without, her terrible element, the sea +itself, leaguing with her oppressors, threatened her very infancy with a +premature grave. She felt herself succumb to the superior force of the +enemy, and cast herself a suppliant before the most powerful thrones of +Europe, begging them to accept a dominion which she herself could no +longer protect. At last, but with difficulty--so despised at first was +this state that even the rapacity of foreign monarchs spurned her +opening bloom--a stranger deigned to accept their importunate offer of a +dangerous crown. New hopes began to revive her sinking courage; but in +this new father of his country destiny gave her a traitor, and in the +critical emergency, when the foe was in full force before her very +gates, Charles of Anjou invaded the liberties which he had been called +to protect. In the midst of the tempest, too, the assassin's hand tore +the steersman from the helm, and with William of Orange the career of +the infant republic was seemingly at an end, and all her guardian angels +fled. But the ship continued to scud along before the storm, and the +swelling canvas carried her safe without the pilot's help. + +Philip II. missed the fruits of a deed which cost him his royal honor, +and perhaps, also, his self-respect. Liberty struggled on still with +despotism in obstinate and dubious contest; sanguinary battles were +fought; a brilliant array of heroes succeeded each other on the field of +glory, and Flanders and Brabant were the schools which educated generals +for the coming century. A long, devastating war laid waste the open +country; victor and vanquished alike waded through blood; while the +rising republic of the waters gave a welcome to fugitive industry, and +out of the ruins of despotism erected the noble edifice of its own +greatness. For forty years lasted the war whose happy termination was +not to bless the dying eye of Philip; which destroyed one paradise in +Europe to form a new one out of its shattered fragments; which destroyed +the choicest flower of military youth, and while it enriched more than a +quarter of the globe impoverished the possessor of the golden Peru. +This monarch, who could expend nine hundred tons of gold without +oppressing his subjects, and by tyrannical measures extorted far more, +heaped, moreover, on his exhausted people a debt of one hundred and +forty millions of ducats. An implacable hatred of liberty swallowed up +all these treasures, and consumed on the fruitless task the labor of a +royal life. But the Reformation throve amidst the devastations of the +sword, and over the blood of her citizens the banner of the new republic +floated victorious. + +This improbable turn of affairs seems to border on a miracle; many +circumstances, however, combined to break the power of Philip, and to +favor the progress of the infant state. Had the whole weight of his +power fallen on the United Provinces there had been no hope for their +religion or their liberty. His own ambition, by tempting him to divide +his strength, came to the aid of their weakness. The expensive policy +of maintaining traitors in every cabinet of Europe; the support of the +League in France; the revolt of the Moors in Granada; the conquest of +Portugal, and the magnificent fabric of the Escurial, drained at last +his apparently inexhaustible treasury, and prevented his acting in the +field with spirit and energy. The German and Italian troops, whom the +hope of gain alone allured to his banner, mutinied when he could no +longer pay them, and faithlessly abandoned their leaders in the decisive +moment of action. These terrible instruments of oppression now turned +their dangerous power against their employer, and wreaked their +vindictive rage on the provinces which remained faithful to him. +The unfortunate armament against England, on which, like a desperate +gamester, he had staked the whole strength of his kingdom, completed his +ruin; with the armada sank the wealth of the two Indies, and the flower +of Spanish chivalry. + +But in the very same proportion that the Spanish power declined the +republic rose in fresh vigor. The ravages which the fanaticism of the +new religion, the tyranny of the Inquisition, the furious rapacity of +the soldiery, and the miseries of a long war unbroken by any interval of +peace, made in the provinces of Brabant, Flanders, and Hainault, at once +the arsenals and the magazines of this expensive contest, naturally +rendered it every year more difficult to support and recruit the royal +armies. The Catholic Netherlands had already lost a million of +citizens, and the trodden fields maintained their husbandmen no longer. +Spain itself had but few more men to spare. That country, surprised by +a sudden affluence which brought idleness with it, had lost much of its +population, and could not long support the continual drafts of men which +were required both for the New World and the Netherlands. Of these +conscripts few ever saw their country again; and these few having left +it as youths returned to it infirm and old. Gold, which had become more +common, made soldiers proportionately dearer; the growing charm of +effeminacy enhanced the price of the opposite virtues. Wholly different +was the posture of affairs with the rebels. The thousands whom the +cruelty of the viceroy expelled from the southern Netherlands, the +Huguenots whom the wars of persecution drove from France, as well as +every one whom constraint of conscience exiled from the other parts of +Europe, all alike flocked to unite themselves with the Belgian +insurgents. The whole Christian world was their recruiting ground. +The fanaticism both of the persecutor and the persecuted worked in their +behalf. The enthusiasm of a doctrine newly embraced, revenge, want, and +hopeless misery drew to their standard adventurers from every part of +Europe. All whom the new doctrine had won, all who had suffered, or had +still cause of fear from despotism, linked their own fortunes with those +of the new republic. Every injury inflicted by a tyrant gave a right of +citizenship in Holland. Men pressed towards a country where liberty +raised her spirit-stirring banner, where respect and security were +insured to a fugitive religion, and even revenge on the oppressor. If +we consider the conflux in the present day of people to Holland, seeking +by their entrance upon her territory to be reinvested in their rights as +men, what must it have been at a time when the rest of Europe groaned +under a heavy bondage, when Amsterdam was nearly the only free port for +all opinions? Many hundred families sought a refuge for their wealth in +a land which the ocean and domestic concord powerfully combined to +protect. The republican army maintained its full complement without the +plough being stripped of hands to work it. Amid the clash of arms trade +and industry flourished, and the peaceful citizen enjoyed in +anticipation the fruits of liberty which foreign blood was to purchase +for them. At the very time when the republic of Holland was struggling +for existence she extended her dominions beyond the ocean, and was +quietly occupied in erecting her East Indian Empire. + +Moreover, Spain maintained this expensive war with dead, unfructifying +gold, that never returned into the hand which gave it away, while it +raised to her the price of every necessary. The treasuries of the +republic were industry and commerce. Time lessened the one whilst it +multiplied the other, and exactly in the same proportion that the +resources of the Spanish government became exhausted by the long +continuance of the war the republic began to reap a richer harvest. Its +field was sown sparingly with the choice seed which bore fruit, though +late, yet a hundredfold; but the tree from which Philip gathered fruit +was a fallen trunk which never again became verdant. + +Philip's adverse destiny decreed that all the treasures which he +lavished for the oppression of the Provinces should contribute to enrich +them. The continual outlay of Spanish gold had diffused riches and +luxury throughout Europe; but the increasing wants of Europe were +supplied chiefly by the Netherlanders, who were masters of the commerce +of the known world, and who by their dealings fixed the price of all +merchandise. Even during the war Philip could not prohibit his own +subjects from trading with the republic; nay, he could not even desire +it. He himself furnished the rebels with the means of defraying the +expenses of their own defence; for the very war which was to ruin them +increased the sale of their goods. The enormous suns expended on his +fleets and armies flowed for the most part into the exchequer of the +republic, which was more or less connected with the commercial places of +Flanders and Brabant. Whatever Philip attempted against the rebels +operated indirectly to their advantage. + +The sluggish progress of this war did the king as much injury as it +benefited the rebels. His army was composed for the most part of the +remains of those victorious troops which had gathered their laurels +under Charles V. Old and long services entitled them to repose; many of +them, whom the war had enriched, impatiently longed for their homes, +where they might end in ease a life of hardship. Their former zeal, +their heroic spirit, and their discipline relaxed in the same proportion +as they thought they had fully satisfied their honor and their duty, and +as they began to reap at last the reward of so many battles. Besides, +the troops which had been accustomed by their irresistible impetuosity +to vanquish all opponents were necessarily wearied out by a war which +was carried on not so much against men as against the elements; which +exercised their patience more than it gratified their love of glory; and +where there was less of danger than of difficulty and want to contend +with. Neither personal courage nor long military experience was of +avail in a country whose peculiar features gave the most dastardly the +advantage. Lastly, a single discomfiture on foreign ground did them +more injury than any victories gained over an enemy at home could profit +them. With the rebels the case was exactly the reverse. In so +protracted a war, in which no decisive battle took place, the weaker +party must naturally learn at last the art of defence from the stronger; +slight defeats accustomed him to danger; slight victories animated his +confidence. + +At the beginning of the war the republican army scarcely dared to show +itself in the field; the long continuance of the struggle practised and +hardened it. As the royal armies grew wearied of victory, the +confidence of the rebels rose with their improved discipline and +experience. At last, at the end of half a century, master and pupil +separated, unsubdued, and equal in the fight. + +Again, throughout the war the rebels acted with more concord and +unanimity than the royalists. Before the former had lost their first +leader the government of the Netherlands had passed through as many as +five hands. The Duchess of Parma's indecision soon imparted itself to +the cabinet of Madrid, which in a short time tried in succession almost +every system of policy. Duke Alva's inflexible sternness, the mildness +of his successor Requescens, Don John of Austria's insidious cunning, +and the active and imperious mind of the Prince of Parma gave as many +opposite directions to the war, while the plan of rebellion remained the +same in a single head, who, as he saw it clearly, pursued it with vigor. +The king's greatest misfortune was that right principles of action +generally missed the right moment of application. In the commencement +of the troubles, when the advantage was as yet clearly on the king's +side, when prompt resolution and manly firmness might have crushed the +rebellion in the cradle, the reigns of government were allowed to hang +loose in the hands of a woman. After the outbreak had come to an open +revolt, and when the strength of the factious and the power of the king +stood more equally balanced, and when a skilful flexible prudence could +alone have averted the impending civil war, the government devolved on a +man who was eminently deficient in this necessary qualification. So +watchful an observer as William the Silent failed not to improve every +advantage which the faulty policy of his adversary presented, and with +quiet silent industry he slowly but surely pushed on the great +enterprise to its accomplishment. + +But why did not Philip II. himself appear in the Netherlands? Why did +he prefer to employ every other means, however improbable, rather than +make trial of the only remedy which could insure success? To curb the +overgrown power and insolence of the nobility there was no expedient +more natural than the presence of their master. Before royalty itself +all secondary dignities must necessarily have sunk in the shade, all +other splendor be dimmed. Instead of the truth being left to flow +slowly and obscurely through impure channels to the distant throne, so +that procrastinated measures of redress gave time to ripen ebullitions +of the moment into acts of deliberation, his own penetrating glance +would at once have been able to separate truth from error; and cold +policy alone, not to speak of his humanity, would have saved the land a +million citizens. The nearer to their source the more weighty would his +edicts have been; the thicker they fell on their objects the weaker and +the more dispirited would have become the efforts of the rebels. It +costs infinitely more to do an evil to an enemy in his presence than in +his absence. At first the rebellion appeared to tremble at its own +name, and long sheltered itself under the ingenious pretext of defending +the cause of its sovereign against the arbitrary assumptions of his own +viceroy. Philip's appearance in Brussels would have put an end at once +to this juggling. In that case, the rebels would have been compelled to +act up to their pretence, or to cast aside the mask, and so, by +appearing in their true shape, condemn themselves. And what a relief +for the Netherlands if the king's presence had only spared them those +evils which were inflicted upon them without his knowledge, and contrary +to his will. [1] What gain, too, even if it had only enabled him to +watch over the expenditure of the vast sums which, illegally raised on +the plea of meeting the exigencies of the war, disappeared in the +plundering hands of his deputies. + +What the latter were compelled to extort by the unnatural expedient of +terror, the nation would have been disposed to grant to the sovereign +majesty. That which made his ministers detested would have rendered the +monarch feared; for the abuse of hereditary power is less painfully +oppressive than the abuse of delegated authority. His presence would +have saved his exchequer thousands had he been nothing more than an +economical despot; and even had he been less, the awe of his person +would have preserved a territory which was lost through hatred and +contempt for his instruments. + +In the same manner, as the oppression of the people of the Netherlands +excited the sympathy of all who valued their own rights, it might have +been expected that their disobedience and defection would have been a +call to all princes to maintain their own prerogatives in the case of +their neighbors. But jealousy of Spain got the better of political +sympathies, and the first powers of Europe arranged themselves more or +less openly on the side of freedom. + +Although bound to the house of Spain by the ties of relationship, the +Emperor Maximilian II. gave it just cause for its charge against him +of secretly favoring the rebels. By the offer of his mediation he +implicitly acknowledged the partial justice of their complaints, and +thereby encouraged them to a resolute perseverance in their demands. +Under an emperor sincerely devoted to the interests of the Spanish +house, William of Orange could scarcely have drawn so many troops and so +much money from Germany. France, without openly and formally breaking +the peace, placed a prince of the blood at the head of the Netherlandish +rebels; and it was with French gold and French troops that the +operations of the latter were chiefly conducted. [2] Elizabeth of +England, too, did but exercise a just retaliation and revenge in +protecting the rebels against their legitimate sovereign; and although +her meagre and sparing aid availed no farther than to ward off utter +ruin from the republic, still even this was infinitely valuable at a +moment when nothing but hope could have supported their exhausted +courage. With both these powers Philip at the time was at peace, but +both betrayed him. Between the weak and the strong honesty often ceases +to appear a virtue; the delicate ties which bind equals are seldom +observed towards him whom all men fear. Philip had banished truth from +political intercourse; he himself had dissolved all morality between +kings, and had made artifice the divinity of cabinets. Without once +enjoying the advantages of his preponderating greatness, he had, +throughout life, to contend with the jealousy which it awakened in +others. Europe made him atone for the possible abuses of a power of +which in fact he never had the full possession. + +If against the disparity between the two combatants, which, at first +sight, is so astounding, we weigh all the incidental circumstances which +were adverse to Spain, but favorable to the Netherlands, that which is +supernatural in this event will disappear, while that which is +extraordinary will still remain--and a just standard will be furnished +by which to estimate the real merit of these republicans in working out +their freedom. It must not, however, be thought that so accurate a +calculation of the opposing forces could have preceded the undertaking +itself, or that, on entering this unknown sea, they already knew the +shore on which they would ultimately be landed. The work did not +present itself to the mind of its originator in the exact form which it +assumed when completed, any more than the mind of Luther foresaw the +eternal separation of creeds when he began to oppose the sale of +indulgences. What a difference between the modest procession of those +suitors in Brussels, who prayed for a more humane treatment as a favor, +and the dreaded majesty of a free state, which treated with kings as +equals, and in less than a century disposed of the throne of its former +tyrant. The unseen hand of fate gave to the discharged arrow a higher +flight, and quite a different direction from that which it first +received from the bowstring. In the womb of happy Brabant that liberty +had its birth which, torn from its mother in its earliest infancy, was +to gladden the so despised Holland. But the enterprise must not be less +thought of because its issue differed from the first design. Man works +up, smooths, and fashions the rough stone which the times bring to him; +the moment and the instant may belong to him, but accident develops the +history of the world. If the passions which co-operated actively in +bringing about this event were only not unworthy of the great work to +which they were unconsciously subservient--if only the powers which +aided in its accomplishment were intrinsically noble, if only the single +actions out of whose great concatenation it wonderfully arose were +beautiful then is the event grand, interesting, and fruitful for us, and +we are at liberty to wonder at the bold offspring of chance, or rather +offer up our admiration to a higher intelligence. + +The history of the world, like the laws of nature, is consistent with +itself, and simple as the soul of man. Like conditions produce like +phenomena. On the same soil where now the Netherlanders were to resist +their Spanish tyrants, their forefathers, the Batavi and Belgee, fifteen +centuries before, combated against their Roman oppressors. Like the +former, submitting reluctantly to a haughty master, and misgoverned by +rapacious satraps, they broke off their chain with like resolution, and +tried their fortune in a similar unequal combat. The same pride of +conquest, the same national grandeur, marked the Spaniard of the +sixteenth century and the Roman of the first; the same valor and +discipline distinguished the armies of both, their battle array inspired +the same terror. There as here we see stratagem in combat with superior +force, and firmness, strengthened by unanimity, wearying out a mighty +power weakened by division; then as now private hatred armed a whole +nation; a single man, born for his times, revealed to his fellow-slaves +the dangerous Secret of their power, and brought their mute grief to a +bloody announcement. "Confess, Batavians," cries Claudius Civilis to +his countrymen in the sacred grove, "we are no longer treated, as +formerly, by these Romans as allies, but rather as slaves. We are +handed over to their prefects and centurions, who, when satiated with +our plunder and with our blood, make way for others, who, under +different names, renew the same outrages. If even at last Rome deigns +to send us a legate, he oppresses us with an ostentatious and costly +retinue, and with still more intolerable pride. The levies are again at +hand which tear forever children from their parents, brothers from +brothers. Now, Batavians, is our time. Never did Rome lie so prostrate +as now. Let not their names of legions terrify you. There is nothing +in their camps but old men and plunder. Our infantry and horsemen are +strong; Germany is allied to us by blood, and Gaul is ready to throw off +its yoke. Let Syria serve them, and Asia and the East, who are used to +bow before kings; many still live who were born among us before tribute +was paid to the Romans. The gods are ever with the brave." Solemn +religious rites hallowed this conspiracy, like the League of the Gueux; +like that, it craftily wrapped itself in the veil of submissiveness, in +the majesty of a great name. The cohorts of Civilis swear allegiance on +the Rhine to Vespasian in Syria, as the League did to Philip II. The +same arena furnished the same plan of defence, the same refuge to +despair. Both confided their wavering fortunes to a friendly element; +in the same distress Civilis preserves his island, as fifteen centuries +after him William of Orange did the town of Leyden--through an +artificial inundation. The valor of the Batavi disclosed the impotency +of the world's ruler, as the noble courage of their descendants revealed +to the whole of Europe the decay of Spanish greatness. The same +fecundity of genius in the generals of both times gave to the war a +similarly obstinate continuance, and nearly as doubtful an issue; one +difference, nevertheless, distinguishes them: the Romans and Batavians +fought humanely, for they did not fight for religion. + +[1] More modern historians, with access to the records of the Spanish +Inquisition and the private communications between Phillip II. and his +various appointees to power in the Netherlands, rebut Shiller's kind but +naive thought. To the contrary, Phillip II. was most critical of his +envoys lack of severity. See in particular the "Rise of the Dutch +Republic" and the other works of John Motley on the history of the +Netherlands all of which are available at Project Gutenberg.--D.W. + +[2] A few French generals who were by and large ineffective; and many +promises of gold which were undelivered.--D.W. + + + + + + + BOOK I. + + EARLIER HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS UP TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. + +Before we consider the immediate history of this great revolution, it +will be advisable to go a few steps back into the ancient records of the +country, and to trace the origin of that constitution which we find it +possessed of at the time of this remarkable change. + +The first appearance of this people in the history of the world is the +moment of its fall; their conquerors first gave them a political +existence. The extensive region which is bounded by Germany on the +east, on the south by France, on the north and northwest by the North +Sea, and which we comprehend under the general name of the Netherlands, +was, at the time when the Romans invaded Gaul, divided amongst three +principal nations, all originally of German descent, German +institutions, and German spirit. The Rhine formed its boundaries. On +the left of the river dwelt the Belgae, on its right the Frisii, and the +Batavi on the island which its two arms then formed with the ocean. All +these several nations were sooner or later reduced into subjection by +the Romans, but the conquerors themselves give us the most glorious +testimony to their valor. The Belgae, writes Caesar, were the only +people amongst the Gauls who repulsed the invasion of the Teutones and +Cimbri. The Batavi, Tacitus tells us, surpassed all the tribes on the +Rhine in bravery. This fierce nation paid its tribute in soldiers, and +was reserved by its conquerors, like arrow and sword, only for battle. +The Romans themselves acknowledged the Batavian horsemen to be their +best cavalry. Like the Swiss at this day, they formed for a long time +the body-guard of the Roman Emperor; their wild courage terrified the +Dacians, as they saw them, in full armor, swimming across the Danube. +The Batavi accompanied Agricola in his expedition against Britain, and +helped him to conquer that island. The Frieses were, of all, the last +subdued, and the first to regain their liberty. The morasses among +which they dwelt attracted the conquerors later, and enhanced the price +of conquest. The Roman Drusus, who made war in these regions, had a +canal cut from the Rhine into the Flevo, the present Zuyder Zee, through +which the Roman fleet penetrated into the North Sea, and from thence, +entering the mouths of the Ems and the Weser, found an easy passage into +the interior of Germany. + +Through four centuries we find Batavian troops in the Roman armies, but +after the time of Honorius their name disappears from history. +Presently we discover their island overrun by the Franks, who again lost +themselves in the adjoining country of Belgium. The Frieses threw off +the yoke of their distant and powerless rulers, and again appearad as a +free, and even a conquering people, who governed themselves by their own +customs and a remnant of Roman laws, and extended their limits beyond +the left bank of the Rhine. Of all the provinces of the Netherlands, +Friesland especially had suffered the least from the irruptions of +strange tribes and foreign customs, and for centuries retained traces of +its original institutions, of its national spirit and manners, which +have not, even at the present day, entirely disappeared. + +The epoch of the immigration of nations destroyed the original form of +most of these tribes; other mixed races arose in their place, with other +constitutions. In the general irruption the towns and encampments of +the Romans disappeared, and with them the memorials of their wise +government, which they had employed the natives to execute. The +neglected dikes once more yielded to the violence of the streams and to +the encroachments of the ocean. Those wonders of labor, and creations +of human skill, the canals, dried up, the rivers changed their course, +the continent and the sea confounded their olden limits, and the nature +of the soil changed with its inhabitants. So, too, the connection of +the two eras seems effaced, and with a new race a new history commences. + +The monarchy of the Franks, which arose out of the ruins of Roman Gaul, +had, in the sixth and seventh centuries, seized all the provinces of the +Netherlands, and planted there the Christian faith. After an obstinate +war Charles Martel subdued to the French crown Friesland, the last of +all the free provinces, and by his victories paved a way for the gospel. +Charlemagne united all these countries, and formed of them one division +of the mighty empire which he had constructed out of Germany, France, +and Lombardy. As under his descendants this vast dominion was again +torn into fragments, so the Netherlands became at times German, at +others French, or then again Lotheringian Provinces; and at last we find +them under both the names of Friesland and Lower Lotheringia. + +With the Franks the feudal system, the offspring of the North, also came +into these lands, and here, too, as in all other countries, it +degenerated. The more powerful vassals gradually made themselves +independent of the crown, and the royal governors usurped the countries +they were appointed to govern. But the rebellions vassals could not +maintain their usurpations without the aid of their own dependants, +whose assistance they were compelled to purchase by new concessions. +At the same time the church became powerful through pious usurpations +and donations, and its abbey lands and episcopal sees acquired an +independent existence. Thus were the Netherlands in the tenth, +eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries split up into several small +sovereignties, whose possessors did homage at one time to the German +Emperor, at another to the kings of France. By purchase, marriages, +legacies, and also by conquest, several of these provinces were often +united under one suzerain, and thus in the fifteenth century we see the +house of Burgundy in possession of the chief part of the Netherlands. +With more or less right Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, had united +as many as eleven provinces under his authority, and to these his son, +Charles the Bold, added two others, acquired by force of arms. Thus +imperceptibly a new state arose in Europe, which wanted nothing but the +name to be the most flourishing kingdom in this quarter of the globe. +These extensive possessions made the Dukes of Burgundy formidable +neighbors to France, and tempted the restless spirit of Charles the Bold +to devise a scheme of conquest, embracing the whole line of country from +the Zuyder Zee and the mouth of the Rhine down to Alsace. The almost +inexhaustible resources of this prince justify in some measure this bold +project. A formidable army threatened to carry it into execution. +Already Switzerland trembled for her liberty; but deceitful fortune +abandoned him in three terrible battles, and the infatuated hero was +lost in the melee of the living and the dead. + + [A page who had seen him fall a few days after the battle conducted + the victors to the spot, and saved his remains from an ignominious + oblivion. His body was dragged from out of a pool, in which it was + fast frozen, naked, and so disfigured with wounds that with great + difficulty he was recognized, by the well-known deficiency of some + of his teeth, and by remarkably long finger-nails. But that, + notwithstanding the marks, there were still incredulous people who + doubted his death, and looked for his reappearance, is proved by + the missive in which Louis XI. called upon the Burgundian States to + return to their allegiance to the Crown of France. "If," the + passage runs, "Duke Charles should still be living, you shall be + released from your oath to me." Comines, t. iii., Preuves des + Memoires, 495, 497.] + +The sole heiress of Charles the Bold, Maria, at once the richest +princess and the unhappy Helen of that time, whose wooing brought misery +on her inheritance, was now the centre of attraction to the whole known +world. Among her suitors appeared two great princes, King Louis XI. of +France, for his son, the young Dauphin, and Maximilian of Austria, son +of the Emperor Frederic III. The successful suitor was to become the +most powerful prince in Europe; and now, for the first time, this +quarter of the globe began to fear for its balance of power. Louis, the +more powerful of the two, was ready to back his suit by force of arms; +but the people of the Netherlands, who disposed of the hand of their +princess, passed by this dreaded neighbor, and decided in favor of +Maximilian, whose more remote territories and more limited power seemed +less to threaten the liberty of their country. A deceitful, unfortunate +policy, which, through a strange dispensation of heaven, only +accelerated the melancholy fate which it was intended to prevent. + +To Philip the Fair, the son of Maria and Maximilian, a Spanish bride +brought as her portion that extensive kingmdom which Ferdinand and +Isabella had recently founded; and Charles of Austria, his son, was born +lord of the kingdoms of Spain, of the two Sicilies, of the New World, +and of the Netherlands. In the latter country the commonalty +emancipated themselves much earlier than in other; feudal states, and +quickly attained to an independent political existence. The favorable +situation of the country on the North Sea and on great navigable rivers +early awakened the spirit of commerce, which rapidly peopled the towns, +encouraged industry and the arts, attracted foreigners, and diffused +prosperity and affluence among them. However contemptuously the warlike +policy of those times looked down upon every peaceful and useful +occupation, the rulers of the country could not fail altogether to +perceive the essential advantages they derived from such pursuits. The +increasing population of their territories, the different imposts which +they extorted from natives and foreigners under the various titles of +tolls, customs, highway rates, escort money, bridge tolls, market fees, +escheats, and so forth, were too valuable considerations to allow them +to remain indifferent to the sources from which they were derived.. +Their own rapacity made them promoters of trade, and, as often happens, +barbarism itself rudely nursed it, until at last a healthier policy +assumed its place. In the course of time they invited the Lombard +merchants to settle among them, and accorded to the towns some valuable +privileges and an independent jurisdiction, by which the latter acquired +uncommon extraordinary credit and influence. The numerous wars which +the counts and dukes carried on with one another, or with their +neighbors, made them in some measure dependent on the good-will of the +towns, who by their wealth obtained weight and consideration, and for +the subsidies which they afforded failed not to extort important +privileges in return. These privileges of the commonalties increased as +the crusades with their expensive equipment augumented the necessities +of the nobles; as a new road to Europe was opened for the productions of +the East, and as wide-spreading luxury created new wants to their +princes. Thus as early as the eleventh and twelfth centuries we find in +these lands a mixed form of governmeut, in which the prerogative of the +sovereign is greatly limited by the privileges of the estates; that is +to say, of the nobility, the clergy, and the municipalities. + +These, under the name of States, assembled as often as the wants of the +province required it. Without their consent no new laws were valid, no +war could be carried on, and no taxes levied, no change made in the +coinage, and no foreigner admitted to any office of government. All the +provinces enjoyed these privileges in common; others were peculiar to +the various districts. The supreme government was hereditary, but the +son did not enter on the rights of his father before he had solemnly +sworn to maintain the existing constitution. + +Necessity is the first lawgiver; all the wants which had to be met by +this constitution were originally of a commercial nature. Thus the +whole constitution was founded on commerce, and the laws of the nation +were adapted to its pursuits. The last clause, which excluded +foreigners from all offices of trust, was a natural consequence of the +preceding articles. So complicated and artificial a relation between +the sovereign and his people, which in many provinces was further +modified according to the peculiar wants of each, and frequently of some +single city, required for its maintenance the liveliest zeal for the +liberties of the country, combined with an intimate acquaintance with +them. From a foreigner neither could well be expected. This law, +besides, was enforced reciprocally in each particular province; so that +in Brabant no Fleming, in Zealand no Hollander, could hold office; and +it continued in force even after all these provinces were united under +one government. + +Above all others, Brabant enjoyed the highest degree of freedom. Its +privileges were esteemed so valuable that many mothers from the adjacent +provinces removed thither about the time of their accouchment, in order +to entitle their children to participate, by birth, in all the +immunities of that favored country; just as, says Strada, one improves +the plants of a rude climate by removing them to the soil of a milder. + +After the House of Burgundy had united several provinces under its +dominion, the separate provincial assemblies which, up to that time, had +been independent tribunals, were made subject to a supreme court at +Malines, which incorporated the various judicatures into one body, and +decided in the last resort all civil and criminal appeals. The separate +independence of the provinces was thus abolished, and the supreme power +vested in the senate at Malines. + +After the death of Charles the Bold the states did not neglect to avail +themselves of the embarassment of their duchess, who, threatened by +France, was consequently in their power. Holland and Zealand compelled +her to sign a great charter, which secured to them the most important +sovereign rights. The people of Ghent carried their insolence to such a +pitch that they arbitrarily dragged the favorites of Maria, who had the +misfortune to displease them, before their own tribunals, and beheaded +them before the eyes of that princess. During the short government of +the Duchess Maria, from her father's death to her marriage, the commons +obtained powers which few free states enjoyed. After her death her +husband, Maximilian, illegally assumed the government as guardian of his +son. Offended by this invasion of their rights, the estates refused to +acknowledge his authority, and could only be brought to receive him as a +viceroy for a stated period, and under conditions ratified by oath. + +Maximilian, after he became Roman Emperor, fancied that he might safely +venture to violate the constitution. He imposed extraordinary taxes on +the provinces, gave official appointments to Burgundians and Germans, +and introduced foreign troops into the provinces. But the jealousy of +these republicans kept pace with the power of their regent. As he +entered Bruges with a large retinue of foreigners, the people flew to +arms, made themselves masters of his person, and placed him in +confinement in the castle. In spite of the intercession of the Imperial +and Roman courts, he did not again obtain his freedom until security had +been given to the people on all the disputed points. + +The security of life and property arising from mild laws, and, an equal +administration of justice, had encouraged activity and industry. In +continual contest with the ocean and rapid rivers, which poured their +violence on the neighboring lowlands, and whose force it was requisite +to break by embankments and canals, this people had early learned to +observe the natural objects around them; by industry and perseverance to +defy an element of superior power; and like the Egyptian, instructed by +his Nile, to exercise their inventive genius and acuteness in +self-defence. The natural fertility of their soil, which favored +agriculture and the breeding of cattle, tended at the same time to +increase the population. Their happy position on the sea and the great +navigable rivers of Germany and France, many of which debouched on their +coasts; the numerous artificial canals which intersected the land in all +directions, imparted life to navigation; and the facility of internal +communication between the provinces, soon created and fostered a +commercial spirit among these people. + +The neighboring coasts, Denmark and Britain, were the first visited by +their vessels. The English wool which they brought back employed +thousands of industrious hands in Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp; and as +early as the middle of the twelfth century cloths of Flanders were +extensively worn in France and Germany. In the eleventh century we find +ships of Friesland in the Belt, and even in the Levant. This +enterprising people ventured, without a compass, to steer under the +North Pole round to the most northerly point of Russia. From the +Wendish towns the Netherlands received a share in the Levant trade, +which, at that time, still passed from the Black Sea through the Russian +territories to the Baltic. When, in the thirteenth century, this trade +began to decline, the Crusades having opened a new road through the +Mediterranean for Indian merchandise, and after the Italian towns had +usurped this lucrative branch of commerce, and the great Hanseatic +League had been formed in Germany, the Netherlands became the most +important emporium between the north and south. As yet the use of +the compass was not general, and the merchantmen sailed slowly and +laboriously along the coasts. The ports on the Baltic were, during the +winter months, for the most part frozen and inaccessible. Ships, +therefore, which could not well accomplish within the year the long +voyage from the Mediterranean to the Belt, gladly availed themselves of +harbors which lay half-way between the two. + +With an immense continent behind them with which navigable streams kept +up their communication, and towards the west and north open to the ocean +by commodious harbors, this country appeared to be expressly formed for +a place of resort for different nations, and for a centre of commerce. +The principal towns of the Netherlands were established marts. +Portuguese, Spaniards, Italians, French, Britons, Germans, Danes, and +Swedes thronged to them with the produce of every country in the world. +Competition insured cheapness; industry was stimulated as it found a +ready market for its productions. With the necessary exchange of money +arose the commerce in bills, which opened a new and fruitful source of +wealth. The princes of the country, acquainted at last with their true +interest, encouraged the merchant by important immunities, and neglected +not to protect their commerce by advantageous treaties with foreign +powers. When, in the fifteenth century, several provinces were united +under one rule, they discontinued their private wars, which had proved +so injurious, and their separate interests were now more intimately +connected by a common government. Their commerce and affluence +prospered in the lap of a long peace, which the formidable power of +their princes extorted from the neighboring monarchs. The Burgundian +flag was feared in every sea, the dignity of their sovereign gave +support to their undertakings, and the enterprise of a private +individual became the affair of a powerful state. Such vigorous +protection soon placed them in a position even to renounce the Hanseatic +League, and to pursue this daring enemy through every sea. The +Hanseatic merchants, against whom the coasts of Spain were closed, +were compelled at last, however reluctantly, to visit the Flemish fairs, +and purchase their Spanish goods in the markets of the Netherlands. + +Bruges, in Flanders, was, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the +central point of the whole commerce of Europe, and the great market of +all nations. In the year 1468 a hundred and fifty merchant vessels were +counted entering the harbor of Sluys it one time. Besides the rich +factories of the Hanseatic League, there were here fifteen trading +companies, with their countinghouses, and many factories and merchants' +families from every European country. Here was established the market +of all northern products for the south, and of all southern and +Levantine products for the north. These passed through the Sound, and +up the Rhine, in Hanseatic vessels to Upper Germany, or were transported +by landcarriage to Brunswick and Luneburg. + +As in the common course of human affairs, so here also a licentious +luxury followed prosperity. The seductive example of Philip the Good +could not but accelerate its approach. The court of the Burgundian +dukes was the most voluptuous and magnificent in Europe, Italy itself +not excepted. The costly dress of the higher classes, which afterwards +served as patterns to the Spaniards, and eventually, with other +Burgundian customs, passed over to the court of Austria, soon descended +to the lower orders, and the meanest citizen nursed his person in velvet +and silk. + + [Philip the Good was too profuse a prince to amass treasures; + nevertheless Charles the Bold found accumulated among his effects, + a greater store of table services, jewels, carpets, and linen than + three rich princedoms of that time together possessed, and over and + above all a treasure of three hundred thousand dollars in ready + money. The riches of this prince, and of the Burgundian people, + lay exposed on the battle-fields of Granson, Murten and Nancy. + Here a Swiss soldier drew from the finger of Charles the Bold, that + celebrated diamond which was long esteemed the largest in Europe, + which even now sparkles in the crown of France as the second in + size, but which the unwitting finder sold for a florin. The Swiss + exchanged the silver they found for tin, and the gold for copper, + and tore into pieces the costly tents of cloth of gold. The value + of the spoil of silver, gold, and jewels which was taken has been + estimated at three millions. Charles and his army had advanced to + the combat, not like foes who purpose battle, but like conquerors + who adorn themselves after victory.] + +Comines, an author who travelled through the Netherlands about the +middle of the fifteenth century, tells us that pride had already +attended their prosperity. The pomp and vanity of dress was carried by +both sexes to extravagance. The luxury of the table had never reached +so great a height among any other people. The immoral assemblage of +both sexes at bathing-places, and such other places of reunion for +pleasure and enjoyment, had banished all shame--and we are not here +speaking of the usual luxuriousness of the higher ranks; the females of +the common class abandoned themselves to such extravagances without +limit or measure. + +But how much more cheering to the philanthropist is this extravagance +than the miserable frugality of want, and the barbarous virtues of +ignorance, which at that time oppressed nearly the whole of Europe! +The Burgundian era shines pleasingly forth from those dark ages, like +a lovely spring day amid the showers of February. But this flourishing +condition tempted the Flemish towns at last to their ruin; Ghent and +Bruges, giddy with liberty and success, declared war against Philip the +Good, the ruler of eleven provinces, which ended as unfortunately as it +was presumptuously commenced. Ghent alone lost many thousand men in an +engagement near Havre, and was compelled to appease the wrath of the +victor by a contribution of four hundred thousand gold florins. All the +municipal functionaries, and two thousand of the principal citizens, +went, stripped to their shirts, barefooted, and with heads uncovered, a +mile out of the town to meet the duke, and on their knees supplicated +for pardon. On this occasion they were deprived of several valuable +privileges, all irreparable loss for their future commerce. In the year +1482 they engaged in a war, with no better success, against Maximilian +of Austria, with a view to, deprive him of the guardianship of his son, +which, in contravention of his charter, he had unjustly assumed. In +1487 the town of Bruges placed the archduke himself in confinement, and +put some of his most eminent ministers to death. To avenge his son the +Emperor Frederic III. entered their territory with an army, and, +blockading for ten years the harbor of Sluys, put a stop to their entire +trade. On this occasion Amsterdam and Antwerp, whose jealousy had long +been roused by the flourishing condition of the Flemish towns, lent him +the most important assistance. The Italians began to bring their own +silk-stuffs to Antwerp for sale, and the Flemish cloth-workers likewise, +who had settled in England, sent their goods thither; and thus the town +of Bruges lost two important branches of trade. The Hanseatic League +had long been offended at their overweening pride; and it now left them +and removed its factory to Antwerp. In the year 1516 all the foreign +merchants left the town except only a few Spaniards; but its prosperity +faded as slowly as it had bloomed. + +Antwerp received, in the sixteenth century, the trade which the +luxuriousness of the Flemish towns had banished; and under the +government of Charles V. Antwerp was the most stirring and splendid +city in the Christian world. A stream like the Scheldt, whose broad +mouth, in the immediate vicinity, shared with the North Sea the ebb and +flow of the tide, and could carry vessels of the largest tonnage under +the walls of Antwerp, made it the natural resort for all vessels which +visited that coast. Its free fairs attracted men of business from all +countries. + + [Two such fairs lasted forty days, and all the goods sold there + were duty free.] + +The industry of the nation had, in the beginning of this century, +reached its greatest height. The culture of grain, flax, the breeding +of cattle, the chase, and fisheries, enriched the peasant; arts, +manufactures, and trade gave wealth to the burghers. Flemish and +Brabantine manufactures were long to be seen in Arabia, Persia, and +India. Their ships covered the ocean, and in the Black Sea contended +with the Genoese for supremacy. It was the distinctive characteristic +of the seaman of the Netherlands that he made sail at all seasons of the +year, and never laid up for the winter. + +When the new route by the Cape of Good Hope was discovered, and the East +India trade of Portugal undermined that of the Levant, the Netherlands +did not feel the blow which was inflicted on the Italian republics. The +Portuguese established their mart in Brabant, and the spices of Calicut +were displayed for sale in the markets of Antwerp. Hither poured the +West Indian merchandise, with which the indolent pride of Spain repaid +the industry of the Netherlands. The East Indian market attracted the +most celebrated commercial houses from Florence, Lucca, and Genoa; and +the Fuggers and Welsers from Augsburg. Here the Hanse towns brought the +wares of the north, and here the English company had a factory. Here +art and nature seemed to expose to view all their riches; it was a +splendid exhibition of the works of the Creator and of the creature. + +Their renown soon diffused itself through the world. Even a company of +Turkish merchants, towards the end of this century, solicited permission +to settle here, and to supply the products of the East by way of Greece. +With the trade in goods they held also the exchange of money. Their +bills passed current in the farthest parts of the globe. Antwerp, it is +asserted, then transacted more extensive and more important business in +a single month than Venice, at its most flourishing period, in two whole +years. + +In the year 1491 the Hanseatic League held its solemn meetings in this +town, which had formerly assembled in Lubeck alone. In 1531 the +exchange was erected, at that time the most splendid in all Europe, and +which fulfilled its proud inscription. The town now reckoned one +hundred thousand inhabitants. The tide of human beings, which +incessantly poured into it, exceeds all belief. Between two hundred and +two hundred and fifty ships were often seen loading at one time in its +harbor; no day passed on which the boats entering inwards and outwards +did not amount to more than five hundred; on market days the number +amounted to eight or nine hundred. Daily more than two hundred +carriages drove through its gates; above two thousand loaded wagons +arrived every week from Germany, France, and Lorraine, without reckoning +the farmers' carts and corn-vans, which were seldom less than ten +thousand in number. Thirty thousand hands were employed by the English +company alone. The market dues, tolls, and excise brought millions to +the government annually. We can form some idea of the resources of the +nation from the fact that the extraordinary taxes which they were +obliged to pay to Charles V. towards his numerous wars were computed at +forty millions of gold ducats. + +For this affluence the Netherlands were as much indebted to their +liberty as to the natural advantages of their country. Uncertain laws +and the despotic sway of a rapacious prince would quickly have blighted +all the blessings which propitious nature had so abundantly lavished on +them. The inviolable sanctity of the laws can alone secure to the +citizen the fruits of his industry, and inspire him with that happy +confidence which is the soul of all activity. + +The genius of this people, developed by the spirit of commerce, and by +the intercourse with so many nations, shone in useful inventions; in the +lap of abundance and liberty all the noble arts were carefully +cultivated and carried to perfection. From Italy, to which Cosmo de +Medici had lately restored its golden age, painting, architecture, and +the arts of carving and of engraving on copper, were transplanted into +the Netherlands, where, in a new soil, they flourished with fresh vigor. +The Flemish school, a daughter of the Italian, soon vied with its mother +for the prize; and, in common with it, gave laws to the whole of Europe +in the fine arts. The manufactures and arts, on which the Netherlanders +principally founded their prosperity, and still partly base it, require +no particular enumeration. The weaving of tapestry, oil painting, the +art of painting on glass, even pocketwatches and sun-dials were, as +Guicciardini asserts, originally invented in the Netherlands. To them +we are indebted for the improvement of the compass, the points of which +are still known by Flemish names. About the year 1430 the invention of +typography is ascribed to Laurence Koster, of Haarlem; and whether or +not he is entitled to this honorable distinction, certain it is that the +Dutch were among the first to engraft this useful art among them; and +fate ordained that a century later it should reward its country with +liberty. The people of the Netherlands united with the most fertile +genius for inventions a happy talent for improving the discoveries of +others; there are probably few mechanical arts and manufactures which +they did not either produce or at least carry to a higher degree of +perfection. + +Up to this time these provinces had formed the most enviable state in +Europe. Not one of the Burgundian dukes had ventured to indulge a +thought of overturning the constitution; it had remained sacred even to +the daring spirit of Charles the Bold, while he was preparing fetters +for foreign liberty. All these princes grew up with no higher hope than +to be the heads of a republic, and none of their territories afforded +them experience of a higher authority. Besides, these princes possessed +nothing but what the Netherlands gave them; no armies but those which +the nation sent into the field; no riches but what the estates granted +to them. Now all was changed. The Netherlands had fallen to a master +who had at his command other instruments and other resources, who could +arm against them a foreign power. + + [The unnatural union of two such different nations as the Belgians + and Spaniards could not possibly be prosperous. I cannot here + refrain from quoting the comparison which Grotius, in energetic + language, has drawn between the two. "With the neighboring + nations," says he, "the people of the Netherlands could easily + maintain a good understanding, for they were of a similar origin + with themselves, and had grown up in the same manner. But the + people of Spain and of the Netherlands differed in almost every + respect from one another, and therefore, when they were brought + together clashed the more violently. Both had for many centuries + been distinguished in war, only the latter had, in luxurious + repose, become disused to arms, while the former had been inured to + war in the Italian and African campaigns; the desire of gain made + the Belgians more inclined to peace, but not less sensitive of + offence. No people were more free from the lust of conquest, but + none defended its own more zealously. Hence the numerous towns, + closely pressed together in a confined tract of country; densely + crowded with a foreign and native population; fortified near the + sea and the great rivers. Hence for eight centuries after the + northern immigration foreign arms could not prevail against them. + Spain, on the contrary, often changed its masters; and when at last + it fell into the hands of the Goths, its character and its manners + had suffered more or less from each new conqueror. The people thus + formed at last out of these several admixtures is described as + patient in labor, imperturbable in danger, equally eager for riches + and honor, proud of itself even to contempt of others, devout and + grateful to strangers for any act of kindness, but also revengeful, + and of such ungovernable passions in victory as so regard neither + conscience nor honor in the case of an enemy. All this is foreign + to the character of the Belgian, who is astute but not insidious, + who, placed midway between France and Germany, combines in + moderation the faults and good qualities of both. He is not easily + to be imposed upon, nor is he to be insulted with impunity. In + veneration for the Deity, too, he does not yield to the Spaniard; + the arms of the Northmen could not make him apostatize from + Christianity when he had once professed it. No opinion which the + church condemns had, up to this time, empoisoned the purity of his + faith. Nay, his pious extravagance went so far that it became + requisite to curb by laws the rapacity of his clergy. In both + people loyalty to their rulers is equally innate, with this + difference, that the Belgian places the law above kings. Of all + the Spaniards the Castilians require to be, governed with the most + caution; but the liberties which they arrogate for themselves they + do not willingly accord to others. Hence the difficult task to + their common ruler, so to distribute his attention, and care + between the two nations that neither the preference shown to the + Castilian should offend the Belgian, nor the equal treatment of the + Belgian affront the haughty spirit of the Castilian."--Grotii + Annal. Belg. L. 1. 4. 5. seq.] + +Charles V. was an absolute monarch in his Spanish dominions; in the +Netherlands he was no more than the first citizen. In the southern +portion of his empire he might have learned contempt for the rights of +individuals; here he was taught to respect them. The more he there +tasted the pleasures of unlimited power, and the higher he raised his +opinion of his own greatness, the more reluctant he must have felt to +descend elsewhere to the ordinary level of humanity, and to tolerate any +check upon his arbitrary authority. It requires, indeed, no ordinary +degree of virtue to abstain from warring against the power which imposes +a curb on our most cherished wishes. + +The superior power of Charles awakened at the same time in the +Netherlands that distrust which always accompanies inferiority. Never +were they so alive to their constitutional rights, never so jealous of +the royal prerogative, or more observant in their proceedings. Under, +his reign we see the most violent outbreaks of republican spirit, and +the pretensions of the people carried to an excess which nothing but the +increasing encroachments of the royal power could in the least justify. +A Sovereign will always regard the freedom of the citizen as an +alienated fief, which he is bound to recover. To the citizen the +authority of a sovereign is a torrent, which, by its inundation, +threatens to sweep away his rights. The Belgians sought to protect +themselves against the ocean by embankments, and against their princes +by constitutional enactments. The whole history of the world is a +perpetually recurring struggle between liberty and the lust of power and +possession; as the history of nature is nothing but the contest of the +elements and organic bodies for space. The Netherlands soon found to +their cost that they had become but a province of a great monarchy. So +long as their former masters had no higher aim than to promote their +prosperity, their condition resembled the tranquil happiness of a +secluded family, whose head is its ruler. Charles V. introduced them +upon the arena of the political world. They now formed a member of that +gigantic body which the ambition of an individual employed as his +instrument. They ceased to have their own good for their aim; the +centre of their existence was transported to the soul of their ruler. +As his whole government was but one tissue of plans and manoeuvres to +advance his power, so it was, above all things, necessary that he should +be completely master of the various limbs of his mighty empire in order +to move them effectually and suddenly. It was impossible, therefore, +for him to embarrass himself with the tiresome mechanism of their +interior political organization, or to extend to their peculiar +privileges the conscientious respect which their republican jealousy +demanded. It was expedient for him to facilitate the exercise of their +powers by concentration and unity. The tribunal at Malines had been +under his predecessor an independent court of judicature; he subjected +its decrees to the revision of a royal council, which he established in +Brussels, and which was the mere organ of his will. He introduced +foreigners into the most vital functions of their constitution, and +confided to them the most important offices. These men, whose only +support was the royal favor, would be but bad guardians of privileges +which, moreover, were little known to them. The ever-increasing +expenses of his warlike government compelled him as steadily to augment +his resources. In disregard of their most sacred privileges he imposed +new and strange taxes on the provinces. To preserve their olden +consideration the estates were forced to grant what he had been so +modest as not to extort; the whole history of the government of this +monarch in the Netherlands is almost one continued list of imposts +demanded, refused, and finally accorded. Contrary to the constitution, +he introduced foreign troops into their territories, directed the +recruiting of his armies in the provinces, and involved them in wars, +which could not advance even if they did not injure their interest, and +to which they had not given their consent. He punished the offences of +a free state as a monarch; and the terrible chastisement of Ghent +announced to the other provinces the great change which their +constitution had already undergone. + +The welfare of the country was so far secured as was necessary to the +political schemes of its master; the intelligent policy of Charles would +certainly not violate the salutary regiment of the body whose energies +he found himself necessitated to exert. Fortunately, the opposite +pursuits of selfish ambition, and of disinterested philanthropy, often +bring about the same end; and the well-being of a state, which a Marcus +Aurelius might propose to himself as a rational object of pursuit, is +occasionally promoted by an Augustus or a Louis. + +Charles V. was perfectly aware that commerce was the strength of the +nation, and that the foundation of their commerce was liberty. He +spared its liberty because he needed its strength. Of greater political +wisdom, though not more just than his son, he adapted his principles to +the exigencies of time and place, and recalled an ordinance in Antwerp +and in Madrid which he would under other circumstances have enforced +with all the terrors of his power. That which makes the reign of +Charles V. particularly remarkable in regard to the Netherlands is the +great religious revolution which occurred under it; and which, as the +principal cause of the subsequent rebellion, demands a somewhat +circumstantial notice. This it was that first brought arbitrary power +into the innermost sanctuary of the constitution; taught it to give a +dreadful specimen of its might; and, in a measure, legalized it, while +it placed republican spirit on a dangerous eminence. And as the latter +sank into anarchy and rebellion monarchical power rose to the height of +despotism. + +Nothing is more natural than the transition from civil liberty to +religious freedom. Individuals, as well as communities, who, favored by +a happy political constitution, have become acquainted with the rights +of man, and accustomed to examine, if not also to create, the law which +is to govern them; whose minds have been enlightened by activity, and +feelings expanded by the enjoyments of life; whose natural courage has +been exalted by internal security and prosperity; such men will not +easily surrender themselves to the blind domination of a dull arbitrary +creed, and will be the first to emancipate themselves from its yoke. +Another circumstance, however, must have greatly tended to diffuse the +new religion in these countries. Italy, it might be objected, the seat +of the greatest intellectual culture, formerly the scene of the most +violent political factions, where a burning climate kindles the blood +with the wildest passions--Italy, among all the European countries, +remained the freest from this change. But to a romantic people, whom a +warm and lovely sky, a luxurious, ever young and ever smiling nature, +and the multifarious witcheries of art, rendered keenly susceptible of +sensuous enjoyment, that form of religion must naturally have been +better adapted, which by its splendid pomp captivates the senses, by its +mysterious enigmas opens an unbounded range to the fancy; and which, +through the most picturesque forms, labors to insinuate important +doctrines into the soul. On the contrary, to a people whom the ordinary +employments of civil life have drawn down to an unpoetical reality, who +live more in plain notions than in images, and who cultivate their +common sense at the expense of their imagination--to such a people that +creed will best recommend itself which dreads not investigation, which +lays less stress on mysticism than on morals, and which is rather to be +understood then to be dwelt upon in meditation. In few words, the Roman +Catholic religion will, on the whole, be found more adapted to a nation +of artists, the Protestant more fitted to a nation of merchants. + +On this supposition the new doctrines which Luther diffused in Germany, +and Calvin in Switzerland, must have found a congenial soil in the +Netherlands. The first seeds of it were sown in the Netherlands by the +Protestant merchants, who assembled at Amsterdam and Antwerp. The +German and Swiss troops, which Charles introduced into these countries, +and the crowd of French, German, and English fugitives who, under the +protection of the liberties of Flanders, sought to escape the sword of +persecution which threatened them at home, promoted their diffusion. A +great portion of the Belgian nobility studied at that time at Geneva, as +the University of Louvain was not yet in repute, and that of Douai not +yet founded. The new tenets publicly taught there were transplanted by +the students to their various countries. In an isolated people these +first germs might easily have been crushed; but in the market-towns of +Holland and Brabant, the resort of so many different nations, their +first growth would escape the notice of government, and be accelerated +under the veil of obscurity. A difference in opinion might easily +spring up and gain ground amongst those who already were divided in +national character, in manners, customs, and laws. Moreover, in a +country where industry was the most lauded virtue, mendicity the most +abhorred vice, a slothful body of men, like that of the monks, must have +been an object of long and deep aversion. Hence, the new religion, +which opposed these orders, derived an immense advantage from having the +popular opinion on its side. Occasional pamphlets, full of bitterness +and satire, to which the newly-discovered art of printing secured a +rapid circulation, and several bands of strolling orators, called +Rederiker, who at that time made the circuit of the provinces, +ridiculing in theatrical representations or songs the abuses of their +times, contributed not a little to diminish respect for the Romish +Church, and to prepare the people for the reception of the new dogmas. + +The first conquests of this doctrine were astonishingly rapid. The +number of those who in a short time avowed themselves its adherents, +especially in the northern provinces, was prodigious; but among these +the foreigners far outnumbered the natives. Charles V., who, in this +hostile array of religious tenets, had taken the side which a despot +could not fail to take, opposed to the increasing torrent of innovation +the most effectual remedies. Unhappily for the reformed religion +political justice was on the side of its persecutor. The dam which, for +so many centuries, had repelled human understanding from truth was too +suddenly torn away for the outbreaking torrent not to overflow its +appointed channel. The reviving spirit of liberty and of inquiry, which +ought to have remained within the limits of religious questions, began +also to examine into the rights of kings. While in the commencement +iron fetters were justly broken off, a desire was eventually shown to +rend asunder the most legitimate and most indispensable of ties. Even +the Holy Scriptures, which were now circulated everywhere, while they +imparted light and nurture to the sincere inquirer after truth, were the +source also whence an eccentric fanaticism contrived to extort the +virulent poison. The good cause had been compelled to choose the evil +road of rebellion, and the result was what in such cases it ever will be +so long as men remain men. The bad cause, too, which had nothing in +common with the good but the employment of illegal means, emboldened by +this slight point of connection, appeared in the same company, and was +mistaken for it. Luther had written against the invocation of saints; +every audacious varlet who broke into the churches and cloisters, and +plundered the altars, called himself Lutheran. Faction, rapine, +fanaticism, licentiousness robed themselves in his colors; the most +enormous offenders, when brought before the judges, avowed themselves +his followers. The Reformation had drawn down the Roman prelate to a +level with fallible humanity; an insane band, stimulated by hunger and +want, sought to annihilate all distinction of ranks. It was natural +that a doctrine, which to the state showed itself only in its most +unfavorable aspect, should not have been able to reconcile a monarch who +had already so many reasons to extirpate it; and it is no wonder, +therefore, that be employed against it the arms it had itself forced +upon him. + +Charles must already have looked upon himself as absolute in the +Netherlands since he did not think it necessary to extend to these +countries the religious liberty which he had accorded to Germany. +While, compelled by the effectual resistance of the German princes, he +assured to the former country a free exercise of the new religion, in +the latter he published the most cruel edicts for its repression. By +these the reading of the Evangelists and Apostles; all open or secret +meetings to which religion gave its name in ever so slight a degree; all +conversations on the subject, at home or at the table, were forbidden +under severe penalties. In every province special courts of judicature +were established to watch over the execution of the edicts. Whoever +held these erroneous opinions was to forfeit his office without regard +to his rank. Whoever should be convicted of diffusing heretical +doctrines, or even of simply attending the secret meetings of the +Reformers, was to be condemned to death, and if a male, to be executed +by the sword, if a female, buried alive. Backsliding heretics were to +be committed to the flames. Not even the recantation of the offender +could annul these appalling sentences. Whoever abjured his errors +gained nothing by his apostacy but at farthest a milder kind of death. + +The fiefs of the condemned were also confiscated, contrary to the +privileges of the nation, which permitted the heir to redeem them for a +trifling fine; and in defiance of an express and valuable privilege of +the citizens of Holland, by which they were not to be tried out of their +province, culprits were conveyed beyond the limits of the native +judicature, and condemned by foreign tribunals. Thus did religion guide +the hand of despotism to attack with its sacred weapon, and without +danger or opposition, the liberties which were inviolable to the secular +arm. + +Charles V., emboldened by the fortunate progress of his arms in Germany, +thought that he might now venture on everything, and seriously meditated +the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition in the Netherlands. But the +terror of its very name alone reduced commerce in Antwerp to a +standstill. The principal foreign merchants prepared to quit the city. +All buying and selling ceased, the value of houses fell, the employment +of artisans stopped. Money disappeared from the hands of the citizen. +The ruin of that flourishing commercial city was inevitable had not +Charles V. listened to the representations of the Duchess of Parma, and +abandoned this perilous resolve. The tribunal, therefore, was ordered +not to interfere with the foreign merchants, and the title of Inquisitor +was changed unto the milder appellation of Spiritual Judge. But in the +other provinces that tribunal proceeded to rage with the inhuman +despotism which has ever been peculiar to it. It has been computed that +during the reign of Charles V. fifty thousand persons perished by the +hand of the executioner for religion alone. + +When we glance at the violent proceedings of this monarch we are quite +at a loss to comprehend what it was that kept the rebellion within +bounds during his reign, which broke out with so much violence under his +successor. A closer investigation will clear up this seeming anomaly. +Charles's dreaded supremacy in Europe had raised the commerce of the +Netherlands to a height which it had never before attained. The majesty +of his name opened all harbors, cleared all seas for their vessels, and +obtained for them the most favorable commercial treaties with foreign +powers. Through him, in particular, they destroyed the dominion of the +Hanse towns in the Baltic. Through him, also, the New World, Spain, +Italy, Germany, which now shared with them a common ruler, were, in a +measure, to be considered as provinces of their own country, and opened +new channels for their commerce. He had, moreover, united the remaining +six provinces with the hereditary states of Burgundy, and thus given to +them an extent and political importance which placed them by the side of +the first kingdoms of Europe. + + [He had, too, at one time the intention of raising it to a kingdom; + but the essential points of difference between the provinces, which + extended from constitution and manners to measures and weights, + soon made him abandon this design. More important was the service + which he designed them in the Burgundian treaty, which settled its + relation to the German empire. According to this treaty the + seventeen provinces were to contribute to the common wants of the + German empire twice as much as an electoral prince; in case of a + Turkish war three times as much; in return for which, however, they + were to enjoy the powerful protection of this empire, and not to be + injured in any of their various privileges. The revolution, which + under Charles' son altered the political constitution of the + provinces, again annulled this compact, which, on account of the + trifling advantage that it conferred, deserves no further notice.] + +By all this he flattered the national pride of this people. Moreover, +by the incorporation of Gueldres, Utrecht, Friesland, and Groningen with +these provinces, he put an end to the private wars which had so long +disturbed their commerce; an unbroken internal peace now allowed them to +enjoy the full fruits of their industry. Charles was therefore a +benefactor of this people. At the same time, the splendor of his +victories dazzled their eyes; the glory of their sovereign, which was +reflected upon them also, had bribed their republican vigilance; while +the awe-inspiring halo of invincibility which encircled the conqueror of +Germany, France, Italy, and Africa terrified the factious. And then, +who knows not on how much may venture the man, be he a private +individual or a prince, who has succeeded in enchaining the admiration +of his fellow-creatures! His repeated personal visits to these lands, +which he, according to his own confession, visited as often as ten +different times, kept the disaffected within bounds; the constant +exercise of severe and prompt justice maintained the awe of the royal +power. Finally, Charles was born in the Netherlands, and loved the +nation in whose lap he had grown up. Their manners pleased him, the +simplicity of their character and social intercourse formed for him a +pleasing recreation from the severe Spanish gravity. He spoke their +language, and followed their customs in his private life. The +burdensome ceremonies which form the unnatural barriers between king and +people were banished from Brussels. No jealous foreigner debarred +natives from access to their prince; their way to him was through their +own countrymen, to whom he entrusted his person. He spoke much and +courteously with them; his deportment was engaging, his discourse +obliging. These simple artifices won for him their love, and while +his armies trod down their cornfields, while his rapacious imposts +diminished their property, while his governors oppressed, his +executioners slaughtered, he secured their hearts by a friendly +demeanor. + +Gladly would Charles have seen this affection of the nation for himself +descend upon his son. On this account he sent for him in his youth from +Spain, and showed him in Brussels to his future subjects. On the solemn +day of his abdication he recommended to him these lands as the richest +jewel in his crown, and earnestly exhorted him to respect their laws and +privileges. + +Philip II. was in all the direct opposite of his father. As ambitious +as Charles, but with less knowledge of men and of the rights of man, he +had formed to himself a notion of royal authority which regarded men as +simply the servile instruments of despotic will, and was outraged by +every symptom of liberty. Born in Spain, and educated under the iron +discipline of the monks, he demanded of others the same gloomy formality +and reserve as marked his own character. The cheerful merriment of his +Flemish subjects was as uncongenial to his disposition and temper as +their privileges were offensive to his imperious will. He spoke no +other language but the Spanish, endured none but Spaniards about his +person, and obstinately adhered to all their customs. In vain did the +loyal ingenuity of the Flemish towns through which he passed vie with +each other in solemnizing his arrival with costly festivities. + + [The town of Antwerp alone expended on an occasion of this kind two + hundred and sixty thousand gold florins.] + +Philip's eye remained dark; all the profusion of magnificence, all the +loud and hearty effusions of the sincerest joy could not win from him +one approving smile. + +Charles entirely missed his aim by presenting his son to the Flemings. +They might eventually have endured his yoke with less impatience if he +had never set his foot in their land. But his look forewarned them what +they had to expect; his entry into Brussels lost him all hearts. The +Emperor's gracious affability with his people only served to throw a +darker shade on the haughty gravity of his son. They read in his +countenance the destructive purpose against their liberties which, even +then, he already revolved in his breast. Forewarned to find in him a +tyrant they were forearmed to resist him. + +The throne of the Netherlands was the first which Charles V. abdicated. +Before a solemn convention in Brussels he absolved the States-General of +their oath, and transferred their allegiance to King Philip, his son. +"If my death," addressing the latter, as he concluded, "had placed you +in possession of these countries, even in that case so valuable a +bequest would have given me great claims on your gratitude. But now +that of my free will I transfer them to you, now that I die in order to +hasten your enjoyment of them, I only require of you to pay to the +people the increased obligation which the voluntary surrender of my +dignity lays upon you. Other princes esteem it a peculiar felicity to +bequeath to their children the crown which death is already ravishing +from then. This happiness I am anxious to enjoy during my life. I wish +to be a spectator of your reign. Few will follow my example, as few +have preceded me in it. But this my deed will be praised if your future +life should justify my expectations, if you continue to be guided by +that wisdom which you have hitherto evinced, if you remain inviolably +attached to the pure faith which is the main pillar of your throne. One +thing more I have to add: may Heaven grant you also a son, to whom you +may transmit your power by choice, and not by necessity." + +After the Emperor had concluded his address Philip kneeled down before +him, kissed his hand, and received his paternal blessing. His eyes for +the last time were moistened with a tear. All present wept. It was an +hour never to be forgotten. + +This affecting farce was soon followed by another. Philip received the +homage of the assembled states. He took the oath administered in the +following words: "I, Philip, by the grace of God, Prince of Spain, of +the two Sicilies, etc., do vow and swear that I will be a good and just +lord in these countries, counties, and duchies, etc.; that I will well +and truly hold, and cause to be held, the privileges and liberties of +all the nobles, towns, commons, and subjects which have been conferred +upon them by my predecessors, and also the customs, usages and rights +which they now have and enjoy, jointly and severally, and, moreover, +that I will do all that by law and right pertains to a good and just +prince and lord, so help me God and all His Saints." + +The alarm which the arbitrary government of the Emperor had inspired, +and the distrust of his son, are already visible in the formula of this +oath, which was drawn up in far more guarded and explicit terms than +that which had been administered to Charles V. himself and all the Dukes +in Burgundy. Philip, for instance, was compelled to swear to the +maintenance of their customs and usages, what before his time had never +been required. In the oath which the states took to him no other +obedience was promised than such as should be consistent with the +privileges of the country. His officers then were only to reckon on +submission and support so long as they legally discharged the duties +entrusted to them. Lastly, in this oath of allegiance, Philip is simply +styled the natural, the hereditary prince, and not, as the Emperor had +desired, sovereign or lord; proof enough how little confidence was +placed in the justice and liberality of the new sovereign. + + + + + PHILIP II., RULER OF THE NETHERLANDS. + +Philip II. received the lordship of the Netherlands in the brightest +period of their prosperity. He was the first of their princes who +united them all under his authority. They now consisted of seventeen +provinces; the duchies of Brabant, Limburg, Luxembourg, and Gueldres, +the seven counties of Artois, Hainault, Flanders, Namur, Zutphen, +Holland, and Zealand, the margravate of Antwerp, and the five lordships +of Friesland, Mechlin (Malines), Utrecht, Overyssel, and Groningen, +which, collectively, formed a great and powerful state able to contend +with monarchies. Higher than it then stood their commerce could not +rise. The sources of their wealth were above the earth's surface, but +they were more valuable and inexhaustible and richer than all the mines +in America. These seventeen provinces which, taken together, scarcely +comprised the fifth part of Italy, and do not extend beyond three +hundred Flemish miles, yielded an annual revenue to their lord, not much +inferior to that which Britain formerly paid to its kings before the +latter had annexed so many of the ecclesiastical domains to their crown. +Three hundred and fifty cities, alive with industry and pleasure, many +of them fortified by their natural position and secure without bulwarks +or walls; six thousand three hundred market towns of a larger size; +smaller villages, farms, and castles innumerable, imparted to this +territory the aspect of one unbroken flourishing landscape. The nation +had now reached the meridian of its splendor; industry and abundance had +exalted the genius of the citizen, enlightened his ideas, ennobled his +affections; every flower of the intellect had opened with the +flourishing condition of the country. A happy temperament under a +severe climate cooled the ardor of their blood, and moderated the rage +of their passions; equanimity, moderation, and enduring patience, the +gifts of a northern clime; integrity, justice, and faith, the necessary +virtues of their profession; and the delightful fruits of liberty, +truth, benevolence, and a patriotic pride were blended in their +character, with a slight admixture of human frailties. No people on +earth was more easily governed by a prudent prince, and none with more +difficulty by a charlatan or a tyrant. Nowhere was the popular voice so +infallible a test of good government as here. True statesmanship could +be tried in no nobler school, and a sickly artificial policy had none +worse to fear. + +A state constituted like this could act and endure with gigantic energy +whenever pressing emergencies called forth its powers and a skilful and +provident administration elicited its resources. Charles V. bequeathed +to his successor an authority in these provinces little inferior to that +of a limited monarchy. The prerogative of the crown had gained a +visible ascendancy over the republican spirit, and that complicated +machine could now be set in motion, almost as certainly and rapidly as +the most absolutely governed nation. The numerous nobility, formerly so +powerful, cheerfully accompanied their sovereign in his wars, or, on the +civil changes of the state, courted the approving smile of royality. +The crafty policy of the crown had created a new and imaginary good, of +which it was the exclusive dispenser. New passions and new ideas of +happiness supplanted at last the rude simplicity of republican virtue. +Pride gave place to vanity, true liberty to titles of Honor, a needy +independence to a luxurious servitude. To oppress or to plunder their +native land as the absolute satraps of an absolute lord was a more +powerful allurement for the avarice and ambition of the great, than in +the general assembly of the state to share with the monarch a hundredth +part of the supreme power. A large portion, moreover, of the nobility +were deeply sunk in poverty and debt. Charles V. had crippled all the +most dangerous vassals of the crown by expensive embassies to foreign +courts, under the specious pretext of honorary distinctions. Thus, +William of Orange was despatched to Germany with the imperial crown, and +Count Egmont to conclude the marriage contract between Philip and Queen +Mary. Both also afterwards accompanied the Duke of Alva to France to +negotiate the peace between the two crowns, and the new alliance of +their sovereign with Madame Elizabeth. The expenses of these journeys +amounted to three hundred thousand florins, towards which the king did +not contribute a single penny. When the Prince of Orange was appointed +generalissimo in the place of the Duke of Savoy he was obliged to defray +all the necessary expenses of his office. When foreign ambassadors or +princes came to Brussels it was made incumbent on the nobles to maintain +the honor of their king, who himself always dined alone, and never kept +open table. Spanish policy had devised a still more ingenious +contrivance gradually to impoverish the richest families of the land. +Every year one of the Castilian nobles made his appearance in Brussels, +where he displayed a lavish magnificence. In Brussels it was accounted +an indelible disgrace to be distanced by a stranger in such munificence. +All vied to surpass him, and exhausted their fortunes in this costly +emulation, while the Spaniard made a timely retreat to his native +country, and by the frugality of four years repaired the extravagance of +one year. It was the foible of the Netherlandish nobility to contest +with every stranger the credit of superior wealth, and of this weakness +the government studiously availed itself. Certainly these arts did not +in the sequel produce the exact result that had been calculated on; for +these pecuniary burdens only made the nobility the