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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cbe2188 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67837 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67837) diff --git a/old/67837-0.txt b/old/67837-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8c9cbcd..0000000 --- a/old/67837-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11685 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Millions from Waste, by Frederick A. -Talbot - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Millions from Waste - -Author: Frederick A. Talbot - -Release Date: April 14, 2022 [eBook #67837] - -Language: English - -Produced by: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MILLIONS FROM WASTE *** - - - - - - MILLIONS FROM - WASTE - - BY - - FREDERICK A. TALBOT - - Author of - - “The Building of a Great Canadian Railway”--“Inventions - and Discoveries”--“The Steamship Conquest of the - World”--“The Oil Conquest of the World,” - &c., &c. - - - PHILADELPHIA - J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY - LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN LTD. - - 1920 - - - - - (_All rights reserved_) - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN - - - - -PREFACE - - -The reclamation and exploitation of waste products for a variety of -industrial uses constitute one of the most fascinating and increasingly -important developments in modern industry. It is a subject of which -very little is known outside privileged circles, and the possibilities -of which are but scantily appreciated by the average individual. - -The purpose of this volume is to indicate certain of the most obvious -channels through which wealth incalculable is being permitted to -escape, as well as the narration of something concerning the highly -ingenious efforts which are being made to prevent such wastage. While -written essentially for the uninitiated reader, the hope is entertained -that it may prove of certain service to those who are fully alive -to the potentialities of refuse of every description, and who are -endeavouring to redeem the country from the charge of being wantonly -extravagant in its use and consumption of raw materials, both edible -and industrial. - -The subject of waste reclamation is too vast and intricate, albeit -romantic and fascinating, to be treated within the scope of a single -volume. Consequently I have confined myself rather to those phases -which are familiar to the average person and to the losses which are -incurred from their inadvertent destruction--losses which affect -both the individual and the community in general. If it succeeds in -acquainting the man-in-the-street and the woman at home with the -enormous wastage, both of finance and kind, which are incurred in these -most familiar fields during the course of the year, and persuades them -to observe methods of thrift, a material contribution to the national -wealth should be effected. - -In the preparation of this work I have been extended liberal and -courteous assistance from numerous sources. I am especially indebted -to the War Office, the National Salvage Council, the Food Production -Department, and the Paper Controller, also to several civic and -municipal authorities, notably of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Bradford, and San -Francisco. I have also been fortunate in securing valuable co-operation -from several gentlemen interested in the waste problem, including -Messrs. J. H. Pooley and James Macgregor, of Messrs. Ernest Scott & -Co., Limited, of London, Glasgow, Fall River, Mass., U.S.A., Montreal, -and Buenos Aires; Mr. Jean Schmidt, of Industrial Waste Eliminators, -Limited, London; Winget Limited, London; Mr. H. P. Hoyle, of the -Grange Iron Company, Limited, Durham; Mr. F. N. Pickett, Hove; and J. -Grossmann, Esq., M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C., etc., as well as the Editors of -the _World’s Work_ and _Chambers’s Journal_, to all of whom I express -my best thanks. - - FREDERICK A. TALBOT. - - BRIGHTON, _July 1919_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - PREFACE 5 - - I. WASTE: ITS RELATION TO COMMERCE AND NATIONAL ECONOMY 9 - - II. THE GERMAN CONQUEST OF WASTE 23 - - III. SALVAGE FROM THE ARMY SWILL-TUB 37 - - IV. THE RECLAMATION OF MILITARY ORGANIC WASTE 50 - - V. INVENTION IN ITS APPLICATION TO WASTE RECOVERY 63 - - VI. SAVING THE SCRAP FROM THE SEA 80 - - VII. WINNING WEALTH FROM SLAUGHTER-HOUSE OFFAL, - CONDEMNED MEAT, BONES, AND BLOOD 100 - - VIII. TURNING WASTES INTO PAPER 117 - - IX. SUPPLYING INDUSTRIES FROM THE DUST-BIN 141 - - X. LIVING ON WASTE 157 - - XI. POTATO WASTE AS AN ASSET TO INDUSTRY 169 - - XII. CONVERTING NITROGENOUS REFUSE INTO SOAP 183 - - XIII. TURNING OLD OIL INTO NEW 196 - - XIV. BY-PRODUCTS FROM THE WASTE-BIN 207 - - XV. THE LIFTING MAGNET AS A WASTE-DEVELOPING FORCE 225 - - XVI. RECLAIMING 321,000,000 GALLONS OF LIQUID FUEL FROM COAL 239 - - XVII. FERTILIZERS FROM WASTES 249 - - XVIII. SAVING THE SEWAGE SLUDGE 262 - - XIX. HOUSE-BUILDING WITH WASTES 278 - - XX. THE FUTURE OF THE WASTE PROBLEM; POSSIBILITIES - FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT 297 - - - - -Millions from Waste - - - - -CHAPTER I - -WASTE: ITS RELATION TO COMMERCE AND NATIONAL ECONOMY - - -Extravagance is the inevitable corollary to cheap living. The -expression “living” is used in its very broadest sense, and is by -no means confined to the mere consumption of foodstuffs. If living -be cheap the thousand and one attributes complementary thereto, -from wearing apparel to creature comforts for the home and from raw -materials to finished goods, must necessarily rule low in price. Under -such conditions the very fact that it is cheaper, as well as easier and -simpler, to incur a further capital charge, rather than to endeavour to -induce additional service from what is already in hand, though possibly -damaged slightly, prompts waste, in precisely the same way as it is -more expedient to replace the damaged part of a standardized article, -whether it be a motor-car, sewing machine, typewriter, or watch, than -to attempt to carry out a repair. - -The ready availability of a spare part directly encourages waste more -or less. The convenience is provided at an attractive figure to appeal -to the consumer, while to the producer it renders a higher proportion -of profit than is attainable when it forms part and parcel of the -complete finished article. The latter is not marketed at the aggregate -of the prices of the integral parts, as one may promptly verify if they -feel so disposed. From this it must not be imagined that replacement -_per se_ is to be condemned, except that it is often attended by the -complete loss of the displaced and damaged part. Were the conservation -of the removed part conducted the system would be deserving of -whole-hearted support, because in this way the material of which it is -wrought would be available for further use. Those firms which insist -upon the return of a damaged section before they undertake to forward -the replacement are pursuing a wise policy. It is true they consign the -faulty or worn part to the junk pile, but, at intervals, the latter -is turned over to the manufacturing interests to undergo further -exploitation. - -It is also somewhat significant to record that improvidence is -intimately associated with cheap labour. Cheap living and cheap -labour go hand-in-hand. As a matter of fact, until recently the -average working members of the community, from the comparative point -of view, have been guilty of greater improvidence than those who are -well-blessed with this world’s goods. - -This apparent anomaly is readily explicable. In the houses of the -wealthy the accumulation of residues of every description must -necessarily attain imposing dimensions. But these wastes are not -lost to commerce and industry. In the majority of cases they are -handed over to the employees by whom they are regarded as legitimate -perquisites. To gratify some individual whim, passing fancy, or from -inherent tendency to bargain, these residues are carefully garnered -and harboured to be converted into cash through one or other of the -many purchasing channels which appear to diverge to these centres. The -cooks dispose of bones, fats, and greases, as well as other wastes from -the kitchen, to the itinerant rag-and-bone merchant; rejected wearing -apparel finds its way to the wardrobe dealer; worn-out copper, iron -and aluminium culinary utensils, as well as divers other metallic odds -and ends gravitate to the specialists in old iron and waste metals; -superfluous produce from the kitchen garden meets with profitable -distribution, while even the swill is able to command its market. - -It is the opportunity to profit in pocket from such “extras” which acts -as the incentive to collect, separate and to bargain for the sale of -wastes from a pretentious house. But, as the social scale is descended, -the tendency to keep a tight hand upon the refuse suffers unconscious -relaxation. This is primarily due to the fact that the volume of such -accumulations undergoes attenuation as the social ladder is descended. -As the bulk diminishes so does the impression, “Oh! it is not worth -while troubling about!” become accentuated. Finally, when we reach the -bottom of the ladder--the average working household--the quantity of -waste is considered to be so trifling as to be deemed quite unworthy -of consideration. Consequently, here we find the whole, or at least 90 -per cent., of the refuse consigned to the fire, or to the rubbish heap, -instead of being preserved and turned into a profitable channel to -receive a new lease of utility. - -As with the home so with the office and factory. The small workshop -or business establishment accommodated within one or two rooms -records its proportion of waste, but it apparently is so slender as -to be comparatively insignificant. Furthermore, as a rule, it is so -varied as to aggravate the thought of being more nuisance than it is -worth. Accordingly, the refuse is neither sorted nor retained, but, -especially if it be combustible, meets with an untimely end. On the -other hand, in the large factory, the accumulations being of distinct -magnitude, segregation and careful retention are observed to facilitate -ready sale, while arrangements are even completed for the periodical -clearance of the refuse at mutually satisfactory if not prevailing -market prices. Whether the waste ever commands its real intrinsic value -is a matter of opinion, because we have never been persuaded to regard -the residue disposal problem in the strict commercial sense. - -Reflection gives rise to the question--What is waste? A more -appropriate explanation than a paraphrase of Palmerston’s famous -dictum concerning dirt would be difficult to find. Waste is merely raw -material in the wrong place. In the spirit fostered by our traditional -improvidence we have sought to adapt another existing term to meet the -situation. We glibly dismiss waste as rubbish. It is not, but because -we have been too indolent to occupy our minds in the elaboration of -further possible applications for what we do not actually require -for conduct of the operations with which our individual exertions -are identified, we seek to satisfy our consciences in the easiest -manner. In so doing we essay to flout a fundamental law of Nature--the -indestructibility of matter. We have failed to appreciate that what may -be of no immediate value to ourselves may, indeed can, with judicious -and scientific handling be persuaded to serve in the capacity of -indispensable raw material to other ranges of endeavour. It may even go -so far as to supply the wherewithal for the creation of new industries, -widening the possible fields of employment, and contribute pronouncedly -towards the wealth of the nation. - -This fact can be brought home very conclusively. In the opening days of -this century the amount of fats, oils, and greases which were allowed -to run to waste was colossal. They were cheap commodities and, although -they occur in greater or lesser degree with the majority of organic -materials in popular request, not a thought was expended upon the -possible losses which their discard with so-called wastes represented. -But, during the past few years, the demand for these substances has -advanced by leaps and bounds. They have become vital to the table -in several forms, and this request has brought the food-producing -industry into conflict with another trade of far-reaching importance, -namely, the manufacture of soap. The situation is rather peculiar, as -I point out in a subsequent chapter. Some idea of the volume of fats -absorbed in the preparation of margarine and soap, respectively, may be -gathered from the narration of the fact that one of the largest soap -manufactories in the world demands the supply of fat in a steady stream -of about 5,000 tons per week. - -A few years ago the activities of this particular firm were -concentrated upon the manufacture of soap. It was the solitary product. -But it had its attention attracted to the growth and possibilities of -the margarine trade, and it decided to enter this market. To-day, its -activities are divided between the production of the two commodities, -and, curiously enough, almost equally. From its works issue out about -6,000 tons of soap and 4,000 tons of margarine every week. - -This merely represents the endeavours of one firm. There are scores -of others following a similar line of action. The result is that the -demand for fats has reached an unprecedented level. At the moment of -writing the coarsest grade of fat is able to command approximately -£50--$250--a ton. Is it surprising therefore that every effort should -now be made to extract the fats, grease, and oil associated with every -form of organic waste, and that keen effort should be made to secure -increasing quantities of waste capable of yielding this material? - -So far as the public is concerned this spirited search for fat may be -regarded with misgiving, if not absolute alarm. The wizardry of the -chemist is acknowledged, and the thought possibly prevails that much -of the fat now being turned into margarine is really only fitted for -the production of soap. But alarmist or pessimistic feelings in this -direction may be speedily allayed, though it is permissible to point -out that ten years ago much fat was turned into the cleanser which -should have been utilized as a foodstuff, inasmuch as its freshness -and wholesomeness were above all criticism. It was merely turned over -to the soap-maker because no alternative application was apparent. -But conceding the magical qualifications of the chemist, there are -some feats which yet remain beyond his powers. The ability to turn -bad fat into good for dietetic purposes must be numbered among those -achievements which as yet have proved impracticable. If a fat be rancid -it cannot possibly be reconditioned for edible purposes. No matter how -its preparation may be coaxed and nursed it cannot be converted into a -foodstuff. The palate would detect rancidity instantly. Consequently, -only the highest grades of animal fat are used for the preparation of -margarine; the fact that the big-scale production of a food should -have been embraced by the soap-maker merely represents one of those -inexplicable coincidences of industry. - -It is distinctly interesting, if not actually amusing, to follow what -may be described as the utilitarian conjugation of waste. It remains -an incubus, if not an unmitigated nuisance, until the chemist, or some -other keenly observant individual possessed of a fertile mind, comes -along to rake it over and to indulge in experiments. Such efforts -are often followed with ill-concealed amusement. A few years since -they were even regarded as so much waste of time. In due course some -definite conclusion is reached, and the fact becomes driven home that, -if such-and-such a process be followed a particular spurned refuse -can be utilized as raw material for the production of some specific -article. Then scepticism and amusement give way to intense interest and -speculative rumination. The new idea is submitted to the stern test of -practical application upon a commercial basis, while the financial end -of the proposal, which is the determining factor, is carefully weighed. - -These complex issues being satisfactorily settled the exploitation -of the erstwhile waste, or rubbish, is energetically pursued. It has -now become a potentially valuable by-product, and, accordingly, must -be worked for all it is worth. Firmly entrenched upon the market -development is vigorously pursued, often to culminate in the quondam -waste, now an established by-product, being lifted to such a position -of commercial eminence as to dispute premier recognition with the -staple in the production of which it is incurred. In more than one -instance the by-product has even eclipsed the primary product, or at -least attained a level of equal importance, while occasionally the -staple has even suffered virtual deposition to rank as little else but -a by-product. There are even some cases on record where the manufacture -of the staple has been abandoned, at all events for a time, because -the by-product, the former incubus of the industry has become invested -with such far-reaching importance as to demand the concentration of -effort upon its production. Waste--by-product--staple: such constitutes -the brief evolution of more than one of the world’s leading lines of -trading. - -Many instances of remarkable topsy-turvydom in this connection might -be cited. Possibly one of the most impressive illustrations in this -respect, although the transposition is not yet quite complete, is -offered by coal-gas. When Clayton first demonstrated the practicability -of extracting illuminating gas from coal commercialism feverishly -set to work to exploit the gas, and gas only. But the gas proved to -be associated with a variety of substances which threatened the very -future of Clayton’s discovery. Ammonia fumes poisoned the atmosphere -of the room in which the gas was burned to the grave danger of -the health--even lives--of the occupants according to the cynics, -critics, and caricaturists of the day. The tar carried in suspension -in the gas was every whit as exasperating because it condensed in the -mains to choke them. Ammonia and tar became the bane of life to the -gas-engineers of the period, harassing them to the verge of endurance, -while the elimination of the two deleterious substances involved the -expenditure of enormous sums of money and prodigious thought. - -What is the position to-day. Gas, the staple product from the -distillation of coal three-quarters of a century ago, now, to all -intents and purposes, is the by-product. The world could roll along -very comfortably without it. Indeed, we may have to do so in the near -future when the gas is stripped of every other marketable constituent, -leaving only a mixture of methane and hydrogen gases to be burned under -boilers to raise steam for the generation of electricity in enormous -bulk. The ammonia which formerly jeopardized health and lives, and to -remove and to throw away which the pioneer engineers strained every -nerve, is now trapped to be converted into fertilizer. Then the tar -which likewise nearly drove the engineers frantic is now carefully -drawn off, collected and resolved into a host of wonderful articles to -furnish a diversity of indispensable materials. It would be wearisome -to recite the list. It is so lengthy. But it would seem as if the -by-products of coal touch every other industry, ranging from dyes to -chemicals, flavourings to disinfectants, perfumes to therapeutics and -soporifics. - -As with coal so with oil. Forty years ago the boring of a well was -followed with mixed feelings by the indefatigable driller. A “strike,” -while devoutly to be desired, was just as likely to bring dreadful -disaster swift and sudden, even death, as wealth untold. The driller -probed the earth animated by one idea. This was to tap the subterranean -lake of crude petroleum. But in driving his bore the driller invariably -crashed through the roof of an underground reservoir of petroleum gas. -Ignorant of the value of this product, though painfully aware of its -danger if allowed to break away and to get beyond control, the early -seekers for oil led this gas through a pipe to a point some distance -away. There the flow from the open end was ignited and the gas allowed -to burn merrily in the open air. The driller knew no peace of mind -until the flame flickered and expired as a result of the exhaustion of -the subterranean gasometer. Then, and not until, he could resume his -boring for the precious liquid with complacency. - -But with passing years and progress came enlightenment. The gas is -no longer wasted; it is trapped. In some instances it is led through -piping for hundreds of miles to feed hungry furnaces engaged in the -making of steel and other products. The earth is even being drilled, -not for petroleum, but for its huge supplies of natural gas, and the -huge reservoirs thus discovered are being harnessed to the thousand -wheels of industry. We even find trains fitted with cylinders carrying -natural gas stored under high pressure to furnish light for the -convenience of passengers, and to enable dainty meals to be cooked in -the kitchens of the dining-cars. - -The oil refineries, upon receiving the crude petroleum, set out to -recover as much paraffin as they could. This was the primary product, -because a brilliant British chemist, Young, had discovered how to -distil paraffin from petroleum for lighting, heating, and cooking. -It represented a huge advance upon the lamp dependent upon whale oil -and the tallow dip. But before the refiners could reach the paraffin -they were called upon to wrestle with a lighter spirit which sorely -harassed and perplexed them. It was extremely volatile, and highly -inflammable--even explosive in the vapour form when mixed with air--and -accordingly was construed into a menace to the refinery. It was -carefully drawn off and dumped into large pits, where it was burned -merely to get rid of it. Its commercial value was set down as nil. A -certain quantity was used by laundries and dry-cleaners because of its -striking cleansing qualities, but it was used sparingly and cautiously -owing to its dangerous character. It could be purchased only with -difficulty, and in small quantities by the members of the public, the -retailers for the most part being chemists and druggists. If one were -glib of tongue and a master of the persuasive art, one might succeed in -obtaining as much as half-a-pint in a single purchase. - -Suddenly a creative mind evolved the high-speed internal combustion -engine, which heralded the coming of the motor-car, the submarine, and -more recently the aeroplane and airship. The volatile spirit which -hitherto had been spurned and burned wastefully by the refineries was -immediately discovered to be invested with a value which had heretofore -escaped attention. It formed the ideal fuel for the new motor. -Forthwith wanton destruction of the volatile spirit was abandoned. -Every drop was carefully collected, and, as time went on and the -demand for the light liquid fuel increased, the refiners put forth -greater effort to wring every possible dram of petrol from the crude -petroleum. Paraffin, which had hitherto been regarded as the staple, -was ignored. It even dropped in commercial estimation as a by-product -and became a drug on the market, although, fortunately, the refineries -hesitated from repeating the practice they had honoured in regard to -petrol--summary destruction by fire. - -So insistent and overwhelming has grown the demand for petrol that -the producers are hard put to it to keep pace with the requirements. -A petroleum boom has reverberated around the world, eclipsing in -intensity any stampede identified with the search for gold. To these -islands the petroleum age has contributed very little wealth, although -it has been responsible for revived interest in the exploitation of -our shale--another form of waste--but to Russia, the United States of -America, Mexico, and the East, where the earth reeks with petroleum, it -has brought wealth untold. It has completely transformed the economic -outlook of certain nations, and in some instances has served to rescue -a country from bankruptcy. To us it is of appreciable significance -because, so far, we have been compelled to draw upon distant sources -for our requirements and so have to contribute to the national wealth -of others, some of whom are our most spirited rivals in trade. - -In 1913 our imports of petroleum products aggregated 488,106,963 -gallons, valued at £10,856,806--$54,284,030--the contribution -from Greater Britain being 22,172,701 gallons, valued at -£829,868--$4,149,340. Of this enormous volume 100,858,017 gallons -represented petrol for our motors--the waste product of forty years ago -at the refineries--for which we had to pay £3,803,397--$19,016,985. In -the year when mechanical road propulsion was ushered in petrol could -be obtained for about 4d.--8 cents--a gallon: in 1918 it commanded -3s. 6d.--84 cents--a gallon. An increase of over 900 per cent. in -value within approximately 35 years represents no mean achievement in -commercial expansion, but when it relates to an erstwhile waste product -the record is far more sensational. - -To relate all the fortunes which have been amassed from the -commercialization of what was once rejected and valueless would -require a volume. Yet it is a story of fascinating romance and one -difficult to parallel in the whole realm of human activity. It was the -waste energy of water which laid the foundations of Lord Armstrong’s -fortune and the enormous fabric of the huge firm on Tyneside. Sir -Hiram Maxim revolutionized warfare by harnessing the wasted kick or -recoil to reload and fire his machine-gun, thereby introducing one -of the most formidable small arms ever devised to conduct the gentle -art of killing. Lord Masham established a new industry and became a -millionaire by taking the “chassum” or silk waste--a refuse which had -even suffered rejection as a manure because it took such a long time -to rot--and utilizing it as a raw material for the production of a -new and wonderful range of beautiful fabrics in velvet and plush. It -was another textile wizard, Sir Titus Salt, who perfected the process -for turning the wool sheared from the back of a member of the camel -family roaming the heights of the Andes, and which was classed as sheer -rubbish, into the soft glossy fabric known as alpaca. - -But one of the most powerful expressions of the possibilities attending -the scientific utilization of waste, and one which brings home very -forcibly to us the national wealth to be won from refuse, is associated -with our woollen industry. Where would Yorkshire be without mungo or -shoddy? Dewsbury has become the world’s centre for the disposal of -old clothes and woollen rags. Here converge all the streams bearing -abandoned flotsam and jetsam into the preparation of which wool has -entered. There is scarcely anything more disreputable, if not actually -repellent, than a sack of woollen rags. But pass that waste through -suitable machines and a wonderful transformation in attractiveness, -colouring, and design, as well as texture, is accomplished. - -Wool can never be worn out. That is an indisputable axiom in woollen -circles. It does not matter how many years ago the textile may first -have been prepared, nor the many and varied vicissitudes through -which it may have passed; it can be used over and over again. It may -have travelled through the machines forty or fifty times, may have -graced the form of a hundred persons, may have clothed a scarecrow -or have been retrieved from a river in the course of its career. -True, with each new lease of life it suffers a certain depreciation, -but blended with new wool or cotton it is effectively revived. The -history of a fibre of wool would be distinctly romantic and thrilling -could it be but written, and even the wildest flights of imagination -would be unable to rival stern fact. It is the ability to work -and re-work up woollen textile for an indefinite period which has -contributed to the prosperity of Yorkshire, and which has enabled -this country to build up an export trade in this commodity exceeding -£500,000,000--$2,500,000,000--a year in value. - -An impressively successful, yet sinister, utilization of waste was -brought to light during the war. In their methodical investigation -of the dye-stuffs problem the Germans found it necessary to prepare -a certain substance which constitutes the starting-point for the -production of one of their leading products. Toluol, a by-product from -the manufacture of gas, is taken and treated with nitric acid. Now -orthonitrotoluol is the specific product in request, but nitrification -produces two substances, orthonitrotoluol and paranitrotoluol, -respectively. The last-named is of no use whatever, but its production -has to be suffered, though, unfortunately, the yield thereof is twice -that of the essential article. So far as the industrial pursuit in -question is concerned the paranitrotoluol represented a sheer waste. - -Now the German, when he encounters a waste, does not throw it away -or allow it to remain an incubus. Saturated with the principle that -the residue from one process merely represents so much raw material -for another line of endeavour, he at once sets to work to attempt to -discover some use for a refuse. Manufacturers in other countries were -equally troubled with the accumulations of paranitrotoluol because -the production of the two substances as a result of nitrifying toluol -is strictly in accordance with constitutional chemical law. They also -learned that the Germans had succeeded in turning it to advantage. What -was this application? This was the poser. They sought enlightenment in -this direction but found that the German was resolutely keeping his -discovery to himself. - -Other countries remained in ignorance until the Germans set out to -materialize their fantastic dream of world-wide domination. When -their hordes burst upon the frontier defences of Belgium, and their -bombardment played sad havoc with the fortifications of Liege and -Namur, the world marvelled. The intense destructive power of the high -explosive which was being used was something new to warfare. It was -promptly investigated, and then the use for the paranitrotoluol, the -apparent incubus of the dye-stuffs-producing factories, was discovered. -It was being turned into the destructive agent familiarly known as -T.N.T., or trinitrotoluol, to give the explosive its true chemical -designation. - -It is perfectly obvious, from what has been related, that, if one -will only devote sufficient energy and fertility of thought to the -study of so-called rubbish and its properties, incalculable economic -and financial benefits must redound to the individual. And as with -individuals so with nations. The British race is generally assailed as -being woefully improvident and remiss in the profitable exploitation -of waste, but it errs in excellent company. The United States of -America are probably far more guilty in this respect. According to the -statement of the American Food Administrator the inhabitants of 24 -cities between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by ignoring the latent -wealth contained in their garbage barrels, are throwing away sufficient -grease and fat during the year to produce 30,000,000 one-pound bars -of soap. On the other hand, 300 small towns, by pursuing thrift in -this direction, are producing sufficient food from the disposal of -their swill to yield 50,000,000 additional pounds of pork worth -£1,600,000 ($8,000,000) a year, although in this instance the results -might be doubled by the practice of more perfect methods. Another 350 -towns, which disdain the value of their swill-tubs, are throwing away -approximately £2,000,000 ($10,000,000) a year because they are not -inclined to take a little trouble concerning the disposal of their -garbage. - -Contrast the methods obtaining in the United States and Britain with -those peculiar to France. That picturesque figure of French civic life, -the _chiffonnier_, is the perennial butt of humorists and cartoonists. -But he is a powerful economic factor. Through his efforts millions -sterling are saved annually to the French nation. The rag-picker and -his colleagues “specializing” in other forms of spoil lurking in the -ash-barrel pursue their work so diligently as to secure everything, -except vegetable matter, which is capable of being worked up into other -forms by the exercise of brains and commercial enterprise. It may not -seem a savoury occupation to rake over the repulsive assorted contents -of the household dust-bin, but it serves to swell, to an appreciable -degree, the streams of raw materials flowing into the insatiable -maws of industry. What is left after these industrious toilers have -completed their work finds its way to the dust-destructor to assist in -the raising of steam to drive engines and generators for the supply of -electricity. - -The diligent exploitation of waste exercises a far-reaching influence -upon the wealth of nations. If we were to turn the whole of our -residues, both industrial and domestic, to the utmost account we -should be able to cut down our annual expenditure upon purchases from -abroad to a very startling degree. Every ton of import saved not -only represents the retention of so much sterling in our pocket, but -releases a ton of shipping for the movement of other material, not -necessarily to these islands, but between other countries, since it -must not be forgotten that we derive an appreciable proportion of our -national income from carrying the trade of the world. If we were to -salvage all the rags entering into the domestic refuse of the nation we -could reduce our imports of wool during the year by 19,000 tons, and -allow 15,000 tons of shipping space to be devoted to other purposes. -From the yield of cotton refuse derived from the dust-bins we could -turn out 16,000 tons of new paper. If we were to become miserly in -our collection of waste-paper and to turn it back into the mills, we -could secure a further 44,000 tons of new paper during the year and -save the import of 75,000 tons of wet pulp from Scandinavia. Were all -our old tins handed over to the steel-makers we could reproduce from -this raw material 74,000 tons of new steel and dispense with 148,000 -tons of Spanish ore. The steel obtainable from the re-smelting of old -tins alone would furnish sufficient material to construct approximately -forty 3,000-ton vessels. - -Fortunately, a change in the national habits of extravagance is to be -recorded. The increased cost of living is compelling more sparing use -of the necessaries of life and industry. The incontrovertible truth of -the axiom “Waste not; want not,” although it may sound rather trite, -has been brought home to us. But the complete salvage of waste is -probably impossible of realization so long as the kitchen stove and -furnace remain. Fire is an excellent destructive agency, but is far too -handy for the removal from sight, if not from memory, of the multitude -of odds and ends incidental to our complex social and industrial -existence. With the coming of the electric age, and the supersession of -kitchen stoves and factory furnaces by cheap current, the facilities -for the ready destruction of what is really valuable raw material under -the guise of waste will be removed. In the interests of economy and -wealth, both individual and national, it is to be hoped that the coming -of the electric era may not be unduly delayed. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE GERMAN CONQUEST OF WASTE - - -Waste creates wealth. If one desire a convincing illustration of the -truth of this latter-day precept one has only to cross the North Sea. -It is generally conceded that, at the dawn of the second decade of the -twentieth century, the Teutonic Empire had the world at its feet so -far as commerce is concerned. There is little reason to doubt but that -Germany would have become the super-trading nation of the world within -a few more years had not territorial ambition and the lust for military -conquest have blinded Reason. - -The pre-war wealth of the country, that is as it stood in 1914, is -universally acknowledged. But what is not so generally appreciated -is the circumstance that, to a very marked degree, this wealth was -secured as a result of the scientific utilization of waste. In every -ramification of industrial and social activity thrift, system, -and organization were conspicuous. Circumstances were primarily -responsible for the pursuance of such a policy. Germany is essentially -an agricultural country. She was dependent upon outside sources of -supply for many of the staple raw materials wherewith to keep her mills -and factories going. Consequently she was compelled to rely for her -existence upon the margin between buying and selling, and she naturally -strove to render this difference as pronounced as possible by turning -her purchases to the maximum advantage. Even in the exploitation of her -natural resources this tendency was manifest, but little wastage being -suffered. - -The Germans went farther. From the experience amassed in the -development of wealth from waste products they were quite prepared to -buy residues from foreign competitors, to ship them to the Homeland, -and there to work them up. The country was quite prepared to act as a -marine store upon a big scale, because thereby it was able to acquire -valuable potential raw materials for infinitesimal expense. The vending -countries, as a rule, were quite ready to dispose of their waste at a -trifling figure, and often more unfeignedly glad to be rid of what they -considered to be a nuisance, comforting themselves with the thought -that they had been able to drive good bargains from the sale of what -was useless to themselves. - -The Teuton buyers were equally satisfied. They generally succeeded -in buying useful material at an absurdly low figure. Very often -the heaviest item of expense in such transactions was the cost of -freighting the waste to Germany, but here they were able to reap -distinct advantages from preferential rates. However, such expenditure -was speedily recouped because the articles contrived from the erstwhile -rubbish commanded a ready sale and at attractive prices. It was by no -means uncommon for the Germans to sell the commercial products wrought -from the waste back to the very firms whence the last-named had been -acquired, and at a considerably enhanced figure. - -The strangest feature about these transactions was the keenness with -which they were conducted. The countries concerned were far readier to -resort to such commercial tactics than to bestir themselves to turn -their wastes to similar account, although it must be admitted that -the wily Teutons, recognizing the advantage they held, were disposed -to invest their processes for translating refuse into commodities -with distinct secrecy. They played a gigantic game of bluff and their -temerity met with success. If the victims had only reflected they would -have realized that such activity was quite possible to themselves; -that such enterprise would have provided additional avenues for the -employment of their own citizens, and would have contributed materially -to their individual commercial wealth. - -The Germans ransacked the world for wastes. For instance, who but the -Teuton would have gone to stone-fruit packers on the other side of the -world and have offered to purchase the stones which the preservers -discarded and burned under the factory boilers to assist in raising -steam? But the purchasing German firm was astute. The stones were -sent home and the packers laughed at the idea of moving such refuse -half-way round the world. The buyers suffered the taunts in silence. -Upon reaching the German factories the fruit-stones were cracked and -the nuts extracted. These were submitted to treatment to yield a wide -range of oils, some of which were turned into essences and liqueurs. -Then the Germans dispatched much of this reclaimed produce back to the -territory where the stones were purchased, where it was bought with -avidity, and at inordinately high prices. Little did the packers think -that they were buying back their own refuse in another and useful form -and were being compelled to pay heavily for the privilege! - -The fibrous residue, remaining after the expression of the oil, was -turned into cattle-food, much of which also was sold in foreign -markets. The nut-shells were turned into carbon or charcoal, which, -from its peculiar quality and high grade, was eminently adapted to -laboratory and other uses. We were forced to realize that such shells -possess distinct virtues, for did we not encourage one and all to save -the stones from fruit to furnish the requisite absorbent material with -which to equip the gas-masks served to our soldiers to combat the -evils of the poison-gas used in the war! In this connection we were -completely forestalled by the enemy. Undoubtedly he was encouraged to -launch such a devilish weapon from his discovery of a complete antidote -to such aggressive measures in the charcoal made from the spurned -nut-shells accruing to the fruit-packing country on the other side of -the globe. - -Sawdust accumulates in Germany as it does in every country where -working in wood is practised extensively. But there the waste is not -turned into rivers or burned in destructors as in the United States -and Canada. Nor is it dumped in unsightly heaps to rot slowly, used to -bed-down stock, or distributed over the floors of butchers’ shops and -public-houses as in these islands. - -A firm conceived the idea of turning this residue to account in the -fabrication of a special form of plastic floor-covering. It was mixed -with magnesium chloride to form a cement to be applied somewhat after -the manner of asphalt, the whole of the area thus being covered -and finished off with suitable tools to yield a smooth, level, and -attractive finish. - -However, it was speedily discovered that this floor-covering suffered -from one disability. Magnesium chloride is hygroscopic: it absorbs -water, even moisture from the atmosphere, very readily. Consequently -it became soft and damp in humid and wet weather. Otherwise it left -nothing to be desired, being comfortable to the tread, silent, and warm. - -The German is nothing if not thorough. He does not hesitate to harness -science to the wheels of industry when the occasion so demands. He -realized that to utilize sawdust as a floor-covering it would be -necessary to follow strict scientific lines. Accordingly the chemist -was called in. He, as a result of prolonged investigations and numerous -tests, succeeded in overcoming the outstanding inherent defect of the -sawdust paving, and at the same time emphasized that control of the -proportions of sawdust and magnesium chloride was essential owing to -the first-named varying so widely in its characteristics according -to the nature of the wood from which it is derived. Consequently the -manufacture of this floor-covering is now supervised by the chemist, -and the hygroscopic difficulty has been effectively overcome. The -material has achieved a distinct vogue, not only in Germany, but -in other countries. It is extremely effective and is relatively -inexpensive--the cost averages from 5 to 7 shillings ($1.25 to $1.75) -per square yard--bearing in mind its durable and wearing qualities. -Incidentally the country has found a highly profitable outlet for its -accumulations of sawdust. - -The world’s consumption of tin-plate has risen to enormous proportions, -the extraordinary expansion of the tinned or canned food industry -being responsible for this development. Thousands of tons of steel are -absorbed in the manufacture of these containers, as well as hundreds of -tons of tin and solder. Upon the removal of the contents the tins are -generally thrown away, especially by the prodigal nations. This wastage -became so flagrant as to arouse the severe condemnation of economists -in every country, but these would-be apostles found it well-nigh -hopeless to persuade their compatriots to endeavour to exploit the -empty tins. Here and there spasmodic efforts were made upon a limited -scale to recover the solder, tin, and steel-plate for further use, but -the problem did not prove so easy of solution as it had appeared. - -The bulk of the vessel constituted a formidable obstacle, while its -susceptibility to the ravages of rust was also discovered to be a -distinct drawback. In this country the general practice has beep -to crush the tins flat and to feed them into the blast furnaces as -scrap, but in this process the tin vanishes up the chimney, while -the solder is also lost, though the steel-plate, which forms 99 per -cent. of the composition of the vessel, becomes available as raw -material. Nevertheless, although the quantity of tin used is trifling, -representing only approximately one per cent., the Germans considered -it to be quite worthy of recovery, especially when tin commanded from -£150 to £200--$750 to $1,000--per ton. - -The Teuton attacked the tin-recovery problem more energetically than -his colleagues in other countries and apparently achieved success, -although the degree of triumph recorded in this connection has always -remained a matter for considerable speculation. Be that as it may -the German interests concerned were quite prepared to purchase empty -British tins and to ship them across the North Sea to be treated in -their home plants. From this fact it is only logical to assume that -they had found practical ways and means to consummate the desired end, -otherwise they would scarcely have gone to the lengths of organizing -a complete collecting system in these islands, and of incurring the -freightage charges, although the waste was carried at a low figure. -With the outbreak of war, and the rise in the price of tin to -approximately £300 ($1,500) a ton, we were forced to inquire into the -possibilities of recovering the tin and solder from this refuse, and by -energetic action were able to equal, if not to surpass, German effort, -so that to-day de-tinning may be said to represent an established -British industry. - -The fact that Germany was compelled to depend extensively upon outside -sources for supplies of raw materials prompted the theory in many -quarters that, once the British blockade was firmly established, -surrender must follow quickly from economic pressure. But the enemy -displayed his ability to hold out for a far longer period than we had -anticipated. Why? Simply because the moment he saw himself isolated -from his outside sources of supply he inaugurated a more rigid system -for the compulsory collection, segregation and utilization of his -domestic waste. We know to-day how sternly these orders were enforced, -and how completely the country was covered by official organizations -established to this end. - -To ensure that nothing of industrial value should be lost a collecting -centre was established in every village and hamlet, the local chief -magistrate being vested with wide powers for the conduct of the work -placed in his charge. It was his duty to see that everything and -anything capable of further exploitation was retrieved. The inhabitants -were notified by public placard that they must bring and surrender -their accumulations of refuse to the collecting centre at specific -intervals, according to the available machinery and the population of -the village. The head of every family or household was held personally -responsible for the preservation of anything capable of further use -and residue incurred within his home. Any dereliction in this respect, -or infraction of the official commands, was subject to punishment -according to the nature of the offence. - -The materials which were in greatest demand were duly set forth. They -included such junk as old metal of every description, from useless -cooking utensils to fragments of wire, worn-out tools, abandoned -implements and nails recovered from packing cases: textile odds and -ends no matter how old and threadbare from the heterogeneous contents -of the rag-bag to discarded suits, dresses, hosiery, frills, ribbon, -and hats: and kitchen waste in infinite variety. The metal was turned -over to the munition plants, the textile waste to the woollen, paper, -and other mills, while the organic waste was distributed throughout -the countryside for feeding stock after the fats and greases had been -extracted. - -In the towns and cities similar organizations were created, only in -these instances the regulations were somewhat more stringent. All and -every kind of kitchen waste had to be surrendered daily. In the leading -cities it was incumbent upon every householder to have his accumulation -of refuse from the previous day ready for the arrival of the official -collecting cart. As this passed through the street in which he resided -he had to carry and discharge his consignment of refuse into the -vehicle. In some instances, as in Berlin, this task involved early -rising because the collecting duty had to be completed before 7 a.m. - -In the towns and cities the waste was most rigorously controlled. It -was criminal for the housewife or maid to permit the grease clinging to -the plates and dishes from the table to escape down the sink. This fat -had to be emptied into a special pail, and with the minimum of water. -Terse instructions as to how this could be done to the satisfaction of -the authorities were issued. It would seem as if the salvage of grease -were carried to an absurdly fine degree, but in view of the prevailing -circumstances the authorities were justified in compelling the recovery -of such an apparently insignificant trifle as a dab or two of grease -upon a dinner-plate, since it was found that the daily yield of fat -from the average town was about 8,000 pounds. Truly the enemy may be -said to have fully realized the truth that “many a mickle makes a -muckle.” - -But the inhabitants, though forced to gather all their fat with such -scrupulous care and to surrender it to the authorities, were enabled to -receive a certain proportion back again--by paying for it--in the form -of soap. The fat was secured in order to extract its glycerine content -for the production of explosives, a certain quantity being set on one -side to be turned into a lubricating grease to keep the oil-starved -mammoth machine plants of the country going. The residue remaining -after the extraction of the glycerine was turned into soap. - -Skins, rags, bones, feathers, hair, rubber-scrap and other articles too -numerous to specify were collected by this machinery. All waste arising -in the slaughter of animals for food was carefully gathered. Special -factories were reserved for treating the carcases of animals which had -succumbed from old age, accident, disease and other causes. A farmer -was not even permitted to bury the corpse of a dog. The authorities -alone were vested with the power to handle deceased animals. These -were thrown into suitably designed vessels, sufficiently large in some -instances to receive a horse intact, which were then hermetically -sealed to prevent the escape of noisome gases. Cooking was pursued -to secure the fats and other products arising from the destructive -distillation of the dead animal. The gases which were thrown off -during the process were carefully collected, condensed to shed any -foreign particles which happened to be in suspension, and then fed to -the furnaces to assist in raising the heat required for cooking. By the -time the distillation process had been completed only a minute quantity -of fibrous residue remained together with the solid particles of bones. -This mass was ground up and converted into chemical manure. - -The shortage of oil was most keenly felt because this affected every -range of the industrial and domestic life. Perhaps we do not generally -realize the fact that all machinery would be condemned to immobility -were lubricating oil supplies to be cut off. But it was not only -imperative to keep the war material factories, trains, trams, motor -vehicles, electric generating stations and a host of other plants in -operation. Fats were in demand for a more vital issue--the table. To -meet the shortage of butter, vegetable or nut-oil and animal margarine, -fats and greases were in urgent request. - -To mitigate the deficiency in this direction as far as possible a -further rigorous enactment was put into force. It was rendered a penal -offence to throw away the kernels of plums, peaches, apricots, prunes, -cherries and other stone fruits or even the pips of apples and pears. -One and all had to be carefully husbanded and surrendered to the -authorities at special collecting stations, which, for the most part, -were established in schools and municipal buildings. Juvenile effort -and enthusiasm were fired. The school children were urged to maintain -an alert eye for such raw material and were also encouraged to gather -acorns, horse-chestnuts, and beech-nuts. The yield of such residues -must have been enormous in the aggregate. One city alone reported the -production of over 300,000 pounds of oil during a single year from the -various nuts collected within its jurisdiction. - -In the exploitation of gaseous products the Germans have undoubtedly -displayed remarkable initiative. They certainly pioneered the use -of the gases arising from the manufacture of pig-iron. It was the -practice to allow the gases from the blast-furnaces to escape into -the atmosphere. Seeing that approximately 150,000 cubic feet of gas -arise from the production of a ton of pig-iron, and bearing in mind -the output of the ironworks, it will be seen that the wastage in -this direction must have represented a formidable item during the -twenty-four hours. - -These waste gases were chemically investigated, and it was discovered -that approximately one-fifth of the total volume thrown off consisted -of carbon monoxide gas which has a very high heating value. Thereupon -the Germans set to work to recover this gas, to clean it and to convert -it into a fuel for driving suitably designed gas engines. Years of -labour and study were devoted to the problem, which was discovered -to be exceedingly abstruse. But the obstacles were overcome and the -blast-furnace gas engine made its appearance. The perfection of this -means of utilizing a waste product has revolutionized a certain phase -of industry throughout the world. One of the first firms to adopt the -new idea was the Krupp establishment, where the gas collected from -eight blast-furnaces which hitherto had been allowed to escape into and -mingle with the atmosphere was harnessed to drive fifteen big engines. -The perfection of this achievement in waste utilization speedily became -reflected throughout the country and was subsequently introduced into -this country where vast strides in connection with its use have been -made. - -Much has been related concerning the development of the airship -in Germany, but this has been due in no small measure to the fact -that it afforded a profitable outlet for the utilization of a waste -product--one absolutely vital to the airship. I refer to hydrogen. -This gas is produced in enormous quantities at many German works, and, -for a considerable period, had to be ignored because no industrial use -for it was apparent. A certain quantity was absorbed in the synthetic -production of precious stones--topaz, rubies, and sapphires--but this -consumption was trifling. Its fellow, oxygen, remained a drug on -the market for many years until the coming of the oxy-acetylene and -oxy-hydrogen method of welding and cutting metals came into popular -favour. Then the demand for oxygen expanded so rapidly as to compel -the laying down of plants for the production of oxygen from water by -electrolysis. But the increased output of oxygen released still larger -quantities of hydrogen for which practically no market obtained. - -Consequently the endeavours of Zeppelin and his contemporaries received -every encouragement. With the conquest of the air by the dirigible -all anxiety concerning the profitable use of hydrogen disappeared. At -one large factory, producing this gas in huge volumes, a special plant -capable of filling the largest Zeppelin craft was laid down. The low -figure at which hydrogen was obtainable was responsible in no small -measure for the popularity of ballooning in Germany in days previous -to the coming of the airship. The use of coal-gas for this purpose was -discouraged: it was far more valuable for fuel applications, whereas -the hydrogen was not only a superior lifting agent but deserved -employment because it offered a remunerative outlet for a waste, and -would assist in the expansion of other industries depending upon -supplies of cheap oxygen. - -To encourage the aeronautical use of hydrogen the firm in question -embarked upon another branch of trading. It assumed the manufacture -of cylinders or steel bottles for the storage of the gas under -pressure--up to 200 atmospheres. Batteries of these bottles were -maintained in a charged condition ready for instant dispatch to any -part of the country in reply to a telegraphic or telephonic order. The -airship pioneers in Germany were never in a quandary concerning the -acquisition of the indispensable gas, nor were they faced with the -obligation to lay down their own plants for its supply to meet their -individual needs. Hydrogen was obtainable in any desired quantity at -the end of a wire, and could be purchased as readily as a truck-load -of coal from a colliery, while it was also available at an attractive -price. - -To deal fully with the German conquest of waste would prove wearisome. -Enterprise and initiative are apparent in every direction from the use -of recovered solder for the production of toy soldiers to the wholesale -stripping of motor-cars and cheap clocks for their integral parts. -Little wonder therefore that the Germans built up a wealthy national -fabric. But probably the most striking evidence of the truth of the -assertion that waste creates wealth is extended by the coal dye-stuffs -industry. Sixty years ago the tar arising from the distillation of -coal was as anathema to the engineers concerned, as I have previously -related. Its disposal offered a pretty problem. It was difficult to -burn, could not be turned into streams or the drains, and could not be -allowed to dissipate itself into the ground. Any one who was prepared -to fetch it could take it away with the engineer’s most profound -blessings. It was waste in its most compelling form. - -Then came Perkin with his discovery of mauve from the much-maligned -tar. Immediately the former anathema of the gas-works became invested -with a new and indefinable significance. But so far as Britain was -concerned little progress was to be recorded. Perkin struggled -valiantly to establish a new industry in this country, only to suffer -discouragement and ham-stringing obstruction for his ingenuity and -enterprise. The Germans appropriated the discovery and prosecuted -researches and experiments so vigorously and whole-heartedly as to -build up one of the biggest monopolies known to industrial effort. - -It was not until the declaration of war that the world recognized -the extent of the tribute it had been prepared to pay annually to -the Teuton in this one field of trading. The sudden interruption of -supplies of colouring agents derived from coal-tar, and made in the -huge factories fringing the Rhine, Main and Spree, threatened a whole -host of trades from China to Peru. The competitive nations were forced -to turn their attention to the mastery of an industry which hitherto -they had virtually neglected in order to keep their industries alive, -only to discover that they had much to learn. In the United States -thousands suffered want and distress from unemployment just because -the stocks of dyes had run out and their domestic dye-manufacturing -plants were unable to rise to the occasion with sufficient promptitude. -Antiseptics were difficult to procure, especially those which had -achieved such a wide measure of popular favour during recent years, -because they were of German origin and were no longer forthcoming. -Amateur photographers were compelled to pack away their cameras and to -forgo the pursuance of their hobby until such time as the essential -chemicals once more became procurable and cheaper, while doctors were -forced to polish up long-forgotten or rusty knowledge concerning -the herbaceous drugs which had been displaced by those derived from -coal-tar. - -A few figures will serve to drive home the stranglehold which the -Germans had secured upon the trade of the world from the scientific -exploitation of a waste product. For 5,000 years India supplied the -world with indigo which was of vegetable origin. Apparently it held -an unassailable commercial position and was held in particularly high -esteem by Japan and China. Bauer, the German chemist, resolved to solve -the indigo riddle and at once set out to make it from coal-tar. It -proved a difficult quest occupying many years and involving thousands -of experiments. But perseverance brought its due reward although -success was not recorded until a round £1,000,000 had been spent. Then, -before it had become established upon the market, it suffered eclipse -by an improved process which had also been perfected by a German. - -Within five years of its appearance upon the market synthetic indigo -had driven its natural rival from India virtually into oblivion. The -coal-tar competitor even established a firm foothold in the land -where the vegetable article had held sway for so many thousand years. -Throughout China and Japan a similar story was related. Indian indigo -was no longer required. It was beaten hopelessly in price, the factor -which counts in commercial circles, by the synthetic German article. -Of the artificial colouring materials imported by China German indigo -claimed two-thirds. A seventh of the artificial dyes imported by Japan -was German indigo, while one-tenth of the dye-stuffs imported from -Germany into the United States was artificial indigo. - -As a result of less than fifty years’ ceaseless endeavour Germany built -up an industry specializing in the manufacture of tinctorial matters -derived from coal-tar, capitalized at £50,000,000--$250,000,000--and -had a list of 2,000 different colours of a synthetic character which -she could supply, one thousand of which were in steady daily demand. We -talk about the restoration of the British coal-tar dye-stuffs industry. -The Americans voice a similar story. It is glib. How far have we got? -As a result of five years’ hard work in Britain we are in the position -to market about 300 of the 2,000 dye-stuffs which Germany has in her -trade catalogue, while America can point to a list of about 200. True, -these represent many of the colours which are in heaviest request, but -it will be seen that we have a very long way to go yet before we can -claim to have wrested the industry from Germany, while in comparison -with the £50,000,000--$250,000,000--of capital invested in the Teuton -industry, the £5,000,000--$25,000,000--sunk in the British enterprise -appears paltry. - -To indicate how industriously and comprehensively the German houses -have probed this particular waste utilization problem it may be -mentioned that one of the leading houses in the industry has taken -out approximately 6,500 patents to protect its activities, while it -turns out a round 2,000 different products all made from coal-tar. -The manufacture of the synthetic drugs--aspirin, veronal, sulphonal, -phenacetin--and a host of others runs into stupendous figures. That -concerning antiseptic preparations as well as the production of -chemicals incidental to photography and the leather trades is equally -imposing. It is estimated that the total capital sunk in German -enterprises identified with the exploitation of coal-tar ranges between -£140,000,000 and £160,000,000--$700,000,000 to $800,000,000. The return -is exceedingly attractive, exceeding £80,000,000--$400,000,000--per -annum in value. - -To the British nation the magnitude and prosperity of this huge traffic -in coal-tar derivatives with its enormous wealth is particularly -galling. Had we displayed a more sympathetic attitude towards the -discovery of Perkin and his endeavours, and had we displayed similar -initiative, energy and enterprise the monopoly which became Germany’s -might have been ours. But we disdained to exploit a waste. We left it -to a persevering rival, and became content to pay him tribute for the -utilization of a fundamental British discovery and incidentally to -charge his coffers with the sinews of war. Had we kept the potential -treasure-house of coal-tar to ourselves the history of the world might -have been written very differently. It was the wealth accruing from -the coal-tar dye-stuffs industry which enabled Germany to play a far -bigger part than may be generally conceived in the development of her -other industries, especially that pertaining to the chemical trade, the -dye-works constituting the nursery where Germany raised her battalions -of chemists. - -It must not be inferred from what I have narrated that the German has -a peculiar prerogative in the mastery of waste products: far from -it. In certain ranges of industry we have eclipsed the Teuton and -have paddled our own canoe so far as blazing the trail of industrial -economy is concerned. Nor is the Teuton temperamentally better adapted -to the scientific exploitation of refuse. For the most part he has -been compelled to investigate these divers potential raw materials -to maintain his industrial existence. Moreover, as may be readily -conceived from what I have related, the issue has been forced upon him -by repressive official machinery and legislative measures. Discipline -in this as in many other fields has fulfilled its purpose. Certainly -it has reduced every German scrap-heap and dump into a Tom Tiddler’s -ground and the application of its contents into a semi-automatic -operation, or at least into part of the intricate routine of industry. -It is to be hoped that we have not allowed the lesson thus taught to be -lost. By now we should have learned, and digested thoroughly, the truth -of the precept that waste creates wealth--and commercial power. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -SALVAGE FROM THE ARMY SWILL-TUB - - -Waste is one of the concomitant evils of a high civilization. -Undoubtedly it is incidental to the primitive as well, but to a -lesser degree. In this instance, however, the waste incurred does not -represent a complete loss, because upon being discarded it decomposes, -and thus continues the cycle of Nature. - -Under conditions of advanced civilization, where a blind worship of -Hygiene rules, residues of an organic character, from their very ready -susceptibility to decomposition, are construed into a menace of health, -although, as a matter of fact, the danger in this connection is more -imaginary than real. Such refuse invariably suffers destruction by -fire or by some other so-called sanitary method involving either the -total or almost complete loss of valuable materials. We satisfy our -consciences, however, by reflecting that the pursuance of such drastic -methods satisfies the faith of hygiene, although the community suffers -very pronouncedly in pocket in the long run. - -It is only when pressure becomes exerted by some stupendous cataclysm, -such as war, bringing in its train the peril of a bare sufficiency -of foodstuffs, which in turn provokes high prices, that it becomes -possible to combat the ignorance born of erroneous enlightenment -in regard to matters hygienic. Under such conditions the gospel of -retrenchment and reform may be preached with greater promise of -accomplishing success. But the community, considered as a whole, -even in time of adversity, is slow to depart from accepted practice. -Precious time is lost in the application of the precept of making one -pound go as far as did two pounds under more congenial conditions. - -It is a matter for extreme satisfaction, if not one of agreeable -surprise, to learn that, so far as Britain is concerned, it was -the army which blazed the trail of economy, particularly in regard -to foodstuffs. This certainly sounds amazing, because the Military -Service has ever been regarded as the national sink both for finance -and kind. Nevertheless, no matter how guilty of squandering it may -have been during the opening months of the war, the sins of omission -were subsequently rectified, to present a striking object-lesson to -the civilian section of the community in regard to the scientific -utilization of what the soldier was unable to consume, and its ultimate -presentation to commerce in a variety of forms for the manufacture of -other products of an indispensable character, or foodstuffs. By the -practice of rigid economy along these lines, and without pinching or -squeezing the food allowances to the soldier in the slightest degree, -millions sterling a year were, and still are being, saved to the -tax-payer. - -When signs of coming food stringency for the civilian element of -the nation became manifest, as a result of the relentless submarine -campaign inaugurated by the Germans, combined with the necessity to -concentrate shipping upon forwarding supplies to the fighting forces, -the moment was considered to be propitious for putting into operation -a scheme of retrenchment and reform. It had already been prepared, and -was merely awaiting application. The only question demanding care was -the introduction of the proposal in such a manner as not to impair the -soldier’s physique and health. - -During the opening days of the war, when the authorities were faced -with the absorbing problem of enrolling men, food wastage assumed -enormous proportions. Severe criticisms were levelled against the -military authorities, and doubtless the strictures were more or less -deserved. But extravagance under the conditions which prevailed was -inevitable. By a stroke of the pen the effective strength of the -British Army was increased from 180,000 to over a million men. Lord -Kitchener’s call proved so irresistible as to persuade men to enlist -in far more imposing masses than had ever been anticipated. The ranks -were swelled by recruits from all stations of life, and their tastes -were as diverse as were the positions they had previously held in the -complex social scale. The transition from civilian to military life was -too sudden. The men naturally clamoured for subsistence more or less in -consonance with what they had been for so long accustomed in private -life. If the food did not coincide with their fancies it was promptly -thrown away. - -The difficulty of the situation was further aggravated from the -circumstance that many men who were promoted to commissioned rank were -generally deficient of all knowledge pertaining to the commissariat. -Consequently it is not surprising to find that the elaboration of an -economic reform from the victualling chaos which prevailed proved a -stupendous task. - -In pre-war days the disposal of the waste from the soldier’s table -constituted a relatively simple task. All residue went into what is -known as the “swill-tub.” This convenient receptacle did not completely -represent the military equivalent of its civilian counterpart, nor were -the contents on a level with the combined solid and liquid odds and -ends of an organic nature from the table of the ordinary individual. -The military swill-tub was regarded rather as a handy vessel for the -receipt of anything and everything which was no longer required, or -which did not present any further apparent use to the soldier. - -The system of disposal was likewise adapted to the prevailing -circumstances. The 180,000 troops forming the standing army at home -were distributed throughout the length and breadth of the United -Kingdom, and thus became resolved into scattered military colonies, -not one of which was of pronounced numerical strength. Consequently -a centralized scheme for dealing with the waste could scarcely be -introduced with any likelihood of proving profitable or successful in -working. Local circumstances governed the issue very materially. The -disposal of the garbage was vested in the local commanding officer, -while the proceeds from the sale of the swill to farmers and others -went into the regimental funds. - -Notwithstanding this ostensibly haphazard arrangement it must not be -supposed that the farmer was able to secure the spoil from the local -garrison for a ridiculous figure. The erstwhile army officer has often -been assailed for his apparent lack of business acumen, but, in so far -as the disposal of this swill was concerned, he often proved a hard -bargainer as many farmers and swill-buyers will readily concede. The -higher the figure the officer was able to realize over the transaction -the more enhanced was the sum with which he could swell the regimental -coffers. It was only in those instances where disposal was attended -with difficulty, or where accumulation of the garbage would have -constituted a distinct menace to the health of the troops, that low -prices obtained. - -This method had to hold sway during the initial rush to the colours. -But the moment the opportunity opened for an attack upon this -problem as a whole it was accepted. A new inspection department was -created by the Quarter-Master-General which became known as the -Quarter-Master-General’s Services, accompanied by the appointment of a -chief inspector who was charged with the control of the whole question -of messing and the profitable exploitation of the residues accruing -from the feeding of the troops. This department appointed competent -inspectors to conduct the work in hand to a successful issue, while the -catering issue became centralized under an Inspector of Army Catering. - -The combined scheme of centralization and decentralization brought -the Chief Inspector into intimate touch with the problem in all its -varied phases, and the messing of the army as a whole was now placed -upon a solid foundation. The inspectors attached to the Home Commands -distributed throughout the United Kingdom drew up exhaustive reports -upon the issue as it affected their respective centres. From the -subsequent digestion of these reports it was found possible to adjust -the supply of food to the soldier’s actual requirements and to effect -the first reduction in his rations. - -The original issue comprised 1 lb. of bread and ³⁄₄ lb. of meat per man -per day, because, in accordance with the long-established peace-time -procedure of the army, which was continued after the outbreak of -war, the national upkeep of the fighting man involved the supply of -only these two staples. Whatever else the soldier fancied he had -to purchase for himself, in which direction he was assisted by his -messing allowance of 7¹⁄₂d. (15 cents) per day. When the matter was -investigated it was learned that this issue was in excess of the -average man’s actual needs. Nevertheless the full ration of meat was -generally cooked, the soldier consuming as much as he desired, while -what he left over was relegated to the swill-tub. It was the same with -the bread, the residue likewise being discarded to this convenient -receptacle. Consequently the first move was to adapt the rations to the -soldier’s consuming powers. - -It was also discovered that considerable waste arose from the -indifferent manner in which the meat was prepared and cooked. The -tastes of the men, especially of the recruits to the New Armies, -varied very widely according to the social scales from which they -had been drawn. But while the men from the higher ranks of life were -not fastidious they did at least demand the skilful and appetizing -presentation of their food. If the meat were indifferently cooked it -was simply left untouched to find its way to the swill-tub. - -Accordingly, it was decided to improve the military cuisine forthwith. -The kitchen service was severely overhauled, only the most competent -and expert cooks being retained in this service. In pre-war days the -army maintained only one Cookery School--at Aldershot--from which all -military cooks graduated. But as the armies grew in millions this -solitary university proved hopelessly inadequate. Accordingly, cookery -schools were established in each command while a totally new curriculum -was introduced. - -The cookery school became the “key” to the whole situation. It not -only became the nursery where the autocrats of the field-kitchen -were raised, but it was the hive in which many little wrinkles were -learned, where new ideas were submitted to initial test and practice, -to be adopted throughout the armies if they established their value, -and where economies were subjected to exacting trial for widespread -application upon issuing unscathed from the ordeals to which they were -imposed. The improvement in the personnel, training, and methods of -the men in charge of the field hotels proved successful in another -direction. Higher efficiency and contentment among the troops were -recorded, for the simple reason that a satisfied, well-fed soldier -provides the finest fighting material. - -With improvements in cookery the contents of the swill-tub commenced -to dwindle in volume. Less food was wasted while the residue from the -table similarly decreased. As this development was pursued it was -ultimately found possible to reduce the rations of bread and meat still -further without provoking the slightest discontent. A third reduction -in the rations took place in 1917 to the extent of an additional -two ounces of bread, except in the case of soldiers under nineteen -years of age, and a quarter of an ounce of salt per man per day. The -cumulative results of these economies represented a direct saving -annual of £4,000,000--$20,000,000--in cash to the nation in respect -of the soldiers’ rations. In other words, the huge armies of 1918 -consumed less food to the value of four millions sterling than was -the case two years previously, and this satisfactory end was achieved -without stinting a man. Such a remarkable result was primarily due to -the improved method of preparing and serving the food. During the war -more than 50,000 men were passed through the cookery schools attached -to the Home Commands. The effect of such imposing economies proved of -distinct benefit to the community, because the reduced supplies to the -Army released so much more bread and meat to the non-combatant element -of the country. - -The serving of meals, at least so far as the Home units were concerned, -was also completely transformed. Instead of the men being compelled -to indulge in a wild scramble with their messing-tins for their meat -supplies, the latter was cut up in the cook-house and assigned to -dishes for the table. Each man thus became assured of his allotted -ration. But in the event of the allocation exceeding what the soldier -desired, as for instance when he was a trifle off his feed, instead of -being compelled to take his ration willy-nilly, eating as much as he -fancied and leaving the balance on his plate to swell the swill-tub, -he was instructed not to help himself to more than he felt he could -attack. If, after settling down to his meal, he found his appetite to -return unexpectedly, he was free, after the manner of Oliver Twist, to -ask for more, with this difference--he was sure to receive it. - -Although under this _régime_ the cooks were given less raw material -with which to carry out their appointed tasks, yet it was found -possible to induce the lesser quantity to go farther than the larger -allotment had ever gone before. Other economies resulting from the -observance of more scientific culinary methods were also recorded. The -introduction of women into the kitchen was tried. This experiment, -doubtless owing to the fact that this represented a woman’s true -sphere and from her inherent tendency to be careful, efficient, and -thorough in every detail concerning the preparation of meals, proved a -conspicuous success. - -Now, no matter how persistently and effectively the lessons of economy -may be preached in the kitchen and at the table as much in the home -as in the army, and notwithstanding the infinitesimal degree to which -the proportion of spoiled food may be reduced by the introduction of -superior methods and skill, a certain amount of waste is unavoidable. -It cannot be overcome in its entirety. Tastes differ so widely that -odds and ends are certain to be left untouched upon the plate, while a -certain accumulation of gristle, bone, fat and other inedible portions -must be expected. - -The residue upon the individual plate may be so insignificant as to -render a second thought concerning its probable value superfluous. -But, multiply that individual plate and its contribution of waste by -the tens of thousands of plates in use at one time, as in the army, -and it will be realized that, in the aggregate, the fragments assume -a very imposing volume. Furthermore, in the kitchen where the joints -are cut up, the accumulation of pieces is striking. Lastly, in washing -up the plates, dishes and other utensils what an avenue is offered for -the escape of immense quantities of fat through the sink gully? I have -already indicated in a previous chapter what wealth may be lost in this -manner, and how it only needs adequate reclamation methods to enable -such loss to be avoided. - -Accordingly, contemporaneously with the reorganization of the catering -and cooking issues, the exploitation of the now appreciably attenuated -swill-tub contents was investigated. This residue was still being -sold to the farmers, but they were not regarding their purchases with -unalloyed delight. Contrary to general opinion, perhaps, raw swill does -not constitute an ideal foodstuff for porkers. As a rule it is too rich -in fat and so tends to exercise a debilitating and impoverishing effect -upon the animals, being a frequent cause of scour. - -About this time a grave problem asserted itself in another field of -military activity. The Ministry of Munitions had decided to speed-up -the output of explosives, but such acceleration was threatened by a -shortage of the indispensable constituent, glycerine. It was not a -question of the facilities for the production of this essential being -insufficient to cope with the demand because ample plant was available. -The difficulty was the dearth of animal fat which yields the basic -material in question. Soap manufacturers were also being hard-pressed -for similar fats to conduct their operations. As a result of the -depressing outlook the price of glycerine commenced to advance upon the -market at a disconcerting rate. - -The military authorities, cognizant of the huge quantities of animal -fat reclaimable from the swill-tubs throughout the service, recognized -the opportunity to ease the crisis to an appreciable degree. The -segregation, collection, and surrender of this potential raw material -to the industry concerned were merely matters of organization. It was -promptly realized that if the issue were left for adjustment to the -interests generally identified with such enterprises, and in which -the itinerant rag-and-bone merchant and marine store dealer figure -prominently, confusion would ensue, conducing to further disturbance of -prices. - -To achieve the desired efficiency the authorities invited the trade, -comprising the soap-makers and the bone degreasers, to discuss the -question. The authorities succinctly narrated what they could do -towards the solution of the problem. The trade was agreeably surprised -by the facts and figures which were set before them, and was quick to -appreciate that here indeed was a new and unexpectedly rich mine of -raw material to be advantageously tapped. The Ministry of Munitions, -also represented at the conference, announced its preparedness to -extend a willing hand. It would take over all the glycerine derived -from fats procured from military sources at a fixed price. This was -mutually settled at £59 10s.--$297.50--per ton, and it was agreed -that the figure should remain relatively firm irrespective of market -fluctuations. It must be conceded that the Ministry drove an astute -bargain, because at the time glycerine was commanding £300--$1,500--per -ton upon the open market, which sum the country would have been -compelled to pay had the military sources of supply not been available. - -The trade acquiesced and formed a committee including officers -nominated by the War Office to complete all negotiations and -transactions. Private buyers were nominated to cover the whole country -and a flat rate for the purchase of all fats from military sources -was decided. By this simple arrangement every unit throughout these -islands, no matter how remote its situation, was assured of a definite -market for its fats and bones. Moreover, these units were given strict -instructions to sell their produce only to the trade representative at -the price decided, notwithstanding that other would-be buyers might -proffer a higher quotation. - -So far as the army was concerned the remunerative market for all -waste in the form of fats and bones being established, it now became -necessary to whip up the contributions of these residues to the -uttermost ounce. A whirl-wind campaign was conducted throughout the -whole of the Home Commands to demonstrate how this end might be -consummated. Officers of the department concerned visited the various -camps. It was calmly but firmly impressed upon the local responsible -officers that they must resort to every artifice to trap fats and bones -during their devious journeys, so that nothing might escape. There were -heart-to-heart chats with the cooks, who, their imagination fired and -enthusiasm kindled, promised to leave no stone unturned to satisfy the -authorities in this direction. - -Only one danger was to be apprehended as a result of this campaign -of enlightenment. In their zest to save the fat the autocrats of the -kitchens and others might unconsciously deprive the soldier of his -proportion of this food so essential to the maintenance of a high -standard of health. Accordingly, while one and all were urged to keep a -tight grip upon the waste, they were instructed to allow the fighting -man to eat just as much fat as he fancied: indeed his consumption -of the highly nutritive dripping was to be specifically encouraged -because, in this manner, it would become possible to release increased -quantities of butter and margarine to the civil population. Holding the -scales evenly between the soldier and the cook-house on the one hand, -and between the troops and the civilians on the other, proved to be -one of the most intricate and delicate problems associated with this -waste-saving campaign. - -To secure the fullest co-operation of the cooks the Army Council -agreed to the extension of a specially attractive inducement. An extra -daily financial allowance was sanctioned on the basis of the more fat -the cooks saved and turned over to the making of munitions the better -they would be off in pocket. This allocation, however, was not to -become a charge upon the public purse. It was insisted that it should -be defrayed from the sum realized by a unit in the disposal of its -waste fats and bones, while the balance was to be devoted wholly to the -provision of kitchen utensils and other amenities. The units alone were -to benefit from the practise of economy and obviation of all waste. - -The consummation of this arrangement led to one or two amusing sequels -which, it is to be feared, had scarcely been anticipated. Naturally -every camp became uncannily keen to derive the utmost profit from this -phase of permissible trading, and a certain rivalry developed between -the various units to score top marks. - -There was one camp, composed of men drawn from units scattered all over -the country, undergoing musketry training. The men became affected with -the “save your bones” craze to an acute degree. As a result of his -periodical investigation the commanding officer suddenly discovered -that he was getting all the fat he wanted. But the bones! That was a -different story: the yield was by no means what it should have been. -The startling discrepancy prompted inquiry, and the officer found -that the soldiers were more fully alive to the real significance of -the swill-tub than he had imagined. But they were more loyal to their -own units than to the musketry camp to which their attachment was -only temporary. They were waging a quiet campaign among themselves, -collecting all the bones upon which they could place their hands, -and determined that their colleagues should derive all the benefits -accruing from the sale of this waste were posting their bone-hauls back -to their own units! - -Another instance of similar zeal was even more humorous. A certain -Imperial unit was camped next door to some troops from Overseas. The -“save-your-fat-and-bones” scheme was carefully explained to the latter, -but having come from a land where meat was plentiful they failed to see -the object of being so vigilant and miserly in regard to the residue -in question. The authorities, realizing the situation, refrained from -further pursuit of their proposal, being content to allow what they had -already expressed to sink into the minds of the soldiers, confident -that, upon reflection, the Overseas unit would appreciate the wisdom of -the official recommendation. - -The expected happened. The men from Yonder Britain in the end did -conclude that there was something in this waste-saving stunt, and -that they might profit from following the general practice. They -commenced to indulge in bone-collecting and hoarding with rare gusto. -No school-boy ever collected postage-stamps more keenly than did those -fighting men from Farther Britain save bones and fat. - -This outburst of zealous economy delighted the authorities. They -saw the yields from the camp of the Overseas fighting men rising by -leaps and bounds. But there was a decrease in the bone-yield from the -Home unit next door! The supply officer, feeling that something must -be amiss, and that possibly the Overseas troops were receiving an -inordinate quantity of bone in the issue to stimulate collecting, dived -into the mystery. It did not prove to be a very baffling quest. The -Overseas unit was able to show a high yield of bones because it was -indulging in surreptitious nocturnal raids, at opportune moments, upon -the bone-stocks of its neighbours! - -As the scheme was brought into wider and wider application it was found -that the exploitation of the actual swill-tub might be conducted to -still greater advantage. Hitherto the task had been the redemption of -the bones and waste fat before it reached the actual garbage barrel. -But to turn the actual contents of the swill-tub properly so-called -to economic account it was seen that certain plant would have to be -installed, although investigation revealed that such appliances need -neither be elaborate nor expensive. The suggestion was thoroughly -ventilated, and as a result it was decided to approach the authorities -with a proposal which was decidedly novel and which was certainly -unprecedented. - -Convincing facts and figures were obtained to indicate what the -probable yield from this latest endeavour to turn military waste to -profitable account would be. These estimates took into consideration -the expenditure incurred by the acquisition and operation of the plant -adopted. The proposed outlay was not heavy, but it was felt by those -who had elaborated this latest scheme that to request the authorities -to incorporate it as part and parcel of existing military routine would -defeat the primary principle underlying the idea. It was felt that, if -the enterprise could be rendered profitable under military conditions, -it might lead to its practical application by the civil community. The -impression obtained that the few thousand pounds capital expenditure -which would have to be incurred, together with the revenue, would be -lost among the maze of millions sterling incidental to current military -expenditure, even if it did not suffer actual inclusion, from its -comparative triviality, among “sundry expenses.” In this event all the -lessons to be derived therefrom would be lost. On the other hand if the -enterprise could be kept separate and could be conducted, as desired, -along accepted commercial lines, success would impress the civilian, -and might assist in persuading the municipal and other authorities to -do likewise with the similar raw materials available in plenty from -domestic sources of supply. - -Thereupon it was suggested that the War Office should sanction the -formation of a limited liability company to handle this latest -exploitation of the actual swill along orthodox business lines. To -allay any suspicions of private interests profiteering at the expense -of the tax-payer it was recommended that the whole of the capital -should be subscribed, and held, by the authorities, who should also be -invested with the power to appoint the directors, and who should hold -office at the pleasure of the War Office. - -The novelty of the proposal was conceded, but the promoters were so -sanguine of achieving success that the requisite sanction was extended. -Thereupon a company was duly registered at Somerset House in due -compliance with the law, with its articles of association complete in -every respect, under the title “Army Waste Products, Limited,” with a -nominal capital of 7s. ($1.75)! That company proved an overwhelming -successful venture from the country’s point of view. Its results -conclusively demonstrated the fact that there are literally millions in -waste. - -Small plants were established in military camps in several parts of -the country, and subsequently the system was extended to the army in -France, while the American Expeditionary Force, impressed with its -achievements, embraced the scheme and the plants employed. Operations -were not confined to the treatment of the despised contents of the -swill-tub, but also to the recovery of waste gravy and fats from the -plates, the reclamation of breadcrumbs from the table, sweepings from -the bakery and stores, and of odd crusts which heretofore had found -no application other than as food for the wild birds, as well as the -treatment of bones before they were handed over to the degreasers. - -A policy of rigid commercialism was introduced and sedulously followed. -The contents of the swill-tubs, as well as all other waste described -above, were purchased, the prevailing prices being paid so that -other commercial concerns were denied the opportunity of preferring -the charge of unfair trading. Items of rental, wages, as well as -maintenance, depreciation and capitalization charges were also taken -fully into account, while the resultant products were also sold at -market prices, which, as subsequent results revealed, left an ample -margin of profit. - -The plant employed, as well as the procedure followed in reclaiming and -working the wastes up into raw material for industrial uses, possesses -many interesting features, and are fully described in the next chapter. - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE RECLAMATION OF MILITARY ORGANIC WASTE - - -In deciding the type of plant suited to the recovery of military -organic waste regard was specially devoted to two governing principles. -The one was the standardization of plant, so far as was practicable, to -facilitate duplication and installation of the machinery in the various -camps. The second was the selection of such plant as could be installed -readily and cheaply in an improvised building, and which, if the -conditions warranted, would enable a standard type of cheap and simple -building to be adopted. - -So far as the initial plants were concerned dependence had to be -placed upon existing structures, otherwise delay in putting the scheme -into practical application would have been inevitable, owing to the -difficulty attending the acquisition of constructional material. But -the installation of the plants in extemporized buildings sufficed to -establish the applicability of the idea to any type of building of -adequate dimensions, and in such a manner as to impose only the minimum -of structural alterations to secure the requisite efficiency. This -adaptability is an outstanding feature, because it indicates how the -recovery of organic waste may be attacked along the most economical yet -comprehensive lines, and with the minimum of capital expenditure and -its concomitant amortization charges. - -Two types of plant were adopted, both being standardized. One coincided -with what might be described as the central or permanent waste-recovery -station, while the second presented all the necessary elements of -portability with the added advantages of inexpensive dismantling, -removal, and expeditious reassembling at another point according to -exigencies. But the processes are common to both types. - -In the case of the permanent mill which I visited structural -alterations had been reduced to the absolute minimum, the most -conspicuous outlay being the provision of a simple form of elevator to -lift the swill to a level above the plant to permit of gravity feed. -The total cost of this station, including the installation of the -necessary machinery, which included a steam-boiler, bone-crusher, small -engine, melter, centrifugal or turbine fat extractor, and settling -tanks, with one or two further accessories, was only £2,500--$12,500. - -The swill is brought to the mill by motor-lorry. Operations are -commenced at an early hour, because health considerations demand that -waste of this character shall be handled with all possible promptitude -in a big camp. The clearance is carried out daily and is complete, -including all garbage, bones and other profit-yielding organic residue -from the cook-house. Segregation is conducted as far as practicable at -the source, special sanitary vessels for distinctive residues being -provided. The mill continues working throughout the day until the whole -of the morning’s collection has been duly treated. No accumulation or -carrying-over of some of one day’s swill to the next day is permitted. -Swill is susceptible to speedy fermentation, especially during hot and -sultry weather, and so would become noisome within a very short period, -as well as developing into an ideal breeding-ground for flies and other -pests. - -The contents of the collecting lorries are distinctly heterogeneous, -the vehicles being laden with swill, bones, empty tins, jam and pickle -jars, bottles--in short, anything possessing an element of salvage -value. In segregating the waste at the cook-house special stress is -laid upon the necessity to keep all green vegetable matter, such as -outer leaves, stumps and other inedible trimmings, distinct from the -general swill for the reason explained later. - -The swill is transferred by the elevator to the upper level, where it -is dumped into a capacious sink to drain. The proportion of free liquid -is not pronounced, the swill being rather in the nature of a slush, -whatever fat there may be present, apart from the solid pieces, being -either congealed in flakes and globules, either free or clinging to -the more stable substance. The superfluous water having run off the -residue is permitted to fall through a trap into a hopper feeding the -capacious cooker or melter. Where the height of the building does not -permit the provision of an elevated draining sink the swill, dumped at -ground-level, is shovelled into the melter. - -The melter is a cylindrical vessel or drum fitted with a steam jacket, -the steam circulating at a pressure of about 80 lb. per square inch -through the annular space between the inner and outer jackets. The -capacity of the vessel is approximately 1,700 pounds, and the contents -are kept agitated during the process by paddles mounted upon a -revolving shaft forming the longitudinal axis of the drum. - -The cooking process drives off all remaining moisture in the form of -steam, and, at the same time, liberates whatever fat may be present -by melting and rendering it fluid. It gravitates to the bottom of the -cylinder to make its escape through a suitable vent and pipe into the -settling tank. The last-named is also steam-heated by a coiled pipe -system which not only sterilizes but clarifies the reclaimed fat, which -is then permitted to cool and to solidify. - -The swill remains in the drum for 70 to 90 minutes. By the end of this -period the contents have been practically cooked, while all free fat -has effected its escape. It will be observed that the steam does not -come into contact with the contents, but is confined to circulation -between the jackets. When withdrawn from the melter the swill resembles -a stiff slush. This is transferred to a canvas bag to be dropped into -a wire cage forming the inner vessel of the second machine, which is -a vertical turbine extractor. The vessel when charged is closed by -clamping down the lid. - -Steam is turned on and the second stage of the fat reclamation process -proceeds. Beneath the wire cage a series of steam jets are radially -disposed in such a manner as to allow the steam to impinge upon the -cage at an angle. The cage itself is supported freely upon a suitable -vertical shaft and so, under the impetus imparted by the steam issuing -from the jets, naturally revolves. By varying the volume and pressure -of the steam the revolving speed of the cage may be varied within wide -limits. Consequently it is possible to give the cage a very high rotary -velocity. - -The steam, after performing its mission towards rotating the cage, is -induced to ascend in such a manner as to permeate the contents of the -canvas bag imprisoned within the wire cage. All fatty matter still -associated with the organic material, owing to the high temperature of -the steam, becomes still more fluid. Under the centrifugal action set -up by the high rotary speed of the cage this fat becomes separated from -the solids to be expressed through the pores of the canvas container -and also the perforations of the outer cage, and to be flung against -the inner wall of the extractor. The extreme fluidity of the very -hot grease facilitates and expedites this separation, the expelled -fat finally dropping to the bottom of the vessel to make its escape -through suitable drain holes to pass into the settling tanks previously -mentioned. - -Under the whirling action of the turbine quite 91 per cent. of the -fatty content of the mash is extracted and recovered. The treatment -in the turbine extractor is continued until the flow of grease to the -settling tanks is observed to cease, when steam is shut off and the -extractor is emptied. The mash, somewhat resembling peat in consistency -and of a rich chocolate colour, cooked through and through, is spread -upon the floor to cool. Unless one has followed the cycle of operations -one would never associate this odourless, clean, dry and sterilized -product with the repulsive looking slush from the swill-tubs which had -entered the mill barely two hours previously. - -This residue constitutes an ideal pig-food. It is rich in the -essentials for building up the frame and flesh of the porker, and as -may be supposed finds a ready sale. It appeals to the farmer because -it is clean to handle, is easier to transport than the conventional -swill, because it can be bagged, while it possesses excellent keeping -qualities. In effect it is a concentrated food, and accordingly can be -broken down by blending with ordinary swill to increase the calories -of the latter as they affect the pig, or it may be used instead of -pig-meal, for which it is an excellent substitute. - -Finally, it meets with the farmer’s favour because its fat content, -being only about 9 per cent., coincides more closely with the animal’s -dietetic requirements. It is not surprising, in these circumstances, -that the farmer should be eager to procure as much of this sterilized -food as he can obtain at a fair price. Certainly the authorities -experience no difficulty in regard to its disposal at a remunerative -figure. - -The bones, upon reaching the mill, are dumped apart. They represent -waste from the cook-house stripped as cleanly of meat and fat -as a sharp knife in dexterous practised hands will allow. Their -gravy-yielding and other nutritious constituents have been extracted -from prolonged sojourn in the stock-pots. When they reach the -swill-mill they appear to be as capable of rendering any further -contribution to the general scheme as those bones which have passed -through the hands of a frugal housewife. They have reached the stage -when such refuse is either thrown into the kitchen fire, dust-bin, or -handed over to the peripatetic rag-and-bone monger. - -Yet they still possess distinct fat value, but it can only be wrung out -by drastic effort. The bones are first passed through a crusher to be -reduced to small size. At times the bone-dump from the cook-house will -be found to be swollen by the dismantled framework of what was once -a horse or some other animal, and which is to be passed through the -fat reclamation factory. The crushed bones are submitted to the same -process as the swill, being passed through the melter and extractor -successively. The combined action of cooking and whizzing brings about -a far more impressive release of fat than may possibly be imagined. -Furthermore, cooking and whirling effectively release all slender -strings and shreds of fat which may have escaped the butcher’s sharp -knife, while clinging tatters of meat and sinew are also thoroughly -cooked. Upon withdrawal from the extractor the bones are thrown over a -riddle, this action being sufficient to detach all shreds of fibrous -matter which fall through the meshes of the sieve. - -The bones are now ready for dispatch to the degreasers. The loose -fibrous residue resulting from riddling is collected for subsequent use -in the preparation of poultry foods. Seeing that the treatment of the -bones in this mill is pursued for the express purpose of reclaiming -only the loose and easily secured fat and grease there is no conflict -with industry. The degreasers are concerned rather with the recovery of -fat resistant to ordinary salvage methods, as well as glue, size, and -many other commodities involving the submission of the bone waste to -many special processes, the ultimate residue being ground up to form a -fertilizer. - -The fat, after cooking, clarification, and solidification, presents an -attractive, odourless, sterilized mass. This is dispatched to the trade -for resolution into tallow, glycerine, and the requisite basic material -for the production of soap. - -I mentioned that, in the segregation of the wastes at the cook-house, -special emphasis is laid upon the necessity to prevent the combination -of all green vegetable refuse with the swill. This is essential, -because in the subsequent cooking operation the dye from the green -waste is extracted as every housewife knows, and, mingling with the -fat, will steep the latter a pronounced greenish hue. This detracts -very pronouncedly from the value of the fat because the dye, being -of vegetable origin, cannot possibly be eliminated in the subsequent -manufacturing operations through which the fat is passed. On the other -hand, the deep yellow tinge which is likely to result from the presence -of curry waste in the swill is not deleterious because it can be -readily discharged. - -For some time the disposal of the green vegetable waste presented a -thorny problem. Farmers were not prepared to purchase it with the -ordinary cooked pig-food, for the simple reason that they already -possessed a surfeit of this refuse in their fields. Cremation appeared -to be the only possible solution of the difficulty, the accumulations -being somewhat formidable, but as a result of experiment the difficulty -was very neatly and profitably overcome. This garbage, together with -other waste of a comparative character, is subjected to a desiccating -process to yield a product which is adapted to association with other -approved by-products, without depreciating the pecuniary or other value -of the whole, for poultry feeding. - -Both plant and processes are extremely simple. Nor is a pretentious -staff required. Six men suffice to attend to an installation capable of -dealing with the swill contributed daily by a unit of 15,000 men. One -hand tends the engine and boiler for the supply of steam and power; two -men are responsible for the conduct of the melter; while two additional -men wait upon the turbine extractor. The sixth man is retained to -operate the bone crusher. This staff need only be increased, as the -volume of work rises from any accretion to the camp, to the extent of -one man for every additional 5,000 soldiers. - -The wastage of bread, for the most part inadvertently, is far heavier -than may be supposed. Possibly the heaviest proportion of waste arises -from unconscious crumbling of the article during conversation at the -table. Observation revealed that the accumulation of such crumbs and -crusts was pronounced, while it was also discovered that a heavy -contribution was extended by the bakery as the result of cutting up the -loaves. The loss of flour incurred during the preparation of the bread -and pastry was also found to be appreciable. - -Thereupon it was decided to reclaim all bread waste and flour residues. -The crumbs, together with the odd crusts and other small fragments, are -collected, while the bakery floors and tables are regularly swept to -yield grist to the salvage harvest. Moreover, despite the observance -of all possible precautions to avoid waste, accidents are unavoidable. -Occasionally a batch of bread is ruined in the baking. Being unfit -for human consumption it is handed over to the salvage department to -be worked up into readily marketable products instead of suffering -destruction as was formerly the practice. - -Bread and flour waste is subjected to a simple and inexpensive -roasting treatment and is then roughly graded. The larger fragments -and condemned loaves are reduced to a convenient size, while the -finer material is reduced to a meal. The granulated residue is -absorbed by the firms specializing in the manufacture of compounded -proprietary poultry foods, entering into the composition thereof to -approximately 20 per cent., which experience has proved to represent -an excellent balance. During the war this granulated waste, sold in -bulk, realized about 1¹⁄₈d. (2¹⁄₄ cents) per lb., plus an additional -charge of 10 per cent. to cover administration expenses. The coarser -grade of waste proved to be an excellent feed for horses--superior to -oats--and consequently was somewhat in demand at 1³⁄₄d. (3¹⁄₂ cents) -per lb., the availability of such feed during the period when horses -were necessarily rationed owing to the shortage of the conventional -feeding-stuffs being keenly appreciated. In this instance the extra -charge on account of administration expenses was also made. - -Other expressions of military “save-the-waste” activity cover the -recovery of tins, bottles, and jars. But the difficulties concerning -transport somewhat adversely affected success in this direction -for a time. The preserve and pickle manufacturers intimated their -readiness to accept all bottles and jars owing to the short supply -of new receptacles of this character, but for some time it was found -impossible to spare the requisite carrying facilities. The provision of -canned and bottled comestibles does not enter into the official scheme -of rations, the supply of such articles, “extras,” being conducted -through the Navy and Army Canteen Board, which, as a protection, -imposes a charge upon all jars and bottles sold to the canteen attached -to a unit. As a result every care is observed to preserve these -vessels to avoid any financial loss arising from their non-return. -Consequently, consignments of empty jars and bottles are generally -returned intact, such losses as are incurred being unavoidable, and, in -the main are due to accidental breakage. - -An effort was also made to discover a possible commercial outlet for -spent tea-leaves. This beverage is particularly popular in the army, -and the accumulation of this waste is enormous. At one period the -Home Commands were called upon to handle over 13,500,000 pounds of -this refuse a month. The thought was entertained that the extraction -of the caffeine from this residue might prove a profitable venture, -but the experiments were inconclusive, and so the proposal was -abandoned. Then the circumstance that the tea-leaves carry a certain -proportion of potash suggested another line of application--conversion -into fertilizer. But here again success failed to be recorded. The -profitable exploitation of spent tea-leaves still awaits conclusive -resolution. But it happens to be one of those problems beset with -supreme difficulties, while it is imperative that every precaution -should be observed to prevent this waste finding its way into -unscrupulous hands to be turned to base account to the disadvantage of -the community. - -I have already mentioned that, while every effort was made to recover -the uttermost ounce of fat-yielding residue from the kitchens, every -encouragement was extended to the troops to cultivate the consumption -of the nourishing dripping. Although it would seem as if these two -recommendations were in utter conflict, no such trouble as might -have been anticipated has been recorded. The troops appreciated the -concession, and the request for this fat has led to considerable -fertility of thought and individual resource among the officers of the -various units. Such initiative received commendation from headquarters -because it not only contributed to the economical consumption of food -in the army, but reacted to the advantage of the civil population -who, unable to obtain dripping owing to the rigorous meat rationing -in operation, were compelled to depend upon butter and margarine -for their fat requirements. The increasing consumption of dripping -by the soldiers to whom it was readily available served to permit -increased quantities of the restricted supplies of other articles to be -distributed among the community. - -In one cook-house I witnessed an interesting method to increase the -dripping yield. A big pail had been filled with little shreds of -fat