more disposed for +innovation, since he who has lost all can only be a gainer in the +general ruin. + +The Roman Church had ever been a main support of the royal power, and it +was only natural that it should be so. Its golden time was the bondage +of the human intellect, and, like royalty, it had gained by the +ignorance and weakness of men. Civil oppression made religion more +necessary and more dear; submission to tyrannical power prepares the +mind for a blind, convenient faith, and the hierarchy repaid with usury +the services of despotism. In the provinces the bishops and prelates +were zealous supporters of royalty, and ever ready to sacrifice the +welfare of the citizen to the temporal advancement of the church and the +political interests of the sovereign. + +Numerous and brave garrisons also held the cities in awe, which were +at the same time divided by religious squabbles and factions, and +consequently deprived of their strongest support--union among +themselves. How little, therefore, did it require to insure this +preponderance of Philip's power, and how fatal must have been the folly +by which it was lost. + +But Philip's authority in these provinces, however great, did not +surpass the influence which the Spanish monarchy at that time enjoyed +throughout Europe. No state ventured to enter the arena of contest with +it. France, its most dangerous neighbor, weakened by a destructive war, +and still more by internal factions, which boldly raised their heads +during the feeble government of a child, was advancing rapidly to that +unhappy condition which, for nearly half a century, made it a theatre of +the most enormous crimes and the most fearful calamities. In England +Elizabeth could with difficulty protect her still tottering throne +against the furious storms of faction, and her new church establishment +against the insidious arts of the Romanists. That country still awaited +her mighty call before it could emerge from a humble obscurity, and had +not yet been awakened by the faulty policy of her rival to that vigor +and energy with which it finally overthrew him. The imperial family of +Germany was united with that of Spain by the double ties of blood and +political interest; and the victorious progress of Soliman drew its +attention more to the east than to the west of Europe. Gratitude and +fear secured to Philip the Italian princes, and his creatures ruled the +Conclave. The monarchies of the North still lay in barbarous darkness +and obscurity, or only just began to acquire form and strength, and were +as yet unrecognized in the political system of Europe. The most skilful +generals, numerous armies accustomed to victory, a formidable marine, +and the golden tribute from the West Indies, which now first began to +come in regularly and certainly--what terrible instruments were these in +the firm and steady hand of a talented prince Under such auspicious +stars did King Philip commence his reign. + +Before we see him act we must first look hastily into the deep recesses +of his soul, and we shall there find a key to his political life. Joy +and benevolence were wholly wanting in the composition of his character. +His temperament, and the gloomy years of his early childhood, denied him +the former; the latter could not be imparted to him by men who had +renounced the sweetest and most powerful of the social ties. Two ideas, +his own self and what was above that self, engrossed his narrow and +contracted mind. Egotism and religion were the contents and the +title-page of the history of his whole life. He was a king and a +Christian, and was bad in both characters; he never was a man among men, +because he never condescended but only ascended. His belief was dark and +cruel; for his divinity was a being of terror, from whom he had nothing +to hope but everything to fear. To the ordinary man the divinity appears +as a comforter, as a Saviour; before his mind it was set up as an image +of fear, a painful, humiliating check to his human omnipotence. His +veneration for this being was so much the more profound and deeply rooted +the less it extended to other objects. He trembled servilely before God +because God was the only being before whom he had to tremble. Charles V. +was zealous for religion because religion promoted his objects. Philip +was so because he had real faith in it. The former let loose the fire and +the sword upon thousands for the sake of a dogma, while he himself, in +the person of the pope, his captive, derided the very doctrine for which +he had sacrificed so much human blood. It was only with repugnance and +scruples of conscience that Philip resolved on the most just war against +the pope, and resigned all the fruits of his victory as a penitent +malefactor surrenders his booty. The Emperor was cruel from calculation, +his son from impulse. The first possessed a strong and enlightened +spirit, and was, perhaps, so much the worse as a man; the second was +narrow-minded and weak, but the more upright. + +Both, however, as it appears to me, might have been better men than they +actually were, and still, on the whole, have acted on the very same +principles. What we lay to the charge of personal character of an +individual is very often the infirmity, the necessary imperfection of +universal human nature. A monarchy so great and so powerful was too +great a trial for human pride, and too mighty a charge for human power. +To combine universal happiness with the highest liberty of the +individual is the sole prerogative of infinite intelligence, which +diffuses itself omnipresently over all. But what resource has man +when placed in the position of omnipotence? Man can only aid his +circumscribed powers by classification; like the naturalist, he +establishes certain marks and rules by which to facilitate his own +feeble survey of the whole, to which all individualities must conform. +All this is accomplished for him by religion. She finds hope and fear +planted in every human breast; by making herself mistress of these +emotions, and directing their affections to a single object, she +virtually transforms millions of independent beings into one uniform +abstract. The endless diversity of the human will no longer embarrasses +its ruler--now there exists one universal good, one universal evil, +which he can bring forward or withdraw at pleasure, and which works in +unison with himself even when absent. Now a boundary is established +before which liberty must halt; a venerable, hallowed line, towards +which all the various conflicting inclinations of the will must finally +converge. The common aim of despotism and of priestcraft is uniformity, +and uniformity is a necessary expedient of human poverty and +imperfection. Philip became a greater despot than his father because +his mind was more contracted, or, in other words, he was forced to +adhere the more scrupulously to general rules the less capable he was of +descending to special and individual exceptions. What conclusion could +we draw from these principles but that Philip II. could not possibly +have any higher object of his solicitude than uniformity, both in +religion and in laws, because without these he could not reign? + +And yet he would have shown more mildness and forbearance in his +government if he had entered upon it earlier. In the judgment which is +usually formed of this prince one circumstance does not appear to be +sufficiently considered in the history of his mind and heart, which, +however, in all fairness, ought to be duly weighed. Philip counted +nearly thirty years when he ascended the Spanish throne, and the early +maturity of his understanding had anticipated the period of his +majority. A mind like his, conscious of its powers, and only too early +acquainted with his high expectations, could not brook the yoke of +childish subjection in which he stood; the superior genius of the +father, and the absolute authority of the autocrat, must have weighed +heavily on the self-satisfied pride of such a son. The share which the +former allowed him in the government of the empire was just important +enough to disengage his mind from petty passions and to confirm the +austere gravity of his character, but also meagre enough to kindle a +fiercer longing for unlimited power. When he actually became possessed +of uncontrolled authority it had lost the charm of novelty. The sweet +intoxication of a young monarch in the sudden and early possession of +supreme power; that joyous tumult of emotions which opens the soul to +every softer sentiment, and to which humanity has owed so many of the +most valuable and the most prized of its institutions; this pleasing +moment had for him long passed by, or had never existed. His character +was already hardened when fortune put him to this severe test, and his +settled principles withstood the collision of occasional emotion. He had +had time, during fifteen years, to prepare himself for the change; and +instead of youthful dallying with the external symbols of his new +station, or of losing the morning of his government in the intoxication +of an idle vanity, he remained composed and serious enough to enter at +once on the full possession of his power so as to revenge himself +through the most extensive employment of it for its having been so long +withheld from him. + + + + + THE TRIBUNAL OF THE INQUISITION + +Philip II. no sooner saw himself, through the peace of Chateau-Cambray, +in undisturbed enjoyment of his immense territory than he turned his +whole attention to the great work of purifying religion, and verified +the fears of his Netherlandish subjects. The ordinances which his +father had caused to be promulgated against heretics were renewed in all +their rigor, and terrible tribunals, to whom nothing but the name of +inquisition was wanting, were appointed to watch over their execution. +But his plan appeared to him scarcely more than half-fulfilled so long +as he could not transplant into these countries the Spanish Inquisition +in its perfect form--a design in which the Emperor had already suffered +shipwreck. + +The Spanish Inquisition is an institution of a new and peculiar kind, +which finds no prototype in the whole course of time, and admits of +comparison with no ecclesiastical or civil tribunal. Inquisition had +existed from the time when reason meddled with what is holy, and from +the very commencement of scepticism and innovation; but it was in the +middle of the thirteenth century, after some examples of apostasy had +alarmed the hierarchy, that Innocent III. first erected for it a +peculiar tribunal, and separated, in an unnatural manner, ecclesiastical +superintendence and instruction from its judicial and retributive +office. In order to be the more sure that no human sensibilities or +natural tenderness should thwart the stern severity of its statutes, he +took it out of the hands of the bishops and secular clergy, who, by the +ties of civil life, were still too much attached to humanity for his +purpose, and consigned it to those of the monks, a half-denaturalized +race of beings who had abjured the sacred feelings, of nature, and were +the servile tools of the Roman See. The Inquisition was received in +Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France; a Franciscan monk sat as +judge in the terrible court, which passed sentence on the Templars. A +few states succeeded either in totally excluding or else in subjecting +it to civil authority. The Netherlands had remained free from it until +the government of Charles V.; their bishops exercised the spiritual +censorship, and in extraordinary cases reference was made to foreign +courts of inquisition; by the French provinces to that of Paris, by the +Germans to that of Cologne. + +But the Inquisition which we are here speaking of came from the west of +Europe, and was of a different origin and form. The last Moorish throne +in Granada had fallen in the fifteenth century, and the false faith of +the Saracens had finally succumbed before the fortunes of Christianity. +But the gospel was still new, and but imperfectly established in this +youngest of Christian kingdoms, and in the confused mixture of +heterogeneous laws and manners the religions had become mixed. It is +true the sword of persecution had driven many thousand families to +Africa, but a far larger portion, detained by the love of climate and +home, purchased remission from this dreadful necessity by a show of +conversion, and continued at Christian altars to serve Mohammed and +Moses. So long as prayers were offered towards Mecca, Granada was not +subdued; so long as the new Christian, in the retirement of his house, +became again a Jew or a Moslem, he was as little secured to the throne +as to the Romish See. It was no longer deemed sufficient to compel a +perverse people to adopt the exterior forms of a new faith, or to wed it +to the victorious church by the weak bands of ceremonials; the object +now was to extirpate the roots of an old religion, and to subdue an +obstinate bias which, by the slow operation of centuries, had been +implanted in their manners, their language, and their laws, and by the +enduring influence of a paternal soil and sky was still maintained in +its full extent and vigor. + +If the church wished to triumph completely over the opposing worship, +and to secure her new conquest beyond all chance of relapse, it was +indispensable that she should undermine the foundation itself on which +the old religion was built. It was necessary to break to pieces the +entire form of moral character to which it was so closely and intimately +attached. It was requisite to loosen its secret roots from the hold +they had taken in. the innermost depths of the soul; to extinguish all +traces of it, both in domestic life and in the civil world; to cause all +recollection of it to perish; and, if possible, to destroy the very +susceptibility for its impressions. Country and family, conscience and +honor, the sacred feelings of society and of nature, are ever the first +and immediate ties to which religion attaches itself; from these it +derives while it imparts strength. This connection was now to be +dissolved; the old religion was violently to be dissevered from the holy +feelings of nature, even at the expense of the sanctity itself of these +emotions. Thus arose that Inquisition which, to distinguish it from the +more humane tribunals of the same name, we usually call the Spanish. +Its founder was Cardinal Ximenes, a Dominican monk. Torquemada was the +first who ascended its bloody throne, who established its statutes, and +forever cursed his order with this bequest. Sworn to the degradation of +the understanding and the murder of intellect, the instruments it +employed were terror and infamy. Every evil passion was in its pay; its +snare was set in every joy of life. Solitude itself was not safe from +it; the fear of its omnipresence fettered the freedom of the soul in its +inmost and deepest recesses. It prostrated all the instincts of human +nature before it yielded all the ties which otherwise man held most +sacred. A heretic forfeited all claims upon his race; the most trivial +infidelity to his mother church divested him of the rights of his +nature. A modest doubt in the infallibility of the pope met with the +punishment of parricide and the infamy of sodomy; its sentences +resembled the frightful corruption of the plague, which turns the most +healthy body into rapid putrefaction. Even the inanimate things +belonging to a heretic were accursed. No destiny could snatch the +victim of the Inquisition from its sentence. Its decrees were carried +in force on corpses and on pictures, and the grave itself was no asylum +from its tremendous arm. The presumptuous arrogance of its decrees +could only be surpassed by the inhumanity which executed them. By +coupling the ludicrous with the terrible, and by amusing the eye with +the strangeness of its processions, it weakened compassion by the +gratification of another feeling; it drowned sympathy in derision and +contempt. The delinquent was conducted with solemn pomp to the place of +execution, a blood-red flag was displayed before him, the universal +clang of all the bells accompanied the procession. First came the +priests, in the robes of the Mass and singing a sacred hymn; next +followed the condemned sinner, clothed in a yellow vest, covered with +figures of black devils. On his head he wore a paper cap, surmounted by +a human figure, around which played lambent flames of fire, and ghastly +demons flitted. The image of the crucified Saviour was carried before, +but turned away from the eternally condemned sinner, for whom salvation +was no longer available. His mortal body belonged to the material fire, +his immortal soul to the flames of bell. A gag closed his mouth, and +prevented him from alleviating his pain by lamentations, from awakening +compassion by his affecting tale, and from divulging the secrets of the +holy tribunal. He was followed by the clergy in festive robes, by the +magistrates, and the nobility; the fathers who had been his judges +closed the awful procession. It seemed like a solemn funeral +procession, but on looking for the corpse on its way to the grave, +behold! it was a living body whose groans are now to afford such +shuddering entertainment to the people. The executions were generally +held on the high festivals, for which a number of such unfortunate +sufferers were reserved in the prisons of the holy house, in order to +enhance the rejoicing by the multitude of the victims, and on these +occasions the king himself was usually present. He sat with uncovered +head, on a lower chair than that of the Grand Inquisitor, to whom, on +such occasions, he yielded precedence; who, then, would not tremble +before a tribunal at which majesty must humble itself? + +The great revolution in the church accomplished by Luther and Calvin +renewed the causes to which this tribunal owed its first origin; and +that which, at its commencement, was invented to clear the petty kingdom +of Granada from the feeble remnant of Saracens and Jews was now required +for the whole of Christendom. All the Inquisitions in Portugal, Italy, +Germany, and France adopted the form of the Spanish; it followed +Europeans to the Indies, and established in Goa a fearful tribunal, +whose inhuman proceedings make us shudder even at the bare recital. +Wherever it planted its foot devastation followed; but in no part of the +world did it rage so violently as in Spain. The victims are forgotten +whom it immolated; the human race renews itself, and the lands, too, +flourish again which it has devastated and depopulated by its fury; but +centuries will elapse before its traces disappear from the Spanish +character. A generous and enlightened nation has been stopped by it on +its road to perfection; it has banished genius from a region where it +was indigenous, and a stillness like that which hangs over the grave has +been left in the mind of a people who, beyond most others of our world, +were framed for happiness and enjoyment. + +The first Inquisitor in Brabant was appointed by Charles V. in the year +1522. Some priests were associated with him as coadjutors; but he +himself was a layman. After the death of Adrian VI., his successor, +Clement VII., appointed three Inquisitors for all the Netherlands; and +Paul III. again reduced them to two, which number continued until the +commencement of the troubles. In the year 1530, with the aid and +approbation of the states, the edicts against heretics were promulgated, +which formed the foundation of all that followed, and in which, also, +express mention is made of the Inquisition. In the year 1550, in +consequence of the rapid increase of sects, Charles V. was under the +necessity of reviving and enforcing these edicts, and it was on this +occasion that the town of Antwerp opposed the establishment of the +Inquisition, and obtained an exemption from its jurisdiction. But the +spirit of the Inquisition in the Netherlands, in accordance with the +genius of the country, was more humane than in Spain, and as yet had +never been administered by a foreigner, much less by a Dominican. The +edicts which were known to everybody served it as the rule of its +decisions. On this very account it was less obnoxious; because, however +severe its sentence, it did not appear a tool of arbitrary power, and it +did not, like the Spanish Inquisition, veil itself in secrecy. + +Philip, however, was desirous of introducing the latter tribunal into +the Netherlands, since it appeared to him the instrument best adapted to +destroy the spirit of this people, and to prepare them for a despotic +government. He began, therefore, by increasing the rigor of the +religious ordinances of his father; by gradually extending the power of +the inquisitors; by making the proceedings more arbitrary, and more +independent of the civil jurisdiction. The tribunal soon wanted little +more than the name and the Dominicans to resemble in every point the +Spanish Inquisition. Bare suspicion was enough to snatch a citizen from +the bosom of public tranquillity, and from his domestic circle; and the +weakest evidence was a sufficient justification for the use of the rack. +Whoever fell into its abyss returned no more to the world. All the +benefits of the laws ceased for him; the maternal care of justice no +longer noticed him; beyond the pale of his former world malice and +stupidity judged him according to laws which were never intended for +man. The delinquent never knew his accuser, and very seldom his crime, +--a flagitious, devilish artifice which constrained the unhappy victim +to guess at his error, and in the delirium of the rack, or in the +weariness of a long living interment, to acknowledge transgressions +which, perhaps, had never been committed, or at least had never come +to the knowledge of his judges. The goods of the condemned were +confiscated, and the informer encouraged by letters of grace and +rewards. No privilege, no civil jurisdiction was valid against the holy +power; the secular arm lost forever all whom that power had once +touched. Its only share in the judicial duties of the latter was to +execute its sentences with humble submissiveness. The consequences of +such an institution were, of necessity, unnatural and horrible; the +whole temporal happiness, the life itself, of an innocent man was at +the mercy of any worthless fellow. Every secret enemy, every envious +person, had now the perilous temptation of an unseen and unfailing +revenge. The security of property, the sincerity of intercourse were +gone; all the ties of interest were dissolved; all of blood and of +affection were irreparably broken. An infectious distrust envenomed +social life; the dreaded presence of a spy terrified the eye from +seeing, and choked the voice in the midst of utterance. No one believed +in the existence of an honest man, or passed for one himself. Good +name, the ties of country, brotherhood, even oaths, and all that man +holds sacred, were fallen in estimation. Such was the destiny to which +a great and flourishing commercial town was subjected, where one hundred +thousand industrious men had been brought together by the single tie of +mutual confidence,--every one indispensable to his neighbor, yet every +one distrusted and distrustful,--all attracted by the spirit of gain, +and repelled from each other by fear,--all the props of society torn +away, where social union was the basis of all life and all existence. + + + + + OTHER ENCROACHMENTS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NETHERLANDS. + +No wonder if so unnatural a tribunal, which had proved intolerable even +to the more submissive spirit of the Spaniard, drove a free state to +rebellion. But the terror which it inspired was increased by the +Spanish troops, which, even after the restoration of peace, were kept in +the country, and, in violation of the constitution, garrisoned border +towns. Charles V. had been forgiven for this introduction of foreign +troops so long as the necessity of it was evident, and his good +intentions were less distrusted. But now men saw in these troops only +the alarming preparations of oppression and the instruments of a +detested hierarchy. Moreover, a considerable body of cavalry, composed +of natives, and fully adequate for the protection of the country, made +these foreigners superfluous. The licentiousness and rapacity, too, +of the Spaniards, whose pay was long in arrear, and who indemnified +themselves at the expense of the citizens, completed the exasperation of +the people, and drove the lower orders to despair. Subsequently, when +the general murmur induced the government to move them from the +frontiers and transport them into the islands of Zealand, where ships +were prepared for their deportation, their excesses were carried to such +a pitch that the inhabitants left off working at the embankments, and +preferred to abandon their native country to the fury of the sea rather +than to submit any longer to the wanton brutality of these lawless +bands. + +Philip, indeed, would have wished to retain these Spaniards in the +country, in order by their presence to give weight to his edicts, +and to support the innovations which he had resolved to make in the +constitution of the Netherlands. He regarded them as a guarantee for +the submission of the nation and as a chain by which he held it captive. +Accordingly, he left no expedient untried to evade the persevering +importunity of the states, who demanded the withdrawal of these troops; +and for this end he exhausted all the resources of chicanery and +persuasion. At one time he pretended to dread a sudden invasion by +France, although, torn by furious factions, that country could scarce +support itself against a domestic enemy; at another time they were, he +said, to receive his son, Don Carlos, on the frontiers; whom, however, +he never intended should leave Castile. Their maintenance should not be +a burden to the nation; he himself would disburse all their expenses +from his private purse. In order to detain them with the more +appearance of reason he purposely kept back from them their arrears of +pay; for otherwise he would assuredly have preferred them to the troops +of the country, whose demands he fully satisfied. To lull the fears of +the nation, and to appease the general discontent, he offered the chief +command of these troops to the two favorites of the people, the Prince +of Orange and Count Egmont. Both, however, declined his offer, with the +noble-minded declaration that they could never make up their minds to +serve contrary to the laws of the country. The more desire the king +showed to have his Spaniards in the country the more obstinately the +states insisted on their removal. In the following Diet at Ghent he was +compelled, in the very midst of his courtiers, to listen to republican +truth. "Why are foreign hands needed for our defence?" demanded the +Syndic of Ghent. "Is it that the rest of the world should consider us +too stupid, or too cowardly, to protect ourselves? Why have we made +peace if the burdens of war are still to oppress us? In war necessity +enforced endurance; in peace our patience is exhausted by its burdens. +Or shall we be able to keep in order these licentious bands which thine +own presence could not restrain? Here, Cambray and Antwerp cry for +redress; there, Thionville and Marienburg lie waste; and, surely, thou +hast not bestowed upon us peace that our cities should become deserts, +as they necessarily must if thou freest them not from these destroyers? +Perhaps then art anxious to guard against surprise from our neighbors? +This precaution is wise; but the report of their preparations will long +outrun their hostilities. Why incur a heavy expense to engage +foreigners who will not care for a country which they must leave +to-morrow? Hast thou not still at thy command the same brave +Netherlanders to whom thy father entrusted the republic in far more +troubled times? Why shouldest thou now doubt their loyalty, which, to +thy ancestors, they have preserved for so many centuries inviolate? +Will not they be sufficient to sustain the war long enough to give time +to thy confederates to join their banners, or to thyself to send succor +from the neighboring country?" This language was too new to the king, +and its truth too obvious for him to be able at once to reply to it. +"I, also, am a foreigner," he at length exclaimed, "and they would like, +I suppose, to expel me from the country!" At the same time he descended +from the throne, and left the assembly; but the speaker was pardoned for +his boldness. Two days afterwards he sent a message to the states that +if he had been apprised earlier that these troops were a burden to them +he would have immediately made preparation to remove them with himself +to Spain. Now it was too late, for they would not depart unpaid; but he +pledged them his most sacred promise that they should not be oppressed +with this burden more than four months. Nevertheless, the troops +remained in this country eighteen months instead of four; and would not, +perhaps, even then have left it so soon if the exigencies of the state +had not made their presence indispensable in another part of the world. + +The illegal appointment of foreigners to the most important offices of +the country afforded further occasion of complaint against the +government. Of all the privileges of the provinces none was so +obnoxious to the Spaniards as that which excluded strangers from office, +and none they had so zealously sought to abrogate. Italy, the two +Indies, and all the provinces of this vast Empire, were indeed open to +their rapacity and ambition; but from the richest of them all an +inexorable fundamental law excluded them. They artfully persuaded their +sovereign that his power in these countries would never be firmly +established so long as he could not employ foreigners as his +instruments. The Bishop of Arras, a Burgundian by birth, had already +been illegally forced upon the Flemings; and now the Count of Feria, a +Castilian, was to receive a seat and voice in the council of state. But +this attempt met with a bolder resistance than the king's flatterers had +led him to expect, and his despotic omnipotence was this time wrecked by +the politic measures of William of Orange and the firmness of the +states. + + + + + WILLIAM OF ORANGE AND COUNT EGMONT. + +By such measures, did Philip usher in his government of the Netherlands, +and such were the grievances of the nation when he was preparing to +leave them. He had long been impatient to quit a country where he was a +stranger, where there was so much that opposed his secret wishes, and +where his despotic mind found such undaunted monitors to remind him of +the laws of freedom. The peace with France at last rendered a longer +stay unnecessary; the armaments of Soliman required his presence in the +south, and the Spaniards also began to miss their long-absent king. The +choice of a supreme Stadtholder for the Netherlands was the principal +matter which still detained him. Emanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, had +filled this place since the resignation of Mary, Queen of Hungary, +which, however, so long as the king himself was present, conferred more +honor than real influence. His absence would make it the most important +office in the monarchy, and the most splendid aim for the ambition of a +subject. It had now become vacant through the departure of the duke, +whom the peace of Chateau-Cambray had restored to his dominions. The +almost unlimited power with which the supreme Statholder would be +entrusted, the capacity and experience which so extensive and delicate +an appointment required, but, especially, the daring designs which the +government had in contemplation against the freedom of the country, the +execution of which would devolve on him, necessarily embarrassed the +choice. The law, which excluded all foreigners from office, made an +exception in the case of the supreme Stadtholder. As he could not be at +the same time a native of all the provinces, it was allowable for him +not to belong to any one of them; for the jealousy of the man of Brabant +would concede no greater right to a Fleming, whose home was half a mile +from his frontier, than to a Sicilian, who lived in another soil and +under a different sky. But here the interests of the crown itself +seemed to favor the appointment of a native. A Brabanter, for instance, +who enjoyed the full confidence of his countrymen if he were a traitor +would have half accomplished his treason before a foreign governor could +have overcome the mistrust with which his most insignificant measures +would be watched. If the government should succeed in carrying through +its designs in one province, the opposition of the rest would then be a +temerity, which it would be justified in punishing in the severest +manner. In the common whole which the provinces now formed their +individual constitutions were, in a measure, destroyed; the obedience of +one would be a law for all, and the privilege, which one knew not how to +preserve, was lost for the rest. + +Among the Flemish nobles who could lay claim to the Chief +Stadtholdership, the expectations and wishes of the nation were divided +between Count Egmont and the Prince of Orange, who were alike qualified +for this high dignity by illustrious birth and personal merits, and by +an equal share in the affections of the people. Their high rank placed +them both near to the throne, and if the choice of the monarch was to +rest on the worthiest it must necessarily fall upon one of these two. +As, in the course of our history, we shall often have occasion to +mention both names, the reader cannot be too early made acquainted with +their characters. + +William I., Prince of Orange, was descended from the princely German +house of Nassau, which had already flourished eight centuries, had long +disputed the preeminence with Austria, and had given one Emperor to +Germany. Besides several extensive domains in the Netherlands, which +made him a citizen of this republic and a vassal of the Spanish +monarchy, he possessed also in France the independent princedom of +Orange. William was born in the year 1533, at Dillenburg, in the +country of Nassau, of a Countess Stolberg. His father, the Count of +Nassau, of the same name, had embraced the Protestant religion, and +caused his son also to be educated in it; but Charles V., who early +formed an attachment for the boy, took him when quite young to his +court, and had him brought up in the Romish church. This monarch, who +already in the child discovered the future greatness of the man, kept +him nine years about his person, thought him worthy of his personal +instruction in the affairs of government, and honored him with a +confidence beyond his years. He alone was permitted to remain in the +Emperor's presence when he gave audience to foreign ambassadors--a proof +that, even as a boy, he had already begun to merit the surname of the +Silent. The Emperor was not ashamed even to confess openly, on one +occasion, that this young man had often made suggestions which would +have escaped his own sagacity. What expectations might not be formed of +the intellect of a man who was disciplined in such a school. + +William was twenty-three years old when Charles abdicated the +government, and had already received from the latter two public marks of +the highest esteem. The Emperor had entrusted to him, in preference to +all the nobles of his court, the honorable office of conveying to his +brother Ferdinand the imperial crown. When the Duke of Savoy, who +commanded the imperial army in the Netherlands, was called away to Italy +by the exigency of his domestic affairs, the Emperor appointed him +commander-in-chief against the united representations of his military +council, who declared it altogether hazardous to oppose so young a tyro +in arms to the experienced generals of France. Absent, and +unrecommended by any, he was preferred by the monarch to the +laurel-crowned band of his heroes, and the result gave him no cause +to repent of his choice. + +The marked favor which the prince had enjoyed with the father was in +itself a sufficient ground for his exclusion from the confidence of the +son. Philip, it appears, had laid it down for himself as a rule to +avenge the wrongs of the Spanish nobility for the preference which +Charles V. had on all important occasions shown to his Flemish nobles. +Still stronger, however, were the secret motives which alienated him +from the prince. William of Orange was one of those lean and pale men +who, according to Caesar's words, "sleep not at night, and think too +much," and before whom the most fearless spirits quail. + +The calm tranquillity of a never-varying countenance concealed a busy, +ardent soul, which never ruffled even the veil behind which it worked, +and was alike inaccessible to artifice and love; a versatile, +formidable, indefatigable mind, soft, and ductile enough to be +instantaneously moulded into all forms; guarded enough to lose itself in +none; and strong enough to endure every vicissitude of fortune. A +greater master in reading and in winning men's hearts never existed than +William. Not that, after the fashion of courts, his lips avowed a +servility to which his proud heart gave the lie; but because he was +neither too sparing nor too lavish of the marks of his esteem, and +through a skilful economy of the favors which mostly bind men, he +increased his real stock in them. The fruits of his meditation were as +perfect as they were slowly formed; his resolves were as steadily and +indomitably accomplished as they were long in maturing. No obstacles +could defeat the plan which he had once adopted as the best; no +accidents frustrated it, for they all had been foreseen before they +actually occurred. High as his feelings were raised above terror and +joy, they were, nevertheless, subject in the same degree to fear; but +his fear was earlier than the danger, and he was calm in tumult because +he had trembled in repose. William lavished his gold with a profuse +hand, but he was a niggard of his movements. The hours of repast were +the sole hours of relaxation, but these were exclusively devoted to his +heart, his family, and his friends; this the modest deduction he allowed +himself from the cares of his country. Here his brow was cleared with +wine, seasoned by temperance and a cheerful disposition; and no serious +cares were permitted to enter this recess of enjoyment. His household +was magnificent; the splendor of a numerous retinue, the number and +respectability of those who surrounded his person, made his habitation +resemble the court of a sovereign prince. A sumptuous hospitality, that +master-spell of demagogues, was the goddess of his palace. Foreign +princes and ambassadors found here a fitting reception and +entertainment, which surpassed all that luxurious Belgium could +elsewhere offer. A humble submissiveness to the government bought off +the blame and suspicion which this munificence might have thrown on his +intentions. But this liberality secured for him the affections of the +people, whom nothing gratified so much as to see the riches of their +country displayed before admiring foreigners, and the high pinnacle of +fortune on which he stood enhanced the value of the courtesy to which he +condescended. No one, probably, was better fitted by nature for the +leader of a conspiracy than William the Silent. A comprehensive and +intuitive glance into the past, the present, and the future; the talent +for improving every favorable opportunity; a commanding influence over +the minds of men, vast schemes which only when viewed from a distance +show form and symmetry; and bold calculations which were wound up in the +long chain of futurity; all these faculties he possessed, and kept, +moreover, under the control of that free and enlightened virtue which +moves with firm step even on the very edge of the abyss. + +A man like this might at other times have remained unfathomed by his +whole generation; but not so by the distrustful spirit of the age in +which he lived. Philip II. saw quickly and deeply into a character +which, among good ones, most resembled his own. If he had not seen +through him so clearly his distrust of a man, in whom were united nearly +all the qualities which he prized highest and could best appreciate, +would be quite inexplicable. But William had another and still more +important point of contact with Philip II. He had learned his policy +from the same master, and had become, it was to be feared, a more apt +scholar. Not by making Machiavelli's 'Prince' his study, but by having +enjoyed the living instruction of a monarch who reduced the book to +practice, had he become versed in the perilous arts by which thrones +rise and fall. In him Philip had to deal with an antagonist who was +armed against his policy, and who in a good cause could also command the +resources of a bad one. And it was exactly this last circumstance which +accounts for his having hated this man so implacably above all others of +his day, and his having had so supernatural a dread of him. + +The suspicion which already attached to the prince was increased by the +doubts which were entertained of his religious bias. So long as the +Emperor, his benefactor, lived, William believed in the pope; but it was +feared, with good ground, that the predilection for the reformed +religion, which had been imparted into his young heart, had never +entirely left it. Whatever church he may at certain periods of his life +have preferred each might console itself with the reflection that none +other possessed him more entirely. In later years he went over to +Calvinism with almost as little scruple as in his early childhood he +deserted the Lutheran profession for the Romish. He defended the rights +of the Protestants rather than their opinions against Spanish +oppression; not their faith, but their wrongs, had made him their +brother. + +These general grounds for suspicion appeared to be justified by a +discovery of his real intentions which accident had made. William had +remained in France as hostage for the peace of Chateau-Cambray, in +concluding which he had borne a part; and here, through the imprudence +of Henry II., who imagined he spoke with a confidant of the King of +Spain, he became acquainted with a secret plot which the French and +Spanish courts had formed against Protestants of both kingdoms. The +prince hastened to communicate this important discovery to his friends +in Brussels, whom it so nearly concerned, and the letters which he +exchanged on the subject fell, unfortunately, into the hands of the King +of Spain. Philip was less surprised at this decisive disclosure of +William's sentiments than incensed at the disappointment of his scheme; +and the Spanish nobles, who had never forgiven the prince that moment, +when in the last act of his life the greatest of Emperors leaned upon +his shoulders, did not neglect this favorable opportunity of finally +ruining, in the good opinion of their king, the betrayer of a state +secret. + +Of a lineage no less noble than that of William was Lamoral, Count +Egmont and Prince of Gavre, a descendant of the Dukes of Gueldres, whose +martial courage had wearied out the arms of Austria. His family was +highly distinguished in the annals of the country; one of his ancestors, +had, under Maximilian, already filled the office of Stadtholder over +Holland. Egmont's marriage with the Duchess Sabina of Bavaria reflected +additional lustre on the splendor of his birth, and made him powerful +through the greatness of this alliance. Charles V. had, in the year +1516, conferred on him at Utrecht the order of the Golden Fleece; the +wars of this Emperor were the school of his military genius, and the +battle of St. Quentin and Gravelines made him the hero of his age. +Every blessing of peace, for which a commercial people feel most +grateful, brought to mind the remembrance of the victory by which it was +accelerated, and Flemish pride, like a fond mother, exulted over the +illustrious son of their country, who had filled all Europe with +admiration. Nine children who grew up under the eyes of their +fellow-citizens, multiplied and drew closer the ties between him and his +fatherland, and the people's grateful affection for the father was kept +alive by the sight of those who were dearest to him. Every appearance +of Egmont in public was a triumphal procession; every eye which was +fastened upon him recounted his history; his deeds lived in the plaudits +of his companions-in-arms; at the games of chivalry mothers pointed him +out to their children. Affability, a noble and courteous demeanor, the +amiable virtues of chivalry, adorned and graced his merits. His liberal +soul shone forth on his open brow; his frank-heartedness managed his +secrets no better than his benevolence did his estate, and a thought was +no sooner his than it was the property of all. His religion was gentle +and humane, but not very enlightened, because it derived its light from +the heart and not from, his understanding. Egmont possessed more of +conscience than of fixed principles; his head had not given him a code +of its own, but had merely learnt it by rote; the mere name of any +action, therefore, was often with him sufficient for its condemnation. +In his judgment men were wholly bad or wholly good, and had not +something bad or something good; in this system of morals there was no +middle term between vice and virtue; and consequently a single good +trait often decided his opinion of men. Egmont united all the eminent +qualities which form the hero; he was a better soldier than the Prince +of Orange, but far inferior to him as a statesman; the latter saw the +world as it really was; Egmont viewed it in the magic mirror of an +imagination that embellished all that it reflected. Men, whom fortune +has surprised with a reward for which they can find no adequate ground +in their actions, are, for the most part, very apt to forget the +necessary connection between cause and effect, and to insert in the +natural consequences of things a higher miraculous power to which, as +Caesar to his fortune, they at last insanely trust. Such a character +was Egmont. Intoxicated with the idea of his own merits, which the love +and gratitude of his fellow-citizens had exaggerated, he staggered on in +this sweet reverie as in a delightful world of dreams. He feared not, +because he trusted to the deceitful pledge which destiny had given him +of her favor, in the general love of the people; and he believed in its +justice because he himself was prosperous. Even the most terrible +experience of Spanish perfidy could not afterwards eradicate this +confidence from his soul, and on the scaffold itself his latest feeling +was hope. A tender fear for his family kept his patriotic courage +fettered by lower duties. Because he trembled for property and life he +could not venture much for the republic. William of Orange broke with +the throne because its arbitrary power was offensive to his pride; +Egmont was vain, and therefore valued the favors of the monarch. The +former was a citizen of the world; Egmont had never been more than a +Fleming. + +Philip II. still stood indebted to the hero of St. Quentin, and the +supreme stadtholdership of the Netherlands appeared the only appropriate +reward for such great services. Birth and high station, the voice of +the nation and personal abilities, spoke as loudly for Egmont as for +Orange; and if the latter was to be passed by it seemed that the former +alone could supplant him. + +Two such competitors, so equal in merit, might have embarrassed Philip +in his choice if he had ever seriously thought of selecting either of +them for the appointment. But the pre-eminent qualities by which they +supported their claim to this office were the very cause of their +rejection; and it was precisely the ardent desire of the nation for +their election to it that irrevocably annulled their title to the +appointment. Philip's purpose would not be answered by a stadtholder in +the Netherlands who could command the good-will and the energies of the +people. Egmont's descent from the Duke of Gueldres made him an +hereditary foe of the house of Spain, and it seemed impolitic to place +the supreme power in the hands of a man to whom the idea might occur of +revenging on the son of the oppressor the oppression of his ancestor. +The slight put on their favorites could give no just offence either to +the nation or to themselves, for it might be pretended that the king +passed over both because he would not show a preference to either. + +The disappointment of his hopes of gaining the regency did not deprive +the Prince of Orange of all expectation of establishing more firmly his +influence in the Netherlands. Among the other candidates for this +office was also Christina, Duchess of Lorraine, and aunt of the king, +who, as mediatrix of the peace of Chateau-Cambray, had rendered +important service to the crown. William aimed at the hand of her +daughter, and he hoped to promote his suit by actively interposing his +good offices for the mother; but he did not reflect that through this +very intercession he ruined her cause. The Duchess Christina was +rejected, not so much for the reason alleged, namely, the dependence of +her territories on France made her an object of suspicion to the Spanish +court, as because she was acceptable to the people of the Netherlands +and the Prince of Orange. + + + + + MARGARET OF PARMA REGENT OF THE NETHERLANDS. + +While the general expectation was on the stretch as to whom the fature +destines of the provinces would be committed, there appeared on the +frontiers of the country the Duchess Margaret of Parma, having been +summoned by the king from Italy to assume the government. + +Margaret was a natural daughter of Charles V. and of a noble Flemish +lady named Vangeest, and born in 1522. + +Out of regard for the honor of her mother's house she was at first +educated in obscurity; but her mother, who possessed more vanity than +honor, was not very anxious to preserve the secret of her origin, and a +princely education betrayed the daughter of the Emperor. While yet a +child she was entrusted to the Regent Margaret, her great-aunt, to be +brought up at Brussels under her eye. This guardian she lost in her +eighth year, and the care of her education devolved on Queen Mary of +Hungary, the successor of Margaret in the regency. Her father had +already affianced her, while yet in her fourth year, to a Prince of +Ferrara; but this alliance being subsequently dissolved, she was +betrothed to Alexander de Medicis, the new Duke of Florence, which +marriage was, after the victorious return of the Emperor from Africa, +actually consummated in Naples. In the first year of this unfortunate +union, a violent death removed from her a husband who could not love +her, and for the third time her hand was disposed of to serve the policy +of her father. Octavius Farnese, a prince of thirteen years of age and +nephew of Paul III., obtained, with her person, the Duchies of Parma and +Piacenza as her portion. Thus, by a strange destiny, Margaret at the +age of maturity was contracted to a boy, as in the years of infancy she +had been sold to a man. Her disposition, which was anything but +feminine, made this last alliance still more unnatural, for her taste +and inclinations were masculine, and the whole tenor of her life belied +her sex. After the example of her instructress, the Queen of Hungary, +and her great-aunt, the Duchess Mary of Burgundy, who met her death in +this favorite sport, she was passionately fond of hunting, and had +acquired in this pursuit such bodily vigor that few men were better able +to undergo its hardships and fatigues. + +Her gait itself was so devoid of grace that one was far more tempted to +take her for a disguised man than for a masculine woman; and Nature, +whom she had derided by thus transgressing the limits of her sex, +revenged itself finally upon her by a disease peculiar to men--the gout. + +These unusual qualities were crowned by a monkish superstition which was +infused into her mind by Ignatius Loyola, her confessor and teacher. +Among the charitable works and penances with which she mortified her +vanity, one of the most remarkable was that, during Passion-Week she +yearly washed, with her own hands, the feet of a number of poor men (who +were most strictly forbidden to cleanse themselves beforehand), waited +on them at table like a servant, and sent them away with rich presents. + +Nothing more is requisite than this last feature in her character to +account for the preference which the king gave her over all her rivals; +but his choice was at the same time justified by excellent reasons of +state. Margaret was born and also educated in the Netherlands. She had +spent her early youth among the people, and had acquired much of their +national manners. Two regents (Duchess Margaret and Queen Mary of +Hungary), under whose eyes she had grown up, had gradually initiated her +into the maxims by which this peculiar people might be most easily +governed; and they would also serve her as models. She did not want +either in talents; and possessed, moreover, a particular turn for +business, which she had acquired from her instructors, and had +afterwards carried to greater perfection in the Italian school. The +Netherlands had been for a number of years accustomed to female +government; and Philip hoped, perhaps, that the sharp iron of tyranny +which he was about to use against them would cut more gently if wielded +by the hands of a woman. Some regard for his father, who at the time +was still living, and was much attached to Margaret, may have in a +measure, as it is asserted, influenced this choice; as it is also +probable that the king wished to oblige the Duke of Parma, through this +mark of attention to his wife, and thus to compensate for denying a +request which he was just then compelled to refuse him. As the +territories of the duchess were surrounded by Philip's Italian states, +and at all times exposed to his arms, he could, with the less danger, +entrust the supreme power into her hands. For his full security her +son, Alexander Farnese, was to remain at his court as a pledge for her +loyalty. All these reasons were alone sufficiently weighty to turn the +king's decision in her favor; but they became irresistible when +supported by the Bishop of Arras and the Duke of Alva. The latter, as +it appears, because he hated or envied all the other competitors, the +former, because even then, in all probability, he anticipated from the +wavering disposition of this princess abundant gratification for his +ambition. + +Philip received the new regent on the frontiers with a splendid cortege, +and conducted her with magnificent pomp to Ghent, where the States +General had been convoked. As he did not intend to return soon to the +Netherlands, he desired, before he left them, to gratify the nation for +once by holding a solemn Diet, and thus giving a solemn sanction and the +force of law to his previous regulations. For the last time he showed +himself to his Netherlandish people, whose destinies were from +henceforth to be dispensed from a mysterious distance. To enhance the +splendor of this solemn day, Philip invested eleven knights with the +Order of the Golden Fleece, his sister being seated on a chair near +himself, while he showed her to the nation as their future ruler. All +the grievances of the people, touching the edicts, the Inquisition, the +detention of the Spanish troops, the taxes, and the illegal introduction +of foreigners into the offices and administration of the country were +brought forward in this Diet, and were hotly discussed by both parties; +some of them were skilfully evaded, or apparently removed, others +arbitrarily repelled. As the king was unacquainted with the language of +the country, he addressed the nation through the mouth of the Bishop of +Arras, recounted to them with vain-glorious ostentation all the benefits +of his government, assured them of his favor for the future, and once +more recommended to the estates in the most earnest manner the +preservation of the Catholic faith and the extirpation of heresy. +The Spanish troops, he promised, should in a few months evacuate the +Netherlands, if only they would allow him time to recover from the +numerous burdens of the last war, in order that he might be enabled to +collect the means for paying the arrears of these troops; the +fundamental laws of the nation should remain inviolate, the imposts +should not be grievously burdensome, and the Inquisition should +administer its duties with justice and moderation. In the choice of a +supreme Stadtholder, he added, he had especially consulted the wishes of +the nation, and had decided for a native of the country, who had been +brought up in their manners and customs, and was attached to them by a +love to her native land. He exhorted them, therefore, to show their +gratitude by honoring his choice, and obeying his sister, the duchess, +as himself. Should, he concluded, unexpected obstacles oppose his +return, he would send in his place his son, Prince Charles, who should +reside in Brussels. + +A few members of this assembly, more courageous than the rest, once more +ventured on a final effort for liberty of conscience. Every people, +they argued, ought to be treated according to their natural character, +as every individual must in accordance to his bodily constitution. +Thus, for example, the south may be considered happy under a certain +degree of constraint which would press intolerably on the north. Never, +they added, would the Flemings consent to a yoke under which, perhaps, +the Spaniards bowed with patience, and rather than submit to it would +they undergo any extremity if it was sought to force such a yoke upon +them. This remonstrance was supported by some of the king's +counsellors, who strongly urged the policy of mitigating the rigor of +religious edicts. But Philip remained inexorable. Better not reign at +all, was his answer, than reign over heretics! + +According to an arrangement already made by Charles V., three councils +or chambers were added to the regent, to assist her in the +administration of state affairs. As long as Philip was himself present +in the Netherlands these courts had lost much of their power, and the +functions of the first of them, the state council, were almost entirely +suspended. Now that he quitted the reins of government, they recovered +their former importance. In the state council, which was to deliberate +upon war and peace, and security against external foes, sat the Bishop +of Arras, the Prince of Orange, Count Egmont, the President of the Privy +Council, Viglius Van Zuichem Van Aytta, and the Count of Barlaimont, +President of the Chamber of Finance. All knights of the Golden Fleece, +all privy counsellors and counsellors of finance, as also the members of +the great senate at Malines, which had been subjected by Charles V. to +the Privy Council in Brussels, had a seat and vote in the Council of +State, if expressly invited by the regent. The management of the royal +revenues and crown lands was vested in the Chamber of Finance, and the +Privy Council was occupied with the administration of justice, and the +civil regulation of the country, and issued all letters of grace and +pardon. The governments of the provinces which had fallen vacant were +either filled up afresh or the former governors were confirmed. Count +Egmont received Flanders and Artois; the Prince of Orange, Holland, +Zealand, Utrecht, and West Friesland; the Count of Aremberg, East +Friesland, Overyssel, and Groningen; the Count of Mansfeld, Luxemburg; +Barlaimont, Namur; the Marquis of Bergen, Hainault, Chateau-Cambray, and +Valenciennes; the Baron of Montigny, Tournay and its dependencies. +Other provinces were given to some who have less claim to our attention. +Philip of Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, who had been succeeded by the +Count of Megen in the government of Gueldres and Ziitphen, was confirmed +as admiral of the Belgian navy. Every governor of a province was at the +same time a knight of the Golden Fleece and member of the Council of +State. Each had, in the province over which he presided, the command of +the military force which protected it, the superintendence of the civil +administration and the judicature; the governor of Flanders alone +excepted, who was not allowed to interfere with the administration of +justice. Brabant alone was placed under the immediate jurisdiction of +the regent, who, according to custom, chose Brussels for her constant +residence. The induction of the Prince of Orange into his governments +was, properly speaking, an infraction of the constitution, since he was +a foreigner; but several estates which he either himself possessed in +the provinces, or managed as guardian of his son, his long residence in +the country, and above all the unlimited confidence the nation reposed +in him, gave him substantial claims in default of a real title of +citizenship. + +The military force of the Low Countries consisted, in its full +complement, of three thousand horse. At present it did not much exceed +two thousand, and was divided into fourteen squadrons, over which, +besides the governors of the provinces, the Duke of Arschot, the Counts +of Hoogstraten, Bossu, Roeux, and Brederode held the chief command. +This cavalry, which was scattered through all the seventeen provinces, +was only to be called out on sudden emergencies. Insufficient as it was +for any great undertaking, it was, nevertheless, fully adequate for the +maintenance of internal order. Its courage had been approved in former +wars, and the fame of its valor was diffused through the whole of +Europe. In addition to this cavalry it was also proposed to levy a body +of infantry, but hitherto the states had refused their consent to it. +Of foreign troops there were still some German regiments in the service, +which were waiting for their pay. The four thousand Spaniards, +respecting whom so many complaints had been made, were under two Spanish +generals, Mendoza and Romero, and were in garrison in the frontier +towns. + +Among the Belgian nobles whom the king especially distinguished in these +new appointments, the names of Count Egmont and William of Orange stand +conspicuous. However inveterate his hatred was of both, and +particularly of the latter, Philip nevertheless gave them these public +marks of his favor, because his scheme of vengeance was not yet fully +ripe, and the people were enthusiastic in their devotion to them. The +estates of both were declared exempt from taxes, the most lucrative +governments were entrusted to them, and by offering them the command of +the Spaniards whom he left behind in the country the king flattered them +with a confidence which he was very far from really reposing in them. +But at the very time when he obliged the prince with these public marks +of his esteem he privately inflicted the most cruel injury on him. +Apprehensive lest an alliance with the powerful house of Lorraine might +encourage this suspected vassal to bolder measures, he thwarted the +negotiation for a marriage between him and a princess of that family, +and crushed his hopes on the very eve of their accomplishment,--an +injury which the prince never forgave. Nay, his hatred to the prince on +one occasion even got completely the better of his natural +dissimulation, and seduced him into a step in which we entirely lose +sight of Philip II. When he was about to embark at Flushing, and the +nobles of the country attended him to the shore, he so far forgot +himself as roughly to accost the prince, and openly to accuse him of +being the author of the Flemish troubles. The prince answered +temperately that what had happened had been done by the provinces of +their own suggestion and on legitimate grounds. No, said Philip, +seizing his hated, and shaking it violently, not the provinces, but You! +You! You! The prince stood mute with astonishment, and without waiting +for the king's embarkation, wished him a safe journey, and went back to +the town. + +Thus the enmity which William had long harbored in his breast against +the oppressor of a free people was now rendered irreconcilable by +private hatred; and this double incentive accelerated the great +enterprise which tore from the Spanish crown seven of its brightest +jewels. + +Philip had greatly deviated from his true character in taking so +gracious a leave of the Netherlands. The legal form of a diet, his +promise to remove the Spaniards from the frontiers, the consideration of +the popular wishes, which had led him to fill the most important offices +of the country with the favorites of the people, and, finally, the +sacrifice which he made to the constitution in withdrawing the Count of +Feria from the council of state, were marks of condescension of which +his magnanimity was never again guilty. But in fact he never stood in +greater need of the good-will of the states, that with their aid he +might, if possible, clear off the great burden of debt which was still +attached to the Netherlands from the former war. He hoped, therefore, +by propitiating them through smaller sacrifices to win approval of more +important usurpations. He marked his departure with grace, for he knew +in what hands he left them. The frightful scenes of death which he +intended for this unhappy people were not to stain the splendor of +majesty which, like the Godhead, marks its course only with beneficence; +that terrible distinction was reserved for his representatives. The +establishment of the council of state was, however, intended rather to +flatter the vanity of the Belgian nobility than to impart to them any +real influence. The historian Strada (who drew his information with +regard to the regent from her own papers) has preserved a few articles +of the secret instructions which the Spanish ministry gave her. Amongst +other things it is there stated if she observed that the councils were +divided by factions, or, what would be far worse, prepared by private +conferences before the session, and in league with one another, then she +was to prorogue all the chambers and dispose arbitrarily of the disputed +articles in a more select council or committee. In this select +committee, which was called the Consulta, sat the Archbishop of Arras, +the President Viglius, and the Count of Barlaimont. She was to act in +the same manner if emergent cases required a prompt decision. Had this +arrangement not been the work of an arbitrary despotism it would perhaps +have been justified by sound policy, and republican liberty itself might +have tolerated it. In great assemblies where many private interests and +passions co-operate, where a numerous audience presents so great a +temptation to the vanity of the orator, and parties often assail one +another with unmannerly warmth, a decree can seldom be passed with that +sobriety and mature deliberation which, if the members are properly +selected, a smaller body readily admits of. In a numerous body of men, +too, there is, we must suppose, a greater number of limited than of +enlightened intellects, who through their equal right of vote frequently +turn the majority on the side of ignorance. A second maxim which the +regent was especially to observe, was to select the very members of +council who had voted against any decree to carry it into execution. +By this means not only would the people be kept in ignorance of the +originators of such a law, but the private quarrels also of the members +would be restrained, and a greater freedom insured in voting in +compliance with the wishes of the court. + +In spite of all these precautions Philip would never have been able to +leave the Netherlands with a quiet mind so long as he knew that the +chief power in the council of state, and the obedience of the provinces, +were in the hands of the suspected nobles. In order, therefore, to +appease his fears from this quarter, and also at the same time to assure +himself of the fidelity of the regent, be subjected her, and through her +all the affairs of the judicature, to the higher control of the Bishop +of Arras. In this single individual he possessed an adequate +counterpoise to the most dreaded cabal. To him, as to an infallible +oracle of majesty, the duchess was referred, and in him there watched a +stern supervisor of her administration. Among all his contemporaries +Granvella was the only one whom Philip II. appears to have excepted from +his universal distrust; as long as he knew that this man was in Brussels +he could sleep calmly in Segovia. He left the Netherlands in September, +1559, was saved from a storm which sank his fleet, and landed at Laredo +in Biscay, and in his gloomy joy thanked the Deity who had preserved him +by a detestable vow. In the hands of a priest and of a woman was placed +the dangerous helm of the Netherlands; and the dastardly tyrant escaped +in his oratory at Madrid the supplications, the complaints, and the +curses of the people. + + + + + + +BOOK II. + +CARDINAL GRANVELLA. + + +ANTHONY PERENOT, Bishop of Arras, subsequently Archbishop of Malines, +and Metropolitan of all the Netherlands, who, under the name of Cardinal +Granvella, has been immortalized by the hatred of his contemporaries, +was born in the year 1516, at Besancon in Burgundy. His father, +Nicolaus Perenot, the son of a blacksmith, had risen by his own merits +to be the private secretary of Margaret, Duchess of Savoy, at that time +regent of the Netherlands. In this post he was noticed for his habits +of business by Charles V., who took him into his own service and +employed him in several important negotiations. For twenty years he was +a member of the Emperor's cabinet, and filled the offices of privy +counsellor and keeper of the king's seal, and shared in all the state +secrets of that monarch. He acquired a large fortune. His honors, +his influence, and his political knowledge were inherited by his son, +Anthony Perenot, who in his early years gave proofs of the great +capacity which subsequently opened to him so distinguished a career. +Anthony had cultivated at several colleges the talents with which nature +had so lavishly endowed him, and in some respects had an advantage over +his father. He soon showed that his own abilities were sufficient to +maintain the advantageous position which the merits of another had +procured him. He was twenty-four years old when the Emperor sent him as +his plenipotentiary to the ecclesiastical council of Trent, where he +delivered the first specimen of that eloquence which in the sequel gave +him so complete an ascendancy over two kings. Charles employed him in +several difficult embassies, the duties of which he fulfilled to the +satisfaction of his sovereign, and when finally that Emperor resigned +the sceptre to his son he made that costly present complete by giving +him a minister who could help him to wield it. + +Granvella opened his new career at once with the greatest masterpiece of +political genius, in passing so easily from the favor of such a father +into equal consideration with such a son. And he soon proved himself +deserving of it. At the secret negotiations of which the Duchess of +Lorraine had, in 1558, been the medium between the French and Spanish +ministers at Peronne, he planned, conjointly with the Cardinal of +Lorraine, that conspiracy against the Protestants which was afterwards +matured, but also betrayed, at Chateau-Cambray, where Perenot likewise +assisted in effecting the so-called peace. + +A deeply penetrating, comprehensive intellect, an unusual facility in +conducting great and intricate affairs, and the most extensive learning, +were wonderfully united in this man with persevering industry and +never-wearying patience, while his enterprising genius was associated +with thoughtful mechanical regularity. Day and night the state found him +vigilant and collected; the most important and the most insignificant +things were alike weighed by him with scrupulous attention. Not +unfrequently he employed five secretaries at one time, dictating to them +in different languages, of which he is said to have spoken seven. What +his penetrating mind had slowly matured acquired in his lips both force +and grace, and truth, set forth by his persuasive eloquence, irresistibly +carried away all hearers. He was tempted by none of the passions which +make slaves of most men. His integrity was incorruptible. With shrewd +penetration he saw through the disposition of his master, and could read +in his features his whole train of thought, and, as it were, the +approaching form in the shadow which outran it. With an artifice rich in +resources he came to the aid of Philip's more inactive mind, formed into +perfect thought his master's crude ideas while they yet hung on his lips, +and liberally allowed him the glory of the invention. Granvella +understood the difficult and useful art of depreciating his own talents; +of making his own genius the seeming slave of another; thus he ruled +while he concealed his sway. In this manner only could Philip II. be +governed. Content with a silent but real power, Granvella did not grasp +insatiably at new and outward marks of it, which with lesser minds are +ever the most coveted objects; but every new distinction seemed to sit +upon him as easily as the oldest. No wonder if such extraordinary +endowments had alone gained him the favor of his master; but a large and +valuable treasure of political secrets and experiences, which the active +life of Charles V. had accumulated, and had deposited in the mind of this +man, made him indispensable to his successor. Self-sufficient as the +latter was, and accustomeded to confide in his own understanding, his +timid and crouching policy was fain to lean on a superior mind, and to +aid its own irresolution not only by precedent but also by the influence +and example of another. No political matter which concerned the royal +interest, even when Philip himself was in the Netherlands, was decided +without the intervention of Granvella; and when the king embarked for +Spain he made the new regent the same valuable present of the minister +which he himself had received from the Emperor, his father. + +Common as it is for despotic princes to bestow unlimited confidence on +the creatures whom they have raised from the dust, and of whose +greatness they themselves are, in a measure, the creators, the present +is no ordinary instance; pre-eminent must have been the qualities which +could so far conquer the selfish reserve of such a character as Philip's +as to gain his confidence, nay, even to win him into familiarity. The +slightest ebullition of the most allowable self-respect, which might +have tempted him to assert, however slightly, his claim to any idea +which the king had once ennobled as his own, would have cost him his +whole influence. He might gratify without restraint the lowest passions +of voluptuousness, of rapacity, and of revenge, but the only one in +which he really took delight, the sweet consciousness of his own +superiority and power, he was constrained carefully to conceal from the +suspicious glance of the despot. He voluntarily disclaimed all the +eminent qualities, which were already his own, in order, as it were, to +receive them a second time from the generosity of the king. His +happiness seemed to flow from no other source, no other person could +have a claim upon his gratitude. The purple, which was sent to him from +Rome, was not assumed until the royal permission reached him from Spain; +by laying it down on the steps of the throne he appeared, in a measure, +to receive it first from the hands of majesty. Less politic, Alva +erected a trophy in Antwerp, and inscribed his own name under the +victory, which he had won as the servant of the crown--but Alva carried +with him to the grave the displeasure of his master. He had invaded +with audacious hand the royal prerogative by drawing immediately at the +fountain of immortality. + +Three times Granvella changed his master, and three times he succeeded +in rising to the highest favor. With the same facility with which he +had guided the settled pride of an autocrat, and the sly egotism of a +despot, he knew how to manage the delicate vanity of a woman. His +business between himself and the regent, even when they were in the same +house, was, for the most part, transacted by the medium of notes, a +custom which draws its date from the times of Augustus and Tiberius. +When the regent was in any perplexity these notes were interchanged from +hour to hour. He probably adopted this expedient in the hope of eluding +the watchful jealousy of the nobility, and concealing from them, in part +at least, his influence over the regent. Perhaps, too, he also believed +that by this means his advice would become more permanent; and, in case +of need, this written testimony would be at hand to shield him from +blame. But the vigilance of the nobles made this caution vain, and it +was soon known in all the provinces that nothing was determined upon +without the minister's advice. + +Granvella possessed all the qualities requisite for a perfect statesman +in a monarchy governed by despotic principles, but was absolutely +unqualified for republics which are governed by kings. Educated between +the throne and the confessional, he knew of no other relation between +man and man than that of rule and subjection; and the innate +consciousness of his own superiority gave him a contempt for others. +His policy wanted pliability, the only virtue which was here +indispensable to its success. He was naturally overbearing and +insolent, and the royal authority only gave arms to the natural +impetuosity of his disposition and the imperiousness of his order. He +veiled his own ambition beneath the interests of the crown, and made the +breach between the nation and the king incurable, because it would +render him indispensable to the latter. He revenged on the nobility the +lowliness of his own origin; and, after the fashion of all those who +have risen by their own merits, he valued the advantages of birth below +those by which he had raised himself to distinction. The Protestants +saw in him their most implacable foe; to his charge were laid all the +burdens which oppressed the country, and they pressed the more heavily +because they came from him. Nay, he was even accused of having brought +back to severity the milder sentiments to which the urgent remonstrances +of the provinces had at last disposed the monarch. The Netherlands +execrated him as the most terrible enemy of their liberties, and the +originator of all the misery which subsequently came upon them. + + +1559. Philip had evidently left the provinces too soon. The new +measures of the government were still strange to the people, and could +receive sanction and authority from his presence alone; the new machines +which he had brought into play required to be kept in motion by a +dreaded and powerful hand, and to have their first movements watched and +regulated. He now exposed his minister to all the angry passions of the +people, who no longer felt restrained by the fetters of the royal +presence; and he delegated to the weak arm of a subject the execution of +projects in which majesty itself, with all its powerful supports, might +have failed. + +The land, indeed, flourished; and a general prosperity appeared to +testify to the blessings of the peace which had so lately been bestowed +upon it. An external repose deceived the eye, for within raged all the +elements of discord. If the foundations of religion totter in a country +they totter not alone; the audacity which begins with things sacred ends +with things profane. The successful attack upon the hierarchy had +awakened a spirit of boldness, and a desire to assail authority in +general, and to test laws as well as dogmas--duties as well as opinions. +The fanatical boldness with which men had learned to discuss and decide +upon the affairs of eternity might change its subject matter; the +contempt for life and property which religious enthusiasm had taught +could metamorphose timid citizens into foolhardy rebels. A female +government of nearly forty years had given the nation room to assert +their liberty; continual wars, of which the Netherlands had been the +theatre, had introduced a license with them, and the right of the +stronger had usurped the place of law and order. The provinces were +filled with foreign adventurers and fugitives; generally men bound by no +ties of country, family, or property, who had brought with them from +their unhappy homes the seeds of insubordination and rebellion. The +repeated spectacles of torture and of death had rudely burst the +tenderer threads of moral feeling, and had given an unnatural harshness +to the national character. + +Still the rebellion would have crouched timorously and silently on the +ground if it had not found a support in the nobility. Charles V. had +spoiled the Flemish nobles of the Netherlands by making them the +participators of his glory, by fostering their national pride, by the +marked preference he showed for them over the Castilian nobles, and by +opening an arena to their ambition in every part of his empire. In the +late war with France they had really deserved this preference from +Philip; the advantages which the king reaped from the peace of +Chateau-Cambray were for the most part the fruits of their valor, and +they now sensibly missed the gratitude on which they had so confidently +reckoned. Moreover, the separation of the German empire from the Spanish +monarchy, and the less warlike spirit of the new government, had greatly +narrowed their sphere of action, and, except in their own country, little +remained for them to gain. And Philip now appointed his Spaniards where +Charles V. had employed the Flemings. All the passions which the +preceding government had raised and kept employed still survived in +peace; and in default of a legitimate object these unruly feelings found, +unfortunately, ample scope in the grievances of their country. +Accordingly, the claims and wrongs which had been long supplanted by new +passions were now drawn from oblivion. By his late appointments the king +had satisfied no party; for those even who obtained offices were not much +more content than those who were entirely passed over, because they had +calculated on something better than they got. William of Orange had +received four governments (not to reckon some smaller dependencies which, +taken together, were equivalent to a fifth), but William had nourished +hopes of Flanders and Brabant. He and Count Egmont forgot what had really +fallen to their share, and only remembered that they had lost the +regency. The majority of the nobles were either plunged into debt by +their own extravagance, or had willingly enough been drawn into it by the +government. Now that they were excluded from the prospect of lucrative +appointments, they at once saw themselves exposed to poverty, which +pained them the more sensibly when they contrasted the splendor of the +affluent citizens with their own necessities. In the extremities to which +they were reduced many would have readily assisted in the commission even +of crimes; how then could they resist the seductive offers of the +Calvinists, who liberally repaid them for their intercession and +protection? Lastly, many whose estates were past redemption placed their +last hope in a general devastation, and stood prepared at the first +favorable moment to cast the torch of discord into the republic. + +This threatening aspect of the public mind was rendered still more +alarming by the unfortunate vicinity of France. What Philip dreaded for +the provinces was there already accomplished. The fate of that kingdom +prefigured to him the destiny of his Netherlands, and the spirit of +rebellion found there a seductive example. A similar state of things +had under Francis I. and Henry II. scattered the seeds of innovation in +that kingdom; a similar fury of persecution and a like spirit of faction +had encouraged its growth. Now Huguenots and Catholics were struggling +in a dubious contest; furious parties disorganized the whole monarchy, +and were violently hurrying this once-powerful state to the brink of +destruction. Here, as there, private interest, ambition, and party +feeling might veil themselves under the names of religion and +patriotism, and the passions of a few citizens drive the entire nation +to take up arms. The frontiers of both countries merged in Walloon +Flanders; the rebellion might, like an agitated sea, cast its waves as +far as this: would a country be closed against it whose language, +manners, and character wavered between those of France and Belgium? As +yet the government had taken no census of its Protestant subjects in +these countries, but the new sect, it was aware, was a vast, compact +republic, which extended its roots through all the monarchies of +Christendom, and the slighest disturbance in any of its most distant +members vibrated to its centre. It was, as it were, a chain of +threatening volcanoes, which, united by subterraneous passages, ignite +at the same moment with alarming sympathy. The Netherlands were, +necessarily, open to all nations, because they derived their support +from all. Was it possible for Philip to close a commercial state as +easily as he could Spain? If he wished to purify these provinces from +heresy it was necessary for him to commence by extirpating it in France. + +It was in this state that Granvella found the Netherlands at the +beginning of his administration (1560). + +To restore to these countries the uniformity of papistry, to break the +co-ordinate power of the nobility and the states, and to exalt the royal +authority on the ruins of republican freedom, was the great object of +Spanish policy and the express commission of the new minister. But +obstacles stood in the way of its accomplishment; to conquer these +demanded the invention of new resources, the application of new +machinery. The Inquisition, indeed, and the religious edicts appeared +sufficient to check the contagion of heresy; but the latter required +superintendence, and the former able instruments for its now extended +jurisdiction. The church constitution continued the same as it had been +in earlier times, when the provinces were less populous, when the church +still enjoyed universal repose, and could be more easily overlooked and +controlled. A succession of several centuries, which changed the whole +interior form of the provinces, had left the form of the hierarchy +unaltered, which, moreover, was protected from the arbitrary will of its +ruler by the particular privileges of the provinces. All the seventeen +provinces were parcelled out under four bishops, who had their seats at +Arras, Tournay, Cambray, and Utrecht, and were subject to the primates +of Rheims and Cologne. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, had, indeed, +meditated an increase in the number of bishops to meet the wants of the +increasing population; but, unfortunately, in the excitement of a life +of pleasure had abandoned the project. Ambition and lust of conquest +withdrew the mind of Charles the Bold from the internal concerns of his +kingdom, and Maximilian had already too many subjects of dispute with +the states to venture to add to their number by proposing this change. +A stormy reign prevented Charles V. from the execution of this extensive +plan, which Philip II. now undertook as a bequest from all these +princes. The moment had now arrived when the urgent necessities of the +church would excuse the innovation, and the leisure of peace favored its +accomplishment. With the prodigious crowd of people from all the +countries of Europe who were crowded together in the towns of the +Netherlands, a multitude of religious opinions had also grown up; and it +was impossible that religion could any longer be effectually +superintended by so few eyes as were formerly sufficient. While the +number of bishops was so small their districts must, of necessity, have +been proportionally extensive, and four men could not be adequate to +maintain the purity of the faith through so wide a district. + +The jurisdiction which the Archbishops of Cologne and Rheims exercised +over the Netherlands had long been a stumbling-block to the government, +which could not look on this territory as really its own property so +long as such an important branch of power was still wielded by foreign +hands. To snatch this prerogative from the alien archbishops; by new +and active agents to give fresh life and vigor to the superintendence of +the faith, and at the same time to strengthen the number of the +partisans of government at the diet, no more effectual means could be +devised than to increase the number of bishops. Resolved upon doing +this Philip II. ascended the throne; but he soon found that a change in +the hierarchy would inevitably meet with warm opposition from the +provinces, without whose consent, nevertheless, it would be vain to +attempt it. Philip foresaw that the nobility would never approve of a +measure which would so strongly augment the royal party, and take from +the aristocracy the preponderance of power in the diet. The revenues, +too, for the maintenance of these new bishops must be diverted from the +abbots and monks, and these formed a considerable part of the states of +the realm. He had, besides, to fear the opposition of the Protestants, +who would not fail to act secretly in the diet against him. On these +accounts the whole affair was discussed at Rome with the greatest +possible secrecy. Instructed by, and as the agent of, Granvella, +Francis Sonnoi, a priest of Louvain, came before Paul IV. to inform him +how extensive the provinces were, how thriving and populous, how +luxurious in their prosperity. But, he continued, in the immoderate +enjoyment of liberty the true faith is neglected, and heretics prosper. +To obviate this evil the Romish See must have recourse to extraordinary +measures. It was not difficult to prevail on the Romish pontiff to make +a change which would enlarge the sphere of his own jurisdiction. + +Paul IV. appointed a tribunal of seven cardinals to deliberate upon this +important matter; but death called him away, and he left to his +successor, Pius IV., the duty of carrying their advice into execution. +The welcome tidings of the pope's determination reached the king in +Zealand when he was just on the point of setting sail for Spain, and the +minister was secretly charged with the dangerous reform. The new +constitution of the hierarchy was published in 1560; in addition to the +then existing four bishoprics thirteen new ones were established, +according to the number of seventeen provinces, and four of them were +raised into archbishoprics. Six of these episcopal sees, viz., in +Antwerp, Herzogenbusch, Ghent, Bruges, Ypres, and Ruremonde, were placed +under the Archbishopric of Malines; five others, Haarlem, Middelburg, +Leuwarden, Deventer, and Groningen, under the Archbishopric of Utrecht; +and the remaining four, Arras, Tournay, St. Omer, and Namur, which lie +nearest to France, and have language, character, and manners in common +with that country, under the Archbishopric of Cambray. Malines, +situated in the middle of Brabant and in the centre of all the seventeen +provinces, was made the primacy of all the rest, and was, with several +rich abbeys, the reward of Granvella. The revenues of the new +bishoprics were provided by an appropriation of the treasures of the +cloisters and abbeys which had accumulated from pious benefactions +during centuries. Some of the abbots were raised to the episcopal +throne, and with the possession of their cloisters and prelacies +retained also the vote at the diet which was attached to them. At the +same time to every bishopric nine prebends were attached, and bestowed +on the most learned juris-consultists and theologians, who were to +support the Inquisition and the bishop in his spiritual office. Of +these, the two who were most deserving by knowledge, experience, and +unblemished life were to be constituted actual inquisitors, and to have +the first voice in the Synods. To the Archbishop of Malines, as +metropolitan of all the seventeen provinces, the full authority was +given to appoint, or at discretion depose, archbishops and bishops; and +the Romish See was only to give its ratification to his acts. + +At any other period the nation would have received with gratitude and +approved of such a measure of church reform since it was fully called +for by circumstances, was conducive to the interests of religion, and +absolutely indispensable for the moral reformation of the monkhood. Now +the temper of the times saw in it nothing but a hateful change. +Universal was the indignation with which it was received. A cry was +raised that the constitution was trampled under foot, the rights of the +nation violated, and that the Inquisition was already at the door, and +would soon open here, as in Spain, its bloody tribunal. The people +beheld with dismay these new servants of arbitrary power and of +persecution. The nobility saw in it nothing but a strengthening of the +royal authority by the addition of fourteen votes in the states' +assembly, and a withdrawal of the firmest prop of their freedom, the +balance of the royal and the civil power. The old bishops complained of +the diminution of their incomes and the circumscription of their sees; +the abbots and monks had not only lost power and income, but had +received in exchange rigid censors of their morals. Noble and simple, +laity and clergy, united against the common foe, and while all singly +struggled for some petty private interest, the cry appeared to come from +the formidable voice of patriotism. + +Among all the provinces Brabant was loudest in its opposition. The +inviolability of its church constitution was one of the important +privileges which it had reserved in the remarkable charter of the +"Joyful Entry,"--statutes which the sovereign could not violate without +releasing the nation from its allegiance to him. In vain did the +university of Louvain assert that in disturbed times of the church a +privilege lost its power which had been granted in the period of its +tranquillity. The introduction of the new bishoprics into the +constitution was thought to shake the whole fabric of liberty. The +prelacies, which were now transferred to the bishops, must henceforth +serve another rule than the advantage of the province of whose states +they had been members. The once free patriotic citizens were to be +instruments of the Romish See and obedient tools of the archbishop, who +again, as first prelate of Brabant, had the immediate control over them. +The freedom of voting was gone, because the bishops, as servile spies of +the crown, made every one fearful. "Who," it was asked, "will after +this venture to raise his voice in parliament before such observers, or +in their presence dare to protect the rights of the nation against the +rapacious hands of the government? They will trace out the resources of +the provinces, and betray to the crown the secrets of our freedom and +our property. They will obstruct the way to all offices of honor; we +shall soon see the courtiers of the king succeed the present men; the +children of foreigners will, for the future, fill the parliament, and +the private interest of their patron will guide their venal votes." +"What an act of oppression," rejoined the monks, "to pervert to other +objects the pious designs of our holy institutions, to contemn the +inviolable wishes of the dead, and to take that which a devout charity +had deposited in our chests for the relief of the unfortunate and make +it subservient to the luxury of the bishops, thus inflating their +arrogant pomp with the plunder of the poor?" Not only the abbots and +monks, who really did suffer by this act of appropriation, but every +family which could flatter itself with the slightest hope of enjoying, +at some time or other, even in the most remote posterity, the benefit of +this monastic foundation, felt this disappointment of their distant +expectations as much as if they had suffered an actual injury, and the +wrongs of a few abbot-prelates became the concern of a whole nation. + +Historians have not omitted to record the covert proceedings of William +of Orange during this general commotion, who labored to conduct to one +end these various and conflicting passions. At his instigation the +people of Brabant petitioned the regent for an advocate and protector, +since they alone, of all his Flemish subjects, had the misfortune to +unite, in one and the same person, their counsel and their ruler. Had +the demand been granted, their choice could fall on no other than the +Prince of Orange. But Granvella, with his usual presence of mind, broke +through the snare. "The man who receives this office," he declared in +the state council, "will, I hope, see that he divides Brabant with the +king!" The long delay of the papal bull, which was kept back by a +misunderstanding between the Romish and Spanish courts, gave the +disaffected an opportunity to combine for a common object. In perfect +secrecy the states of Brabant despatched an extraordinary messenger to +Pins IV. to urge their wishes in Rome itself. The ambassador was +provided with important letters of recommendation from the Prince of +Orange, and carried with him considerable sums to pave his way to the +father of the church. At the same time a public letter was forwarded +from the city of Antwerp to the King of Spain containing the most urgent +representations, and supplicating him to spare that flourishing +commercial town from the threatened innovation. They knew, it was +stated, that the intentions of the monarch were the best, and that the +institution of the new bishops was likely to be highly conducive to the +maintenance of true religion; but the foreigners could not be convinced +of this, and on them depended the prosperity of their town. Among them +the most groundless rumors would be as perilous as the most true. The +first embassy was discovered in time, and its object disappointed by the +prudence of the regent; by the second the town of Antwerp gained so far +its point that it was to remain without a bishop, at least until the +personal arrival of the king, which was talked of. + +The example and success of Antwerp gave the signal of opposition to all +the other towns for which a new bishop was intended. It is a remarkable +proof of the hatred to the Inquisition and the unanimity of the Flemish +towns at this date that they preferred to renounce all the advantages +which the residence of a bishop would necessarily bring to their local +trade rather than by their consent promote that abhorred tribunal, and +thus act in opposition to the interests of the whole nation. Deventer, +Ruremond, and Leuwarden placed themselves in determined opposition, and +(1561) successfully carried their point; in the other towns the bishops +were, in spite of all remonstrances, forcibly inducted. Utrecht, +Haarlem, St. Omer, and Middelburg were among the first which opened +their gates to them; the remaining towns followed their example; but in +Malines and Herzogenbusch the bishops were received with very little +respect. When Granvella made his solemn entry into the former town not +a single nobleman showed himself, and his triumph was wanting in +everything that could make it real, because those remained away over +whom it was meant to be celebrated. + +In the meantime, too, the period had elapsed within which the Spanish +troops were to have left the country, and as yet there was no appearance +of their being withdrawn. People perceived with terror the real cause +of the delay, and suspicion lent it a fatal connection with the +Inquisition. The detention of these troops, as it rendered the nation +more vigilant and distrustful, made it more difficult for the minister +to proceed with the other innovations, and yet he would fain not deprive +himself of this powerful and apparently indispensable aid in a country +where all hated him, and in the execution of a commission to which all +were opposed. At last, however, the regent saw herself compelled by the +universal murmurs of discontent, to urge most earnestly upon the king +the necessity of the withdrawal of the troops. "The provinces," she +writes to Madrid, "have unanimously declared that they would never again +be induced to grant the extraordinary taxes required by the government +as long as word was not kept with them in this matter. The danger of a +revolt was far more imminent than that of an attack by the French +Protestants, and if a rebellion was to take place in the Netherlands +these forces would be too weak to repress it, and there was not +sufficient money in the treasury to enlist new." By delaying his answer +the king still sought at least to gain time, and the reiterated +representations of the regent would still have remained ineffectual, if, +fortunately for the provinces, a loss which he had lately suffered from +the Turks had not compelled him to employ these troops in the +Mediterranean. He, therefore, at last consented to their departure: +they were embarked in 1561 in Zealand, and the exulting shouts of all +the provinces accompanied their departure. + +Meanwhile Granvella ruled in the council of state almost uncontrolled. +All offices, secular and spiritual, were given away through him; his +opinion prevailed against the unanimous voice of the whole assembly. +The regent herself was governed by him. He had contrived to manage so +that her appointment was made out for two years only, and by this +expedient he kept her always in his power. It seldom happened that any +important affair was submitted to the other members, and if it really +did occur it was only such as had been long before decided, to which it +was only necessary for formality's sake to gain their sanction. +Whenever a royal letter was read Viglius received instructions to omit +all such passages as were underlined by the minister. It often happened +that this correspondence with Spain laid open the weakness of the +government, or the anxiety felt by the regent, with which it was not +expedient to inform the members, whose loyalty was distrusted. If again +it occurred that the opposition gained a majority over the minister, and +insisted with determination on an article which he could not well put +off any longer, he sent it to the ministry at Madrid for their decision, +by which he at least gained time, and in any case was certain to find +support.--With the exception of the Count of Barlaimont, the President +Viglius, and a few others, all the other counsellors were but +superfluous figures in the senate, and the minister's behavior to them +marked the small value which he placed upon their friendship and +adherence. No wonder that men whose pride had been so greatly indulged +by the flattering attentions of sovereign princes, and to whom, as to +the idols of their country, their fellow-citizens paid the most +reverential submission, should be highly indignant at this arrogance of +a plebeian. Many of them had been personally insulted by Granvella. + +The Prince of Orange was well aware that it was he who had prevented his +marriage with the Princess of Lorraine, and that he had also endeavored +to break off the negotiations for another alliance with the Princess of +Savoy. He had deprived Count Horn of the government of Gueldres and +Zutphen, and had kept for himself an abbey which Count Egmont had in +vain exerted himself to obtain for a relation. Confident of his +superior power, he did not even think it worth while to conceal from the +nobility his contempt for them, and which, as a rule, marked his whole +administration; William of Orange was the only one with whom he deemed +it advisable to dissemble. Although he really believed himself to be +raised far above all the laws of fear and decorum, still in this point, +however, his confident arrogance misled him, and he erred no less +against policy than he shined against propriety. In the existing +posture of affairs the government could hardly have adopted a worse +measure than that of throwing disrespect on the nobility. It had it in +its power to flatter the prejudices and feelings of the aristocracy, and +thus artfully and imperceptibly win them over to its plans, and through +them subvert the edifice of national liberty. Now it admonished them, +most inopportunely, of their duties, their dignity, and their power; +calling upon them even to be patriots, and to devote to the cause of +true greatness an ambition which hitherto it had inconsiderately +repelled. To carry into effect the ordinances it required the active +co-operation of the lieutenant-governors; no wonder, however, that the +latter showed but little zeal to afford this assistance. On the +contrary, it is highly probable that they silently labored to augment +the difficulties of the minister, and to subvert his measures, and +through his ill-success to diminish the king's confidence in him, and +expose his administration to contempt. The rapid progress which in +spite of those horrible edicts the Reformation made during Granvella's +administration in the Netherlands, is evidently to be ascribed to the +lukewarmness of the nobility in opposing it. If the minister had been +sure of the nobles he might have despised the fury of the mob, which +would have impotently dashed itself against the dreaded barriers of the +throne. The sufferings of the citizens lingered long in tears and +sighs, until the arts and the example of the nobility called forth a +louder expression of them. + +Meanwhile the inquisitions into religion were carried on with renewed +vigor by the crowd of new laborers (1561, 1562), and the edicts against +heretics were enforced with fearful obedience. But the critical moment +when this detestable remedy might have been applied was allowed to pass +by; the nation had become too strong and vigorous for such rough +treatment. The new religion could now be extirpated only by the death +of all its professors. The present executions were but so many alluring +exhibitions of its excellence, so many scenes of its triumphs and +radiant virtue. The heroic greatness with which the victims died made +converts to the opinions for which they perished. One martyr gained ten +new proselytes. Not in towns only, or villages, but on the very +highways, in the boats and public carriages disputes were held touching +the dignity of the pope, the saints, purgatory, and indulgences, and +sermons were preached and men converted. From the country and from the +towns the common people rushed in crowds to rescue the prisoners of the +Holy Tribunal from the hands of its satellites, and the municipal +officers who ventured to support it with the civil forces were pelted +with stones. Multitudes accompanied the Protestant preachers whom the +Inquisition pursued, bore them on their shoulders to and from church, +and at the risk of their lives concealed them from their persecutors. +The first province which was seized with the fanatical spirit of +rebellion was, as had been expected, Walloon Flanders. A French +Calvinist, by name Lannoi, set himself up in Tournay as a worker of +miracles, where he hired a few women to simulate diseases, and to +pretend to be cured by him. He preached in the woods near the town, +drew the people in great numbers after him, and scattered in their minds +the seeds of rebellion. Similar teachers appeared in Lille and +Valenciennes, but in the latter place the municipal functionaries +succeeded in seizing the persons of these incendiaries; while, however, +they delayed to execute them their followers increased so rapidly that +they became sufficiently strong to break open the prisons and forcibly +deprive justice of its victims. Troops at last were brought into the +town and order restored. But this trifling occurrence had for a moment +withdrawn the veil which had hitherto concealed the strength of the +Protestant party, and allowed the minister to compute their prodigious +numbers. In Tournay alone five thousand at one time had been seen +attending the sermons, and not many less in Valenciennes. What might +not be expected from the northern provinces, where liberty was greater, +and the seat of government more remote, and where the vicinity of +Germany and Denmark multiplied the sources of contagion? One slight +provocation had sufficed to draw from its concealment so formidable a +multitude. How much greater was, perhaps, the number of those who in +their hearts acknowledged the new sect, and only waited for a favorable +opportunity to publish their adhesion to it. This discovery greatly +alarmed the regent. The scanty obedience paid to the edicts, the wants +of the exhausted treasury, which compelled her to impose new taxes, and +the suspicious movements of the Huguenots on the French frontiers still +further increased her anxiety. At the same time she received a command +from Madrid to send off two thousand Flemish cavalry to the army of the +Queen Mother in France, who, in the distresses of the civil war, had +recourse to Philip II. for assistance. Every affair of faith, in +whatever land it might be, was made by Philip his own business. He felt +it as keenly as any catastrophe which could befall his own house, and in +such cases always stood ready to sacrifice his means to foreign +necessities. If it were interested motives that here swayed him they +were at least kingly and grand, and the bold support of his principles +wins our admiration as much as their cruelty withholds our esteem. + +The regent laid before the council of state the royal will on the +subject of these troops, but with a very warm opposition on the part of +the nobility. Count Egmont and the Prince of Orange declared that the +time was illchosen for stripping the Netherlands of troops, when the +aspect of affairs rendered rather the enlistment of new levies +advisable. The movements of the troops in France momentarily threatened +a surprise, and the commotions within the provinces demanded, more than +ever, the utmost vigilance on the part of the government. Hitherto, +they said, the German Protestants had looked idly on during the +struggles of their brethren in the faith; but will they continue to do +so, especially when we are lending our aid to strengthen their enemy? +By thus acting shall we not rouse their vengeance against us, and call +their arms into the northern Netherlands? Nearly the whole council of +state joined in this opinion; their representations were energetic and +not to be gainsaid. The regent herself, as well as the minister, could +not but feel their truth, and their own interests appeared to forbid +obedience to the royal mandate. Would it not be impolitic to withdraw +from the Inquisition its sole prop by removing the larger portion of the +army, and in a rebellious country to leave themselves without defence, +dependent on the arbitrary will of an arrogant aristocracy? While the +regent, divided between the royal commands, the urgent importunity of +her council, and her own fears, could not venture to come to a decision, +William of Orange rose and proposed the assembling of the States +General. But nothing could have inflicted a more fatal blow on the +supremacy of the crown than by yielding to this advice to put the nation +in mind of its power and its rights. No measure could be more hazardous +at the present moment. The danger which was thus gathering over the +minister did not escape him; a sign from him warned the regent to break +off the consultation and adjourn the council. "The government," he +writes to Madrid, "can do nothing more injurious to itself than to +consent to the assembling of the states. Such a step is at all times +perilous, because it tempts the nation to test and restrict the rights +of the crown; but it is many times more objectionable at the present +moment, when the spirit of rebellion is already widely spread amongst +us; when the abbots, exasperated at the loss of their income, will +neglect nothing to impair the dignity of the bishops; when the whole +nobility and all the deputies from the towns are led by the arts of the +Prince of Orange, and the disaffected can securely reckon on the +assistance of the nation." This representation, which at least was not +wanting in sound sense, did not fail in having the desired effect on the +king's mind. The assembling of the states was rejected once and +forever, the penal statutes against the heretics were renewed in all +their rigor, and the regent was directed to hasten the despatch of the +required auxiliaries. + +But to this the council of state would not consent. All that she +obtained was, instead of the troops, a supply of money for the Queen +Mother, which at this crisis was still more welcome to her. In place, +however, of assembling the states, and in order to beguile the nation +with, at least, the semblance of republican freedom, the regent summoned +the governors of the provinces and the knights of the Golden Fleece to a +special congress at Brussels, to consult on the present dangers and +necessities of the state. When the President, Viglius, had laid before +them the matters on which they were summoned to deliberate, three days +were given to them for consideration. During this time the Prince of +Orange assembled them in his palace, where he represented to them the +necessity of coming to some unanimous resolution before the next +sitting, and of agreeing on the measures which ought to be followed in +the present dangerous state of affairs. + +The majority assented to the propriety of this course; only Barlaimont, +with a few of the dependents of the cardinal, had the courage to plead +for the interests of the crown and of the minister. "It did not behoove +them," he said, "to interfere in the concerns of the government, and +this previous agreement of votes was an illegal and culpable assumption, +in the guilt of which he would not participate;"--a declaration which +broke up the meeting without any conclusion being come to. The regent, +apprised of it by the Count Barlaimont, artfully contrived to keep the +knights so well employed during their stay in the town that they could +find no time for coming to any further secret understanding; in this +session, however, it was arranged, with their concurrence, that Florence +of Montmorency, Lord of Montigny, should make a journey to Spain, in +order to acquaint the king with the present posture of affairs. But the +regent sent before him another messenger to Madrid, who previously +informed the king of all that had been debated between the Prince of +Orange and the knights at the secret conference. + +The Flemish ambassador was flattered in Madrid with empty protestations +of the king's favor and paternal sentiments towards the Netherlands, +while the regent was commanded to thwart, to the utmost of her power, +the secret combinations of the nobility, and, if possible, to sow +discord among their most eminent members. Jealousy, private interest, +and religious differences had long divided many of the nobles; their +share in the common neglect and contempt with which they were treated, +and a general hatred of the minister had again united them. So long as +Count Egmont and the Prince of Orange were suitors for the regency it +could not fail but that at times their competing claims should have +brought them into collision. Both had met each other on the road to +glory and before the throne; both again met in the republic, where they +strove for the same prize, the favor of their fellow-citizens. Such +opposite characters soon became estranged, but the powerful sympathy of +necessity as quickly reconciled them. Each was now indispensable to the +other, and the emergency united these two men together with a bond which +their hearts would never have furnished. But it was on this very +uncongeniality of disposition that the regent based her plans; if she +could fortunately succeed in separating them she would at the same time +divide the whole Flemish nobility into two parties. Through the +presents and small attentions by which she exclusively honored these +two she also sought to excite against them the envy and distrust of the +rest, and by appearing to give Count Egmont a preference over the Prince +of Orange she hoped to make the latter suspicious of Egmont's good +faith. It happened that at this very time she was obliged to send an +extraordinary ambassador to Frankfort, to be present at the election of +a Roman emperor. She chose for this office the Duke of Arschot, the +avowed enemy of the prince, in order in some degree to show in his case +how splendid was the reward which hatred against the latter might look +for. The Orange faction, however, instead of suffering any diminution, +had gained an important accession in Count Horn, who, as admiral of the +Flemish marine, had convoyed the king to Biscay, and now again took his +seat in the council of state. Horn's restless and republican spirit +readily met the daring schemes of Orange and Egmont, and a dangerous +Triumvirate was soon formed by these three friends, which shook the +royal power in the Netherlands, but which terminated very differently +for each of its members. + + +(1562.) Meanwhile Montigny had returned from his embassy, and brought +back to the council of state the most gracious assurance of the monarch. +But the Prince of Orange had, through his own secret channels of +intelligence, received more credible information from Madrid, which +entirely contradicted this report. By these means be learnt all the ill +services which Granvella had done him and his friends with the king, and +the odious appellations which were there applied to the Flemish +nobility. There was no help for them so long as the minister retained +the helm of government, and to procure his dismissal was the scheme, +however rash and adventurous it appeared, which wholly occupied the mind +of the prince. It was agreed between him and Counts Horn and Egmont to +despatch a joint letter to the king, and, in the name of the whole +nobility, formally to accuse the minister, and press energetically for +his removal. The Duke of Arschot, to whom this proposition was +communicated by Count Egmont, refused to concur in it, haughtily +declaring that he was not disposed to receive laws from Egmont and +Orange; that he had no cause of complaint against Granvella, and that he +thought it very presumptuous to prescribe to the king what ministers he +ought to employ. Orange received a similar answer from the Count of +Aremberg. Either the seeds of distrust which the regent had scattered +amongst the nobility had already taken root, or the fear of the +minister's power outweighed the abhorrence of his measures; at any rate, +the whole nobility shrunk back timidly and irresolutely from the +proposal. This disappointment did not, however, discourage them. The +letter was written and subscribed by all three (1563). + +In it Granvella was represented as the prime cause of all the disorders +in the Netherlands. So long as the highest power should be entrusted to +him it would, they declared, be impossible for them to serve the nation +and king effectually; on the other hand, all would revert to its former +tranquillity, all opposition be discontinued, and the government regain +the affections of the people as soon as his majesty should be pleased to +remove this man from the helm of the state. In that case, they added, +neither exertion nor zeal would be wanting on their part to maintain in +these countries the dignity of the king and the purity of the faith, +which was no less sacred to them than to the cardinal, Granvella. + +Secretly as this letter was prepared still the duchess was informed of +it in sufficient time to anticipate it by another despatch, and to +counteract the effect which it might have had on the king's mind. Some +months passed ere an answer came from Madrid. It was mild, but vague. +"The king," such was its import, "was not used to condemn his ministers +unheard on the mere accusations of their enemies. Common justice alone +required that the accusers of the cardinal should descend from general +imputations to special proofs, and if they were not inclined to do this +in writing, one of them might come to Spain, where he should be treated +with all respect." Besides this letter, which was equally directed to +all three, Count Egmont further received an autograph letter from the +king, wherein his majesty expressed a wish to learn from him in +particular what in the common letter had been only generally touched +upon. The regent, also, was specially instructed how she was to answer +the three collectively, and the count singly. The king knew his man. +He felt it was easy to manage Count Egmont alone; for this reason he +sought to entice him to Madrid, where he would be removed from the +commanding guidance of a higher intellect. In distinguishing him above +his two friends by so flattering a mark of his confidence, he made a +difference in the relation in which they severally stood to the throne; +how could they, then, unite with equal zeal for the same object when the +inducements were no longer the same? This time, indeed, the vigilance +of Orange frustrated the scheme; but the sequel of the history will show +that the seed which was now scattered was not altogether lost. + + +(1563.) The king's answer gave no satisfaction to the three +confederates; they boldly determined to venture a second attempt. "It +had," they wrote, "surprised them not a little, that his majesty had +thought their representations so unworthy of attention. It was not as +accusers of the minister, but as counsellors of his majesty, whose duty +it was to inform their master of the condition of his states, that they +had despatched that letter to him. They sought not the ruin of the +minister, indeed it would gratify them to see him contented and happy in +any other part of the world than here in the Netherlands. They were, +however, fully persuaded of this, that his continued presence there was +absolutely incompatible with the general tranquillity. The present +dangerous condition of their native country would allow none of them to +leave it, much less to take so long a journey as to Spain on Granvella's +account. If, therefore, his majesty did not please to comply with their +written request, they hoped to be excused for the future from attendance +in the senate, where they were only exposed to the mortification of +meeting the minister, and where they could be of no service either to +the king or the state, but only appeared contemptible in their own +sight. In conclusion, they begged his majesty would not take ill the +plain simplicity of their language, since persons of their character set +more value on acting well than on speaking finely." To the same purport +was a separate letter from Count Egmont, in which he returned thanks for +the royal autograph. This second address was followed by an answer to +the effect that "their representations should be taken into +consideration, meanwhile they were requested to attend the council of +state as heretofore." + +It was evident that the monarch was far from intending to grant their +request; they, therefore, from this tune forth absented themselves from +the state council, and even left Brussels. Not having succeeded in +removing the minister by lawful means they sought to accomplish this end +by a new mode from which more might be expected. On every occasion they +and their adherents openly showed the contempt which they felt for him, +and contrived to throw ridicule on everything he undertook. By this +contemptuous treatment they hoped to harass the haughty spirit of the +priest, and to obtain through his mortified self-love what they had +failed in by other means. In this, indeed, they did not succeed; but +the expedient on which they had fallen led in the end to the ruin of the +minister. + +The popular voice was raised more loudly against him so soon as it was +perceived that he had forfeited the good opinion of the nobles, and that +men whose sentiments they had been used blindly to echo preceded them in +detestation of him. The contemptuous manner in which the nobility now +treated him devoted him in a measure to the general scorn and emboldened +calumny which never spares even what is holiest and purest, to lay its +sacrilegious hand on his honor. The new constitution of the church, +which was the great grievance of the nation, had been the basis of his +fortunes. This was a crime that could not be forgiven. Every fresh +execution--and with such spectacles the activity of the inquisitors was +only too liberal--kept alive and furnished dreadful exercise to the +bitter animosity against him, and at last custom and usage inscribed his +name on every act of oppression. A stranger in a land into which he had +been introduced against its will; alone among millions of enemies; +uncertain of all his tools; supported only by the weak arm of distant +royalty; maintaining his intercourse with the nation, which he had to +gain, only by means of faithless instruments, all of whom made it their +highest object to falsify his actions and misrepresent his motives; +lastly, with a woman for his coadjutor who could not share with him the +burden of the general execration--thus he stood exposed to the +wantonness, the ingratitude, the faction, the envy, and all the evil +passions of a licentious, insubordinate people. It is worthy of remark +that the hatred which he had incurred far outran the demerits which +could be laid to his charge; that it was difficult, nay impossible, for +his accusers to substantiate by proof the general condemnation which +fell upon him from all sides. Before and after him fanaticism dragged +its victims to the altar; before and after him civil blood flowed, the +rights of men were made a mock of, and men themselves rendered wretched. +Under Charles V. tyranny ought to have pained more acutely through its +novelty; under the Duke of Alva it was carried to far more unnatural +lengths, insomuch that Granvella's administration, in comparison with +that of his successor, was even merciful; and yet we do not find that +his contemporaries ever evinced the same degree of personal exasperation +and spite against the latter in which they indulged against his +predecessor. To cloak the meanness of his birth in the splendor of high +dignities, and by an exalted station to place him if possible above the +malice of his enemies, the regent had made interest at Rome to procure +for him the cardinal's hat; but this very honor, which connected him +more closely with the papal court, made him so much the more an alien in +the provinces. The purple was a new crime in Brussels, and an +obnoxious, detested garb, which in a measure publicly held forth to view +the principles on which his future conduct would be governed. Neither +his honorable rank, which alone often consecrates the most infamous +caitiff, nor his talents, which commanded esteem, nor even his terrible +omnipotence, which daily revealed itself in so many bloody +manifestations, could screen him from derision. Terror and scorn, the +fearful and the ludicrous, were in his instance unnaturally blended. + + [The nobility, at the suggestion of Count Egmont, caused their + servants to wear a common livery, on which was embroidered a fool's + cap. All Brussels interpreted it for the cardinal's hat, and every + appearance of such a servant renewed their laughter; this badge of + a fool's cap, which was offensive to the court, was subsequently + changed into a bundle of arrows--an accidental jest which took a + very serious end, and probably was the origin of the arms of the + republic. Vit. Vigl. T. II. 35 Thuan. 489. The respect for the + cardinal sunk at last so low that a caricature was publicly placed + in his own hand, in which he was represented seated on a heap of + eggs, out of which bishops were crawling. Over him hovered a devil + with the inscription--"This is my son, hear ye him!"] + +Odious rumors branded his honor; murderous attempts on the lives of +Egmont and Orange were ascribed to him; the most incredible things found +credence; the most monstrous, if they referred to him or were said to +emanate from him, surprised no longer. The nation had already become +uncivilized to that degree where the most contradictory sentiments +prevail side by side, and the finer boundary lines of decorum and moral +feeling are erased. This belief in extraordinary crimes is almost +invariably their immediate precursor. + +But with this gloomy prospect the strange destiny of this man opens at +the same time a grander view, which impresses the unprejudiced observer +with pleasure and admiration. Here he beholds a nation dazzled by no +splendor, and restrained by no fear, firmly, inexorably, and +unpremeditatedly unanimous in punishing the crime which had been +committed against its dignity by the violent introduction of a stranger +into the heart of its political constitution. We see him ever aloof and +ever isolated, like a foreign hostile body hovering over a surface which +repels its contact. The strong hand itself of the monarch, who was. +his friend and protector, could not support him against the antipathies +of the nation which had once resolved to withhold from him all its +sympathy. The voice of national hatred was all powerful, and was ready +to forego even private interest, its certain gains; his alms even were +shunned, like the fruit of an accursed tree. Like pestilential vapor, +the infamy of universal reprobation hung over him. In his case +gratitude believed itself absolved from its duties; his adherents +shunned him; his friends were dumb in his behalf. So terribly did the +people avenge the insulted majesty of their nobles and their nation on +the greatest monarch of the earth. + +History has repeated this memorable example only once, in Cardinal +Mazarin; but the instance differed according to the spirit of the two +periods and nations. The highest power could not protect either from +derision; but if France found vent for its indignation in laughing at +its pantaloon, the Netherlands hurried from scorn to rebellion. The +former, after a long bondage under the vigorous administration of +Richelieu, saw itself placed suddenly in unwonted liberty; the latter +had passed from ancient hereditary freedom into strange and unusual +servitude; it was as natural that the Fronde should end again in +subjection as that the Belgian troubles should issue in republican +independence. The revolt of the Parisians was the offspring of poverty; +unbridled, but not bold, arrogant, but without energy, base and +plebeian, like the source from which it sprang. The murmur of the +Netherlands was the proud and powerful voice of wealth. Licentiousness +and hunger inspired the former; revenge, life, property, and religion +were the animating motives of the latter. Rapacity was Mazarin's spring +of action; Granvella's lust of power. The former was humane and mild; +the latter harsh, imperious, cruel. The French minister sought in the +favor of his queen an asylum from the hatred of the magnates and the +fury of the people; the Netherlandish minister provoked the hatred of a +whole nation in order to please one man. Against Mazarin were only a +few factions and the mob they could arm; an entire and united nation +against Granvella. Under the former parliament attempted to obtain, +by stealth, a power which did not belong to them; under the latter it +struggled for a lawful authority which he insidiously had endeavored to +wrest from them. The former had to contend with the princes of the +blood and the peers of the realm, as the latter had with the native +nobility and the states, but instead of endeavoring, like the former, to +overthrow the common enemy, in the hope of stepping themselves into his +place, the latter wished to destroy the place itself, and to divide a +power which no single man ought to possess entire. + +While these feelings were spreading among the people the influence of +the minister at the court of the regent began to totter. The repeated +complaints against the extent of his power must at last have made her +sensible how little faith was placed in her own; perhaps, too, she began +to fear that the universal abhorrence which attached to him would soon +include herself also, or that his longer stay would inevitably provoke +the menaced revolt. Long intercourse with him, his instruction and +example, had qualified her to govern without him. His dignity began to +be more oppressive to her as he became less necessary, and his faults, +to which her friendship had hitherto lent a veil, became visible as it +was withdrawn. She was now as much disposed to search out and enumerate +these faults as she formerly had been to conceal them. In this +unfavorable state of her feelings towards the cardinal the urgent and +accumulated representations of the nobles began at last to find access +to her mind, and the more easily, as they contrived to mix up her own +fears with their own. "It was matter of great astonishment," said Count +Egmont to her, "that to gratify a man who was not even a Fleming, and of +whom, therefore, it must be well known that his happiness could not be +dependent on the prosperity of this country, the king could be content +to see all his Netherlandish subjects suffer, and this to please a +foreigner, who if his birth made him a subject of the Emperor, the +purple had made a creature of the court of Rome." "To the king alone," +added the count, "was Granvella indebted for his being still among the +living; for the future, however, he would leave that care of him to the +regent, and he hereby gave her warning." As the majority of the nobles, +disgusted with the contemptuous treatment which they met with in the +council of state, gradually withdrew from it, the arbitrary proceedings +of the minister lost the last semblance of republican deliberation which +had hitherto softened the odious aspect, and the empty desolation of +the council chamber made his domineering rule appear in all its +obnoxiousness. The regent now felt that she had a master over her, +and from that moment the banishment of the minister was decided upon. + +With this object she despatched her private secretary, Thomas +Armenteros, to Spain, to acquaint the king with the circumstances in +which the cardinal was placed, to apprise him of the intimations she had +received of the intentions of the nobles, and in this manner to cause +the resolution for his recall to appear to emanate from the king +himself. What she did not like to trust to a letter Armenteros was +ordered ingeniously to interweave in the oral communication which the +king would probably require from him. Armenteros fulfilled his +commission with all the ability of a consummate courtier; but an +audience of four hours could not overthrow the work of many years, nor +destroy in Philip's mind his opinion of his minister, which was there +unalterably established. Long did the monarch hold counsel with his +policy and his interest, until Granvella himself came to the aid of his +wavering resolution and voluntarily solicited a dismissal, which, he +feared, could not much longer be deferred. What the detestation of all +the Netherlands could not effect the contemptuous treatment of the +nobility accomplished; he was at last weary of a power which was no +longer feared, and exposed him less to envy than to infamy. + +Perhaps as some have believed he trembled for his life, which was +certainly in more than imaginary danger; perhaps he wished to receive +his dismissal from the king under the shape of a boon rather than of a +sentence, and after the example of the Romans meet with dignity a fate +which he could no longer avoid. Philip too, it would appear, preferred +generously to accord to the nation a request rather than to yield at a +later period to a demand, and hoped at least to merit their thanks by +voluntarily conceding now what necessity would ere long extort. His +fears prevailed over his obstinacy, and prudence overcame pride. + +Granvella doubted not for a moment what the decision of the king would +be. A few days after the return of Armenteros he saw humility and +flattery disappear from the few faces which had till then servilely +smiled upon him; the last small crowd of base flatterers and eyeservants +vanished from around his person; his threshold was forsaken; he +perceived that the fructifying warmth of royal favor had left him. + +Detraction, which had assailed him during his whole administration, did +not spare him even in the moment of resignation. People did not scruple +to assert that a short time before he laid down his office he had +expressed a wish to be reconciled to the Prince of Orange and Count +Egmont, and even offered, if their forgiveness could be hoped for on no +other terms, to ask pardon of them on his knees. It was base and +contemptible to sully the memory of a great and extraordinary man with +such a charge, but it is still more so to hand it down uncontradicted to +posterity. Granvella submitted to the royal command with a dignified +composure. Already had he written, a few months previously, to the Duke +of Alva in Spain, to prepare him a place of refuge in Madrid, in case of +his having to quit the Netherlands. The latter long bethought himself +whether it was advisable to bring thither so dangerous a rival for the +favor of his king, or to deny so important a friend such a valuable +means of indulging his old hatred of the Flemish nobles. Revenge +prevailed over fear, and he strenuously supported Granvella's request +with the monarch. But his intercession was fruitless. Armenteros had +persuaded the king that the minister's residence in Madrid would only +revive, with increased violence, all the complaints of the Belgian +nation, to which his ministry had been sacrificed; for then, he said, he +would be suspected of poisoning the very source of that power, whose +outlets only he had hitherto been charged with corrupting. He therefore +sent him to Burgundy, his native place, for which a decent pretext +fortunately presented itself. The cardinal gave to his departure from +Brussels the appearance of an unimportant journey, from which he would +return in a few days. At the same time, however, all the state +counsellors, who, under his administration, had voluntarily excluded +themselves from its sittings, received a command from the court to +resume their seats in the senate at Brussels. Although the latter +circumstance made his return not very credible, nevertheless the +remotest possibility of it sobered the triumph which celebrated his +departure. The regent herself appears to have been undecided what to +think about the report; for, in a fresh letter to the king, she repeated +all the representations and arguments which ought to restrain him from +restoring this minister. Granvella himself, in his correspondence with +Barlaimont and Viglius, endeavored to keep alive this rumor, and at +least to alarm with fears, however unsubstantial, the enemies whom he +could no longer punish by his presence. Indeed, the dread of the +influence of this extraordinary man was so exceedingly great that, to +appease it, he was at last driven even from his home and his country. + +After the death of Pius IV., Granvella went to Rome, to be present at +the election of a new pope, and at the same time to discharge some +commissions of his master, whose confidence in him remained unshaken. +Soon after, Philip made him viceroy of Naples, where he succumbed to the +seductions of the climate, and the spirit which no vicissitudes could +bend voluptuousness overcame. He was sixty-two years old when the king +allowed him to revisit Spain, where he continued with unlimited powers +to administer the affairs of Italy. A gloomy old age, and the +self-satisfied pride of a sexagenarian administration made him a harsh +and rigid judge of the opinions of others, a slave of custom, and a +tedious panegyrist of past times. But the policy of the closing century +had ceased to be the policy of the opening one. A new and younger +ministry were soon weary of so imperious a superintendent, and Philip +himself began to shun the aged counsellor, who found nothing worthy of +praise but the deeds of his father. Nevertheless, when the conquest of +Portugal called Philip to Lisbon, he confided to the cardinal the care of +his Spanish territories. Finally, on an Italian tour, in the town of +Mantua, in the seventy-third year of his life, Granvella terminated his +long existence in the full enjoyment of his glory, and after possessing +for forty years the uninterrupted confidence of his king. + + +(1564.) Immediately upon the departure of the minister, all the happy +results which were promised from his withdrawal were fulfilled. The +disaffected nobles resumed their seats in the council, and again devoted +themselves to the affairs of the state with redoubled zeal, in order to +give no room for regret for him whom they had driven away, and to prove, +by the fortunate administration of the state, that his services were not +indispensable. The crowd round the duchess was great. All vied with +one another in readiness, in submission, and zeal in her service; the +hours of night were not allowed to stop the transaction of pressing +business of state; the greatest unanimity existed between the three +councils, the best understanding between the court and the states. From +the obliging temper of the Flemish nobility everything was to be had, as +soon as their pride and self-will was flattered by confidence and +obliging treatment. The regent took advantage of the first joy of the +nation to beguile them into a vote of certain taxes, which, under the +preceding administration, she could not have hoped to extort. In this, +the great credit of the nobility effectually supported her, and she soon +learned from this nation the secret, which had been so often verified in +the German diet--that much must be demanded in order to get a little. + +With pleasure did the regent see herself emancipated from her long +thraldom; the emulous industry of the nobility lightened for her the +burden of business, and their insinuating humility allowed her to feel +the full sweetness of power. + + +(1564). Granvella had been overthrown, but his party still remained. +His policy lived in his creatures, whom he left behind him in the privy +council and in the chamber of finance. Hatred still smouldered amongst +the factious long after the leader was banished, and the names of the +Orange and Royalist parties, of the Patriots and Cardinalists still +continued to divide the senate and to keep up the flames of discord. +Viglius Van Zuichem Van Aytta, president of the privy council, state +counsellor and keeper of the seal, was now looked upon as the most +important person in the senate, and the most powerful prop of the crown +and the tiara. This highly meritorious old man, whom we have to thank +for some valuable contributions towards the history of the rebellion of +the Low Countries, and whose confidential correspondence with his +friends has generally been the guide of our narrative, was one of the +greatest lawyers of his time, as well as a theologian and priest, and +had already, under the Emperor, filled the most important offices. +Familiar intercourse with the learned men who adorned the age, and at +the head of whom stood Erasmus of Rotterdam, combined with frequent +travels in the imperial service, had extended the sphere of his +information and experience, and in many points raised him in his +principles and opinions above his contemporaries. The fame of his +erudition filled the whole century in which he lived, and has handed his +name down to posterity. When, in the year 1548, the connection of the +Netherlands with the German empire was to be settled at the Diet of +Augsburg, Charles V. sent hither this statesman to manage the interests +of the provinces; and his ability principally succeeded in turning the +negotiations to the advantage of the Netherlands. After the death of +the Emperor, Viglius was one of the many eminent ministers bequeathed to +Philip by his father, and one of the few in whom he honored his memory. +The fortune of the minister, Granvella, with whom he was united by the +ties of an early acquaintance, raised him likewise to greatness; but he +did not share the fall of his patron, because he had not participated in +his lust of power; nor, consequently, the hatred which attached to him. +A residence of twenty years in the provinces, where the most important +affairs were entrusted to him, approved loyalty to his king, and zealous +attachment to the Roman Catholic tenets, made him one of the most +distinguished instruments of royalty in the Netherlands. + +Viglius was a man of learning, but no thinker; an experienced statesman, +but without an enlightened mind; of an intellect not sufficiently +powerful to break, like his friend Erasmus, the fetters of error, yet +not sufficiently bad to employ it, like his predecessor, Granvella, in +the service of his own passions. Too weak and timid to follow boldly +the guidance of his reason, he preferred trusting to the more convenient +path of conscience; a thing was just so soon as it became his duty; he +belonged to those honest men who are indispensable to bad ones; fraud +reckoned on his honesty. Half a century later he would have received +his immortality from the freedom which he now helped to subvert. +In the privy council at Brussels he was the servant of tyranny; in the +parliament in London, or in the senate at Amsterdam, he would have died, +perhaps, like Thomas More or Olden Barneveldt. + +In the Count Barlaimont, the president of the council of finance, +the opposition had a no less formidable antagonist than in Viglius. +Historians have transmitted but little information regarding the +services and the opinions of this man. In the first part of his career +the dazzling greatness of Cardinal Granvella seems to have cast a shade +over him; after the latter had disappeared from the stage the +superiority of the opposite party kept him down, but still the little +that we do find respecting him throws a favorable light over his +character. More than once the Prince of Orange exerted himself to +detach him from the interests of the cardinal, and to join him to his +own party--sufficient proof that he placed a value on the prize. All +his efforts failed, which shows that he had to do with no vacillating +character. More than once we see him alone, of all the members of the +council, stepping forward to oppose the dominant faction, and protecting +against universal opposition the interests of the crown, which were in +momentary peril of being sacrificed. When the Prince of Orange had +assembled the knights of the Golden Fleece in his own palace, with a +view to induce them to come to a preparatory resolution for the +abolition of the Inquisition, Barlaimont was the first to denounce the +illegality of this proceeding and to inform the regent of it. Some time +after the prince asked him if the regent knew of that assembly, and +Barlaitnont hesitated not a moment to avow to him the truth. All the +steps which have been ascribed to him bespeak a man whom neither +influence nor fear could tempt, who, with a firm courage and indomitable +constancy, remained faithful to the party which he had once chosen, but +who, it must at the same time be confessed, entertained too proud and +too despotic notions to have selected any other. + +Amongst the adherents of the royal party at Brussels, we have, further, +the names of the Duke of Arschot, the Counts of Mansfeld, Megen, and +Aremberg--all three native Netherlanders; and therefore, as it appeared, +bound equally with the whole Netherlandish nobility to oppose the +hierarchy and the royal power in their native country. So much the more +surprised must we feel at their contrary behavior, and which is indeed +the more remarkable, since we find them on terms of friendship with the +most eminent members of the faction, and anything but insensible to the +common grievances of their country. + +But they had not self-confidence or heroism enough to venture on an +unequal contest with so superior an antagonist. With a cowardly +prudence they made their just discontent submit to the stern law of +necessity, and imposed a hard sacrifice on their pride because their +pampered vanity was capable of nothing better. Too thrifty and too +discreet to wish to extort from the justice or the fear of their +sovereign the certain good which they already possessed from his +voluntary generosity, or to resign a real happiness in order to preserve +the shadow of another, they rather employed the propitious moment to +drive a traffic with their constancy, which, from the general defection +of the nobility, had now risen in value. Caring little for true glory, +they allowed their ambition to decide which party they should take; for +the ambition of base minds prefers to bow beneath the hard yoke of +compulsion rather than submit to the gentle sway of a superior +intellect. Small would have been the value of the favor conferred had +they bestowed themselves on the Prince of Orange; but their connection +with royalty made them so much the more formidable as opponents. There +their names would have been lost among his numerous adherents and in the +splendor of their rival. On the almost deserted side of the court their +insignificant merit acquired lustre. + +The families of Nassau and Croi (to the latter belonged the Duke of +Arschot) had for several reigns been competitors for influence and +honor, and their rivalry had kept up an old feud between their families, +which religious differences finally made irreconcilable. The house of +Croi from time immemorial had been renowned for its devout and strict +observance of papistic rites and ceremonies; the Counts of Nassau had +gone over to the new sect--sufficient reasons why Philip of Croi, Duke +of Arschot, should prefer a party which placed him the most decidedly in +opposition to the Prince of Orange. The court did not fail to take +advantage of this private feud, and to oppose so important an enemy to +the increasing influence of the house of Nassau in the republic. The +Counts Mansfeld and Megen had till lately been the confidential friends +of Count Egmont. In common with him they had raised their voice against +the minister, had joined him in resisting the Inquisition and the +edicts, and had hitherto held with him as far as honor and duty would +permit. But at these limits the three friends now separated. Egmont's +unsuspecting virtue incessantly hurried him forwards on the road to +ruin; Mansfeld and Megen, admonished of the danger, began in good time +to think of a safe retreat. There still exist letters which were +interchanged between the Counts Egmont and Mansfeld, and which, although +written at a later period, give us a true picture of their former +friendship. "If," replied Count Mansfeld to his friend, who in an +amicable manner had reproved him for his defection to the king, "if +formerly I was of opinion that the general good made the abolition of +the Inquisition, the mitigation of the edicts, and the removal of the +Cardinal Granvella necessary, the king has now acquiesced in this wish +and removed the cause of complaint. We have already done too much +against the majesty of the sovereign and the authority of the church; it +is high time for us to turn, if we would wish to meet the king, when he +comes, with open brow and without anxiety. As regards my own person, I +do not dread his vengeance; with confident courage I would at his first +summons present myself in Spain, and boldly abide my sentence from his +justice and goodness. I do not say this as if I doubted whether Count +Egmont can assert the same, but he will act prudently in looking more +to his own safety, and in removing suspicion from his actions. If I +hear," he says, in conclusion, "that he has allowed my admonitions to +have their due weight, our friendship continues; if not, I feel myself +in that case strong enough to sacrifice all human ties to my duty and to +honor." + +The enlarged power of the nobility exposed the republic to almost a +greater evil than that which it had just escaped by the removal of the +minister. Impoverished by long habits of luxury, which at the same time +had relaxed their morals, and to which they were now too much addicted +to be able to renounce them, they yielded to the perilous opportunity of +indulging their ruling inclination, and of again repairing the expiring +lustre of their fortunes. Extravagance brought on the thirst for gain, +and this introduced bribery. Secular and ecclesiastical offices were +publicly put up to sale; posts of honor, privileges, and patents were +sold to the highest bidder; even justice was made a trade. Whom the +privy council had condemned was acquitted by the council of state, and +what the former refused to grant was to be purchased from the latter. +The council of state, indeed, subsequently retorted the charge on the +two other councils, but it forgot that it was its own example that +corrupted them. The shrewdness of rapacity opened new sources of gain. +Life, liberty, and religion were insured for a certain sum, like landed +estates; for gold, murderers and malefactors were free, and the nation +was plundered by a lottery. The servants and creatures of the state, +counsellors and governors of provinces, were, without regard to rank or +merit, pushed into the most important posts; whoever had a petition to +present at court had to make his way through the governors of provinces +and their inferior servants. No artifice of seduction was spared to +implicate in these excesses the private secretary of the duchess, Thomas +Armenteros, a man up to this time of irreproachable character. By +pretended professions of attachment and friendship a successful attempt +was made to gain his confidence, and by luxurious entertainments to +undermine his principles; the seductive example infected his morals, and +new wants overcame his hitherto incorruptible integrity. He was now +blind to abuses in which he was an accomplice, and drew a veil over the +crimes of others in order at the same time to cloak his own. With his +knowledge the royal exchequer was robbed, and the objects of the +government were defeated through a corrupt administration of its +revenues. Meanwhile the regent wandered on in a fond dream of power and +activity, which the flattery of the nobles artfully knew how to foster. +The ambition of the factious played with the foibles of a woman, and +with empty signs and an humble show of submission purchased real power +from her. She soon belonged entirely to the faction, and had +imperceptibly changed her principles. Diametrically opposing all her +former proceedings, even in direct violation of her duty, she now +brought before the council of state, which was swayed by the faction, +not only questions which belonged to the other councils, but also the +suggestions which Viglius had made to her in private, in the same way as +formerly, under Granvella's administration, she had improperly neglected +to consult it at all. Nearly all business and all influence were now +diverted to the governors of provinces. All petitions were directed to +them, by them all lucrative appointments were bestowed. Their +usurpations were indeed carried so far that law proceedings were +withdrawn from the municipal authorities of the towns and brought before +their own tribunals. The respectability of the provincial courts +decreased as theirs extended, and with the respectability of the +municipal functionaries the administration of justice and civil order +declined. The smaller courts soon followed the example of the +government of the country. The spirit which ruled the council of state +at Brussels soon diffused itself through the provinces. Bribery, +indulgences, robbery, venality of justice, were universal in the courts +of judicature of the country; morals degenerated, and the new sects +availed themselves of this all-pervading licentiousness to propagate +their opinions. The religious indifference or toleration of the nobles, +who, either themselves inclined to the side of the innovators, or, at +least, detested the Inquisition as an instrument of despotism, had +mitigated the rigor of the religious edicts, and through the letters of +indemnity, which were bestowed on many Protestants, the holy office was +deprived of its best victims. In no way could the nobility more +agreeably announce to the nation its present share in the government of +the country than by sacrificing to it the hated tribunal of the +Inquisition--and to this inclination impelled them still more than the +dictates of policy. The nation passed in a moment from the most +oppressive constraint of intolerance into a state of freedom, to which, +however, it had already become too unaccustomed to support it with +moderation. The inquisitors, deprived of the support of the municipal +authorities, found themselves an object of derision rather than of fear. +In Bruges the town council caused even some of their own servants to be +placed in confinement, and kept on bread and water, for attempting to +lay hands upon a supposed heretic. About this very time the mob in +Antwerp, having made a futile, attempt to rescue a person charged with +heresy from the holy office, there was placarded in the public +market-place an inscription, written in blood, to the effect that a +number of persons had bound themselves by oath to avenge the death of +that innocent person. + +From the corruption which pervaded the whole council of state, the privy +council, and the chamber of finance, in which Viglius and Barlaimont +were presidents, had as yet, for the most part, kept themselves pure. + +As the faction could not succeed in insinuating their adherents into +those two councils the only course open to them was, if possible, to +render both inefficient, and to transfer their business to the council +of state. To carry out this design the Prince of Orange sought to +secure the co-operation of the other state counsellors. "They were +called, indeed, senators," he frequently declared to his adherents, "but +others possessed the power. If gold was wanted to pay the troops, or +when the question was how the spreading heresy was to be repressed, or +the people kept in order, then they were consulted; although in fact +they were the guardians neither of the treasury nor of the laws, but +only the organs through which the other two councils operated on the +state. And yet alone they were equal to the whole administration of the +country, which had been uselessly portioned out amongst three separate +chambers. If they would among themselves only agree to reunite to the +council of state these two important branches of government, which had +been dissevered from it, one soul might animate the whole body." A plan +was preliminarily and secretly agreed on, in accordance with which +twelve new Knights of the Fleece were to be added to the council of +state, the administration of justice restored to the tribunal at +Malines, to which it originally belonged, the granting of letters of +grace, patents, and so forth, assigned to the president, Viglius, while +the management of the finances should be committed to it. All the +difficulties, indeed, which the distrust of the court and its jealousy +of the increasing power of the nobility would oppose to this innovation +were foreseen and provided against. In order to constrain the regent's +assent, some of the principal officers of the army were put forward as a +cloak, who were to annoy the court at Brussels with boisterous demands +for their arrears of pay, and in case of refusal to threaten a +rebellion. It was also contrived to have the regent assailed with +numerous petitions and memorials complaining of the delays of justice, +and exaggerating the danger which was to be apprehended from the daily +growth of heresy. Nothing was omitted to darken the picture of the +disorganized state of society, of the abuse of justice, and of the +deficiency in the finances, which was made so alarming that she awoke +with terror from the delusion of prosperity in which she had hitherto +cradled herself. She called the three councils together to consult them +on the means by which these disorders were to be remedied. The majority +was in favor of sending an extraordinary ambassador to Spain, who by a +circumstantial and vivid delineation should make the king acquainted +with the true position of affairs, and if possible prevail on him to +adopt efficient measures of reform. This proposition was opposed by +Viglius, who, however, had not the slighest suspicion of the secret +designs of the faction. "The evil complained of," he said, "is +undoubtedly great, and one which can no longer be neglected with +impunity, but it is not irremediable by ourselves. The administration +of justice is certainly crippled, but the blame of this lies with the +nobles themselves; by their contemptuous treatment they have thrown +discredit on the municipal authorities, who, moreover, are very +inadequately supported by the governors of provinces. If heresy is on +the increase it is because the secular arm has deserted the spiritual +judges, and because the lower orders, following the example of the +nobles, have thrown off all respect for those in authority. The +provinces are undoubtedly oppressed by a heavy debt, but it has not been +accumulated, as alleged, by any malversation of the revenues, but by the +expenses of former wars and the king's present exigences; still wise and +prudent measures of finance might in a short time remove the burden. If +the council of state would not be so profuse of its indulgences, its +charters of immunity, and its exemptions; if it would commence the +reformation of morals with itself, show greater respect to the laws, and +do what lies in its power to restore to the municipal functionaries +their former consideration; in short, if the councils and the governors +of provinces would only fulfil their own duties the present grounds of +complaint would soon be removed. Why, then, send an ambassador to +Spain, when as yet nothing has occurred to justify so extraordinary an +expedient? If, however, the council thinks otherwise, he would not +oppose the general voice; only he must make it a condition of his +concurrence that the principal instruction of the envoy should be to +entreat the king to make them a speedy visit." + +There was but one voice as to the choice of an envoy. Of all the +Flemish nobles Count Egmont was the only one whose appointment would +give equal satisfaction to both parties. His hatred of the Inquisition, +his patriotic and liberal sentiments, and the unblemished integrity of +his character, gave to the republic sufficient surety for his conduct, +while for the reasons already mentioned he could not fail to be welcome +to the king. Moreover, Egmont's personal figure and demeanor were +calculated on his first appearance to make that favorable impression +which goes co far towards winning the hearts of princes; and his +engaging carriage would come to the aid of his eloquence, and enforce +his petition with those persuasive arts which are indispensable to the +success of even the most trifling suits to royalty. Egmont himself, +too, wished for the embassy, as it would afford him the opportunity of +adjusting, personally, matters with his sovereign. + +About this time the Council, or rather synod, of Trent closed its +sittings, and published its decrees to the whole of Christendom. But +these canons, far from accomplishing the object for which the synod was +originally convened, and satisfying the expectation of religious +parties, had rather widened the breach between them, and made the schism +irremediable and eternal. + +The labors of the synod instead of purifying the Romish Church from its +corruptions had only reduced the latter to greater definiteness and +precision, and invested them with the sanction of authority. All the +subtilties of its teaching, all the arts and usurpations of the Roman +See, which had hitherto rested more on arbitrary usage, were now passed +into laws and raised into a system. The uses and abuses which during +the barbarous times of ignorance and superstition had crept into +Christianity were now declared essential parts of its worship, and +anathemas were denounced upon all who should dare to contradict the +dogmas or neglect the observances of the Romish communion. All were +anathematized who should either presume to doubt the miraculous power of +relics, and refuse to honor the bones of martyrs, or should be so bold +as to doubt the availing efficacy of the intercession of saints. The +power of granting indulgences, the first source of the defection from +the See of Rome, was now propounded in an irrefragable article of faith; +and the principle of monasticism sanctioned by an express decree of the +synod, which allowed males to take the vows at sixteen and females at +twelve. And while all the opinions of the Protestants were, without +exception, condemned, no indulgence was shown to their errors or +weaknesses, nor a single step taken to win them back by mildness to the +bosom of the mother church. Amongst the Protestants the wearisome +records of the subtle deliberations of the synod, and the absurdity of +its decisions, increased, if possible, the hearty contempt which they +had long entertained for popery, and laid open to their +controversialists new and hitherto unnoticed points of attack. It was +an ill-judged step to bring the mysteries of the church too close to the +glaring torch of reason, and to fight with syllogisms for the tenets of +a blind belief. + +Moreover, the decrees of the Council of Trent were not satisfactory even +to all the powers in communion with Rome. France rejected them +entirely, both because she did not wish to displease the Huguenots, and +also because she was offended by the supremacy which the pope arrogated +to himself over the council; some of the Roman Catholic princes of +Germany likewise declared against it. Little, however, as Philip II. +was pleased with many of its articles, which trenched too closely upon +his own rights, for no monarch was ever more jealous of his prerogative; +highly as the pope's assumption of control over the council, and its +arbitrary, precipitate dissolution had offended him; just as was his +indignation at the slight which the pope had put upon his ambassador; he +nevertheless acknowledged the decrees of the synod, even in its present +form, because it favored his darling object--the extirpation of heresy. +Political considerations were all postponed to this one religious +object, and he commanded the publication and enforcement of its canons +throughout his dominions. + +The spirit of revolt, which was diffused through the Belgian provinces, +scarcely required this new stimulus. There the minds of men were in a +ferment, and the character of the Romish Church had sunk almost to the +lowest point of contempt in the general opinion. Under such +circumstances the imperious and frequently injudicious decrees of the +council could not fail of being highly offensive; but Philip II. could +not belie his religious character so far as to allow a different +religion to a portion of his subjects, even though they might live on a +different soil and under different laws from the rest. The regent was +strictly enjoined to exact in the Netherlands the same obedience to the +decrees of Trent which was yielded to them in Spain and Italy. + +They met, however, with the warmest opposition in the council of state +at Brussels. "The nation," William of Orange declared, "neither would +nor could acknowledge them, since they were, for the most part, opposed +to the fundamental principles of their constitution; and, for similar +reasons, they had even been rejected by several Roman Catholic princes." +The whole council nearly was on the side of Orange; a decided majority +were for entreating the king either to recall the decrees entirely or at +least to publish them under certain limitations. This proposition was +resisted by Viglius, who insisted on a strict and literal obedience to +the royal commands. "The church," he said, "had in all ages maintained +the purity of its doctrines and the strictness of its discipline by +means of such general councils. No more efficacious remedy could be +opposed to the errors of opinion which had so long distracted their +country than these very decrees, the rejection of which is now urged by +the council of state. Even if they are occasionally at variance with +the constitutional rights of the citizens this is an evil which can +easily be met by a judicious and temperate application of them. For the +rest it redounds to the honor of our sovereign, the King of Spain, that +he alone, of all the princes of his time, refuses to yield his better +judgment to necessity, and will not, for any fear of consequences, +reject measures which the welfare of the church demands, and which the +happiness of his subjects makes a duty." + +But the decrees also contained several matters which affected the rights +of the crown itself. Occasion was therefore taken of this fact to +propose that these sections at least should be omitted from the +proclamation. By this means the king might, it was argued, be relieved +from these obnoxious and degrading articles by a happy expedient; the +national liberties of the Netherlands might be advanced as the pretext +for the omission, and the name of the republic lent to cover this +encroachment on the authority of the synod. But the king had caused +the decrees to be received and enforced in his other dominions +unconditionally; and it was not to be expected that he would give the +other Roman Catholic powers such an example of opposition, and himself +undermine the edifice whose foundation he had been so assiduous in +laying. + + + + + COUNT EGMONT IN SPAIN. + +Count Egmont was despatched to Spain to make a forcible representation +to the king on the subject of these decrees; to persuade him, if +possible, to adopt a milder policy towards his Protestant subjects, and +to propose to him the incorporation of the three councils, was the +commission he received from the malcontents. By the regent he was +charged to apprise the monarch of the refractory spirit of the people; +to convince him of the impossibility of enforcing these edicts of +religion in their full severity; and lastly to acquaint him with the bad +state of the military defences and the exhausted condition of the +exchequer. + +The count's public instructions were drawn up by the President Viglius. +They contained heavy complaints of the decay of justice, the growth of +heresy, and the exhaustion of the treasury. He was also to press +urgently a personal visit from the king to the Netherlands. The rest +was left to the eloquence of the envoy, who received a hint from the +regent not to let so fair an opportunity escape of establishing himself +in the favor of his sovereign. + +The terms in which the count's instructions and the representations +which he was to make to the king were drawn up appeared to the Prince of +Orange far too vague and general. "The president's statement," he said, +"of our grievances comes very far short of the truth. How can the king +apply the suitable remedies if we conceal from him the full extent of +the evil? Let us not represent the numbers of the heretics inferior to +what it is in reality. Let us candidly acknowledge that they swarm in +every province and in every hamlet, however small. Neither let us +disguise from him the truth that they despise the penal statutes and +entertain but little reverence for the government. What good can come +of this concealment? Let us rather openly avow to the king that the +republic cannot long continue in its present condition. The privy +council indeed will perhaps pronounce differently, for to them the +existing disorders are welcome. For what else is the source of the +abuse of justice and the universal corruption of the courts of law but +its insatiable rapacity? How otherwise can the pomp and scandalous +luxury of its members, whom we have seen rise from the dust, be +supported if not by bribery? Do not the people daily complain that no +other key but gold can open an access to them; and do not even their +quarrels prove how little they are swayed by a care for the common weal? +Are they likely to consult the public good who are the slaves of their +private passions? Do they think forsooth that we, the governors of the +provinces are, with our soldiers, to stand ready at the beck and call of +an infamous lictor? Let them set bounds to their indulgences and free +pardons which they so lavishly bestow on the very persons to whom we +think it just and expedient to deny them. No one can remit the +punishment of a crime without sinning against the society and +contributing to the increase of the general evil. To my mind, and I +have no hesitation to avow it, the distribution amongst so many councils +of the state secrets and the affairs of government has always appeared +highly objectionable. The council of state is sufficient for all the +duties of the administration; several patriots have already felt this in +silence, and I now openly declare it. It is my decided conviction that +the only sufficient remedy for all the evils complained of is to merge +the other two chambers in the council of state. This is the point which +we must endeavor to obtain from the king, or the present embassy, like +all others, will be entirely useless and ineffectual." The prince now +laid before the assembled senate the plan which we have already +described. Viglius, against whom this new proposition was individually +and mainly directed, and whose eyes were now suddenly opened, was +overcome by the violence of his vexation. The agitation of his feelings +was too much for his feeble body, and he was found, on the following +morning, paralyzed by apoplexy, and in danger of his life. + +His place was supplied by Jaachim Hopper, a member of the privy council +at Brussels, a man of old-fashioned morals and unblemished integrity, +the president's most trusted and worthiest friend. + + + [Vita Vigl. 89. The person from whose memoirs I have already drawn + so many illustrations of the times of this epoch. His subsequent + journey to Spain gave rise to the correspondence between him and + the president, which is one of the most valuable documents for our + history.] + +To meet the wishes of the Orange party he made some additions to the +instructions of the ambassador, relating chiefly to the abolition of the +Inquisition and the incorporation of the three councils, not so much +with the consent of the regent as in the absence of her prohibition. +Upon Count Egmont taking leave of the president, who had recovered from +his attack, the latter requested him to procure in Spain permission to +resign his appointment. His day, he declared, was past; like the +example of his friend and predecessor, Granvella, he wished to retire +into the quiet of private life, and to anticipate the uncertainty of +fortune. His genius warned him of impending storm, by which he could +have no desire to be overtaken. + +Count Egmont embarked on his journey to Spain in January, 1565, and was +received there with a kindness and respect which none of his rank had +ever before experienced. The nobles of Castile, taught by the king's +example to conquer their feelings, or rather, true to his policy, seemed +to have laid aside their ancient grudge against the Flemish nobility, +and vied with one another in winning his heart by their affability. All +his private matters were immediately settled to his wishes by the king, +nay, even his expectations exceeded; and during the whole period of his +stay he had ample cause to boast of the hospitality of the monarch. The +latter assured him in the strongest terms of his love for his Belgian +subjects, and held out hopes of his acceding eventually to the general +wish, and remitting somewhat of the severity of the religious edicts. +At the same time, however, he appointed in Madrid a commission of +theologians to whom he propounded the question, "Is it necessary to +grant to the provinces the religious toleration they demand?" As the +majority of them were of opinion that the peculiar constitution of the +Netherlands, and the fear of a rebellion might well excuse a degree of +forbearance in their case, the question was repeated more pointedly. +"He did not seek to know," he said, "if he might do so, but if he must." +When the latter question was answered in the negative, he rose from his +seat, and kneeling down before a crucifix prayed in these words: +"Almighty Majesty, suffer me not at any time to fall so low as to +consent to reign over those who reject thee!" In perfect accordance +with the spirit of this prayer were the measures which he resolved to +adopt in the Netherlands. On the article of religion this monarch had +taken his resolution once forever; urgent necessity might, perhaps, have +constrained him temporarily to suspend the execution of the penal +statutes, but never, formally, to repeal them entirely, or even to +modify them. In vain did Egmont represent to him that the public +execution of the heretics daily augmented the number of their followers, +while the courage and even joy with which they met their death filled +the spectators with the deepest admiration, and awakened in them high +opinions of a doctrine which could make such heroes of its disciples. +This representation was not indeed lost upon the king, but it had a very +different effect from what it was intended to produce. In order to +prevent these seductive scenes, without, however, compromising the +severity of the edicts, he fell upon an expedient, and ordered that in +future the executions should take place in private. The answer of the +king on the subject of the embassy was given to the count in writing, +and addressed to the regent. The king, when he granted him an audience +to take leave, did not omit to call him to account for his behavior to +Granvella, and alluded particularly to the livery invented in derision +of the cardinal. Egmont protested that the whole affair had originated +in a convivial joke, and nothing was further from their meaning than to +derogate in the least from the respect that was due to royalty. "If he +knew," he said, "that any individual among them had entertained such +disloyal thoughts be himself would challenge him to answer for it with +his life." + +At his departure the monarch made him a present of fifty thousand +florins, and engaged, moreover, to furnish a portion for his daughter on +her marriage. He also consigned to his care the young Farnese of Parma, +whom, to gratify the regent, his mother, he was sending to Brussels. +The king's pretended mildness, and his professions of regard for the +Belgian nation, deceived the open-hearted Fleming. Happy in the idea of +being the bearer of so much felicity to his native country, when in fact +it was more remote than ever, he quitted Madrid satisfied beyond measure +to