and meat, shaved and scraped by the cooks from the bones of the -freshly-cut-up quarters of beef. This pail was placed within an outer -vessel containing water, the improvised double saucepan then being -placed upon the hot stove. As the water boiled the fat clinging to -the shreds of fibre dissolved, while the meat-juices also became -dissociated from the fibre under the influence of the heat. Boiling was -continued until the whole of the fat had melted, when the vessel was -removed and set upon one side to cool. The fat solidified at the top -to yield a fine chunk of appetizing rich dripping, while immediately -beneath was a jellied mass of gravy and disintegrated meat-fibre, -forming a concentrated beef-tea. The dripping was reserved for issuance -in lieu of butter and margarine, while the jelly sediment was set upon -one side to improve the contents of steak-pies, puddings, and other -savoury dishes. - -The soldier is also a gourmet for cheese. But exigencies of war -speedily elevated this comestible to the status of a luxury, even -in the army. Unfortunately the average cheese does not lend itself -to economic use. It is friable, the loss in crumbs being somewhat -pronounced, while the rind is lost. - -An officer conceived an ingenious idea to persuade the cheese to go -farther, and in such a manner as to eliminate all possibility of waste. -A whole cheese was taken, thoroughly washed and cleaned. It was then -placed in a mill with a quantity of dripping, the proportion being -60 per cent. of the former to 40 per cent. of the latter. The two -constituents were then pulped and blended together. - -The resultant product was distinctly surprising. The cheddar cheese -was converted, by compounding with the animal fat, into a delicious -cream-like article of the consistency of butter, allowing it to be -spread upon bread and biscuits. The flavour was distinctly improved; -indeed, the soldiers expressed a decided preference for this blended -food. Its nutritive value cannot be gainsaid, because it carries all -the virtues of the cheese plus those incidental to rich animal fat. - -By this simple expedient all wastage of cheese was overcome. Even the -rind, generally conceded to represent the richest part of the product, -was used, being thoroughly disintegrated, macerated and blended with -the dripping by passage through the little mill. Not only did the -officer reduce the item for the consumption of cheese by his unit to -a very significant degree, but he achieved the desired end without -penalizing the men to the slightest degree. - -The process is so simple that it might even be emulated to profit by -the thrifty housewife. The kitchen mincing machine will suffice for the -purpose. It is only necessary to pulp and to blend the two constituents -thoroughly together. It certainly offers a means of inducing a pound -of cheese to go as far as, if not farther than, a pound and a half has -ever gone before. - -In so far as the arrest of the elusive fat was concerned there remained -only one other possible avenue of escape demanding interruption. This -was the sink where all plates, dishes, and cooking utensils in general -are washed. In the first effort to secure this contribution the hot -water carrying the desired material was led into a pit. Here the fat -collected in the form of a scum, which was skimmed off at intervals and -sent to the swill mill for further treatment. But this crude method -gave way to one more in consonance with modern ideas. The fat is now -caught at the gully. - -One device I saw installed to achieve this end was of an extremely -simple character. It comprised a wooden box, about three feet in length -by one foot in width, and about two feet in depth. It was subdivided -into three cells by two partitions, which, however, did not extend to -the full depth of the box. The pipe from the sink entered the box at -one end while the outlet to the drain was placed at the opposite end. -The box was filled with cold water, which need only be renewed when the -box is emptied for cleaning and flushing, since normally it is kept -charged with the water coming from the sink. The hot water bearing the -fat circulates through the three cells and finally, upon reaching a -certain level, passes into the drainage system. - -But during its passage through the box the hot water becomes so -effectively chilled as to be compelled to release any fat which it -may be carrying. This congeals and rises to the surface. Within a -short time the top of each cell is crusted with a thick layer of solid -fat which may be removed as frequently as desired. The box not only -constitutes an efficient and simple, as well as inexpensive, fat-trap, -but also acts as a water seal to the sink, thus preventing all nuisance -or fouling of the sink pipe. - -The amount of fat capable of being retrieved in this manner is -certainly startling. The fat-trap which I saw fitted to one of the -sinks of an army cook-house yielded several pounds of fat every -day--sheer waste recovered from washing plates, pots and pans. The -fat is dispatched to the swill-mill to be passed through the melter -and extractor in the usual manner, thereby undergoing thorough -clarification and sterilization. The recovery during the course of -the year of several thousand pounds of fat which otherwise would have -vanished down the drain, by the introduction of a small wooden box -such as I have described, represents no mean achievement. Certainly -it serves to bring home the losses which are incurred at this point -in every house during the twelve months. The device might profitably -be installed at every sink by every householder. The few shillings -involved by its provision would be quickly recouped, because the fat -always has a market. Moreover, the introduction of this device would -contribute towards the efficiency of the drain, keeping it clear and -free to fulfil its designed function. - -That it pays to recover all fats and greases lost to consumption or -permitted to escape because it is merely residue is conclusively borne -out by the results recorded in connection with the military operations -which I have described. During the year 1917 the fats--waste--reclaimed -from the Home Commands of the British Army yielded 13,000 tons of -tallow. The value of all the by-products recovered from the refuse was -£700,000--$3,500,000. The cost of securing this waste for commercial -exploitation, including the extra pay extended in the form of bonus to -the cooks, and other allowances, was £400,000--$2,000,000--leaving a -balance of £300,000--$1,500,000--which was returned to the public. - -As previously mentioned, the fats were urgently needed to furnish -glycerine for the manufacture of munitions. One ton of crude fat yields -10 per cent. of glycerine, so that 1,300 tons of this indispensable -article were derived from this one source of supply. The fat was sold -to the bone-degreasers and the soap manufacturers, who effected the -recovery of the glycerine, selling the product to the Ministry of -Munitions at the agreed price of £59 10s. to £63--$297.50 to $315--per -ton, as compared with £300--$1,500--per ton which we should have been -compelled to pay had we bought the glycerine upon the open market. - -Here was a direct saving of £237 to £240 10s.--$1,185 to $1,202.50--per -ton. Altogether the purchase of glycerine recovered from military -organic waste represented a saving of £312,650--$1,563,250--because -the nation obtained for £77,350--$386,750--what otherwise would -have cost £390,000--$1,950,000. This figure is not quite complete -because, inspired by the success achieved from the milling of the -swill at home, the army in France established similar stations -behind the lines upon the other side of the Channel. When these were -brought into operation the shipment of fat and grease recovered -from the organic waste of the British Expeditionary Force in France -represented 5,000 tons a year, whence 500 tons of glycerine were -derived. The 5,000 tons of fat won from the swill-tubs of the army in -France realized £140,000--$700,000--while the total saving recorded -under the heading of glycerine secured from army waste fat was -augmented to £432,000--$2,160,000. During the year in question the -aggregate financial economies directly secured from the exploitation -of organic army waste, in conjunction with the introduction of ways -and means to reduce the yield of such residue from the observance of -improved culinary methods and reduced consumption of foodstuffs was -approximately £5,626,000--$28,130,000. Finally, to demonstrate the -value of this contribution to the aggressive resources of this country, -it may be stated that the 1,800 tons of glycerine derived from the -18,000 tons of tallow recovered from the army swill-tubs, rendered -it possible to turn out sufficient nitro-glycerine to serve as the -propellant charges for 18,000,000 eighteen-pounder shells. - -The success accomplished with the army waste fat and grease prompts -the obvious inquiry as to why comparative methods cannot be adopted in -civilian circles. The average household has but little conception of -the value of its fat losses. It should not be an impossible task to -segregate the waste from the house at the source, and to submit it to -similar treatment. The majority of our civic and municipal authorities -possess buildings which could readily be adapted to the installation -of the necessary plant, and the capital outlay therefore need not be -heavy. The disposal of the various by-products would not be attended by -any difficulty. True, under war conditions abnormal prices ruled, but -even to-day they are attractive and are likely to continue to remain so -for an appreciable time to come. - -Of course, the municipal authorities could not aspire to net such -profits as are possible in the army. In the first place the wage -problem must be taken into consideration. Under military conditions -this does not arise. Fatigue parties are always available to collect -the swill and to conduct its conversion into fat. But even if the -practice were pursued at a loss it would redound to the distinct -benefit of the community in general, because it would comply with one -of the fundamental laws of National Economy and would conduce towards -the reduction in the cost of living. But unprofitable exploitation -would not result so long as the methods were conducted along commercial -lines. Ineptitude and wastage in administration and operation alone -could be responsible for any such eventuality in this connection. -Happily we are becoming wiser in our knowledge: domestic organic waste -is now being exploited on broader lines, as I relate in subsequent -chapters. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -INVENTION IN ITS APPLICATION TO WASTE RECOVERY - - -The necessity to conserve our industrial resources, which is so -pronounced to-day, is acting as a powerful stimulant to inventive -effort. The mere circumstance that approved apparatus exist for the -reclamation of wastes and are readily available to those of a thrifty -or enterprising turn of mind no longer suffices to meet the situation. -In the past we have been content to practise waste recovery along what -may be described as satisfactory lines, but satisfactory only in so far -as they represented an attempt to turn refuse to commercial account. In -many instances the appliances employed have only been extemporized and, -as may be imagined, are far from being efficient. They only enable a -certain proportion of the available materials to be recovered. In many -instances residues treated for fats have carried away just as much of -the essential article after treatment as were actually recovered. In -other words, the work was only half completed: the system followed has -been unable to give a higher yield owing to errors in its design and -construction. - -Waste recovery as it should be practised to-day is a science. It is -just as precise a science as the extraction of nitrogen from the -atmosphere, the smelting of steel, or the production of artificial -silk. Hit-and-miss methods may have sufficed during the years when -commodities were cheap and plentiful, but to-day there is a world-wide -stringency in the supply of anything and everything necessary to -commerce. As a consequence prices are ruling high, and so the practice -of waste recovery along extremely well-defined scientific lines is -essential. - -The harnessing of science to this peculiar industry is imperative for -more reasons than one. As the process of extraction, say of fats, -is pushed to its logical conclusion, the task becomes more and more -exacting and expensive, demanding the employment of refined methods. -It is far more difficult to draw from the material the last ounce -of possibly reclaimable fat than to whip out the first ounce. The -last-named is surrendered readily, but to recover the first-named -enormous persuasive effort is entailed. - -But it is the uttermost ounce which the scientist is determined to -obtain. Easy conquest does not appeal to his well-ordered mind, and -so we see a spirited struggle in progress to increase efficiency. At -the same time in attaining this eminent factor the inventor must keep -his eye and hand upon the issue of cost. If it is going to cost more -to extract the last absolute ounce than that ounce is worth, then the -effort is futile. Commercialism, which considers inventive ingenuity -merely from the angle of pounds, shillings and pence, or dollars and -cents as the case may be, is not impressed by the mere beauty of any -process or apparatus. - -The financial issue is surveyed from every possible angle--capital -outlay, fuel consumption, simplicity of operation, maintenance charges, -depreciation, renewals, and labour. Any one of these several factors -may be sufficient to cause the refusal of an advocated process, while -should they be experienced cumulatively then the likelihood of the -process being adopted is extremely remote. Waste recovery is such a -sensitive range of endeavour as to prevent all consideration along -philanthropic lines. - -An instance in point may be narrated to indicate how perplexing and -intricate the problem is. As is well-known, wood, in common with -all vegetation, carries a certain proportion of alcohol, a product -in keen demand for numerous industries. It is also common knowledge -that in working wood enormous waste is incurred, notably in the -form of sawdust. This fact induced inventors to attack the problem -of extracting the alcoholic content from this residue. Laboratory -experiment confirmed the practicability of the project, and even went -so far as to indicate how the idea might be commercially developed. - -But there is a tremendous gulf between the laboratory and the factory. -It was many years ago that the possibility of extracting alcohol from -wood first aroused the serious attention of the industrial chemists. -They are still wrestling with the problem. Time after time the world is -startled by the announcement of a new and inexpensive process for the -distillation of alcohol from wood and the prospect of extracting whisky -and other popular beverages from sawdust excites intense interest. -But, metaphorically speaking, nine days later a strange silence is -encountered. The new process has vanished from aught but a memory of -much claimed but nothing forthcoming. Fortunes have been sunk and lost -in the attempts to solve this momentous problem, and it is probable, -from the state of knowledge and the stage of experiment at the moment -attained, that many millions more will be expended before commercial -success is achieved. One of the greatest obstacles to the realization -of the chemist’s dream has been the extremely high temperatures to -which resort has to be made, which plays sad havoc with the plant -involved, and the charges incident to the renewal of which are so heavy -as to render the financial outlook extremely depressing. Even the -conditions of war, which scouted all considerations of expense, have -not carried us an inch forward. We built one factory to conduct the -distillation of wood for the alcohol which was so sorely needed, and -planned a second installation. The first factory was promptly abandoned -after the signing of the armistice, while the second factory was never -completed, owing to the indifferent results achieved with the conduct -of the initial plant. - -Similar experiences may be narrated in many other fields of attempted -waste recovery. Fortunately, however, for every dismal failure recorded -a dozen or more overwhelming triumphs can be related. It is this -circumstance which induces the experimenter to persevere upon his -ventures of discovery. But this is not the only satisfactory feature -of success in this field. The spirit of rivalry is so keen that the -industrial chemist and the chemical engineer are for ever striving -might and main to improve the methods which they have evolved, and -in the determination to secure the uttermost ounce of the elusive -fat, they proceed to extreme lengths. The eternal quest for improved -efficiency is not confined to the extraction of fats; it is equally -applicable to the recovery of other products in keen demand and -commanding an attractive market price, but I select fat as an example -because it is familiar to all. - -Moreover, in elaborating his fruitful thoughts the investigator is -compelled to bear in mind varying conditions. Accordingly he must -adapt his ideas to the prevailing requirements. Obviously it would be -inexpedient to concentrate perfecting effort upon one definite system. -The plant involved may necessitate a capital outlay possible only to -the wealthy firm or city, and utterly beyond the small man anxious to -embark upon such an enterprise, or be impracticable to the average -town, to which the plant, owing to the limited volume of material to be -handled, would never justify the probable expense. - -In these circumstances we see plants and methods being adapted to -varying demands so that the reclamation of the urgently required fats, -oils and greases may be pursued by one and all. In a previous chapter, -describing the recovery of these commodities from the swill-tubs of -the army, I referred to one system which is wholly mechanical in its -operation. In this instance success depends essentially upon the -centrifugal turbine extractor or “whizzer,” which it must be admitted -has proved exceedingly attractive in application. For this reason the -“Iwel” system, as it is called, has met with conspicuous success and -wide application, being found in every industry. - -But there is another system, or rather wide range of systems, known as -the Scott, differing entirely from the one already mentioned. This, -too, is of British origin and construction, and compels attention from -its applicability to every possible requirement as well as adaptability -to every conceivable condition, from the factory handling only a few -thousand pounds of miscellaneous fat-carrying refuse a day, to the -huge packing plants to be found upon the American continent, both -North and South, Australia and New Zealand, where the accumulations of -fresh fat are imposing, and where the necessity for prompt big-scale -treatment to secure the attractive prices ruling for high-grade fats is -so obvious. The operations of the firm under review demand additional -attention inasmuch as, through the combined efforts of its chemists and -engineers, it has been able to evolve and perfect a process which is -distinctly remarkable, seeing that it enables all but 1 per cent. of -the fat contained in the crude refuse to be reclaimed, and in such a -manner as to render the method completely profitable. - -The Scott systems, fundamentally, are three in number. In the one the -waste animal products are digested with open steam in conjunction -with a vacuum; the second method comprises the _dry_ rendering of -edible fats under vacuum; while the third practice is the extraction -of the grease by what is known as the solvent system. Each possesses -its individual features, making direct appeal to the situation to -which it is most eminently adapted, and, to a certain degree, the -three respective methods may be said to represent an equal number -of progressive strides towards maximum efficiency, with the solvent -process constituting the pinnacle of success so far achieved in this -province from the simple fact that it reduces the loss of fat to 1 per -cent. absolute. - -However, it is difficult to lay down any hard-and-fast rule concerning -the selection of any of these three processes because, in deciding -a question of this character, full consideration must be given to -the class of material to be handled. For instance, although the -dry rendering system under vacuum is especially applicable for the -reclamation of edible fats, it is not to say that the first, or open -steam, process is only adapted to the production of non-edible fats. -As a matter of fact there are certain classes of offal which are not -suited to dry steam rendering. The fat contained in such refuse can -be most advantageously extracted only by the open steam process. -This particularly applies to the offal produced in the large killing -establishments, where such refuse can be dealt with in the fresh -condition. - -The dry steam rendering process is particularly applicable to the -production of fine or high grade edible fats. The finest fat recovered -from an animal source is that known as “Oleo” margarine or “Premier -Jus.” This is rendered from the very finest crude fat obtainable, -and in order to ensure super quality being obtained the conventional -treatment is one demanding extreme care so that its inherent qualities -may not suffer the slightest injury. The general practice is to mince -the raw material very finely and then to treat it in hot water-jacketed -pans at a very low temperature, every attention being observed to -prevent the temperature rising above a rigidly predetermined point. -In these circumstances it will readily be observed that the process -is necessarily somewhat costly and occupies appreciable time. But by -means of the dry rendering process under vacuum the raw material may -be subjected to very high temperatures, and that without the product -being impaired in any way. In fact, it is equal in every respect to -that obtained by the orthodox process, while, of course, it is far more -expeditious and cheaper. - -The plant necessary to the vacuum system is simple. It comprises a -cylinder or boiler called a digester, into which the offal to be -treated is placed. Under the wet steam process and after the vessel -has been closed a vacuum is created. Open steam then is admitted into -the digester and in such a way as to enable the steam to pass upwards -through the mass, thereby thoroughly permeating it. Naturally the hot -steam renders the fat fluid, that which is free running readily to the -attached tanks. - -Rendering is conducted under a pressure varying from 20 lb. to 40 -lb. as the case may be, but the lower the pressure the better. The -application of the vacuum to the process constitutes the crux of the -invention. At first sight the advantages of the principle may not -be readily apparent, but they may be simply explained. In the first -instance the creation of vacuum conditions effects the removal of the -greatest obstruction to the influence of heat, namely air. If this be -eliminated cooking can be conducted at a much lower temperature than -would otherwise be practicable. Fat, indeed all animal matter, carries -a certain proportion of moisture and this must be withdrawn before -the actual release of the commodity can be effected. In vacuum water -boils at a temperature below one-half of that required at ordinary -atmospheric pressure. In other words, instead of the boiling-point -of water being 212 degrees Fahrenheit, as is the case with the -kettle on the hob, it will boil at less than 106 degrees Fahrenheit. -Consequently, if a high vacuum be established within the digester the -latent water can be converted into steam to assist in the melting -process proper, which then can be conducted unhampered. Temperature, -moreover, exercises a decisive influence upon the quality of the -product, this being very superior in quality when the recovery is -carried out at a low degree. - -Another point to be noted is that all noisome odours which are thrown -off during cooking, and which cannot be avoided, are exhausted from -the vessel. They are not allowed to escape into the open air, but -are led to the furnace to be discharged into the hottest part of the -fire. They have to ascend through the incandescent fuel resting upon -the fire-bars, and, since they are not allowed to become mixed with -air, must undergo complete combustion. Consequently no pollution of -the atmosphere can possibly result from the treatment of even the most -rancid offal. It being impossible to construe the operation into a -nuisance, the plant can be installed at any convenient point even in -a densely-settled area in safety, because the system fully complies -with all the rigid requirements of the local sanitary authorities and -health officers. This is a most important feature and one which will -be readily appreciated when one recalls the insufferable conditions -precipitated by the recovery of fats and greases from refuse under the -old systems. - -But the outstanding characteristic of the vacuum system is the -increased yield of fat forthcoming. No mechanical system, whether -it be pressure or high-speed whizzing, can extend completely -satisfactory efficiency results. As is well known, the fat entering -into the constitution of animal matter is contained in myriads of -minute cells which are surrounded by tissue. The walls of these cells -are exceedingly elastic and of prodigious strength. They may be -compressed to an inordinately intense degree in a press, or distorted -and stretched by recourse to centrifugal action without breaking. It -is this circumstance which reacts against a high recovery of fat by -recourse to pressing and whizzing because the cells cannot be induced -to burst. - -When a vacuum is applied a totally different result is recorded. The -application of heat causes the fat and air within the tiny cells to -expand, and in this manner the walls of the cells become distended to -the limits of their elasticity. The removal of the surrounding air -within the vessel by the vacuum pump completely upsets all equilibrium. -The air pressure within the cells is higher than that applied from -without, and consequently there results an accentuated expansive effort -within the cells. But the tissue has already been stretched to its -utmost limit, and so being unable to withstand the increased strain -imposed collapses, thus releasing the imprisoned air and fat. Under the -vacuum process the disruption of the fat-carrying cells is complete, -and this explains why an augmented yield of fat is obtained by this -method. - -Under the open steam vacuum process the actual practice is to apply -the vacuum three times at intervals during the operation. The first -application serves to remove the obstructive air to facilitate -and expedite cooking of the contents. The second brings about the -disruption of the cells and the release of the fat which they contain. -The third application of the vacuum, which is effected towards the end -of the process, effects the withdrawal of the foul vapours arising from -the digesting operation and their discharge into the fire. - -Owing to the steam being admitted to the digester and being allowed to -come into direct contact with the mass, the residue upon withdrawal -is wet. The grease, which has been rendered fluid in the process, -has escaped from the digester through a suitable draining pipe into -a tank where settlement and clarification are carried out. But all -the grease cannot be recovered in this manner. A certain proportion, -notwithstanding the disruption of the fat cells, is held up in the -mass and can only be recovered to an appreciable degree by submitting -the residue to treatment in a press. In this way the greater part of -the remaining fat suffers expulsion and recovery. The wet cakes upon -removal from the press then have to be dried and disintegrated. - -The dry vacuum process, which is essentially adapted to the rendering -of edible fat, has many advantages over the wet steam method. Whilst -the plant employed is broadly similar to that employed in the process -already described, there is one notable difference. The digester is -enveloped in an outer shell or jacket, and the steam is circulated -through the space between the two walls. It is not brought into -contact with the contents of the digester at any stage of the process. -The action taking place within the vessel during the operation is -precisely the same as when the steam is brought into direct contact -with the refuse, the fat being rendered fluid by the heat and the cells -undergoing disruption by the creation of the vacuum. A high vacuum is -maintained throughout the whole rendering process. Consequently the -moisture inherent to the raw material is withdrawn as rapidly as it is -converted into steam, resulting in the production of a fine edible fat -totally free from moisture. Moreover, the residue withdrawn from the -digester at the end of the process, known as “crackling” or “greaves,” -is likewise quite free from moisture, although, as in the case of that -resulting from the open steam process, an appreciable proportion of -fat is held up in the mass which can only be recovered to a pronounced -degree by the application of pressure. - -The dry steam or jacketed vacuum process is especially adapted to -the treatment of fresh fat waste, the reclaimed product of which is -primarily intended for the preparation of edible foodstuffs, such as -oleo-margarine. By carrying out reclamation without bringing the steam -into contact with the fat several distinct advantages are obtained, -the most important being the retention of the natural properties of -the fat, and no loss of glycerine which otherwise is inevitable to a -certain degree. Consequently, it is an ideal process for the treatment -of the “Premier Jus.” There is no need to mince the fat finely, as in -the orthodox rendering process, it being necessary only to cut the -waste roughly for charging the digester. - -A special press has been devised for the treatment of the crackling or -greaves. It is of the cage type which allows the fat, during pressure, -and which operation is carried out while the residue is very hot, to -be expressed between the bars of the cage to fall into a trough for -recovery. The cakes, after pressing, are dry, excellent in quality, -light in colour and of attractive flavour, a result due to the fact -that the tissues have not been scorched or charred in any way during -the rendering process. The greaves constitute an excellent ingredient -for the preparation of kennel and poultry foods, and enter extensively -into the manufacture of dog-cakes. In a few instances the dry greaves, -owing to their high nutritive value, are served to the kennel in the -straight form as they issue from the press. - -While the dry vacuum process is certainly efficient, it does not -fully comply with the latest ideas pertaining to the recovery of fats -from organic waste. The press is the weak link, because thereby it is -only possible to recover a certain proportion of the fat held up in -the mass, even when the cellular construction has been completely -broken up. It is stated, as a result of accumulated experience, that -the amount of fat left in the greaves may run up to as high as 10 per -cent. of the original fatty content of the offal: in many instances -it has been found to range as high as 20 per cent. The fact that this -remaining fat defying reclamation by pressing must be relatively high -is evident from the readiness with which certain waste exploiters will -buy up the greaves, not to turn them into kennel and poultry foods, but -to submit them to further treatment in order to wring out still more of -the fat which they carry. - -This manifestation of enterprise has been rendered possible by the -advance of the science of fat recovery from offal to such a level as to -enable 9 per cent. of the fat remaining in a 10 per cent. greaves to -be extracted. It is the prevailing high price commanded by fats which -renders such additional treatment upon an extensive scale so attractive -and eminently profitable. - -The process in question is the Scott solvent recovery invention to -which I have referred, and which represents the greatest achievement -yet recorded in the whole science of fat reclamation from organic -waste. The process was perfected and patented shortly before the war, -and although hostilities militated against its immediate and rapid -development, thereby delaying the recognition of its overwhelming -virtues, it is satisfactory to learn that many plants operating upon -this principle have been laid down, not only in this country, but in -other parts of the world. It is the process which at the moment is -arousing the most intense interest, owing to the progressive stride -which it represents in this field. - -The process is delightfully simple, although apparently it involves an -intricate plant and demands a higher level of skilled labour, but where -the work of reclamation is conducted along ambitious lines it cannot be -excelled. Briefly described, it turns upon the employment of benzine, -or some other equally volatile solvent which, as we all know, will -readily dissolve fat and absorb it. What can be done with this agent is -familiar to every housewife who practises the removal of grease spots -and other unsightly marks from clothing by the aid of benzine, while it -is the medium whereby dry-cleaning is rendered practicable. - -The raw material--condemned meat, offal and other organs of the animal -recovered from the slaughter-house which possess no edible value--is -charged into a steam-jacketed horizontal extractor fitted with stirring -gear. When condemned carcasses are to be treated there is no need -to carry out preliminary deboning; it is merely necessary to reduce -the material to rough pieces for convenience of handling. It will be -observed that the steam is not brought into contact with the mass, but -is circulated through the jacket as in the dry vacuum process. - -The solvent is introduced in the first instance in the form of -vapour, being passed through boxes of special construction, to pass -finally into the extractor. The contents of the latter being in a -condition of constant agitation as a result of the manipulation of the -stirring gear, the benzine vapour is able to permeate the mass. The -heat radiated from the steam circulating through the jacket converts -the moisture present in the material into vapour and with which the -solvent comes into contact. Vaporization of the moisture causes the -solvent itself to condense to a certain degree, and in the liquid form -it dissolves out the grease. The process is continued until the bulk -of the moisture has been eliminated, when the grease and solvent are -withdrawn. When the grease has been fully extracted down to a limit -which will result in a dry meat-meal, containing about 1 per cent. of -grease, the benzine is steamed off in the usual manner. The benzine -itself is recovered because it is only permitted to work in a closed -circuit, and, after fulfilling its purpose, is passed to a still to be -cleaned and purified, after which it is again passed to the extractor -to repeat the cycle of operation. - -The process, it will be observed, is continuous, while the benzine -may be used over and over again. All that is required is to place -a sufficient quantity of the solvent into the circuit to carry -out the operation with the essential efficiency. Naturally, the -quantity involved varies with the size of the plant and the work to -be fulfilled, but it may run up to 5,000 or more gallons. The plant -is generally laid out upon the unit principle, which is the most -satisfactory, because it facilitates the adaptation of the installation -to the volume of work in hand. One or more units can be shut down -during the “off” period, allowing the remainder to be worked up to -their full capacity, which, of course, is the most efficient and -economical method. The losses of benzine are very low--not exceeding -1 per cent. of the weight of the raw material treated. In fact, there -are many installations in operation where, over a period of one year, -the benzine loss recorded is actually below 1 per cent. This factor is -vitally influenced by the care and attention bestowed upon the plant. -If it be carefully tended, all joints being kept in the tightly packed -condition, and the condenser maintained in a high degree of efficiency, -the benzine loss may be reduced to an infinitesimal degree, the value -thereof representing but an insignificant fraction of the value of the -increased yield of oil and fat. - -The solvent acts upon the grease only. It does not affect in any way -the gelatinous material, and, consequently, the nitrogenous or ammonia -value of the ultimate meal is considerably enhanced as compared with -the results achieved with the digesting plant. The meal is discharged -from the extractor in a dry crisp condition ready for immediate -grinding, and is admirably adapted for poultry and cattle feeding. No -traces of the benzine remain. - -The bones may be ground immediately, if desired, but if these should -be forthcoming in sufficient quantity they should be passed on to the -glue and gelatine plant. There is no necessity to submit them to a -further degreasing process, because this has been completed in the one -operation in the extractor. As a rule, however, with installations -devoted to the treatment of condemned meat and other offal, the bones -are not forthcoming in sufficient quantities to justify the attachment -of a glue recovery plant although, of course, they can be sold to other -works specializing in this work. It is merely a question as to whether -it would pay to transport the degreased bones to the glue works. If -not, they can be ground up to be utilized as fertilizer, for which, it -is needless to say, a good price can be obtained. - -The recovery of fat down to 1 per cent. of that contained in the crude -material does not constitute the only outstanding advantage of the -solvent extraction process. It enables the whole of the operations -to be condensed into one task, completely dispensing with all -auxiliary apparatus. The refuse is merely charged into the extractor -and withdrawn in the form of powder, and, if condemned carcasses -have been exploited, bone as well. What this means may readily be -realized. Under the open steam digesting system--even with the wet -and dry vacuum systems to a lesser degree--the refuse must first be -cooked. The material upon withdrawal from the digester must be passed -through the press, after which treatment it has to be disintegrated -and dried. If the reclamation of the gelatinous or “stick” liquor, as -it is called, be part of the process this also demands handling. Thus -one may safely anticipate having to conform with five distinct and -separate operations, involving intermediate handling and supplementary -plant, while the loss of fat in passing from stage to stage is far -heavier than may possibly be imagined. But, with the solvent extraction -process, the numerous above-mentioned operations are resolved into -one, and one only--the charging of the extractor with the refuse. The -saving in labour by the elimination of all interhandling is obvious, -which in these days of enhanced wage costs demands consideration, while -there are no intermediate losses of oil. In so far as saving of time -is concerned there is little, if any, difference. Under the solvent -extraction method a period of eight to ten hours is required to deal -completely with a charge of 4,500 to 9,000 lb. - -The fruits accruing from this latest manifestation of ingenuity in -connection with the reclamation of waste may be tersely emphasized. -The reclamation of the fat down to 1 per cent. being accepted, it may -also prove interesting to indicate how effectively the nitrogenous or -ammonia value of the product is preserved. The following represents -a typical analysis of a meat meal, which, it should be pointed out, -contains no bone whatever. The figures are:-- - - Per cent. - Tribasic phosphate of lime (superphosphate) 3·25 - Nitrogen 11·37 - ⤷ - = ammonia 13·81 - -At the large cattle-slaughtering establishments of North and South -America, and at the sheep-killing stations in Australia and New -Zealand, the residues from which the edible fat has been recovered -by the open steam process are turned over to the solvent extraction -plants which have now been introduced to form an integral part of -the waste-recovery system, the value of the invention being fully -appreciated. At first the practice was to dry the residues from the -digesters before committing them to the extraction plant, but since -it was found superfluous to carry out such a preliminary, the residue -is turned over from the open steam digester where the edible fats are -obtained to the solvent extraction plant, the idea of course being to -secure the proportion of fat escaping recovery in the digester. In -this manner 99 per cent. of the fat contained in the crude waste is -obtained, but the proportion reclaimed from the practice of the solvent -extraction process is set aside for manufacturing purposes--conversion -into soap and other utilitarian commodities. - -In the course of digesting the fresh fat with open steam a considerable -quantity of the “stick” liquor is precipitated, and its recovery for -size is fully justified. In the crude form this liquor is somewhat -weak, but by means of the Scott multiple-effect vacuum evaporating -plant it can be concentrated to any required degree of density. This -product is blended with the meat-meal from the solvent extraction plant -in a suitable vessel and is then dried to a powder, the ultimate meal -being high in ammonia. - -In the case of the offal which is not suitable for the production of -an edible fat, recourse to the open steam digester is eliminated. -The refuse, along with the condemned meat, is consigned directly to -the extraction plant to be dealt with in one operation. A similar -practice is followed at the large pig-killing establishments. At -one installation in South America, where there is an impressive -illustration of British ingenuity and enterprise in regard to -waste recovery upon the Scott principle, the tallow produced is -immediately dispatched to the adjoining soap works--also a British -installation--where the glycerine is recovered and soap is produced. In -this instance therefore we have a powerful example of a self-contained -establishment completely equipped for the recovery of the whole of the -by-products incurred in the course of its normal operations and to the -utmost advantage. - -The Germans have been extremely active in advancing the possibilities -of the solvent extraction process. Several large plants are in -operation in the Fatherland, of which we heard a good deal during -the war, but the character of the operations of which were grossly -misrepresented and exaggerated. Those behind the lines were reserved -exclusively for the disposal of fallen horses as well as the offal -and other wastes resulting from the feeding of the troops. The fat, -immediately upon its extraction, was treated for its glycerine, which -was dispatched to the explosive manufactories in Germany, while the -residues were converted into soap upon the spot. This practice was -followed because the glycerine was the staple in most urgent demand, -and the transport of which was far simpler than the movement of the -crude reclaimed fats. So far as soap was concerned the German soldiers, -even up to the front lines, had little or no room for complaint, for -the simple reason that it was prepared in their midst at the plants -which were installed within easy access of the centres of suitable raw -material supply. - -British manufacturers, although somewhat conservative, are becoming -alive to the fact that only by the solvent extraction process can -the utmost wealth be won from fats derived from waste materials, and -many interesting expressions of enterprise in this direction may be -recorded. For instance, the manufacture of maize flour has made decided -strides in these islands during the past five years, doubtless owing -to the deficiency in connection with the wheaten product. However, -before this grain can be converted into the farinaceous form the germ -must be extracted, otherwise the keeping qualities of the flour are -seriously impaired. But, seeing that the germ represents approximately -20 per cent. of the whole grain, it will be seen that the industry -has to face a loss of one-fifth of its raw material in preparing the -flour--an imposing quantity. However, the germ is rich in oil, this -constituting approximately 20 per cent. of its bulk. The demand for -oil, particularly those of vegetable origin, is such that the maize -germ, instead of being turned over directly to cattle, is now being -exploited for its oil. By the solvent extraction process 99 per cent. -of this available 20 per cent. of oil is being extracted, the resultant -meal thus being virtually free of oil. - -When the idea was first taken in hand it was maintained that the -withdrawal of the oil would imperil the feeding qualities of the meal -residue. This being conclusively disproved it was then argued that the -employment of benzine for the purpose would depreciate its cattle-food -value, the idea doubtless being entertained that it must be associated -with a certain benzine flavour from coming into contact with the -solvent. But here again practice did not coincide with precept, because -horses will devour the meal, freshly drawn from the extractor, with -avidity, and look round for more, proving very convincingly that -the benzine is completely exhausted from the extractor after having -fulfilled its designed function. Experience has shown that meal made -from the de-oiled maize germ is every whit as good and as nourishing -as, if not actually superior to, that which has not been subjected to -the oil-recovery process. - -The solvent extraction process has proved to be of incalculable value -to the firms specializing in the dry-cleaning of clothes, fabrics, -and textiles in general. When the articles are likely to be charged -with appreciable quantities of dirt, such as carpets, they are first -subjected to a dusting treatment which removes the superfluous or free -dirt. Wearing apparel, except in a few instances, does not require -submission to this preliminary operation and so is passed into the -washing machine, which contains only benzine, together with a slight -proportion of ammoniacal liquor. The garments are passed through -several successive washings and rinsings in various machines, to be -submitted finally to the hydro-extractor, where practically the whole -of the benzine is recovered, the goods being delivered practically dry. -But to be positive upon this point they are hung for three or four -hours in a drying room. The articles are then examined for any stains, -such as blood and grease marks, which have resisted elimination in the -mechanical cleaning process. These are removed by hand--“hand-spotting” -as it is called, either with water, or with benzine and a little -soluble soap and a brush. - -The dirt and other deleterious matter removed by the benzine in the -washing and rinsing machines is separated from the solvent, which -undergoes a simple treatment, bringing about its complete purification, -when it is returned to the service-tanks for further use. The process -is one of continuous distillation, the benzine, as previously -mentioned, being used over and over again, it only being necessary to -add certain quantities from time to time to remedy the unavoidable -losses incurred. The wastage of benzine averages about 15 per cent. -of the weight of the goods treated. Seeing that about 4,500 gallons -may pass hourly through the machines and the circuit, the loss is -relatively low. The quantity of dirt removed, despite the thoroughness -of the process, is comparatively trifling. - -One interesting phase of the dry-cleaning process deserves mention, -if only to bring home the assiduity with which the reclamation of -grease from every conceivable source is now being prosecuted. Some -of the firms are devoting attention to the separation of the grease -removed from the clothes by the benzine. Seeing that the only likely -contribution of grease is that removed from the hands or other part -of the body coming into contact with the fabric, and that the grease -in question is only natural perspiration, it will be seen that, under -the most favourable conditions, such deposit must necessarily be -exceedingly trifling. That it should be deemed worthy of recovery seems -almost incredible. But it is being done, though the yield is low, and -it is proving profitable. - -Probably no other waste is to be found in such a multiplicity of forms -and in such unexpected quarters as that capable of yielding grease, but -that it should pay to recover natural perspiration to assist in the -lubrication of a railway locomotive, or some other piece of machinery, -serves to emphasize the extremely fine limits to which fat-reclamation -science has been carried. It is admitted that, in the majority of -cases, the possible yields are so small as to render reclamation -absolutely impossible by any but the solvent extraction process, which -undoubtedly constitutes the highest testimony to the efficiency and -value of this wonderful British invention it is possible to advance. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -SAVING THE SCRAP FROM THE SEA - - -If the human race be extravagant in one, more than in any other -direction, it is undoubtedly in connection with the utilization of -the harvests of the sea. It is a failing as strongly asserted by the -primitive as by the cultured races. The aborigine, when there is a -big run, will trap as many fish as he can, not for consumption, but -apparently for the mere sake of catching his prey. He will select what -he requires and leave the remainder to rot. His civilized brother -pursues a broadly similar course, only in this event decomposition may -not be permitted to run its course without fulfilling a beneficial -purpose. The process can be harnessed, as it were, to a more or less -useful function. - -Improvidence in the consumption of fish is particularly noticeable -among those nations which are able to point to an extensive salt-water -front, combined with a densely-settled population within a relatively -small area. It becomes accentuated when the country is possessed of an -intricate and excellent system of rapid inland transportation, allowing -the prompt movement of the catches from the points of landing to the -centres of consumption. - -Such a country is Great Britain. With us fish is an exceedingly cheap -food and one which, normally, is readily procurable in adequate -quantities. The “long haul” by rail occasions no apprehensions, -inasmuch as the railway transport problem, so far as fish is concerned, -has been magnificently solved, it being possible to move consignments -four hundred, even six hundred miles within a few hours. - -The sea’s contribution to the table is prolific. At the same time -it is variable. This factor in itself conduces towards pronounced -wastage. We seem to have failed lamentably in our efforts to cope with -the alternating spells of plenty and relative scarcity in a scientific -manner. We have not mastered the adjustment of seasonal gluts, arising -from the periodic massed movements of the fish, to shortages in order -to maintain a steady and uniform supply the whole year round. In view -of the immense strides which have been made in the art of preserving -perishable foodstuffs, this deficiency is certainly somewhat remarkable. - -The extremely low prices at which the bulk of the food from the sea, -particularly of herring and sprat--occasionally mackerel--is available, -are primarily responsible for the extravagance which rules. This -state of affairs offers another interesting illustration of the fact -that extremely cheap living promotes waste. We need only to recall -the experience of the war to assure ourselves upon this point. Under -the system of price control, coupled with abnormally high rates, fish -purchases had to be conducted by the trade with extreme caution to -obviate financial losses, while, similarly, the consumer was compelled -to be more economic and less fastidious in his, or her, tastes. Under -such conditions far less of the single fish was wasted, while greater -ingenuity was exercised in the preparation of the less attractive -edible portions for the table. - -Nevertheless, no matter how extreme the care or economy manifested, a -certain degree of wastage is unavoidable. For the most part the offal, -which in itself is appreciable in volume, is regarded as irreclaimable -and valueless except as a fertilizer. But this reasoning is fallacious. -Fish-waste is capable of furnishing raw material in several forms to -feed other industries. As yet this notable circumstance has not become -fully appreciated in these islands, the practicability of using such -refuse only having been established during the past few years. - -Ability to turn fish offal to distinct profitable advantage not only -solves the problem in its economic aspect, but at the same time -indicates a promising outlook for glut catches and to which the -ordinary markets are often denied. In this country the conventional -disposal of surplus fish is decidedly deplorable for the reason that it -follows the line of least resistance. A glut or late catch is generally -sold at an absurd price in bulk to serve merely as manure. - -If the fish could be turned directly into the soil such a use might -not be exposed to severe condemnation, although it is to be deprecated -because it represents a serious misuse of valuable food. But, as a -rule, this cannot be conducted with the essential promptitude for -obvious reasons. Then the farmer suffers a heavy loss. Vigilant gulls -and other birds having a well-defined penchant for fish diet raid the -land to enjoy a Gargantuan feast with the minimum of effort on their -part. The birds will even follow a train, or road wagons, bearing a -manurial consignment of their food, for miles from the point of landing -and then, after it has been dumped, will swoop down to gorge themselves -to the full. In many instances a farmer has been known to lose at least -50 per cent. of his purchase in this manner. He may essay alert and -effective measures to combat the birds’ attacks, but he will find it -an unequal contest. In one instance, which came before my notice, the -insatiable birds, catching sight of one or two open trucks laden with -a freshly-landed catch _en route_ to the land, attacked the wagons so -vigorously as to cause a very perceptible shrinkage in the load before -it reached its destination. Another farmer, who had been persuaded to -buy two or three truckloads of freshly-landed fish just because it was -cheap, subsequently expressed his doubt as to whether he had driven a -good bargain after all. The birds attacked the field over which the -loads were distributed in such overwhelming numbers as to prompt the -opinion that the field really contained more gulls than fish! So, after -all, it is extremely questionable whether the purchase of a bumper -catch for use as a fertilizer is really such a bargain as it may appear -from a cursory reflection. - -In our large cities and towns the treatment of fish offal and surplus -supplies drawn from the markets, stores, and retail shops, as well as -the hotels, restaurants, and clubs, for industrial exploitation, should -present no difficulty whatever. It is an offal apart and a noisome one. -Its susceptibility to rapid decomposition and the emission of obnoxious -odours during the process demand its prompt removal. It cannot be -handled with other refuse owing to its offensiveness. Consequently the -system of special collection by vehicles of the closed tank type has -become the general practice. In this manner the disconcerting factor -pertaining to the utilization of organic waste--effective segregation -at the source--is assured. - -Although, so far as we are concerned, the record of practical -achievements concerning the industrial utilization of fish-waste is -slender, owing to the few firms having been persuaded to embrace this -phase of trading, it is consoling to learn that we possess what may be -described as the leading authorities competent to deal with this issue -in all its varying aspects, and to be equipped with the best approved -facilities for conducting this work along the latest and most promising -lines. There is one firm in particular which has built up a unique -reputation in this direction, having been responsible for the design -and construction, as well as installation, of the largest fish-waste -reclamation plants in operation throughout the world. Some of these -equipments are most elaborate in character, and their very dimensions, -activity, scale of operations and prosperity, serve to demonstrate, in -the most convincing manner, the enormous wealth capable of being won -from fish scrap when the task is conducted along the lines advanced -by scientific development. The British firm in question, to whose -apparatus I have devoted extensive description in a previous chapter, -has been responsible for the complete installations forming part and -parcel of the huge canneries scattered along the western seaboard of -the North American continent. - -It somewhat redeems our own short-sightedness and lack of enterprise to -know that we have a firm in our midst which has achieved many distinct -triumphs in the great issue of waste reclamation. It retains an -imposing staff of highly-trained chemists who have become specialists -in this privileged province, and they have devoted especial attention -to the exploitation of fish-scrap in the anticipation that this may -yet develop into a pretentious British industry. The presiding genius -of this organization has also associated himself intimately with -the problem from the severely scientific side, as well as becoming -thoroughly familiarized with the latest methods as practised in -Germany, Scandinavia, and other countries in order to reap full -advantage from the lessons which they are able to extend in point -of equipment and practice. In the opinion of this active-minded and -enterprising authority we have nothing to learn from the foreigner -either in point of processes, plant, or efficiency. We merely lack the -necessary imagination, initiative, and commercial acumen to be able to -reap the full financial and trading harvest to be gathered from the -exploitation of fish-scrap. While we are apathetic and backward in this -connection our Dominions are alert and astute. We need only to turn to -the extensive installation recently laid down in Australia--a model of -its type--and which was completed by the firm in question, to grasp -what can be accomplished in this peculiar field. - -It was extremely fortunate for us, as a nation, to be possessed of -the knowledge and creative resources of a progressive firm. During -the war, when the economic conditions became so tense, the question -of the economic disposal of fish-waste to full commercial advantage -suddenly assumed an unexpected significance. Specific raw materials -were urgently demanded, and it was decided to search sedulously -for additional domestic sources of supply. In the conduct of these -investigations the potentialities of fish-scrap were forced to the -forefront. The enemy was exploiting this field to its absolute limits, -so why should we continue to ignore it? Cognizant of the precise -possibilities of this industry and the financial attractions which it -possessed the head of the firm of which I have written expressed his -readiness to extend all assistance in his power. His knowledge of the -craft, together with that of what the enemy could and could not do, -proved invaluable, and enabled us to place the recovery of the wealth -from this waste upon a solid foundation, and in such a manner as to -allow of its indefinite expansion in the future. - -So far as turning fish-scrap to commercial account has been concerned -in these islands the axiom pertaining to the prophet and his own -country has not been wholly applicable. The Germans endeavoured to -establish an industry upon this raw material among us but signally -failed. One or two small plants were laid down along the broad lines -in vogue upon the other side of the North Sea, but they fell so far -short of expectations or requirements, and were so strikingly inferior -to British thought as to fall into disuse. They have long since been -broken up. - -The Teuton, however, was not solicitous of the welfare of the British -nation in exploiting British fish-waste. He was merely prompted to -plant himself here because the necessary refuse--raw material from -his point of view--was obtainable in such huge quantities and at a -low figure. The output was shipped to Germany, where it commanded an -attractive price and was in keen demand. The spurned and rejected of -Britain became the highly prized of Germany. - -Fish-waste falls into two broad classes, which are yet somewhat sharply -defined. These are white fish and oily offal respectively, the herring -being the best example of the latter category. Consequently, to conduct -fish-waste reclamation and exploitation for the by-products upon a -sufficiently comprehensive scale in these islands it would be necessary -to separate the offal into the two distinctive classifications at -the source. However, this would not be such a perplexing problem as -it might appear at first sight. Such segregation is imperative for -specific technical reasons, while one must also remember that the salt -content of the offal varies widely in the two classes of fish. - -Scrap of this character can be induced to yield three commercial -products as a result of inexpensive treatment. They are respectively -meal for poultry and cattle, oil, and fertilizer. A fourth commodity -might be included, namely, fish-glue. Hitherto we have been content to -draw upon other countries for our supplies of this article, although -abundant raw material for its production has always been readily -obtainable. But manufacture was doubtless regarded as being extremely -speculative for the simple reason that the demand for this article -was severely limited. For some reason or other fish-glue, though -extensively used by the peoples of other nations, has never been -regarded with pronounced favour in British circles although it cannot -be excelled as an adhesive. Probably its peculiarly pungent odour has -been responsible for our indifferent appreciation of its virtues. One -or two small factories were equipped to conduct domestic manufacture, -but they were far from being pretentious in their scale of operation. - -Fish-glue has attained its greatest vogue in Germany, Scandinavia, -Canada, and the United States of America--the last-named more -particularly. Yet there is no reason why it should not become equally -popular here. All that is required is to enlighten the community -concerning its properties, and here is a grand opportunity for -propaganda in support of a new industry. There is no secret associated -with its production as might possibly be imagined. The quality most -essential to secure its widespread appreciation is merely a display of -grim energy, push, and go. It is not a case of being called upon to -advance the claims of an entirely new product. It is known more or less -throughout the country from the circumstance that it is being exploited -in varying degree throughout the world. In these circumstances the -manufacture of British fish-glue from British fish-waste presents -enormous possibilities, capable of illimitable development. - -There are signs that we are bestirring ourselves in this direction. -Heretofore fish-glue has always been made from the skins of white fish. -It has now been suggested that, in this country, the bones might be put -to similar account, the gummy content thereof being quite pronounced. -Expert opinion favours the contention that such might be carried out -to advantage, but there is one supreme difficulty--the adequate supply -of the essential bones. They could be drawn from the filleting trade, -but the extent of this supply is somewhat problematical. Fish-bones as -such have not yet attained the high estate of recognition as a distinct -article of commerce. Nevertheless a possible way out of this difficulty -has been suggested. It should be quite practicable, when employing the -oil extraction process to which I refer later, to sift out the larger -bones before submitting the dry residue to the grinding process. In -this way it would be possible to secure a ready supply of the necessary -raw material for the production of the glue. - -It has also been suggested in certain home circles that herring -offal might be treated in such a way as to yield fish-glue, but this -represents a venture upon untrodden ground. From such a statement it -must not be inferred that this residue could not be induced to yield -the substance desired, but so far as is known the offal has never -been devoted to this purpose. Nevertheless, the suggestion is to be -applauded. It is indicative of the new spirit attending the disposal of -fish offal and goes to prove that British commercial pioneering is far -from being numbered among the lost arts. The mere launch of the inquiry -has sufficed to spur the chemist to investigate the problem, and any -success achieved in the laboratory in this direction will represent -an enormous progressive stride owing to the magnitude of our herring -fishery. - -At the moment it is the recovery of the oil, meal, and fertilizer -which constitutes the primary objectives of the industry. Of the three -possible by-products the meal is doubtless the most remunerative. -To a certain degree the contemporary concentration of effort upon -the conversion of the offal into meal is due to the fact that this -constituted the essence of German endeavour in these islands before -the war. This meal was in keen demand in Germany, and the bulk thereof -was dispatched to that country and Japan. The interruption of this -supply to the former, as a result of the outbreak of hostilities, hit -the enemy somewhat severely. Not only was he thus deprived of the -crude meal prepared in Britain, but he was also denied the opportunity -to turn the waste accruing from the consumption in the Fatherland of -the heavy imports of British herring which were also summarily cut -off. Doubtless Germany cherishes hopes that her industrious sons, who -specialized in this distinctive craft, will be permitted to return to -the scene of their former labours and to exploit British fish-scrap -once again to the advantage of the German nation upon the conclusion of -peace. May the wish become no more than father to the thought. We have -not failed to profit from the many lessons taught by the war: we have -been forced to recognize the many virtues of fish-meal and have made, -and still are making, spirited efforts to repair the losses in this -line of trading which, from our indifference and lack of imagination, -we lost. - -To galvanize British effort the fish-meal and fish-manure (guano) -manufacturers have joined hands. Propaganda has been waged vigorously -by the association, while agricultural societies and colleges have -willingly co-operated to spread the gospel of enlightenment. Farmers -have been canvassed sedulously, and the value of these by-products -for feeding stock and soil have been brought convincingly before -them. As a poultry food fish-meal is declared to be unsurpassable, -and this circumstance has been driven well home. The result of this -onslaught has been to force the farmer, an admittedly difficult -individual to convince, into the admission that these products are -possessed of far-reaching potentialities, the result being that, -to-day, an increasing demand for fish-meal and guano prevails, which -has exercised the obvious effect of stimulating the exploitation of -fish-scrap to a very pronounced degree. - -During the war circumstances militated against the fulfilment of any -impressive programme of development along modern lines. Plant and -machinery could not be procured owing to the prior claims advanced by -other industries. Consequently the problem became resolved rather into -the modernization and adaptation of existing plants, many of which -suffered from being woefully inefficient. But even in this direction -much was achieved which cannot fail to be of distinct value, since it -has served to illustrate what can be done in this field to financial -profit. Now that trade is returning to the normal we may safely -anticipate a striking advance along the whole industrial line in the -installation of comprehensive plants coinciding with the very latest -expressions of scientific thought, and which will not fail to conduce -to the winning of impressively additional wealth from this hitherto -sadly-neglected material. - -So far as the white fish is concerned the conversion of the offal -into meal represents a straightforward operation. It is merely dried -under vacuum along the lines already described, a steam-jacketed -drier or concentrator being used for the purpose. If the waste be -stale or heavily impregnated with salt it cannot be used as food, the -product in this instance being bagged for sale as a fertilizer. But -the manufacturer, owing to the enhanced profit to be derived from the -sale of the product in the feeding-meal form naturally strives to -secure this article, and so, if designed for this use, the meal, after -issuance from the drier, is passed through a disintegrator and is then -graded through a sifting reel. - -It is the exploitation of the herring and the sprat, both in the form -of offal, glut catches, and condemned consignments, which presents the -most attractive future in these islands. When it is remembered that -the annual yield of the sea to the fishermen of Britain represents -a round 4,000,000,000 herrings, it will be conceded that here must -be a Klondyke of waste. Unfortunately, however, the issue is not so -straightforward as it would seem to be. An enormous quantity of the -catches are set aside for salting and curing to allow of export to -foreign markets. In the past Russia and Germany were our largest -customers for this foodstuff, their combined purchases running to -a round 800,000,000 lb. and exceeding £4,000,000--$20,000,000--in -value. When the fish is salted the treatment of the offal presents a -rather teasing problem. Its excessive salt content reacts against its -conversion into poultry-meal except in very small quantities which are -almost too insignificant to demand attention. When a fish-meal carries -salt in excess of 5 per cent. it can be used as a constituent of -blended or compounded foods, and then only sparingly. Consequently the -possible consumption in this field can only be relatively trifling. - -By salting the herring the saline content is increased to 20 or even 25 -per cent., and the removal of the added salt offers a supreme obstacle. -Fortunately it crops up only at certain seasons, but, at these periods, -the quantities of offal and scrap to be treated assume imposing -dimensions. As may be imagined, from what has been related, salt is -the bugbear to the meal manufacturer and he is hard put to it to bring -the figure down to one coinciding with trading requirements. What he -desires is a simple, inexpensive process whereby the excessive salt may -be eliminated without impairing the other virtues of the material in -any way. Needless to say the discovery of such a preliminary treatment, -meeting with his desires, will be received with unfeigned delight. - -The suggestion has been advanced that the extraneous, or added, -salt might be removed by subjecting the offal to a washing process. -Undoubtedly, in this way, the desired end could be consummated to a -certain degree, but, at the same time, there is the danger that the -water would not only carry away the salt but would bear with it an -appreciable proportion of the valuable nitrogenous matter which it is -imperative should be retained. Unfortunately the salt is not completely -free; it permeates the fish through and through and is held by the -tissues. In view of the difficulty obtaining the manufacturer, as -a rule, converts the heavily salted offal into fertilizer, but the -enhanced salt content of the manure is regarded with certain misgivings -even by the farmer. - -This problem assumed its maximum intensity during the war. Huge -quantities of barrelled herrings, destined for export to the countries -upon the other side of the North Sea, were held up by the authorities, -who feared that they might ultimately find their way into enemy -countries. As there was no other outlet for this produce, the salted -herrings not being regarded with favour here, these prohibited exports -were ultimately thrown upon the hands of the meal manufacturers. Such -an instance is decidedly abnormal, but as already mentioned the issue -arises to a lesser degree under conditions of ordinary trading, and, -consequently, demands a certain amount of attention. - -The engineering firm specializing in plants for the exploitation of -fish-scrap, to which I have alluded, is attacking this problem in its -extensive well-equipped laboratories. The chemist favours the theory -that the extraneous salt is capable of ready removal. He also realizes -that the perfection of a simple and cheap process to this end will -probably accomplish a further beneficial purpose. Traces of blood -are occasionally encountered in the offal, and their presence tends -to discolour the resultant meal. These might possibly be eliminated -contemporaneously with the removal of the added salt. - -While I have dealt somewhat at length with the artificial salt problem, -as it were, it must not be imagined that it constitutes a constant or -inseparable feature of the fish-waste by-product recovery industry: -far from it. Herring offal, while extremely varied, falls into certain -distinctive classes. There is the scrap, or waste, as well as condemned -consignments and surplus incidental to the fresh fish trade, which -during the recurring periods undoubtedly touches a very high figure. -Then there is the kippering and curer offal, the yield of which is much -more formidable and easily recoverable from accumulations at central -plants where such work is carried out upon a large scale. The kippering -refuse, of course, represents that incurred in the process of kippering -the herring and, comprising for the most part the gut of the fish, -presents a material having little body or substance. - -This waste is difficult to treat except along the most modern lines. -For this reason, in pre-war days it was exploited only to a limited -degree. Yet its accumulation was enormous. At some plants the piles of -such refuse, which were to be seen, contained several hundred tons. It -failed to arouse earnest attention until the famine in oil burst upon -us during hostilities. Then these dumps created interest because it was -realized that such residue is rich in oil, enormous quantities of which -were lying dormant. Forthwith plants were erected and equipped with the -very latest types of machinery, which augurs well for the continuation -of this manifestation of industrial enterprise in the future, owing to -the great possibilities attending such reclamation. - -Curer offal presents the heads and other waste portions as well as a -material quantity of broken fish. This refuse has far more body, and -so can be more readily treated to allow the valuable by-products to be -recovered. - -While we undoubtedly lagged behind our competitors in turning -fish-scrap to commercial account it must not be imagined that we -completely ignored this potential source of wealth. Nevertheless, for -the most part, we were content to conduct operations along obsolete, -inefficient lines, obtaining a return far below what might have -been recorded. Had these plants been of modern design and equipment -fish-waste reclamation would have advanced by leaps and bounds during -the war period. As new machinery could not be obtained the main -task was to adapt the existing