think of the joy with which the provinces would welcome the message +of their good king; but the opening of the royal answer in the council +of state at Brussels disappointed all these pleasing hopes. "Although +in regard to the religious edicts," this was its tenor, "his resolve was +firm and immovable, and he would rather lose a thousand lives than +consent to alter a single letter of it, still, moved by the +representations of Count Egmont, he was, on the other hand, equally +determined not to leave any gentle means untried to guard the people +against the delusions of heresy, and so to avert from them that +punishment which must otherwise infallibly overtake them. As he had now +learned from the count that the principal source of the existing errors +in the faith was in the moral depravity of the clergy, the bad +instruction and the neglected education of the young, he hereby +empowered the regent to appoint a special commission of three bishops, +and a convenient number of learned theologians, whose business it should +be to consult about the necessary reforms, in order that the people +might no longer be led astray through scandal, nor plunge into error +through ignorance. As, moreover, he had been informed that the public +executions of the heretics did but afford them an opportunity of +boastfully displaying a foolhardy courage, and of deluding the common +herd by an affectation of the glory of martyrdom, the commission was to +devise means for putting in force the final sentence of the Inquisition +with greater privacy, and thereby depriving condemned heretics of the +honor of their obduracy." In order, however, to provide against the +commission going beyond its prescribed limits Philip expressly required +that the Bishop of Ypres, a man whom he could rely on as a determined +zealot for the Romish faith, should be one of the body. Their +deliberaations were to be conducted, if possible, in secrecy, while the +object publicly assigned to them should be the introduction of the +Tridentine decrees. For this his motive seems to have been twofold; on +the one hand, not to alarm the court of Rome by the assembling of a +private council; nor, on the other, to afford any encouragement to the +spirit of rebellion in the provinces. At its sessions the duchess was +to preside, assisted by some of the more loyally disposed of her +counsellors, and regularly transmit to Philip a written account of its +transactions. To meet her most pressing wants he sent her a small +supply in money. He also gave her hopes of a visit from himself; first, +however, it was necessary that the war with the Turks, who were then +expected in hostile force before Malta, should be terminated. As to the +proposed augmentation of the council of state, and its union with the +privy council and chamber of finance, it was passed over in perfect +silence. The Duke of Arschot, however, who is already known to us as a +zealous royalist, obtained a voice and seat in the latter. Viglius, +indeed, was allowed to retire from the presidency of the privy council, +but he was obliged, nevertheless, to continue to discharge its duties +for four more years, because his successor, Carl Tyssenaque, of the +council for Netherlandish affairs in Madrid, could not sooner be spared. + + + + + SEVERER RELIGIOUS EDICTS--UNIVERSAL OPPOSITION OF THE NATION. + +Scarcely was Egmont returned when severer edicts against heretics, +which, as it were, pursued him from Spain, contradicted the joyful +tidings which he had brought of a happy change in the sentiments of the +monarch. They were at the same time accompanied with a transcript of +the decrees of Trent, as they were acknowledged in Spain, and were now +to be proclaimed in the Netherlands also; with it came likewise the +death warrants of some Anabaptists and other kinds of heretics. +"The count has been beguiled," William the Silent was now heard to say, +"and deluded by Spanish cunning. Self-love and vanity have blinded his +penetration; for his own advantage he has forgotten the general +welfare." The treachery of the Spanish ministry was now exposed, and +this dishonest proceeding roused the indignation of the noblest in the +land. But no one felt it more acutely than Count Egmont, who now +perceived himself to have been the tool of Spanish duplicity, and to +have become unwittingly the betrayer of his own country. "These +specious favors then," he exclaimed, loudly and bitterly, "were nothing +but an artifice to expose me to the ridicule of my fellow-citizens, and +to destroy my good name. If this is the fashion after which the king +purposes to keep the promises which he made to me in Spain, let who will +take Flanders; for my part, I will prove by my retirement from public +business that I have no share in this breach of faith." In fact, the +Spanish ministry could not have adopted a surer method of breaking the +credit of so important a man--than by exhibiting him to his fellow +citizens, who adored him, as one whom they had succeeded in deluding. + +Meanwhile the commission had been appointed, and had unanimously come +to the following decision: "Whether for the moral reformation of the +clergy, or for the religious instruction of the people, or for the +education of youth, such abundant provision had already been made in the +decrees of Trent that nothing now was requisite but to put these decrees +in force as speedily as possible. The imperial edicts against the +heretics already ought on no account to be recalled or modified; the +courts of justice, however, might be secretly instructed to punish with +death none but obstinate heretics or preachers, to make a difference +between the different sects, and to show consideration to the age, rank, +sex, or disposition of the accused. If it were really the case that +public executions did but inflame fanaticism, then, perhaps, the +unheroic, less observed, but still equally severe punishment of the +galleys, would be well-adapted to bring down all high notions of +martyrdom. As to the delinquencies which might have arisen out of mere +levity, curiosity, and thoughtlessness it would perhaps be sufficient to +punish them by fines, exile, or even corporal chastisement." + +During these deliberations, which, moreover, it was requisite to submit +to the king at Madrid, and to wait for the notification of his approval +of them, the time passed away unprofitably, the proceedings against the +sectaries being either suspended, or at least conducted very supinely. +Since the recall of Granvella the disunion which prevailed in the higher +councils, and from thence had extended to the provincial courts of +justice, combined with the mild feelings generally of the nobles on the +subject of religion, had raised the courage of the sects, and allowed +free scope to the proselytizing mania of their apostles. The +inquisitors, too, had fallen into contempt in consequence of the secular +arm withdrawing its support, and in many places even openly taking their +victims under its protection. The Roman Catholic part of the nation. +had formed great expectations from the decrees of the synod of Trent, as +well as from Egmont's embassy to Spain; but in the latter case their +hopes had scarcely been justified by the joyous tidings which the count +had brought back, and, in the integrity of his heart, left nothing +undone to make known as widely as possible. The more disused the nation +had become to severity in matters pertaining to religion the more +acutely was it likely to feel the sudden adoption of even still more +rigorous measures. In this position of affairs the royal rescript +arrived from Spain in answer to the proposition of the bishops and the +last despatches of the regent. "Whatever interpretation (such was its +tenor) Count Egmont may have given to the king's verbal communications, +it had never in the remotest manner entered his mind to think of +altering in the slightest degree the penal statutes which the Emperor, +his father, had five-and-thirty years ago published in the provinces. +These edicts he therefore commanded should henceforth be carried rigidly +into effect, the Inquisition should receive the most active support from +the secular arm, and the decrees of the council of Trent be irrevocably +and unconditionally acknowledged in all the provinces of his +Netherlands. He acquiesced fully in the opinion of the bishops and +canonists as to the sufficiency of the Tridentine decrees as guides in +all points of reformation of the clergy or instruction of the people; +but he could not concur with them as to the mitigation of punishment +which they proposed in consideration either of the age, sex, or +character of individuals, since he was of opinion that his edicts were +in no degree wanting in moderation. To nothing but want of zeal and +disloyalty on the part of judges could he ascribe the progress which +heresy had already made in the country. In future, therefore, whoever +among them should be thus wanting in zeal must be removed from his +office and make room for a more honest judge. The Inquisition ought to +pursue its appointed path firmly, fearlessly, and dispassionately, +without regard to or consideration of human feelings, and was to look +neither before nor behind. He would always be ready to approve of all +its measures however extreme if it only avoided public scandal." + +This letter of the king, to which the Orange party have ascribed all +the subsequent troubles of the Netherlands, caused the most violent +excitement amongst the state counsellors, and the expressions which in +society they either accidentally or intentionally let fall from them +with regard to it spread terror and alarm amongst the people. The dread +of the Spanish Inquisition returned with new force, and with it came +fresh apprehensions of the subversion of their liberties. Already the +people fancied they could hear prisons building, chains and fetters +forging, and see piles of fagots collecting. Society was occupied with +this one theme of conversation, and fear kept no longer within bounds. +Placards were affixed to houses of the nobles in which they were called +upon, as formerly Rome called on her Brutus, to come forward and save +expiring freedom. Biting pasquinades were published against the new +bishops--tormentors as they were called; the clergy were ridiculed in +comedies, and abuse spared the throne as little as the Romish see. + +Terrified by the rumors which were afloat, the regent called together +all the counsellors of state to consult them on the course she ought to +adopt in this perilous crisis. Opinion varied and disputes were +violent. Undecided between fear and duty they hesitated to come to a +conclusion, until at last the aged senator, Viglius, rose and surprised +the whole assembly by his opinion. "It would," he said, "be the height +of folly in us to think of promulgating the royal edict at the present +moment; the king must be informed of the reception which, in all +probability, it will now meet. In the meantime the inquisitors must +be enjoined to use their power with moderation, and to abstain from +severity." But if these words of the aged president surprised the whole +assembly, still greater was the astonishment when the Prince of Orange +stood up and opposed his advice. "The royal will," he said, "is too +clearly and too precisely stated; it is the result of too long and too +mature deliberation for us to venture to delay its execution without +bringing on ourselves the reproach of the most culpable obstinacy." +"That I take on myself," interrupted Viglius; "I oppose myself to, his +displeasure. If by this delay we purchase for him the peace of the +Netherlands our opposition will eventually secure for us the lasting +gratitude of the king." The regent already began to incline to the +advice of Viglius, when the prince vehemently interposing, "What," he +demanded, "what have the many representations which we have already made +effected? of what avail was the embassy we so lately despatched? +Nothing! And what then do we wait for more? Shall we, his state +counsellors, bring upon ourselves the whole weight of his displeasure by +determining, at our own peril, to render him a service for which he will +never thank us?" Undecided and uncertain the whole assembly remained +silent; but no one had courage enough to assent to or reply to him. But +the prince had appealed to the fears of the regent, and these left her +no choice. The consequences of her unfortunate obedience to the king's +command will soon appear. But, on the other hand, if by a wise +disobedience she had avoided these fatal consequences, is it clear that +the result would not have been the same? However she had adopted the +most fatal of the two counsels: happen what would the royal ordinance +was to be promulgated. This time, therefore, faction prevailed, and the +advice of the only true friend of the government, who, to serve his +monarch, was ready to incur his displeasure, was disregarded. With this +session terminated the peace of the regent: from this day the +Netherlands dated all the trouble which uninterruptedly visited their +country. As the counsellors separated the Prince of Orange said to one +who stood nearest to him, "Now will soon be acted a great tragedy." + + [The conduct of the Prince of Orange in this meeting of the council + has been appealed to by historians of the Spanish party as a proof + of his dishonesty, and they have availed themselves over and over + again to blacken his character. "He," say they, "who had, + invariably up to this period, both by word and deed, opposed the + measures of the court so long as he had any ground to fear that the + king's measures could be successfully carried out, supported them + now for the first time when he was convinced that a scrupulous + obedience to the royal orders would inevitably prejudice him. In + order to convince the king of his folly in disregarding his + warnings; in order to be able to boast, 'this I foresaw,' and 'I + foretold that,' he was willing to risk the welfare of his nation, + for which alone he had hitherto professed to struggle. The whole + tenor of his previous conduct proved that he held the enforcement + of the edicts to be an evil; nevertheless, he at once becomes false + to his own convictions and follows an opposite course; although, so + far as the nation was concerned, the same grounds existed as had + dictated his former measures; and he changed his conduct simply + that the result might be different to the king." "It is clear, + therefore," continue his adversaries, "that the welfare of the + nation had less weight with him than his animosity to his + sovereign. In order to gratify his hatred to the latter he does + not hesitate to sacrifice the former." But is it then true that by + calling for the promulgation of these edicts he sacrificed the + nation? or, to speak more correctly, did he carry the edicts into + effect by insisting on their promulgation? Can it not, on the + contrary, be shown with far more probability that this was really + the only way effectually to frustrate them? The nation was in a + ferment, and the indignant people would (there was reason to + expect, and as Viglius himself seems to have apprehended) show so + decided a spirit of opposition as must compel the king to yield. + "Now," says Orange, "my country feels all the impulse necessary for + it to contend successfully with tyranny! If I neglect the present + moment the tyrant will, by secret negotiation and intrigue, find + means to obtain by stealth what by open force he could not. The + some object will be steadily pursued, only with greater caution and + forbearance; but extremity alone can combine the people to unity of + purpose, and move them to bold measures." It is clear, therefore, + that with regard to the king the prince did but change his language + only; but that as far as the people was concerned his conduct was + perfectly consistent. And what duties did he owe the king apart + from those he owed the republic? Was he to oppose an arbitrary act + in the very moment when it was about to entail a just retribution + on its author? Would he have done his duty to his country if he + had deterred its oppressor from a precipitate step which alone + could save it from its otherwise unavoidable misery?] + +An edict, therefore, was issued to all the governors of provinces, +commanding them rigorously to enforce the mandates of the Emperor +against heretics, as well as those which had been passed under the +present government, the decrees of the council of Trent, and those of +the episcopal commission, which had lately sat to give all the aid of +the civil force to the Inquisition, and also to enjoin a similar line of +conduct on the officers of government under them. More effectually to +secure their object, every governor was to select from his own council +an efficient officer who should frequently make the circuit of the +province and institute strict inquiries into the obedience shown by the +inferior officers to these commands, and then transmit quarterly, to the +capital an exact report of their visitation. A copy of the Tridentine +decrees, according to the Spanish original, was also sent to the +archbishops and bishops, with an intimation that in case of their +needing the assistance of the secular power, the governors of their +diocese, with their troops, were placed at their disposal. Against +these decrees no privilege was to avail; however, the king willed and +commanded that the particular territorial rights of the provinces and +towns should in no case be infringed. + +These commands, which were publicly read in every town by a herald, +produced an effect on the people which in the fullest manner verified +the fears of the President Viglius and the hopes of the Prince of +Orange. + +Nearly all the governors of provinces refused compliance with them, and +threatened to throw up their appointments if the attempt should be made +to compel their obedience. "The ordinance," they wrote back, "was based +on a statement of the numbers of the sectaries, which was altogether +false." + + [The number of the heretics was very unequally computed by the two + parties according as the interests and passions of either made its + increase or diminution desirable, and the same party often + contradicted itself when its interest changed. If the question + related to new measures of oppression, to the introduction of the + inquisitional tribunals, etc., the numbers of the Protestants were + countless and interminable. If, on the other hand, the question + was of lenity towards them, of ordinances to their advantage, they + were now reduced to such an insignificant number that it would not + repay the trouble of making an innovation for this small body of + ill-minded people.] + +"Justice was appalled at the prodigious crowd of victims which daily +accumulated under its hands; to destroy by the flames fifty thousand or +sixty thousand persons from their districts was no commission for them." +The inferior clergy too, in particular, were loud in their outcries +against the decrees of Trent, which cruelly assailed their ignorance and +corruption, and which moreover threatened them with a reform they so +much detested. Sacrificing, therefore, the highest interests of their +church to their own private advantage, they bitterly reviled the decrees +and the whole council, and with liberal hand scattered the seeds of +revolt in the minds of the people. The same outcry was now revived +which the monks had formerly raised against the new bishops. The +Archbishop of Cambray succeeded at last, but not without great +opposition, in causing the decrees to be proclaimed. It cost more labor +to effect this in Malines and Utrect, where the archbishops were at +strife with their clergy, who, as they were accused, preferred to +involve the whole church in ruin rather than submit to a reformation of +morals. + +Of all the provinces Brabant raised its voice the loudest. The states +of this province appealed to their great privilege, which protected +their members from being brought before a foreign court of justice. +They spoke loudly of the oath by which the king had bound himself to +observe all their statutes, and of the conditions under which they alone +had sworn allegiance to him. Louvain, Antwerp, Brussels, and +Herzogenbusch solemnly protested against the decrees, and transmitted +their protests in distinct memorials to the regent. The latter, always +hesitating and wavering, too timid to obey the king, and far more afraid +to disobey him, again summoned her council, again listened to the +arguments for and against the question, and at last again gave her +assent to the opinion which of all others was the most perilous for her +to adopt. A new reference to the king in Spain was proposed; the next +moment it was asserted that so urgent a crisis did not admit of so +dilatory a remedy; it was necessary for the regent to act on her own +responsibility, and either defy the threatening aspect of despair, or to +yield to it by modifying or retracting the royal ordinance. She finally +caused the annals of Brabant to be examined in order to discover if +possible a precedent for the present case in the instructions of the +first inquisitor whom Charles V. had appointed to the province. These +instructions indeed did not exactly correspond with those now given; but +had not the king declared that he introduced no innovation? This was +precedent enough, and it was declared that the new edicts must also be +interpreted in accordance with the old and existing statutes of the +province. This explanation gave indeed no satisfaction to the states +of Brabant, who had loudly demanded the entire abolition of the +inquisition, but it was an encouragement to the other provinces to make +similar protests and an equally bold opposition. Without giving the +duchess time to decide upon their remonstrances they, on their own +authority, ceased to obey the inquisition, and withdrew their aid from +it. The inquisitors, who had so recently been expressly urged to a more +rigid execution of their duties now saw themselves suddenly deserted by +the secular arm, and robbed of all authority, while in answer to their +application for assistance the court could give them only empty +promises. The regent by thus endeavoring to satisfy all parties had +displeased all. + +During these negotiations between the court, the councils, and the +states a universal spirit of revolt pervaded the whole nation. Men +began to investigate the rights of the subject, and to scrutinize the +prerogative of kings. "The Netherlanders were not so stupid," many were +heard to say with very little attempt at secrecy, "as not to know right +well what was due from the subject to the sovereign, and from the king +to the subject; and that perhaps means would yet be found to repel force +with force, although at present there might be no appearance of it." +In Antwerp a placard was set up in several places calling upon the town +council to accuse the King of Spain before the supreme court at Spires +of having broken his oath and violated the liberties of the country, +for, Brabant being a portion of the Burgundian circle, was included in +the religious peace of Passau and Augsburg. About this time too the +Calvinists published their confession of faith, and in a preamble +addressed to the king, declared that they, although a hundred thousand +strong, kept themselves nevertheless quiet, and like the rest of his +subjects, contributed to all the taxes of the country; from which it was +evident, they added, that of themselves they entertained no ideas of +insurrection. Bold and incendiary writings were publicly disseminated, +which depicted the Spanish tyranny in the most odious colors, and +reminded the nation of its privileges, and occasionally also of its +powers. + + [The regent mentioned to the king a number (three thousand) of + these writings. Strada 117. It is remarkable how important a part + printing, and publicity in general, played in the rebellion of the + Netherlands. Through this organ one restless spirit spoke to + millions. Besides the lampoons, which for the most part were + composed with all the low scurrility and brutality which was the + distinguishing character of most of the Protestant polemical + writings of the time, works were occasionally published which + defended religious liberty in the fullest sense of the word.] + +The warlike preparations of Philip against the Porte, as well as those +which, for no intelligible reason, Eric, Duke of Brunswick, about this +time made in the vicinity, contributed to strengthen the general +suspicion that the Inquisition was to be forcibly imposed on the +Netherlands. Many of the most eminent merchants already spoke of +quitting their houses and business to seek in some other part of the +world the liberty of which they were here deprived; others looked about +for a leader, and let fall hints of forcible resistance and of foreign +aid. + +That in this distressing position of affairs the regent might be left +entirely without an adviser and without support, she was now deserted by +the only person who was at the present moment indispensable to her, and +who had contributed to plunge her into this embarrassment. "Without +kindling a civil war," wrote to her William of Orange, "it was +absolutely impossible to comply now with the orders of the king. +If, however, obedience was to be insisted upon, he must beg that his +place might be supplied by another who would better answer the +expectations of his majesty, and have more power than he had over the +minds of the nation. The zeal which on every other occasion he had +shown in the service of the crown, would, he hoped, secure his present +proceeding from misconstruction; for, as the case now stood, he had no +alternative between disobeying the king and injuring his country and +himself." From this time forth William of Orange retired from the +council of state to his town of Breda, where in observant but scarcely +inactive repose he watched the course of affairs. Count Horn followed +his example. Egmont, ever vacillating between the republic and the +throne, ever wearying himself in the vain attempt to unite the good +citizen with the obedient subject--Egmont, who was less able than the +rest to dispense with the favor of the monarch, and to whom, therefore, +it was less an object of indifference, could not bring himself to +abandon the bright prospects which were now opening for him at the court +of the regent. The Prince of Orange had, by his superior intellect, +gained an influence over the regent--which great minds cannot fail to +command from inferior spirits. His retirement had opened a void in her +confidence which Count Egmont was now to fill by virtue of that sympathy +which so naturally subsists between timidity, weakness, and good-nature. +As she was as much afraid of exasperating the people by an exclusive +confidence in the adherents to the crown, as she was fearful of +displeasing the king by too close an understanding with the declared +leaders of the faction, a better object for her confidence could now +hardly be presented than this very Count Egmont, of whom it could not be +said that he belonged to either of the two conflicting parties. + + + + + + + BOOK III. + + CONSPIRACY OF THE NOBLES + +1565. Up to this point the general peace had it appears been the +sincere wish of the Prince of Orange, the Counts Egmont and Horn, and +their friends. They had pursued the true interests of their sovereign +as much as the general weal; at least their exertions and their actions +had been as little at variance with the former as with the latter. +Nothing bad as yet occurred to make their motives suspected, or to +manifest in them a rebellious spirit. What they had done they had done +in discharge of their bounden duty as members of a free state, as the +representatives of the nation, as advisers of the king, as men of +integrity and honor. The only weapons they had used to oppose the +encroachments of the court had been remonstrances, modest complaints, +petitions. They had never allowed themselves to be so far carried away +by a just zeal for their good cause as to transgress the limits of +prudence and moderation which on many occasions are so easily +overstepped by party spirit. But all the nobles of the republic did not +now listen to the voice of that prudence; all did not abide within the +bounds of moderation. + +While in the council of state the great question was discussed whether +the nation was to be miserable or not, while its sworn deputies summoned +to their assistance all the arguments of reason and of equity, and while +the middle-classes and the people contented themselves with empty +complaints, menaces, and curses, that part of the nation which of all +seemed least called upon, and on whose support least reliance had been +placed, began to take more active measures. We have already described a +class of the nobility whose services and wants Philip at his accession +had not considered it necessary to remember. Of these by far the +greater number had asked for promotion from a much more urgent reason +than a love of the mere honor. Many of them were deeply sunk in debt, +from which by their own resources they could not hope to emancipate +themselves. When then, in filling up appointments, Philip passed them +over he wounded them in a point far more sensitive than their pride. +In these suitors he had by his neglect raised up so many idle spies and +merciless judges of his actions, so many collectors and propagators of +malicious rumor. As their pride did not quit them with their +prosperity, so now, driven by necessity, they trafficked with the sole +capital which they could not alienate--their nobility and the political +influence of their names; and brought into circulation a coin which only +in such a period could have found currency--their protection. With a +self-pride to which they gave the more scope as it was all they could +now call their own, they looked upon themselves as a strong intermediate +power between the sovereign and the citizen, and believed themselves +called upon to hasten to the rescue of the oppressed state, which looked +imploringly to them for succor. This idea was ludicrous only so far as +their self-conceit was concerned in it; the advantages which they +contrived to draw from it were substantial enough. The Protestant +merchants, who held in their hands the chief part of the wealth of the +Netherlands, and who believed they could not at any price purchase too +dearly the undisturbed exercise of their religion, did not fail to make +use of this class of people who stood idle in the market and ready to be +hired. These very men whom at any other time the merchants, in the +pride of riches, would most probably have looked down upon, now appeared +likely to do them good service through their numbers, their courage, +their credit with the populace, their enmity to the government, nay, +through their beggarly pride itself and their despair. On these grounds +they zealously endeavored to form a close union with them, and +diligently fostered the disposition for rebellion, while they also used +every means to keep alive their high opinions of themselves, and, what +was most important, lured their poverty by well-applied pecuniary +assistance and glittering promises. Few of them were so utterly +insignificant as not to possess some influence, if not personally, yet +at least by their relationship with higher and more powerful nobles; and +if united they would be able to raise a formidable voice against the +crown. Many of them had either already joined the new sect or were +secretly inclined to it; and even those who were zealous Roman Catholics +had political or private grounds enough to set them against the decrees +of Trent and the Inquisition. All, in fine, felt the call of vanity +sufficiently powerful not to allow the only moment to escape them in +which they might possibly make some figure in the republic. + +But much as might be expected from the co-operation of these men in +a body it would have been futile and ridiculous to build any hopes on +any one of them singly; and the great difficulty was to effect a union +among them. Even to bring them together some unusual occurrence was +necessary, and fortunately such an incident presented itself. The +nuptials of Baron Montigny, one of the Belgian nobles, as also those of +the Prince Alexander of Parma, which took place about this time in +Brussels, assembled in that town a great number of the Belgian nobles. +On this occasion relations met relations; new friendships were formed +and old renewed; and while the distress of the country was the topic of +conversation wine and mirth unlocked lips and hearts, hints were dropped +of union among themselves, and of an alliance with foreign powers. +These accidental meetings soon led to concealed ones, and public +discussions gave rise to secret consultations. Two German barons, +moreover, a Count of Holle and a Count of Schwarzenberg, who at this +time were on a visit to the Netherlands, omitted nothing to awaken +expectations of assistance from their neighbors. Count Louis of Nassau, +too, had also a short time before visited several German courts to +ascertain their sentiments. + + [It was not without cause that the Prince of Orange suddenly + disappeared from Brussels in order to be present at the election of + a king of Rome in Frankfort. An assembly of so many German princes + must have greatly favored a negotiation.] + +It has even been asserted that secret emissaries of the Admiral Coligny +were seen at this time in Brabant, but this, however, may be reasonably +doubted. + +If ever a political crisis was favorable to an attempt at revolution it +was the present. A woman at the helm of government; the governors of +provinces disaffected themselves and disposed to wink at insubordination +in others; most of the state counsellors quite inefficient; no army to +fall back upon; the few troops there were long since discontented on +account of the outstanding arrears of pay, and already too often +deceived by false promises to be enticed by new; commanded, moreover, by +officers who despised the Inquisition from their hearts, and would have +blushed to draw a sword in its behalf; and, lastly, no money in the +treasury to enlist new troops or to hire foreigners. The court at +Brussels, as well as the three councils, not only divided by internal +dissensions, but in the highest degree--venal and corrupt; the regent +without full powers to act on the spot, and the king at a distance; his +adherents in the provinces few, uncertain, and dispirited; the faction +numerous and powerful; two-thirds of the people irritated against popery +and desirous of a change--such was the unfortunate weakness of the +government, and the more unfortunate still that this weakness was so +well known to its enemies! + +In order to unite so many minds in the prosecution of a common object a +leader was still wanting, and a few influential names to give political +weight to their enterprise. The two were supplied by Count Louis of +Nassau and Henry Count Brederode, both members of the most illustrious +houses of the Belgian nobility, who voluntarily placed themselves at the +head of the undertaking. Louis of Nassau, brother of the Prince of +Orange, united many splendid qualities which made him worthy of +appearing on so noble and important a stage. In Geneva, where he +studied, he had imbibed at once a hatred to the hierarchy and a love to +the new religion, and on his return to his native country had not failed +to enlist proselytes to his opinions. The republican bias which his +mind had received in that school kindled in him a bitter hatred of the +Spanish name, which animated his whole conduct and only left him with +his latest breath. Popery and Spanish rule were in his mind identical-- +as indeed they were in reality--and the abhorrence which he entertained +for the one helped to strengthen his dislike for the other. Closely as +the brothers agreed in their inclinations and aversions the ways by +which each sought to gratify them were widely dissimilar. Youth and an +ardent temperament did not allow the younger brother to follow the +tortuous course through which the elder wound himself to his object. +A cold, calm circumspection carried the latter slowly but surely to his +aim, and with a pliable subtilty he made all things subserve his +purpose; with a foolhardy impetuosity which overthrew all obstacles, +the other at times compelled success, but oftener accelerated disaster. +For this reason William was a general and Louis never more than an +adventurer; a sure and powerful arm if only it were directed by a wise +head. Louis' pledge once given was good forever; his alliances survived +every vicissitude, for they were mostly formed in the pressing moment of +necessity, and misfortune binds more firmly than thoughtless joy. He +loved his brother as dearly as he did his cause, and for the latter he +died. + +Henry of Brederode, Baron of Viane and Burgrave of Utrecht, was +descended from the old Dutch counts who formerly ruled that province as +sovereign princes. So ancient a title endeared him to the people, among +whom the memory of their former lords still survived, and was the more +treasured the less they felt they had gained by the change. This +hereditary splendor increased the self-conceit of a man upon whose +tongue the glory of his ancestors continually hung, and who dwelt the +more on former greatness, even amidst its ruins, the more unpromising +the aspect of his own condition became. Excluded from the honors and +employments to which, in his opinion, his own merits and his noble +ancestry fully entitled him (a squadron of light cavalry being all which +was entrusted to him), he hated the government, and did not scruple +boldly to canvass and to rail at its measures. By these means he won +the hearts of the people. He also favored in secret the evangelical +belief; less, however, as a conviction of his better reason than as an +opposition to the government. With more loquacity than eloquence, and +more audacity than courage, he was brave rather from not believing in +danger than from being superior to it. Louis of Nassau burned for the +cause which he defended, Brederode for the glory of being its defender; +the former was satisfied in acting for his party, the latter +discontented if he did not stand at its head. No one was more fit to +lead off the dance in a rebellion, but it could hardly have a worse +ballet-master. Contemptible as his threatened designs really were, the +illusion of the multitude might have imparted to them weight and terror +if it had occurred to them to set up a pretender in his person. His +claim to the possessions of his ancestors was an empty name; but even a +name was now sufficient for the general disaffection to rally round. A +pamphlet which was at the time disseminated amongst the people openly +called him the heir of Holland; and his engraved portrait, which was +publicly exhibited, bore the boastful inscription:-- + + Sum Brederodus ego, Batavae non infima gentis + Gloria, virtutem non unica pagina claudit. + + +(1565.) Besides these two, there were others also from among the most +illustrious of the Flemish nobles the young Count Charles of Mansfeld, +a son of that nobleman whom we have found among the most zealous +royalists; the Count Kinlemburg; two Counts of Bergen and of Battenburg; +John of Marnix, Baron of Toulouse; Philip of Marnix, Baron of St. +Aldegonde; with several others who joined the league, which, about the +middle of November, in the year 1565, was formed at the house of Von +Hanimes, king at arms of the Golden Fleece. Here it was that six men +decided the destiny of their country as formerly a few confederates +consummated the liberty of Switzerland, kindled the torch of a forty +years' war, and laid the basis of a freedom which they themselves were +never to enjoy. The objects of the league were set forth in the +following declaration, to which Philip of Marnix was the first to +subscribe his name: "Whereas certain ill-disposed persons, under the +mask of a pious zeal, but in reality under the impulse of avarice and +ambition, have by their evil counsels persuaded our most gracious +sovereign the king to introduce into these countries the abominable +tribunal of the Inquisition, a tribunal diametrically opposed to all +laws, human and divine, and in cruelty far surpassing the barbarous +institutions of heathenism; which raises the inquisitors above every +other power, and debases man to a perpetual bondage, and by its snares +exposes the honest citizen to a constant fear of death, inasmuch as any +one (priest, it may be, or a faithless friend, a Spaniard or a +reprobate), has it in his power at any moment to cause whom he will to +be dragged before that tribunal, to be placed in confinement, condemned, +and executed without the accused ever being allowed to face his accuser, +or to adduce proof of his innocence; we, therefore, the undersigned, +have bound ourselves to watch over the safety of our families, our +estates, and our own persons. To this we hereby pledge ourselves, and +to this end bind ourselves as a sacred fraternity, and vow with a solemn +oath to oppose to the best of our power the introduction of this +tribunal into these countries, whether it be attempted openly or +secretly, and under whatever name it may be disguised. We at the same +time declare that we are far from intending anything unlawful against +the king our sovereign; rather is it our unalterable purpose to support +and defend the royal prerogative, and to maintain peace, and, as far as +lies in our power, to put down all rebellion. In accordance with this +purpose we have sworn, and now again swear, to hold sacred the +government, and to respect it both in word and deed, which witness +Almighty God! + +"Further, we vow and swear to protect and defend one another, in all +times and places, against all attacks whatsoever touching the articles +which are set forth in this covenant. We hereby bind ourselves that no +accusation of any of our followers, in whatever name it may be clothed, +whether rebellion, sedition, or otherwise, shall avail to annul our oath +towards the accused, or absolve us from our obligation towards him. No +act which is directed against the Inquisition can deserve the name of a +rebellion. Whoever, therefore, shall be placed in arrest on any such +charge, we here pledge ourselves to assist him to the utmost of our +ability, and to endeavor by every allowable means to effect his +liberation. In this, however, as in all matters, but especially in the +conduct of all measures against the tribunal of the Inquisition, we +submit ourselves to the general regulations of the league, or to the +decision of those whom we may unanimously appoint our counsellors and +leaders. + +"In witness hereof, and in confirmation of this our common league and +covenant, we call upon the holy name of the living God, maker of heaven +and earth, and of all that are therein, who searches the hearts, the +consciences, and the thoughts, and knows the purity of ours. We implore +the aid of the Holy Spirit, that success and honor may crown our +undertaking, to the glory of His name, and to the peace and blessing of +our country!" + +This covenant was immediately translated into several languages, and +quickly disseminated through the provinces. To swell the league as +speedily as possible each of the confederates assembled all his friends, +relations, adherents, and retainers. Great banquets were held, which +lasted whole days--irresistible temptations for a sensual, luxurious +people, in whom the deepest wretchedness could not stifle the propensity +for voluptuous living. Whoever repaired to these banquets--and every +one was welcome--was plied with officious assurances of friendship, and, +when heated with wine, carried away by the example of numbers, and +overcome by the fire of a wild eloquence. The hands of many were guided +while they subscribed their signatures; the hesitating were derided, the +pusillanimous threatened, the scruples of loyalty clamored down; some +even were quite ignorant what they were signing, and were ashamed +afterwards to inquire. To many whom mere levity brought to the +entertainment the general enthusiasm left no choice, while the splendor +of the confederacy allured the mean, and its numbers encouraged the +timorous. The abettors of the league had not scrupled at the artifice +of counterfeiting the signature and seals of the Prince of Orange, +Counts Egmont, Horn, Mcgen, and others, a trick which won them hundreds +of adherents. This was done especially with a view of influencing the +officers of the army, in order to be safe in this quarter, if matters +should come at last to violence. The device succeeded with many, +especially with subalterns, and Count Brederode even drew his sword upon +an ensign who wished time for consideration. Men of all classes and +conditions signed it. Religion made no difference. Roman Catholic +priests even were associates of the league. The motives were not the +same with all, but the pretext was similar. The Roman Catholics desired +simply the abolition of the Inquisition, and a mitigation of the edicts; +the Protestants aimed at unlimited freedom of conscience. A few daring +spirits only entertained so bold a project as the overthrow of the +present government, while the needy and indigent based the vilest hopes +on a general anarchy. A farewell entertainment, which about this time +was given to the Counts Schwarzenberg and Holle in Breda, and another +shortly afterwards in Hogstraten, drew many of the principal nobility to +these two places, and of these several had already signed the covenant. +The Prince of Orange, Counts Egmont, Horn, and Megen were present at the +latter banquet, but without any concert or design, and without having +themselves any share in the league, although one of Egmont's own +secretaries and some of the servants of the other three noblemen had +openly joined it. At this entertainment three hundred persons gave in +their adhesion to the covenant, and the question was mooted whether the +whole body should present themselves before the regent armed or unarmed, +with a declaration or with a petition? Horn and Orange (Egmont would +not countenance the business in any way) were called in as arbiters upon +this point, and they decided in favor of the more moderate and +submissive procedure. By taking this office upon them they exposed +themselves to the charge of having in no very covert manner lent their +sanction to the enterprise of the confederates. In compliance, +therefore, with their advice, it was determined to present their address +unarmed, and in the form of a petition, and a day was appointed on which +they should assemble in Brussels. + +The first intimation the regent received of this conspiracy of the +nobles was given by the Count of Megen soon after his return to the +capital. "There was," he said, "an enterprise on foot; no less than +three hundred of the nobles were implicated in it; it referred to +religion; the members of it had bound themselves together by an oath; +they reckoned much on foreign aid; she would soon know more about it." +Though urgently pressed, he would give her no further information. +"A nobleman," he said, "had confided it to him under the seal of +secrecy, and he had pledged his word of honor to him." What really +withheld him from giving her any further explanation was, in all +probability, not so much any delicacy about his honor, as his hatred +of the Inquisition, which he would not willingly do anything to advance. +Soon after him, Count Egmont delivered to the regent a copy of the +covenant, and also gave her the names of the conspirators, with some few +exceptions. Nearly about the same time the Prince of Orange wrote to +her: "There was, as he had heard, an army enlisted, four hundred +officers were already named, and twenty thousand men would presently +appear in arms." Thus the rumor was intentionally exaggerated, and the +danger was multiplied in every mouth. + +The regent, petrified with alarm at the first announcement of these +tidings, and guided solely by her fears, hastily called together all the +members of the council of state who happened to be then in Brussels, and +at the same time sent a pressing summons to the Prince of Orange and +Count Horn, inviting them to resume their seats in the senate. Before +the latter could arrive she consulted with Egmont, Megen, and Barlaimont +what course was to be adopted in the present dangerous posture of +affairs. The question debated was whether it would be better to have +recourse to arms or to yield to the emergency and grant the demands of +the confederates; or whether they should be put off with promises, and +an appearance of compliance, in order to gain time for procuring +instructions from Spain, and obtaining money and troops? For the first +plan the requisite supplies were wanting, and, what was equally +requisite, confidence in the army, of which there seemed reason to doubt +whether it had not been already gained by the conspirators. The second +expedient would it was quite clear never be sanctioned by the king; +besides it would serve rather to raise than depress the courage of the +confederates; while, on the other hand, a compliance with their +reasonable demands and a ready unconditional pardon of the past would in +all probability stifle the rebellion in the cradle. The last opinion +was supported by Megen and Egmont but opposed by Barlaimont. "Rumor," +said the latter, "had exaggerated the matter; it is impossible that so +formidable an armament could have been prepared so secretly and, so +rapidly. It was but a band of a few outcasts and desperadoes, +instigated by two or three enthusiasts, nothing more. All will be quiet +after a few heads have been struck off." The regent determined to await +the opinion of the council of state, which was shortly to assemble; in +the meanwhile, however, she was not inactive. The fortifications in the +most important places were inspected and the necessary repairs speedily +executed; her ambassadors at foreign courts received orders to redouble +their vigilance; expresses were sent off to Spain. At the same time she +caused the report to be revived of the near advent of the king, and in +her external deportment put on a show of that imperturbable firmness +which awaits attack without intending easily to yield to it. At the end +of March (four whole months consequently from the framing of the +covenant), the whole state council assembled in Brussels. There were +present the Prince of Orange, the Duke of Arschot, Counts Egmont, +Bergen, Megen, Aremberg, Horn, Hosstraten, Barlaimont, and others; the +Barons Montigny and Hachicourt, all the knights of the Golden Fleece, +with the President Viglius, State Counsellor Bruxelles, and the other +assessors of the privy council. Several letters were produced which +gave a clearer insight into the nature and objects of the conspiracy. +The extremity to which the regent was reduced gave the disaffected a +power which on the present occasion they did not neglect to use. +Venting their long suppressed indignation, they indulged in bitter +complaints against the court and against the government. "But lately," +said the Prince of Orange, "the king sent forty thousand gold florins +to the Queen of Scotland to support her in her undertakings against +England, and he allows his Netherlands to be burdened with debt. +Not to mention the unseasonableness of this subsidy and its fruitless +expenditure, why should he bring upon us the resentment of a queen, who +is both so important to us as a friend and as an enemy so much to be +dreaded?" The prince did not even refrain on the present occasion from +glancing at the concealed hatred which the king was suspected of +cherishing against the family of Nassau and against him in particular. +"It is well known," he said, "that he has plotted with the hereditary +enemies of my house to take away my life, and that he waits with +impatience only for a suitable opportunity." His example opened the +lips of Count Horn also, and of many others besides, who with passionate +vehemence descanted on their own merits and the ingratitude of the king. +With difficulty did the regent succeed in silencing the tumult and in +recalling attention to the proper subject of the debate. The question +was whether the confederates, of whom it was now known that they +intended to appear at court with a petition, should be admitted or not? +The Duke of Arschot, Counts Aremberg, Megen, and Barlaimont gave their +negative to the proposition. "What need of five hundred persons," said +the latter, "to deliver a small memorial? This paradox of humility and +defiance implies no good. Let them send to us one respectable man from +among their number without pomp, without assumption, and so submit their +application to us. Otherwise, shut the gates upon them, or if some +insist on their admission let them be closely watched, and let the first +act of insolence which any one of them shall be guilty of be punished +with death." In this advice concurred Count Mansfeld, whose own son was +among the conspirators; he had even threatened to disinherit his son if +he did not quickly abandon the league. + +Counts Megen, also, and Aremberg hesitated to receive the petition; the +Prince of Orange, however, Counts Egmont, Horn, Hogstraten, and others +voted emphatically for it. "The confederates," they declared, "were +known to them as men of integrity and honor; a great part of them were +connected with themselves by friendship and relationship, and they dared +vouch for their behavior. Every subject was allowed to petition; a +right which was enjoyed by the meanest individual in the state could not +without injustice be denied to so respectable a body of men." It was +therefore resolved by a majority of votes to admit the confederates on +the condition that they should appear unarmed and conduct themselves +temperately. The squabbles of the members of council had occupied the +greater part of the sitting, so that it was necessary to adjourn the +discussion to the following day. In order that the principal matter in +debate might not again be lost sight of in useless complaints the regent +at once hastened to the point: "Brederode, we are informed," she said, +"is coming to us, with an address in the name of the league, demanding +the abolition of the Inquisition and a mitigation of the edicts. The +advice of my senate is to guide me in my answer to him; but before you +give your opinions on this point permit me to premise a few words. I am +told that there are many even amongst yourselves who load the religious +edicts of the Emperor, my father, with open reproaches, and describe +them to the people as inhuman and barbarous. Now I ask you, lords and +gentlemen, knights of the Fleece, counsellors of his majesty and of the +state, whether you did not yourselves vote for these edicts, whether the +states of the realm have not recognized them as lawful? Why is that now +blamed, which was formerly declared right? Is it because they have now +become even more necessary than they then were? Since when is the +Inquisition a new thing in the Netherlands? Is it not full sixteen +years ago since the Emperor established it? And wherein is it more +cruel than the edicts? If it be allowed that the latter were the work +of wisdom, if the universal consent of the states has sanctioned them-- +why this opposition to the former, which is nevertheless far more humane +than the edicts, if they are to be observed to the letter? Speak now +freely; I am not desirous of fettering your decision; but it is your +business to see that it is not misled by passion and prejudice." The +council of state was again, as it always had been, divided between two +opinions; but the few who spoke for the Inquisition and the literal +execution of the edicts were outvoted by the opposite party with the +Prince of Orange at its head. "Would to heaven," he began,--"that my +representations had been then thought worthy of attention, when as yet +the grounds of apprehension were remote; things would in that case never +have been carried so far as to make recourse to extreme measures +indispensable, nor would men have been plunged deeper in error by the +very means which were intended to beguile them from their delusion. We +are all unanimous on the one main point. We all wish to see the +Catholic religion safe; if this end can be secured without the aid of +the Inquisition, it is well, and we offer our wealth and our blood to +its service; but on this very point it is that our opinions are divided. + +"There are two kinds of inquisition: the see of Rome lays claim to one, +the other has, from time immemorial, been exercised by the bishops. The +force of prejudice and of custom has made the latter light and +supportable to us. It will find little opposition in the Netherlands, +and the augmented numbers of the bishops will make it effective. To +what purpose then insist on the former, the mere name of which is +revolting to all the feelings of our minds? When so many nations exist +without it why should it be imposed on us? Before Luther appeared it +was never heard of; but the troubles with Luther happened at a time when +there was an inadequate number of spiritual overseers, and when the few +bishops were, moreover, indolent, and the licentiousness of the clergy +excluded them from the office of judges. Now all is changed; we now +count as many bishops as there are provinces. Why should not the policy +of the government adjust itself to the altered circumstances of the +times? We want leniency, not severity. The repugnance of the people is +manifest--this we must seek to appease if we would not have it burst out +into rebellion. With the death of Pius IV. the full powers of the +inquisitors have expired; the new pope has as yet sent no ratification +of their authority, without which no one formerly ventured to exercise +his office. Now, therefore, is the time when it can be suspended +without infringing the rights of any party. + +"What I have stated with regard to the Inquisition holds equally good in +respect to the edicts also. The exigency of the times called them +forth, but are not those times passed? So long an experience of them +ought at last to have taught us that against hersey no means are less +successful than the fagot and sword. What incredible progress has not +the new religion made during only the last few years in the provinces; +and if we investigate the cause of this increase we shall find it +principally in the glorious constancy of those who have fallen +sacrifices to the truth of their opinions. Carried away by sympathy and +admiration, men begin to weigh in silence whether what is maintained +with such invincible courage may not really be the truth. In France and +in England the same severities may have been inflicted on the +Protestants, but have they been attended with any better success there +than here? The very earliest Christians boasted that the blood of the +martyrs was the seed of the church. The Emperor Julian, the most +terrible enemy that Christianity ever experienced, was fully persuaded +of this. Convinced that persecution did but kindle enthusiasm he betook +himself to ridicule and derision, and found these weapons far more +effective than force. In the Greek empire different teachers of heresy +have arisen at different times. Arius under Constantine, Aetius under +Constantius, Nestorius under Theodosius. But even against these +arch-heretics and their disciples such cruel measures were never resorted +to as are thought necessary against our unfortunate country--and yet +where are all those sects now which once a whole world, I had almost +said, could not contain? This is the natural course of heresy. If it is +treated with contempt it crumbles into insignificance. It is as iron, +which, if it lies idle, corrodes, and only becomes sharp by use. Let no +notice be paid to it, and it loses its most powerful attraction, the +magic of what is new and what is forbidden. Why will we not content +ourselves with the measures which have been approved of by the wisdom of +such great rulers? Example is ever the safest guide. + +"But what need to go to pagan antiquity for guidance and example when we +have near at hand the glorious precedent of Charles V., the greatest of +kings, who taught at last by experience, abandoned the bloody path of +persecution, and for many years before his abdication adopted milder +measures. And Philip himself, our most gracious sovereign, seemed at +first strongly inclined to leniency until the counsels of Granvella and +of others like him changed these views; but with what right or wisdom +they may settle between themselves. To me, however, it has always +appeared indispensable that legislation to be wise and successful must +adjust itself to the manners and maxims of the times. In conclusion, +I would beg to remind you of the close understanding which subsists +between the Huguenots and the Flemish Protestants. Let us beware of +exasperating them any further. Let us not act the part of French +Catholics towards them, lest they should play the Huguenots against us, +and, like the latter, plunge their country into the horrors of a civil +war." + + [No one need wonder, says Burgundias (a vehement stickler for the + Roman Catholic religion and the Spanish party), that the speech of + this prince evinced so much acquaintance with philosophy; he had + acquired it in his intercourse with Balduin. 180. Barry, 174-178. + Hopper, 72. Strada, 123,124.] + +It was, perhaps, not so much the irresistible truth of his arguments, +which, moreover, were supported by a decisive majority in the senate, as +rather the ruinous state of the military resources, and the exhaustion +of the treasury, that prevented the adoption of the opposite opinion +which recommended an appeal to the force of arms that the Prince of +Orange had chiefly to thank for the attention which now at last was paid +to his representations. In order to avert at first the violence of the +storm, and to gain time, which was so necessary to place the government +in a better sate of preparation, it was agreed that a portion of the +demands should be accorded to the confederates. It was also resolved to +mitigate the penal statutes of the Emperor, as he himself would +certainly mitigate them, were he again to appear among them at that day +--and as, indeed, he had once shown under circumstances very similar to +the present that he did not think it derogatory to his high dignity to +do. The Inquisition was not to be introduced in any place where it did +not already exist, and where it had been it should adopt a milder +system, or even be entirely suspended, especially since the inquisitors +had not yet been confirmed in their office by the pope. The latter +reason was put prominently forward, in order to deprive the Protestants +of the gratification of ascribing the concessions to any fear of their +own power, or to the justice of their demands. The privy council was +commissioned to draw out this decree of the senate without delay. Thus +prepared the confederates were awaited. + + + + THE GUEUX. + +The members of the senate had not yet dispersed, when all Brussels +resounded with the report that the confederates were approaching the +town. They consisted of no more than two hundred horse, but rumor +greatly exaggerated their numbers. Filled with consternation, the +regent consulted with her ministers whether it was best to close the +gates on the approaching party or to seek safety in flight? Both +suggestions were rejected as dishonorable; and the peaceable entry of +the nobles soon allayed all fears of violence. The first morning after +their arrival they assembled at Kuilemberg house, where Brederode +administered to them a second oath, binding them before all other duties +to stand by one another, and even with arms if necessary. At this +meeting a letter from Spain was produced, in which it was stated that a +certain Protestant, whom, they all knew and valued, had been burned +alive in that country by a slow fire. After these and similar +preliminaries he called on them one after another by name to take the +new oath and renew the old one in their own names and in those of the +absent. The next day, the 5th of April, 1556, was fixed for the +presentation of the petition. Their numbers now amounted to between +three and four hundred. Amongst them were many retainers of the high +nobility, as also several servants of the king himself and of the +duchess. + +With the Counts of Nassau and Brederode at their head, and formed in +ranks of four by four, they advanced in procession to the palace; all +Brussels attended the unwonted spectacle in silent astonishment. Here +were to be seen a body of men advancing with too much boldness and +confidence to look like supplicants, and led by two men who were not +wont to be petitioners; and, on the other hand, with so much order and +stillness as do not usually accompany rebellion. The regent received +the procession surrounded by all her counsellors and the Knights of the +Fleece. "These noble Netherlanders," thus Brederode respectfully +addressed her, "who here present themselves before your highness, wish +in their own name, and of many others besides who are shortly to arrive, +to present to you a petition of whose importance as well as of their own +humility this solemn procession must convince you. I, as speaker of +this body, entreat you to receive our petition, which contains nothing +but what is in unison with the laws of our country and the honor of the +king." + +"If this petition," replied Margaret, "really contains nothing which is +at variance either with the good of the country, or with the authority +of the king, there is no doubt that it will be favorably considered." +"They had learnt," continued the spokesman, "with indignation and regret +that suspicious objects had been imputed to their association, and that +interested parties had endeavored to prejudice her highness against him; +they therefore craved that she would name the authors of so grave an +accusation, and compel them to bring their charges publicly, and in due +form, in order that he who should be found guilty might suffer the +punishment of his demerits." "Undoubtedly," replied the regent, "she +had received unfavorable rumors of their designs and alliance. She +could not be blamed, if in consequence she had thought it requisite to +call the attention of the governors of the provinces to the matter; but, +as to giving up the names of her informants to betray state secrets," +she added, with an appearance of displeasure, "that could not in justice +be required of her." She then appointed the next day for answering +their petition; and in the meantime she proceeded to consult the members +of her council upon it. + +"Never" (so ran the petition which, according to some, was drawn up by +the celebrated Balduin), "never had they failed in their loyalty to +their king, and nothing now could be farther from their hearts; but they +would rather run the risk of incurring the displeasure of their +sovereign than allow him to remain longer in ignorance of the evils with +which their native country was menaced, by the forcible introduction of +the Inquisition and the continued enforcement of the edicts. They had +long remained consoling themselves with the expectation that a general +assembly of the states would be summoned to remedy these grievances; but +now that even this hope was extinguished, they held it to be their duty +to give timely warning to the regent. They, therefore, entreated her +highness to send to Madrid an envoy, well disposed, and fully acquainted +with the state and temper of the times, who should endeavor to persuade +the king to comply with the demands of the whole nation, and abolish the +Inquisition, to revoke the edicts, and in their stead cause new and more +humane ones to be drawn up at a general assembly of the states. But, in +the meanwhile, until they could learn the king's decision, they prayed +that the edicts and the operations of the Inquisition be suspended." +"If," they concluded, "no attention should be paid to their humble +request, they took God, the king, the regent, and all her counsellors to +witness that they had done their part, and were not responsible for any +unfortunate result that might happen." + +The following day the confederates, marching in the same order of +procession, but in still greater numbers (Counts Bergen and Kuilemberg +having, in the interim, joined them with their adherents), appeared +before the regent in order to receive her answer. It was written on the +margin of the petition, and was to the effect, "that entirely to suspend +the Inquisition and the edicts, even temporarily, was beyond her powers; +but in compliance with the wishes of the confederates she was ready to +despatch one of the nobles to the king in Spain, and also to support +their petition with all her influence. In the meantime, she would +recommend the inquisitors to administer their office with moderation; +but in return she should expect on the part of the league that they +should abstain from all acts of violence, and undertake nothing to the +prejudice of the Catholic faith." Little as these vague and general +promises satisfied the confederates, they were, nevertheless, as much as +they could have reasonably expected to gain at first. The granting or +refusing of the petition had nothing to do with the primary object of +the league. Enough for them at present that it was once recognized, +enough that it was now, as it were, an established body, which by its +power and threats might, if necessary, overawe the government. The +confederates, therefore, acted quite consistently with their designs, +in contenting themselves with this answer, and referring the rest to +the good pleasure of the king. As, indeed, the whole pantomime of +petitioning had only been invented to cover the more daring plan of the +league, until it should have strength enough to show itself in its true +light, they felt that much more depended on their being able to continue +this mask, and on the favorable reception of their petition, than on its +speedily being granted. In a new memorial, which they delivered three +days after, they pressed for an express testimonial from the regent that +they had done no more than their duty, and been guided simply by their +zeal for the service of the king. When the duchess evaded a +declaration, they even sent a person to repeat this request in a private +interview. "Time alone and their future behavior," she replied to this +person, "would enable her to judge of their designs." + +The league had its origin in banquets, and a banquet gave it form and +perfection. On the very day that the second petition was presented +Brederode entertained the confederates in Kuilemberg house. About three +hundred guests assembled; intoxication gave them courage, and their +audacity rose with their numbers. During the conversation one of their +number happened to remark that he had overheard the Count of Barlaimont +whisper in French to the regent, who was seen to turn pale on the +delivery of the petitions, that "she need not be afraid of a band of +beggars (gueux);" (in fact, the majority of them had by their bad +management of their incomes only too well deserved this appellation.) +Now, as the very name for their fraternity was the very thing which had +most perplexed them, an expression was eagerly caught up, which, while +it cloaked the presumption of their enterprise in humility, was at the +same time appropriate to them as petitioners. Immediately they drank to +one another under this name, and the cry "long live the Gueux!" was +accompanied with a general shout of applause. After the cloth had been +removed Brederode appeared with a wallet over his shoulder similar to +that which the vagrant pilgrims and mendicant monks of the time used to +carry, and after returning thanks to all for their accession to the +league, and boldly assuring them that he was ready to venture life and +limb for every individual present, he drank to the health of the whole +company out of a wooden beaker. The cup went round and every one +uttered the same vow as be set it to his lips. Then one after the other +they received the beggar's purse, and each hung it on a nail which he +had appropriated to himself. The shouts and uproar attending this +buffoonery attracted the Prince of Orange and Counts Egmont and Horn, +who by chance were passing the spot at the very moment, and on entering +the house were boisterously pressed by Brederode, as host, to remain and +drink a glass with them. + + ["But," Egmont asserted in his written defence "we drank only one + single small glass, and thereupon they cried 'long live the king + and the Gueux!' This was the first time that I heard that + appellation, and it certainly did not please me. But the times + were so bad that one was often compelled to share in much that was + against one's inclination, and I knew not but I was doing an + innocent thing." Proces criminels des Comtes d'Egmont, etc.. 7. 1. + Egmont's defence, Hopper, 94. Strada, 127-130. Burgund., 185, + 187.] + +The entrance of three such influential personages renewed the mirth of +the guests, and their festivities soon passed the bounds of moderation. +Many were intoxicated; guests and attendants mingled together without +distinction; the serious and the ludicrous, drunken fancies and affairs +of state were blended one with another in a burlesque medley; and the +discussions on the general distress of the country ended in the wild +uproar of a bacchanalian revel. But it did not stop here; what they had +resolved on in the moment of intoxication they attempted when sober to +carry into execution. It was necessary to manifest to the people in +some striking shape the existence of their protectors, and likewise to +fan the zeal of the faction by a visible emblem; for this end nothing +could be better than to adopt publicly this name of Gueux, and to borrow +from it the tokens of the association. In a few days the town of +Brussels swarmed with ash-gray garments such as were usually worn by +mendicant friars and penitents. Every confederate put his whole family +and domestics in this dress. Some carried wooden bowls thinly overlaid +with plates of silver, cups of the same kind, and wooden knives; in +short the whole paraphernalia of the beggar tribe, which they either +fixed around their hats or suspended from their girdles: Round the neck +they wore a golden or silver coin, afterwards called the Geusen penny, +of which one side bore the effigy of the king, with the inscription, +"True to the king;" on the other side were seen two hands folded +together holding a wallet, with the words "as far as the beggar's +scrip." Hence the origin of the name "Gueux," which was subsequently +borne in the Netherlands by all who seceded from popery and took up arms +against the king. + +Before the confederates separated and dispersed among the provinces they +presented themselves once more before the duchess, in order to remind +her of the necessity of leniency towards the heretics until the arrival +of the king's answer from Spain, if she did not wish to drive the people +to extremities. "If, however," they added, "a contrary behavior should +give rise to any evils they at least must be regarded as having done +their duty." + +To this the regent replied, "she hoped to be able to adopt such +measures as would render it impossible for disorders to ensue; but if, +nevertheless, they did occur, she could ascribe them to no one but the +confederates. She therefore earnestly admonished them on their part to +fulfil their engagements, but especially to receive no new members into +the league, to hold no more private assemblies, and generally not to +attempt any novel and unconstitutional measures." And in order to +tranquillize their minds she commanded her private secretary, Berti, to +show them the letters to the inquisitors and secular judges, wherein +they were enjoined to observe moderation towards all those who had not +aggravated their heretical offences by any civil crime. Before their +departure from Brussels they named four presidents from among their +number who were to take care of the affairs of the league, and also +particular administrators for each province. A few were left behind in +Brussels to keep a watchful eye on all the movements of the court. +Brederode, Kuilemberg, and Bergen at last quitted the town, attended by +five hundred and fifty horsemen, saluted it once more beyond the walls +with a discharge of musketry, and then the three leaders parted, +Brederode taking the road to Antwerp, and the two others to Guelders. +The regent had sent off an express to Antwerp to warn the magistrate of +that town against him. On his arrival more than a thousand persons +thronged to the hotel where he had taken up his abode. Showing himself +at a window, with a full wineglass in his hand, he thus addressed them: +"Citizens of Antwerp! I am here at the hazard of my life and my +property to relieve you from the oppressive burden of the Inquisition. +If you are ready to share this enterprise with me, and to acknowledge me +as your leader, accept the health which I here drink to you, and hold up +your hands in testimony of your approbation." Hereupon he drank to +their health, and all hands were raised amidst clamorous shouts of +exultation. After this heroic deed he quitted Antwerp. + +Immediately after the delivery of the "petition of the nobles," the +regent had caused a new form of the edicts to be drawn up in the privy +council, which should keep the mean between the commands of the king and +the demands of the confederates. But the next question that arose was +to determine whether it would be advisable immediately to promulgate +this mitigated form, or moderation, as it was commonly called, or to +submit it first to the king for his ratification. The privy council who +maintained that it would be presumptuous to take a step so important and +so contrary to the declared sentiments of the monarch without having +first obtained his sanction, opposed the vote of the Prince of Orange +who supported the former proposition. Besides, they urged, there was +cause to fear that it would not even content the nation. + +A "moderation" devised with the assent of the states was what they +particularly insisted on. In order, therefore, to gain the consent of +the states, or rather to obtain it from them by stealth, the regent +artfully propounded the question to the provinces singly, and first of +all to those which possessed the least freedom, such as Artois, Namur, +and Luxemburg. Thus she not only prevented one province encouraging +another in opposition, but also gained this advantage by it, that the +freer provinces, such as Flanders and Brabant, which were prudently +reserved to the last, allowed themselves to be carried away by the +example of the others. By a very illegal procedure the representatives +of the towns were taken by surprise, and their consent exacted before +they could confer with their constituents, while complete silence was +imposed upon them with regard to the whole transaction. By these means +the regent obtained the unconditional consent of some of the provinces +to the "moderation," and, with a few slight changes, that of other +provinces. Luxemburg and Namur subscribed it without scruple. The +states of Artois simply added the condition that false informers should +be subjected to a retributive penalty; those of Hainault demanded that +instead of confiscation of the estates, which directly militated against +their privileges, another discretionary punishment should be introduced. +Flanders called for the entire abolition of the Inquisition, and desired +that the accused might be secured in right of appeal to their own +province. The states of Brabant were outwitted by the intrigues of the +court. Zealand, Holland, Utrecht, Guelders, and Friesland as being +provinces which enjoyed the most important privileges, and which, +moreover, watched over them with the greatest jealousy, were never asked +for their opinion. The provincial courts of judicature had also been +required to make a report on the projected amendment of the law, but we +may well suppose that it was unfavorable, as it never reached Spain. +From the principal cause of this "moderation," which, however, really +deserved its name, we may form a judgment of the general character of +the edicts themselves. "Sectarian writers," it ran, "the heads and +teachers of sects, as also those who conceal heretical meetings, or +cause any other public scandal, shall be punished with the gallows, and +their estates, where the law of the province permit it, confiscated; but +if they abjure their errors, their punishment shall be commuted into +decapitation with the sword, and their effects shall be preserved to +their families." A cruel snare for parental affection! Less grievous +heretics, it was further enacted, shall, if penitent, be pardoned; and +if impenitent shall be compelled to leave the country, without, however, +forfeiting their estates, unless by continuing to lead others astray +they deprive themselves of the benefit of this provision. The +Anabaptists, however, were expressly excluded from benefiting by this +clause; these, if they did not clear themselves by the most thorough +repentance, were to forfeit their possessions; and if, on the other +hand, they relapsed after penitence, that is, were backsliding heretics, +they were to be put to death without mercy. The greater regard for life +and property which is observable in this ordinance as compared with the +edicts, and which we might be tempted to ascribe to a change of +intention in the Spanish ministry, was nothing more than a compulsory +step extorted by the determined opposition of the nobles. So little, +too, were the people in the Netherlands satisfied by this "moderation," +which fundamentally did not remove a single abuse, that instead of +"moderation" (mitigation), they indignantly called it "moorderation," +that is, murdering. + +After the consent of the states had in this manner been extorted from +them, the "moderation" was submitted to the council of the state, and, +after receiving their signatures, forwarded to the king in Spain in +order to receive from his ratification the force of law. + +The embassy to Madrid, which had been agreed upon with the confederates, +was at the outset entrusted to the Marquis of Bergen, who, however, from +a distrust of the present disposition of the king, which was only too +well grounded, and from reluctance to engage alone in so delicate a +business, begged for a coadjutor. + + [This Marquis of Bergen is to be distinguished from Count William + of Bergen, who was among the first who subscribed the covenant. + Vigi. ad Hopper, Letter VII.] + +He obtained one in the Baron of Montigny, who had previously been +employed in a similar duty, and had discharged it with high credit. +As, however, circumstances had since altered so much that he had just +anxiety as to his present reception in Madrid for his greater safety, +he stipulated with the duchess that she should write to the monarch +previously; and that he, with his companion, should, in the meanwhile, +travel slowly enough to give time for the king's answer reaching him en +route. His good genius wished, as it appeared, to save him from the +terrible fate which awaited him in Madrid, for his departure was delayed +by an unexpected obstacle, the Marquis of Bergen being disabled from +setting out immediately through a wound which he received from the blow +of a tennis-ball. At last, however, yielding to the pressing +importunities of the regent, who was anxious to expedite the business, +he set out alone, not, as he hoped, to carry the cause of his nation, +but to die for it. + +In the meantime the posture of affairs had changed so greatly in the +Netherlands, the step which the nobles had recently taken had so nearly +brought on a complete rupture with the government, that it seemed +impossible for the Prince of Orange and his friends to maintain any +longer the intermediate and delicate position which they had hitherto +held between the country and the court, or to reconcile the +contradictory duties to which it gave rise. Great must have been +the restraint which, with their mode of thinking, they had to put on +themselves not to take part in this contest; much, too, must their +natural love of liberty, their patriotism, and their principles of +toleration have suffered from the constraint which their official +station imposed upon them. On the other hand, Philip's distrust, the +little regard which now for a long time had been paid to their advice, +and the marked slights which the duchess publicly put upon them, had +greatly contributed to cool their zeal for the service, and to render +irksome the longer continuance of a part which they played with so much +repugnance and with so little thanks. This feeling was strengthened by +several intimations they received from Spain which placed beyond doubt +the great displeasure of the king at the petition of the nobles, and his +little satisfaction with their own behavior on that occasion, while they +were also led to expect that he was about to enter upon measures, to +which, as favorable to the liberties of their country, and for the most +part friends or blood relations of the confederates; they could never +lend their countenance or support. On the name which should be applied +in Spain to the confederacy of the nobles it principally depended what +course they should follow for the future. If the petition should be +called rebellion no alternative would be left them but either to come +prematurely to a dangerous explanation with the court, or to aid it in +treating as enemies those with whom they had both a fellow-feeling and a +common interest. This perilous alternative could only be avoided by +withdrawing entirely from public affairs; this plan they had once before +practically adopted, and under present circumstances it was something +more than a simple expedient. The whole nation had their eyes upon +them. An unlimited confidence in their integrity, and the universal +veneration for their persons, which closely bordered on idolatry, would +ennoble the cause which they might make their own and ruin that which +they should abandon. Their share in the administration of the state, +though it were nothing more than nominal, kept the opposite party in +check; while they attended the senate violent measures were avoided +because their continued presence still favored some expectations of +succeeding by gentle means. The withholding of their approbation, even +if it did not proceed from their hearts, dispirited the faction, which, +on the contrary, would exert its full strength so soon as it could +reckon even distantly on obtaining so weighty a sanction. The very +measures of the government which, if they came through their hands, were +certain of a favorable reception and issue, would without them prove +suspected and futile; even the royal concessions, if they were not +obtained by the mediation of these friends of the people, would fail of +the chief part of their efficacy. Besides, their retirement from public +affairs would deprive the regent of the benefit of their advice at a +time when counsel was most indispensable to her; it would, moreover, +leave the preponderance with a party which, blindly dependent on the +court, and ignorant of the peculiarities of republican character, would +neglect nothing to aggravate the evil, and to drive to extremity the +already exasperated mind of the public. + +All these motives (and it is open to every one, according to his good or +bad opinion of the prince, to say which was the most influential) tended +alike to move him to desert the regent, and to divest himself of all +share in public affairs. An opportunity for putting this resolve into +execution soon presented itself. The prince had voted for the immediate +promulgation of the newly-revised edicts; but the regent, following the +suggestion of her privy council, had determined to transmit them first +to the king. "I now see clearly," he broke out with well-acted +vehemence, "that all the advice which I give is distrusted. The king +requires no servants whose loyalty he is determined to doubt; and far be +it from me to thrust my services upon a sovereign who is unwilling to +receive them. Better, therefore, for him and me that I withdraw from +public affairs." Count Horn expressed himself nearly to the same +effect. Egmont requested permission to visit the baths of +Aix-la-Chapelle, the use of which had been prescribed to him by his +physician, although (as it is stated in his accusation) he appeared +health itself. The regent, terrified at the consequences which must +inevitably follow this step, spoke sharply to the prince. "If neither my +representations, nor the general welfare can prevail upon you, so far as +to induce you to relinquish this intention, let me advise you to be more +careful, at least, of your own reputation. Louis of Nassau is your +brother; he and Count Brederode, the heads of the confederacy, have +publicly been your guests. The petition is in substance identical with +your own representations in the council of state. If you now suddenly +desert the cause of your king will it not be universally said that you +favor the conspiracy?" We do not find it anywhere stated whether the +prince really withdrew at this time from the council of state; at all +events, if he did, he must soon have altered his mind, for shortly after +he appears again in public transactions. Egmont allowed himself to be +overcome by the remonstrances of the regent; Horn alone actually withdrew +himself to one of his estates,--[Where he remained three months +inactive.]