plant to satisfy the demands of the -authorities, which proved a task of distinct magnitude in itself, -because the majority of the installations in operation possessed no -striking feature other than that of being extremely wasteful from every -point of view, offering, in fact, the most convincing illustrations of -How _not_ to do it! - -In some works the practice was to cook the offal in steam-jacketed -cookers. Now, when kippering offal, for instance, is being treated, -the material, owing to lack of body, tends to coagulate at a certain -stage in the process, a large volume of oil being liberated. This oil -was skimmed and the residue, resembling a stiff mud, was removed to -be wrapped in cloths for submission to extreme pressure in hydraulic -presses. This action served to express a certain proportion of the oil -remaining in the sludge. The compressed cakes were then transferred to -a steam-jacketed drier to be reduced to meal. - -This process, which has not yet been completely superseded, suffers -from being involved and prolonged, although these do not constitute -the most adverse features. The greatest objections to it are the -retention of an appreciable quantity of oil in the residue, even after -subjection to pressure, which accordingly becomes associated with -the meal. The last-named being sold for fertilizing purposes, the -presence of the oil is objectionable, while the product also suffers -from being low in ammonia. Furthermore, while the sludge is being -pressed a pronounced volume of watery liquid is driven out to be lost -down the drains. Seeing that this liquid carries valuable manurial -constituents its loss is greatly to be deplored, and materially lowers -the fertilizing--and financial--value of the meal. - -A variation of the foregoing process is made in other works, but it -only tends towards greater inefficiency and heavier losses. In this -case only the oil resulting from treatment of the material in the -hydraulic press is recovered! A third system involves the passage of -the pressed cakes through a continuous direct fire-heated drier. This -method is particularly objectionable, not only from the offensive -odours which are thrown off, but because the ammonia content of the -waste undergoes serious depreciation, owing to the high temperature -employed. In certain instances the herring offal is even charged into -the apparatus without any attempt having been made to separate the oil! -Such a system, as will readily be recognized, has nothing whatever to -recommend it. - -It is the observance of such indifferent and unscientific methods -as the foregoing which has been responsible for the commercial -possibilities of fish-scrap to be belittled. The oil is undoubtedly -ignored intentionally because fish oils are generally held to be -worthy of inclusion only among the lowest grades of industrial oils. -Nevertheless, were a chemist to be attached to such wasteful plants -much needed reforms could be promptly introduced, although it is highly -probable that the plants would be scrapped instantly at his instigation -because of their lamentable inefficiency. - -But we need labour no longer in ignorance. Modern science, as -represented by chemistry and engineering, is able to offer an equipment -capable of extracting the whole of the oil content down to 1 per cent. -In other words, 99 per cent. of the oil contained in the raw offal -and scrap can be recovered both cheaply and easily. The loss of such -a minute fraction as 1 per cent. undoubtedly represents a remarkable -chemico-mechanical achievement. - -The new process completely coincides with the dictates of contemporary -science. The fundamental features are cooking the refuse under vacuum -and the ultimate extraction of the oil by the aid of a suitable solvent -such as benzine or other equally volatile spirit, or the benzine -extraction system may be used from the very beginning, in a single -and complete process. I have described this highly ingenious system -in a previous chapter together with the system of operation followed. -Obviously while the highest efficiency can only be derived from the -installation of the complete plant, the processes being interrelated, -the designer found it possible to modernize some of the old-fashioned -and wasteful equipments to a very striking degree by the introduction -of certain features to meet the exigencies of the moment. - -A very convincing illustration of what can be achieved in this -connection may be related. A firm specializing in the exploitation -of herring offal desired to extend its plant, but was baulked in its -intentions owing to the various restrictions which were in force. -Accordingly it was compelled to consider the situation of how to -derive more from the existing facilities without adding to them, at -least only to an insignificant degree. At first sight this may seem -to have presented a somewhat intricate, if not actually impossible, -undertaking. Yet it was effected. - -The modified arrangement introduced is decidedly interesting. The -offal is cooked in the steam-jacketed cooker, as much as possible -of the oil being skimmed from the mixture at the critical stage of -coagulation. The sediment, or mud-like residue, is then transferred -to an extractor where the remaining oil is recovered. This converts -the residue into a still stiffer substance to be finished off in the -ordinary steam-jacketed drier, instead of being completely dried in the -extractor as originally designed. - -This solution has proved to be exceedingly simple and eminently -efficient. Although considerable handling is involved the extracting -capacity of the plant has been nearly doubled. The advantages to be -recorded are:-- - - (1) Ability to handle very much larger charges of waste when not - reducing the material to a dry meal; - - (2) Reduction of the raw material to the extent of the oil removed - from the cookers; - - (3) Reduction of the time required for the oil extraction by - approximately 50 per cent. - -Consequently, although the adapted, or modified, process entails the -employment of extra labour, a result entirely due in this instance to -the disposition of the plant in the works, the firm in question is able -to obtain the value of the oil which would otherwise be lost, and which -more than offsets the cost of the extra labour involved. - -As a result of this development a review of the whole problem -associated with the recovery of the by-products from fish-scrap was -made. Cooking plant is not so expensive as extraction equipment. The -question arose as to whether, or not, it would be possible, by the -introduction of suitable automatic handling and other labour-saving -devices, to obtain highly satisfactory results and efficiency from a -combined plant. If this could be done then it would be comparatively -easy and inexpensive to bring many of the existing recovery plants up -to date to the advantage of the firms concerned. But the factor of -capital outlay demands careful consideration, more especially in all -matters pertaining to the utilization of waste products, because costs -must be forced down to the irreducible minimum to show the necessary -return to render them attractive. The result of close investigation -of the issue led to the ultimate conclusion that the cost involved -in connection with the cookers, extraction plant, and driers, in all -probability, would be heavier than that incidental to the laying down -of a straightforward extraction plant, pure and simple, to deal with -the raw material and to turn it out as a dry product in one operation. -One admitted advantage accrues from subjecting the material to -preliminary cooking in steam-jacketed cookers. The oil thus obtained is -somewhat better in quality than that derived by recourse to the solvent. - -The modified or combined process above described enables one distinct -end to be achieved. The objectionable and wasteful, as well as -expensive pressing plant can be dispensed with. It also enables the -ammonia content of the finished meal to be improved very noticeably, -as the following analyses of typical meals produced by the respective -processes prove somewhat conclusively. - - PHOSPHATES. AMMONIA. - Per cent. Per cent. - Pressing process 6·5 7·5 - Combined process 9·5 10·5 - -From the foregoing it will be seen that the enhanced yield of -phosphates and ammonia fully justifies the additional expenditure -incurred in regard to the plant and labour in connection with the -extraction process, quite apart from the main duty of the plant. This -is to extract all the oil, multiplying the usual yield many times over. -Moreover, the quality of the oil-free meal obviously is superior. - -With herring offal the extraction process by benzine ensures nothing -being removed except the moisture and the oil. None of the liquor with -its valuable ammonia is lost. Consequently the whole of the nitrogenous -matter is combined with the resultant fertilizing meal. - -To indicate the advantage of the benzine extraction process over the -old-fashioned method of cooking, pressing, and subsequently drying the -pressed cakes the accompanying analyses may prove informative. They -refer to herring-mixed meal produced from kippering offal and damaged -herring respectively. - -BENZINE EXTRACTION PROCESS. - - Per cent. - Ammonia 11·79 - Tribasic phosphate of lime 9·66 - Oil 1·10 - -OLD PROCESS. - - Per cent. - Ammonia 7·5 - Tribasic phosphate of lime 6·5 - Oil 15·5 - -Both essential fertilizing constituents are lower by the second than -by the first process. This is not surprising in view of the fact that -the subjection of the sludge to pressure drives off the watery liquor -which is allowed to escape into the drains, notwithstanding that it -carries a pronounced proportion of the ammonia and phosphate. Then it -will be seen that the benzine process yields a manure carrying a less -proportion of the oil which the farmer regards with misgiving, because -the oil has been recovered for sale as such. In other words it will be -seen that, under the old process, 14.4 per cent. of oil is allowed to -pass to the land where it is not required, instead of to industry where -it is in keen request. At the prices which prevailed during the war -this represented a wastage of £7--$35--per ton of fertilizer. - -Under the extraction or solvent process the meal is turned out in -a perfectly dry condition, either for use as a poultry food or -fertilizer, the recovery of the oil and drying being completed in the -one operation. The method is not only the acme of simplicity but it -assures the maximum yield of oil, only 1 per cent. being lost. It is -also rapid, it being possible to treat a charge of 8 tons of offal in -10 to 12 hours in one unit. - -White fish and general offal do not contain sufficient oil to warrant -the expense of solvent extraction. If it should be desired to secure 99 -per cent. of the slight proportion the offal carries then submission to -the benzine process is imperative, for the simple reason that it cannot -possibly be recovered in any other way. The modern system of drying -such offal is by steam heat under vacuum or reduced pressure. - -This process, to which I have also devoted adequate attention -previously, not only enables a product of high quality to be obtained, -enabling it to command an enhanced price in the market, but it also -conduces towards the retention of the nitrogenous contents of the meal. -From the fertilizing point of view this is the main end to be achieved. -Colour of the meal is another factor which demands recognition. It -plays a far more prominent part in the commercial value of the product -than might possibly be conceived. The American drying system, operating -along direct fire-heated lines, while efficient so far as it goes, -namely, the elimination of the moisture, yields a darker coloured meal, -owing to the high temperature which has to be used, while, of course, -the nitrogen content is lowered by such practice. - -The vacuum system has also proved highly efficient for the production -of cod-liver oil. The temperature of rendering being low gives an oil -of superior colour and odour, two factors of vital importance when -the oil is being extracted for medicinal purposes. This is a somewhat -delicate product to manufacture, especially when the livers are in a -state of partial decomposition, because in this instance colour and -sweet taste are particularly vital and difficult to assure. - -I have referred to the circumstance that fish oils commercially rule -low in the scale of industrial oils. But even fish oils possess one -feature common to the highest grades of oils. They carry a certain -proportion of glycerine. During the war the oil extracted from -fish-scrap and offal was subjected to further treatment to swell our -domestic supplies of this indispensable commodity. Even under normal -conditions the reclamation of oil from fish waste to secure this -glycerine offers further inducement to this phase of industry, and is -also capable of considerable development. - -Fish oils are also destined to play a more prominent part upon the -table than has been the case heretofore. Their inherent fluidity -and refusal to solidify, except at low temperatures, have hitherto -reacted against their use in this direction. But the increasing demand -for margarine as a substitute for butter, and the discovery of the -hydrogenating process for eliminating the two outstanding defects, have -invested the future for fish oils with additional significance, more -especially as by the hardening process, as it is called, the pungent -taste and aroma so distinctively of the sea and its inhabitants are -removed. By virtue of this discovery fish oils are entering more and -more extensively into the manufacture of margarine. The circumstance -that they yield a product so closely allied to the genuine article -from the dairy as to be difficult of detection, except by elaborate -investigation and specialized methods, has served to accentuate this -tendency. - -We must derive far-reaching benefits from the utilization of our -fish waste of every description--not only the offal arising from the -preparation of the foodstuff for the table either in a fresh, kippered, -cured, or canned condition, but the inedible contributions from the -trawls. Those members of the sea’s vast and varied population, such -as the whale, which are trapped for certain highly-prized portions of -their bodies, must be fully exploited. For decades the whale fishery -has been conducted along the most wickedly wasteful lines for which we -are paying to-day. The Scandinavian whalers have been among the worst -offenders in this respect, but they are now being compelled to turn -from the folly of their ways and are endeavouring to utilize the whole -of the carcases of their prizes. - -So far as the average member of the community in these islands is -concerned it is a moot point whether he, or she, has any tangible -idea of the magnitude of the British sea-fishing industry. From the -abundance and cheapness of the food a vague notion obtains that it -must certainly be somewhat impressive. To obtain a graphic idea of its -enormous proportions we must venture beyond the limits of domestic -consumption and see how we help to feed the foreigner. Under normal -conditions we ship approximately 1,250,000,000 lb. of fish every year, -representing in value a round £7,750,000--$38,750,000. Of this huge -total the humble herring represents nearly 1,120,000,000 lb., valued -at approximately £6,000,000--$30,000,000. Of the total herring catch -about one thousand million--1,000,000,000--lb. are subjected to curing -or salting for the foreign markets, the value of those exports being -£5,350,000--$26,750,000--so that the herring may truly be said to form -the backbone of the British sea-fisheries. In these circumstances, and -bearing in mind the huge quantities handled, the item of waste must -necessarily loom heavy. It cannot be avoided. Therefore it behoves -us to turn our harvest from the sea to the utmost advantage and to -eliminate the item “loss” from our operations. - -As the by-products from fish-waste become appreciated we may even -proceed to the lengths pursued along the northern Atlantic seaboard of -the United States. There the harvest of the menhaden, a fish totally -unfit for human consumption, is carried out expressly for the oil -obtainable therefrom. It has become a flourishing trade--one which is -steadily expanding--special vessels being engaged in the fishery. While -it is questionable if much fish of a comparative character and totally -unsuited to the table is to be caught in the waters around our coasts, -Farther Britain can point to a different state of things. Our Dominions -should find it profitable to emulate the American example and exploit -adjacent waters essentially for inedible fish to extract the oil and -to convert the residue either into fertilizer or poultry food. There is -a lucrative and developing market for all three commodities. - -But the problem of to-day, in so far as it particularly affects Great -Britain, is to solve the issue incidental to the glut catches, so as -to prevent the wasteful distribution of the raw fish over the land as -the easiest way out of a perplexing dilemma. If we can divert such -unwanted hauls from the sea to reclamation factories, confident in the -knowledge that there they will be worked up to their utmost in the -interests of commerce, we shall be able to record an industrial and -economic achievement of incalculable consequence to ourselves. To dump -newly-caught fish upon the land merely because it cannot be absorbed -by the community as a foodstuff constitutes one of the most deplorably -wasteful, if not actually criminally extravagant, charges ever levelled -against contemporary civilization. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -WINNING WEALTH FROM SLAUGHTER-HOUSE OFFAL, CONDEMNED MEAT BONES, AND -BLOOD - - -Undoubtedly one of the wonders of civilization is the ability to -preserve and transport such a readily perishable foodstuff as meat in a -chilled and frozen condition for an indefinite period of time. By this -means cattle roaming the extensive ranches of North and South America, -Australia and New Zealand, are rendered available in a fresh form for -presentation upon the tables of Britain to supplement the severely -limited domestic supplies. During recent years the growth of this -traffic has been remarkable, and it will not be long before we touch -the million-tons-a-year mark for imported beef, mutton, pork, exclusive -of ham and bacon. - -Yet the development of this trade has reacted directly against our -own interests. The dispatch of the carcases to these islands in the -dressed condition has deprived, and still is depriving us, of much -valuable raw material to which we should have access were we to raise -sufficient meat to satisfy our own needs. This is the exploitation of -the offal or inedible portions of the beast, the products obtained -from which are not only of marked intrinsic value, but enter into so -many other and varied industries. From this statement it must not be -imagined that we are entirely prevented from establishing a meat-waste -industry, since our domestic killing trade is of distinct significance -and is supplemented to a certain degree by the “home-killed” business. -The latter, as is well known, represents the shipment of cattle to this -country in the live condition to be slaughtered upon landing. - -In these circumstances it would be perfectly feasible for us to -establish the meat residue exploitation industry upon a comprehensive -scale but for the fact that existing conditions are decisively -adverse, although we could scarcely aspire to attain the magnitude and -operations of the huge meat-packing plants of Chicago. It is extremely -doubtful if we really appreciate the possibilities of this business, -and, because of our ignorance, we, as a nation, are the losers. We have -permitted the local or territorial slaughter of cattle to be carried to -an extreme length. The municipal abattoir constitutes the feature of -the slaughtering trade of these islands, and although this practice was -introduced to overcome the shortcomings of the private slaughter-house, -which were many, and to ensure killing and dressing animals under -the most hygienic and scientific conditions, yet it is a matter for -serious consideration as to whether the municipal practice should not -be superseded by a centralized system, acting under State or private -control, the latter for preference, so as to give full rein to the -display of initiative. - -There is no logical reason why the slaughter of domestic cattle -should not be conducted at a central point. Such a plant conducted -along the lines practised at Chicago would be of far-reaching benefit -to the community. Supervision would be more effective, simpler and -less expensive, inasmuch as it would be possible to dispense with -the multiplicity of officials now obtaining--another form of waste. -It would also enable the residues from the trade to be turned to -utilitarian advantage along the most economic and profitable lines, -owing to their very bulk. A visit to the Chicago stockyards brings -home very forcibly the magnitude of this trade and the wealth to be -won from the residues which accrue. It has been declared, and with -considerable truth, that at the American stockyards the development -of the by-products is every whit as extensive and as important as the -preparation of the ostensible staple product. It is actually more -profitable, and brings in as great if not greater revenue. - -The arguments which would be levelled against the establishment of a -central meat-packing plant in this country are many and obvious. In -the first place full voice would be given to the apparent futility of -sending a live animal from 20 to 600 or 700 miles merely to be killed, -and to return the dressed carcase to be sold. Superficially it does -appear to be a senseless employment of transport and to incur needless -expense. Yet such a practice is followed upon the North American -continent. Animals are shipped alive over hundreds of miles to be -killed and returned to the point where they were bought, in the form -of dressed meat ready for consumption. But the argument is fatuous. -Centralized slaughtering facilities secure equitable distribution, -as well as prompt movement, since the trade is sufficiently heavy -to demand the inauguration of a special handling and transportation -system. Then again such a practice allows bulk shipment combined with -long haulage, two essential conditions to economic transportation. -If the method were practised in these islands, not only would it be -possible to take full advantage of the latest manifestations of science -in so far as it affected the industry, but it would enable the residues -forthcoming in enormous quantities to be treated upon the spot in the -reclamation plant forming an integral part of the stockyard equipment. -The revenue derived from the disposal of the by-products rendered -available in a commercial form would not only more than offset the -charges incurred concerning transportation, but would tend towards the -primary product--the meat--being sold at a lower figure to the public. - -Under the present system of local killing much of the offal escapes -reclamatory treatment for the simple reason that the quantity -forthcoming is so limited as not to be deemed worthy of exploitation, -or else is subjected to obsolete or inefficient by-product recovery -methods. In many instances it is sold to a contractor who endeavours -to conduct bulk treatment upon a reduced scale, paying a relatively -low price for the refuse and one quite disproportionate to its true -value. In some instances the contractor does not attempt to carry out -by-product recovery, but merely acts as a middleman, dispatching the -various residues to the quarters where he knows they will be taken in -hand to be worked up. - -During the past few years the science of winning wealth from -slaughter-house offal of every description has made enormous strides, -effort having been concentrated upon the recovery of the very utmost -yield of by-products for the simple reason that the demand therefor -is exceedingly keen, while prices are necessarily attractive. -This applies particularly to the fats, the value of which ranges -up to as much as £50 per ton, according to grade, although other -commodities simultaneously secured, such as meal for cattle-feeding -and fertilizers, are able to command equally impressive prices. A -graphic idea of the degree to which this science has been advanced -is obvious from the dimensions, comprehensiveness and modernity of -the by-product installations which have been laid down as adjuncts to -the mammoth cattle-killing plants in various parts of the world, the -majority of which, as I have pointed out in a previous chapter, are of -British origin, design and construction, and many of which have been, -and still are being, supplied from this country. Surely it is somewhat -anomalous that other countries should come to us for the latest -expressions of ingenuity and invention in this province when we are -unable to point to a single pretentious plant in this country! At the -same time it is distinctly gratifying to learn that if Britain cannot -display sufficient imagination or commercial acumen to use plants of -this character, she certainly can build them, and is not only able to -keep well astride of the times, but is fertile in thought concerning a -highly specialized ramification of industry. - -As a matter of fact it may come somewhat of a surprise to learn that -British thought is far in advance of American practise, as manifested -by the stockyards at Chicago in regard to the utilization of appliances -and process for the treatment of meat residues. The interests at the -mammoth plant were approached with the latest British development in -this line--the solvent extraction process described in a previous -chapter--it being recognized that its introduction to the American -stockyards would apply the seal of highest approval to the invention -and represent a great achievement for the British interests which had -evolved and perfected it. It possessed every virtue likely to make -appeal, more particularly the means of enabling the American packers -to add to their already huge profits. The process was investigated, -and its superiority over the methods in vogue was frankly conceded. -But the Chicago industry firmly declined to embrace the invention, not -from feelings of hostility, but because the interests concerned had -developed their own plant along lines, and to a degree which would not -readily permit a revolution. To have introduced the new idea would -have been to disorganize the whole business of by-product reclamation -and would have demanded the revision of methods, knowledge, practice, -and routine. Questions of cost did not enter into the issue at all. The -packers merely declined to disturb the system they had standardized and -had carried to such a level of perfection. - -But the packers were not wholly opposed to progress. Although not -willing to introduce the system into their plants, they were quite -ready to turn over their wastes, after they had extracted as much as -they could of material value therefrom under their system, to the -British interests. The inventors accepted the proposal, and to-day one -may witness the strange and anomalous spectacle of British interests -taking over the residues from residues from the packing plants for -further treatment, and conducting the unusual method of trading to -their financial profit. It was confidence in the superiority of the new -idea which brought such signal success. Yet this exploitation of wastes -from wastes is not peculiar to Chicago. It is even being practised to a -limited degree in these islands, which suffices to prove that certain -quarters are fully cognizant of the wealth awaiting to be won from -waste, and that it pays to conduct the process to the recovery of the -uttermost retrievable ounce even from such material. - -Certain of our municipalities, fully alive to the value of the waste -incidental to the operations of their abattoirs, are sparing no effort -to utilize such material to the full. However, in many instances, -their enterprise is thwarted by the circumstance that the butchers -making avail of the Corporation facilities extended, possess certain -vested interests which must be honoured. Accordingly it is not possible -to conduct reclamation to such limits as would be attainable were -methods comparable with those prevailing at the Chicago stockyards -in operation. To be able to extract the utmost from the refuse it is -imperative that the authorities should be given unrestricted control -of the animal, preferably absolute ownership. This is the reason -why the big private packing plants are able to achieve such eminent -success. They purchase the live animals, and consequently are free to -exploit them in accordance with the principles they have elaborated. -Nevertheless, despite the difficulties obtaining, much good work -is being accomplished in British circles concerning abattoir waste -exploitation. - -The case of Edinburgh may be cited as an illustration. I purposely -select the Scottish city for the reason that--so far as municipalities -are concerned--it is possessed of one of the most up-to-date -installations in the country, is enterprising, and serves to bring -home how vested interests can mar a record of possible achievement by -restrictive action. The blood is sold to a contractor, who, however, -is compelled to sell back to the meat trade such quantities of this -article as may be required. A proportion of the offal is also sold by -the meat trade. - -Diseased meat, condemned as unfit for human consumption, is treated by -the authorities in the Scott plant which they have acquired. The waste -is thoroughly sterilized by steam, the residuals, comprising non-edible -tallow, meat fibre and bones being sold. The plant cost £600--$3,000. -The working costs may be set down at approximately £200--$1,000--per -annum, while the income from the sale of the uncertain quantities of -meat of which disposal is made averages about £430--$2,150--per year. -The hoofs and spurs of the feet of cattle, the parings of ox-feet, a -small proportion of waste offal, and the manure originating in the -slaughter-house, are sold by the Corporation. The sum derived from -these sources during the 1917-18 financial year amounted to £533 -5s.--$2,666.25--while the revenue from the sale of blood was £437 -11s.--$2,187.75. All things considered it must be conceded that the -by-products resulting from the operation of the slaughter-house by -the Corporation of the Scottish city are fully utilized, although the -defects arising from divided responsibility for the development and -disposal of the wastes are obvious. - -Divided interests exert another reactive influence. The public -authorities are debarred from making full avail of the latest -improvement in the art and craft of waste recovery. For instance, -although the leading abattoirs of these islands have acquired -reasonably up-to-date plants, they are all operated upon the open steam -principle, with and without vacuum. The method, while satisfactory so -far as it goes, does not offer the means of securing the utmost from -the available material. But the authorities do not feel justified -in going to the expense of acquiring the latest appliances for the -prosecution of the work of reclamation, an attitude which is perfectly -explicable in the circumstances. - -Of course, the community suffers, though imperceptibly. The plants in -question allow a certain proportion of waste to be lost which in the -course of the year represents an imposing figure. Furthermore, the -whole, or the greater part, of the “stick liquor” or gelatinous liquid -thrown off during the fat reclamation process is lost, being allowed -to escape down the drains. The abandonment of the stick liquor is -regrettable because it constitutes a waste capable of being treated -with profit, as I explain later. But it is doubtful whether the average -municipal plant, even if it had absolutely unfettered control of all -the waste products arising from the slaughter of cattle for food, would -be in the position to treat the stick liquor to commercial advantage. -An evaporative plant would have to be incorporated to concentrate -the gelatinous substance to the desired density, and only in a few -instances would the quantity of material treated be adequate to render -the utilization of the stick liquor profitable. But this constitutes an -additional argument for centralized meat packing and offal exploitation -in these islands. - -Accordingly effort is exclusively confined to the recovery of the -grease. I have described the outstanding features of the vacuum system -in a previous chapter, to which I would refer the reader desiring -enlightenment in connection therewith. The grease is drawn off by -a special skimming device into a fat tank to be clarified. Then it -is run into barrels or other suitable receptacles for transport. It -is scarcely necessary to point out that the grease and tallow thus -obtained from condemned meat and other offal, although thoroughly -sterilized in the rendering process, are graded only as fit for the -manufacture of soap and other articles of utility, as distinct from -products of edible importance. - -The term “offal” in its application to meat residues is somewhat -ambiguous. It not only comprises material coinciding with the general -interpretation of the term, but certain portions of the animal which -are really suited to the preparation of foodstuffs for the table. -Consequently all grease recovered from the digester is not necessarily -adapted to manufacturing purposes only. In these circumstances it is -necessary to grade the fat before treatment, the fresh fat, which is -quite suitable for yielding material adapted to the preparation of -margarine, for instance, being kept distinct from the lower grades -which cannot possibly be classed as edible. Selection and separation -treatment of the two grades--edible and inedible--are profitable -because, while both are in keen demand, it is the former which is able -to command the higher market figure. But when edible fats are sought -it is preferable to employ the steam-jacketed digester because the fat -thus obtained, from the fact that the steam is not brought into contact -with the material during the cooking process, is of enhanced quality, -being sweeter, while all the natural properties of the fat are retained -for reasons already set forth. - -Although, therefore, the most popular system in vogue for reclaiming -fat from slaughter-house residues is exposed to criticism, owing to -what may be described as lack of efficiency in operation due to the -recovery of the fat not being as high as it might be, it appears to -meet the conditions of the average municipal abattoir. City and borough -corporations, unlike private organizations, are not in the position -to scrap an existing plant for one which is of later date and greater -efficiency, because there is not the same incentive to reap the utmost -benefits attainable as prevails under private conditions where the -full brunt of competition is encountered. Of course, the initiative -of corporations is just as pronounced as that of private firms and -individuals, but it is the exception rather than the rule. Furthermore, -the municipality is not in the position to run a plant under full load, -or even at a uniform pressure the whole time. It is only able to handle -the waste as it accumulates during its own abattoir operations. On the -other hand, the private exploiter can acquire a plant of such capacity -as to cope with the steady flow of material from the slaughter-houses, -thereby keeping the by-product recovery installation working steadily -at a point approaching its productive limits. - -Nevertheless, the results achieved with the prevailing type of plant -afford interesting reading, although it is somewhat misleading -to cite them. The material varies so widely both in quantity and -quality, while the ultimate fat-yield likewise fluctuates markedly. -A fat bullock which has been condemned would naturally be expected -to furnish a good contribution of fat. On the other hand, only a low -percentage could reasonably be anticipated from a lean cow. In these -circumstances a comparison without full details concerning the material -handled is difficult. The figures available may be set down as being -representative, though they should be accepted as being typical rather -than empirical. - -A consignment of condemned meat, weighing 2,240 lb., was placed in the -digester. The quantities of the respective materials recovered were:-- - - Lb. Per cent. - Tallow 336 or 15 - Fibrine or meat-meal 392-428 or 17¹⁄₂-20 - Bone-meal 280-336 or 12¹⁄₂-15 - -In another instance a somewhat heavier consignment of condemned meat -was committed to the recovery plant. Its composition was:-- - - Lb. - Beef 84,000 - Pork 1,607 - Mutton 818 - Veal 354 - Offal 20,370 - -------- - Total 107,149 - -The tallow yield was 21,638 lb., or 20 per cent. of the total volume -passed through the digester. Pronounced quantities of the fibrine and -bone-meal were also secured. But the tallow yield alone should serve -to convince even the most sceptical that it pays to submit condemned -meat and slaughter-house refuse to a process of by-product recovery. -It was not so many years ago that such valuable waste met with an -untimely end--incineration in the destructor as the most effective and -economical means for its disposal. Had this practice been followed -in the instance under review the authorities would have allowed -material worth, according to current market quotations, at least -£500--$2,500--to vanish up the chimney in preference to the display -of a little exertion and knowledge to secure what is in such wide and -urgent request--the fat. - -While the average organization, either municipal or private, conducts -operations upon too limited a scale to deal with the gelatinous or -“stick liquor,” the large establishments, on the other hand, are -confronted with such immense quantities thereof as to render its -further treatment justifiable and profitable. But the liquid is -extremely thin or weak, that is low in the gelatinous constituent in -its crude form, and so requires to be concentrated. To effect this at -the lowest cost it should be passed through the Scott multiple effect -vacuum evaporators. These are heated by the exhaust steam. In this -form of evaporator the heating effect of the steam is multiplied in -several stages, thus doing so many times more work for one supply of -fuel as compared with a simple evaporator. The evaporation proceeds -progressively and continuously, the liquor leaving the evaporator at a -high degree of concentration owing to the water having been driven off. -The gelatinous residue accruing from this treatment may be blended with -the fibrine or meat-meal, thereby enhancing the value of the latter, -which thus becomes enriched with ammonia and protein to an appreciable -degree. - -For some reason or other the treatment of the “stick liquor” has -not aroused the measure of serious attention in these islands which -it deserves. While, of course, greater results are attainable from -treatment of the liquid upon a huge scale, yet relatively small -quantities can be exploited very profitably, because the jelly finds -an attractive market as crude tub size, the demand for which to-day -is somewhat keen and firm. Doubtless hesitation to turn the stick -liquor to economic account is due to lack of knowledge concerning the -improvements in the rendering process, and the difficulty encountered -in this direction in the past. Under the old system, where the -practice was to evaporate these liquors in open vessels, the nuisance -created constituted the insurmountable obstacle. The work could not be -carried out without polluting the whole neighbourhood. With the Scott -evaporator, however, no more nuisance is created in concentrating the -offensive liquor than attends the exploitation of noisome fats by -the patent digesting process, for the simple reasons that the work -is conducted in closed vessels, and all obnoxious vapours thrown off -during the treatment are led to the furnace to be consumed, escape of -the free gases into the air being rendered totally impossible. - -British waste exploiters are beginning to appreciate the advantages of -the closed evaporative system, and in their determination to secure -every retrievable ounce of commercially valuable products from waste -are now devoting greater attention to the stick liquor. The policy -is one which cannot fail to pay so long as it is conducted along the -correct lines such as I have indicated. - -Before leaving the question of the stick liquor it is curious to remark -how some firms, while complimenting themselves upon the assiduity -and diligence with which they treat their wastes, are yet likely -to allow a certain material, and one which is of distinct value to -their own businesses, to slip through their fingers merely from lack -of knowledge. The abandonment of the stick liquor arising from the -digestive treatment of meat-waste represents an interesting example of -such inadvertence. - -Many manufacturers dealing with meat products have installed a -fat-recovery system for the treatment of their waste upon the spot, -the primary idea being to secure the good edible fat for re-use -in connection with their own processes. Furthermore, from their -association with the cooked-meat trade they find it necessary to absorb -material quantities of gelatine to carry out the glazing work in the -preparation of brawn, pies and other dainties. They purchase the crude -gelatine for the purpose, submitting it to careful treatments to adapt -it to their varying requirements. Yet, if they but knew it, they have -no need to spend a single penny--or cent--upon gelatine wherewith to -conduct the final appetizing touches to their wares. They have as much -of this raw material as they can possibly require immediately to hand -in the stick liquor, and which, in the majority of instances, they -allow to escape. - -As a matter of fact this liquid residue is far preferable to the -commercial gelatine which they buy for glazing purposes. They need -only to attach an evaporator to their recovery plant to bring about -its concentration. But this is not the only advantage. The gelatine -has to be of varying densities or strengths according to its precise -application. When they have their own evaporator this desideratum -is readily fulfilled. It is only necessary to draw off the material -from the evaporators when it has reached the requisite degree of -concentration for immediate use. Not only is appreciable time saved, -but the up-to-date firms are better off in pocket because they are -utilizing a waste for which otherwise they would have to employ a -purchased commodity. Even if they conduct concentration to the -absolute it does not matter; the article is then recovered in the form -of an edible jelly. This can be clarified, if desired, to be sold as -such, or it can be sold to fellow-manufacturers who do not happen to -have such a plant. Failing such disposal there is no difficulty in -selling the jellied mass as tub size. - -In a previous chapter I have described the reclamation process -practised by the military authorities in connection with bones -arising from the cutting-up of meat for the army, as well as those -recovered from the swill-tubs. As indicated, however, exploitation is -conducted only to a certain point, when the bones are handed over to -the degreasers. It is then that the true recovery of the commercial -constituents of the bone commences. The bone is an invaluable friend -to the human race as an article of commerce, though it is to be feared -that what may be described as the “bone tree” is only imperfectly -understood. Its far-reaching value as a fertilizer is certainly -appreciated, but this really represents the final application of the -article, and may be said to be the only remaining field of utility for -the ultimate residue of a residue. Bones enter into a wide range of -industrial and manufacturing operations. For this reason they should be -carefully gathered and retained for surrender to recognized collecting -mediums rather than suffer abandonment or destruction. - -The housewife is prone to regard them as mere waste when she has -extracted the utmost recoverable value therefrom in the kitchen. -She may possibly retain them until the itinerant specialist in this -commodity, to wit, the rag-and-bone man, comes round, in which event it -is sure to be sped once more on a journey of industrial exploitation. -But at least one-third of the bones which enter the households of -Britain escape reclamation. They are wantonly wasted, and it is to be -feared that the kitchen stove is mainly responsible for this loss. The -volume of bones which should be forthcoming from domestic circles in -Great Britain, were the dictates of thrift religiously followed, is -scarcely appreciated, but it is estimated that the supply should be at -least 100 tons per week from every million members of the population. - -In these islands the bones are divided into two broad classes. The one -division, comprising what is known as “green” (raw) bones, represents -those collected from butchers’ shops, bacon-cutting works, and other -similar sources. The second class, defined as “streeters,” include -those forthcoming from the recognized collectors of such waste, hotels, -restaurants, clubs, and private houses, and are those which have been -passed through one or more cooking processes. - -In the case of green bones it is customary to digest them, when really -fresh, with open steam to recover the edible fat. Shank and marrow -bones, as distinct from rough bones, are also able to yield a certain -proportion of edible fat, and after having been digested or boiled -still retain a considerable percentage of grease which it pays to -extract. Consequently these, together with a certain quantity of less -fresh green bones, and the streeters, are then passed through the -benzine extractor to be degreased down to 1 per cent. - -The shank and marrow bones are sawn up, the centre sections being -selected for the production of such useful articles as knife and fork -handles, buttons, and other utilitarian commodities for which their -composition renders them eminently suitable. The ends or knuckles are -degreased by submission to the solvent extraction process, and then, -in some works, are subjected to further chemical treatment, which is -somewhat elaborate, to be converted into baking-powder. - -Otherwise the bones, after being degreased, are passed through other -processes for the extraction of their gelatinous constituent. This -is secured in the form of a liquor which is evaporated in vacuo to a -jelly. The last-named is cooled into cakes and then dried on nets, -or, if preferred, the liquor may be dried direct into glue-powder. By -following a more complicated process gelatine can also be prepared from -the degreased bones. But the gelatine thus obtained does not compare in -quality with that extracted from skins. The degelatinizing process is -not always followed, for the reason that some makers prefer to produce -the higher quality bone-meal which is procurable from non-degelatinized -bone. Obviously, however, the more profitable and economic procedure is -to pass the bones through an associated glue plant. - -The ultimate residue, whether degelatinised or not, is a bone-meal -which constitutes the well-known fertilizer. The bone-meal, to be of -the utmost feeding value to the soil, should carry little or no fat. -At the same time, however, it should be rich in ammonia and phosphoric -acid or superphosphate, which is determined in terms of tribasic -phosphate of lime. To show how these requirements can be adequately -fulfilled by submitting the raw waste to a complete recovery process, -such as I have described, an analysis of a typical bone-meal produced -from degreased bones--degreased by the benzine extraction process--but -which have not been degelatinized, is given thus:-- - - Per cent. - Tribasic phosphate of lime 46·60 - Nitrogen, 6·07 per cent. = ammonia 7·37 - Moisture 8·04 - Fat 1 - -The high percentage of ammonia, namely 7·37 per cent., deserves -especial notice inasmuch as it compares with a yield of 4·5 per cent., -which is the average figure recorded with fertilizing meal obtained -from steamed bones. It may possibly come as a surprise to many to learn -that it is the proportion of the nitrogenous content, as represented -by the ammonia, rather than the phosphoric acid content, which really -determines the commercial value of this manure. The higher the figure -to which the ammonia figure can be forced the more attractive the price -which the fertilizer will command upon the market. Thus, under normal -conditions, every 1 per cent. rise in the ammonia constituent will -increase the price of the bone-meal by 14s.--$3.50. On the other hand, -a 1 per cent. increase in the proportion of superphosphate only serves -to increase the price of the meal by 11d. to 1s. 2d.--22 to 28 cents. - -The grease obtainable from green bones varies somewhat. It is affected -to a marked degree by the skill and care with which the butcher wields -his knife. If the bone should be scraped very clean and carefully, -naturally the bulk of the attached fat is removed. But an average -collection of green bones will yield about 15 per cent., or 360 lb., -of fat per ton of bones treated, while the dry bone-meal will range -from 1,286 to 1,344 lb. Bones which have been collected from marine -store dealers and rag-and-bone merchants are not so liberal in fat -yield. The repeated cooking to which they have been subjected in -connection with the preparation of dishes for the table relieves them -of approximately 5 per cent. of the fat which they originally carried, -i.e. in the raw condition. Consequently, degreasing only enables about -10 per cent., or 250 lb., of fat to be recovered from every ton of -bones treated. In this instance the bone-meal yield may be set down at -1,568 to 1,680 lb. per ton of bones. The grease remaining in the meal -varies from 0·5 to 1 per cent. - -As may logically be supposed, cattle-slaughtering for food produces -large quantities of blood. This is an extremely valuable residue, and -so is carefully collected in suitable vessels. It is then transferred -to shallow receptacles and permitted to stand for a time. Blood is -composed of two fundamental constituents--the serum and the clot -respectively. The former, which is the albumen, is the glutinous-like, -yellowish liquid which comes to the surface, the clot settling to -form as it were a sediment. The serum is recovered by skimming with a -suitable device, to be distributed in extremely thin layers, applied -with a brush, to dry. Such a careful procedure is imperative owing to -the difficulty of drying out albumen. When dry the blood-albumen is -peeled in the form of thin flakes. Its applications are numerous, one -of the most important being its employment for the clarification of -sugar. The clot is likewise secured to be sent to the special plant, -where it is also dried. - -It is common knowledge that blood constitutes a magnificent fertilizer, -and this is the purpose to which the dried clot is applied. In a -well-designed vacuum drying plant, such as the Scott, which has been -designed especially to treat such residue, the efficiency is high. The -yield from the clot may be said to range from 25 to 30 per cent.--560 -to 672 lb.--per ton of raw clot treated, and is recovered in the form -of a rich red dry powder. - -One great objection levelled against the recovery of the blood for -fertilizing purposes has been the very offensive odour which is thrown -off during the drying operation. But when the task is conducted under -the vacuum system no such nuisance is created, because the obnoxious -gases are led to the fire to suffer combustion. In dryers of the -conventional type, in which the noxious gases are removed by the -aid of an exhausting fan, or suffer discharge into the chimney, the -process does represent an intolerable nuisance to the neighbourhood, -because there is nothing to prevent the pollution of the atmosphere. -Furthermore, and this is the most important point to remember, by -drying the blood under the vacuum system the ammonia content of the -waste, which normally is high, can be preserved to the full, owing to -the drying operation being carried out at a much lower temperature than -is incidental to the usual practice. - -Dried blood appeals to the farmer for the nourishment of his land -essentially because of its pronounced proportion of nitrogen or -ammonia. Consequently it is incumbent to keep this figure as high as -possible and thus secure the advantages of market quotation. Naturally -the percentage thereof in the resultant meal will vary strikingly -according to the drying process practised. Ammonia is an exceedingly -volatile ingredient, its tendency to escape being accentuated as the -temperature employed is increased. It is only by keeping the heat -factor at a low level consistent with the complete fulfilment of the -desired operation, that the ammonia can be retained. Under the vacuum -system this end is assured, owing to the low boiling-point due to the -reduced pressure or vacuum. A typical analysis of vacuum-dried clot -blood may be cited:-- - - Per cent. - Moisture 9 - Mineral matter 1·61 - Nitrogen 14·02 - ⤷ - = ammonia 17·02 - -In cases where the albumen is not required separately the whole blood -is dried without being separated or “clotted.” - -It is obvious from what I have related, that the recovery of -by-products from what has always been regarded as waste of a most -repulsive character, that is from the popular point of view, can be -turned to striking commercial and industrial account. Similarly it -is only too apparent that such by-product reclamation as is possible -demands a plant of the most complete description, to ensure all and -every substance of utilitarian value being secured along the most -efficient lines and to the uttermost ounce. - -The day has gone when the crude methods which sufficed to satisfy -individual or specific requirements should be continued. To endeavour -to render it profitable to recover but one article out of many which -are reclaimable simultaneously, and for the expenditure of only a -little more effort, time and money, may be compared with mining for one -hundred carat diamonds and allowing all those of lesser weight to fall -back into the earth. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -TURNING WASTES INTO PAPER - - -Paper has been described as the World’s Friend. Truly the application -is apt, when we recall the varied, and, in some instances, almost -incredible uses to which it is put, from carpets to boxes, wheels of -infinite variety to artificial flowers, table linen to boards. Little -wonder, therefore, that we have come to regard it as indispensable to -our everyday social and industrial existence. Being cheap, abundant -and easy to obtain, is it surprising that we became extravagant in its -use? We scarcely ever hesitate to bestow even a passing thought as to -where, and how, we get it. We talk glibly of “imported” without pausing -a moment to reflect upon the real significance of the expression. It -was not until war burst upon us to deliver its many disconcerting jolts -that we came to our senses, and were then compelled to acknowledge that -while paper may be a most tractable servant it is certainly a tyrannous -master. - -How many people would credit the statement that paper could exercise -any influence upon the cost of living? Not one in a thousand it is safe -to hazard. But let us reflect. In the days when paper or cardboard was -forthcoming in plenty the tradesman never contemplated for a moment -the suggestion that he should be sparing in his use of the commodity, -or even saddle his customer with the cost of this indispensable -wrapping material. What if a sheet of brown paper cost a farthing--half -a cent--or paper bags could be secured for ten a penny (2 cents)? -The expense was so trivial as to be insignificant. He could readily -shoulder it without any financial detriment to himself. But when that -sheet of paper cost approximately 1³⁄₄d.--3¹⁄₂ cents--or when the bag -involved an outlay of 1¹⁄₂d.--3 cents--the tradesman, turning over in -his mind the huge quantities he would be compelled to provide during -the business of the day, regarded the whole question in a different -spirit. He declined to bear the burden, and so promptly passed it on to -the customer. - -To grasp the paper situation as it affects this island kingdom we -must hark back to the glorious days preceding 1914. We made paper -upon a relatively extensive scale in our own mills, and the industry -flourished amazingly. But to what extent did indigenous materials enter -into the composition of the article? Barely 10 per cent. We preferred -to buy 90 per cent. of our raw materials from foreign mills brought -into existence for this especial purpose, and, be it remarked _en -passant_, the foreigner found it highly lucrative to trade upon our -disinclination to prepare the products ourselves. - -A British firm, which had built huge mills in Scandinavia for the -preparation of the essential raw material, disposed of its financial -interests to a foreign concern. The bargain was settled for a -round £7,000,000--$35,000,000! Surely this transaction suffices to -demonstrate that there is big money to be made preparing paper pulp, -as the raw material is called, for British paper mills. The fact -that in pre-war days we imported a round 2,000,000 tons of pulp and -paper during the course of the year serves to convey some idea of the -magnitude of the industry, and the extent to which this country became -dependent upon foreign sources of supply. - -One hundred years ago, or even less, the British paper-making industry -was a staple. The paper was British made from British materials. In the -light of this knowledge one may well ask why, and how, we allowed this -profitable trade to slip through our fingers? The cause was not far to -seek. Our old pugnacious friend the wasp was primarily responsible for -the passing of this British industry. He, from his paper-making prowess -in the fabrication of his wonderful nest, set certain imaginative men -thinking hard. If this humble insect could contrive such a remarkably -tough and stout paper for home-building purposes from wood surely it -was not beyond the wit of men, with the bewildering array of mechanical -and chemical handmaids at his elbow, to do likewise! - -Accordingly the observant, fertile, and patient minds went to work. -Within a short time they not only succeeded in imitating the wasp, -but evolved such a simple process in the doing of it as to make an -irresistible appeal to commerce. Incidentally while this one line -of investigation, the purely mechanical, was being pursued other -equally brilliant minds were perfecting a second means of achieving -a similar end by mechanical-chemical agency. In this manner commerce -became equipped with two efficient means for the reduction of trees -into paper, and at such a low figure as to render the conventional -competitive methods impossible, at least for the cheapest grades of -paper, such as are employed for our newspapers, popular periodicals, -and low-priced books. - -To reap the rich rewards which invention dangled before commerce only -two fundamental requirements had to be fulfilled. The one was ample -cheap power in close proximity to virtually inexhaustible supplies -of the essential material, namely soft woods, which constituted -the second factor. Scandinavia held unrivalled attractions in this -respect. Accordingly the princes of the paper-making industry trekked -to Norway and Sweden, to convenient points amid the endless reaches -of forest, and there planted huge mills beside waterfalls and swiftly -running rivers, which were harnessed to provide the cheap power which -hydro-electric energy offered. The outlook was additionally alluring -from the circumstance that these mills, metaphorically speaking, could -be established within the proverbial stone’s throw of the biggest and -most promising markets of the world. - -So Scandinavia succeeded in building up a rich monopoly which -experienced continuous prosperity until a few years ago. Then similar -activity became manifest in certain corners of Farther Britain, notably -in Newfoundland, Eastern Canada, and British Columbia, where, owing to -the prevailing climatic conditions favouring huge reserves of suitable -forests, ribbed with abundant water power, a bold bid was made, not -only for the European but the American markets as well. For the first -time in its history the Scandinavian interests were brought full tilt -against powerful competition. - -With the advent of the halfpenny newspaper, the popular periodical, -and the cheap edition of a favourite author, all of which depend upon -mammoth circulations for their financial successes, the wood-pulp -industry received a tremendous boom. In 1913 British imports from -Scandinavia aggregated 756,252 tons valued at £3,533,509--$17,667,545. -Germany, attracted by the glamour of the commercial possibilities held -out in this direction, essayed to participate in the boom, her exports -of pulp to these islands during the above-mentioned year reaching -40,972 tons worth £330,456--$1,697,280. In comparison with the figure -for Scandinavia the Teuton contribution may appear small, but it must -not be forgotten that this represented a 50 per cent. increase in -Germany’s favour within two years. During the year in question Canada -and Newfoundland also swelled the home market, the aggregate of pulp -and paper accepted from their mills by Britain being 119,742 tons -valued at £279,374--$1,396,870. - -Then came the war, and this upset the upward tendency of the foreign -manufacturers to an alarming degree, as well as causing distinct -stringency among ourselves. Germany was knocked out of the market in -one blow, while the demand for shipping likewise extinguished the -Canadian contributions. Then came the appointment of a Controller to -adjust the Scandinavian situation, and official action in regard to -restrictions, which were admittedly severe, threw the Scandinavian -industry all sixes and sevens. Some idea of the degree to which the -imports of paper and pulp from Scandinavia were hit may be gathered -from the figures for 1918--390,000 tons as compared with the pre-war -supply of 2,000,000 tons, representing a fall of 82 per cent. - -The situation at home assumed an ominous aspect. Cutting off imports -reduced supplies to a figure hopelessly below demand. The issue was -further aggravated from the circumstance that the domestic industry had -not been advanced to the position where it could take up the producing -reins to make up the deficiency. The output from British mills during -1918 only approximately equalled the importation for the year, and was -less than double the figure at which it stood five years before, which -was about 200,000 tons. - -In these circumstances the Controller was called upon to make a round -700,000 tons of paper go as far as had 2,000,000 in pre-war days. As -a matter of fact the last-named figure was short of the mark, for the -simple reason that sources of consumption, and heavy ones at that, -which had been non-existent five years previously had sprung up and -were in the full blaze of activity. I refer to the various Government -departments created as a direct result of the war. - -Where does all the paper go? To the lay mind this question appears -impossible of a comprehensive answer. He concedes that the publishing -and commercial worlds, from the magnitude of their operations, must -absorb colossal quantities, but this reflection does not bring complete -comfort. During the war period it was not so difficult to reduce the -apparent enigma to simple explanation. The Stationery Office devoured -paper to the extent of 57,000 tons a year. The Ministry of Munitions -absorbed 1,000 tons a week in the actual manufacture of missiles, one -use being the substitution of aluminium by paper for filling the tips -of bullets, while fuse cylinders were also contrived from paper instead -of from tin. The Ministry of Food called for 400 to 500 tons of paper -to provide the cards for sugar, meat and butter rations, while the -issuance of the subsequent ration books ran away with another 750 tons. -The War Office was probably the heaviest consumer, from the simple fact -that all jams and preserves issued to the army, and packed in one-pound -consignments, were served in paper cartons instead of tins. Seeing that -the quantities of jams issued in this manner ran into millions, the -consumption of paper for the containers was stupendous. Such zealous -and ingenious recourse to paper instead of metals for such purposes was -readily explicable. For instance, at the time, tin was costing about -£320--$1,600--per ton as compared with brown paper at £35--$175--and -cardboard at £50--$250--per ton respectively. It was to the advantage -of the nation to abandon costly metals whenever and wherever a paper -substitute was equally serviceable. - -To counteract the shortage in supplies from abroad every effort was -made to extend and to develop the domestic manufacturing facilities. -This was not such a simple task as it appeared, inasmuch as we are -sadly lacking in the reserves of the necessary material. We possess -no soft-wood forests waiting to be turned into paper. In these -circumstances the alternative was to embark upon a voyage of discovery -and experiment in the hope that an efficient inexpensive range of -substitutes might be unearthed to take the place of the imported -wood-pulp, either exclusively, which was scarcely to be expected, or -to a very pronounced degree. - -Official intervention brought home to us one very heavy wastage. This -was in regard to the pulp which we imported. Two different kinds -of pulp are produced abroad: The one, produced after the manner -practised by our friend the wasp, but by mechanical agency, is known -as mechanical pulp; the other, contrived by the aid of chemicals, is -commercially known as chemical or sulphite pulp. In so far as the -first named was concerned official investigation revealed that the -Scandinavian mills were accustomed to send the article in a wet form. -Now, seeing that wet pulp comprises 50 per cent. of moisture, it will -be seen that the vessels bearing this commodity--and tonnage was -severely limited--were really working only to one-half of their actual -carrying capacity. With every ton of pulp the ships were compelled to -carry one ton of water, and to ship water to Britain is comparable with -sending snow to Greenland. - -The Scandinavian mills were more than willing to ship wet pulp by -the thousands of tons, and the British paper-makers were every whit -as ready to receive it. To obtain the raw material in this form -facilitated, expedited and cheapened the actual paper-making process. -It was another instance of British readiness to sacrifice every other -interest upon the altars of cheapness and minimum of effort. The -Controller, naturally, demurred against paying freight for the carriage -of water which is only too abundant in these islands, and forthwith -demanded that the pulp should be sent over in the dry form. In this -manner he achieved a laudable object: he doubled the quantity of pulp -supplied to Britain without calling upon a further ton of shipping for -the purpose. - -The pulp-makers of Scandinavia, and the paper-makers of Britain, -objected to this rational action. Strong protests were levelled against -the new order. The affected interests went to great length to explain -that the wet pulp was essential, and advanced their reasons--technical, -financial and otherwise, but they failed to upset the decision which -had been made. The Controller was not seeking the unattainable, because -a certain proportion of dry mechanical pulp has always been shipped -to this country. It was merely another instance of affected interests -desiring to achieve their respective purposes along the lines of least -resistance. In no circumstances, normal or war, can the conveyance of -water with raw material to these islands be justifiable. - -The reason why the pulp-maker was so anxious to ship his pulp wet was -because under such conditions he could market it at a lower figure and -dispatch it with greater facility. The paper-maker championed the wet -form for the reason that it was more convenient to him; he was able -to turn it straightaway into his machines. But when imported dry the -pulp must be subjected to certain preliminary treatment which involves -time, trouble, and a certain expense. Consequently, out of 100 tons of -mechanical pulp normally shipped to Britain, only one ton was in the -dry form; the other 99 tons were in the more handy wet form. Certainly -there are accepted technical objections to dry pulp. It is brittle and -apt to chip. But wet or dry it cannot be used exclusively and solely -in the preparation of even the lowest grades of newspaper. A certain -proportion of the chemical pulp must be added to impart the requisite -degree of firmness and stoutness to the fabric. - -A little investigation reveals why the Scandinavian pulp-makers were -firmly set upon shipping the pulp wet. In pre-war days the British -paper-maker paid from £2 5s. to £2 10s.--$11.25 to $12.50--a ton -for the moist pulp delivered at a British port. Freight was a mere -bagatelle, averaging about 5s.--$1.25--per ton. To convert the wet into -dry pulp prior to shipment the Swedish pulp-makers must use coal. This, -thanks to hydro-electric energy, is not required in the fabrication -of the actual pulp. But Sweden is deficient in coal resources and -compliance with the British official request involved the importation -of British coal. Inasmuch as it takes from 1,120 to 1,680 lb. of coal -to dry one ton of pulp it will be seen that the Swedish manufacturers -were faced with a fuel bill which was likely to run into big figures. -Under war conditions British coal was expensive, while quality was -subject to wide variation. At that time the coal commanded from £8 -to £10--$40 to $50--per ton in Sweden. Consequently, to his disgust, -the pulp-maker was confronted with the necessity to incur an extra -manufacturing charge ranging from £4 to £8--$20 to $40--per ton of pulp -produced. - -It is to be feared that the Swedish manufacturers, while anxious to -sell as much as possible to, were very reluctant to buy, from these -islands. They denounced the British official decree in no unmeasured -terms, and sought by every means in their power to secure its -withdrawal. But for once British authority was not solicitous of the -interests of the foreigner. Recognizing the futility of protest the -Scandinavian makers set to work to comply with our demands, and so -shipped the pulp in the dry form. We received the benefits accruing -from this line of action because we received twice as much pulp as -formerly for the same amount of tonnage. True, it cost us more, the -price running up to £32--$160--per ton, but it is to be feared that the -foreign manufacturers took full advantage of the peculiar situation -which prevailed in accordance with that inexorable law of supply and -demand, although they maintained that their manufacturing charges -were heavily inflated, not only from the purchase of the necessary -coal, but from the higher wages which labour demanded. But even at the -above figure we derived distinct advantage. Seeing that one ton of -dry represented the equivalent to two tons of wet pulp we were really -paying at the rate of only £16--$80--per ton, less the sum which had -to be deducted from the sale of our coal. Restriction of freight had a -good deal to do with the enhanced prices. Only 250,000 tons of shipping -a year were allocated to this traffic, and what cost 5s.--$1.25--a -ton to ship in 1913 cost £13--$65 per ton in 1918. British ships -participating in this trade were thus able to get back something of the -heavy prices we paid to the foreigner for an indispensable commodity. -But even £32--$160--per ton for dry mechanical pulp contrasted -favourably with the chemical pulp, also shipped dry. This, which before -the war cost £7 10s.