--with the resolution of never more serving either emperor or +king. Meanwhile the Gueux had dispersed themselves through the provinces, +and spread everywhere the most favorable reports of their success. +According to their assertions, religious freedom was finally assured; and +in order to confirm their statements they helped themselves, where the +truth failed, with falsehood. For example, they produced a forged letter +of the Knights of the Fleece, in which the latter were made solemnly to +declare that for the future no one need fear imprisonment, or banishment, +or death on account of religion, unless he also committed a political +crime; and even in that case the confederates alone were to be his +judges; and this regulation was to be in force until the king, with the +consent and advice of the states of the realm, should otherwise dispose. +Earnestly as the knights applied themselves upon the first information of +the fraud to rescue the nation from their delusion, still it had already +in this short interval done good service to the faction. If there are +truths whose effect is limited to a single instant, then inventions which +last so long can easily assume their place. Besides, the report, however +false, was calculated both to awaken distrust between the regent and the +knights, and to support the courage of the Protestants by fresh hopes, +while it also furnished those who were meditating innovation an +appearance of right, which, however unsubstantial they themselves knew it +to be, served as a colorable pretext for their proceedings. Quickly as +this delusion was dispelled, still, in the short space of time that it +obtained belief, it had occasioned so many extravagances, had introduced +so much irregularity and license, that a return to the former state of +things became impossible, and continuance in the course already commenced +was rendered necessary as well by habit as by despair. On the very first +news of this happy result the fugitive Protestants had returned to their +homes, which they had so unwillingly abandoned; those who had been in +concealment came forth from their hiding-places; those who had hitherto +paid homage to the new religion in their hearts alone, emboldened by +these pretended acts of toleration, now gave in their adhesion to it +publicly and decidedly. The name of the "Gueux" was extolled in all the +provinces; they were called the pillars of religion and liberty; their +party increased daily, and many of the merchants began to wear their +insignia. The latter made an alteration in the "Gueux" penny, by +introducing two travellers' staffs, laid crosswise, to intimate that they +stood prepared and ready at any instant to forsake house and hearth for +the sake of religion. The Gueux league, in short, had now given to things +an entirely different form. The murmurs of the people, hitherto impotent +and despised, as being the cries of individuals, had, now that they were +concentrated, become formidable; and had gained power, direction, and +firmness through union. Every one who was rebelliously disposed now +looked on himself as the member of a venerable and powerful body, and +believed that by carrying his own complaints to the general stock of +discontent he secured the free expression of them. To be called an +important acquisition to the league flattered the vain; to be lost, +unnoticed, and irresponsible in the crowd was an inducement to the timid. +The face which the confederacy showed to the nation was very unlike that +which it had turned to the court. But had its objects been the purest, +had it really been as well disposed towards the throne as it wished to +appear, still the multitude would have regarded only what was illegal in +its proceedings, and upon them its better intentions would have been +entirely lost. + + + + PUBLIC PREACHING. + +No moment could be more favorable to the Huguenots and the German +Protestants than the present to seek a market for their dangerous +commodity in the Netherlands. Accordingly, every considerable town now +swarmed with suspicious arrivals, masked spies, and the apostles of +every description of heresy. Of the religious parties, which had sprung +up by secession from the ruling church, three chiefly had made +considerable progress in the provinces. Friesland and the adjoining +districts were overrun by the Anabaptists, who, however, as the most +indigent, without organization and government, destitute of military +resources, and moreover at strife amongst themselves, awakened the least +apprehension. Of far more importance were the Calvanists, who prevailed +in the southern provinces, and above all in Flanders, who were +powerfully supported by their neighbors the Huguenots, the republic of +Geneva, the Swiss Cantons, and part of Germany, and whose opinions, with +the exception of a slight difference, were also held by the throne in +England. They were also the most numerous party, especially among the +merchants and common citizens. The Huguenots, expelled from France, had +been the chief disseminators of the tenets of this party. The Lutherans +were inferior both in numbers and wealth, but derived weight from having +many adherents among the nobility. They occupied, for the most part, +the eastern portion of the Netherlands, which borders on Germany, and +were also to be found in some of the northern territories. Some of the +most powerful princes of Germany were their allies; and the religious +freedom of that empire, of which by the Burgundian treaty the +Netherlands formed an integral part, was claimed by them with some +appearance of right. These three religious denominations met together +in Antwerp, where the crowded population concealed them, and the +mingling of all nations favored liberty. They had nothing in common, +except an equally inextinguishable hatred of popery, of the Inquisition +in particular, and of the Spanish government, whose instrument it was; +while, on the other hand, they watched each other with a jealousy which +kept their zeal in exercise, and prevented the glowing ardor of +fanaticism from waxing dull. + +The regent, in expectation that the projected "moderation" would be +sanctioned by the king, had, in the meantime, to gratify the Gueux, +recommended the governors and municipal officers of the provinces to be +as moderate as possible in their proceedings against heretics; +instructions which were eagerly followed, and interpreted in the widest +sense by the majority, who had hitherto administered the painful duty of +punishment with extreme repugnance. Most of the chief magistrates were +in their hearts averse to the Inquisition and the Spanish tyranny, and +many were even secretly attached to one or other of the religious +parties; even the others were unwilling to inflict punishment on +their countrymen to gratify their sworn enemies, the Spaniards. +All, therefore, purposely misunderstood the regent, and allowed the +Inquisition and the edicts to fall almost entirely into disuse. +This forbearance of the government, combined with the brilliant +representations of the Gueux, lured from their obscurity the +Protestants, who, however, had now grown too powerful to be any longer +concealed. Hitherto they had contented themselves with secret +assemblies by night; now they thought themselves numerous and formidable +enough to venture to these meetings openly and publicly. This license +commenced somewhere between Oudenarde and Ghent, and soon spread through +the rest of Flanders. A certain Herrnann Stricker, born at Overyssel, +formerly a monk, a daring enthusiast of able mind, imposing figure, and +ready tongue, was the first who collected the people for a sermon in the +open air. The novelty of the thing gathered together a crowd of about +seven thousand persons. A magistrate of the neighborhood, more +courageous than wise, rushed amongst the crowd with his drawn sword, and +attempted to seize the preacher, but was so roughly handled by the +multitude, who for want of other weapons took up stones and felled him +to the ground, that he was glad to beg for his life. + + [The unheard-of foolhardiness of a single man rushing into the + midst of a fanatical crowd of seven thousand people to seize before + their eyes one whom they adored, proves, more than all that can be + said on the subject the insolent contempt with which the Roman + Catholics of the time looked down upon the so-called heretics as an + inferior race of beings.] + +This success of the first attempt inspired courage for a second. In the +vicinity of Aalst they assembled again in still greater numbers; but on +this occasion they provided themselves with rapiers, firearms, and +halberds, placed sentries at all the approaches, which they also +barricaded with carts and carriages. All passers-by were obliged, +whether willing or otherwise, to take part in the religious service, and +to enforce this object lookout parties were posted at certain distances +round the place of meeting. At the entrance booksellers stationed +themselves, offering for sale Protestant catechisms, religious tracts, +and pasquinades on the bishops. The preacher, Hermann Stricker, held +forth from a pulpit which was hastily constructed for the occasion out +of carts and trunks of trees. A canvas awning drawn over it protected +him from the sun and the rain; the preacher's position was in the +quarter of the wind that the people might not lose any part of his +sermon, which consisted principally of revilings against popery. Here +the sacraments were administered after the Calvinistic fashion, and +water was procured from the nearest river to baptize infants without +further ceremony, after the practice, it was pretended, of the earliest +times of Christianity. Couples were also united in wedlock, and the +marriage ties dissolved between others. To be present at this meeting +half the population of Ghent had left its gates; their example was soon +followed in other parts, and ere long spread over the whole of East +Flanders. In like manner Peter Dathen, another renegade monk, from +Poperingen, stirred up West Flanders; as many as fifteen thousand +persons at a time attended his preaching from the villages and hamlets; +their number made them bold, and they broke into the prisons, where some +Anabaptists were reserved for martyrdom. In Tournay the Protestants +were excited to a similar pitch of daring by Ambrosius Ville, a French +Calvinist. They demanded the release of the prisoners of their sect, +and repeatedly threatened if their demands were not complied with to +deliver up the town to the French. It was entirely destitute of a +garrison, for the commandant, from fear of treason, had withdrawn it +into the castle, and the soldiers, moreover, refused to act against +their fellow-citizens. The sectarians carried their audacity to such +great lengths as to require one of the churches within the town to be +assigned to them; and when this was refused they entered into a league +with Valenciennes and Antwerp to obtain a legal recognition of their +worship, after the example of the other towns, by open force. These +three towns maintained a close connection with each other, and the +Protestant party was equally powerful in all. While, however, no one +would venture singly to commence the disturbance, they agreed +simultaneously to make a beginning with public preaching. Brederode's +appearance in Antwerp at last gave them courage. Six thousand persons, +men and women, poured forth from the town on an appointed day, on which +the same thing happened in Tournay and Valenciennes. The place of +meeting was closed in with a line of vehicles, firmly fastened together, +and behind them armed men were secretly posted, with a view to protect +the service from any surprise. Of the preachers, most of whom were men +of the very lowest class--some were Germans, some were Huguenots--and +spoke in the Walloon dialect; some even of the citizens felt themselves +called upon to take a part in this sacred work, now that no fears of the +officers of justice alarmed them. Many were drawn to the spot by mere +curiosity to hear what kind of new and unheard-of doctrines these +foreign teachers, whose arrival had caused so much talk, would set +forth. Others were attracted by the melody of the psalms, which were +sung in a French version, after the custom in Geneva. A great number +came to hear these sermons as so many amusing comedies such was the +buffoonery with which the pope, the fathers of the ecclesiastical +council of Trent, purgatory, and other dogmas of the ruling church were +abused in them. And, in fact, the more extravagant was this abuse and +ridicule the more it tickled the ears of the lower orders; and a +universal clapping of hands, as in a theatre, rewarded the speaker who +had surpassed others in the wildness of his jokes and denunciations. +But the ridicule which was thus cast upon the ruling church was, +nevertheless, not entirely lost on the minds of the hearers, as neither +were the few grains of truth or reason which occasionally slipped in +among it; and many a one, who had sought from these sermons anything but +conviction, unconsciously carried away a little also of it. + +These assemblies were several times repeated, and each day augmented the +boldness of the sectarians; till at last they even ventured, after +concluding the service to conduct their preachers home in triumph, with +an escort of armed horsemen, and ostentatiously to brave the law. The +town council sent express after express to the duchess, entreating her +to visit them in person, and if possible to reside for a short time in +Antwerp, as the only expedient to curb the arrogance of the populace; +and assuring her that the most eminent merchants, afraid of being +plundered, were already preparing to quit it. Fear of staking the royal +dignity on so hazardous a stroke of policy forbade her compliance; but +she despatched in her stead Count Megen, in order to treat with the +magistrate for the introduction of a garrison. The rebellious mob, who +quickly got an inkling of the object of his visit, gathered around him +with tumultuous cries, shouting, "He was known to them as a sworn enemy +of the Gueux; that it was notorious he was bringing upon them prisons +and the Inquisition, and that he should leave the town instantly." Nor +was the tumult quieted till Megen was beyond the gates. The Calvinists +now handed in to the magistrate a memorial, in which they showed that +their great numbers made it impossible for them henceforward to assemble +in secrecy, and requested a separate place of worship to be allowed them +inside the town. The town council renewed its entreaties to the duchess +to assist, by her personal presence, their perplexities, or at least to +send to them the Prince of Orange, as the only person for whom the +people still had any respect, and, moreover, as specially bound to the +town of Antwerp by his hereditary title of its burgrave. In order to +escape the greater evil she was compelled to consent to the second +demand, however much against her inclination to entrust Antwerp to the +prince. After allowing himself to be long and fruitlessly entreated, +for he had all at once resolved to take no further share in public +affairs, he yielded at last to the earnest persuasions of the regent +and the boisterous wishes of the people. Brederode, with a numerous +retinue, came half a mile out of the town to meet him, and both parties +saluted each other with a discharge of pistols. Antwerp appeared to +have poured out all her inhabitants to welcome her deliverer. The high +road swarmed with multitudes; the roofs were taken off the houses in +order that they might accommodate more spectators; behind fences, from +churchyard walls, even out of graves started up men. The attachment of +the people to the prince showed itself in childish effusions. "Long +live the Gueux!" was the shout with which young and old received him. +"Behold," cried others, "the man who shall give us liberty." "He brings +us," cried the Lutherans, "the Confession of Augsburg!" "We don't want +the Gueux now!" exclaimed others; "we have no more need of the +troublesome journey to Brussels. He alone is everything to us!" Those +who knew not what to say vented their extravagant joy in psalms, which +they vociferously chanted as they moved along. He, however, maintained +his gravity, beckoned for silence, and at last, when no one would listen +to him, exclaimed with indignation, half real and half affected, "By +God, they ought to consider what they did, or they would one day repent +what they had now done." The shouting increased even as he rode into +the town. The first conference of the prince with the heads of the +different religious sects, whom he sent for and separately interrogated, +presently convinced him that the chief source of the evil was the mutual +distrust of the several parties, and the suspicions which the citizens +entertained of the designs of the government, and that therefore it must +be his first business to restore confidence among them all. First of +all he attempted, both by persuasion and artifice, to induce the +Calvinists, as the most numerous body, to lay down their weapons, and in +this he at last, with much labor, succeeded. When, however, some wagons +were soon afterwards seen laden with ammunition in Malines, and the high +bailiff of Brabant showed himself frequently in the neighborhood of +Antwerp with an armed force, the Calvinists, fearing hostile +interruption of their religious worship, besought the prince to allot +them a place within the walls for their sermons, which should be secure +from a surprise. He succeeded once more in pacifying them, and his +presence fortunately prevented an outbreak on the Assumption of the +Virgin, which, as usual, had drawn a crowd to the town, and from whose +sentiments there was but too much reason for alarm. The image of the +Virgin was, with the usual pomp, carried round the town without +interruption; a few words of abuse, and a suppressed murmur about +idolatry, was all that the disapproving multitudes indulged in against +the procession. + + +1566. While the regent received from one province after another the +most melancholy accounts of the excesses of the Protestants, and while +she trembled for Antwerp, which she was compelled to leave in the +dangerous hands of the Prince of Orange, a new terror assailed her from +another quarter. Upon the first authentic tidings of the public +preaching she immediately called upon the league to fulfil its promises +and to assist her in restoring order. Count Brederode used this pretext +to summon a general meeting of the whole league, for which he could not +have selected a more dangerous moment than the present. So ostentatious +a display of the strength of the league, whose existence and protection +had alone encouraged the Protestant mob to go the length it had already +gone, would now raise the confidence of the sectarians, while in the +same degree it depressed the courage of the regent. The convention took +place in the town of Liege St. Truyen, into which Brederode and Louis of +Nassau had thrown themselves at the head of two thousand confederates. +As the long delay of the royal answer from Madrid seemed to presage no +good from that quarter, they considered it advisable in any case to +extort from the regent a letter of indemnity for their persons. + +Those among them who were conscious of a disloyal sympathy with the +Protestant mob looked on its licentiousness as a favorable circumstance +for the league; the apparent success of those to whose degrading +fellowship they had deigned to stoop led them to alter their tone; their +former laudable zeal began to degenerate into insolence and defiance. +Many thought that they ought to avail themselves of the general +confusion and the perplexity of the duchess to assume a bolder tone and +heap demand upon demand. The Roman Catholic members of the league, +among whom many were in their hearts still strongly inclined to the +royal cause, and who had been drawn into a connection with the league by +occasion and example, rather than from feeling and conviction, now heard +to their astonishment propositions for establishing universal freedom of +religion, and were not a little shocked to discover in how perilous an +enterprise they had hastily implicated themselves. On this discovery +the young Count Mansfeld withdrew immediately from it, and internal +dissensions already began to undermine the work of precipitation and +haste, and imperceptibly to loosen the joints of the league. + +Count Egmont and William of Orange were empowered by the regent to treat +with the confederates. Twelve of the latter, among whom were Louis of +Nassau, Brederode, and Kuilemberg, conferred with them in Duffle, a +village near Malines. "Wherefore this new step?" demanded the regent +by the mouth of these two noblemen. "I was required to despatch +ambassadors to Spain; and I sent them. The edicts and the Inquisition +were complained of as too rigorous; I have rendered both more lenient. +A general assembly of the states of the realm was proposed; I have +submitted this request to the king because I could not grant it from my +own authority. What, then, have I unwittingly either omitted or done +that should render necessary this assembling in St. Truyen? Is it +perhaps fear of the king's anger and of its consequences that disturbs +the confederates? The provocation certainly is great, but his mercy is +even greater. Where now is the promise of the league to excite no +disturbances amongst the people? Where those high-sounding professions +that they were ready to die at my feet rather, than offend against any +of the prerogatives of the crown? The innovators already venture on +things which border closely on rebellion, and threaten the state with +destruction; and it is to the league that they appeal. If it continues +silently to tolerate this it will justly bring on itself the charge of +participating in the guilt of their offences; if it is honestly disposed +towards the sovereign it cannot remain longer inactive in this +licentiousness of the mob. But, in truth, does it not itself outstrip +the insane population by its dangerous example, concluding, as it is +known to do, alliances with the enemies of the country, and confirming +the evil report of its designs by the present illegal meeting?" + +Against these reproaches the league formally justified itself in a +memorial which it deputed three of its members to deliver to the council +of state at Brussels. + +"All," it commenced, "that your highness has done in respect to our +petition we have felt with the most lively gratitude; and we cannot +complain of any new measure, subsequently adopted, inconsistent with +your promise; but we cannot help coming to the conclusion that the +orders of your highness are by the judicial courts, at least, very +little regarded; for we are continually hearing--and our own eyes attest +to the truth of the report--that in all quarters our fellow-citizens are +in spite of the orders of your highness still mercilessly dragged before +the courts of justice and condemned to death for religion. What the +league engaged on its part to do it has honestly fulfilled; it has, too, +to the utmost of its power endeavored to prevent the public preachings; +but it certainly is no wonder if the long delay of an answer from Madrid +fills the mind of the people with distrust, and if the disappointed +hopes of a general assembly of the states disposes them to put little +faith in any further assurances. The league has never allied, nor ever +felt any temptation to ally, itself with the enemies of the country. If +the arms of France were to appear in the provinces we, the confederates, +would be the first to mount and drive them back again. The league, +however, desires to be candid with your highness. We thought we read +marks of displeasure in your countenance; we see men in exclusive +possession of your favor who are notorious for their hatred against us. +We daily hear that persons are warned from associating with us, as with +those infected with the plague, while we are denounced with the arrival +of the king as with the opening of a day of judgment--what is more +natural than that such distrust shown to us should at last rouse our +own? That the attempt to blacken our league with the reproach of +treason, that the warlike preparations of the Duke of Savoy and of other +princes, which, according to common report, are directed against +ourselves; the negotiations of the king with the French court to obtain +a passage through that kingdom for a Spanish army, which is destined, +it is said, for the Netherlands--what wonder if these and similar +occurrences should have stimulated us to think in time of the means of +self-defence, and to strengthen ourselves by an alliance with our +friends beyond the frontier? On a general, uncertain, and vague rumor +we are accused of a share in this licentiousness of the Protestant mob; +but who is safe from general rumor? True it is, certainly, that of our +numbers some are Protestants, to whom religious toleration would be a +welcome boon; but even they have never forgotten what they owe to their +sovereign. It is not fear of the king's anger which instigated us to +hold this assembly. The king is good, and we still hope that he is also +just. It cannot, therefore, be pardon that we seek from him, and just +as little can it be oblivion that we solicit for our actions, which are +far from being the least considerable of the services we have at +different times rendered his majesty. Again, it is true, that the +delegates of the Lutherans and Calvinists are with us in St. Truyen; +nay, more, they have delivered to us a petition which, annexed to this +memorial, we here present to your highness. In it they offer to go +unarmed to their preachings if the league will tender its security to +them, and be willing to engage for a general meeting of the states. We +have thought it incumbent upon us to communicate both these matters to +you, for our guarantee can have no force unless it is at the same time +confirmed by your highness and some of your principal counsellors. +Among these no one can be so well acquainted with the circumstances of +our cause, or be so upright in intention towards us, as the Prince of +Orange and Counts Horn and Egmont. We gladly accept these three as +meditators if the necessary powers are given to them, and assurance is +afforded us that no troops will be enlisted without their knowledge. +This guarantee, however, we only require for a given period, before the +expiration of which it will rest with the king whether he will cancel or +confirm it for the future. If the first should be his will it will then +be but fair that time should be allowed us to place our persons and our +property in security; for this three weeks will be sufficient. Finally, +and in conclusion, we on our part also pledge ourselves to undertake +nothing new without the concurrence of those three persons, our +mediators." + +The league would not have ventured to hold such bold language if it had +not reckoned on powerful support and protection; but the regent was as +little in a condition to concede their demands as she was incapable of +vigorously opposing them. Deserted in Brussels by most of her +counsellors of state, who had either departed to their provinces, or +under some pretext or other had altogether withdrawn from public +affairs; destitute as well of advisers as of money (the latter want had +compelled her, in the first instance, to appeal to the liberality of the +clergy; when this proved insufficient, to have recourse to a lottery), +dependent on orders from Spain, which were ever expected and never +received, she was at last reduced to the degrading expedient of entering +into a negotiation with the confederates in St. Truyen, that they should +wait twenty-four days longer for the king's resolution before they took +any further steps. It was certainly surprising that the king still +continued to delay a decisive answer to the petition, although it was +universally known that he had answered letters of a much later date, and +that the regent earnestly importuned him on this head. She had also, on +the commencement of the public preaching, immediately despatched the +Marquis of Bergen after the Baron of Montigny, who, as an eye-witness of +these new occurrences, could confirm her written statements, to move the +king to an earlier decision. + + +1566. In the meanwhile, the Flemish ambassador, Florence of Montigny, +had arrived in Madrid, where he was received with a great show of +consideration. His instructions were to press for the abolition of the +Inquisition and the mitigation of the edicts; the augmentation of the +council of state, and the incorporation with it of the two other +councils; the calling of a general assembly of the states, and, lastly, +to urge the solicitations of the regent for a personal visit from the +king. As the latter, however, was only desirous of gaining time, +Montigny was put off with fair words until the arrival of his coadjutor, +without whom the king was not willing to come to any final +determination. In the meantime, Montigny had every day and at any hour +that he desired, an audience with the king, who also commanded that on +all occasions the despatches of the duchess and the answers to them +should be communicated to himself. He was, too, frequently admitted to +the council for Belgian affairs, where he never omitted to call the +king's attention to the necessity of a general assembly of the states, +as being the only means of successfully meeting the troubles which had +arisen, and as likely to supersede the necessity of any other measure. +He moreover impressed upon him that a general and unreserved indemnity +for the past would alone eradicate the distrust, which was the source of +all existing complaints, and would always counteract the good effects of +every measure, however well advised. He ventured, from a thorough +acquaintance with circumstances and accurate knowledge of the character +of his countrymen, to pledge himself to the king for their inviolable +loyalty, as soon as they should be convinced of the honesty of his +intentions by the straightforwardness of his proceedings; while, on the +contrary, he assured him that there would be no hopes of it as long as +they were not relieved of the fear of being made the victims of the +oppression, and sacrificed to the envy of the Spanish nobles. At last +Montigny's coadjutor made his appearance, and the objects of their +embassy were made the subject of repeated deliberations. + + +1566. The king was at that time at his palace at Segovia, where also he +assembled his state council. The members were: the Duke of Alva; Don +Gomez de Figueroa; the Count of Feria; Don Antonio of Toledo, Grand +Commander of St. John; Don John Manriquez of Lara, Lord Steward to the +Queen; Ruy Gomez, Prince of Eboli and Count of Melito; Louis of Quixada, +Master of the Horse to the Prince; Charles Tyssenacque, President of the +Council for the Netherlands; Hopper, State Counsellor and Keeper of the +Seal; and State Counsellor Corteville. The sitting of the council was +protracted for several days; both ambassadors were in attendance, but +the king was not himself present. Here, then, the conduct of the +Belgian nobles was examined by Spanish eyes; step by step it was traced +back to the most distant source; circumstances were brought into +relation with others which, in reality, never had any connection; and +what had been the offspring of the moment was made out to be a +well-matured and far-sighted plan. All the different transactions and +attempts of the nobles which had been governed solely by chance, and to +which the natural order of events alone assigned their particular shape +and succession, were said to be the result of a preconcerted scheme for +introducing universal liberty in religion, and for placing all the power +of the state in the hands of the nobles. The first step to this end +was, it was said, the violent expulsion of the minister Granvella, +against whom nothing could be charged, except that he was in possession +of an authority which they preferred to exercise themselves. The second +step was sending Count Egmont to Spain to urge the abolition of the +Inquisition and the mitigation of the penal statutes, and to prevail on +the king to consent to an augmentation of the council of state. As, +however, this could not be surreptitiously obtained in so quiet a +manner, the attempt was made to extort it from the court by a third and +more daring step--by a formal conspiracy, the league of the Gueux. The +fourth step to the same end was the present embassy, which at length +boldly cast aside the mask, and by the insane proposals which they were +not ashamed to make to their king, clearly brought to light the object +to which all the preceding steps had tended. Could the abolition of the +Inquisition, they exclaimed, lead to anything less than a complete +freedom of belief? Would not the guiding helm of conscience be lost +with it? Did not the proposed "moderation" introduce an absolute +impunity for all heresies? What was the project of augmenting the +council of state and of suppressing the two other councils but a +complete remodelling of the government of the country in favor of +the nobles?--a general constitution for all the provinces of the +Netherlands? Again, what was this compact of the ecclesiastics in their +public preachings but a third conspiracy, entered into with the very +same objects which the league of the nobles in the council of state and +that of the Gueux had failed to effect? + +However, it was confessed that whatever might be the source of the evil +it was not on that account the less important and imminent. The +immediate personal presence of the king in Brussels was, indubitably, +the most efficacious means speedily and thoroughly to remedy it. As, +however, it was already so late in the year, and the preparations alone +for the journey would occupy the short tine which was to elapse before +the winter set in; as the stormy season of the year, as well as the +danger from French and English ships, which rendered the sea unsafe, did +not allow of the king's taking the northern route, which was the shorter +of the two; as the rebels themselves meanwhile might become possessed of +the island of Walcheren, and oppose the lauding of the king; for all +these reasons, the journey was not to be thought of before the spring, +and in absence of the only complete remedy it was necessary to rest +satisfied with a partial expedient. The council, therefore, agreed to +propose to the king, in the first place, that he should recall the papal +Inquisition from the provinces and rest satisfied with that of the +bishops; in the second place, that a new plan for the mitigation of the +edicts should be projected, by which the honor of religion and of the +king would be better preserved than it had been in the transmitted +"moderation;" thirdly, that in order to reassure the minds of the +people, and to leave no means untried, the king should impart to the +regent full powers to extend free grace and pardon to all those who had +not already committed any heinous crime, or who had not as yet been +condemned by any judicial process; but from the benefit of this +indemnity the preachers and all who harbored them were to be excepted. +On the other hand, all leagues, associations, public assemblies, and +preachings were to be henceforth prohibited under heavy penalties; if, +however, this prohibition should be infringed, the regent was to be at +liberty to employ the regular troops and garrisons for the forcible +reduction of the refractory, and also, in case of necessity, to enlist +new troops, and to name the commanders over them according as should be +deemed advisable. Finally, it would have a good effect if his majesty +would write to the most eminent towns, prelates, and leaders of the +nobility, to some in his own hand, and to all in a gracious tone, in +order to stimulate their zeal in his service. + +When this resolution of his council of state was submitted to the king +his first measure was to command public processions and prayers in all +the most considerable places of the kingdom and also of the Netherlands, +imploring the Divine guidance in his decision. He appeared in his own +person in the council of state in order to approve this resolution and +render it effective. He declared the general assembly of the states to +be useless and entirely abolished it. He, however, bound himself to +retain some German regiments in his pay, and, that they might serve with +the more zeal, to pay them their long-standing arrears. He commanded +the regent in a private letter to prepare secretly for war; three +thousand horse and ten thousand infantry were to be assembled by her in +Germany, to which end he furnished her with the necessary letters and +transmitted to her a sum of three hundred thousand gold florins. He +also accompanied this resolution with several autograph letters to some +private individuals and towns, in which he thanked them in the most +gracious terms for the zeal which they had already displayed in his +service and called upon them to manifest the same for the future. +Notwithstanding that he was inexorable on the most important point, +and the very one on which the nation most particularly insisted--the +convocation of the states, notwithstanding that his limited and +ambiguous pardon was as good as none, and depended too much on arbitrary +will to calm the public mind; notwithstanding, in fine, that he +rejected, as too lenient, the proposed "moderation," but which, on the +part of the people, was complained of as too severe; still he had this +time made an unwonted step in the favor of the nation; he had sacrificed +to it the papal Inquisition and left only the episcopal, to which it was +accustomed. The nation had found more equitable judges in the Spanish +council than they could reasonably have hoped for. Whether at another +time and under other circumstances this wise concession would have had +the desired effect we will not pretend to say. It came too late; when +(1566) the royal letters reached Brussels the attack on images had +already commenced. + + + + + + + BOOK IV. + + + THE ICONOCLASTS. + + + +The springs of this extraordinary occurrence are plainly not to be +sought for so far back as many historians affect to trace them. It is +certainly possible, and very probable, that the French Protestants did +industriously exert themselves to raise in the Netherlands a nursery for +their religion, and to prevent by all means in their power an amicable +adjustment of differences between their brethren in the faith in that +quarter and the King of Spain, in order to give that implacable foe of +their party enough to do in his own country. It is natural, therefore, +to suppose that their agents in the provinces left nothing undone to +encourage their oppressed brethren with daring hopes, to nourish their +animosity against the ruling church, and by exaggerating the oppression +under which they sighed to hurry them imperceptibly into illegal +courses. It is possible, too, that there were many among the +confederates who thought to help out their own lost cause by increasing +the number of their partners in guilt; who thought they could not +otherwise maintain the legal character of their league unless the +unfortunate results against which they had warned the king really came +to pass, and who hoped in the general guilt of all to conceal their own +individual criminality. It is, however, incredible that the outbreak of +the Iconoclasts was the fruit of a deliberate plan, preconcerted, as it +is alleged, at the convent of St. Truyen. It does not seem likely that +in a solemn assembly of so many nobles and warriors, of whom the greater +part were the adherents of popery, an individual should be found insane +enough to propose an act of positive infamy, which did not so much +injure any religious party in particular, as rather tread under foot all +respect for religion in general, and even all morality too, and which +could have been conceived only in the mind of the vilest reprobate. +Besides, this outrage was too sudden in its outbreak, too vehement in +its execution altogether, too monstrous to have been anything more than +the offspring of the moment in which it saw the light; it seemed to flow +so naturally from the circumstances which preceded it that it does not +require to be traced far back to remount to its origin. + +A rude mob, consisting of the very dregs of the populace, made brutal by +harsh treatment, by sanguinary decrees which dogged them in every town, +scared from place to place and driven almost to despair, were compelled +to worship their God, and to hide like a work of darkness the universal, +sacred privilege of humanity. Before their eyes proudly rose the +temples of the dominant church, in which their haughty brethren indulged +in ease their magnificent devotion, while they themselves were driven +from the walls, expelled, too, by the weaker number perhaps, and forced, +here in the wild woods, under the burning heat of noon, in disgraceful +secrecy to worship the same God; cast out from civil society into a +state of nature, and reminded in one dread moment of the rights of that +state! The greater their superiority of numbers the more unnatural did +their lot appear; with wonder they perceive the truth. The free heaven, +the arms lying ready, the frenzy in their brains and fury in their +hearts combine to aid the suggestions of some preaching fanatic; the +occasion calls; no premeditation is necessary where all eyes at once +declare consent; the resolution is formed ere yet the word is scarcely +uttered; ready for any unlawful act, no one yet clearly knows what, +the furious band rushes onwards. The smiling prosperity of the hostile +religion insults the poverty of their own; the pomp of the authorized +temples casts contempt on their proscribed belief; every cross they set +up upon the highway, every image of the saints that they meet, is a +trophy erected over their own humiliation, and they all must be removed +by their avenging hands. Fanaticism suggests these detestable +proceedings, but base passions carry them into execution. + + +1566. The commencement of the attack on images took place in West +Flanders and Artois, in the districts between Lys and the sea. A +frantic herd of artisans, boatmen, and peasants, mixed with prostitutes, +beggars, vagabonds, and thieves, about three hundred in number, +furnished with clubs, axes, hammers, ladders, and cords (a few only +were provided with swords or fire arms), cast themselves, with fanatical +fury, into the villages and hamlets near St. Omer, and breaking open the +gates of such churches and cloisters as they find locked, overthrow +everywhere the altars, break to pieces the images of the saints, and +trample them under foot. With their excitement increased by its +indulgence, and reinforced by newcomers, they press on by the direct +road to Ypres, where they can count on the support of a strong body of +Calvinists. Unopposed, they break into the cathedral, and mounting on +ladders they hammer to pieces the pictures, hew down with axes the +pulpits and pews, despoil the altars of their ornaments, and steal the +holy vessels. This example was quickly followed in Menin, Comines, +Verrich, Lille, and Oudenard; in a few days the same fury spreads +through the whole of Flanders. At the very time when the first tidings +of this occurrence arrived Antwerp was swarming with a crowd of +houseless people, which the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin had +brought together in that city. Even the presence of the Prince of +Orange was hardly sufficient to restrain the licentious mob, who burned +to imitate the doings of their brethren in St. Omer; but an order from +the court which summoned him to Brussels, where the regent was just +assembling her council of state, in order to lay before them the royal +letters, obliged him to abandon Antwerp to the outrages of this band. +His departure was the signal for tumult. Apprehensive of the lawless +violence of which, on the very first day of the festival, the mob had +given indications in derisory allusions, the priests, after carrying +about the image of the Virgin for a short time, brought it for safety +to the choir, without, as formerly, setting it up in the middle of the +church. This incited some mischievous boys from among the people to pay +it a visit there, and jokingly inquire why she had so soon absented +herself from among them? Others mounting the pulpit, mimicked the +preacher, and challenged the papists to a dispute. A Roman Catholic +waterman, indignant at this jest, attempted to pull them down, and blows +were exchanged in the preacher's seat. Similar scenes occurred on the +following evening. The numbers increased, and many came already +provided with suspicious implements and secret weapons. At last it came +into the head of one of them to cry, "Long live the Gueux!" immediately +the whole band took up the cry, and the image of the Virgin was called +upon to do the same. The few Roman Catholics who were present, and who +had given up the hope of effecting anything against these desperadoes, +left the church after locking all the doors except one. So soon as they +found themselves alone it was proposed to sing one of the psalms in the +new version, which was prohibited by the government. While they were +yet singing they all, as at a given signal, rushed furiously upon the +image of the Virgin, piercing it with swords and daggers, and striking +off its head; thieves and prostitutes tore the great wax-lights from the +altar, and lighted them to the work. The beautiful organ of the church, +a masterpiece of the art of that period, was broken to pieces, all the +paintings were effaced, the statues smashed to atoms. A crucifix, the +size of life, which was set up between the two thieves, opposite the +high altar, an ancient and highly valued piece of workmanship, was +pulled to the ground with cords, and cut to pieces with axes, while the +two malefactors at its side were respectfully spared. The holy wafers +were strewed on the ground and trodden under foot; in the wine used for +the Lord's Supper, which was accidentally found there, the health of the +Gueux was drunk, while with the holy oil they rubbed their shoes. The +very tombs were opened, and the half-decayed corpses torn up and +trampled on. All this was done with as much wonderful regularity as if +each had previously had his part assigned to him; every one worked into +his neighbor's hands; no one, dangerous as the work was, met with +injury; in the midst of thick darkness, which the tapers only served to +render more sensible, with heavy masses falling on all sides, and though +on the very topmost steps of the ladders, they scuffled with each other +for the honors of demolition--yet no one suffered the least injury. In +spite of the many tapers which lighted them below in their villanous +work not a single individual was recognized. With incredible rapidity +was the dark deed accomplished; a number of men, at most a hundred, +despoiled in a few hours a temple of seventy altars--after St. Peter's +at Rome, perhaps the largest and most magnificent in Christendom. + +The devastation of the cathedral did not content them; with torches and +tapers purloined from it they set out at midnight to perform a similar +work of havoc on the remaining churches, cloisters, and chapels. The +destructive hordes increased with every fresh exploit of infamy, and +thieves were allured by the opportunity. They carried away whatever +they found of value--the consecrated vessels, altar-cloths, money, and +vestments; in the cellars of the cloisters they drank to intoxication; +to escape greater indignities the monks and nuns abandoned everything to +them. The confused noises of these riotous acts had startled the +citizens from their first sleep; but night made the danger appear more +alarming than it really was, and instead of hastening to defend their +churches the citizens fortified themselves in their houses, and in +terror and anxiety awaited the dawn of morning. The rising sun at +length revealed the devastation which had been going on during the +night; but the havoc did not terminate with the darkness. Some churches +and cloisters still remained uninjured; the same fate soon overtook them +also. The work of destruction lasted three whole days. Alarmed at last +lest the frantic mob, when it could no longer find anything sacred to +destroy, should make a similar attack on lay property and plunder their +ware houses; and encouraged, too, by discovering how small was the +number of the depredators, the wealthier citizens ventured to show +themselves in arms at the doors of their houses. All the gates of the +town were locked but one, through which the Iconoclasts broke forth to +renew the same atrocities in the rural districts. On one occasion only +during all this time did the municipal officers venture to exert their +authority, so strongly were they held in awe by the superior power of +the Calvinists, by whom, as it was believed, this mob of miscreants +was hired. The injury inflicted by this work of devastation was +incalculable. In the church of the Virgin it was estimated at not less +than four hundred thousand gold florins. Many precious works of art +were destroyed; many valuable manuscripts; many monuments of importance +to history and to diplomacy were thereby lost. The city magistrate +ordered the plundered articles to be restored on pain of death; in +enforcing this restitution he was effectually assisted by the preachers +of the Reformers, who blushed for their followers. Much was in this +manner recovered, and the ringleaders of the mob, less animated, +perhaps, by the desire of plunder than by fanaticism and revenge, or +perhaps being ruled by some unseen head, resolved for the future to +guard against these excesses, and to make their attacks in regular bands +and in better order. + +The town of Ghent, meanwhile, trembled for a like destiny. Immediately +on the first news of the outbreak of the Iconoclasts in Antwerp the +magistrate of the former town with the most eminent citizens had bound +themselves to repel by force the church spoilers; when this oath was +proposed to the commonalty also the voices were divided, and many +declared openly that they were by no means disposed to hinder so devout +a work. In this state of affairs the Roman Catholic clergy found it +advisable to deposit in the citadel the most precious movables of their +churches, and private families were permitted in like manner to provide +for the safety of offerings which had been made by their ancestors. +Meanwhile all the services were discontinued, the courts of justice were +closed; and, like a town in momentary danger of being stormed by the +enemy, men trembled in expectation of what was to come. At last an +insane band of rioters ventured to send delegates to the governor with +this impudent message: "They were ordered," they said, "by their chiefs +to take the images out of the churches, as had been done in the other +towns. If they were not opposed it should be done quietly and with as +little injury as possible, but otherwise they would storm the churches;" +nay, they went so far in their audacity as to ask the aid of the +officers of justice therein. At first the magistrate was astounded at +this demand; upon reflection, however, and in the hope that the presence +of the officers of law would perhaps restrain their excesses, he did not +scruple to grant their request. + +In Tournay the churches were despoiled of their ornaments within sight +of the garrison, who could not be induced to march against the +Iconoclasts. As the latter had been told that the gold and silver +vessels and other ornaments of the church were buried underground, they +turned up the whole floor, and exposed, among others, the body of the +Duke Adolph of Gueldres, who fell in battle at the head of the +rebellious burghers of Ghent, and had been buried herein Tournay. This +Adolph had waged war against his father, and had dragged the vanquished +old man some miles barefoot to prison--an indignity which Charles the +Bold afterwards retaliated on him. And now, again, after more than half +a century fate avenged a crime against nature by another against +religion; fanaticism was to desecrate that which was holy in order to +expose once more to execration the bones of a parricide. Other +Iconoclasts from Valenciennes united themselves with those of Tournay to +despoil all the cloisters of the surrounding district, during which a +valuable library, the accumulation of centuries, was destroyed by fire. +The evil soon penetrated into Brabant, also Malines, Herzogenbusch, +Breda, and Bergen-op-Zoom experienced the same fate. The provinces, +Namur and Luxemburg, with a part of Artois and of Hainault, had alone +the good fortune to escape the contagion of those outrages. In the +short period of four or five days four hundred cloisters were plundered +in Brabant and Flanders alone. + +The northern Netherlands were soon seized with the same mania which had +raged so violently through the southern. The Dutch towns, Amsterdam, +Leyden, and Gravenhaag, had the alternative of either voluntarily +stripping their churches of their ornaments, or of seeing them violently +torn from there; the determination of their magistrates saved Delft, +Haarlem, Gouda, and Rotterdam from the devastation. The same acts of +violence were practised also in the islands of Zealand; the town of +Utrecht and many places in Overyssel and Groningen suffered the same +storms. Friesland was protected by the Count of Aremberg, and Gueldres +by the Count of Megen from a like fate. An exaggerated report of these +disturbances which came in from the provinces spread the alarm to +Brussels, where the regent had just made preparations for an +extraordinary session of the council of state. Swarms of Iconoclasts +already penetrated into Brabant; and the metropolis, where they were +certain of powerful support, was threatened by them with a renewal of +the same atrocities then under the very eyes of majesty. The regent, in +fear for her personal safety, which, even in the heart of the country, +surrounded by provincial governors and Knights of the Fleece, she +fancied insecure, was already meditating a flight to Mons, in Hainault, +which town the Duke of Arschot held for her as a place of refuge, that +she might not be driven to any undignified concession by falling into +the power of the Iconoclasts. In vain did the knights pledge life and +blood for her safety, and urgently beseech her not to expose them to +disgrace by so dishonorable a flight, as though they were wanting in +courage or zeal to protect their princess; to no purpose did the town of +Brussels itself supplicate her not to abandon them in this extremity, +and vainly did the council of state make the most impressive +representations that so pusillanimous a step would not fail to encourage +still more the insolence of the rebels; she remained immovable in this +desperate condition. As messenger after messenger arrived to warn her +that the Iconoclasts were advancing against the metropolis, she issued +orders to hold everything in readiness for her flight, which was to take +place quietly with the first approach of morning. At break of day the +aged Viglius presented himself before her, whom, with the view of +gratifying the nobles, she had been long accustomed to neglect. He +demanded to know the meaning of the preparations he observed, upon which +she at last confessed that she intended to make her escape, and assured +him that he would himself do well to secure his own safety by +accompanying her. "It is now two years," said the old man to her, "that +you might have anticipated these results. Because I have spoken more +freely than your courtiers you have closed your princely ear to me, +which has been open only to pernicious suggestions." The regent allowed +that she had been in fault, and had been blinded by an appearance of +probity; but that she was now driven by necessity. "Are you resolved," +answered Viglius, "resolutely to insist upon obedience to the royal +commands?" "I am," answered the duchess. "Then have recourse to the +great secret of the art of government, to dissimulation, and pretend to +join the princes until, with their assistance, you have repelled this +storm. Show them a confidence which you are far from feeling in your +heart. Make them take an oath to you that they will make common cause +in resisting these disorders. Trust those as your friends who show +themselves willing to do it; but be careful to avoid frightening away +the others by contemptuous treatment." Viglius kept the regent engaged +in conversation until the princes arrived, who he was quite certain +would in nowise consent to her flight. When they appeared he quietly +withdrew in order to issue commands to the town council to close the +gates of the city and prohibit egress to every one connected with the +court. This last measure effected more than all the representations had +done. The regent, who saw herself a prisoner in her own capital, now +yielded to the persuasions of the nobles, who pledged themselves to +stand by her to the last drop of blood. She made Count Mansfeld +commandant of the town, who hastily increased the garrison and armed her +whole court. + +The state council was now held, who finally came to a resolution that it +was expedient to yield to the emergency; to permit the preachings in +those places where they had already commenced; to make known the +abolition of the papal Inquisition; to declare the old edicts against +the heretics repealed, and before all things to grant the required +indemnity to the confederate nobles, without limitation or condition. +At the same time the Prince of Orange, Counts Egmont and Horn, with some +others, were appointed to confer on this head with the deputies of the +league. Solemnly and in the most unequivocal terms the members of the +league were declared free from all responsibility by reason of the +petition which had been presented, and all royal officers and +authorities were enjoined to act in conformity with this assurance, +and neither now nor for the future to inflict any injury upon any +of the confederates on account of the said petition. In return, +the confederates bound themselves to be true and loyal servants of +his majesty, to contribute to the utmost of their power to the +re-establishment of order and the punishment of the Iconiclasts, +to prevail on the people to lay down their arms, and to afford +active assistance to the king against internal and foreign enemies. +Securities, formally drawn up and subscribed by the plenipotentiaries +of both sides, were exchanged between them; the letter of indemnity, in +particular, was signed by the duchess with her own hand and attested by +her seal. It was only after a severe struggle, and with tears in her +eyes, that the regent, as she tremblingly confessed to the king, was at +last induced to consent to this painful step. She threw the whole blame +upon the nobles, who had kept her a prisoner in Brussels and compelled +her to it by force. Above all she complained bitterly of the Prince of +Orange. + +This business accomplished, all the governors hastened to their +provinces; Egmont to Flanders, Orange to Antwerp. In the latter city +the Protestants had seized the despoiled and plundered churches, and, +as if by the rights of war, had taken possession of them. The prince +restored them to their lawful owners, gave orders for their repair, and +re-established in them the Roman Catholic form of worship. Three of the +Iconoclasts, who had been convicted, paid the penalty of their sacrilege +on the gallows; some of the rioters were banished, and many others +underwent punishment. Afterwards he assembled four deputies of each +dialect, or nations, as they were termed, and agreed with them that, as +the approaching winter made preaching in the open air impossible, three +places within the town should be granted then, where they might either +erect new churches, or convert private houses to that purpose. That +they should there perform their service every Sunday and holiday, and +always at the same hour, but on no other days. If, however, no holiday +happened in the week, Wednesday should be kept by them instead. No +religious party should maintain more than two clergymen, and these must +be native Netherlanders, or at least have received naturalization from +some considerable town of the provinces. All should take an oath to +submit in civil matters to the municipal authorities and the Prince of +Orange. They should be liable, like the other citizens, to all imposts. +No one should attend sermons armed; a sword, however, should be allowed +to each. No preacher should assail the ruling religion from the pulpit, +nor enter upon controverted points, beyond what the doctrine itself +rendered unavoidable, or what might refer to morals. No psalm should be +sung by them out of their appointed district. At the election of their +preachers, churchwardens, and deacons, as also at all their other +consistorial meetings, a person from the government should on each +occasion be present to report their proceedings to the prince and the +magistrate. As to all other points they should enjoy the same +protection as the ruling religion. This arrangement was to hold good +until the king, with consent of the states, should determine otherwise; +but then it should be free to every one to quit the country with his +family and his property. From Antwerp the prince hastened to Holland, +Zealand, and Utrecht, in order to make there similar arrangements for +the restoration of peace; Antwerp, however, was, during his absence, +entrusted to the superintendence of Count Howstraten, who was a mild +man, and although an adherent of the league, had never failed in loyalty +to the king. It is evident that in this agreement the prince had far +overstepped the powers entrusted to him, and though in the service of +the king had acted exactly like a sovereign lord. But he alleged in +excuse that it would be far easier to the magistrate to watch these +numerous and powerful sects if he himself interfered in their worship, +and if this took place under his eyes, than if he were to leave the +sectarians to themselves in the open air. + +In Gueldres Count Megen showed more severity, and entirely suppressed +the Protestant sects and banished all their preachers. In Brussels the +regent availed herself of the advantage derived from her personal +presence to put a stop to the public preaching, even outside the town. +When, in reference to this, Count Nassau reminded her in the name of the +confederates of the compact which had been entered into, and demanded if +the town of Brussels had inferior rights to the other towns? she +answered, if there were public preachings in Brussels before the treaty, +it was not her work if they were now discontinued. At the same time, +however, she secretly gave the citizens to understand that the first who +should venture to attend a public sermon should certainly be hung. Thus +she kept the capital at least faithful to her. + +It was more difficult to quiet Tournay, which office was committed to +Count Horn, in the place of Montigny, to whose government the town +properly belonged. Horn commanded the Protestants to vacate the +churches immediately, and to content themselves with a house of worship +outside the walls. To this their preachers objected that the churches +were erected for the use of the people, by which terms, they said, not +the heads but the majority were meant. If they were expelled from the +Roman Catholic churches it was at least fair that they should be +furnished with money for erecting churches of their own. To this the +magistrate replied even if the Catholic party was the weaker it was +indisputably the better. The erection of churches should not be +forbidden them; they could not, however, after the injury which the town +had already suffered from their brethren, the Iconoclasts, very well +expect that it should be further burdened by the erection of their +churches. After long quarrelling on both sides, the Protestants +contrived to retain possession of some churches, which, for greater +security, they occupied with guards. In Valenciennes, too, the +Protestants refused submission to the conditions which were offered to +them through Philip St. Aldegonde, Baron of Noircarmes, to whom, in the +absence of the Marquis of Bergen, the government of that place was +entrusted. A reformed preacher, La Grange, a Frenchman by birth, who by +his eloquence had gained a complete command over them, urged them to +insist on having churches of their own within the town, and to threaten +in case of refusal to deliver it up to the Huguenots. A sense of the +superior numbers of the Calvinists, and of their understanding with the +Huguenots, prevented the governor adopting forcible measures against +them. + +Count Egmont, also to manifest his zeal for the king's service, did +violence to his natural kind-heartedness. Introducing a garrison into +the town of Ghent, he caused some of the most refractory rebels to be +put to death. The churches were reopened, the Roman Catholic worship +renewed, and all foreigners, without exception, ordered to quit the +province. To the Calvinists, but to them alone, a site was granted +outside the town for the erection of a church. In return they were +compelled to pledge themselves to the most rigid obedience to the +municipal authorities, and to active co-operation in the proceedings +against the Iconoclasts. He pursued similar measures through all +Flanders and Artois. One of his noblemen, John Cassembrot, Baron of +Beckerzeel, and a leaguer, pursuing the Iconoclasts at the head of some +horsemen of the league, surprised a band of them just as they were about +to break into a town of Hainault, near Grammont, in Flanders, and took +thirty of them prisoners, of whom twenty-two were hung upon the spot, +and the rest whipped out of the province. + +Services of such importance one would have thought scarcely deserved to +be rewarded with the displeasure of the king; what Orange, Egmont, and +Horn performed on this occasion evinced at least as much zeal and had +as beneficial a result as anything that was accomplished by Noircarmes, +Megen, and Aremberg, to whom the king vouchsafed to show his gratitude +both by words and deeds. But their zeal, their services came too late. +They had spoken too loudly against his edicts, had been too vehement in +their opposition to his measures, had insulted him too grossly in the +person of his minister Granvella, to leave room for forgiveness. No +time, no repentance, no atonement, however great, could efface this one +offence from the memory of their sovereign. + +Philip lay sick at Segovia when the news of the outbreak of the +Iconoclasts and the uncatholic agreement entered into with the Reformers +reached him. At the same time the regent renewed her urgent entreaty +for his personal visit, of which also all the letters treated, which the +President Viglius exchanged with his friend Hopper. Many also of the +Belgian nobles addressed special letters to the king, as, for instance, +Egmont, Mansfeld, Megen, Aremberg, Noircarmes, and Barlaimont, in which +they reported the state of their provinces, and at once explained and +justified the arrangements they had made with the disaffected. Just at +this period a letter arrived from the German Emperor, in which he +recommended Philip to act with clemency towards his Belgian subjects, +and offered his mediation in the matter. He had also written direct to +the regent herself in Brussels, and added letters to the several leaders +of the nobility, which, however, were never delivered. Having conquered +the first anger which this hateful occurrence had excited, the king +referred the whole matter to his council. + +The party of Granvella, which had the preponderance in the council, was +diligent in tracing a close connection between the behavior of the +Flemish nobles and the excesses of the church desecrators, which showed +itself in similarity of the demands of both parties, and especially the +time which the latter chose for their outbreak. In the same month, +they observed, in which the nobles had sent in their three articles of +pacification, the Iconoclasts had commenced their work; on the evening +of the very day that Orange quitted Antwerp the churches too were +plundered. During the whole tumult not a finger was lifted to take up +arms; all the expedients employed were invariably such as turned to the +advantage of the sects, while, on the contrary, all others were +neglected which tended to the maintenance of the pure faith. Many of +the Iconoclasts, it was further said, had confessed that all that they +had done was with the knowledge and consent of the princes; though +surely nothing was more natural, than for such worthless wretches to +seek to screen with great names a crime which they had undertaken solely +on their own account. A writing also was produced in which the high +nobility were made to promise their services to the "Gueux," to procure +the assembly of the states general, the genuineness of which, however, +the former strenuously denied. Four different seditious parties were, +they said, to be noticed in the Netherlands, which were all more or +less connected with one another, and all worked towards a common end. +One of these was those bands of reprobates who desecrated the churches; +a second consisted of the various sects who had hired the former to +perform their infamous acts; the "Gueux," who had raised themselves to +be the defenders of the sects were the third; and the leading nobles who +were inclined to the "Gueux" by feudal connections, relationship, and +friendship, composed the fourth. All, consequently, were alike fatally +infected, and all equally guilty. The government had not merely to +guard against a few isolated members; it had to contend with the whole +body. Since, then, it was ascertained that the people were the seduced +party, and the encouragement to rebellion came from higher quarters, it +would be wise and expedient to alter the plan hitherto adopted, which +now appeared defective in several respects. Inasmuch as all classes had +been oppressed without distinction, and as much of severity shown to the +lower orders as of contempt to the nobles, both had been compelled to +lend support to one another; a party had been given to the latter and +leaders to the former. Unequal treatment seemed an infallible expedient +to separate them; the mob, always timid and indolent when not goaded by +the extremity of distress, would very soon desert its adored protectors +and quickly learn to see in their fate well-merited retribution if only +it was not driven to share it with them. It was therefore proposed to +the king to treat the great multitude for the future with more leniency, +and to direct all measures of severity against the leaders of the +faction. In order, however, to avoid the appearance of a disgraceful +concession, it was considered advisable to accept the mediation of the +Emperor, and to impute to it alone and not to the justice of their +demands, that the king out of pure generosity had granted to his Belgian +subjects as much as they asked. + +The question of the king's personal visit to the provinces was now again +mooted, and all the difficulties which had formerly been raised on this +head appeared to vanish before the present emergency. "Now," said +Tyssenacque and Hopper, "the juncture has really arrived at which the +king, according to his own declaration formerly made to Count Egmont, +will be ready to risk a thousand lives. To restore quiet to Ghent +Charles V. had undertaken a troublesome and dangerous journey through an +enemy's country. This was done for the sake of a single town; and now +the peace, perhaps even the possession, of all the United Provinces was +at stake." This was the opinion of the majority; and the journey of the +king was looked upon as a matter from which he could not possibly any +longer escape. + +The question now was, whether he should enter upon it with a numerous +body of attendants or with few; and here the Prince of Eboli and Count +Figueroa were at issue with the Duke of Alva, as their private interests +clashed. If the king journeyed at the head of an army the presence of +the Duke of Alva would be indispensable, who, on the other hand, if +matters were peaceably adjusted, would be less required, and must make +room for his rivals. "An army," said Figueroa, who spoke first, "would +alarm the princes through whose territories it must march, and perhaps +even be opposed by them; it would, moreover, unnecessarily burden the +provinces for whose tranquillization it was intended, and add a new +grievance to the many which had already driven the people to such +lengths. It would press indiscriminately upon all of the king's +subjects, whereas a court of justice, peaceably administering its +office, would observe a marked distinction between the innocent and +the guilty. The unwonted violence of the former course would tempt the +leaders of the faction to take a more alarming view of their behavior, +in which wantonness and levity had the chief share, and consequently +induce them to proceed with deliberation and union; the thought of +having forced the king to such lengths would plunge them into despair, +in which they would be ready to undertake anything. If the king placed +himself in arms against the rebels he would forfeit the most important +advantage which he possessed over them, namely, his authority as +sovereign of the country, which would prove the more powerful in +proportion as he showed his reliance upon that alone. He would place +himself thereby, as it were, on a level with the rebels, who on their +side would not be at a loss to raise an army, as the universal hatred of +the Spanish forces would operate in their favor with the nation. By +this procedure the king would exchange the certain advantage which his +position as sovereign of the country conferred upon him for the +uncertain result of military operations, which, result as they might, +would of necessity destroy a portion of his own subjects. The rumor of +his hostile approach would outrun him time enough to allow all who were +conscious of a bad cause to place themselves in a posture of defence, +and to combine and render availing both their foreign and domestic +resources. Here again the general alarm would do them important +service; the uncertainty who would be the first object of this warlike +approach would drive even the less guilty to the general mass of the +rebels, and force those to become enemies to the king who otherwise +would never have been so. If, however, he was coming among them without +such a formidable accompaniment; if his appearance was less that of a +sanguinary judge than of an angry parent, the courage of all good men +would rise, and the bad would perish in their own security. They would +persuade themselves what had happened was unimportant; that it did not +appear to the king of sufficient moment to call for strong measures. +They wished if they could to avoid the chance of ruining, by acts of +open violence, a cause which might perhaps yet be saved; consequently, +by this quiet, peaceable method everything would be gained which by the +other would be irretrievably lost; the loyal subject would in no degree +be involved in the same punishment with the culpable rebel; on the +latter alone would the whole weight of the royal indignation descend. +Lastly, the enormous expenses would be avoided which the transport of a +Spanish army to those distant regions would occasion. + +"But," began the Duke of Alva, "ought the injury of some few citizens to +be considered when danger impends over the whole? Because a few of the +loyally-disposed may suffer wrong are the rebels therefore not to be +chastised? The offence has been universal, why then should not the +punishment be the same? What the rebels have incurred by their actions +the rest have incurred equally by their supineness. Whose fault is it +but theirs that the former have so far succeeded? Why did they not +promptly oppose their first attempts? It is said that circumstances +were not so desperate as to justify this violent remedy; but who will +insure us that they will not be so by the time the king arrives, +especially when, according to every fresh despatch of the regent, all is +hastening with rapid strides to a-ruinous consummation? Is it a hazard +we ought to run to leave the king to discover on his entrance into the +provinces the necessity of his having brought with him a military force? +It is a fact only too well-established that the rebels have secured +foreign succors, which stand ready at their command on the first signal; +will it then be time to think of preparing for war when the enemy pass +the frontiers? Is it a wise risk to rely for aid upon the nearest +Belgian troops when their loyalty is so little to be depended upon? And +is not the regent perpetually reverting in her despatches to the fact +that nothing but the want of a suitable military force has hitherto +hindered her from enforcing the edicts, and stopping the progress of the +rebels? A well-disciplined and formidable army alone will disappoint +all their hopes of maintaining themselves in opposition to their lawful +sovereign, and nothing but the certain prospect of destruction will make +them lower their demands. Besides, without an adequate force, the king +cannot venture his person in hostile countries; he cannot enter into any +treaties with his rebellious subjects which would not be derogatory to +his honor." + +The authority of the speaker gave preponderance to his arguments, and +the next question was, when the king should commence his journey and +what road he should take. As the voyage by sea was on every account +extremely hazardous, he had no other alternative but either to proceed +thither through the passes near Trent across. Germany, or to penetrate +from Savoy over the Apennine Alps. The first route would expose him to +the danger of the attack of the German Protestants, who were not likely +to view with indifference the objects of his journey, and a passage over +the Apennines was at this late season of the year not to be attempted. +Moreover, it would be necessary to send for the requisite galleys from +Italy, and repair them, which would take several months. Finally, as +the assembly of the Cortes of Castile, from which he could not well be +absent, was already appointed for December, the journey could not be +undertaken before the spring. Meanwhile the regent pressed for explicit +instructions how she was to extricate herself from her present +embarrassment, without compromising the royal dignity too far; and it +was necessary to do something in the interval till the king could +undertake to appease the troubles by his personal presence. Two +separate letters were therefore despatched to the duchess; one public, +which she could lay before the states and the council chambers, and one +private, which was intended for herself alone. In the first, the king +announced to her his restoration to health, and the fortunate birth of +the Infanta Clara Isabella Eugenia, afterwards wife of the Archduke +Albert of Austria and Princess of the Netherlands. He declared to her +his present firm intention to visit the Netherlands in person, for which +he was already making the necessary preparations. The assembling of the +states he refused, as he had previously done. No mention was made in +this letter of the agreement which she had entered into with the +Protestants and with the league, because he did not deem it advisable at +present absolutely to reject it, and he was still less disposed to +acknowledge its validity. On the other hand, he ordered her to +reinforce the army, to draw together new regiments from Germany, and to +meet the refractory with force. For the rest, he concluded, he relied +upon the loyalty of the leading nobility, among whom he knew many who +were sincere in their attachment both to their religion and their king. +In the secret letter she was again enjoined to do all in her power to +prevent the assembling of the states; but if the general voice should +become irresistible, and she was compelled to yield, she was at least to +manage so cautiously that the royal dignity should not suffer, and no +one learn the king's consent to their assembly. + +While these consultations were held in Spain the Protestants in the +Netherlands made the most extensive use of the privileges which had been +compulsorily granted to them. The erection of churches wherever it was +permitted was completed with incredible rapidity; young and old, gentle +and simple, assisted in carrying stones; women sacrificed even their +ornaments in order to accelerate the work. The two religious parties +established in several towns consistories, and a church council of their +own, the first move of the kind being made in Antwerp, and placed their +form of worship on a well-regulated footing. It was also proposed to +raise a common fund by subscription to meet any sudden emergency of the +Protestant church in general. In Antwerp a memorial was presented by +the Calvinists of that town to the Count of Hogstraten, in which they +offered to pay three millions of dollars to secure the free exercise of +their religion. Many copies of this writing were circulated in the +Netherlands; and in order to stimulate others, many had ostentatiously +subscribed their names to large sums. Various interpretations of this +extravagant offer were made by the enemies of the Reformers, and all had +some appearance of reason. For instance, it was urged that under the +pretext of collecting the requisite sum for fulfilling this engagement +they hoped, without suspicion, to raise funds for military purposes; for +whether they should be called upon to contribute for or against they +would, it was thought, be more ready to burden themselves with a view of +preserving peace than for an oppressive and devasting war. Others saw +in this offer nothing more than a temporary stratagem of the Protestants +by which they hoped to bind the court and keep it irresolute until they +should have gained sufficient strength to confront it. Others again +declared it to be a downright bravado in order to alarm the regent, and +to raise the courage of their own party by the display of such rich +resources. But whatever was the true motive of this proposition, its +originators gained little by it; the contributions flowed in scantily +and slowly, and the court answered the proposal with silent contempt. +The excesses, too, of the Iconoclasts, far from promoting the cause of +the league and advancing the Protestants interests, had done irreparable +injury to both. The sight of their ruined churches, which, in the +language of Viglius, resembled stables more than houses of God, enraged +the Roman Catholics, and above all the clergy. All of that religion, +who had hitherto been members of the league, now forsook it, alleging +that even if it had not intentionally excited and encouraged the +excesses of the Iconoclasts it had beyond question remotely led to them. +The intolerance of the Calvinists who, wherever they were the ruling +party, cruelly oppressed the Roman Catholics, completely expelled the +delusion in which the latter had long indulged, and they withdrew their +support from a party from which, if they obtained the upper hand, their +own religion had so much cause to fear. Thus the league lost many of +its best members; the friends and patrons, too, which it had hitherto +found amongst the well-disposed citizens now deserted it, and its +character began perceptibly to decline. The severity with which some of +its members had acted against the Iconoclasts in order to prove their +good disposition towards the regent, and to remove the suspicion of any +connection with the malcontents, had also injured them with the people +who favored the latter, and thus the league was in danger of ruining +itself with both parties at the same time. The regent had no sooner +became acquainted with this change in the public mind than she devised a +plan by which she hoped gradually to dissolve the whole league, or at +least to enfeeble it through internal dissensions. For this end she +availed herself of the private letters which the king had addressed to +some of the nobles, and enclosed to her with full liberty to use them at +her discretion. These letters, which overflowed with kind expressions +were presented to those for whom they were intended, with an attempt at +secrecy, which designedly miscarried, so that on each occasion some one +or other of those who had received nothing of the sort got a hint of +them. In order to spread suspicion the more widely numerous copies of +the letters were circulated. This artifice attained its object. Many +members of the league began to doubt the honesty of those to whom such +brilliant promises were made; through fear of being deserted by their +principal members and supporters, they eagerly accepted the conditions +which were offered them by the regent, and evinced great anxiety for a +speedy reconciliation with the court. The general rumor of the +impending visit of the king, which the regent took care to have widely +circulated, was also of great service to her in this matter; many who +could not augur much good to themselves from the royal presence did not +hesitate to accept a pardon, which, perhaps, for what they could tell, +was offered them for the last time. Among those who thus received +private letters were Egmont and Prince of Orange. Both had complained +to the king of the evil reports with which designing persons in Spain +had labored to brand their names, and to throw suspicion on their +motives and intentions; Egmont, in particular, with the honest +simplicity which was peculiar to his character, had asked the monarch +only to point out to him what he most desired, to determine the +particular action by which his favor could be best obtained and zeal in +his service evinced, and it should, he assured him, be done. The king +in reply caused the president, Von Tyssenacque, to tell him that he +could do nothing better to refute his traducers than to show perfect +submission to the royal orders, which were so clearly and precisely +drawn up, that no further exposition of them was required, nor any +particular instruction. It was the sovereign's part to deliberate, to +examine, and to decide; unconditionally to obey was the duty of the +subject; the honor of the latter consisted in his obedence. It did not +become a member to hold itself wiser than the head. He was assuredly to +be blamed for not having done his utmost to curb the unruliness of his +sectarians; but it was even yet in his power to make up for past +negligence by at least maintaining peace and order until the actual +arrival of the king. In thus punishing Count Egmont with reproofs like +a disobedient child, the king treated him in accordance with what he +knew of his character; with his friend he found it necessary to call in +the aid of artifice and deceit. Orange, too, in his letter, had alluded +to the suspicions which the king entertained of his loyalty and +attachment, but not, like Egmont, in the vain hope of removing them; for +this, he had long given up; but in order to pass from these complaints +to a request for permission to resign his offices. He had already +frequently made this request to the regent, but had always received from +her a refusal, accompanied with the strongest assurance of her regard. +The king also, to whom he now at last addressed a direct application, +returned him the same answer, graced with similar strong assurances of +his satisfaction and gratitude. In particular he expressed the high +satisfaction he entertained of his services, which he had lately +rendered the crown in Antwerp, and lamented deeply that the private +affairs of the prince (which the latter had made his chief plea for +demanding his dismissal) should have fallen into such disorder; but +ended with the declaration that it was impossible for him to dispense +with his valuable services at a crisis which demanded the increase, +rather than diminution, of his good and honest servants. He had +thought, he added, that the prince entertained a better opinion of him +than to suppose him capable of giving credit to the idle talk of certain +persons, who were friends neither to the prince nor to himself. But, at +the same time, to give him a proof of his sincerity, he complained to +him in confidence of his brother, the Count of Nassau, pretended to ask +his advice in the matter, and finally expressed a wish to have the count +removed for a period from the Netherlands. + +But Philip had here to do with a head which in cunning was superior to +his own. The Prince of Orange had for a long time held watch over him +and his privy council in Madrid and Segovia, through a host of spies, +who reported to him everything of importance that was transacted there. +The court of this most secret of all despots had become accessible to +his intriguing spirit and his money; in this manner he had gained +possession of several autograph letters of the regent, which she had +secretly written to Madrid, and had caused copies to be circulated in +triumph in Brussels, and in a measure under her own eyes, insomuch that +she saw with astonishment in everybody's hands what she thought was +preserved with so much care, and entreated the king for the future to +destroy her despatches immediately they were read. William's vigilance +did not confine itself simply to the court of Spain; he had spies in +France, and even at more distant courts. He is also charged with not +being over scrupulous as to the means by which he acquired his +intelligence. But the most important disclosure was made by an +intercepted letter of the Spanish ambassador in France, Francis Von +Alava, to the duchess, in which the former descanted on the fair +opportunity which was now afforded to the king, through the guilt of +the Netherlandish people, of establishing an arbitrary power in that +country. He therefore advised her to deceive the nobles by the very +arts which they had hitherto employed against herself, and to secure +them through smooth words and an obliging behavior. The king, he +concluded, who knew the nobles to be the hidden springs of all the +previous troubles, would take good care to lay hands upon them at the +first favorable opportunity, as well as the two whom he had already in +Spain; and did not mean to let them go again, having sworn to make an +example in them which should horrify the whole of Christendom, even if +it should cost him his hereditary dominions. This piece of evil news +was strongly corroborated by the letters which Bergen and Montigny wrote +from Spain, and in which they bitterly complained of the contemptuous +behavior of the grandees and the altered deportment of the monarch +towards them; and the Prince of Orange was now fully sensible what he +had to expect from the fair promises of the king. + +The letter of the minister, Alava, together with some others from Spain, +which gave a circumstantial account of the approaching warlike visit of +the king, and of his evil intentions against the nobles, was laid by the +prince before his brother, Count Louis of Nassau, Counts Egmont, Horn, +and Hogstraten, at a meeting at Dendermonde in Flanders, whither these +five knights had repaired to confer on the measures necessary for their +security. Count Louis, who listened only to his feelings of +indignation, foolhardily maintained that they ought, without loss of +time, to take up arms and seize some strongholds. That they ought at +all risks to prevent the king's armed entrance into the provinces. That +they should endeavor to prevail on the Swiss, the Protestant princes of +Germany, and the Huguenots to arm and obstruct his passage through their +territories; and if, notwithstanding, he should force his way through +these impediments, that the Flemings should meet him with an army on the +frontiers. He would take upon himself to negotiate a defensive alliance +in France, in Switzerland, and in Germany, and to raise in the latter +empire four thousand horse, together with a proportionate body of +infantry. Pretexts would not be wanting for collecting the requisite +supplies of money, and the merchants of the reformed sect would, he felt +assured, not fail them. But William, more cautious and more wise, +declared himself against this proposal, which, in the execution, would +be exposed to numberless difficulties, and had as yet nothing to justify +it. The Inquisition, he represented, was in fact abolished, the edicts +were nearly sunk into oblivion, and a fair degree of religious liberty +accorded. Hitherto, therefore, there existed no valid or adequate +excuse for adopting this hostile method; he did not doubt, however, +that one would be presented to them before long, and in good time for +preparation. His own opinion consequently was that they should await +this opportunity with patience, and in the meanwhile still keep a +watchful eye upon everything, and contrive to give the people a hint of +the threatened danger, that they might be ready to act if circumstances +should call for their co-operation. If all present had assented to the +opinion of the Prince of Orange, there is no doubt but so powerful a +league, formidable both by the influence and the high character of its +members, would have opposed obstacles to the designs of the king which +would have compelled him to abandon them entirely. But the +determination of the assembled knights was much shaken by the +declaration with which Count Egmont surprised them. "Rather," said he, +"may all that is evil befall me than that I should tempt fortune so +rashly. The idle talk of the Spaniard, Alava, does not move me; how +should such a person be able to read the mind of a sovereign so reserved +as Philip, and to decipher his secrets? The intelligence which Montigny +gives us goes to prove nothing more than that the king has a very +doubtful opinion of our zeal for his service, and believes he has cause +to distrust our loyalty; and for this I for my part must confess that +we have given him only too much cause. And it is my serious purpose, +by redoubling my zeal, to regain his good opinion, and by my future +behavior to remove, if possible, the distrust which my actions have +hitherto excited. How could I tear myself from the arms of my numerous +and dependent family to wander as an exile at foreign courts, a burden +to every one who received me, the slave of every one who condescended to +assist me, a servant of foreigners, in order to escape a slight degree +of constraint at home? Never can the monarch act unkindly towards a +servant who was once beloved and dear to him, and who has established a +well-grounded claim to his gratitude. Never shall I be persuaded that +he who has expressed such favorable, such gracious sentiments towards +his Belgian subjects, and with his own mouth gave me such emphatic, +such solemn assurances, can be now devising, as it is pretended, such +tyrannical schemes against them. If we do but restore to the country +its former repose, chastise the rebels, and re-establish the Roman +Catholic form of worship wherever it has been violently suppressed, +then, believe me, we shall hear no more of Spanish troops. This is the +course to which I now invite you all by my counsel and my example, and +to which also most of our brethren already incline. I, for my part, +fear nothing from the anger of the king. My conscience acquits me. +I trust my fate and fortunes to his justice and clemency." In vain did +Nassau, Horn, and Orange labor to shake his resolution, and to open his +eyes to the near and inevitable danger. Egmont was really attached to +the king; the royal favors, and the condescension with which they were +conferred, were still fresh in his remembrance. The attentions with +which the monarch had distinguished him above all his friends had not +failed of their effect. It was more from false shame than from party +spirit that he had defended the cause of his countrymen against him; +more from temperament and natural kindness of heart than from tried +principles that he had opposed the severe measures of the government. +The love of the nation, which worshipped him as its idol, carried him +away. Too vain to renounce a title which sounded so agreeable, he had +been compelled to do something to deserve it; but a single look at his +family, a harsher designation applied to his conduct, a dangerous +inference drawn from it, the mere sound of crime, terrified him from his +self-delusion, and scared him back in haste and alarm to his duty. + +Orange's whole plan was frustrated by Egmont's withdrawal. The latter +possessed the hearts of the people and the confidence of the army, +without which it was utterly impossible to undertake anything effective. +The rest had reckoned with so much certainty upon him that his +unexpected defection rendered the whole meeting nugatory. They +therefore separated without coming to a determination. All who had met +in Dendermonde were expected in the council of state in Brussels; but +Egmont alone repaired thither. The regent wished to sift him on the +subject of this conference, but she could extract nothing further from +him than the production of the letter of Alava, of which he had +purposely taken a copy, and which, with the bitterest reproofs, he laid +before her. At first she changed color at sight of it, but quickly +recovering herself, she boldly declared that it was a forgery. "How can +this letter," she said, "really come from Alava, when I miss none? And +would he who pretends to have intercepted it have spared the other +letters? Nay, how can it be true, when not a single packet has +miscarried, nor a single despatch failed to come to hand? How, too, +can it be thought likely that the king would have made Alava master +of a secret which he has not communicated even to me?" + + + + + CIVIL WAR + +1566. Meanwhile the regent hastened to take advantage of the schism +amongst the nobles to complete the ruin of the league, which was already +tottering under the weight of internal dissensions. Without loss of +time she drew from Germany the troops which Duke Eric of Brunswick was +holding in readiness, augmented the cavalry, and raised five regiments +of Walloons, the command of which she gave to Counts Mansfeld, Megen, +Aremberg, and others. To the prince, likewise, she felt it necessary to +confide troops, both because she did not wish, by withholding them +pointedly, to insult him, and also because the provinces of which he was +governor were in urgent need of them; but she took the precaution of +joining with him a Colonel Waldenfinger, who should watch all his steps +and thwart his measures if they appeared dangerous. To Count Egmont the +clergy in Flanders paid a contribution of forty thousand gold florins +for the maintenance of fifteen hundred men, whom he distributed among +the places where danger was most apprehended. Every governor was +ordered to increase his military force, and to provide himself with +ammunition. These energetic preparations, which were making in all +places, left no doubt as to the measures which the regent would adopt in +future. Conscious of her superior force, and certain of this important +support, she now ventured to change her tone, and to employ quite +another language with the rebels. She began to put the most arbitrary +interpretation on the concessions which, through fear and necessity, she +had made to the Protestants, and to restrict all the liberties which she +had tacitly granted them to the mere permission of their preaching. All +other religious exercises and rites, which yet appeared to be involved +in the former privilege, were by new edicts expressly forbidden, and all +offenders in such matters were to be proceeded against as traitors. The +Protestants were permitted to think differently from the ruling church +upon the sacrament, but to receive it differently was a crime; baptism, +marriage, burial, after their fashion, were probibited under pain of +death. It was a cruel mockery to allow them their religion, and forbid +the exercise of it; but this mean artifice of the regent to escape from +the obligation of her pledged word was worthy of the pusillanimity with +which she had submitted to its being extorted from her. She took +advantage of the most trifling innovations and the smallest excesses to +interrupt the preachings; and some of the preachers, under the charge of +having performed their office in places not appointed to them, were +brought to trial, condemned, and executed. On more than one occasion +the regent publicly declared that the confederates had taken unfair +advantage of her fears, and that she did not feel herself bound by an +engagement which had been extorted from her by threats. + +Of all the Belgian towns which had participated in the insurrection of +the Iconoclasts none had caused the regent so much alarm as the town of +Valenciennes, in Hainault. In no other was the party of the Calvinists +so powerful, and the spirit of rebellion for which the province of +Hainault had always made itself conspicuous, seemed to dwell here as in +its native place. The propinquity of France, to which, as well by +language as by manners, this town appeared to belong, rather than to the +Netherlands, had from the first led to its being governed with great +mildness and forbearance, which, however, only taught it to feel its own +importance. At the last outbreak of the church-desecrators it had been +on the point of surrendering to the Huguenots, with whom it maintained +the closest understanding. The slightest excitement night renew this +danger. On this account Valenciennes was the first town to which the +regent proposed, as soon as should be in her power, to send a strong +garrison. Philip of Noircarmes, Baron of St. Aldegonde, Governor of +Hainault in the place of the absent Marquis of Bergen, had received this +charge, and now appeared at the head of an army before its walls. +Deputies came to meet him on the part of the magistrate from the town, +to petition against the garrison, because the Protestant citizens, who +were the superior number, had declared against it. Noircarnes +acquainted them with the will of the regent, and gave them the choice +between the garrison or a siege. He assured them that not more than +four squadrons of horse and six companies of foot should be imposed upon +the town; and for this he would give them his son as a hostage. These +terms were laid before the magistrate, who, for his part, was much +inclined to accept them. But Peregrine Le Grange, the preacher, and the +idol of the populace, to whom it was of vital importance to prevent a +submission of which he would inevitably become the victim, appeared at +the head of his followers, and by his powerful eloquence excited the +people to reject the conditions. When their answer was brought to +Noircarmes, contrary to all law of nations, he caused the messengers to +be placed in irons, and carried them away with him as prisoners; he was, +however, by express command of the regent, compelled to set them free +again. The regent, instructed by secret orders from Madrid to exercise +as much forbearance as possible, caused the town to be repeatedly +summoned to receive the garrison; when, however, it obstinately +persisted in its refusal, it was declared by public edict to be in +rebellion, and Noircarmes was authorized to commence the siege in form. +The other provinces were forbidden to assist this rebellious town with +advice, money, or arms. All the property contained in it was +confiscated. In order to let it see the war before it began in earnest, +and to give it time for rational reflection, Noircarmes drew together +troops from all Hainault and Cambray (1566), took possession of St. +Amant, and placed garrisons in all adjacent places. + +The line of conduct adopted towards Valenciennes allowed the other towns +which were similarly situated to infer the fate which was intended for +them also, and at once put the whole league in motion. An army of the +Gueux, between three thousand and four thousand strong, which was +hastily collected from the rabble of fugitives, and the remaining bands +of the Iconoclasts, appeared in the territories of Tournay and Lille, in +order to secure these two towns, and to annoy the enemy at Valenciennes. +The commandant of Lille was fortunate enough to maintain that place by +routing a detachment of this army, which, in concert with the Protestant +inhabitants, had made an attempt to get possession of it. At the same +time the army of the Gueux, which was uselessly wasting its time at +Lannoy, was surprised by Noircarmes and almost entirely annihilated. +The few who with desperate courage forced their way through the enemy, +threw themselves into the town of Tournay, which was immediately +summoned by the victor to open its gates and admit a garrison. Its +prompt obedience obtained for it a milder fate. Noircarmes contented +himself with abolishing the Protestant consistory, banishing the +preachers, punishing the leaders of the rebels, and again +re-establishing the Roman Catholic worship, which he found almost +entirely suppressed. After giving it a steadfast Roman Catholic as +governor, and leaving in it a sufficient garrison, he again returned +with his victorious army to Valenciennes to press the siege. + +This town, confident in its strength, actively prepared for defence, +firmly resolved to allow things to come to extremes before it +surrendered. The inhabitants had not neglected to furnish themselves +with ammunition and provisions for a long siege; all who could carry +arms (the very artisans not excepted), became soldiers; the houses +before the town, and especially the cloisters, were pulled down, that +the besiegers might not avail themselves of them to cover their attack. +The few adherents of the crown, awed by the multitude, were silent; no +Roman Catholic ventured to stir himself. Anarchy and rebellion had +taken the place of good order, and the fanaticism of a foolhardy priest +gave laws instead of the legal dispensers of justice. The male +population was numerous, their courage confirmed by despair, their +confidence unbounded that the siege would be raised, while their hatred +against the Roman Catholic religion was excited to the highest pitch. +Many had no mercy to expect; all abhorred the general thraldom of an +imperious garrison. Noircarmes, whose army had become formidable +through the reinforcements which streamed to it from all quarters, and +was abundantly furnished with all the requisites for a long blockade, +once more attempted to prevail on the town by gentle means, but in vain. +At last he caused the trenches to be opened and prepared to invest the +place. + +In the meanwhile the position of the Protestants had grown as much worse +as that of the regent had improved. The league of the nobles had +gradually melted away to a third of its original number. Some of its +most important defenders, Count Egmont, for instance, had gone over to +the king; the pecuniary contributions which had been so confidently +reckoned upon came in but slowly and scantily; the zeal of the party +began perceptibly to cool, and the close of the fine season made it +necessary to discontinue the public preachings, which, up to this time, +had been continued. These and other reasons combined induced the +declining party to moderate its demands, and to try every legal +expedient before it proceeded to extremities. In a general synod of the +Protestants, which was held for this object in Antwerp, and which was +also attended by some of the confederates, it was resolved to send +deputies to the regent to remonstrate with her upon this breach of +faith, and to remind her of her compact. Brederode undertook this +office, but was obliged to submit to a harsh and disgraceful rebuff, and +was shut out of Brussels. He had now recourse to a written memorial, in +which,--in the name of the whole league, he complained that the duchess +had, by violating her word, falsified in sight of all the Protestants +the security given by the league, in reliance on which all of them had +laid down their arms; that by her insincerity she had undone all the +good which the confederates had labored to effect; that she had sought +to degrade the league in the eyes of the people, had excited discord +among its members, and had even caused many of them to be persecuted as +criminals. He called upon her to recall her late ordinances, which +deprived the Protestants of the free exercise of their religion, but +above all to raise the siege of Valenciennes, to disband the troops +newly enlisted, and ended by assuring her that on these conditions and +these alone the league would be responsible for the general +tranquillity. + +To this the regent replied in a tone very different from her previous +moderation. "Who these confederates are who address me in this memorial +is, indeed, a mystery to me. The confederates with whom I had formerly +to do, for ought I know to the contrary, have dispersed. All at least +cannot participate in this statement of grievances, for I myself know of +many, who, satisfied in all their demands, have returned to their duty. +But still, whoever he may be, who without authority and right, and +without name addresses me, he has at least given a very false +interpretation to my word if he asserts that I guaranteed to the +Protestants complete religious liberty. No one can be ignorant how +reluctantly I was induced to permit the preachings in the places where +they had sprung up unauthorized, and this surely cannot be counted for a +concession of freedom in religion. Is it likely that I should have +entertained the idea of protecting these illegal consistories, of +tolerating this state within a state? Could I forget myself so far as +to grant the sanction of law to an objectionable sect; to overturn all +order in the church and in the state, and abominably to blaspheme my +holy religion? Look to him who has given you such permission, but you +must not argue with me. You accuse me of having violated the agreement +which gave you impunity and security. The past I am willing to look +over, but not what may be done in future. No advantage was to be taken +of you on account of the petition of last April, and to the best of my +knowledge nothing of the kind has as yet been done; but whoever again +offends in the same way against the majesty of the king must be ready to +bear the consequences of his crime. In fine, how can you presume to +remind me of an agreement which you have been the first to break? At +whose instigation were the churches plundered, the images of the saints +thrown down, and the towns hurried into rebellion? Who formed alliances +with foreign powers, set on foot illegal enlistments, and collected +unlawful taxes from the subjects of the king? These are the reasons +which have impelled me to draw together my troops, and to increase the +severity of the edicts. Whoever now asks me to lay down my arms cannot +mean well to his country or his king, and if ye value your own lives, +look to it that your own actions acquit you, instead of judging mine." + +All the hopes which the confederates might have entertained of an +amicable adjustment sank with this high-toned declaration. Without +being confident of possessing powerful support, the regent would not, +they argued, employ such language. An army was in the field, the enemy +was before Valenciennes, the members who were the heart of the league +had abandoned it, and the regent required unconditional submission. +Their cause was now so bad that open resistance could not make it worse. +If they gave themselves up defenceless into the hands of their +exasperated sovereign their fate was certain; an appeal to arms could at +least make it a matter of doubt; they, therefore, chose the latter, and +began seriously to take steps for their defence. In order to insure the +assistance of the German Protestants, Louis of Nassau attempted to +persuade the towns of Amsterdam, Antwerp, Tournay, and Valenciennes to +adopt the confession of Augsburg, and in this manner to seal their +alliance with a religious union. But the proposition was not +successful, because the hatred of the Calvinists to the Lutherans +exceeded, if possible, that which they bore to popery. Nassau also +began in earnest to negotiate for supplies from France, the Palatinate, +and Saxony. The Count of Bergen fortified his castles; Brederode threw +himself with a small force into his strong town of Vianne on the Leek, +over which he claimed the rights of sovereignty, and which he hastily +placed in a state of defense, and there awaited a reinforcement from the +league, and the issue of Nassua's negotiations. The flag of war was now +unfurled, everywhere the drum was heard to beat; in all parts troops +were seen on the march, contributions collected, and soldiers enlisted. +The agents of each party often met in the same place, and hardly had the +collectors and recruiting officers of the regent quitted a town when it +had to endure a similar visit from the agents of the league. + +From Valenciennes the regent directed her attention to Herzogenbusch, +where the Iconoclasts had lately committed fresh excesses, and the party +of the Protestants had gained a great accession of strength. In order +to prevail on the citizens peaceably to receive a garrison, she sent +thither, as ambassador, the Chancellor Scheiff, from Brabant, with +counsellor Merode of Petersheim, whom she appointed governor of the +town; they were instructed to secure the place by judicious means, and +to exact from the citizens a new oath of allegiance. At the same time +the Count of Megen, who was in the neighborhood with a body of troops, +was ordered to support the two envoys in effecting their commission, +and to afford the means of throwing in a garrison immediately. But +Brederode, who obtained information of these movements in Viane, had +already sent thither one of his creatures, a certain Anton von Bomber,-- +a hot Calvinist, but also a brave soldier, in order to raise the courage +of his party, and to frustrate the designs of the regent. This Bomberg +succeeded in getting possession of the letters which the chancellor +brought with him from the duchess, and contrived to substitute in their +place counterfeit ones, which, by their harsh and imperious language, +were calculated to exasperate the minds of the citizens. At the same +time he attempted to throw suspicion on both the ambassadors of the +duchess as having evil designs upon the town. In this he succeeded so +well with the mob that in their mad fury they even laid hands on the +ambassadors and placed them in confinement. He himself, at the head of +eight thousand men, who had adopted him as their leader, advanced +against the Count of Megen, who was moving in order of battle, and gave +him so warm a reception, with some heavy artillery, that he was +compelled to retire without accomplishing his object. The regent now +sent an officer of justice to demand the release of her ambassadors, and +in case of refusal to threaten the place with siege; but Bomberg with +his party surrounded the town hall and forced the magistrate to deliver +to him the key of the town. The messenger of the regent was ridiculed +and dismissed, and an answer sent through him that the treatment of the +prisoners would depend upon Brederode's orders. The herald, who was +remaining outside before the town, now appeared to declare war against +her, which, however, the chancellor prevented. + +After his futile attempt on Herzogenhusch the Count of Megen threw +himself into Utrecht in order to prevent the execution of a design which +Count Brederode had formed against that town. As it had suffered much +from the army of the confederates, which was encamped in its immediate +neighborhood, near Viane, it received Megen with open arms as its +protector, and conformed to all the alterations which he made in the +religious worship. Upon this he immediately caused a redoubt to be +thrown up on the bank of the Leek, which would command Viane. +Brederode, not disposed to await his attack, quitted that rendezvous +with the best part of his army and hastened to Amsterdam. + +However unprofitably the Prince of Orange appeared to be losing his +time in Antwerp during these operations he was, nevertheless, busily +employed. At his instigation the league had commenced recruiting, and +Brederode had fortified his castles, for which purpose he himself +presented him with three cannons which he had had cast at Utrecht. +His eye watched all the movements of the court, and he kept the league +warned of the towns which were next menaced with attack. But his chief +object appeared to be to get possession of the principal places in the +districts under his own government, to which end he with all his power +secretly assisted Brederode's plans against Utrecht and Amsterdam. The +most important place was the Island of Walcheren, where the king was +expected to land; and he now planned a scheme for the surprise of this +place, the conduct of which was entrusted to one of the confederate +nobles, an intimate friend of the Prince of Orange, John of Marnix, +Baron of Thoulouse, and brother of Philip of Aldegonde. + + +1567. Thoulouse maintained a secret understanding with the late mayor +of Middleburg, Peter Haak, by which he expected to gain an opportunity +of throwing a garrison into Middleburg and Flushing. The recruiting, +however, for this undertaking, which was set on foot in Antwerp, could +not be carried on so quietly as not to attract the notice of the +magistrate. In order, therefore, to lull the suspicions of the latter, +and at the same time to promote the success of the scheme, the prince +caused the herald by public proclamation to order all foreign soldiers +and strangers who were in the service of the state, or employed in other +business, forthwith to quit the town. He might, say his adversaries, by +closing the gates have easily made himself master of all these suspected +recruits; but be expelled them from the town in order to drive them the +more quickly to the place of their destination. They immediately +embarked on the Scheldt, and sailed down to Rammekens; as, however, a +market-vessel of Antwerp, which ran into Flushing a little before them +had given warning of their design they were forbidden to enter the port. +They found the same difficulty at Arnemuiden, near Middleburg, although +the Protestants in that place exerted themselves to raise an +insurrection in their favor. Thoulouse, therefore, without having +accomplished anything, put about his ships and sailed back down the +Scheldt as far as Osterweel, a quarter of a mile from Antwerp, where he +disembarked his people and encamped on the shore, with the hope of +getting men from Antwerp, and also in order to revive by his presence +the courage of his party, which had been cast down by the proceedings of +the magistrate. By the aid of the Calvinistic clergy, who recruited for +him, his little army increased daily, so that at last he began to be +formidable to the Antwerpians, whose whole territory he laid waste. The +magistrate was for attacking him here with the militia, which, however, +the Prince of Orange successfully opposed by the pretext that it would +not be prudent to strip the town of soldiers. + +Meanwhile the regent had hastily brought together a small army under the +command of Philip of Launoy, which moved from Brussels to Antwerp by +forced marches. At the same time Count Megen managed to keep the army +of the Gueux shut up and employed at Viane, so that it could neither +hear of these movements nor hasten to the assistance of its +confederates. Launoy, on his arrival attacked by surprise the dispersed +crowds, who, little expecting an enemy, had gone out to plunder, and +destroyed them in one terrible carnage. Thoulouse threw himself with +the small remnant of his troops into a country house, which had served +him as his headquarters, and for a long time defended himself with the +courage of despair, until Launoy, finding it impossible to dislodge him, +set fire to the house. The few who escaped the flames fell on the +swords of the enemy or were drowned in the Scheldt. Thoulouse himself +preferred to perish in the flames rather than to fall into the hands of +the enemy. This victory, which swept off more than a thousand of the +enemy, was purchased by the conqueror cheaply enough, for he did not +lose more than two men. Three hundred of the leaguers who surrendered +were cut down without mercy on the spot, as a sally from Antwerp was +momentarily dreaded. + +Before the battle actually commenced no anticipation of such an event +had been entertained at Antwerp. The Prince of Orange, who had got +early information of it, had taken the precaution the day before of +causing the bridge which unites the town with Osterweel to be destroyed, +in order, as he gave out, to prevent the Calvinists within the town +going out to join the army of Thoulouse. A more probable motive seems +to have been a fear lest the Catholics should attack the army of the +Gueux general in the rear, or lest Launoy should prove victorious, and +try to force his way into the town. On the same pretext the gates of +the city were also shut by his orders, arnd the inhabitants, who did not +comprehend the meaning of all these movements, fluctuated between +curiosity and alarm, until the sound of artillery from Osterweel +announced to them what there was going on. In clamorous crowds they all +ran to the walls and ramparts, from which, as the wind drove the smoke +from the contending armies, they commanded a full view of the whole +battle. Both armies were so near to the town that they could discern +their banners, and clearly distinguish the voices of the victors and the +vanquished. More terrible even than the battle itself was the spectacle +which this town now presented. Each of the conflicting armies had its +friends and its enemies on the wall. All that went on in the plain +roused on the ramparts exultation or dismay; on the issue of the +conflict the fate of each spectator seemed to depend. Every movement on +the field could be read in the faces of the townsmen; defeat and +triumph, the terror of the conquered, and the fury of the conqueror. +Here a painful but idle wish to support those who are giving way, to +rally those who fly; there an equally futile desire to overtake them, +to slay them, to extirpate them. Now the Gueux fly, and ten thousand +men rejoice; Thoulouse's last place and refuge is in flames, and the +hopes of twenty thousand citizens are consumed with him. + +But the first bewilderment of alarm soon gave place to a frantic desire +of revenge. Shrieking aloud, wringing her hands and with dishevelled +hair, the widow of the slain general rushed amidst the crowds to implore +their pity and help. Excited by their favorite preacher, Hermann, the +Calvinists fly to arms, determined to avenge their brethren, or to +perish with them; without reflection, without plan or leader, guided by +nothing but their anguish, their delirium, they rush to the Red Gate of +the city which leads to the field of battle; but there is no egress, the +gate is shut and the foremost of the crowd recoil on those that follow. +Thousands and thousands collect together, a dreadful rush is made to the +Meer Bridge. We are betrayed! we are prisoners! is the general cry. +Destruction to the papists, death to him who has betrayed us!--a sullen +murmur, portentous of a revolt, runs through the multitude. They begin +to suspect that all that has taken place has been set on foot by the +Roman Catholics to destroy the Calvinists. They had slain their +defenders, and they would now fall upon the defenceless. With fatal +speed this suspicion spreads through the whole of Antwerp. Now they +can, they think, understand the past, and they fear something still +worse in the background; a frightful distrust gains possession of every +mind. Each party dreads the other; every one sees an enemy in his +neighbor; the mystery deepens the alarm and horror; a fearful condition +for a populous town, in which every accidental concourse instantly +becomes tumult, every rumor started amongst them becomes a fact, every +small spark a blazing flame, and by the force of numbers and collision +all passions are furiously inflamed. All who bore the name of +Calvinists were roused by this report. Fifteen thousand of them take +possession of the Meer Bridge, and plant heavy artillery upon it, which +they had taken by force from the arsenal; the same thing also happens at +another bridge; their number makes them formidable, the town is in their +hands; to escape an imaginary danger they bring all Antwerp to the brink +of ruin. + +Immediately on the commencement of the tumult the Prince of Orange +hastened to the Meer Bridge, where, boldly forcing his way through the +raging crowd, he commanded peace and entreated to be heard. At the +other bridge Count Hogstraten, accompanied by the Burgomaster Strahlen, +made the same attempt; but not possessing a sufficient share either of +eloquence or of popularity to command attention, he referred the +tumultuous crowd to the prince, around whom all Antwerp now furiously +thronged. The gate, he endeavored to explain to them, was shut simply +to keep off the victor, whoever he might be, from the city, which would +otherwise become the prey of an infuriated soldiery. In vain! the +frantic people would not listen, and one more daring than the rest +presented his musket at him, calling him a traitor. With tumultuous +shouts they demanded the key of the Red Gate, which he was ultimately +forced to deliver into the hands of the preacher Hermann. But, he added +with happy presence of mind, they must take heed what they were doing; +in the suburbs six hundred of the enemy's horse were waiting to receive +them. This invention, suggested by the emergency, was not so far +removed from the truth as its author perhaps imagined; for no sooner had +the victorious general perceived the commotion in Antwerp than he caused +his whole cavalry to mount in the hope of being able, under favor of the +disturbance, to break into the town. I, at least, continued the Prince +of Orange, shall secure my own safety in time, and he who follows my +example will save himself much future regret. These words opportunely +spoken and immediately acted upon had their effect. Those who stood +nearest followed him, and were again followed by the next, so that at +last the few who had already hastened out of the city when they saw no +one coming after them lost the desire of coping alone with the six +hundred horse. All accordingly returned to the Meer Bridge, where they +posted watches and videttes, and the night was passed tumultuously under +arms. + +The town of Antwerp was now threatened with fearful bloodshed and +pillage. In this pressing emergency Orange assembled an extraordinary +senate, to which were summoned all the best-disposed citizens of the +four nations. If they wished, said he, to repress the violence of the +Calvinists they must oppose them with an army strong enough and prepared +to meet them. It was therefore resolved to arm with speed the Roman +Catholic inhabitants of the town, whether natives, Italians, or +Spaniards, and, if possible, to induce the Lutherans also to join them. +The haughtiness of the Calvinists, who, proud of their wealth and +confident in their numbers, treated every other religious party with +contempt, had long made the Lutherans their enemies, and the mutual +exasperation of these two Protestant churches was even more implacable +than their common hatred of the dominant church. This jealousy the +magistrate had turned to advantage, by making use of one party to curb +the other, and had thus contrived to keep the Calvinists in check, who, +from their numbers and insolence, were most to be feared. With this +view, he had tacitly taken into his protection the Lutherans, as the +weaker and more peaceable party, having moreover invited for them, from +Germany, spiritual teachers, who, by controversial sermons, might keep +up the mutual hatred of the two bodies. He encouraged the Lutherans in +the vain idea that the king thought more favorably of their religious +creed than that of the Calvinists, and exhorted them to be careful how +they damaged their good cause by any understanding with the latter. It +was not, therefore, difficult to bring about, for the moment, a union +with the Roman Catholics and the Lutherans, as its object was to keep +down their detested rivals. At dawn of day an army was opposed to the +Calvinists which was far superior in force to their own. At the head of +this army, the eloquence of Orange had far greater effect, and found far +more attention than on the preceding evening, unbacked by such strong +persuasion. The Calvinists, though in possession of arms and artillery, +yet, alarmed at the superior numbers arrayed against them, were the +first to send envoys, and to treat for an amicable adjustment of +differences, which by the tact and good temper of the Prince of Orange, +he concluded to the satisfaction of all parties. On the proclamation of +this treaty the Spaniards and Italians immediately laid down their arms. +They were followed by the Calvinists, and these again by the Roman +Catholics; last of all the Lutherans disarmed. + +Two days and two nights Antwerp had continued in this alarming state. +During the tumult the Roman Catholics had succeeded in placing barrels +of gunpowder under the Meer Bridge, and threatened to blow into the air +the whole army of the Calvinists, who had done the same in other places +to destroy their adversaries. The destruction of the town hung on the +issue of a moment, and nothing but the prince's presence of mind saved +it. + +Noircarmes, with his army of Walloons, still lay before Valenciennes, +which, in firm reliance on being relieved by the Gueux, obstinately +refused to listen to all the representations of the regent, and rejected +every idea of surrender. An order of the court had expressly forbidden +the royalist general to press the siege until he should receive +reinforcements from Germany. Whether from forbearance or fear, the king +regarded with abhorrence the violent measure of storming the place, as +necessarily involving the innocent in the fate of the guilty, and +exposing the loyal subject to the same ill-treatment as the rebel. As, +however, the confidence of the besieged augmented daily, and emboldened +by the inactivity of the besiegers, they annoyed him by frequent +sallies, and after burning the cloisters before the town, retired with +the plunder--as the time uselessly lost before this town was put to good +use by the rebels and their allies, Noircarmes besought the duchess to +obtain immediate permission from the king to take it by storm. The +answer arrived more quickly than Philip was ever before wont to reply. +As yet they must be content, simply to make the necessary preparations, +and then to wait awhile to allow terror to have its effect; but if upon +this they did not appear ready to capitulate, the storming might take +place, but, at the same time, with the greatest possible regard for the +lives of the inhabitants. Before the regent allowed Noircarmes to +proceed to this extremity she empowered Count Egmont, with the Duke +Arschot, to treat once more with the rebels amicably. Both conferred +with the deputies of the town, and omitted no argument calculated to +dispel their delusion. They acquainted them with the defeat of +Thoulouse, their sole support, and with the fact that the Count of Megen +had cut off the army of the Gueux from the town, and assured them that +if they had held out so long they owed it entirely to the king's +forbearance. They offered them full pardon for the past; every one was +to be free to prove his innocence before whatever tribunal he should +chose; such as did not wish to avail themselves of this privilege were +to be allowed fourteen days to quit the town with all their effects. +Nothing was required of the townspeople but the admission of the +garrison. To give time to deliberate on these terms an armistice of +three days was granted. When the deputies returned they found their +fellow-citizens less disposed than ever to an accommodation, reports of +new levies by the Gueux having, in the meantime, gained currency. +Thoulouse, it was pretended, had conquered, and was advancing with a +powerful army to relieve the place. Their confidence went so far that +they even ventured to break the armistice, and to fire upon the +besiegers. At last the burgomaster, with difficulty, succeeded in +bringing matters so far towards a peaceful settlement that twelve of the +town counsellors were sent into the camp with the following conditions: +The edict by which Valenciennes had been charged with treason and +declared an enemy to the country was required to be recalled, the +confiscation of their goods revoked, and the prisoners on both sides +restored to liberty; the garrison was not to enter the town before every +one who thought good to do so had placed himself and his property in +security; and a pledge to be given that the inhabitants should not be +molested in any manner, and that their expenses should be paid by the +king. + +Noircarmes was so indignant with these conditions that he was almost on +the point of ill-treating the deputies. If they had not come, he told +them, to give up the place, they might return forthwith, lest he should +send them home with their hands tied behind their backs. Upon this the +deputies threw the blame on the obstinacy of the Calvinists, and +entreated him, with tears in their eyes, to keep them in the camp, as +they did not, they said, wish to have anything more to do with their +rebellious townsmen, or to be joined in their fate. They even knelt to +beseech the intercession of Egmont, but Noircarmes remained deaf to all +their entreaties, and the sight of the chains which he ordered to be +brought out drove them reluctantly enough back to Valenciennes. +Necessity, not severity, imposed this harsh procedure upon the general. +The detention of ambassadors had on a former occasion drawn upon him the +reprimand of the duchess; the people in the town would not have failed +to have ascribed the non-appearance of their present deputies to the +same cause as in the former case had detained them. Besides, he was +loath to deprive the town of any out of the small residue of +well-disposed citizens, or to leave it a prey to a blind, foolhardy mob. +Egmont was so mortified at the bad report of his embassy that he the +night following rode round to reconnoitre its fortifications, and +returned well satisfied to have convinced himself that it was no longer +tenable. + +Valenciennes stretches down a gentle acclivity into the level plain, +being built on a site as strong as it is delightful. On one side +enclosed by the Scheldt and another smaller river, and on the other +protected by deep ditches, thick walls, and towers, it appears capable +of defying every attack. But Noircarmes had discovered a few points +where neglect had allowed the fosse to be filled almost up to the level +of the natural surface, and of these he determined to avail himself in +storming. He drew together all the scattered corps by which he had +invested the town, and during a tempestuous night carried the suburb of +Berg without the loss of a single man. He then assigned separate points +of attack to the Count of Bossu, the young Charles of Mansfeld, and the +younger Barlaimont, and under a terrible fire, which drove the enemy +from his walls, his troops were moved up with all possible speed. Close +before the town, and opposite the gate under the eyes of the besiegers, +and with very little loss, a battery was thrown up to an equal height +with the fortifications. From this point the town was bombarded with an +unceasing fire for four hours. The Nicolaus tower, on which the +besieged had planted some artillery, was among the first that fell, and +many perished under its ruins. The guns were directed against all the +most conspicuous buildings, and a terrible slaughter was made amongst +the inhabitants. In a few hours their principal works were destroyed, +and in the gate itself so extensive a breach was made that the besieged, +despairing of any longer defending themselves, sent in haste two +trumpeters to entreat a parley. This was granted, but the storm was +continued without intermission. The ambassador entreated Noircarmes to +grant them the same terms which only two days before they had rejected. +But circumstances had now changed, and the victor would hear no more of +conditions. The unceasing fire left the inhabitants no time to repair +the ramparts, which filled the fosse with their debris, and opened many +a breach for the enemy to enter by. Certain of utter destruction, they +surrendered next morning at discretion after a bombardment of +six-and-thirty hours without intermission, and three thousand bombs had +been thrown into the city. Noircarmes marched into the town with his +victorious army under the strictest discipline, and was received by a +crowd of women and children, who went to meet him, carrying green boughs, +and beseeching his pity. All the citizens were immediately disarmed, the +commandant and his son beheaded; thirty-six of the most guilty of the +rebels, among whom were La Grange and another Calvinistic preacher, Guido +de Bresse, atoned for their obstinacy at the gallows; all the municipal +functionaries were deprived of their offices, and the town of all its +privileges. The Roman Catholic worship was immediately restored in full +dignity, and the Protestant abolished. The Bishop of Arras was obliged to +quit his residence in the town, and a strong garrison placed in it to +insure its future obedience. + +The fate of Valenciennes, towards which all eyes had been turned, was a +warning to the other towns which had similarly offended. Noircarmes +followed up his victory, and marched immediately against Maestricht, +which surrendered without a blow, and received a garrison. From thence +he marched to Tornhut to awe by his presence the people of Herzogenbusch +and Antwerp. The Gueux in this place, who under the command of Bomberg +had carried all things before them, were now so terrified at his +approach that they quitted the town in haste. Noircarmes was received +without opposition. The ambassadors of the duchess were immediately set +at liberty. A strong garrison was thrown into Tornhut. Cambray also +opened its gates, and joyfully recalled its archbishop, whom the +Calvinists had driven from his see, and who deserved this triumph as +he did not stain his entrance with blood. Ghent, Ypres, and Oudenarde +submitted and received garrisons. Gueldres was now almost entirely +cleared of the rebels and reduced to obedience by the Count of Megen. +In Friesland and Groningen the Count of Aremberg had eventually the same +success; but it was not obtained here so rapidly or so easily, since the +count wanted consistency and firmness, and these warlike republicans +maintained more pertinaciously their privileges, and were greatly +supported by the strength of their position. With the exception of +Holland all the provinces had yielded before the victorious arms of the +duchess. The courage of the disaffected sunk entirely, and nothing was +left to them but flight or submission. + + + + + RESIGNATION OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE. + +Ever since the establishment of the Guesen league, but more perceptibly +since the outbreak of the Iconoclasts, the spirit of rebellion and +disaffection had spread so rapidly among all classes, parties had become +so blended and confused, that the regent had difficulty in +distinguishing her own adherents, and at last hardly knew on whom to +rely. The lines of demarcation between the loyal and the disaffected +had grown gradually fainter, until at last they almost entirely +vanished. The frequent alterations, too, which she had been obliged to +make in the laws, and which were at most the expedients and suggestions +of the moment, had taken from them their precision and binding force, +and had given full scope to the arbitrary will of every individual whose +office it was to interpret them. And at last, amidst the number and +variety of the interpretations, the spirit was lost and the intention of +the lawgiver baffled. The close connection which in many cases +subsisted between Protestants and Roman Catholics, between Gueux and +Royalists, and which not unfrequently gave them a common interest, led +the latter to avail themselves of the loophole which the vagueness of +the laws left open, and in favor of their Protestant friends and +associates evaded by subtle distinctions all severity in the discharge +of their duties. In their minds it was enough not to be a declared +rebel, not one of the Gueux, or at least not a heretic, to be authorized +to mould their duties to their inclinations, and to set the most +arbitrary limits to their obedience to the king. Feeling themselves +irresponsible, the governors of the provinces, the civil functionaries, +both high and low, the municipal officers, and the military commanders +had all become extremely remiss in their duty, and presuming upon this +impunity showed a pernicious indulgence to the rebels and their +adherents which rendered abortive all the regent's measures of coercion. +This general indifference and corruption of so many servants of the +state had further this injurious result, that it led the turbulent to +reckon on far stronger support than in reality they had cause for, and +to count on their own side all who were but lukewarm adherents of the +court. This way of thinking, erroneous as it was, gave them greater +courage and confidence; it had the same effect as if it had been well +founded; and the uncertain vassals of the king became in consequence +almost as injurious to him as his declared enemies, without at the same +time being liable to the same measures of severity. This was especially +the case with the Prince of Orange, Counts Egmont, Bergen, Hogstraten, +Horn, and several others of the higher nobility. The regent felt the +necessity of bringing these doubtful subjects to an explanation, in +order either to deprive the rebels of a fancied support or to unmask the +enemies of the king. And the latter reason was of the more urgent +moment when being obliged to send an army into the field it was of the +utmost importance to entrust the command of the troops to none but those +of whose fidelity she was fully assured. She caused, therefore, an oath +to be drawn up which bound all who took it to advance the Roman Catholic +faith, to pursue and punish the Iconoclasts, and to help by every means +in their power in extirpating all kinds of heresy. It also pledged them +to treat the king's enemies as their own, and to serve without +distinction against all whom the regent in the king's name should point +out. By this oath she did not hope so much to test their sincerity, and +still less to secure them, as rather to gain a pretext for removing the +suspected parties if they declined to take it, and for wresting from +their hands a power which they abused, or a legitimate ground for +punishing them if they took it and broke it. This oath was exacted from +all Knights of the Fleece, all civil functionaries and magistrates, all +officers of the army--from every one in short who held any appointment +in the state. Count Mansfeld was the first who publicly took it in the +council of state at Brussels; his example was followed by the Duke of +Arschot, Counts Egmont, Megen, and Barlaimont. Hogstraten and Horn +endeavored to evade the necessity. The former was offended at a proof +of distrust which shortly before the regent had given him. Under the +pretext that Malines could not safely be left any longer without its +governor, but that the presence of the count was no less necessary in +Antwerp, she had taken from him that province and given it to another +whose fidelity she could better reckon upon. Hostraten expressed his +thanks that she had been pleased to release him from one of his burdens, +adding that she would complete the obligation if she would relieve him +from the other also. True to his determination Count Horn was living +on one of his estates in the strong town of Weerdt, having retired +altogether from public affairs. Having quitted the service of the +state, he owed, he thought, nothing more either to the republic or to +the king, and declined the oath, which in his case appears at last to +have been waived. + +The Count of Brederode was left the choice of either taking the +prescribed oath or resigning the command of his squadron of cavalry. +After many fruitless attempts to evade the alternative, on the plea that +he did not hold office in the state, he at last resolved upon the latter +course, and thereby escaped all risk of perjuring himself. + +Vain were all the attempts to prevail on the Prince of Orange to take +the oath, who, from the suspicion which had long attached to him, +required more than any other this purification; and from whom the great +power which it had been necessary to place in his hands fully justified +the regent in exacting it. It was not, however, advisable to proceed +against him with the laconic brevity adopted towards Brederode and the +like; on the other hand, the voluntary resignation of all his offices, +which he tendered, did not meet the object of the regent, who foresaw +clearly enough how really dangerous he would become, as soon as he +should feel himself independent, and be no longer checked by any +external considerations of character or duty in the prosecution of his +secret designs. But ever since the consultation in Dendermonde the +Prince of Orange had made up his mind to quit the service of the King of +Spain on the first favorable opportunity, and till better days to leave +the country itself. A very disheartening experience had taught him how +uncertain are hopes built on the multitude, and how quickly their zeal +is cooled by the necessity of fulfilling its lofty promises. An army +was already in the field, and a far stronger one was, he knew, on its +road, under the command of the Duke of Alva. The time for remonstrances +was past; it was only at the head of an army that an advantageous treaty +could now be concluded with the regent, and by preventing the entrance +of the Spanish general. But now where was he to raise this army, in +want as he was of money, the sinews of warfare, since the Protestants +had retracted their boastful promises and deserted him in this pressing +emergency? + + [How valiant the wish, and how sorry the deed was, is proved by the + following instance amongst others. Some friends of the national + liberty, Roman Catholics as well as Protestants, had solemnly + engaged in Amsterdam to subscribe to a common fund the hundredth + penny of their estates, until a sum of eleven thousand florins + should be collected, which was to be devoted to the common cause + and interests. An alms-box, protected by three locks, was prepared + for the reception of these contributions. After the expiration of + the prescribed period it was opened, and a sum was found amounting + to seven hundred florins, which was given to the hostess of the + Count of Brederode, in part payment of his unliquidated score. + Univ. Hist. of the N., vol. 3.] + +Religious jealousy and hatred, moreover, separated the two Protestant +churches, and stood in the way of every salutary combination against +the common enemy of their faith. The rejection of the Confession of +Augsburg by the Calvinists had exasperated all the Protestant princes of +Germany, so that no support was to be looked for from the empire. With +Count Egmont the excellent army of Walloons was also lost to the cause, +for they followed with blind devotion the fortunes of their general, who +had taught them at St. Quentin and Gravelines to be invincible. And +again, the outrages which the Iconoclasts had perpetrated on the +churches and convents had estranged from the league the numerous, +wealthy, and powerful class of the established clergy, who, before this +unlucky episode, were already more than half gained over to it; while, +by her intrigues, the regent daily contrived to deprive the league +itself of some one or other of its most influential members. + +All these considerations combined induced the prince to postpone to +a more favorable season a project for which the present juncture was +little suited, and to leave a country where his longer stay could not +effect any advantage for it, but must bring certain destruction on +himself. After intelligence gleaned from so many quarters, after so +many proofs of distrust, so many warnings from Madrid, he could be no +longer doubtful of the sentiments of Philip towards him. If even he +had any doubt, his uncertainty would soon have been dispelled by the +formidable armament which was preparing in Spain, and which was to have +for its leader, not the king, as was falsely given out, but, as he was +better informed, the Duke of Alva, his personal enemy, and the very man +he had most cause to fear. The prince had seen too deeply into Philip's +heart to believe in the sincerity of his reconciliation after having +once awakened his fears. He judged his own conduct too justly to +reckon, like his friend Egmont, on reaping a gratitude from the king to +which he had not sown. He could therefore expect nothing but hostility +from him, and prudence counselled him to screen himself by a timely +flight from its actual outbreak. He had hitherto obstinately refused +to take the new oath, and all the written exhortations of the regent +had been fruitless. At last she sent to him at Antwerp her private +secretary, Berti, who was to put the matter emphatically to his +conscience, and forcibly remind him of all the evil consequences which +so sudden a retirement from the royal service would draw upon the +country, as well as the irreparable injury it would do to his own fair +fame. Already, she informed him by her ambassador, his declining the +required oath had cast a shade upon his honor, and imparted to the +general voice, which accused him of an understanding with the rebels, an +appearance of truth which this unconditional resignation would convert +to absolute certainty. It was for the sovereign to discharge his +servants, but it did not become the servant to abandon his sovereign. +The envoy of the regent found the prince in his palace at Antwerp, +already, as it appeared, withdrawn from the public service, and entirely +devoted to his private concerns. The prince told him, in the presence +of Hogstraten, that he had refused to take the required oath because he +could not find that such a proposition had ever before been made to a +governor of a province; because he had already bound himself, once for +all, to the king, and therefore, by taking this new oath, he would +tacitly acknowledge that he had broken the first. He had also refused +because the old oath enjoined him to protect the rights and privileges +of the country, but he could not tell whether this new one might not +impose upon him duties which would contravene the first; because, too, +the clause which bound him to serve, if required, against all without +distinction, did not except even the emperor, his feudal lord, against +whom, however, he, as his vassal, could not conscientiously make war. +He had refused to take this oath because it might impose upon him the +necessity of surrendering his friends and relations, his children, nay, +even his wife, who was a Lutheran, to butchery. According to it, +moreover, he must lend himself to every thing which it should occur to +the king's fancy or passion to demand. But the king might thus exact +from him things which he shuddered even to think of, and even the +severities which were now, and had been all along, exercised upon the +Protestants, were the most revolting to his heart. This oath, in short, +was repugnant to his feelings as a man, and he could not take it. In +conclusion, the name of the Duke of Alva dropped from his lips in a tone +of bitterness, and he became immediately silent. + +All these objections were answered, point by point, by Berti. Certainly +such an oath had never been required from a governor before him, because +the provinces had never been similarly circumstanced. It was not +exacted because the governors had broken the first, but in order to +remind them vividly of their former vows, and to freshen their activity +in the present emergency. This oath would not impose upon him anything +which offended against the rights and privileges of the country, for the +king had sworn to observe these as well as the Prince of Orange. The +oath did not, it was true, contain any reference to a war with the +emperor, or any other sovereign to whom the prince might be related; and +if he really had scruples on this point, a distinct clause could easily +be inserted, expressly providing against such a contingency. Care would +be taken to spare him any duties which were repugnant to his feelings as +a man, and no power on earth would compel him to act against his wife or +against his children. Berti was then passing to the last point, which +related to the Duke of Alva, but the prince, who did not wish to have +this part of his discourse canvassed, interrupted him. "The king was +coming to the Netherlands," he said, "and he knew the king. The king +would not endure that one of his servants should have wedded a Lutheran, +and he had therefore resolved to go with his whole family into voluntary +banishment before he was obliged to submit to the same by compulsion. +But," he concluded, "wherever he might be, he would always conduct +himself as a subject of the king." Thus far-fetched were the motives +which the prince adduced to avoid touching upon the single one which +really decided him. + +Berti had still a hope of obtaining, through Egmont's eloquence, what by +his own he despaired of effecting. He therefore proposed a meeting with +the latter (1567), which the prince assented to the more willingly as he +himself felt a desire to embrace his friend once more before his +departure, and if possible to snatch the deluded man from certain +destruction. This remarkable meeting, at which the private secretary, +Berti, and the young Count Mansfeld, were also present, was the last +that the two friends ever held, and took place in Villebroeck, a village +on the Rupel, between Brussels and Antwerp. The Calvinists, whose last +hope rested on the issue of this conference, found means to acquaint +themselves of its import by a spy, who concealed himself in the chimney +of the apartment where it was held. All three attempted to shake the +determination of the prince, but their united eloquence was unable to +move him from his purpose. "It will cost you your estates, Orange, if +you persist in this intention," said the Prince of Gaure, as he took him +aside to a window. "And you your life, Egmont, if you change not +yours," replied the former. "To me it will at least be a consolation in +my misfortunes that I desired, in deed as well as in word, to help my +country and my friends in the hour of need; but you, my friend, you are +dragging friends and country with you to destruction." And saying these +words, he once again exhorted him, still more urgently than ever, to +return to the cause of his country, which his arm alone was yet able to +preserve; if not, at least for his own sake to avoid the tempest which +was gathering against him from Spain. + +But all the arguments, however lucid, with which a far-discerning +prudence supplied him, and however urgently enforced, with all the ardor +and animation which the tender anxiety of friendship could alone +inspire, did not avail to destroy the fatal confidence which still +fettered Egmont's better reason. The warning of Orange seemed to come +from a sad and dispirited heart; but for Egmont the world still smiled. +To abandon the pomp and affluence in which he had grown up to youth and +manhood; to part with all the thousand conveniences of life which alone +made it valuable to him, and all this to escape an evil which his +buoyant spirit regarded as remote, if not imaginary; no, that was not a +sacrifice which could be asked from Egmont. But had he even been less +given to indulgence than he was, with what heart could he have consigned +a princess, accustomed by uninterrupted prosperity to ease and comfort, +a wife who loved him as dearly as she was beloved, the children on whom +his soul hung in hope and fondness, to privations at the prospect of +which his own courage sank, and which a sublime philosophy alone can +enable sensuality to undergo. "You will never persuade me, Orange," +said Egmont, "to see things in the gloomy light in which they appear to +thy mournful prudence. When I have succeeded in abolishing the public +preachings, and chastising the Iconoclasts, in crushing the rebels, and +restoring peace and order in the provinces, what can the king lay to my +charge? The king is good and just; I have claims upon his gratitude, +and I must not forget what I owe to myself." "Well, then," cried +Orange, indignantly and with bitter anguish, "trust, if you will, to +this royal gratitude; but a mournful presentiment tells me--and may +Heaven grant that I am deceived!--that you, Egmont, will be the bridge +by which the Spaniards will pass into our country to destroy it." After +these words, he drew him to his bosom, ardently clasping him in his +arms. Long, as though the sight was to serve for the remainder of his +life, did he keep his eyes fixed upon him; the tears fell; they saw each +other no more. + +The very next day the Prince of Orange wrote his letter of resignation +to the regent, in which he assured her of his perpetual esteem, and once +again entreated her to put the best interpretation on his present step. +He then set off with his three brothers and his whole family for his own +town of Breda, where he remained only as long as was requisite to +arrange some private affairs. His eldest son, Prince Philip William, +was left behind at the University of Louvain, where he thought him +sufficiently secure under the protection of the privileges of Brabant +and the immunities of the academy; an imprudence which, if it was really +not designed, can hardly be reconciled with the just estimate which, in +so many other cases, he had taken of the character of his adversary. In +Breda the heads of the Calvinists once more consulted him whether there +was still hope for them, or whether all was irretrievably lost. "He had +before advised them," replied the prince, "and must now do so again, to +accede to the Confession of Augsburg; then they might rely upon aid from +Germany. If they would still not consent to this, they must raise six +hundred thousand florins, or more, if they could." "The first," they +answered, "was at variance with their conviction and their conscience; +but means might perhaps be found to raise the money if he would only let +them know for what purpose he would use it." "No!" cried he, with the +utmost displeasure, "if I must tell you that, it is all over with the +use of it." With these words he immediately broke off the conference +and dismissed the deputies. + +The Prince of Orange was reproached with having squandered his fortune, +and with favoring the innovations on account of his debts; but he +asserted that he still enjoyed sixty thousand florins yearly rental. +Before his departure he borrowed twenty thousand florins from the states +of Holland on the mortgage of some manors. Men could hardly persuade +themselves that he would have succumbed to necessity so entirely, and +without an effort at resistance given up all his hopes and schemes. But +what he secretly meditated no one knew, no one had read in his heart. +Being asked how he intended to conduct himself towards the King of +Spain, "Quietly," was his answer, "unless he touches my honor or my +estates." He left the Netherlands soon afterwards, and betook himself +in retirement to the town of Dillenburg, in Nassau, at which place he +was born. He was accompanied to Germany by many hundreds, either as his +servants or as volunteers, and was soon followed by Counts Hogstraten, +Kuilemberg, and Bergen, who preferred to share a voluntary exile with +him rather than recklessly involve themselves in an uncertain destiny. +In his departure the nation saw the flight of its guardian angel; many +had adored, all had honored him. With him the last stay of the +Protestants gave way; they, however, had greater hopes from this man +in exile than from all the others together who remained behind. Even +the Roman Catholics could not witness his departure without regret. +Them also had he shielded from tyranny; he had not unfrequently +protected them against the oppression of their own church, and he had +rescued many of them from the sanguinary jealousy of their religious +opponents. A few fanatics among the Calvinists, who were offended with +his proposal of an alliance with their brethren, who avowed the +Confession of Augsburg, solemnized with secret thanksgivings the day on +which the enemy left them. (1567). + + + + + DECAY AND DISPERSION OF THE GEUSEN LEAGUE. + +Immediately after taking leave of his friend, the Prince of Gaure +hastened back to Brussels, to receive from the regent the reward of his +firmness, and there, in the excitement of the court and in the sunshine +of his good fortune, to dispel the light cloud which the earnest +warnings of the Prince of Orange had cast over his natural gayety. +The flight of the latter now left him in possession of the stage. +He had now no longer any rival in the republic to dim his glory. With +redoubled zeal he wooed the transient favor of the court, above which he +ought to have felt himself far exalted. All Brussels must participate +in his joy. He gave splendid banquets and public entertainments, at +which, the better to eradicate all suspicion from his mind, the regent +herself frequently attended. Not content with having taken the required +oath, he outstripped the most devout in devotion; outran the most +zealous in zeal to extirpate the Protestant faith, and to reduce by +force of arms the refractory towns of Flanders. He declared to his old +friend, Count Hogstraten, as also to the rest of the Gueux, that he +would withdraw from them his friendship forever if they hesitated any +longer to return into the bosom of the church, and reconcile themselves +with their king. All the confidential letters which had been exchanged +between him and them were returned, and by this last step the breach +between them was made public and irreparable. Egmont's secession, and +the flight of the Prince of Orange, destroyed the last hope of the +Protestants and dissolved the whole league of the Gueux. Its members +vied with each other in readiness--nay, they could not soon enough +abjure the covenant and take the new oath proposed to them by the +government. In vain did the Protestant merchants exclaim at this breach +of faith on the part of the nobles; their weak voice was no longer +listened to, and all the sums were lost with which they had supplied the +league. + +The most important places were quickly reduced and garrisoned; the +rebels had fled, or perished by the hand of the executioner; in the +provinces no protector was left. All yielded to the fortune of the +regent, and her victorious army was advancing against Antwerp. After a +long and obstinate contest this town had been cleared of the worst +rebels; Hermann and his adherents took to flight; the internal storms +had spent their rage. The minds of the people became gradually +composed, and no longer excited at will by every furious fanatic, began +to listen to better counsels. The wealthier citizens earnestly longed +for peace to revive commerce and trade, which had suffered severely from +the long reign of anarchy. The dread of Alva's approach worked wonders; +in order to prevent the miseries which a Spanish army would inflict upon +the country, the people hastened to throw themselves on the gentler +mercies of the regent. Of their own accord they despatched +plenipotentiaries to Brussels to negotiate for a treaty and to hear her +terms. Agreeably as the regent was surprised by this voluntary step, +she did not allow herself to be hurried away by her joy. She declared +that she neither could nor would listen to any overtures or +representations until the town had received a garrison. Even this was +no longer opposed, and Count Mansfeld marched in the day after with +sixteen squadrons in battle array. A solemn treaty was now made between +the town and duchess, by which the former bound itself to prohibit the +Calvinistic form of worship, to banish all preachers of that persuasion, +to restore the Roman Catholic religion to its former dignity, to +decorate the despoiled churches with their former ornaments, to +administer the old edicts as before, to take the new oath which the +other towns had sworn to, and, lastly, to deliver into the hands of +justice all who been guilty of treason, in bearing arms, or taking part +in the desecration of the churches. On the other hand, the regent +pledged herself to forget all that had passed, and even to intercede for +the offenders with the king. All those who, being dubious of obtaining +pardon, preferred banishment, were to be allowed a month to convert +their property into money, and place themselves in safety. From this +grace none were to be excluded but such as had been guilty of a capital +offence, and who were excepted by the previous article. Immediately +upon the conclusion of this treaty all Calvinist and Lutheran preachers +in Antwerp, and the adjoining territory, were warned by the herald to +quit the country within twenty-four hours. All the streets and gates +were now thronged with fugitives, who for the honor of their God +abandoned what was dearest to them, and sought a more peaceful home for +their persecuted faith. Here husbands were taking an eternal farewell +of their wives, fathers of their children; there whole families were +preparing to depart. All Antwerp resembled a house of mourning; +wherever the eye turned some affecting spectacle of painful separation +presented itself. A seal was set on the doors of the Protestant +churches; the whole worship seemed to be extinct. The 10th of April +(1567) was the day appointed for the departure of the preachers. In the +town hall, where they appeared for the last time to take leave of the +magistrate, they could not command their grief; but broke forth into +bitter reproaches. They had been sacrificed, they exclaimed, they had +been shamefully betrayed; but a time would come when Antwerp would pay +dearly enough for this baseness. Still more bitter were the complaints +of the Lutheran clergy, whom the magistrate himself had invited into the +country to preach against the Calvinists. Under the delusive +representation that the king was not unfavorable to their religion they +had been seduced into a combination against the Calvinists, but as soon +as the latter had been by their co-operation brought under subjection, +and their own services were no longer required, they were left to bewail +their folly, which had involved themselves and their enemies in common +ruin. + +A few days afterwards the regent entered Antwerp in triumph, accompanied +by a thousand Walloon horse, the Knights of the Golden Fleece, all the +governors and counsellors, a number of municipal officers, and her whole +court. Her first visit was to the cathedral, which still bore +lamentable traces of the violence of the Iconoclasts, and drew from her +many and bitter tears. Immediately afterwards four of the rebels, who +had been overtaken in their flight, were brought in and executed in the +public market-place. All the children who had been baptized after the +Protestant rites were rebaptized by Roman Catholic priests; all the +schools of heretics were closed, and their churches levelled to the +ground. Nearly all the towns in the Netherlands followed the example of +Antwerp and banished the Protestant preachers. By the end of April the +Roman Catholic churches were repaired and embellished more splendidly +than ever, while all the Protestant places of worship were pulled down, +and every vestige of the proscribed belief obliterated in the seventeen +provinces. The populace, whose sympathies are generally with the +successful party, was now as active in accelerating the ruin of the +unfortunate as a short time before it had been furiously zealous in its +cause; in Ghent a large and beautiful church which the Calvinists had +erected was attacked, and in less than an hour had wholly disappeared. +From the beams of the roofless churches gibbets were erected for those +who had profaned the sanctuaries of the Roman Catholics. The places of +execution were filled with corpses, the prisons with condemned victims, +the high roads with fugitives. Innumerable were the victims of this +year of murder; in the smallest towns fifty at least, in several of the +larger as many as three hundred, were put to death, while no account was +kept of the numbers in the open country who fell into the hands of the +provost-marshal and were immediately strung up as miscreants, without +trial and without mercy. + +The regent was still in Antwerp when ambassadors presented themselves +from the Electors of Brandenburg, Saxony, Hesse, Wurtemberg, and Baden +to intercede for their fugitive brethren in the faith. The expelled +preachers of the Augsburg Confession had claimed the rights assured to +them by the religious peace of the Germans, in which Brabant, as part of +the empire, participated, and had thrown themselves on the protection of +those princes. The arrival of the foreign ministers alarmed the regent, +and she vainly endeavored to prevent their entrance into Antwerp; under +the guise, however, of showing them marks of honor, she continued to +keep them closely watched lest they should encourage the malcontents in +any attempts against the peace of the town. From the high tone which +they most unreasonably adopted towards the regent it might almost be +inferred that they were little in earnest in their demand. "It was but +reasonable," they said, "that the Confession of Augsburg, as the only +one which met the spirit of the gospel, should be the ruling faith in +the Netherlands; but to persecute it by such cruel edicts as were in +force was positively unnatural and could not be allowed. They therefore +required of the regent, in the name of religion, not to treat the people +entrusted to her rule with such severity." She replied through the Count +of Staremberg, her minister for German affairs, that such an exordium +deserved no answer at all. From the sympathy which the German princes +had shown for the Belgian fugitives it was clear that they gave less +credit to the letters of the king, in explanation of his measures, than +to the reports of a few worthless wretches who, in the desecrated +churches, had left behind them a worthier memorial of their acts and +characters. It would far more become them to leave to the King of Spain +the care of his own subjects, and abandon the attempt to foster a spirit +of rebellion in foreign countries, from which they would reap neither +honor nor profit. The ambassadors left Antwerp in a few days without +having effected anything. The Saxon minister, indeed, in a private +interview with the regent even assured her that his master had most +reluctantly taken this step. + +The German ambassadors had not quitted Antwerp when intelligence from +Holland completed the triumph of the regent. From fear of Count Megen +Count Brederode had deserted his town of Viane, and with the aid of the +Protestants inhabitants had succeeded in throwing himself into +Amsterdam, where his arrival caused great alarm to the city magistrate, +who had previously found difficulty in preventing a revolt, while it +revived the courage of the Protestants. Here Brederode's adherents +increased daily, and many noblemen flocked to him from Utrecht, +Friesland, and Groningen, whence the victorious arms of Megen and +Aremberg had driven them. Under various disguises they found means to +steal into the city, where they gathered round Brederode, and served him +as a strong body-guard. The regent, apprehensive of a new outbreak, +sent one of her private secretaries, Jacob de la Torre, to the council +of Amsterdam, and ordered them to get rid of Count Brederode on any +terms and at any risk. Neither the magistrate nor de la Torre himself, +who visited Brederode in person to acquaint him with the will of the +duchess, could prevail upon him to depart. The secretary was even +surprised in his own chamber by a party of Brederode's followers, and +deprived of all his papers, and would, perhaps, have lost his life also +if he had not contrived to make his escape. Brederode remained in +Amsterdam a full month after this occurrence, a powerless idol of the +Protestants, and an oppressive burden to the Roman Catholics; while his +fine army, which he had left in Viane, reinforced by many fugitives from +the southern provinces, gave Count Megen enough to do without attempting +to harass the Protestants in their flight. At last Brederode resolved +to follow the example of Orange, and, yielding to necessity, abandon a +desperate cause. He informed the town council that he was willing to +leave Amsterdam if they would enable him to do so by furnishing him with +the pecuniary means. Glad to get quit of him, they hastened to borrow +the money on the security of the town council. Brederode quitted +Amsterdam the same night, and was conveyed in a gunboat as far as Vlie, +from whence he fortunately escaped to Embden. Fate treated him more +mildly than the majority of those he had implicated in his foolhardy +enterprise; he died the year after, 1568, at one of his castles in +Germany, from the effects of drinking, by which he sought ultimately to +drown his grief and disappointments. His widow, Countess of Moers in +her own right, was remarried to the Prince Palatine, Frederick III. The +Protestant cause lost but little by his demise; the work which he had +commenced, as it had not been kept alive by him, so it did not die with +him. + +The little army, which in his disgraceful flight he had deserted, was +bold and valiant, and had a few resolute leaders. It disbanded, indeed, +as soon as he, to whom it looked for pay, had fled; but hunger and +courage kept its parts together some time longer. One body, under +command of Dietrich of Battenburgh, marched to Amsterdam in the hope of +carrying that town; but Count Megen hastened with thirteen companies of +excellent troops to its relief, and compelled the rebels to give up the +attempt. Contenting themselves with plundering the neighboring +cloisters, among which the abbey of Egmont in particular was hardly +dealt with, they turned off towards Waaterland, where they hoped the +numerous swamps would protect them from pursuit. But thither Count +Megen followed them, and compelled them in all haste to seek safety in +the Zuyderzee. The brothers Van Battenburg, and two Friesan nobles, +Beima and Galama, with a hundred and twenty men and the booty they had +taken from the monasteries, embarked near the town of Hoorne, intending +to cross to Friesland, but through the treachery of the steersman, who +ran the vessel on a sand-bank near Harlingen, they fell into the hands +of one of Aremberg's captains, who took them all prisoners. The Count +of Aremberg immediately pronounced sentence upon all the captives of +plebeian rank, but sent his noble prisoners to the regent, who caused +seven of them to be beheaded. Seven others of the most noble, including +the brothers Van Battenburg and some Frieslanders, all in the bloom of +youth, were reserved for the Duke of Alva, to enable him to signalize +the commencement of his administration by a deed which was in every way +worthy of him. The troops in four other vessels which set sail from +Medenhlick, and were pursued by Count Megen in small boats, were more +successful. A contrary wind had forced them out of their course and +driven them ashore on the coast of Gueldres, where they all got safe to +land; crossing the Rhine, near Heusen, they fortunately escaped into +Cleves, where they tore their flags in pieces and dispersed. In North +Holland Count Megen overtook some squadrons who had lingered too long in +plundering the cloisters, and completely overpowered them. He +afterwards formed a junction with Noircarmes and garrisoned Amsterdam. +The Duke Erich of Brunswick also surprised three companies, the last +remains of the army of the Gueux, near Viane, where they were +endeavoring to take a battery, routed them and captured their leader, +Rennesse, who was shortly afterwards beheaded at the castle of +Freudenburg, in Utrecht. Subsequently, when Duke Erich entered Viane, +he found nothing but deserted streets, the inhabitants having left it +with the garrison on the first alarm. He immediately razed the +fortifications, and reduced this arsenal of the Gueux to an open town +without defences. All the originators of the league were now dispersed; +Brederode and Louis of Nassau had fled to Germany, and Counts +Hogstraten, Bergen, and Kuilemberg had followed their example. +Mansfeld had seceded, the brothers Van Battenburg awaited in prison an +ignomonious fate, while Thoulouse alone had found an honorable death on +the field of battle. Those of the confederates who had escaped the +sword of the enemy and the axe of the executioner had saved nothing but +their lives, and thus the title which they had assumed for show became +at last a terrible reality. + +Such was the inglorious end of the noble league, which in its beginning +awakened such fair hopes and promised to become a powerful protection +against oppression. Unanimity was its strength, distrust and internal +dissension its ruin. It brought to light and developed many rare and +beautiful virtues, but it wanted the most indispensable of all, prudence +and moderation, without which any undertaking must miscarry, and all the +fruits of the most laborious industry perish. If its objects had been +as pure as it pretended, or even had they remained as pure as they +really were at its first establishment, it might have defied the +unfortunate combination of circumstances which prematurely overwhelmed +it, and even if unsuccessful it would still have deserved an honorable +mention in history. But it is too evident that the confederate nobles, +whether directly or indirectly, took a greater share in the frantic +excesses of the Iconoclasts than comported with the dignity and +blamelessness of their confederation, and many among them openly +exchanged their own good cause for the mad enterprise of these worthless +vagabonds. The restriction of the Inquisition and a mitigation of the +cruel inhumanity of the edicts must be laid to the credit of the league; +but this transient relief was dearly purchased, at the cost of so many +of the best and bravest citizens, who either lost their lives in the +field, or in exile carried their wealth and industry to another quarter +of the world; and of the presence of Alva and the Spanish arms. Many, +too, of its peaceable citizens, who without its dangerous temptations +would never have been seduced from the ranks of peace and order, were +beguiled by the hope of success into the most culpable enterprises, and +by their failure plunged into ruin and misery. But it cannot be denied +that the league atoned in some measure for these wrongs by positive +benefits. It brought together and emboldened many whom a selfish +pusillanimity kept asunder and inactive; it diffused a salutary public +spirit amongst the Belgian people, which the oppression of the +government had almost entirely extinguished, and gave unanimity and a +common voice to the scattered members of the nation, the absence of +which alone makes despots bold. The attempt, indeed, failed, and the +knots, too carelessly tied, were quickly unloosed; but it was through +such failures that the nation was eventually to attain to a firm and +lasting union, which should bid defiance to change. + +The total destruction of the Geusen army quickly brought the Dutch towns +also back to their obedience, and in the provinces there remained not a +single place which had not submitted to the regent; but the increasing +emigration, both of the natives and the foreign residents, threatened +the country with depopulation. In Amsterdam the crowd of fugitives was +so great that vessels were wanting to convey them across the North Sea +and the Zuyderzee, and that flourishing emporium beheld with dismay the +approaching downfall of its prosperity. Alarmed at this general flight, +the regent hastened to write letters to all the towns, to encourage the +citizens to remain, and by fair promises to revive a hope of better and +milder measures. In the king's name she promised to all who would +freely swear to obey the state and the church complete indemnity, and by +public proclamation invited the fugitives to trust to the royal clemency +and return to their homes. She engaged also to relieve the nation from +the dreaded presence of a Spanish army, even if it were already on the +frontiers; nay, she went so far as to drop hints that, if necessary, +means might be found to prevent it by force from entering the provinces, +as she was fully determined not to relinquish to another the glory of a +peace which it had cost her so much labor to effect. Few, however, +returned in reliance upon her word, and these few had cause to repent it +in the sequel; many thousands had already quitted the country, and +several thousands more quickly followed them. Germany and England were +filled with Flemish emigrants, who, wherever they settled, retained +their usages and manners, and even their costume, unwilling to come to +the painful conclusion that they should never again see their native +land, and to give up all hopes of return. Few carried with them any +remains of their former affluence; the greater portion had to beg their +way, and bestowed on their adopted country nothing but industrious skill +and honest citizens. + +And now the regent hastened to report to the king tidings such as, +during her whole administration, she had never before been able to +gratify him with. She announced to him that she had succeeded in +restoring quiet throughout the provinces, and that she thought herself +strong enough to maintain it. The sects were extirpated, and the Roman +Catholic worship re-established in all its former splendor; the rebels +had either already met with, or were awaiting in prison, the punishment +they deserved; the towns were secured by adequate garrisons. There was +therefore no necessity for sending Spanish troops into the Netherlands, +and nothing to justify their entrance. Their arrival would tend to +destroy the existing repose, which it had cost so much to establish, +would check the much-desired revival of commerce and trade, and, while +it would involve the country in new expenses, would at the same time +deprive them of the only means of supporting them. The mere rumor of +the approach of a Spanish army had stripped the country of many +thousands of its most valuable citizens; its actual appearance would +reduce it to a desert. As there was no longer any enemy to subdue, or +rebellion to suppress, the people would see no motive for the march of +this army but punishment and revenge, and under this supposition its +arrival would neither be welcomed nor honored. No longer excused by +necessity, this violent expedient would assume the odious aspect of +oppression, would exasperate the national mind afresh, drive the +Protestants to desperation, and arm their brethren in other countries in +their defence. The regent, she said, had in the king's name promised +the nation it should be relieved from this foreign army, and to this +stipulation she was principally indebted for the present peace; she +could not therefore guarantee its long continuance if her pledge was not +faithfully fulfilled. The Netherlands would receive him as their +sovereign, the king, with every mark of attachment and veneration, but +he must come as a father to bless, not as a despot to chastise them. +Let him come to enjoy the peace which she had bestowed on the country, +but not to destroy it afresh. + + + + + ALVA'S ARMAMENT AND EXPEDITION TO THE NETHERLANDS. + +But it was otherwise determined in the council at Madrid. The minister, +Granvella, who, even while absent himself, ruled the Spanish cabinet by +his adherents; the Cardinal Grand Inquisitor, Spinosa, and the Duke of +Alva, swayed respectively by hatred, a spirit of persecution, or private +interest, had outvoted the milder councils of the Prince Ruy Gomes of +Eboli, the Count of Feria, and the king's confessor, Fresneda. The +insurrection, it was urged by the former, was indeed quelled for the +present, but only because the rebels were awed by the rumor of the +king's armed approach; it was to fear of punishment alone, and not to +sorrow for their crime, that the present calm was to be ascribed, and +it would soon again be broken if that feeling were allowed to subside. +In fact, the offences of the people fairly afforded the king the +opportunity he had so long desired of carrying out his despotic views +with an appearance of justice. The peaceable settlement for which the +regent took credit to herself was very far from according with his +wishes, which sought rather for a legitimate pretext to deprive the +provinces of their privileges, which were so obnoxious to his despotic +temper. + +With an impenetrable dissimulation Philip had hitherto fostered the +general delusion that he was about to visit the provinces in person, +while all along nothing could have been more remote from his real +intentions. Travelling at any time ill suited the methodical regularity +of his life, which moved with the precision of clockwork; and his narrow +and sluggish intellect was oppressed by the variety and multitude of +objects with which new scenes crowded it. The difficulties and dangers +which would attend a journey to the Netherlands must, therefore, have +been peculiarly alarming to his natural timidity and love of ease. Why +should he, who, in all that he did, was accustomed to consider himself +alone, and to make men accommodate themselves to his principles, not his +principles to men, undertake so perilous an expedition, when he could +see neither the advantage nor necessity of it. Moreover, as it had ever +been to him an utter impossibility to separate, even for a moment, his +person from his royal dignity, which no prince ever guarded so +tenaciously and pedantically as himself, so the magnificence and +ceremony which in his mind were inseparably connected with such a +journey, and the expenses which, on this account, it would necessarily +occasion, were of themselves sufficient motives to account for his +indisposition to it, without its being at all requisite to call in the +aid of the influence of his favorite, Ruy Gomes, who is said to have +desired to separate his rival, the Duke of Alva, from the king. Little, +however, as be seriously intended this journey, he still deemed it +advisable to keep up the expectation of it, as well with a view of +sustaining the courage of the loyal as of preventing a dangerous +combination of the disaffected, and stopping the further progress +of the rebels. + +In order to carry on the deception as long as possible, Philip made +extensive preparations for his departure, and neglected nothing which +could be required for such an event. He ordered ships to be fitted out, +appointed the officers and others to attend him. To allay the suspicion +such warlike preparations might excite in all foreign courts, they were +informed through his ambassadors of his real design. He applied to the +King of France for a passage for himself and attendants through that +kingdom, and consulted the Duke of Savoy as to the preferable route. He +caused a list to be drawn up of all the towns and fortified places that +lay in his march, and directed all the intermediate distances to be +accurately laid down. Orders were issued for taking a map and survey of +the whole extent of country between Savoy and Burgundy, the duke being +requested to furnish the requisite surveyors and scientific officers. +To such lengths was the deception carried that the regent was commanded +to hold eight vessels at least in readiness off Zealand, and to despatch +them to meet the king the instant she heard of his having sailed from +Spain; and these ships she actually got ready, and caused prayers to be +offered up in all the churches for the king's safety during the voyage, +though in secret many persons did not scruple to remark that in his +chamber at Madrid his majesty would not have much cause to dread the +storms at sea. Philip played his part with such masterly skill that the +Belgian ambassadors at Madrid, Lords Bergen and Montigny, who at first +had disbelieved in the sincerity of his pretended journey, began at last +to be alarmed, and infected their friends in Brussels with similar +apprehensions. An attack of tertian ague, which about this time the +king suffered, or perhaps feigned, in Segovia, afforded a plausible +pretence for postponing his journey, while meantime the preparations for +it were carried on with the utmost activity. At last, when the urgent +and repeated solicitations of his sister compelled him to make a +definite explanation of his plans, he gave orders that the Duke of Alva +should set out forthwith with an army, both to clear the way before him +of rebels, and to enhance the splendor of his own royal arrival. He did +not yet venture to throw off the mask and announce the duke as his +substitute. He had but too much reason to fear that the submission +which his Flemish nobles would cheerfully yield to their sovereign would +be refused to one of his servants, whose cruel character was well known, +and who, moreover, was detested as a foreigner and the enemy of their +constitution. And, in fact, the universal belief that the king was soon +to follow, which long survived Alva's entrance into the country, +restrained the outbreak of disturbances which otherwise would assuredly +have been caused by the cruelties which marked the very opening of the +duke's government. + +The clergy of Spain, and especially the Inquisition, contributed richly +towards the expenses of this expedition as to a holy war. Throughout +Spain the enlisting was carried on with the utmost zeal. The viceroys +and governors of Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, and Milan received orders to +select the best of their Italian and Spanish troops in the garrisons and +despatch them to the general rendezvous in the Genoese territory, where +the Duke of Alva would exchange them for the Spanish recruits which he +should bring with him. At the same time the regent was commanded to +hold in readiness a few more regiments of German infantry in Luxembourg, +under the command of the Counts Eberstein, Schaumburg, and Lodrona, and +also some squadrons of light cavalry in the Duchy of Burgundy to +reinforce the Spanish general immediately on his entrance into the +provinces. The Count of Barlaimont was commissioned to furnish the +necessary provision for the armament, and a sum of two hundred thousand +gold florins was remitted to the regent to enable her to meet these +expenses and to maintain her own troops. + +The French court, however, under pretence of the danger to be +apprehended from the Huguenots, had refused to allow the Spanish army to +pass through France. Philip applied to the Dukes of Savoy and Lorraine, +who were too dependent upon him to refuse his request. The former +merely stipulated that he should be allowed to maintain two thousand +infantry and a squadron of horse at the king's expense in order to +protect his country from the injuries to which it might otherwise be +exposed from the passage of the Spanish army. At the same time he +undertook to provide the necessary supplies for its maintenance during +the transit. + +The rumor of this arrangement roused the Huguenots, the Genevese, the +Swiss, and the Grisons. The Prince of Conde and the Admiral Coligny +entreated Charles IX. not to neglect so favorable a moment of inflicting +a deadly blow on the hereditary foe of France. With the aid of the +Swiss, the Genevese, and his own Protestant subjects, it would, they +alleged, be an easy matter to destroy the flower of the Spanish troops +in the narrow passes of the Alpine mountains; and they promised to +support him in this undertaking with an army of fifty thousand +Huguenots. This advice, however, whose dangerous object was not easily +to be mistaken, was plausibly declined by Charles IX., who assured them +that he was both able and anxious to provide for the security of his +kingdom. He hastily despatched troops to cover the French frontiers; +and the republics of Geneva, Bern, Zurich, and the Grisons followed his +example, all ready to offer a determined opposition to the dreaded enemy +of their religion and their liberty. + +On the 5th of May, 1567, the Duke of Alva set sail from Carthagena with +thirty galleys, which had been furnished by Andrew Doria and the Duke +Cosmo of Florence, and within eight days landed at Genoa, where the four +regiments were waiting to join him. But a tertian ague, with which he +was seized shortly after his arrival, compelled him to remain for some +days inactive in Lombardy--a delay of which the neighboring powers +availed themselves to prepare for defence. As soon as the duke +recovered he held at Asti, in Montferrat, a review of all his troops, +who were more formidable by their valor than by their numbers, since +cavalry and infantry together did not amount to much above ten thousand +men. In his long and perilous march he did not wish to encumber himself +with useless supernumeraries, which would only impede his progress and +increase the difficulty of supporting his army. These ten thousand +veterans were to form the nucleus of a greater army, which, according as +circumstances and occasion might require, he could easily assemble in +the Netherlands themselves. + +This array, however, was as select as it was small. It consisted of the +remains of those victorious legions at whose head Charles V. had made +Europe tremble; sanguinary, indomitable bands, in whose battalions the +firmness of the old Macedonian phalanx lived again; rapid in their +evolutions from long practice, hardy and enduring, proud of their +leader's success, and confident from past victories, formidable by their +licentiousness, but still more so by their discipline; let loose with +all the passions of a warmer climate upon a rich and peaceful country, +and inexorable towards an enemy whom the church had cursed. Their +fanatical and sanguinary spirit, their thirst for glory and innate +courage was aided by a rude sensuality, the instrument by which the +Spanish general firmly and surely ruled his otherwise intractable +troops. With a prudent indulgence he allowed riot and voluptuousness +to reign throughout the camp. Under his tacit connivance Italian +courtezans followed the standards; even in the march across the +Apennines, where the high price of the necessaries of life compelled him +to reduce his force to the smallest possible number, he preferred to +have a few regiments less rather than to leave behind these instruments +of voluptuousness. + + [The bacchanalian procession of this army contrasted strangely + enough with the gloomy seriousness and pretended sanctity of his + aim. The number of these women was so great that to restrain the + disorders and quarrelling among themselves they hit upon the + expedient of establishing a discipline of their own. They ranged + themselves under particular flags, marched in ranks and sections, + and in admirable military order, after each battalion, and classed + themselves with strict etiquette according to their rank and pay.] + +But industriously as Alva strove to relax the morals of his soldiers, +he enforced the more rigidly a strict military discipline, which was +interrupted only by a victory or rendered less severe by a battle. +For all this he had, he said, the authority of the Athenian General +Iphicrates, who awarded the prize of valor to the pleasure-loving and +rapacious soldier. The more irksome the restraint by which the passions +of the soldiers were kept in check, the greater must have been the +vehemence with which they broke forth at the sole outlet which was left +open to them. + +The duke divided his infantry, which was about nine thousand strong, and +chiefly Spaniards, into four brigades, and gave the command of them to +four Spanish officers. Alphonso of Ulloa led the Neapolitan brigade of +nine companies, amounting to three thousand two hundred and thirty men; +Sancho of Lodogno commanded the Milan brigade, three thousand two +hundred men in ten companies; the Sicilian brigade, with the same number +of companies, and consisting of sixteen hundred men, was under Julian +Romero, an experienced warrior, who had already fought on Belgian +ground. + + [The same officer who commanded one of the Spanish regiments about + which so much complaint had formerly been made in the States- + General.] + +Gonsalo of Braccamonte headed that of Sardinia, which was raised by +three companies of recruits to the full complement of the former. To +every company, moreover, were added fifteen Spanish musqueteers. The +horse, in all twelve hundred strong, consisted of three Italian, two +Albanian, and seven Spanish squadrons, light and heavy cavalry, and the +chief command was held by Ferdinand and Frederick of Toledo, the two +sons of Alva. Chiappin Vitelli, Marquis of Cetona, was field-marshal; +a celebrated general whose services had been made over to the King of +Spain by Cosmo of Florence; and Gabriel Serbellon was general of +artillery. The Duke of Savoy lent Alva an experienced engineer, Francis +Pacotto, of Urbino, who was to be employed in the erection of new +fortifications. His standard was likewise followed by a number of +volunteers, and the flower of the Spanish nobility, of whom the greater +part had fought under Charles V. in Germany, Italy, and before Tunis. +Among these were Christopher Mondragone, one of the ten Spanish heroes +who, near Mithlberg, swam across the Elbe with their swords between +their teeth, and, under a shower of bullets from the enemy, brought over +from the opposite shore the boats which the emperor required for the +construction of a bridge. Sancho of Avila, who had been trained to war +under Alva himself, Camillo of Monte, Francis Ferdugo, Karl Davila, +Nicolaus Basta, and Count Martinego, all fired with a noble ardor, +either to commence their military career under so eminent a leader, or +by another glorious campaign under his command to crown the fame they +had already won. After the review the army marched in three divisions +across Mount Cenis, by the very route which sixteen centuries before +Hannibal is said to have taken. The duke himself led the van; Ferdinand +of Toledo, with whom was associated Lodogno as colonel, the centre; and +the Marquis of Cetona the rear. The Commissary General, Francis of +Ibarra, was sent before with General Serbellon to open the road for the +main body, and get ready the supplies at the several quarters for the +night. The places which the van left in the morning were entered in the +evening by the centre, which in its turn made room on the following day +for the rear. Thus the army crossed the Alps of Savoy by regular +stages, and with the fourteenth day completed that dangerous passage. +A French army of observation accompanied it side by side along the +frontiers of Dauphins, and the course of the Rhone, and the allied army +of the Genevese followed it on the right, and was passed by it at a +distance of seven miles. Both these armies of observation carefully +abstained from any act of hostility, and were merely intended to cover +their own frontiers. As the Spanish legions ascended and descended the +steep mountain crags, or while they crossed the rapid Iser, or file by +file wound through the narrow passes of the rocks, a handful of men +would have been sufficient to put an entire stop to their march, and to +drive them back into the mountains, where they would have been +irretrievably lost, since at each place of encampment supplies were +provided for no more than a single day, and for a third part only of the +whole force. But a supernatural awe and dread of the Spanish name +appeared to have blinded the eyes of the enemy so that they did not +perceive their advantage, or at least did not venture to profit by it. +In order to give them as little opportunity as possible of remembering +it, the Spanish general hastened through this dangerous pass. + +Convinced, too, that if his troops gave the slightest umbrage he was +lost, the strictest discipline was maintained during the march; not a +single peasant's hut, not a single field was injured; and never, +perhaps, in the memory of man was so numerous an army led so far in such +excellent order. + + [Once only on entering Lorraine three horsemen ventured to drive + away a few sheep from a flock, of which circumstance the duke was + no sooner informed than he sent back to the owner what had been + taken from him and sentenced the offenders to be hung. This + sentence was, at the intercession of the Lorraine general, who had + come to the frontiers to pay his respects to the duke, executed on + only one of the three, upon whom the lot fell at the drum-head.] + +Destined as this army was for vengeance and murder, a malignant and +baleful star seemed to conduct it safe through all dangers; and it would +be difficult to decide whether the prudence of its general or the +blindness of its enemies is most to be wondered at. + +In Franche Comte, four squadrons of Burgundian cavalry, newly-raised, +joined the main army, which, at Luxembourg, was also reinforced by three +regiments of German infantry under the command of Counts Eberstein, +Schaumburg, and Lodrona. From Thionville, where he halted a few days, +Alva sent his salutations to the regent by Francis of Ibarra, who was, +at the same time, directed to consult her on the quartering of the +troops. On her part, Noircarmes and Barlairnont were despatched to the +Spanish camp to congratulate the duke on his arrival, and to show him +the customary marks of honor. At the same time they were directed to +ask him to produce the powers entrusted to him by the king, of which, +however, he only showed a part. The envoys of the regent were followed +by swarms of the Flemish nobility, who thought they could not hasten +soon enough to conciliate the favor of the new viceroy, or by a timely +submission avert the vengeance which was preparing. Among them was +Count Egmont. As he came forward the duke pointed him out to the +bystanders. "Here comes an arch-heretic," he exclaimed, loud enough to +be heard by Egmont himself, who, surprised at these words, stopped and +changed color. But when the duke, in order to repair his imprudence, +went up to him with a serene countenance, and greeted him with a +friendly embrace, the Fleming was ashamed of his fears, and made light +of this warning, by putting some frivolous interpretation upon it. +Egmont sealed this new friendship with a present of two valuable +chargers, which Alva accepted with a grave condescension. + +Upon the assurance of the regent that the provinces were in the +enjoyment of perfect peace, and that no opposition was to be apprehended +from any quarter, the duke discharged some German regiments, which had +hitherto drawn their pay from the Netherlands. Three thousand six +hundred men, under the command of Lodrona, were quartered in Antwerp, +from which town the Walloon garrison, in which full reliance could not +be placed, was withdrawn; garrisons proportionably stronger were thrown +into Ghent and other important places; Alva himself marched with the +Milan brigade towards Brussels, whither he was accompanied by a splendid +cortege of the noblest in the land. + +Here, as in all the other towns of the Netherlands, fear and terror had +preceded him, and all who were conscious of any offences, and even those +who were sensible of none, alike awaited his approach with a dread +similar to that with which criminals see the coming of their day of +trial. All who could tear themselves from the ties of family, property, +and country had already fled, or now at last took to flight. The +advance of the Spanish army had already, according to the report of the +regent, diminished the population of the provinces by the loss of one +hundred thousand citizens, and this general flight still continued. But +the arrival of the Spanish general could not be more hateful to the +people of the Netherlands than it was distressing and dispiriting to the +regent. At last, after so many years of anxiety, she had begun to taste +the sweets of repose, and that absolute-authority, which had been the +long-cherished object of eight years of a troubled and difficult +administration. This late fruit of so much anxious industry, of so many +cares and nightly vigils, was now to be wrested from her by a stranger, +who was to be placed at once in possession of all the advantages which +she had been forced to extract from adverse circumstances, by a long +and tedious course of intrigue and patient endurance. Another was +lightly to bear away the prize of promptitude, and to triumph by more +rapid success over her superior but less glittering merits. Since the +departure of the minister, Granvella, she had tasted to the full the +pleasures of independence. The flattering homage of the nobility, which +allowed her more fully to enjoy the shadow of power, the more they +deprived her of its substance, had, by degrees, fostered her vanity to +such an extent, that she at last estranged by her coldness even the most +upright of all her servants, the state counsellor Viglius, who always +addressed her in the language of truth. All at once a censor of her +actions was placed at her side, a partner of her power was associated +with her, if indeed it was not rather a master who was forced upon her, +whose proud, stubborn, and imperious spirit, which no courtesy could +soften, threatened the deadliest wounds to her self-love and vanity. To +prevent his arrival she had, in her representations to the king, vainly +exhausted every political argument. To no purpose had she urged that +the utter ruin of the commerce of the Netherlands would be the +inevitable consequence of; this introduction of the Spanish troops; in +vain had she assured the king that peace was universally restored, and +reminded him of her own services in procuring it, which deserved, she +thought, a better guerdon than to see all the fruits of her labors +snatched from her and given to a foreigner, and more than all, to behold +all the good which she had effected destroyed by a new and different +line of conduct. Even when the duke had already crossed Mount Cenis she +made one more attempt, entreating him at least to diminish his army; but +that also failed, for the duke insisted upon acting up to the powers +entrusted to him. In poignant grief she now awaited his approach, and +with the tears she shed for her country were mingled those of offended +self-love. + +On the 22d of August, 1567, the Duke of Alva appeared before the gates +of Brussels. His army immediately took up their quarters in the +suburbs, and he himself made it his first duty to pay his respects to +the sister of his king. She gave him a private audience on the plea of +suffering from sickness. Either the mortification she had undergone had +in reality a serious effect upon her health, or, what is not improbable, +she had recourse to this expedient to pain his haughty spirit, and in +some degree to lessen his triumph. He delivered to her letters from the +king, and laid before her a copy of his own appointment, by which the +supreme command of the whole military force of the Netherlands was +committed to him, and from which, therefore, it would appear, that the +administration of civil affairs remained, as heretofore, in the hands of +the regent. But as soon as he was alone with her he produced a new +commission, which was totally different from the former. According to +this, the power was delegated to him of making war at his discretion, +of erecting fortifications, of appointing and dismissing at pleasure the +governors of provinces, the commandants of towns, and other officers of +the king; of instituting inquiries into the past troubles, of punishing +those who originated them, and of rewarding the loyal. Powers of this +extent, which placed him almost on a level with a sovereign prince, and +far surpassed those of the regent herself, caused her the greatest +consternation, and it was with difficulty that she could conceal her +emotion. She asked the duke whether he had not even a third commission, +or some special orders in reserve which went still further, and were +drawn up still more precisely, to which he replied distinctly enough in +the affirmative, but at the same time gave her to understand that this +commission might be too full to suit the present occasion, and would be +better brought into play hereafter with due regard to time and +circumstances. A few days after his arrival he caused a copy of the +first instructions to be laid before the several councils and the +states, and had them printed to insure their rapid circulation. As the +regent resided in the palace, he took up his quarters temporarily in +Kuilemberg house, the same in which the association of the Gueux had +received its name, and before which, through a wonderful vicissitude, +Spanish tyranny now planted its flag. + +A dead silence reigned in Brussels, broken only at times by the unwonted +clang of arms. The duke had entered the town but a few hours when his +attendants, like bloodhounds that have been slipped, dispersed +themselves in all directions. Everywhere foreign faces were to be seen; +the streets were empty, all the houses carefully closed, all amusements +suspended, all public places deserted. The whole metropolis resembled a +place visited by the plague. Acquaintances hurried on without stopping +for their usual greeting; all hastened on the moment a Spaniard showed +himself in the streets. Every sound startled them, as if it were the +knock of the officials of justice at their doors; the nobility, in +trembling anxiety, kept to their houses; they shunned appearing in +public lest their presence should remind the new viceroy of some past +offence. The two nations now seemed to have exchanged characters. The +Spaniard had become the talkative man and the Brabanter taciturn; +distrust and fear had scared away the spirit of cheerfulness and mirth; +a constrained gravity fettered even the play of the features. Every +moment the impending blow was looked for with dread. + +This general straining of expectation warned the duke to hasten the +accomplishment of his plans before they should be anticipated by the +timely flight of his victims. His first object was to secure the +suspected nobles, in order, at once and forever, to deprive the faction +of its leaders, and the nation, whose freedom was to be crushed, of all +its supporters. By a pretended affability he had succeeded in lulling +their first alarm, and in restoring Count Egmont in particular to his +former perfect confidence, for which purpose he artfully employed his +sons, Ferdinand and Frederick of Toledo, whose companionableness and +youth assimilated more easily with the Flemish character. By this +skilful advice he succeeded also in enticing Count Horn to Brussels, +who had hitherto thought it advisable to watch the first measures of the +duke from a distance, but now suffered himself to be seduced by the good +fortune of his friend. Some of the nobility, and Count Egmont at the +head of them, even resumed their former gay style of living. But they +themselves did not do so with their whole hearts, and they had not many +imitators. Kuilemberg house was incessantly besieged by a numerous +crowd, who thronged around the person of the new viceroy, and exhibited +an affected gayety on their countenances, while their hearts were wrung +with distress and fear. Egmont in particular assumed the appearance of +a light heart, entertaining the duke's sons, and being feted by them in +return. Meanwhile, the duke was fearful lest so fair an opportunity for +the accomplishment of his plans might not last long, and lest some act +of imprudence might destroy the feeling of security which had tempted +both his victims voluntarily to put themselves into his power; he only +waited for a third; Hogstraten also was to be taken in the same net. +Under a plausible pretext of business he therefore summoned him to the +metropolis. At the same time that he purposed to secure the three +counts in Brussels, Colonel Lodrona was to arrest the burgomaster, +Strahlen, in Antwerp, an intimate friend of the Prince of Orange, and +suspected of having favored the Calvinists; another officer was to seize +the private secretary of Count Egmont, whose name was John Cassembrot +von Beckerzeel, as also some secretaries of Count Horn, and was to +possess themselves of their papers. + +When the day arrived which had been fixed upon for the execution of this +plan, the duke summoned all the counsellors and knights before him to +confer with them upon matters of state. On this occasion the Duke of +Arschot, the Counts Mansfeld, Barlaimont, and Aremberg attended on the +part of the Netherlands, and on the part of the Spaniards besides the +duke's sons, Vitelli, Serbellon, and Ibarra. The young Count Mansfeld, +who likewise appeared at the meeting, received a sign from his father to +withdraw with all speed, and by a hasty flight avoid the fate which was +impending over him as a former member of the Geusen league. The duke +purposely prolonged the consultation to give time before he acted for +the arrival of the couriers from Antwerp, who were to bring him the +tidings of the arrest of the other parties. To avoid exciting any +suspicion, the engineer, Pacotto, was required to attend the meeting to +lay before it the plans for some fortifications. At last intelligence +was brought him that Lodrona had successfully executed his commission. +Upon this the duke dexterously broke off the debate and dismissed the +council. And now, as Count Egmont was about to repair to the apartment +of Don Ferdinand, to finish a game that he had commenced with him, the +captain of the duke's body guard, Sancho D'Avila, stopped him, and +demanded his sword in the king's name. At the same time he was +surrounded by a number of Spanish soldiers, who, as had been +preconcerted, suddenly advanced from their concealment. So unexpected +a blow deprived Egmont for some moments of all powers of utterance and +recollection; after a while, however, he collected himself, and taking +his sword from his side with dignified composure, said, as he delivered +it into the hands of the Spaniard, "This sword has before this on more +than one occasion successfully defended the king's cause." Another +Spanish officer arrested Count Horn as he was returning to his house +without the least suspicion of danger. Horn's first inquiry was after +Egmont. On being told that the same fate had just happened to his +friend he surrendered himself without resistance. "I have suffered +myself to be guided by him," he exclaimed, "it is fair that I should +share his destiny." The two counts were placed in confinement in +separate apartments. While this was going on in the interior of +Kuilemberg house the whole garrison were drawn out under arms in front +of it. No one knew what had taken place inside, a mysterious terror +diffused itself throughout Brussels until rumor spread the news of this +fatal event. Each felt as if he himself were the sufferer; with many +indignation at Egmont's blind infatuation preponderated over sympathy +for his fate; all rejoiced that Orange had escaped. The first question +of the Cardinal Granvella, too, when these tidings reached him in Rome, +is said to have been, whether they had taken the Silent One also. On +being answered in the negative he shook his head "then as they have let +him escape they have got nothing." Fate ordained better for the Count +of Hogstraten. Compelled by ill-health to travel slowly, he was met by +the report of this event while he was yet on his way. He hastily turned +back, and fortunately escaped destruction. Immediately after Egmont's +seizure a writing was extorted from him, addressed to the commandant of +the citadel of Ghent, ordering that officer to deliver the fortress to +the Spanish Colonel Alphonso d'Ulloa. Upon this the two counts were +then (after they had been for some weeks confined in Brussels) conveyed +under a guard of three thousand Spaniards to Ghent, where they remained +imprisoned till late in the following year. In the meantime all their +papers had been seized. Many of the first nobility who, by the +pretended kindness of the Duke of Alva, had allowed themselves to be +cajoled into remaining experienced the same fate. Capital punishment +was also, without further delay, inflicted on all who before the duke's +arrival had been taken with arms in their hands. Upon the news of +Egmont's arrest a second body of about twenty thousand inhabitants took +up the wanderer's staff, besides the one hundred thousand who, prudently +declining to await the arrival of the Spanish general, had already +placed themselves in safety. + + [A great part of these fugitives helped to strengthen the army of + the Huguenots, who had taken occasion, from the passage of the + Spanish army through Lorraine, to assemble their forces, and now + pressed Charles IX. hard. On these grounds the French court + thought it had a right to demand aid from the regent of the + Netherlands. It asserted that the Huguenots had looked upon the + march of the Spanish army as the result of a preconcerted plan + which had been formed against them by the two courts at Bayonne and + that this had roused them from their slumber. That consequently it + behooved the Spanish court to assist in extricating the French king + from difficulties into which the latter had been brought simply by + the march of the Spanish troops. Alva actually sent the Count of + Aremberg with a considerable force to join the army of the Queen + Mother in France, and even offered to command these subsidiaries in + person, which, however, was declined. Strada, 206. Thuan, 541.] + +After so noble a life had been assailed no one counted himself safe any +longer; but many found cause to repent that they had so long deferred +this salutary step; for every day flight was rendered more difficult, +for the duke ordered all the ports to be closed, and punished the +attempt at emigration with death. The beggars were now esteemed +fortunate, who had abandoned country and property in order to preserve +at least their liberty and their lives. + + + + + ALVA'S FIRST MEASURES, AND DEPARTURE OF THE DUCHESS OF PARMA. + +Alva's first step, after securing the most suspected of the nobles, was +to restore the Inquisition to its former authority, to put the decrees +of Trent again in force, abolish the "moderation," and promulgate anew +the edicts against heretics in all their original severity. The court +of Inquisition in Spain had pronounced the whole nation of the +Netherlands guilty of treason in the highest degree, Catholics and +heterodox, loyalists and rebels, without distinction; the latter as +having offended by overt acts, the former as having incurred equal guilt +by their supineness. From this sweeping condemnation a very few were +excepted, whose names, however, were purposely reserved, while the +general sentence was publicly confirmed by the king. Philip declared +himself absolved from all his promises, and released from all +engagements which the regent in his name had entered into with the +people of the Netherlands, and all the justice which they had in future +to expect from him must depend on his own good-will and pleasure. All +who had aided in the expulsion of the minister, Granvella, who had taken +part in the petition of the confederate nobles, or had but even spoken +in favor of it; all who had presented a petition against the decrees of +Trent, against the edicts relating to religion, or against the +installation of the bishops; all who had permitted the public +preachings, or had only feebly resisted them; all who had worn the +insignia of the Gueux, had sung Geusen songs, or who in any way +whatsoever had manifested their joy at the establishment of the league; +all who had sheltered or concealed the reforming preachers, attended +Calvinistic funerals, or had even merely known of their secret meetings, +and not given information of them; all who had appealed to the national +privileges; all, in fine, who had expressed an opinion that they ought +to obey God rather than man; all these indiscriminately were declared +liable to the penalties which the law imposed upon any violation of the +royal prerogative, and upon high treason; and these penalties were, +according to the instruction which Alva had received, to be executed on +the guilty persons without forbearance or favor; without regard to rank, +sex, or age, as an example to posterity, and for a terror to all future +times. According to this declaration there was no longer an innocent +person to be found in the whole Netherlands, and the new viceroy had it +in his power to make a fearful choice of victims. Property and life +were alike at his command, and whoever should have the good fortune to +preserve one or both must receive them as the gift of his generosity and +humanity. By this stroke of policy, as refined as it was detestable, +the nation was disarmed, and unanimity rendered impossible. As it +absolutely depended on the duke's arbitrary will upon whom the sentence +should be carried in force which had been passed without exception upon +all, each individual kept himself quiet, in order to escape, if +possible, the notice of the viceroy, and to avoid drawing the fatal +choice upon himself. Every one, on the other hand, in whose favor he +was pleased to make an exception stood in a degree indebted to him, and +was personally under an obligation which must be measured by the value +he set upon his life and property. As, however, this penalty could only +be executed on the smaller portion of the nation, the duke naturally +secured the greater by the strongest ties of fear and gratitude, and for +one whom he sought out as a victim he gained ten others whom he passed +over. As long as he continued true to this policy he remained in quiet +possession of his rule, even amid the streams of blood which he caused +to flow, and did not forfeit this advantage till the want of money +compelled him to impose a burden upon the nation which oppressed all +indiscriminately. + +In order to be equal to this bloody occupation, the details of which +were fast accumulating, and to be certain of not losing a single victim +through the want of instruments; and, on the other hand, to render his +proceedings independent of the states, with whose privileges they were +so much at variance, and who, indeed, were far too humane for him, he +instituted an extraordinary court of justice. This court consisted of +twelve criminal judges, who, according to their instructions, to the +very letter of which they must adhere, were to try and pronounce +sentence upon those implicated in the past disturbances. The mere +institution of such a board was a violation of the liberties of the +country, which expressly stipulated that no citizen should be tried out +of his own province; but the duke filled up the measure of his injustice +when, contrary to the most sacred privileges of the nation, he proceeded +to give seats and votes in that court to Spaniards, the open and avowed +enemies of Belgian liberty. He himself was the president of this court, +and after him a certain licentiate, Vargas, a Spaniard by birth, of +whose iniquitous character the historians of both parties are unanimous; +cast out like a plague-spot from his own country, where he had violated +one of his wards, he was a shameless, hardened villain, in whose mind +avarice, lust, and the thirst for blood struggled for ascendancy. The +principal members were Count Aremberg, Philip of Noircarmes, and Charles +of Barlaimont, who, however, never sat in it; Hadrian Nicolai, +chancellor of Gueldres; Jacob Mertens and Peter Asset, presidents of +Artois and Flanders; Jacob Hesselts and John de la Porte, counsellors of +Ghent; Louis del Roi, doctor of theology, and by birth a Spaniard; John +du Bois, king's advocate; and De la'Torre, secretary of the court. In +compliance with the representations of Viglius the privy council was +spared any part in this tribunal; nor was any one introduced into it +from the great council at Malines. The votes of the members were only +recommendatory, not conclusive, the final sentence being reserved by the +duke to himself. No particular time was fixed for the sitting of the +court; the members, however, assembled at noon, as often as the duke +thought good. But after the expiration of the third month Alva began to +be less frequent in his attendance, and at last resigned his place +entirely to his favorite, Vargas, who filled it with such odious fitness +that in a short time all the members, with the exception merely of the +Spanish doctor, Del Rio, and the secretary, De la Torre, weary of the +atrocities of which they were compelled to be both eyewitnesses and +accomplices, remained away from the assembly. + + [The sentences passed upon the most eminent persons (for example, + the sentence of death passed upon Strahlen, the burgomaster of + Antwerp), were signed only by Vargas, Del Rio, and De la Torre.] + +It is revolting to the feelings to think how the lives of the noblest +and best were thus placed at the mercy of Spanish vagabonds, and how +even the sanctuaries of the nation, its deeds and charters, were +unscrupulously ransacked, the seals broken, and the most secret +contracts between the sovereign and the state profaned and exposed. + + [For an example of the unfeeling levity with which the most + important matters, even decisions in cases of life and death, were + treated in this sanguinary council, it may serve to relate what is + told of the Counsellor Hesselts. He was generally asleep during + the meeting, and when his turn came to vote on a sentence of death + he used to cry out, still half asleep: "Ad patibulum! Ad + patibulum!" so glibly did his tongue utter this word. It is + further to be remarked of this Hesselts, that his wife, a daughter + of the President Viglius, had expressly stipulated in the marriage- + contract that he should resign the dismal office of attorney for + the king, which made him detested by the whole nation. Vigl. ad + Hopp. lxvii., L.] + +From the council of twelve (which, from the object of its institution, +was called the council for disturbances, but on account of its +proceedings is more generally known under the appellation of the council +of blood, a name which the nation in their exasperation bestowed upon +it), no appeal was allowed. Its proceedings could not be revised. Its +verdicts were irrevocable and independent of all other authority. No +other tribunal in the country could take cognizance of cases which +related to the late insurrection, so that in all the other courts +justice was nearly at a standstill. The great council at Malines was +as good as abolished; the authority of the council of state entirely +ceased, insomuch that its sittings were discontinued. On some rare +occasions the duke conferred with a few members of the late assembly, +but even when this did occur the conference was held in his cabinet, and +was no more than a private consultation, without any of the proper forms +being observed. No privilege, no charter of immunity, however carefully +protected, had any weight with the council for disturbances. + + [Vargas, in a few words of barbarous Latin, demolished at once the + boasted liberties of the Netherlands. "Non curamus vestros + privilegios," he replied to one who wished to plead the immunities + of the University of Louvain.] + +It compelled all deeds and contracts to be laid before it, and often +forced upon them the most strained interpetations and alterations. If +the duke caused a sentence to be drawn out which there was reason to +fear might be opposed by the states of Brabant, it was legalized without +the Brabant seal. The most sacred rights of individuals were assailed, +and a tyranny without example forced its arbitrary will even into the +circle of domestic life. As the Protestants and rebels had hitherto +contrived to strengthen their party so much by marriages with the first +families in the country, the duke issued an edict forbidding all +Netherlanders, whatever might be their rank or office, under pain of +death and confiscation of property, to conclude a marriage without +previously obtaining his permission. + +All whom the council for disturbances thought proper to summon before it +were compelled to appear, clergy as well as laity; the most venerable +heads of the senate, as well as the reprobate rabble of the Iconoclasts. +Whoever did not present himself, as indeed scarcely anybody did, was +declared an outlaw, and his property was confiscated; but those who were +rash or foolish enough to appear, or who were so unfortunate as to be +seized, were lost without redemption. Twenty, forty, often fifty were +summoned at the same time and from the same town, and the richest were +always the first on whom the thunderbolt descended. The meaner +citizens, who possessed nothing that could render their country and +their homes dear to them, were taken unawares and arrested without any +previous citation. Many eminent merchants, who had at their disposal +fortunes of from sixty thousand to one hundred thousand florins, were +seen with their hands tied behind their backs, dragged like common +vagabonds at the horse's tail to execution, and in Valenciennes +fifty-five persons were decapitated at one time. All the prisons--and the +duke immediately on commencing his administration had built a great +number of them--were crammed full with the accused; hanging, beheading, +quartering, burning were the prevailing and ordinary occupations of the +day; the punishment of the galleys and banishment were more rarely heard +of, for there was scarcely any offence which was reckoned too trival to +be punished with death. Immense sums were thus brought into the treasury, +which, however, served rather to stimulate the new viceroy's and his +colleagues' thirst for gold than to quench it. It seemed to be his insane +purpose to make beggars of the whole people, and to throw all their +riches into the hands of the king and his servants. The yearly income +derived from these confiscations was computed to equal the revenues of +the first kingdoms of Europe; it is said to have been estimated, in a +report furnished to the king, at the incredible amount of twenty million +of dollars. But these proceedings were the more inhuman, as they often +bore hardest precisely upon the very persons who were the most peaceful +subjects, and most orthodox Roman Catholics, whom they could not want to +injure. Whenever an estate was confiscated all the creditors who had +claims upon it were defrauded. The hospitals, too, and public +institutions, which such properties had contributed to support, were now +ruined, and the poor, who had formerly drawn a pittance from this source, +were compelled to see their only spring of comfort dried up. Whoever +ventured to urge their well-grounded claims on the forfeited property +before the council of twelve (for no other tribunal dared to interfere +with these inquiries), consumed their substance in tedious and expensive +proceedings, and were reduced to beggary before they saw the end of them. +The histories of civilized states furnish but one instance of a similar +perversion of justice, of such violation of the rights of property, and +of such waste of human life; but Cinna, Sylla, and Marius entered +vanquished Rome as incensed victors, and practised without disguise what +the viceroy of the Netherlands performed under the venerable veil of the +laws. + +Up to the end of the year 1567 the king's arrival had been confidently +expected, and the well-disposed of the people had placed all their last +hopes on this event. The vessels, which Philip had caused to be +equipped expressly for the purpose of meeting him, still lay in the +harbor of Flushing, ready to sail at the first signal; and the town of +Brussels had consented to receive a Spanish garrison, simply because the +king, it was pretended, was to reside within its walls. But this hope +gradually vanished, as he put off the journey from one season to the +next, and the new viceroy very soon began to exhibit powers which +announced him less as a precursor of royalty than as an absolute +minister, whose presence made that of the monarch entirely superfluous. +To compete the distress of the provinces their last good angel was now +to leave them in the person of the regent. From the moment when the +production of the duke's extensive powers left no doubt remaining as to +the practical termination of her own rule, Margaret had formed the +resolution of relinquishing the name also of regent. To see a successor +in the actual possession of a dignity which a nine years' enjoyment had +made indispensable to her; to see the authority, the glory, the +splendor, the adoration, and all the marks of respect, which are the +usual concomitants of supreme power, pass over to another; and to feel +that she had lost that which she could never forget she had once held, +was more than a woman's mind could endure; moreover, the Duke of Alva +was of all men the least calculated to make her feel her privation the +less painful by a forbearing use of his newly-acquired dignity. The +tranquillity of the country, too, which was put in jeopardy by this +divided rule, seemed to impose upon the duchess the necessity of +abdicating. Many governors of provinces refused, without an express +order from the court, to receive commands from the duke and to recognize +him as co-regent. + +The rapid change of their point of attraction could not be met by the +courtiers so composedly and imperturbably but that the duchess observed +the alteration, and bitterly felt it. Even the few who, like State +Counsellor Viglius, still firmly adhered to her, did so less from +attachment to her person than from vexation at being displaced by +novices and foreigners, and from being too proud to serve a fresh +apprenticeship under a new viceroy. But far the greater number, with +all their endeavors to keep an exact mean, could not help making a +difference between the homage they paid to the rising sun and that which +they bestowed on the setting luminary. The royal palace in Brussels +became more and more deserted, while the throng at Kuilemberg house +daily increased. But what wounded the sensitiveness of the duchess most +acutely was the arrest of Horn and Egmont, which was planned and +executed by the duke without her knowledge or consent, just as if there +had been no such person as herself in existence. Alva did, indeed, +after the act was done, endeavor to appease her by declaring that the +design had been purposely kept secret from her in order to spare her +name from being mixed up in so odious a transaction; but no such +considerations of delicacy could close the wound which had been +inflicted on her pride. In order at once to escape all risk of similar +insults, of which the present was probably only a forerunner, she +despatched her private secretary, Macchiavell, to the court of her +brother, there to solicit earnestly for permission to resign the +regency. The request was granted without difficulty by the king, who +accompanied his consent with every mark of his highest esteem. He would +put aside (so the king expressed himself) his own advantage and that of +the provinces in order to oblige his sister. He sent a present of +thirty thousand dollars, and allotted to her a yearly pension of twenty +thousand. + + [Which, however, does not appear to have been very punctually paid, + if a pamphlet maybe trusted which was printed during her lifetime. + (It bears the title: Discours sur la Blessure de Monseigneur Prince + d'Orange, 1582, without notice of the place where it was printed, + and is to be found in the Elector's library at Dresden.) She + languished, it is there stated, at Namur in poverty, and so ill- + supported by her son (the then governor of the Netherlands), that + her own secretary, Aldrobandin, called her sojourn there an exile. + But the writer goes on to ask what better treatment could she + expect from a son who, when still very young, being on a visit to + her at Brussels, snapped his fingers at her behind her back.] + +At the same time a diploma was forwarded to the Duke of Alva, +constituting him, in her stead, viceroy of all the Netherlands, with +unlimited powers. + +Gladly would Margaret have learned that she was permitted to resign the +regency before a solemn assembly of the states, a wish which she had not +very obscurely hinted to the king. But she was not gratified. She was +particularly fond of solemnity, and the example of the Emperor, her +father, who had exhibited the extraordinary spectacle of his abdication +of the crown in this very city, seemed to have great attractions for +her. As she was compelled to part with supreme power, she could +scarcely be blamed for wishing to do so with as much splendor as +possible. Moreover, she had not failed to observe how much the general +hatred of the duke had effected in her own favor, and she looked, +therefore, the more wistfully forward to a scene, which promised to be +at once so flattering to her and so affecting. She would have been glad +to mingle her own tears with those which she hoped to see shed by the +Netherlanders for their good regent. Thus the bitterness of her descent +from the throne would have been alleviated by the expression of general +sympathy. Little as she had done to merit the general esteem during the +nine years of her administration, while fortune smiled upon her, and the +approbation of her sovereign was the limit to all her wishes, yet now +the sympathy of the nation had acquired a value in her eyes as the only +thing which could in some degree compensate to her for the +disappointment of all her other hopes. Fain would she have persuaded +herself that she had become a voluntary sacrifice to her goodness of +heart and her too humane feelings towards the Netherlanders. As, +however, the king was very far from being disposed to incur any danger +by calling a general assembly of the states, in order to gratify a mere +caprice of his sister, she was obliged to content herself with a +farewell letter to them. In this document she went over her whole +administration, recounted, not without ostentation, the difficulties +with which she had had to struggle, the evils which, by her dexterity, +she had prevented, and wound up at last by saying that she left a +finished work, and had to transfer to her successor nothing but the +punishment of offenders. The king, too, was repeatedly compelled to hear +the same statement, and she left nothing undone to arrogate to herself +the glory of any future advantages which it might be the good fortune of +the duke to realize. Her own merits, as something which did not admit +of a doubt, but was at the same time a burden oppressive to her modesty, +she laid at the feet of the king. + +Dispassionate posterity may, nevertheless; hesitate to subscribe +unreservedly to this favorable opinion. Even though the united voice of +her contemporaries, and the testimony of the Netherlands themselves +vouch for it, a third party will not be denied the right to examine her +claims with stricter scrutiny. The popular mind, easily affected, is +but too ready to count the absence of a vice as an additional virtue, +and, under the pressure of existing evil, to give excess of praise for +past benefits. + +The Netherlander seems to have concentrated all his hatred upon the +Spanish name. To lay the blame of the national evils on the regent +would tend to remove from the king and his minister the curses which he +would rather shower upon them alone and undividedly; and the Duke of +Alva's government of the Netherlands was, perhaps, not the proper point +of view from which to test the merits of his predecessor. It was +undoubtedly no light task to meet the king's expectations without +infringing the rights of the people and the duties of humanity; but +in struggling to effect these two contradictory objects Margaret had +accomplished neither. She had deeply injured the nation, while +comparatively she had done little service to the king. It is true that +she at last crushed the Protestant faction, but the accidental outbreak +of the Iconoclasts assisted her in this more than all her dexterity. +She certainly succeeded by her intrigues in dissolving the league of the +nobles, but not until the first blow had been struck at its roots by +internal dissensions. The object, to secure which she had for many +years vainly exhausted her whole policy, was effected at last by a single +enlistment of troops, for which, however, the orders were issued from +Madrid. She delivered to the duke, no doubt, a tranquillized country; +but it cannot be denied that the dread of his approach had the chief +share in tranquillizing it. By her reports she led the council in Spain +astray; because she never informed it of the disease, but only of the +occasional symptoms; never of the universal feeling and voice of the +nation, but only of the misconduct of factions. Her faulty +administration, moreover, drew the people into the crime, because +she exasperated without sufficiently awing them. She it was that +brought the murderous Alva into the country by leading the king to +believe that the disturbances in the provinces were to be ascribed, not +so much to the severity of the royal ordinances, as to the unworthiness +of those who were charged with their execution. Margaret possessed +natural capacity and intellect; and an acquired political tact enabled +her to meet any ordinary case; but she wanted that creative genius +which, for new and extraordinary emergencies, invents new maxims, or +wisely oversteps old ones. In a country where honesty was the best +policy, she adopted the unfortunate plan of practising her insidious +Italian policy, and thereby sowed the seeds of a fatal distrust in the +minds of the people. The indulgence which has been so liberally imputed +to her as a merit was, in truth, extorted from her weakness and timidity +by the courageous opposition of the nation; she had never departed from +the strict letter of the royal commands by her own spontaneous +resolution; never did the gentle feelings of innate humanity lead her +to misinterpret the cruel purport of her instructions. Even the few +concessions to which necessity compelled her were granted with an +uncertain and shrinking hand, as if fearing to give too much; and she +lost the fruit of her benefactions because she mutilated them by a +sordid closeness. What in all the other relations of her life she was +too little, she was on the throne too much--a woman! She had it in her +power, after Granvella's expulsion, to become the benefactress of the +Belgian nation, but she did not. Her supreme good was the approbation +of her king, her greatest misfortune his displeasure; with all the +eminent qualities of her mind she remained an ordinary character because +her heart was destitute of native nobility. She used a melancholy power +with much moderation, and stained her government with no deed of +arbitrary cruelty; nay, if it had depended on her, she would have always +acted humanely. Years afterwards, when her idol, Philip II., had long +forgotten her, the Netherlanders still honored her memory; but she was +far from deserving the glory which her successor's inhumanity reflected +upon her. + +She left Brussels about the end of December, 1567. The duke escorted +her as far as the frontiers of Brabant, and there left her under the +protection of Count Mansfeld in order to hasten back to the metropolis +and show himself to the Netherlanders as sole regent. + + + + + TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF COUNTS EGMONT AND HORN. + +The two counts were a few weeks after their arrest conveyed to Ghent +under an escort of three thousand Spaniards, where they were confined in +the citadel for more than eight months. Their trial commenced in due +form before the council of twelve, and the solicitor-general, John Du +Bois, conducted the proceedings. The indictment against Egmont +consisted of ninety counts, and that against Horn of sixty. It would +occupy too much space to introduce them here. Every action, however +innocent, every omission of duty, was interpreted on the principle which +had been laid down in the opening of the indictment, "that the two +counts, in conjunction with the Prince of Orange, had planned the +overthrow of the royal authority in the Netherlands, and the usurpation +of the government of the country;" the expulsion of Granvella; the +embassy of Egmont to Madrid; the confederacy of the Gueux; the +concessions which they made to the Protestants in the provinces under +their government--all were made to have a connection with, and reference +to, this deliberate design. Thus importance was attached to the most +insignificant occurrences, and one action made to darken and discolor +another. By taking care to treat each of the charges as in itself a +treasonable offence it was the more easy to justify a sentence of high +treason by the whole. + +The accusations were sent to each of the prisoners, who were required to +reply to them within five days. After doing so they were allowed to +employ solicitors and advocates, who were permitted free access to them; +but as they were accused of treason their friends were prohibited from +visiting them. Count Egmont employed for his solicitor Von Landas, and +made choice of a few eminent advocates from Brussels. + +The first step was to demur against the tribunal which was to try them, +since by the privilege of their order they, as Knights of the Golden +Fleece, were amenable only to the king himself, the grand master. But +this demurrer was overruled, and they were required to produce their +witnesses, in default of which they were to be proceeded against _in +contumaciam._ Egmont had satisfactorily answered to eighty-two counts, +while Count Horn had refuted the charges against him, article by +article. The accusation and the defence are still extant; on that +defence every impartial tribunal would have acquitted them both. The +Procurator Fiscal pressed for the production of their evidence, and the +Duke of Alva issued his repeated commands to use despatch. They +delayed, however, from week to week, while they renewed their protests +against the illegality of the court. At last the duke assigned them +nine days to produce their proofs; on the lapse of that period they were +to be declared guilty, and as having forfeited all right of defence. + +During the progress of the trial the relations and friends of the two +counts were not idle. Egmont's wife, by birth a duchess of Bavaria, +addressed petitions to the princes of the German empire, to the Emperor, +and to the King of Spain. The Countess Horn, mother of the imprisoned +count, who was connected by the ties of friendship or of blood with the +principal royal families of Germany, did the same. All alike protested +loudly against this illegal proceeding, and appealed to the liberty of +the German empire, on which Horn, as a count of the empire, had special +claims; the liberty of the Netherlands and the privileges of the Order +of the Golden Fleece were likewise insisted upon. The Countess Egmont +succeeded in obtaining the intercession of almost every German court in +behalf of her husband. The King of Spain and his viceroy were besieged +by applications in behalf of the accused, which were referred from one +to the other, and made light of by both. Countess Horn collected +certificates from all the Knights of the Golden Fleece in Spain, +Germany, and Italy to prove the privileges of the order. Alva rejected +them with a declaration that they had no force in such a case as the +present. "The crimes of which the counts are accused relate to the +affairs of the Belgian provinces, and he, the duke, was appointed by the +king sole judge of all matters connected with those countries." + +Four months had been allowed to the solicitor-general to draw up the +indictment, and five were granted to the two counts to prepare for their +defence. But instead of losing their time and trouble in adducing their +evidence, which, perhaps, would have profited then but little, they +preferred wasting it in protests against the judges, which availed them +still less. By the former course they would probably have delayed the +final sentence, and in the time thus gained the powerful intercession of +their friends might perhaps have not been ineffectual. By obstinately +persisting in denying the competency of the tribunal which was to try +them, they furnished the duke with an excuse for cutting short the +proceedings. After the last assigned period had expired, on the 1st of +June, 1658, the council of twelve declared them guilty, and on the 4th +of that month sentence of death was pronounced against them. + +The execution of twenty-five noble Netherlanders, who were beheaded in +three successive days in the marketplace at Brussels, was the terrible +prelude to the fate of the two counts. John Casembrot von Beckerzeel, +secretary to Count Egmont, was one of the unfortunates, who was thus +rewarded for his fidelity to his master, which he steadfastly maintained +even upon the rack, and for his zeal in the service of the king, which +he had manifested against the Iconoclasts. The others had either been +taken prisoners, with arms in their hands, in the insurrection of the +"Gueux," or apprehended and condemned as traitors on account of having +taken a part in the petition of the nobles. + +The duke had reason to hasten the execution of the sentence. Count +Louis of Nassau had given battle to the Count of Aremberg, near the +monastery of Heiligerlee, in Groningen, and had the good fortune to +defeat him. Immediately after his victory he had advanced against +Groningen, and laid siege to it. The success of his arms had raised the +courage of his faction; and the Prince of Orange, his brother, was close +at hand with an army to support him. These circumstances made the +duke's presence necessary in those distant provinces; but he could not +venture to leave Brussels before the fate of two such important +prisoners was decided. The whole nation loved them, which was not a +little increased by their unhappy fate. Even the strict papists +disapproved of the execution of these eminent nobles. The slightest +advantage which the arms of the rebels might gain over the duke, or even +the report of a defeat, would cause a revolution in Brussels, which +would immediately set the two counts at liberty. Moreover, the +petitions and intercessions which came to the viceroy, as well as to +the King of Spain, from the German princes, increased daily; nay, the +Emperor, Maximilian II., himself caused the countess to be assured "that +she had nothing to fear for the life of her spouse." These powerful +applications might at last turn the king's heart in favor of the +prisoners. The king might, perhaps, in reliance on his viceroy's usual +dispatch, put on the appearance of yielding to the representations of so +many sovereigns, and rescind the sentence of death under the conviction +that his mercy would come too late. These considerations moved the duke +not to delay the execution of the sentence as soon as it was pronounced. + +On the day after the sentence was passed the two counts were brought, +under an escort of three thousand Spaniards, from Ghent to Brussels, and +placed in confinement in the Brodhause, in the great market-place. The +next morning the council of twelve were assembled; the duke, contrary to +his custom, attended in person, and both the sentences, in sealed +envelopes, were opened and publicly read by Secretary Pranz. The two +counts were declared guilty of treason, as having favored and promoted +the abominable conspiracy of the Prince of Orange, protected the +confederated nobles, and been convicted of various misdemeanors against +their king and the church in their governments and other appointments. +Both were sentenced to be publicly beheaded, and their heads were to be +fixed upon pikes and not taken down without the duke's express command. +All their possessions, fiefs, and rights escheated to the royal +treasury. The sentence was signed only by the duke and the secretary, +Pranz, without asking or caring for the consent of the other members of +the council. + +During the night between the 4th and 5th of June the sentences were +brought to the prisoners, after they had already gone to rest. The duke +gave them to the Bishop of Ypres, Martin Rithov, whom he had expressly +summoned to Brussels to prepare the prisoners for death. When the +bishop received this commission he threw himself at the feet of the +duke, and supplicated him with tears in his eyes for mercy, at least for +respite for the prisoners; but he was answered in a rough and angry +voice that he had been sent for from Ypres, not to oppose the sentence, +but by his spiritual consolation to reconcile the unhappy noblemen to +it. + +Egmont was the first to whom the bishop communicated the sentence of +death. "That is indeed a severe sentence," exclaimed the count, turning +pale, and with a faltering voice. "I did not think that I had offended +his majesty so deeply as to deserve such treatment. If, however, it +must be so I submit to my fate with resignation. May this death atone +for my offence, and save my wife and children from suffering. This at +least I think I may claim for my past services. As for death, I will +meet it with composure, since it so pleases God and my king." He then +pressed the bishop to tell him seriously and candidly if there was no +hope of pardon. Being answered in the negative, he confessed and +received the sacrament from the priest, repeating after him the mass +with great devoutness. He asked what prayer was the best and most +effective to recommend him to God in his last hour. On being told that +no prayer could be more effectual than the one which Christ himself had +taught, he prepared immediately to repeat the Lord's prayer. The +thoughts of his family interrupted him; he called for pen and ink, and +wrote two letters, one to his wife, the other to the king. The latter +was as follows: + +"Sire,--This morning I have heard the sentence which your majesty has +been pleased to pass upon me. Far as I have ever been from attempting +anything against the person or service of your majesty, or against the +true, old, and Catholic religion, I yet submit myself with patience to +the fate which it has pleased God to ordain should suffer. If, during +the past disturbances, I have omitted, advised, or done anything that +seems at variance with my duty, it was most assuredly performed with the +best intentions, or was forced upon me by the pressure of circumstances. +I therefore pray your majesty to forgive me, and, in consideration of my +past services, show mercy to my unhappy wife, my poor children, and +servants. In a firm hope of this, I commend myself--to the infinite +mercy of God. + +"Your majesty's most faithful vassal and servant, + +"LAMORAL COUNT EGMONT. + +"BRUSSELS, June 5, 1568, near my last moments." + + +This letter he placed in the hands of the bishop, with the strongest +injunctions for its safe delivery; and for greater security he sent a +duplicate in his own handwriting to State Counsellor Viglius, the most +upright man in the senate, by whom, there is no doubt, it was actually +delivered to the king. The family of the count were subsequently +reinstated in all his property, fiefs, and rights, which, by virtue of +the sentence, had escheated to the royal treasury. + +Meanwhile a scaffold had been erected in the marketplace, before the +town hall, on which two poles were fixed with iron spikes, and the whole +covered with black cloth. Two-and-twenty companies of the Spanish +garrison surrounded the scaffold, a precaution which was by no means +superfluous. Between ten and eleven o'clock the Spanish guard appeared +in the apartment of the count; they were provided with cords to tie his +hands according to custom. He begged that this might be spared him, and +declared that he was willing and ready to die. He himself cut off the +collar from his doublet to facilitate the executioner's duty. He wore a +robe of red damask, and over that a black Spanish cloak trimmed with +gold lace. In this dress he appeared on the scaffold, and was attended +by Don Julian Romero, maitre-de-camp; Salinas, a Spanish captain; and +the Bishop of Ypres. The grand provost of the court, with a red wand in +his hand, sat on horseback at the foot of the scaffold; the executioner +was concealed beneath. + +Egmont had at first shown a desire to address the people from the +scaffold. He desisted, however, on the bishop's representing to him +that either he would not be heard, or that if he were, he might--such at +present was the dangerous disposition of the people--excite them to acts +of violence, which would only plunge his friends into destruction. For +a few moments he paced the scaffold with noble dignity, and lamented +that it had not been permitted him to die a more honorable death for his +king and his country. Up to the last he seemed unable to persuade +himself that the king was in earnest, and that his severity would be +carried any further than the mere terror of execution. When the +decisive period approached, and he was to receive the extreme unction, +he looked wistfully round, and when there still appeared no prospect of +a reprieve, he turned to Julian Romero, and asked him once more if there +was no hope of pardon for him. Julian Romero shrugged his shoulders, +looked on the ground, and was silent. + +He then closely clenched his teeth, threw off his mantle and robe, knelt +upon the cushion, and prepared himself for the last prayer. The bishop +presented him the crucifix to kiss, and administered to him extreme +unction, upon which the count made him a sign to leave him. He drew a +silk cap over his eyes, and awaited the stroke. Over the corpse and the +streaming blood a black cloth was immediately thrown. + +All Brussels thronged around the scaffold, and the fatal blow seemed to +fall on every heart. Loud sobs alone broke the appalling silence. The +duke himself, who watched the execution from a window of the townhouse, +wiped his eyes as his victim died. + +Shortly afterwards Count Horn advanced on the scaffold. Of a more +violent temperament than his friend, and stimulated by stronger reasons +for hatred against the king, he had received the sentence with less +composure, although in his case, perhaps, it was less unjust. He burst +forth in bitter reproaches against the king, and the bishop with +difficulty prevailed upon him to make a better use of his last moments +than to abuse them in imprecations on his enemies. At last, however, he +became more collected, and made his confession to the bishop, which at +first he was disposed to refuse. + +He mounted the scaffold with the same attendants as his friend. In +passing he saluted many of his acquaintances; his hands were, like +Egmont's, free, and he was dressed in a black doublet and cloak, with a +Milan cap of the same color upon his head. When he had ascended, he +cast his eyes upon the corpse, which lay under the cloth, and asked one +of the bystanders if it was the body of his friend. On being answered +in the affirmative, he said some words in Spanish, threw his cloak from +him, and knelt upon the cushion. All shrieked aloud as he received the +fatal blow. + +The heads of both were fixed upon the poles which were set up on the +scaffold, where they remained until past three in the afternoon, when +they were taken down, and, with the two bodies, placed in leaden coffins +and deposited in a vault. + +In spite of the number of spies and executioners who surrounded the +scaffold, the citizens of Brussels would not be prevented from dipping +their handkerchiefs in the streaming blood, and carrying home with them +these precious memorials. + + + + + SIEGE OF ANTWERP BY THE PRINCE OF PARMA, IN THE YEARS 1584 AND 1585. + +It is an interesting spectacle to observe the struggle of man's +inventive genius in conflict with powerful opposing elements, and to +see the difficulties which are insurmountable to ordinary capacities +overcome by prudence, resolution, and a determined will. Less +attractive, but only the more instructive, perhaps, is the contrary +spectacle, where the absence of those qualities renders all efforts of +genius vain, throws away all the favors of fortune, and where inability +to improve such advantages renders hopeless a success which otherwise +seemed sure and inevitable. Examples of both kinds are afforded by the +celebrated siege of Antwerp by the Spaniards towards the close of the +sixteenth century, by which that flourishing city was forever deprived +of its commercial prosperity, but which, on the other hand, conferred +immortal fame on the general who undertook and accomplished it. + +Twelve years had the war continued which the northern provinces of +Belgium had commenced at first in vindication simply of their religious +freedom, and the privileges of their states, from the encroachments of +the Spanish viceroy, but maintained latterly in the hope of establishing +their independence of the Spanish crown. Never completely victors, but +never entirely vanquished, they wearied out the Spanish valor by tedious +operations on an unfavorable soil, and exhausted the wealth of the +sovereign of both the Indies while they themselves were called beggars, +and in a degree actually were so. The league of Ghent, which had united +the whole Netherlands, Roman Catholic and Protestant, in a common and +(could such a confederation have lasted) invincible body, was indeed +dissolved; but in place of this uncertain and unnatural combination the +northern provinces had, in the year 1579, formed among themselves the +closer union of Utrecht, which promised to be more lasting, inasmuch as +it was linked and held together by common political and religious +interests. What the new republic had lost in extent through this +separation from the Roman Catholic provinces it was fully compensated +for by the closeness of alliance, the unity of enterprise, and energy of +execution; and perhaps it was fortunate in thus timely losing what no +exertion probably would ever have enabled it to retain. + +The greater part of the Walloon provinces had, in the year 1584, partly +by voluntary submission and partly by force of arms, been again reduced +under the Spanish yoke. The northern districts alone had been able at +all successfully to oppose it. A considerable portion of Brabant and +Flanders still obstinately held out against the arms of the Duke +Alexander of Parma, who at that time administered the civil government +of the provinces, and the supreme command of the army, with equal energy +and prudence, and by a series of splendid victories had revived the +military reputation of Spain. The peculiar formation of the country, +which by its numerous rivers and canals facilitated the connection of +the towns with one another and with the sea, baffled all attempts +effectually to subdue it, and the possession of one place could only be +maintained by the occupation of another. So long as this communication +was kept up Holland and Zealand could with little difficulty assist +their allies, and supply them abundantly by water as well as by land +with all necessaries, so that valor was of no use, and the strength of +the king's troops was fruitlessly wasted on tedious sieges. + +Of all the towns in Brabant Antwerp was the most important, as well +from, its wealth, its population, and its military force, as by its +position on the mouth of the Scheldt. This great and populous town, +which at this date contained more than eighty thousand inhabitants, was +one of the most active members of the national league, and had in the +course of the war distinguished itself above all the towns of Belgium by +an untamable spirit of liberty. As it fostered within its bosom all the +three Christian churches, and owed much of its prosperity to this +unrestricted religious liberty, it had the more cause to dread the +Spanish rule, which threatened to abolish this toleration, and by the +terror of the Inquisition to drive all the Protestant merchants from its +markets. Moreover it had had but too terrible experience of the +brutality of the Spanish garrisons, and it was quite evident that if it +once more suffered this insupportable yoke to be imposed upon it it +would never again during the whole course of the war be able to throw it +off. + +But powerful as were the motives which stimulated Antwerp to resistance, +equally strong were the reasons which determined the Spanish general to +make himself master of the place at any cost. On the possession of this +town depended in a great measure that of the whole province of Brabant, +which by this channel chiefly derived its supplies of corn from Zealand, +while the capture of this place would secure to the victor the command +of the Scheldt. It would also deprive the league of Brabant, which held +its meetings in the town, of its principal support; the whole faction of +its dangerous influence, of its example, its counsels, and its money, +while the treasures of its inhabitants would open plentiful supplies for +the military exigencies of the king. Its fall would sooner or later +necessarily draw after it that of all Brabant, and the preponderance of +power in that quarter would decide the whole dispute in favor of the +king. Determined by these grave considerations, the Duke of Parma drew +his forces together in July, 1584, and advanced from his position at +Dornick to the neighborhood of Antwerp, with the intention of investing +it. + +But both the natural position and fortifications of the town appeared to +defy attacks. Surrounded on the side of Brabant with insurmountable +works and moats, and towards Flanders covered by the broad and rapid +stream of the Scheldt, it could not be carried by storm; and to blockade +a town of such extent seemed to require a land force three times larger +than that which the duke had, and moreover a fleet, of which he was +utterly destitute. Not only did the river yield the town all necessary +supplies from Ghent, it also opened an easy communication with the +bordering province of Zealand. For, as the tide of the North Sea +extends far up the Scheldt, and ebbs and flows regularly, Antwerp enjoys +the peculiar advantage that the same tide flows past it at different +times in two opposite directions. Besides, the adjacent towns of +Brussels, Malines, Ghent, Dendermonde, and others, were all at this time +in the hands of the league, and could aid the place from the land side +also. To blockade, therefore, the town by land, and to cut off its +communication with Flanders and Brabant, required two different armies, +one on each bank of the river. A sufficient fleet was likewise needed +to guard the passage of the Scheldt, and to prevent all attempts at +relief, which would most certainly be made from Zealand. But by the war +which he had still to carry on in other quarters, and by the numerous +garrisons which he was obliged to leave in the towns and fortified +places, the army of the duke was reduced to ten thousand infantry and +seventeen hundred horse, a force very inadequate for an undertaking of +such magnitude. Moreover, these troops were deficient in the most +necessary supplies, and the long arrears of pay had excited them to +subdued murmurs, which hourly threatened to break out into open mutiny. +If, notwithstanding these difficulties, he should still attempt the +siege, there would be much occasion to fear from the strongholds of the +enemy, which were left in the rear, and from which it would be easy, by +vigorous sallies, to annoy an army distributed over so many places, and +to expose it to want by cutting off its supplies. + +All these considerations were brought forward by the council of war, +before which the Duke of Parrna now laid his scheme. However great the +confidence which they placed in themselves, and in the proved abilities +of such a leader, nevertheless the most experienced generals did not +disguise their despair of a fortunate result. Two only were exceptions, +Capizucchi and Mondragone, whose ardent courage placed them above all +apprehensions; the rest concurred in dissuading the duke from attempting +so hazardous an enterprise, by which they ran the risk of forfeiting the +fruit of all their former victories and tarnishing the glory they had +already earned. + +But objections, which he had already made to himself and refuted, could +not shake the Duke of Parma in his purpose. Not in ignorance of its +inseparable dangers, not from thoughtless overvaluing his forces had he +taken this bold resolve. But that instinctive genius which leads great +men by paths which inferior minds either never enter upon or never +finish, raised him above the influence of the doubts which a cold and +narrow prudence would oppose to his views; and, without being able to +convince his generals, he felt the correctness of his calculations in a +conviction indistinct, indeed, but not on that account less indubitable. +A succession of fortunate results had raised his confidence, and the +sight of his army, unequalled in Europe for discipline, experience, and +valor, and commanded by a chosen body of the most distinguished +officers, did not permit him to entertain fear for a moment. To those +who objected to the small number of his troops, he answered, that +however long the pike, it is only the point that kills; and that in +military enterprise, the moving power was of more importance than the +mass to be moved. He was aware, indeed, of the discontent of his +troops, but he knew also their obedience; and he thought, moreover, that +the best means to stifle their murmurs was by keeping them employed in +some important undertaking, by stimulating their desire of glory by the +splendor of the enterprise, and their rapacity by hopes of the rich +booty which the capture of so wealthy a town would hold out. + +In the plan which he now formed for the conduct of the siege he +endeavored to meet all these difficulties. Famine was the only +instrument by which he could hope to subdue the town; but effectually to +use this formidable weapon, it would be expedient to cut off all its +land and water communications. With this view, the first object was to +stop, or at least to impede, the arrival of supplies from Zealand. It +was, therefore, requisite not only to carry all the outworks, which the +people of Antwerp had built on both shores of the Scheldt for the +protection of their shipping; but also, wherever feasible, to throw up +new batteries which should command the whole course of the river; and to +prevent the place from drawing supplies from the land side, while +efforts were being made to intercept their transmission by sea, all the +adjacent towns of Brabant and Flanders were comprehended in the plan of +the siege, and the fall of Antwerp was based on the destruction of all +those places. A bold and, considering the duke's scanty force, an +almost extravagant project, which was, however, justified by the genius +of its author, and crowned by fortune with a brilliant result. + +As, however, time was required to accomplish a plan of this magnitude, +the Prince of Parma was content, for the present, with the erection of +numerous forts on the canals and rivers which connected Antwerp with +Dendermonde, Ghent, Malines, Brussels, and other places. Spanish +garrisons were quartered in the vicinity, and almost at the very gates +of those towns, which laid waste the open country, and by their +incursions kept the surrounding territory in alarm. Thus, round Ghent +alone were encamped about three thousand men, and proportionate numbers +round the other towns. In this way, and by means of the secret +understanding which he maintained with the Roman Catholic inhabitants of +those towns, the duke hoped, without weakening his own forces, gradually +to exhaust their strength, and by the harassing operations of a petty +but incessant warfare, even without any formal siege, to reduce them at +last to capitulate. + +In the meantime the main force was directed against Antwerp, which he +now closely invested. He fixed his headquarters at Bevern in Flanders, +a few miles from Antwerp, where he found a fortified camp. The +protection of the Flemish bank of the Scheldt was entrusted to the +Margrave of Rysburg, general of cavalry; the Brabant bank to the Count +Peter Ernest Von Mansfeld, who was joined by another Spanish leader, +Mondragone. Both the latter succeeded in crossing the Scheldt upon +pontoons, notwithstanding the Flemish admiral's ship was sent to oppose +them, and, passing Antwerp, took up their position at Stabroek in +Bergen. Detached corps dispersed themselves along the whole Brabant +side, partly to secure the dykes and the roads. + +Some miles below Antwerp the Scheldt was guarded by two strong forts, of +which one was situated at Liefkenshoek on the island Doel, in Flanders, +the other at Lillo, exactly opposite the coast of Brabant. The last had +been erected by Mondragone himself, by order of the Duke of Alvaa, when +the latter was still master of Antwerp, and for this very reason the +Duke of Parma now entrusted to him the attack upon it. On the +possession of these two forts the success of the siege seemed wholly to +depend, since all the vessels sailing from Zealand to Antwerp must pass +under their guns. Both forts had a short time before been strengthened +by the besieged, and the former was scarcely finished when the Margrave +of Rysburg attacked it. The celerity with which he went to work +surprised the enemy before they were sufficiently prepared for defence, +and a brisk assault quickly placed Liefkenshoek in the hands of the +Spaniards. The confederates sustained this loss on the same fatal day +that the Prince of Orange fell at Delft by the hands of an assassin. +The other batteries, erected on the island of Doel, were partly +abandoned by their defenders, partly taken by surprise, so that in a +short time the whole Flemish side was cleared of the enemy. But the +fort at Lillo, on the Brabant shore, offered a more vigorous resistance, +since the people of Antwerp had had time to strengthen its +fortifications and to provide it with a strong garrison. Furious +sallies of the besieged, led by Odets von Teligny, supported by the +cannon of the fort, destroyed all the works of the Spaniards, and an +inundation, which was effected by opening the sluices, finally drove +them away from the place after a three weeks' siege, and with the loss +of nearly two thousand killed. They now retired into their fortified +camp at Stabroek, and contented themselves with taking possession of the +dams which run across the lowlands of Bergen, and oppose a breastwork to +the encroachments of the East Scheldt. + +The failure of his attempt upon the fort of Lillo compelled the Prince +of Parma to change his measures. As he could not succeed in stopping +the passage of the Scheldt by his original plan, on which the success of +the siege entirely depended, he determined to effect his purpose by +throwing a bridge across the whole breadth of the river. The thought +was bold, and there were many who held it to be rash. Both the breadth +of the stream, which at this part exceeds twelve hundred paces, as well +as its violence, which is still further augmented by the tides of the +neighboring sea, appeared to render every attempt of this kind +impracticable. Moreover, he had to contend with a deficiency of timber, +vessels, and workmen, as well as with the dangerous position between the +fleets of Antwerp and of Zealand, to which it would necessarily be an +easy task, in combination with a boisterous element, to interrupt so +tedious a work. But the Prince of Parma knew his power, and his settled +resolution would yield to nothing short of absolute impossibility. +After he had caused the breadth as well as the depth of the river to be +measured, and had consulted with two of his most skilful engineers, +Barocci and Plato, it was settled that the bridge should be constructed +between Calloo in Flanders and Ordain in Brabant. This spot was +selected because the river is here narrowest, and bends a little to the +right, and so detains vessels a while by compelling them to tack. To +cover the bridge strong bastions were erected at both ends, of which the +one on the Flanders side was named Fort St. Maria, the other, on the +Brabant side, Fort St. Philip, in honor of the king. + +While active preparations were making in the Spanish camp for the +execution of this scheme, and the whole attention of the enemy was +directed to it, the duke made an unexpected attack upon Dendermonde, a +strong town between Ghent and Antwerp, at the confluence of the Dender +and the Scheldt. As long as this important place was in the hands of +the enemy the towns of Ghent and Antwerp could mutually support each +other, and by the facility of their communication frustrate all the +efforts of the besiegers. Its capture would leave the prince free to +act against both towns, and might decide the fate of his undertaking. +The rapidity of his attack left the besieged no time to open their +sluices and lay the country under water. A hot cannonade was opened +upon the chief bastion of the town before the Brussels gate, but was +answered by the fire of the besieged, which made great havoc amongst the +Spaniards. It increased, however, rather than discouraged their ardor, +and the insults of the garrison, who mutilated the statue of a saint +before their eyes, and after treating it with the most contumelious +indignity, hurled it down from the rampart, raised their fury to the +highest pitch. Clamorously they demanded to be led against the bastion +before their fire had made a sufficient breach in it, and the prince, to +avail himself of the first ardor of their impetuosity, gave the signal +for the assault. After a sanguinary contest of two hours the rampart +was mounted, and those who were not sacrificed to the first fury of the +Spaniards threw themselves into the town. The latter was indeed now +more exposed, a fire being directed upon it from the works which had +been carried; but its strong walls and the broad moat which surrounded +it gave reason to expect a protracted resistance. The inventive +resources of the Prince of Parma soon overcame this obstacle also. +While the bombardment was carried on night and day, the troops were +incessantly employed in diverting the course of the Dender, which +supplied the fosse with water, and the besieged were seized with despair +as they saw the water of the trenches, the last defence of the town, +gradually disappear. They hastened to capitulate, and in August, 1584, +received a Spanish garrison. Thus, in the space of eleven days, the +Prince of Parrna accomplished an undertaking which, in the opinion of +competent judges, would require as many weeks. + +The town of Ghent, now cut off from Antwerp and the sea, and hard +pressed by the troops of the king, which were encamped in its vicinity, +and without hope of immediate succor, began to despair, as famine, with +all its dreadful train, advanced upon them with rapid steps. The +inhabitants therefore despatched deputies to the Spanish camp at Bevern, +to tender its submission to the king upon the same terms as the prince +had a short time previously offered. The deputies were informed that +the time for treaties was past, and that an unconditional submission +alone could appease the just anger of the monarch whom they had offended +by their rebellion. Nay, they were even given to understand that it +would be only through his great mercy if the same humiliation were not +exacted from them as their rebellious ancestors were forced to undergo +under Charles V., namely, to implore pardon half-naked, and with a cord +round their necks. The deputies returned to Ghent in despair, but three +days afterwards a new deputation was sent to the Spanish camp, which at +last, by the intercession of one of the prince's friends, who was a +prisoner in Ghent, obtained peace upon moderate terms. The town was to +pay a fine of two hundred thousand florins, recall the banished papists, +and expel the Protestant inhabitants, who, however, were to be allowed +two years for the settlement of their affairs. All the inhabitants +except six, who were reserved for capital punishment (but afterwards +pardoned), were included in a general amnesty, and the garrison, which +amounted to two thousand men, was allowed to evacuate the place with the +honors of war. This treaty was concluded in September of the same year, +at the headquarters at Bevern, and immediately three thousand Spaniards +marched into the town as a garrison. + +It was more by the terror of his name and the dread of famine than by +the force of arms that the Prince of Parma had succeeded in reducing +this city to submission, the largest and strongest in the Netherlands, +which was little inferior to Paris within the barriers of its inner +town, consisted of thirty-seven thousand houses, and was built on twenty +islands, connected by ninety-eight stone bridges. The important +privileges which in the course of several centuries this city had +contrived to extort from its rulers fostered in its inhabitants a spirit +of independence, which not unfrequently degenerated into riot and +license, and naturally brought it in collision with the Austrian-Spanish +government. And it was exactly this bold spirit of liberty which +procured for the Reformation the rapid and extensive success it met with +in this town, and the combined incentives of civil and religious freedom +produced all those scenes of violence by which, during the rebellion, it +had unfortunately distinguished itself. Besides the fine levied, the +prince found within the walls a large store of artillery, carriages, +ships, and building materials of all kinds, with numerous workmen and +sailors, who materially aided him in his plans against Antwerp. + +Before Ghent surrendered to the king Vilvorden and Herentals had fallen +into the hands of the Spaniards, and the capture of the block-houses +near the village of Willebrock had cut off Antwerp from Brussels and +Malines. The loss of these places within so short a period deprived +Antwerp of all hope of succor from Brabant and Flanders, and limited all +their expectations to the assistance which might be looked for from +Zealand. But to deprive them also of this the Prince of Parma was now +making the most energetic preparations. + +The citizens of Antwerp had beheld the first operations of the enemy +against their town with the proud security with which the sight of their +invincible river inspired them. This confidence was also in a degree +justified by the opinion of the Prince of Orange, who, upon the first +intelligence of the design, had said that the Spanish army would +inevitably perish before the walls of Antwerp. That nothing, however, +might be neglected, he sent, a short time before his assassination, for +the burgomaster of Antwerp, Philip Marnix of St. Aldegonde, his intimate +friend, to Delft, where he consulted with him as to the means of +maintaining defensive operations. It was agreed between then that it +would be advisable to demolish forthwith the great dam between Sanvliet +and Lillo called the Blaaugarendyk, so as to allow the waters of the +East Scheldt to inundate, if necessary, the lowlands of Bergen, and +thus, in the event of the Scheldt being closed, to open a passage for +the Zealand vessels to the town across the inundated country. Aldegonde +had, after his return, actually persuaded the magistrate and the +majority of the citizens to agree to this proposal, when it was resisted +by the guild of butchers, who claimed that they would be ruined by such +a measure; for the plain which it was wished to lay under water was a +vast tract of pasture land, upon which about twelve thousand oxen--were +annually put to graze. The objection of the butchers was successful, +and they managed to prevent the execution of this salutary scheme until +the enemy had got possession of the dams as well as the pasture land. + +At the suggestion of the burgomaster St. Aldegonde, who, himself a +member of the states of Brabant, was possessed of great authority in +that council, the fortifications on both sides the Scheldt had, a short +time before the arrival of the Spaniards, been placed in repair, and +many new redoubts erected round the town. The dams had been cut through +at Saftingen, and the water of the West Scheldt let out over nearly the +whole country of Waes. In the adjacent Marquisate of Bergen troops had +been enlisted by the Count of Hohenlohe, and a Scotch regiment, under +the command of Colonel Morgan, was already in the pay of the republic, +while fresh reinforcements were daily expected from England and France. +Above all, the states of Holland and Zealand were called upon to hasten +their supplies. But after the enemy had taken strong positions on both +sides of the river, and the fire of their batteries made the navigation +dangerous, when place after place in Brabant fell into their hands, and +their cavalry had cut off all communication on the land side, the +inhabitants of Antwerp began at last to entertain serious apprehensions +for the future. The town then contained eighty-five thousand souls, and +according to calculation three hundred thousand quarters of corn were +annually required for their support. At the beginning of the siege +neither the supply nor the money was wanting for the laying in of such a +store; for in spite of the enemy's fire the Zealand victualling ships, +taking advantage of the rising tide, contrived to make their way to the +town. All that was requisite was to prevent any of the richer citizens +from buying up these supplies, and, in case of scarcity, raising the +price. To secure his object, one Gianibelli from Mantua, who had +rendered important services in the course of the siege, proposed a +property tax of one penny in every hundred, and the appointment of a +board of respectable persons to purchase corn with this money, and +distribute it weekly. And until the returns of this tax should be +available the richer classes should advance the required sum, holding +the corn purchased, as a deposit, in their own magazines; and were also +to share in the profit. But this plan was unwelcome to the wealthier +citizens, who had resolved to profit by the general distress. They +recommended that every individual should be required to provide himself +with a sufficient supply for two years; a proposition which, however it +might suit their own circumstances, was very unreasonable in regard to +the poorer inhabitants, who, even before the siege, could scarcely find +means to supply themselves for so many months. They obtained indeed +their object, which was to reduce the poor to the necessity of either +quitting the place or becoming entirely their dependents. But when they +afterwards reflected that in the time of need the rights of property +would not be respected, they found it advisable not to be over-hasty in +making their own purchases. + +The magistrate, in order to avert an evil that would have pressed upon +individuals only, had recourse to an expedient which endangered the +safety of all. Some enterprising persons in Zealand had freighted a +large fleet with provisions, which succeeded in passing the guns of the +enemy, and discharged its cargo at Antwerp. The hope of a large profit +had tempted the merchants to enter upon this hazardous speculation; in +this, however, they were disappointed, as the magistrate of Antwerp had, +just before their arrival, issued an edict regulating the price of all +the necessaries of life. At the same time to prevent individuals from +buying up the whole cargo and storing it in their magazines with a view +of disposing of it afterwards at a dearer rate, he ordered that the +whole should be publicly sold in any quantities from the vessels. The +speculators, cheated of their hopes of profit by these precautions, set +sail again, and left Antwerp with the greater part of their cargo, which +would have sufficed for the support of the town for several months. + +This neglect of the most essential and natural means of preservation can +only be explained by the supposition that the inhabitants considered it +absolutely impossible ever to close the Scheldt completely, and +consequently had not the least apprehension that things would come to +extremity. When the intelligence arrived in Antwerp that the prince +intended to throw a bridge over the Scheldt the idea was universally +ridiculed as chimerical. An arrogant comparison was drawn between the +republic and the stream, and it was said that the one would bear the +Spanish yoke as little as the other. "A river which is twenty-four +hundred feet broad, and, with its own waters alone, above sixty feet +deep, but which with the tide rose twelve feet more--would such a +stream," it was asked, "submit to be spanned by a miserable piece of +paling? Where were beams to be found high enough to reach to the bottom +and project above the surface? and how was a work of this kind to stand +in winter, when whole islands and mountains of ice, which stone walls +could hardly resist, would be driven by the flood against its weak +timbers, and splinter them to pieces like glass? Or, perhaps, the +prince purposed to construct a bridge of boats; if so, where would he +procure the latter, and how bring them into his intrenchments? They +must necessarily be brought past Antwerp, where a fleet was ready to +capture or sink them." + +But while they were trying to prove the absurdity of the Prince of +Parma's undertaking he had already completed it. As soon as the forts +St. Maria and St. Philip were erected, and protected the workmen and the +work by their fire, a pier was built out into the stream from both +banks, for which purpose the masts of the largest vessels were employed; +by a skilful arrangement of the timbers they contrived to give the whole +such solidity that, as the result proved, it was able to resist the +violent pressure of the ice. These timbers, which rested firmly and +securely on the bottom of the river, and projected a considerable height +above it, being covered with planks, afforded a commodious roadway. It +was wide enough to allow eight men to cross abreast, and a balustrade +that ran along it on both sides, protected them from the fire of +small-arms from the enemy's vessels. This "stacade," as it was called, +ran from the two opposite shores as far as the increasing depth and force +of the stream allowed. It reduced the breadth of the river to about +eleven hundred feet; as, however, the middle and proper current would not +admit of such a barrier, there remained, therefore, between the two +stacades a space of more than six hundred paces through which a whole +fleet of transports could sail with ease. This intervening space the +prince designed to close by a bridge of boats, for which purpose the +craft must be procured from Dunkirk. But, besides that they could not be +obtained in any number at that place, it would be difficult to bring them +past Antwerp without great loss. He was, therefore, obliged to content +himself for the time with having narrowed the stream one-half, and +rendered the passage of the enemy's vessels so much the more difficult. +Where the stacades terminated in the middle of the stream they spread out +into parallelograms, which were mounted with heavy guns, and served as a +kind of battery on the water. From these a heavy fire was opened on every +vessel that attempted to pass through this narrow channel. Whole fleets, +however, and single vessels still attempted and succeeded in passing this +dangerous strait. + +Meanwhile Ghent surrendered, and this unexpected success at once rescued +the prince from his dilemma. He found in this town everything necessary +to complete his bridge of boats; and the only difficulty now was its +safe transport, which was furnished by the enemy themselves. By cutting +the dams at Saftingen a great part of the country of Waes, as far as the +village of Borcht, had been laid under water, so that it was not +difficult to cross it with flat-bottomed boats. The prince, therefore, +ordered his vessels to run out from Ghent, and after passing Dendermonde +and Rupelmonde to pass through the left dyke of the Scheldt, leaving +Antwerp to the right, and sail over the inundated fields in the +direction of Borcht. To protect this passage a fort was erected at the +latter village, which would keep the enemy in check. All succeeded to +his wishes, though not without a sharp action with the enemy's flotilla, +which was sent out to intercept this convoy. After breaking through a +few more dams on their route, they reached the Spanish quarters at +Calloo, and successfully entered the Scheldt again. The exultation of +the army was greater when they discovered the extent of the danger the +vessels had so narrowly escaped. Scarcely had they got quit of the +enemy's vessels when a strong reinforcement from Antwerp got under +weigh, commanded by the valiant defender of Lillo, Odets von Teligny. +When this officer saw that the affair was over, and that the enemy had +escaped, he took possession of the dam through which their fleet had +passed, and threw up a fort on the spot in order to stop the passage of +any vessels from Ghent which might attempt to follow them. + +By this step the prince was again thrown into embarrassment. He was far +from having as yet a sufficient number of vessels, either for the +construction of the bridge or for its defence, and the passage by which +the former convoy had arrived was now closed by the fort erected by +Teligny. While he was reconnoitring the country to discover a new way +for his, fleets an idea occurred to him which not only put an end to his +present dilemma, but greatly accelerated the success of his whole plan. +Not far from the village of Stecken, in Waes, which is within some five +thousand paces of the commencement of the inundation, flows a small +stream called the Moer, which falls into the Scheldt near Ghent. From +this river he caused a canal to be dug to the spot where the inundations +began, and as the water of these was not everywhere deep enough for the +transit of his boats, the canal between Bevern and Verrebroek was +continued to Calloo, where it was met by the Scheldt. At this work five +hundred pioneers labored without intermission, and in order to cheer the +toil of the soldiers the prince himself took part in it. In this way +did he imitate the example of the two celebrated Romans, Drusus and +Corbulo, who by similar works had united the Rhine with the Zuyder Zee, +and the Maes with the Rhine? + +This canal, which the army in honor of its projector called the canal of +Parma, was fourteen thousand paces in length, and was of proportion able +depth and breadth, so as to be navigable for ships of a considerable +burden. It afforded to the vessels from Ghent not only a more secure, +but also a much shorter course to the Spanish quarters, because it was +no longer necessary to follow the many windings of the Scheldt, but +entering the Moer at once near Ghent, and from thence passing close to +Stecken, they could proceed through the canal and across the inundated +country as far as Calloo. As the produce of all Flanders was brought to +the town of Ghent, this canal placed the Spanish camp in communication +with the whole province. Abundance poured into the camp from all +quarters, so that during the whole course of the siege the Spaniards +suffered no scarcity of any kind. But the greatest benefit which the +prince derived from this work was an adequate supply of flat-bottomed +vessels to complete his bridge. + +These preparations were overtaken by the arrival of winter, which, as +the Scheldt was filled with drift-ice, occasioned a considerable delay +in the building of the bridge. The prince had contemplated with anxiety +the approach of this season, lest it should prove highly destructive to +the work he had undertaken, and afford the enemy a favorable opportunity +for making a serious attack upon it. But the skill of his engineers +saved him from the one danger, and the strange inaction of the enemy +freed him from the other. It frequently happened, indeed, that at +flood-time large pieces of ice were entangled in the timbers, and shook +them violently, but they stood the assault of the furious element, which +only served to prove their stability. + +In Antwerp, meanwhile, important moments had been wasted in futile +deliberations; and in a struggle of factions the general welfare was +neglected. The government of the town was divided among too many heads, +and much too great a share in it was held by the riotous mob to allow +room for calmness of deliberation or firmness of action. Besides the +municipal magistracy itself, in which the burgomaster had only a single +voice, there were in the city a number of guilds, to whom were consigned +the charge of the internal and external defence, the provisioning of the +town, its fortifications, the marine, commerce, etc.; some of whom must +be consulted in every business of importance. By means of this crowd of +speakers, who intruded at pleasure into the council, and managed to +carry by clamor and the number of their adherents what they could not +effect by their arguments, the people obtained a dangerous influence +in the public debates, and the natural struggle of such discordant +interests retarded the execution of every salutary measure. +A government so vacillating and impotent could not command the respect +of unruly sailors and a lawless soldiery. The orders of the state +consequently were but imperfectly obeyed, and the decisive moment was +more than once lost by the negligence, not to say the open mutiny, both +of the land and sea forces. The little harmony in the selection of the +means by which the enemy was to be opposed would not, however, have +proved so injurious had there but existed unanimity as to the end. But +on this very point the wealthy citizens and poorer classes were divided; +so the former, having everything to apprehend from allowing matters to +be carried to extremity, were strongly inclined to treat with the Prince +of Parma. This disposition they did not even attempt to conceal after +the fort of Liefkenshoek had fallen into the enemy's hands, and serious +fears were entertained for the navigation of the Scheldt. Some of them, +indeed, withdrew entirely from the danger, and left to its fate the +town, whose prosperity they had been ready enough to share, but in whose +adversity they were unwilling to bear a part. From sixty to seventy of +those who remained memorialized the council, advising that terms should +be made with the king. No sooner, however, had the populace got +intelligence of it than their indignation broke out in a violent uproar, +which was with difficulty appeased by the imprisonment and fining of the +petitioners. Tranquillity could only be fully restored by publication +of an edict, which imposed the penalty of death on all who either +publicly or privately should countenance proposals for peace. + +The Prince of Parma did not fail to take advantage of these +disturbances; for nothing that transpired within the city escaped his +notice, being well served by the agents with whom he maintained a secret +understanding with Antwerp, as well as the other towns of Brabant and +Flanders. Although he had already made considerable progress in his +measures for distressing the town, still he had many steps to take +before he could actually make himself master of it; and one unlucky +moment might destroy the work of many months. Without, therefore, +neglecting any of his warlike preparations, he determined to make one +more serious attempt to get possession by fair means. With this object +he despatched a letter in November to the great council of Antwerp, in +which he skilfully made use of every topic likely to induce the citizens +to come to terms, or at least to increase their existing dissensions. +He treated them in this letter in the light of persons who had been led +astray, and threw the whole blame of their revolt and refractory conduct +hitherto upon the intriguing spirit of the Prince of Orange, from whose +artifices the retributive justice of heaven had so lately liberated +them. "It was," he said, "now in their power to awake from their long +infatuation and return to their allegiance to a monarch who was ready +and anxious to be reconciled to his subjects. For this end he gladly +offered himself as mediator, as he had never ceased to love a country in +which he had been born, and where he had spent the happiest days of his +youth. He therefore exhorted them to send plenipotentiaries with whom +he could arrange the conditions of peace, and gave them hopes of +obtaining reasonable terms if they made a timely submission, but also +threatened them with the severest treatment if they pushed matters to +extremity." + +This letter, in which we are glad to recognize a language very different +from that which the Duke of Alva held ten years before on a similar +occasion, was answered by the townspeople in a respectful and dignified +tone. While they did full justice to the personal character of the +prince, and acknowledged his favorable intentions towards them with +gratitude, they lamented the hardness of the times, which placed it out +of his power to treat them in accordance with his character and +disposition. They declared that they would gladly place their fate in +his hands if he were absolute master of his actions, instead of being +obliged to obey the will of another, whose proceedings his own candor +would not allow him to approve of. The unalterable resolution of the +King of Spain, as well as the vow which he had made to the pope, were +only too well known for them to have any hopes in that quarter. They at +the same time defended with a noble warmth the memory of the Prince of +Orange, their benefactor and preserver, while they enumerated the true +cases which had produced this unhappy war, and had caused the provinces +to revolt from the Spanish crown. At the same time they did not +disguise from him that they had hopes of finding a new and a milder +master in the King of France, and that, if only for this reason, they +could not enter into any treaty with the Spanish king without incurring +the charge of the most culpable fickleness and ingratitude. + +The united provinces, in fact, dispirited by a succession of reverses, +had at last come to the determination of placing themselves under the +protection and sovereignty of France, and of preserving their existence +and their ancient privileges by the sacrifice of their independence. +With this view an embassy had some time before been despatched to Paris, +and it was the prospect of this powerful assistance which principally +supported the courage of the people of Antwerp. Henry III., King of +France, was personally disposed to accept this offer; but the troubles +which the intrigues of the Spaniards contrived to excite within his own +kingdom compelled him against his will to abandon it. The provinces now +turned for assistance to Queen Elizabeth of England, who sent them some +supplies, which, however, came too late to save Antwerp. While the +people of this city were awaiting the issue of these negotiations, and +expecting aid from foreign powers, they neglected, unfortunately, the +most natural and immediate means of defence; the whole winter was lost, +and while the enemy turned it to greater advantage the more complete was +their indecision and inactivity. + +The burgomaster of Antwerp, St. Aldegonde, had, indeed, repeatedly urged +the fleet of Zealand to attack the enemy's works, which should be +supported on the other side from Antwerp. The long and frequently +stormy nights would favor this attempt, and if at the same time a sally +were made by the garrison at Lillo, it seemed scarcely possible for +the enemy to resist this triple assault. But unfortunately +misunderstandings had arisen between the commander of the fleet, William +von Blois von Treslong, and the admiralty of Zealand, which caused the +equipment of the fleet to be most unaccountably delayed. In order to +quicken their movements Teligny at last resolved to go himself to +Middleburg, were the states of Zealand were assembled; but as the enemy +were in possession of all the roads the attempt cost him his freedom and +the republic its most valiant defender. However, there was no want of +enterprising vessels, which, under the favor of the night and the +floodtide, passing through the still open bridge in spite of the enemy's +fire, threw provisions into the town and returned with the ebb. But as +many of these vessels fell into the hands of the enemy the council gave +orders that they should never risk the passage unless they amounted to a +certain number; and the result, unfortunately, was that none attempted +it because the required number could not be collected at one time. +Several attacks were also made from Antwerp on the ships of the +Spaniards, which were not entirely unsuccessful; some of the latter were +captured, others sunk, and all that was required was to execute similar +attempts on a grand scale. But however zealously St. Aldegonde urged +this, still not a captain was to be found who would command a vessel for +that purpose. + +Amid these delays the winter expired, and scarcely had the ice begun to +disappear when the construction of the bridge of boats was actively +resumed by the besiegers. Between the two piers a space of more than +six hundred paces still remained to be filled up, which was effected in +the following manner: Thirty-two flat-bottomed vessels, each sixty-six +feet long and twenty broad, were fastened together with strong cables +and iron chains, but at a distance from each other of about twenty feet +to allow a free passage to the stream. Each boat, moreover, was moored +with two cables, both up and down the stream, but which, as the water +rose with the tide, or sunk with the ebb, could be slackened or +tightened. Upon the boats great masts were laid which reached from one +to another, and, being covered with planks, formed a regular road, +which, like that along the piers, was protected with a balustrade. This +bridge of boats, of which the two piers formed a continuation, had, +including the latter, a length of twenty-four thousand paces. This +formidable work was so ingeniously constructed, and so richly furnished +with the instruments of destruction, that it seemed almost capable, like +a living creature, of defending itself at the word of command, +scattering death among all who approached. Besides the two forts of St. +Maria and St. Philip, which terminated the bridge on either shore, and +the two wooden bastions on the bridge itself, which were filled with +soldiers and mounted with guns on all sides, each of the two-and-thirty +vessels was manned with thirty soldiers and four sailors, and showed the +cannon's mouth to the enemy, whether he came up from Zealand or down +from Antwerp. There were in all ninety-seven cannon, which were +distributed beneath and above the bridge, and more than fifteen hundred +men who were posted, partly in the forts, partly in the vessels, and, in +case of necessity, could maintain a terrible fire of small-arms upon the +enemy. + +But with all this the prince did not consider his work sufficiently +secure. It was to be expected that the enemy would leave nothing +unattempted to burst by the force of his machines the middle and weakest +part. To guard against this, he erected in a line with the bridge of +boats, but at some distance from it, another distinct defence, intended +to break the force of any attack that might be directed against the +bridge itself. This work consisted of thirty-three vessels of +considerable magnitude, which were moored in a row athwart the stream +and fastened in threes by masts, so that they formed eleven different +groups. Each of these, like a file of pikemen, presented fourteen long +wooden poles with iron heads to the approaching enemy. These vessels +were loaded merely with ballast, and were anchored each by a double but +slack cable, so as to be able to give to the rise and fall of the tide. +As they were in constant motion they got from the soldiers the name of +"swimmers." The whole bridge of boats and also a part of the piers were +covered by these swimmers, which were stationed above as well as below +the bridge. To all these defensive preparations was added a fleet of +forty men-of-war, which were stationed on both coasts and served as a +protection to the whole. + +This astonishing work was finished in March, 1585, the seventh month of +the siege, and the day on which it was completed was kept as a jubilee +by the troops. The great event was announced to the besieged by a grand +_fete de joie_, and the army, as if to enjoy ocular demonstration of its +triumph, extended itself along the whole platform to gaze upon the proud +stream, peacefully and obediently flowing under the yoke which had been +imposed upon it. All the toil they had undergone was forgotten in the +delightful spectacle, and every man who had had a hand in it, however +insignificant he might be, assumed to himself a portion of the honor +which the successful execution of so gigantic an enterprise conferred on +its illustrious projector. On the other hand, nothing could equal the +consternation which seized the citizens of Antwerp when intelligence was +brought them that the Scheldt was now actually closed, and all access +from Zealand cut off. To increase their dismay they learned the fall of +Brussels also, which had at last been compelled by famine to capitulate. +An attempt made by the Count of Hohenlohe about the same time on +Herzogenbusch, with a view to recapture the town, or at least form a +diversion, was equally unsuccessful; and thus the unfortunate city lost +all hope of assistance, both by sea and land. + +These evil tidings were brought them by some fugitives who had succeeded +in passing the Spanish videttes, and had made their way into the town; +and a spy, whom the burgomaster had sent out to reconnoitre the enemy's +works, increased the general alarm by his report. He had been seized +and carried before the Prince of Parma, who commanded him to be +conducted over all the works, and all the defences of the bridge to be +pointed out to him. After this had been done he was again brought +before the general, who dismissed him with these words: "Go," said he, +"and report what you have seen to those who sent you. And tell them, +too, that it is my firm resolve to bury myself under the ruins of this +bridge or by means of it to pass into your town." + +But the certainty of danger now at last awakened the zeal of the +confederates, and it was no fault of theirs if the former half of the +prince's vow was not fulfilled. The latter had long viewed with +apprehension the preparations which were making in Zealand for the +relief of the town. He saw clearly that it was from this quarter that +he had to fear the most dangerous blow, and that with all his works he +could not make head against the combined fleets of Zealand and Antwerp +if they were to fall upon him at the same time and at the proper moment. +For a while the delays of the admiral of Zealand, which he had labored +by all the means in his power to prolong, had been his security, but now +the urgent necessity accelerated the expedition, and without waiting for +the admiral the states at Middleburg despatched the Count Justin of +Nassau, with as many ships as they could muster, to the assistance of +the besieged. This fleet took up a position before Liefkenshoek, which +was in possession of the Spaniards, and, supported by a few vessels from +the opposite fort of Lillo, cannonaded it with such success that the +walls were in a short time demolished, and the place carried by storm. +The Walloons who formed the garrison did not display the firmness which +might have been expected from soldiers of the Duke of Parma; they +shamefully surrendered the fort to the enemy, who in a short time were +in possession of the whole island of Doel, with all the redoubts +situated upon it. The loss of these places, which were, however, soon +retaken, incensed the Duke of Parma so much that he tried the officers +by court-martial, and caused the most culpable among them to be +beheaded. Meanwhile this important conquest opened to the Zealanders a +free passage as far as the bridge, and after concerting with the people +of Antwerp the time was fixed for a combined attack on this work. It +was arranged that, while the bridge of boats was blown up by machines +already prepared in Antwerp, the Zealand fleet, with a sufficient supply +of provisions, should be in the vicinity, ready to sail to the town +through the opening. + +While the Duke of Parma was engaged in constructing his bridge an +engineer within the walls was already preparing the materials for its +destruction. Frederick Gianibelli was the name of the man whom fate had +destined to be the Archimedes of Antwerp, and to exhaust in its defence +the same ingenuity with the same want of success. He was born in +Mantua, and had formerly visited Madrid for the purpose, it was said, +of offering his services to King Philip in the Belgian war. But wearied +with waiting the offended engineer left the court with the intention of +making the King of Spain sensibly feel the value of talents which he had +so little known how to appreciate. He next sought the service of Queen +Elizabeth of England, the declared enemy of Spain, who, after witnessing +a few specimens of his skill, sent him to Antwerp. He took up his +residence in that town, and in the present extremity devoted to its +defence his knowledge, his energy, and his zeal. + +As soon as this artist perceived that the project of erecting the bridge +was seriously intended, and that the work was fast approaching to +completion, he applied to the magistracy for three large vessels, from a +hundred and fifty to five hundred tons, in which he proposed to place +mines. He also demanded sixty boats, which, fastened together with +cables and chains, furnished with projecting grappling-irons, and put in +motion with the ebbing of the tide, were intended to second the +operation of the mine-ships by being directed in a wedgelike form +against the bridge. But he had to deal with men who were quite +incapable of comprehending an idea out of the common way, and even where +the salvation of their country was at stake could not forget the +calculating habits of trade. + +His scheme was rejected as too expensive, and with difficulty he at last +obtained the grant of two smaller vessels, from seventy to eighty tons, +with a number of flat-bottomed boats. With these two vessels, one of +which he called the "Fortune" and the other the "Hope," he proceeded in +the following manner: In the hold of each he built a hollow chamber of +freestone, five feet broad, three and a half high, and forty long. This +magazine he filled with sixty hundredweight of the finest priming powder +of his own compounding, and covered it with as heavy a weight of large +slabs and millstones as the vessels could carry. Over these he further +added a roof of similar stones, which ran up to a point and projected +six feet above the ship's side. The deck itself was crammed with iron +chains and hooks, knives, nails, and other destructive missiles; the +remaining space, which was not occupied by the magazine, was likewise +filled up with planks. Several small apertures were left in the chamber +for the matches which were to set fire to the mine. For greater +certainty he had also contrived a piece of mechanism which, after the +lapse of a given time, would strike out sparks, and even if the matches +failed would set the ship on fire. To delude the enemy into a belief +that these machines were only intended to set the bridge on fire, a +composition of brimstone and pitch was placed in the top, which could +burn a whole hour. And still further to divert the enemy's attention +from the proper seat of danger, he also prepared thirty-two flatbottomed +boats, upon which there were only fireworks burning, and whose sole +object was to deceive the enemy. These fire-ships were to be sent down +upon the bridge in four separate squadrons, at intervals of half an +hour, and keep the enemy incessantly engaged for two whole hours, so +that, tired of firing and wearied by vain expectation, they might at +last relax their vigilance before the real fire-ships came. In addition +to all this he also despatched a few vessels in which powder was +concealed in order to blow up the floating work before the bridge, and +to clear a passage for the two principal ships. At the same time he +hoped by this preliminary attack to engage the enemy's attention, to +draw them out, and expose them to the full deadly effect of the volcano. + +The night between the 4th and 5th of April was fixed for the execution +of this great undertaking. An obscure rumor of it had already diffused +itself through the Spanish camp, and particularly from the circumstance +of many divers from Antwerp having been detected endeavoring to cut the +cables of the vessels. They were prepared, therefore, for a serious +attack; they only mistook the real nature of it, and counted on having +to fight rather with man than the elements. In this expectation the +duke caused the guards along the whole bank to be doubled, and drew up +the chief part of his troops in the vicinity of the bridge, where he was +present in person; thus meeting the danger while endeavoring to avoid +it. + +No sooner was it dark than three burning vessels were seen to float down +from the city towards the bridge, then three more, and directly after +the same number. They beat to arms throughout the Spanish camp, and the +whole length of the bridge was crowded with soldiers. Meantime the +number of the fire-ships increased, and they came in regular order down +the stream, sometimes two and sometimes three abreast, being at first +steered by sailors on board them. The admiral of the Antwerp fleet, +Jacob Jacobson (whether designedly or through carelessness is not +known), had committed the error of sending off the four squadrons of +fire-ships too quickly one after another, and caused the two large +mine-ships also to follow them too soon, and thus disturbed the intended +order of attack. + +The array of vessels kept approaching, and the darkness of night still +further heightened the extraordinary spectacle. As far as the eye could +follow the course of the stream all was fire; the fire-ships burning as +brilliantly as if they were themselves in the flames; the surface of the +water glittered with light; the dykes and the batteries along the shore, +the flags, arms, and accoutrements of the soldiers who lined the rivers +as well as the bridges were clearly distinguishable in the glare. With +a mingled sensation of awe and pleasure the soldiers watched the unusual +sight, which rather resembled a fete than a hostile preparation, but +from the very strangeness of the contrast filled the mind with a +mysterious awe. When the burning fleet had come within two thousand +paces of the bridge those who had the charge of it lighted the matches, +impelled the two mine-vessels into the middle of the stream, and leaving +the others to the guidance of the current of the waves, they hastily +made their escape in boats which had been kept in readiness. + +Their course, however, was irregular, and destitute of steersmen they +arrived singly and separately at the floating works, where they +continued hanging or were dashed off sidewise on the shore. The +foremost powder-ships, which were intended to set fire to the floating +works, were cast, by the force of a squall which arose at that instant, +on the Flemish coast. One of the two, the "Fortune," grounded in its +passage before it reached the bridge, and killed by its explosion some +Spanish soldiers who were at work in a neighboring battery. The other +and larger fire-ship, called the "Hope," narrowly escaped a similar +fate. The current drove her against the floating defences towards the +Flemish bank, where it remained hanging, and had it taken fire at that +moment the greatest part of its effect would have been lost. Deceived +by the flames which this machine, like the other vessels, emitted, the +Spaniards took it for a common fire-ship, intended to burn the bridge of +boats. And as they had seen them extinguished one after the other +without further effect all fears were dispelled, and the Spaniards began +to ridicule the preparations of the enemy, which had been ushered in +with so much display and now had so absurd an end. Some of the boldest +threw themselves into the stream in order to get a close view of the +fire-ship and extinguish it, when by its weight it suddenly broke +through, burst the floating work which had detained it, and drove with +terrible force on the bridge of boats. All was now in commotion on the +bridge, and the prince called to the sailors to keep the vessel off with +poles, and to extinguish the flames before they caught the timbers. + +At this critical moment he was standing at the farthest end of the left +pier, where it formed a bastion in the water and joined the bridge of +boats. By his side stood the Margrave of Rysburg, general of cavalry +and governor of the province of Artois, who had formerly-served the +states, but from a protector of the republic had become its worst enemy; +the Baron of Billy, governor of Friesland and commander of the German +regiments; the Generals Cajetan and Guasto, with several of the +principal officers; all forgetful of their own danger and entirely +occupied with averting the general calamity. At this moment a Spanish +ensign approached the Prince of Parma and conjured him to remove from a +place where his life was in manifest and imminent peril. No attention +being paid to his entreaty he repeated it still more urgently, and at +last fell at his feet and implored him in this one instance to take +advice from his servant. While he said this he had laid hold of the +duke's coat as though he wished forcibly to draw him away from the spot, +and the latter, surprised rather at the man's boldness than persuaded by +his arguments, retired at last to the shore, attended by Cajetan and +Guasto. He had scarcely time to reach the fort St. Maria at the end of +the bridge when an explosion took place behind him, just as if the earth +had burst or the vault of heaven given way. The duke and his whole army +fell to the ground as dead, and several minutes elapsed before they +recovered their consciousness. + +But then what a sight presented itself! The waters of the Scheldt had +been divided to its lowest depth, and driven with a surge which rose +like a wall above the dam that confined it, so that all the +fortifications on the banks were several feet under water. The earth +shook for three miles round. Nearly the whole left pier, on which the +fire-ship had been driven, with a part of the bridge of boats, had been +burst and shattered to atoms, with all that was upon it; spars, cannon, +and men blown into the air. Even the enormous blocks of stone which had +covered the mine had, by the force of the explosion, been hurled into +the neighboring fields, so that many of them were afterwards dug out of +the ground at a distance of a thousand paces from the bridge. Six +vessels were buried, several had gone to pieces. But still more +terrible was the carnage which the murderous machine had dealt amongst +the soldiers. Five hundred, according to other reports even eight +hundred, were sacrificed to its fury, without reckoning those who +escaped with mutilated or injured bodies. The most opposite kinds of +death were combined in this frightful moment. Some were consumed by the +flames of the explosion, others scalded to death by the boiling water of +the river, others stifled by the poisonous vapor of the brimstone; some +were drowned in the stream, some buried under the hail of falling masses +of rock, many cut to pieces by the knives and hooks, or shattered by the +balls which were poured from the bowels of the machine. Some were found +lifeless without any visible injury, having in all probability been +killed by the mere concussion of the air. The spectacle which presented +itself directly after the firing of the mine was fearful. Men were seen +wedged between the palisades of the bridge, or struggling to release +themselves from beneath ponderous masses of rock, or hanging in the +rigging of the ships; and from all places and quarters the most +heartrending cries for help arose, but as each was absorbed in his own +safety these could only be answered by helpless wailings. + +Many had escaped in the most wonderful manner. An officer named Tucci +was carried by the whirlwind like a feather high into the air, where he +was for a moment suspended, and then dropped into the river, where he +saved himself by swimming. Another was taken up by the force of the +blast from the Flanders shore and deposited on that of Brabant, +incurring merely a slight contusion on the shoulder; he felt, as he +afterwards said, during this rapid aerial transit, just as if he had +been fired out of a cannon. The Prince of Parma himself had never been +so near death as at that moment, when half a minute saved his life. He +had scarcely set foot in the fort of St. Maria when he was lifted off +his feet as if by a hurricane, and a beam which struck him on the head +and shoulders stretched him senseless on the earth. For a long time he +was believed to be actually killed, many remembering to have seen him on +the bridge only a few minutes before the fatal explosion. He was found +at last between his attendants, Cajetan and Guasto, raising himself up +with his hand on his sword; and the intelligence stirred the spirits of +the whole army. But vain would be the attempt to depict his feelings +when he surveyed the devastation which a single moment had caused in the +work of so many months. The bridge of boats, upon which all his hopes +rested, was rent asunder; a great part of his army was destroyed; +another portion maimed and rendered ineffective for many days; many of +his best officers were killed; and, as if the present calamity were not +sufficient, he had now to learn the painful intelligence that the +Margrave of Rysburg, whom of all his officers he prized the highest, was +missing. And yet the worst was still to come, for every moment the +fleets of the enemy were to be expected from Antwerp and Lillo, to which +this fearful position of the army would disable him from offering any +effectual resistance. The bridge was entirely destroyed, and nothing +could prevent the fleet from Zealand passing through in full sail; while +the confusion of the troops in this first moment was so great and +general that it would have been impossible to give or obey orders, as +many corps had lost their commanding officers, and many commanders their +corps; and even the places where they had been stationed were no longer +to be recognized amid the general ruin. Add to this that all the +batteries on shore were under water, that several cannon were sunk, that +the matches were wet, and the ammunition damaged. What a moment for the +enemy if they had known how to avail themselves of it! + +It will scarcely be believed, however, that this success, which +surpassed all expectation, was lost to Antwerp, simply because nothing +was known of it. St. Aldegonde, indeed, as soon as the explosion of the +mine was heard in the town, had sent out several galleys in the +direction of the bridge, with orders to send up fire-balls and rockets +the moment they had passed it, and then to sail with the intelligence +straight on to Lillo, in order to bring up, without delay, the Zealand +fleet, which had orders to co-operate. At the same time the admiral of +Antwerp was ordered, as soon as the signal was given, to sail out with +his vessels and attack the enemy in their first consternation. But +although a considerable reward was promised to the boatmen sent to +reconnoitre they did not venture near the enemy, but returned without +effecting their purpose, and reported that the bridge of boats was +uninjured, and the fire-ship had had no effect. Even on the following +day also no better measures were taken to learn the true state of the +bridge; and as the fleet at Lillo, in spite of the favorable wind, was +seen to remain inactive, the belief that the fire-ships had accomplished +nothing was confirmed. It did not seem to occur to any one that this +very inactivity of the confederates, which misled the people of Antwerp, +might also keep back the Zealanders at Lille, as in fact it did. So +signal an instance of neglect could only have occurred in a government, +which, without dignity of independence, was guided by the tumultuous +multitude it ought to have governed. The more supine, however, they +were themselves in opposing the enemy, the more violently did their rage +boil against Gianibelli, whom the frantic mob would have torn in pieces +if they could have caught him. For two days the engineer was in the +most imminent danger, until at last, on the third morning, a courier +from Lillo, who had swam under the bridge, brought authentic +intelligence of its having been destroyed, but at the same time +announced that it had been repaired. + +This rapid restoration of the bridge was really a miraculous effort of +the Prince of Parma. Scarcely had he recovered from the shock, which +seemed to have overthrown all his plans, when he contrived, with +wonderful presence of mind, to prevent all its evil consequences. The +absence of the enemy's fleet at this decisive moment revived his hopes. +The ruinous state of the bridge appeared to be a secret to them, and +though it was impossible to repair in a few hours the work of so many +months, yet a great point would be gained if it could be done even in +appearance. All his men were immediately set to work to remove the +ruins, to raise the timbers which had been thrown down, to replace those +which were demolished, and to fill up the chasms with ships. The duke +himself did not refuse to share in the toil, and his example was +followed by all his officers. Stimulated by this popular behavior, the +common soldiers exerted themselves to the utmost; the work was carried +on during the whole night under the constant sounding of drums and +trumpets, which were distributed along the bridge to drown the noise of +the work-people. With dawn of day few traces remained of the night's +havoc; and although the bridge was restored only in appearance, it +nevertheless deceived the spy, and consequently no attack was made upon +it. In the meantime the prince contrived to make the repairs solid, +nay, even to introduce some essential alterations in the structure. In +order to guard against similar accidents for the future, a part of the +bridge of boats was made movable, so that in case of necessity it could +be taken away and a passage opened to the fire-ships. His loss of men +was supplied from the garrisons of the adjoining places, and by a German +regiment which arrived very opportunely from Gueldres. He filled up the +vacancies of the officers who were killed, and in doing this he did not +forget the Spanish ensign who had saved his life. + +The people of Antwerp, after learning the success of their mine-ship, +now did homage to the inventor with as much extravagance as they had a +short time before mistrusted him, and they encouraged his genius to new +attempts. Gianibelli now actually obtained the number of flat-bottomed +vessels which he had at first demanded in vain, and these he equipped in +such a manner that they struck with irresistible force on the bridge, +and a second time also burst and separated it. But this time, the wind +was contrary to the Zealand fleet, so that they could not put out, and +thus the prince obtained once more the necessary respite to repair the +damage. The Archimedes of Antwerp was not deterred by any of these +disappointments. Anew he fitted out two large vessels which were armed +with iron hooks and similar instruments in order to tear asunder the +bridge. But when the moment came for these vessels to get under weigh +no one was found ready to embark in them. The engineer was therefore +obliged to think of a plan for giving to these machines such a +self-impulse that, without being guided by a steersman, they would keep the +middle of the stream, and not, like the former ones, be driven on the +bank by the wind. One of his workmen, a German, here hit upon a strange +invention, if Strada's description of it is to be credited. He affixed a +sail under the vessel, which was to be acted upon by the water, just as +an ordinary sail is by the wind, and could thus impel the ship with the +whole force of the current. The result proved the correctness of his +calculation; for this vessel, with the position of its sails reversed, +not only kept the centre of the stream, but also ran against the bridge +with such impetuosity that the enemy had not time to open it and was +actually burst asunder. But all these results were of no service to the +town, because the attempts were made at random and were supported by no +adequate force. A new fire-ship, equipped like the former, which had +succeeded so well, and which Gianibelli had filled with four thousand +pounds of the finest powder was not even used; for a new mode of +attempting their deliverance had now occurred to the people of Antwerp. + +Terrified by so many futile attempts from endeavoring to clear a +passage for vessels on the river by force, they at last came to the +determination of doing without the stream entirely. They remembered the +example of the town of Leyden, which, when besieged by the Spaniards ten +years before, had saved itself by opportunely inundating the surrounding +country, and it was resolved to imitate this example. Between Lillo and +Stabroek, in the district of Bergen, a wide and somewhat sloping plain +extends as far as Antwerp, being protected by numerous embankments and +counter-embankments against the irruptions of the East Scheldt. Nothing +more was requisite than to break these dams, when the whole plain would +become a sea, navigable by flat-bottomed vessels almost to the very +walls of Antwerp. If this attempt should succeed, the Duke of Parma +might keep the Scheldt guarded with his bridge of boats as long as he +pleased; a new river would be formed, which, in case of necessity, would +be equally serviceable for the time. This was the very plan which the +Prince of Orange had at the commencement of the siege recommended, and +in which he had been strenuously, but unsuccessfully, seconded by St. +Aldegonde, because some of the citizens could not be persuaded to +sacrifice their own fields. In the present emergency they reverted to +this last resource, but circumstances in the meantime had greatly +changed. + +The plain in question is intersected by a broad and high dam, which +takes its name from the adjacent Castle of Cowenstein, and extends for +three miles from the village of Stabroek, in Bergen, as far as the +Scheldt, with the great dam of which it unites near Ordam. Beyond this +dam no vessels can proceed, however high the tide, and the sea would be +vainly turned into the fields as long as such an embankment remained in +the way, which would prevent the Zealand vessels from descending into +the plain before Antwerp. The fate of the town would therefore depend +upon the demolition of this Cowenstein dam; but, foreseeing this, the +Prince of Parma had, immediately on commencing the blockade, taken +possession of it, and spared no pains to render it tenable to the last. +At the village of Stabroek, Count Mansfeld was encamped with the +greatest part of his army, and by means of this very Cowenstein dam kept +open the communication with the bridge, the headquarters, and the +Spanish magazines at Calloo. Thus the army formed an uninterrupted line +from Stabroek in Brabant, as far as Bevern in Flanders, intersected +indeed, but not broken by the Scheldt, and which could not be cut off +without a sanguinary conflict. On the dam itself within proper +distances five different batteries had been erected, the command of +which was given to the most valiant officers in the army. Nay, as the +Prince of Parma could not doubt that now the whole fury of the war would +be turned to this point, he entrusted the defence of the bridge to Count +Mansfeld, and resolved to defend this important post himself. The war, +therefore, now assumed a different aspect, and the theatre of it was +entirely changed. + +Both above and below Lillo, the Netherlanders had in several places cut +through the dam, which follows the Brabant shore of the Scheldt; and +where a short time before had been green fields, a new element now +presented itself, studded with masts and boats. A Zealand fleet, +commanded by Count Hohenlohe, navigated the inundated fields, and made +repeated movements against the Cowenstein dam, without, however, +attempting a serious attack on it, while another fleet showed itself in +the Scheldt, threatening the two coasts alternately with a landing, and +occasionally the bridge of boats with an attack. For several days this +manoeuvre was practised on the enemy, who, uncertain of the quarter +whence an attack was to be expected, would, it was hoped, be exhausted +by continual watching, and by degrees lulled into security by so many +false alarms. Antwerp had promised Count Hohenlohe to support the +attack on the dam by a flotilla from the town; three beacons on the +principal tower were to be the signal that this was on the way. When, +therefore, on a dark night the expected columns of fire really ascended +above Antwerp, Count Hohenlohe immediately caused five hundred of his +troops to scale the dam between two of the enemy's redoubts, who +surprised part of the Spanish garrison asleep, and cut down the others +who attempted to defend themselves. In a short time they had gained a +firm footing upon the dam, and were just on the point of disembarking +the remainder of their force, two thousand in number, when the Spaniards +in the adjoining redoubts marched out and, favored by the narrowness of +the ground, made a desperate attack on the crowded Zealanders. The guns +from the neighboring batteries opened upon the approaching fleet, and +thus rendered the landing of the remaining troops impossible; and as +there were no signs of co-operation on the part of the city, the +Zealanders were overpowered after a short conflict and again driven down +from the dam. The victorious Spaniards pursued them through the water +as far as their boats, sunk many of the latter, and compelled the rest +to retreat with heavy loss. Count Hohenlohe threw the blame of this +defeat upon the inhabitants of Antwerp, who had deceived him by a false +signal, and it certainly must be attributed to the bad arrangement of +both parties that the attempt failed of better success. + +But at last the allies determined to make a systematic assault on the +enemy with their combined force, and to put an end to the siege by a +grand attack as well on the dam as on the bridge. The 16th of May, +1585, was fixed upon for the execution of this design, and both armies +used their utmost endeavors to make this day decisive. The force of the +Hollanders and Zealanders, united to that of Antwerp, exceeded two +hundred ships, to man which they had stripped their towns and citadels, +and with this force they purposed to attack the Cowenstein dam on both +sides. The bridge over the Scheldt was to be assailed with new machines +of Gianibelli's invention, and the Duke of Parma thereby hindered from +assisting the defence of the dam. + +Alexander, apprised of the danger which threatened him, spared nothing +on his side to meet it with energy. Immediately after getting +possession of the dam he had caused redoubts to be erected at five +different, places, and had given the command of them to the most +experienced officers of the army. The first of these, which was called +the Cross battery, was erected on the spot where the Cowenstein darn +enters the great embankment of the Scheldt, and makes with the latter +the form of a cross; the Spaniard, Mondragone, was appointed to the +command of this battery. A thousand paces farther on, near the castle +of Cowenstein, was posted the battery of St. James, which was entrusted +to the command of Camillo di Monte. At an equal distance from this lay +the battery of St. George, and at a thousand paces from the latter, the +Pile battery, under the command of Gamboa, so called from the pile-work +on which it rested; at the farthest end of the darn, near Stabroek, was +the fifth redoubt, where Count Mansfeld, with Capizuechi, an Italian, +commanded. All these forts the prince now strengthened with artillery +and men; on both sides of the dam, and along its whole extent, he caused +piles to be driven, as well to render the main embankment firmer, as to +impede the labor of the pioneers, who were to dig through it. + +Early on the morning of the 16th of May the enemy's forces were in +motion. With the dusk of dawn there came floating down from Lillo, over +the inundated country, four burning vessels, which so alarmed the guards +upon the dams, who recollected the former terrible explosion, that they +hastily retreated to the next battery. This was exactly what the enemy +desired. In these vessels, which had merely the appearance of +fire-ships, soldiers were concealed, who now suddenly jumped ashore, and +succeeded in mounting the dam at the undefended spot, between the St. +George and Pile batteries. Immediately afterward the whole Zealand +fleet showed itself, consisting of numerous ships-of-war, transports, +and a crowd of smaller craft, which were laden with great sacks of +earth, wool, fascines, gabions, and the like, for throwing up +breastworks wherever necessary, The ships-of-war were furnished with +powerful artillery, and numerously and bravely manned, and a whole army +of pioneers accompanied it in order to dig through the dam as soon as it +should be in their possession. + +The Zealanders had scarcely begun on their side to ascend the dam when +the fleet of Antwerp advanced from Osterweel and attacked it on the +other. A high breastwork was hastily thrown up between the two nearest +hostile batteries, so as at once to divide the two garrisons and to +cover the pioneers. The latter, several hundreds in number, now fell to +work with their spades on both sides of the dam, and dug with such +energy that hopes were entertained of soon seeing the two seas united. +But meanwhile the Spaniards also had gained time to hasten to the spot +from the two nearest redoubts, and make a spirited assault, while the +guns from the battery of St. George played incessantly on the enemy's +fleet. A furious battle now raged in the quarter where they were +cutting through the dike and throwing up the breastworks. The +Zealanders had drawn a strong line of troops round the pioneers to keep +the enemy from interrupting their work, and in this confusion of battle, +in the midst of a storm of bullets from the enemy, often up to the +breast in water, among the dead and dying, the pioneers pursued their +work, under the incessant exhortations of the merchants, who impatiently +waited to see the dam opened and their vessels in safety. The +importance of the result, which it might be said depended entirely upon +their spades, appeared to animate even the common laborers with heroic +courage. Solely intent upon their task, they neither saw nor heard the +work of death which was going on around them, and as fast as the +foremost ranks fell those behind them pressed into their places. Their +operations were greatly impeded by the piles which had been driven in, +but still more by the attacks of the Spaniards, who burst with desperate +courage through the thickest of the enemy, stabbed the pioneers in the +pits where they were digging, and filled up again with dead bodies the +cavities which the living had made. At last, however, when most of +their officers were killed or wounded, and the number of the enemy +constantly increasing, while fresh laborers were supplying the place of +those who had been slain, the courage of these valiant troops began to +give way, and they thought it advisable to retreat to their batteries. +Now, therefore, the confederates saw themselves masters of the whole +extent of the dam, from Fort St. George as far as the Pile battery. As, +however, it seemed too long to wait for the thorough demolition of the +dam, they hastily unloaded a Zealand transport, and brought the cargo +over the dam to a vessel of Antwerp, with which Count Hohenlohe sailed +in triumph to that city. The sight of the provisions at once filled the +inhabitants with joy, and as if the victory was already won, they gave +themselves up to the wildest exultation. The bells were rung, the +cannon discharged, and the inhabitants, transported by their unexpected +success, hurried to the Osterweel gate, to await the store-ships which +were supposed to be at hand. + +In fact, fortune had never smiled so favorably on the besieged as at +that moment. The enemy, exhausted and dispirited, had thrown themselves +into their batteries, and, far from being able to struggle with the +victors for the post they had conquered, they found themselves rather +besieged in the places where they had taken refuge. Some companies of +Scots, led by their brave colonel, Balfour, attacked the battery of St. +George, which, however, was relieved, but not without severe loss, by +Camillo di Monte, who hastened thither from St. James' battery. The +Pile battery was in a much worse condition, it being hotly cannonaded by +the ships, and threatened every moment to crumble to pieces. Gainboa, +who commanded it, lay wounded, and it was unfortunately deficient in +artillery to keep the enemy at a distance. The breastwork, too, which +the Zealanders had thrown up between this battery and that of St. +George cut off all hope of assistance from the Scheldt. If, therefore, +the Belgians had only taken advantage of this weakness and inactivity of +the enemy to proceed with zeal and perseverance in cutting through the +dam, there is no doubt that a passage might have been made, and thus put +an end to the whole siege. But here also the same want of consistent +energy showed itself which had marked the conduct of the people of +Antwerp during the whole course of the siege. The zeal with which the +work had been commenced cooled in proportion to the success which +attended it. It was soon found too tedious to dig through the dyke; it +seemed far easier to transfer the cargoes from the large store-ships +into smaller ones, and carry these to the town with the flood tide. St. +Aldegonde and Hohenlohe, instead of remaining to animate the industry of +the workmen by their personal presence, left the scene of action at the +decisive moment, in order, by sailing to the town with a corn vessel, to +win encomiums on their wisdom and valor. + +While both parties were fighting on the dam with the most obstinate fury +the bridge over the Scheldt had been attacked from Antwerp with new +machines, in order to give employment to the prince in that quarter. +But the sound of the firing soon apprised him of what was going on at +the dyke, and as soon as he saw the bridge clear he hastened to support +the defence of the dyke. Followed by two hundred Spanish pikemen, he +flew to the place of attack, and arrived just in time to prevent the +complete defeat of his troops. He hastily posted some guns which he had +brought with him in the two nearest redoubts, and maintained from thence +a heavy fire upon the enemy's ships. He placed himself at the head of +his men, and, with his sword in one hand and shield in the other, led +them against the enemy. The news of his arrival, which quickly spread +from one end of the dyke to the other, revived the drooping spirits of +his troops, and the conflict recommenced with renewed violence, made +still more murderous by the nature of the ground where it was fought. +Upon the narrow ridge of the dam, which in many places was not more than +nine paces broad, about five thousand combatants were fighting; so +confined was the spot upon which the strength of both armies was +assembled, and which was to decide the whole issue of the siege. With +the Antwerpers the last bulwark of their city was at stake; with the +Spaniards it was to determine the whole success of their undertaking. +Both parties fought with a courage which despair alone could inspire. +From both the extremities of the dam the tide of war rolled itself +towards the centre, where the Zealanders and Antwerpers had the +advantage, and where they had collected their whole strength. The +Italians and Spaniards, inflamed by a noble emulation, pressed on from +Stabroek; and from the Scheldt the Walloons and Spaniards advanced, with +their general at their head. While the former endeavored to relieve the +Pile battery, which was hotly pressed by the enemy, both by sea and +land, the latter threw themselves on the breastwork, between the St. +George and the Pile batteries, with a fury which carried everything +before it. Here the flower of the Belgian troops fought behind a +well-fortified rampart, and the guns of the two fleets covered this +important post. The prince was already pressing forward to attack this +formidable defence with his small army when he received intelligence that +the Italians and Spaniards, under Capizucchi and Aquila, had forced their +way, sword in hand, into the Pile battery, had got possession of it, and +were now likewise advancing from the other side against the enemy's +breastwork. Before this intrenchment, therefore, the whole force of both +armies was now collected, and both sides used their utmost efforts to +carry and to defend this position. The Netherlanders on board the fleet, +loath to remain idle spectators of the conflict, sprang ashore from their +vessels. Alexander attacked the breastwork on one side, Count Mansfeld on +the other; five assaults were made, and five times they were repulsed. +The Netherlanders in this decisive moment surpassed themselves; never in +the whole course of the war had they fought with such determination. But +it was the Scotch and English in particular who baffled the attempts of +the enemy by their valiant resistance. As no one would advance to the +attack in the quarter where the Scotch fought, the duke himself led on +the troops, with a javelin in his hand, and up to his breast in water. At +last, after a protracted struggle, the forces of Count Mansfeld succeeded +with their halberds and pikes in making a breach in the breastwork, and +by raising themselves on one another's shoulders scaled the parapet. +Barthelemy Toralva, a Spanish captain, was the first who showed himself +on the top; and almost at the same instant the Italian, Capizucchi, +appeared upon the edge of it; and thus the contest of valor was decided +with equal glory for both nations. It is worth while to notice here the +manner in which the Prince of Parma, who was made arbiter of this emulous +strife, encouraged this delicate sense of honor among his warriors. He +embraced the Italian, Capizucchi, in presence of the troops, and +acknowledged aloud that it was principally to the courage of this officer +that he owed the capture of the breastwork. He caused the Spanish +captain, Toralva, who was dangerously wounded, to be conveyed to his own +quarters at Stabroek, laid on his own bed, and covered with the cloak +which he himself had worn the day before the battle. + +After the capture of the breastwork the victory no longer remained +doubtful. The Dutch and Zealand troops, who had disembarked to come to +close action with the enemy, at once lost their courage when they looked +about them and saw the vessels, which were their last refuge, putting +off from the shore. + +For the tide had begun to ebb, and the commanders of the fleet, from +fear of being stranded with their heavy transports, and, in case of an +unfortunate issue to the engagement, becoming the prey of the enemy, +retired from the dam, and made for deep water. No sooner did Alexander +perceive this than he pointed out to his troops the flying vessels, and +encouraged them to finish the action with an enemy who already despaired +of their safety. The Dutch auxiliaries were the first that gave way, +and their example was soon followed by the Zealanders. Hastily leaping +from the dam they endeavored to reach the vessels by wading or swimming; +but from their disorderly flight they impeded one another, and fell in +heaps under the swords of the pursuers. Many perished even in the +boats, as each strove to get on board before the other, and several +vessels sank under the weight of the numbers who rushed into them. The +Antwerpers, who fought for their liberty, their hearths, their faith, +were the last who retreated, but this very circumstance augmented their +disaster. Many of their vessels were outstripped by the ebb-tide, and +grounded within reach of the enemy's cannon, and were consequently +destroyed with all on board. Crowds of fugitives endeavored by swimming +to gain the other transports, which had got into deep water; but such +was the rage and boldness of the Spaniards that they swam after them +with their swords between their teeth, and dragged many even from the +ships. The victory of the king's troops was complete but bloody; for of +the Spaniards about eight hundred, of the Netherlanders some thousands +(without reckoning those who were drowned), were left on the field, and +on both sides many of the principal nobility perished. More than thirty +vessels, with a large supply of provisions for Antwerp, fell into the +hands of the victors, with one hundred and fifty cannon and other +military stores. The dam, the possession of which had been so dearly +maintained, was pierced in thirteen different places, and the bodies of +those who had cut through it were now used to stop up the openings. + +The following day a transport of immense size and singular construction +fell into the hands of the royalists. It formed a floating castle, and +had been destined for the attack on the Cowenstein dam. The people of +Antwerp had built it at an immense expense at the very time when the +engineer Gianibelli's useful proposals had been rejected on account of +the cost they entailed, and this ridiculous monster was called by the +proud title of "End of the War," which appellation was afterwards +changed for the more appropriate sobriquet of "Money lost!" When this +vessel was launched it turned out, as every sensible person had +foretold, that on account of its unwieldly size it was utterly +impossible to steer it, and it could hardly be floated by the highest +tide. With great difficulty it was worked as far as Ordain, where, +deserted by the tide, it went aground, and fell a prey to the enemy. + +The attack upon the Cowenstein dam was the last attempt which was made +to relieve Antwerp. From this time the courage of the besieged sank, +and the magistracy of the town vainly labored to inspirit with distant +hopes the lower orders, on whom the present distress weighed heaviest. +Hitherto the price of bread had been kept down to a tolerable rate, +although the quality of it continued to deteriorate; by degrees, +however, provisions became so scarce that a famine was evidently near at +hand. Still hopes were entertained of being able to hold out, at least +until the corn between the town and the farthest batteries, which was +already in full ear, could be reaped; but before that could be done the +enemy had carried the last outwork, and had appropriated the whole +harvest to their use. At last the neighboring and confederate town of +Malines fell into the enemy's hands, and with its fall vanished the only +remaining hope of getting supplies from Brabant. As there was, +therefore, no longer any means of increasing the stock of provisions +nothing was left but to diminish the consumers. All useless persons, +all strangers, nay even the women and children were to be sent away out +of the town, but this proposal was too revolting to humanity to be +carried into execution. Another plan, that of expelling the Catholic +inhabitants, exasperated them so much that it had almost ended in open +mutiny. And thus St. Aldegonde at last saw himself compelled to yield +to the riotous clamors of the populace, and on the 17th of August, 1585, +to make overtures to the Duke of Parma for the surrender of the town. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Revolt of The Netherlands, Complete +by Frederich Schiller + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REVOLT OF NETHERLANDS *** + +***** This file should be named 6780.txt or 6780.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/6/7/8/6780/ + +Produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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