--$37.50--per ton shot up to £47--$235--a ton at -one period, and recorded £35--$175--per ton during 1918, while paper, -even of the lowest grade, which commanded £10--$50--a ton in 1913, -realized £45--$225--per ton in 1918. - -Contemporaneously with the adjustment of the various questions -pertaining to the Scandinavian pulp and paper, the authorities set to -work to develop the domestic raw material industry. Obviously the most -promising founts were rags and waste-paper. It was computed that, if -these available sources were fully exploited, it would be possible to -secure some 300,000 tons of suitable material during the year. - -However, it was seen that the first step would be to instil into the -minds of the community the necessity to observe rigid economy in the -use of paper. Rationing brought home the fact that a paper shortage -existed, and, of itself, led users to be more sparing in their uses -of this article, in precisely the same way as similar measures -effected comparative results in connection with foodstuffs and other -commodities. But in so far as paper is concerned it is difficult to -preach the gospel of economy; it has been ridiculously cheap and -abundant for far too long. Nevertheless much was accomplished, but -whether the lessons thus imparted have been taken sufficiently to heart -as to become ingrained is problematical. Reversion to former conditions -will probably promote a state of affairs as bad as, if not worse than, -before. - -The wasteful consumption of paper was by no means confined to any -particular class of the community. Industry was every whit as -improvident. For instance, the soap-making trade naturally absorbs -immense quantities of the article, but the manufacturers were shown -how, by practising simple saving methods, they might do with 10,000 -tons less per year, which, at the prices then prevailing, represented a -round £350,000--$1,750,000--per annum. To one firm alone the suggestion -represented a possible economy of £75,000--$375,000--a year. What is -possible of attainment in the soap-making industry is equally feasible -in other trades, especially those identified with provisions. If such -broad economies be carried out they could scarcely fail to exercise, -under competitive trading conditions, an appreciable influence upon -the price of the products concerned. Consequently, paper, as already -indicated, has a more or less direct bearing upon the cost of living. - -The wastage of paper throughout the country is appalling. Upon the -completion of its designed function the material is either burned, -consigned to dust-bin, or allowed to pursue an aimless journey at the -mercy of the wind through our highways and byways. People of a thrifty -turn of mind undoubtedly save their waste, disposing of it at intervals -to itinerant collectors, who acquire the litter of the house in -exchange for something more or less attractive, if not useful, in kind. - -Previous to the war very little of this waste found its way back -to the domestic paper mills to be re-made. The percentage of waste -blended with new pulp was very low, certainly not more than 2 per -cent. Even this was almost entirely restricted to what is known as -“broke,” that is the trimmings from the reels when repairing breakages -in the continuous lengths running through the printing or paper-making -machines. - -Strange to relate, nearly the whole of the waste-paper recovered from -the household, office and factory was exported, principally to the -United States of America, until an American firm, discovering Britain -to be a waste-paper mine, established itself in our midst to salvage -an appreciable quantity of what we regarded as a nuisance. This refuse -was utilized as raw material for the manufacture of paper-boards, the -American analogue to our familiar strawboard, to form book covers, -stout packing, and to meet other conditions where adequate protection -to contents is demanded. This became a prosperous undertaking and -afforded merely another instance of how the stranger within our gates -has been able to reap material profit at our expense and through our -folly. - -Although this firm absorbed an enormous quantity of our waste-paper -it could not cope with the avalanche of this refuse. Many additional -thousands of tons were shipped annually to the New World to be worked -up. It seems remarkable that the Americans should have found it -profitable to collect our residue, to freight it across 3,000 miles -of ocean, and to fabricate therefrom their particular range of goods, -instead of turning the material available on their own side to such -account. But the venture proved decidedly profitable as the results -testified. Indeed, it was the enterprise of this pushing firm which -first brought home to us the wealth capable of being derived from the -commercial exploitation of waste-paper, and which led us to introduce a -collecting system upon an organized basis. - -When the authorities grasped the significance of the waste-paper issue -they promptly took steps to retain the whole of the residue in these -islands. Export was prohibited; it could only be returned to British -mills. A country-wide appeal was made urging every trader and every -private citizen to conserve his waste-paper, whether it were used -envelopes, newspapers, postcards or fragments of brown paper. So urgent -became the demand for this raw material that housewives were requested -to ransack their cupboards and lumber-rooms for odds and ends of every -description in the paper line--old novels, abandoned magazines and -what not; business houses, workshops, and factories were invited to -indulge in spring-cleanings to turn out musty files of old letters, -receipts, memoranda, obsolete account books and other accumulations; -paper hangings stripped from walls in course of redecoration, instead -of being burned, were sedulously bagged; even hoardings were divested -of their hard thick hides of superimposed posters to provide food for -the paper mills. Municipal authorities were urged to participate in the -round-up, since it was recognized that imposing quantities of paper -evaded all other methods of recovery from inadvertent committal to the -dust-bin. In another chapter I have indicated what was done in this -direction. - -The authorities stimulated the great national paper-chase by -every possible artifice. Waste-paper organizers, to the number of -thirty-five, were appointed to various parts of the country to foster -and to supervise the collection of this refuse. Licences were granted -to approved merchants authorizing them to deal in the article. Prices -were fixed and graduated according to the quality of the waste, and -upon a liberal basis to encourage one and all to conserve and to hand -over their accumulations of what they considered to be sheer rubbish. -In this way waste-paper was poured back into the British mills for -remanufacture in a steady stream of 4,300 tons a week. For a time the -volume was maintained, but then it gradually and persistently declined -because as the founts became exhausted the quantity of paper put back -into circulation suffered a steady decrease. - -Despite the elaborate precautions observed, and the salvage -organizations instituted, a vast quantity of the refuse escaped -recovery. Paper is something like the elusive pin: where it goes no one -appears to know. During the period when salvage was being pressed home -with all vigour the British mills were turning out about 700,000 tons -of paper a year. Of this aggregate approximately one-fifth--150,000 -tons--went to the army in the field in France in some form or other. -A further 150,000 tons could not be expected to be recovered as waste, -being either retained or submitted to certain necessary applications -such as filing, the lighting of fires, and so on. This left a balance -of 400,000 tons which went into circulation, but of which only 200,000 -tons were retrieved to be sent back to the mills to be repulped. What -became of the outstanding 200,000 tons it was impossible to say: -it simply disappeared. Probably much suffered destruction through -ignorance, while no doubt much was lost through being soiled to such a -degree as to be beyond redemption. But the fact remained that of the -700,000 tons produced at least 50 per cent., or 350,000 tons--including -the 150,000 tons sent to France--were completely lost, whereas by the -exercise of a little forethought, care and trouble the greater part -thereof might have been retrieved. Through negligence or ignorance the -nation was losing a round £3,350,000--$16,750,000--a year, because the -paper was worth at least one penny--2 cents--a pound in the waste form. - -From the magnitude of the absolute losses it is obvious that we could -never have sustained ourselves for long upon the forthcoming supplies -of waste-paper and the diminished foreign imports of pulp to serve -as raw materials. Accordingly search was made for other potential -raw materials of domestic origin, the governing principle of this -mission being to place the country in such a position as to be quite -independent of the foreigner in all matters pertaining to paper, not -only during the war period, but after the cessation of hostilities. - -Paper, in one respect, is a curious manufactured product. It can be -made from almost any fibrous material with the exception of wool. -The knowledge of this fact prompted members of the general public to -advance the claims of divers and wondrous substances. As may be readily -imagined, the majority of these suggestions erred somewhat upon the -side of the fantastic and chimerical. The mere fact that paper can -be made from almost anything does not necessarily imply that it is -commercially practicable to exploit even the most obvious raw materials -indiscriminately. There is a wide and deep gulf between the laboratory, -the cradle of experiment, and the factory, the home of application. -In the first-named the factor of cost of production does not count; -in the last-named it constitutes the crux of the issue. Consequently -the majority of the recommendations submitted by the uninitiated -suffered from the disability of being perfectly feasible but hopelessly -impracticable. Submission of a suggestion to the cold, unrelenting, -unsympathetic manufacturing analysis and subsequent translation into -pounds, shillings, and pence offered the incontestable reply to the -inevitable question “Will it pay?” - -One article of domestic origin, the spartina, or common couch grass, -which thrives in abundance upon many stretches of our coastline, -notably Hampshire, was responsible for an avalanche of letters -containing inquiries as to why this material was not being turned to -account. Apparently every individual who had visited the neighbourhood -of the Solent, and had observed the density of this growth, assailed -the authorities for their lethargy. Esparto grass was imported from -Spain to make paper, and yet here we were ignoring a readily obtainable -indigenous grass similar in every respect! - -But the claims of spartina had been promptly investigated--to be -found wanting. In the first place, when a new material appears to be -promising the question as to whether sufficiently imposing supplies -could be forthcoming must be considered carefully. The paper-making -machines are insatiable and avaricious, devouring raw material not by -the ton but by the thousands of tons. This in turn gives rise to the -question as to the cost of securing the necessarily heavy supplies. -One enthusiast, who had advanced the claims of the couch grass, was -interrogated upon the subject because he had evolved a means of -gathering the spartina. When he was asked the cost of his process he -blandly replied that he could do it for £15--$75--per ton. He received -a shock when he was told that there was another material, forthcoming -in far greater quantities, and far more suitable for the purpose, which -could be obtained and delivered to the mill for £4 10s.--$22.50--a ton! -I may remark that spartina grass is being used for paper-making where -the conditions favour its cheap collection and transport. Speaking -generally, however, with prices at an artificial level, any material -costing more than £5--$25--per ton delivered at the mill--this figure -is inclusive of collecting, transport, and other charges--stands little -chance of favourable consideration. Under normal trading conditions -the prospect will be even less attractive. - -The acquisition of the raw material represents merely the preliminary -phase of the whole issue. To reduce it to pulp involves the consumption -of coal--cheap water-power is rare in these islands--and so the -probable fuel bill requires to be sounded. How many tons of coal will -be required to produce a ton of pulp? It is a simple question and one -which prompts another, closely allied thereto, namely, “How many tons -of such-and-such material will be required to furnish a ton of paper?” - -This is the rock upon which many buoyant expectations have been -completely wrecked. Still confining ourselves to the couch grass, and -considering the second factor first, we find that it has rather a low -yield efficiency, this being in the neighbourhood of 27 per cent. In -other words, it will require nearly four tons of crude grass to produce -one ton of paper. When ranged beside esparto grass, with which it seems -to have much in common, and which therefore is a convenient comparative -unit, the outlook for the couch grass is completely shattered, because -the efficiency yield of esparto is high, 43·5 per cent. Only a little -more than two tons of grass are necessary to produce one ton of paper. - -But the fuel factor is far more destructive to the claims of the -waste grass growing upon the seashore. To make one ton of paper from -esparto grass, under the most favourable conditions, requires 3 tons -of coal. In actual practice it ranges from 3·5 to 4 tons. But with -spartina grass the coal consumption is forced up to 5, and even to 7, -tons under the unfavourable conditions prevailing in many paper-mills. -Accordingly, it will be seen that couch grass cannot be construed -into an attractive raw material for paper. I may say there are other -objections to its use, but the foregoing are sufficient to bring about -its rejection in this phase of utility. - -Even if we take those materials which are accepted as being the most -favourable to the manufacture of paper we gain enlightenment. One -ton of waste-paper will not yield one ton of new paper as might be -imagined. The loss in re-manufacture is about 25 per cent., so that -from the 58,000 tons which enter into the made waste of the country we -could produce about 44,000 tons of new paper. Cotton rags have a high -yield efficiency, being in the neighbourhood of 85 per cent. and upon -this basis we might safely expect a yield of some 16,000 tons of paper -from the 19,000 tons of rags committed to the dust-bins of the country. - -It may be mentioned that in the search for indigenous materials -whence paper might be manufactured, the whole gamut of obvious -domestic contributions to the issue have been examined, including such -substances as sawdust, wood-shavings, wood-slats, grasses of which -there are over 100 varieties, mimosa bark, peat, straw, flax-wastes, -flax-shoves, and dried potato vine. Of this wide selection only four -materials hold out any promise of extending commercial possibilities. -These include sawdust, wood-shavings, wood-slats and straw, with -potato haulm serving as an excellent material for the fabrication of a -coarse, strong, brown packing paper. Of course, it must be explained -that these materials are in addition to those generally utilized in the -industry, such as rags, sacking, bagging and reeds, to mention only a -few substances. - -The definite end sought in the first instance was not so much the -discovery of suitable substances to supersede entirely the imported -mechanical and chemical pulps, as the presentation of materials which -might be considered effectively as useful for dilution purposes. By -this is meant the production of a pulp, made perhaps from some familiar -product, which, when added to a certain proportion of the conventional -pulp, would yield a paper comparable with that derived from the -last-named exclusively. Any success recorded in connection with a -diluent offers the means to enable a specific quantity of the imported -raw material to be induced to go farther than would be the case -otherwise, this tendency becoming accentuated as dilution is increased. - -It was essentially in this light that the feasibility of pressing -sawdust, wood-slats, and other wood and vegetable refuse was -considered. Of course, behind all these developments, experiments, -and researches, there has been the lingering hope that ways and means -might ultimately be found of enabling us to dispense with outside -sources of supply in their entirety. This hope still prevails, and, -if properly fostered, may lead to realization. But to consummate such -an end it is essential to employ materials capable of yielding a pulp -as closely resembling the article derived from the tree as possible. -Patient investigation proved that sawdust offered the most attractive -possibilities in this connection. - -While doubt has been expressed concerning the adaptability of sawdust -to this duty there are the experiences of Canada and the United States -to guide us. Indeed, we need not go out of these islands to obtain -confirmatory evidence of its applicability to paper-making. Britain -pioneered the utilization of sawdust for the manufacture of paper, and, -by a strange coincidence, it was the Napoleonic wars which compelled -us to resort to such a manifestation of enterprise. With the exit of -Napoleon from the world’s political stage the necessity to exploit -sawdust in this connection disappeared, and so the process fell into -disuse, to lie dormant for a round one hundred years. Consequently the -use of sawdust really represents but a revival of an old practice. - -But, so far as these islands are concerned, and under normal -conditions, sawdust can scarcely be regarded as a paper-making -material. The quantity available from our sawmills is too meagre to -enable the idea to be practised extensively. There is just one chance -of placing the development upon a firm footing. We are big consumers -of timber, but the greater part of our requirements in this field -are satisfied by importing supplies in a manufactured condition. -Attempts are being made to restore the British wood-working industry -by importing lumber in the slabbed condition, that is square trimmed -logs either in the form of huge rafts or demountable ships. Should -this development mature then our sawmills will become clogged with -huge accumulations of wood-waste in the form of the sawdust, the -exploitation of which will be keenly appreciated. - -During the war, however, the necessity to exploit the forests of -Britain to contribute to the requirements of the army and mines in -regard to wood has resulted in the piling-up of huge heaps of sawdust. -It was discovered that in Scotland alone this residue was accumulating -at the rate of 60,000 tons a year, through the activity of the -Canadian lumberjacks. Conservative estimates place the annual sawdust -yield throughout the British Isles at 150,000 tons. Of this gigantic -contribution only from 5 to 10 per cent. is drawn from hard woods. The -balance, 90 to 95 per cent., is derived from the soft woods and so -furnishes a huge reservoir of potential raw material for paper-making. - -Coincident with the accumulation of sawdust are the fabrication of huge -piles of wood-slats--the trimmings from the logs. These also represent -sheer refuse, the only possible disposal being in the form of fire or -kindling wood. At one lumber-camp in Scotland there was found a pile, a -sprawling, ragged and jagged stack, house-high, covering 20 acres, and -containing, at a modest estimate, from 300 to 500 tons of wood-waste. -It was ideal for paper-making as investigations proved, but was then -merely being allowed to rot. - -The process of preparing sawdust for the paper-maker is very simple and -inexpensive. It may be described as an application of the system for -producing mechanical pulp, because, in the main, the resultant product -is very similar to the latter in its essential characteristics. The -waste, being the product of the buzz-saw, is coarse in texture. It is -first passed over a riddle of wide mesh, which, while allowing the dust -proper to fall through readily, collects the pieces of bark, chips, -and other fragments of wood which may have become associated with the -dust. This residue is thrown to one side for conversion by a different -method. The sifted sawdust is dumped into a hopper to fall by gravity -in a steady stream into the mill, which is somewhat reminiscent of the -familiar mortar-mill, below. As it enters the latter it is caught up by -the revolving grindstone and crushed against the stationary stone, the -result being that it is disintegrated and pulverized. By virtue of the -centrifugal action set up the dust, as it is whirled round, naturally -works from the centre to the periphery of the wheels, the coarser -particles or tailings being flung out, while the finely-divided dust, -produced by the grinding action, falls into a separate receptacle. - -The tailings are recovered to be re-passed through the mill, and, -in time, for the most part are also ground to the desired degree of -fineness. A certain proportion of residue defies reduction in this -manner, but it is not discarded. It is retrieved to be used in the -manufacture of coarse brown paper. Two methods of grinding, even in the -vertical mill, are practised. The one known as the wet process involves -the addition of water to the dust, which thus becomes hydrated, the -resultant saw-pulp, as it is called, being somewhat similar to the -familiar wet mechanical pulp. The alternative process is described as -dry grinding, the sap in the wood constituting the only moist agent. - -It may be mentioned that, in the very earliest attempts to emulate the -wasps’ paper-making process, the experimenter ground the wood to dust -by applying the log to the face of a grindstone which was revolving, -water being the lubricant, the practice recalling the grinding of -tools. The particles of wood fell, with the water, into the trough -beneath. The surplus water was drawn off, leaving a mashy residue or -pulp--hence the name. - -In grinding the sawdust the coarse material is reduced to a fine -powdery substance, soft and silky in texture when dry, but which -retains the essential fibrous characteristic, though naturally the -length of the individual fibre is extremely minute. But pulp so -produced possesses one advantage for the paper-maker--it demands no -preliminary boiling. It can be discharged direct into the beater, -as the machine which prepares the raw material for the paper-making -machine is called, with the waste-paper, sulphite or mechanical pulp, -or a mixture of both, it only being necessary for the agitation of the -contents of the beater to be conducted thoroughly to bring about the -perfect blending of the ingredients. - -I have emphasized the circumstance that this saw-pulp may only be -considered as a diluent. This may be varied from 10 to 35 per cent. -according to the quality of the paper desired. The issue of the -_Times_, dated June 15, 1918, was printed on paper containing 20 per -cent. of this saw-pulp, but I have seen other newspapers the paper for -which was prepared from pulp diluted to the extent of 35 per cent. with -the saw-pulp. With the accumulation of experience in the working up -of this material marked improvements are to be recorded in regard to -quality of the resultant paper which has enabled dilution to be carried -to an enhanced degree without imperilling the factor of strength which -the finished product must possess to enable it to be passed through the -newspaper printing machine at a speed of 500 feet per minute without -breaking. Under modern conditions it is difficult to determine whether -or not saw-pulp has been introduced into the composition of the paper, -which testifies conclusively to the perfection of production. - -This economic utilization of one waste from the sawmill is of decisive -financial significance. Cost of production is extremely low, because -the power for driving the grinding mill may be obtained by firing the -steam boilers either with sawdust itself, the consumption thereof being -small, or with the refuse resulting from the preliminary sifting of -the dust. Indeed, the process holds out such alluring possibilities -that there is no reason why every sawmill should not include a grinding -mill to treat the residue on the spot, shipping the saw-pulp direct -to the mill, thus turning what is now an unmitigated nuisance and a -source of danger into a distinct commercial asset. It is estimated -that a grinding mill requiring 25 h.p. for its operation could turn -out 1¹⁄₃ tons of saw-pulp in the course of the ordinary 8 hours’ -working day or 7 tons a week. The cost of such a plant would be about -£400--$2,000--and the price obtainable for the product should be -sufficient to render the conversion of the waste to this useful purpose -attractive after paying all outgoings. At the time the practice was -brought into operation the cost of reducing the sawdust to saw-pulp -of the desired character was from £5 to £6--$25 to $30--per ton. It -is estimated that the saw-pulp maker would be equitably rewarded with -£8--$40--per ton for the finished material ready for transport to the -mill. On this basis a grinding mill, working to full capacity through -the 44 hours’ working week, should be able to show a gross profit of -£21--$105--which should leave an adequate margin of net profit to -encourage such exploitation of the waste. The expansion of this young -industry, however, depends entirely upon the conditions which will -obtain upon the restoration of normal trading. It is a moot point -whether the Scandinavian pulp-makers will ever be able to revert to -pre-war quotations for their product, owing to the increasing costs -of production, and this fact should render the outlook distinctly -promising for the home producers, more especially if the sawmill -trade be destined to undergo a decided revival. Every ton of saw-pulp -produced from the waste will prove beneficial to the nation, for the -simple reason that it will enable us to reduce our purchases from -foreign sources of pulp by a corresponding amount. - -While saw-pulp can only be regarded as a contribution to the -paper-making problem, there happens to be another waste product -suitable for this purpose, one which is available in much larger -quantities, and the supply of which would seem to be increasing rather -than decreasing. I refer to straw. Hitherto we have sadly neglected the -many possibilities offered in this connection, having preferred to turn -our by-product of the grain fields to other applications and to import -vast quantities of strawboard for the manufacture of boxes, containers, -and what not. Other countries have been more industrious and -enterprising than we, but what they have achieved is equally feasible -in these islands. To bring home the magnitude of this industry it is -only necessary to relate that our annual pre-war imports of strawboard -from Holland reached 250,000 tons. - -There is no reason why such a lamentable state of affairs should -continue. Straw is not only useful for the production of strawboard, -but it constitutes an excellent material for the manufacture of paper. -Its yield efficiency, while lower than that of esparto grass, being -only 33·3 per cent., is sufficiently high to render its exploitation -in this direction highly promising, especially as the material can be -obtained in huge quantities. - -At the present moment our supplies of straw for civilian needs may -rule low and prices may be high. But this is due to the heavy military -demands. Once the latter retire from the market and leave the article -to take care of itself, a marked drop in price may be confidently -anticipated, particularly if our new agricultural policy be maintained. -So long as it pays the farmer to grow corn he will continue to do so, -and the more acres he brings under this indispensable commodity the -greater will be the quantity of the by-product thrown upon the market. -It is anticipated that, when things settle down, from 2,000,000 to -3,000,000 tons of straw in excess of civilian needs will be available, -and the only possible outlet then for this waste from our grain-fields -will be the paper-mill. The utilization of the straw in this direction -will be influenced by charges for fuel and labour, while, of course, -the price of the imported pulp will affect any decision which may be -contemplated in regard to the exploitation of our home resources. But -assuming that the Scandinavian pulp will be dearer as a result of -enhanced production charges, and assuming that dumping tactics just -to hold the market will be frustrated, it is quite possible that we -shall find it cheaper to depend upon our own exertions with domestic -materials. If the quantity of straw which I have mentioned should -become available and be absorbed for this purpose, it will be adequate -to furnish from 670,000 to 1,000,000 tons of paper. - -The straw, borne directly from the land, is relatively cheap. The -cost, delivered to the mill, even during the war was only about £4 -10s.--$22.50--per ton. This figure is likely to fall. It produces -an excellent paper, but it is essential that it should be chopped -very finely preparatory to treatment, after which it is boiled with -chemicals and finally bleached. The yield efficiency being 33·3 per -cent. it follows that three tons of straw are required to produce one -ton of paper. - -But the straw is not only required for the production of paper; it -is equally necessary for the manufacture of strawboard. Under war -conditions an appreciable quantity of the reclaimed paper was being -repulped to furnish cardboard and paper-board for packing purposes -to make good the shortage prevailing in regard to the Dutch product. -But the waste-paper is more useful for paper-making. Accordingly it -is being switched over to this duty. It was merely utilized otherwise -during the war because it was so urgently required, the national -consumption running into approximately 100,000 tons annually. Efforts -are being made to establish the strawboard industry in these islands. -The Dutch method has been adopted, and there are hopes that the output -will be speedily raised to 50,000 tons a year. While this falls far -short of the actual imports it represents a bold commencement to -emancipate us from the necessity to pay tribute to the foreigner to the -extent of nearly £1,000,000--$5,000,000--per year for an article which -we might just as well produce at home. - -Why do we not undertake the manufacture of wood-pulp in this country? -This is an obvious question. But so far as these islands are concerned -the absence of supplies of raw material in the form of forests has been -responsible for the British abandonment of this range of activity. -Anterior to the outbreak of war there were three mills in this country -possessing integral facilities for pulping wood by the sulphite -process, but it was unremunerative owing to the insufficient supplies -of suitable indigenous timber. Two mills permitted their sulphite -plant to fall into disuse and in course of time dismantled them. The -third mill maintained operations, though under difficulties, while its -contribution was small in comparison with that of Scandinavia, its -capacity being only 6,000 tons a year. - -The enormous accumulations of wood-slats arising from the exploitation -of our forests to meet military requirements turned native thought -towards the resuscitation of the chemical system of pulping. A scheme -was promulgated for the erection of a plant in Scotland to work upon -the _sulphate_ process, the proposed site for the plant happening to -be in close proximity to one of the largest ephemeral logging camps. -By the sulphate system the wood is reduced to a pulp by boiling in -a solution of caustic soda, and for this reason is often known as -soda pulp to distinguish it from the sulphite pulp. It requires three -tons of wood chips to yield one ton of pulp, which incidentally I may -mention is one of the strongest pulps known to the paper-making craft. -At the time the problem was discussed this pulp commanded £40--$200--a -ton, and so manufacture was considered to offer an alluring prospect -for British enterprise. The only defect in this pulp is that it is -difficult to bleach, and therefore can be used only sparingly in the -production of white paper. It is used principally in the manufacture -of strong brown papers, such as “thin kraft,” the brown paper used for -fruit and other bags, or for packing-paper where colour is of minor -importance. - -Henceforth “kraft” will be in heavy demand for quite a new range of -activity. This is the production of paper textiles in which British -inventiveness has far out-distanced the German achievements in this -field. At the moment the British company specializing in these textiles -is being called upon to pay £40--$200--per ton for its raw material -drawn from Scandinavia, so that any fall in price which was anticipated -as a result of the cessation of hostilities, which would be likely -to undercut British production, has failed to materialize so far. It -may also be mentioned that British enterprise is quite ready to bring -over illimitable quantities of soft woods from the forests of Eastern -Canada in the log condition, and at a rate which is far cheaper than -that which has hitherto prevailed. This is due to a complete revolution -which has been wrought in the water movement of lumber, and it will -not only enable the requisite material to be acquired at a figure -severely competitive, but allow much of the waste lumber in Canada, at -present being ignored, to be submitted to commercial service. - -But the exploitation of the foregoing materials by no means exhausts -our possibilities in this field. There are other substances, of a -refuse character, possessing undoubted virtues for paper-making. Among -these may be mentioned potato haulm. There is every indication that -our output of the potato will record a decided increase owing to the -development of industrial science in other fields. Consequently it is -only logical to expect increased accumulations of the bine. At the -present moment the vegetation in question is regarded more or less -as useless. It should be turned back into the ground to assist in -feeding the soil, but many farmers are disinclined to follow such a -practice for the reason that the bine is apt to foul the plough, and -thus delay the ground-breaking task. Its fertilizer content, or rather -the phosphoric acid and potash constituents, are generally reclaimed -by burning the bine and turning in the ash, but this process is to be -deprecated inasmuch as the whole of the valuable nitrogen content is -lost. - -The haulm, owing to the nature of its fibres, is held to be an -excellent material for the production of brown paper where strength is -the essential requirement. So a British inventor devised what may be -described as a kind of decorticating machine to rend the tough fibre -to pieces upon the spot. The machine is simple, free from liability -to easy derangement, and ingenious. It is suggested that it should -be acquired by the farmer to permit the treatment of this waste as -recovered during the lifting season. It is held to make especial -appeal to the agriculturist possessing a motor-tractor, the requisite -energy being drawn therefrom through belt and pulley. It is estimated -that the manufacture of the machine, upon a sufficiently large scale, -will enable it to be sold at about £100--$500. The shredded stalk or -fibre should be able to command from £4 10s. to £5 10s.--$22.50 to -$27.50--per ton at the mill and should appeal to the paper-maker owing -to its high yield efficiency, which is in the neighbourhood of 65 per -cent. Of course, the suggestion that this waste should be recovered for -the production of paper is one that can only be entertained by the -large grower, but it is computed that at least 1,000 machines would be -necessary to cope with the country’s annual output of this refuse. - -Another waste product which has also been subjected to test, and found -promising, is the husk from the oat which accrues from milling. The -useless offal resulting from grinding this grain is approximately -35 per cent. In its general characteristics the oat-husk closely -resembles sawdust, while its preparation for paper-making entails a -broadly identical process--passage through a grinding mill to reduce -the residue to the desired consistency. Investigations proved the -suitability of this husk-pulp as an ingredient for making certain -low-grade papers, such as are used by grocers, and for the very -cheapest literature. Paper so made is composed of oat-husks, 35 per -cent.; waste-paper, 50 per cent.; imported pulp, 15 per cent. But the -most gratifying feature of such paper is that it can be made from -domestic raw materials--waste--to the extent of 85 per cent. - -It is evident, from what I have related, that the paper situation -need never occasion us any undue alarm. We have abundant materials -available in the form of waste which we might exploit to our material -and financial profit. War, with its concomitant evils, has turned the -world upside down. What we could not exploit previously to advantage, -owing to severely competitive prices, is now rendered feasible. It only -remains for us to submit the results of proved experiments to actual -commercial practice. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -SUPPLYING INDUSTRIES FROM THE DUST-BIN - - -During the past few years no effort has been spared to improve the -health and well-being of the community. Laws innumerable have been -passed compelling the mitigation of nuisances and the removal of -menaces to hygiene. These efforts are laudable, but, while they have -achieved the desired end, they have been directly responsible for many -other shortcomings. The greatest of these is waste, more especially in -so far as it affects the household. - -Probably no other factor has contributed so materially towards the -factor of heavier domestic prodigality than the provision of the -portable dust-bin, and the introduction of systematic and regular -collection of the flotsam and jetsam contributed thereto. The very -convenience which the dust-bin or ash-barrel represents has served -to accentuate household extravagance. “Throw it in the dust-bin!” is -the popular slogan in domestic circles. Consequently this receptacle -has become the harbour for much domestic refuse which, under previous -conditions, would never have been so summarily discarded. - -This disposition to be wasteful might have been checked, or at least -the errors of the domestic circle might have been rectified very -considerably, but for one disturbing element. We became such devout -worshippers of hygiene as to become insensible to all reasoning. A few -years ago the practice was to discharge the contents of the ash-barrel -upon open waste land. A small army of workers, even the nomadic element -of the community, turned to and raked over the spoil from our homes -very diligently. In this way immense quantities of odds and ends in -infinite variety which otherwise would have been lost found a market as -raw materials for many industries. Even the ultimate organic residue -fulfilled a mission of utility and one in consonance with the laws of -Nature, because, in the process of decomposition, the nitrogen and -phosphoric acid contents of the dump suffered release to feed the soil -to raise sustenance for man and beast. - -But ransacking the garbage heap was declared to be a degrading and -health-menacing occupation and practice. Indeed, the whole system of -household refuse disposal was held up to obloquy. Reform was achieved -by the energetic advocacy of another means wherewith to cope with such -waste. It received widespread support because it fully coincided with -all the requirements of hygiene, while, furthermore, it was simple, -expeditious, effective and apparently cheap. - -This was destruction by fire along so-called scientific lines. The new -idea arrested public fancy mainly for the reason that its champions -laid emphasis upon the fact that it presented the possibility of -obtaining energy to generate electric light and power and to drive -tramways for nothing. Municipalities became affected with the -incineration fever. Steam was necessary to drive the electric plant -which had been acquired. Why not cut down the coal-bill by making use -of the fuel properties possessed by household refuse? The contents -of the domestic dust-bin are so varied, ranging from waste-paper, -grease-laden bones, fragments of fat, cinders, rags and vegetable odds -and ends as to present, in the aggregate, a readily combustible mass -possessing distinct calorific value. By utilizing the garbage, which -has to be collected, in this manner, the coal-bill might be reduced by -so much. - -So argued the advocates of the new idea, and their reasonings proved -so specious as to gain the day. The prospect of being able to get -“Something for nothing” was so alluring as to silence effectively all -adverse criticism. Of course, it was futile to gainsay that cremation -could be rivalled as a prompt, simple, and completely sanitary means of -coping with the refuse which accumulates in every city and big town. -Forthwith destruction by fire became the widely-accepted means of -getting rid of the unsightly and unsavoury contents of the dust-bin. - -Yet the coming of the dust-destructor proved to be a distinctly -retrograde step in the science of economics. It contributed to -increased improvidence in the home, because the ash-barrel became the -receptacle for a still wider assortment of organic material than ever -before, and in greater bulk. - -It must be conceded that not all of the garbage which suffered -this fate was destroyed to futility. A certain volume of steam was -certainly raised wherewith to drive the electric generators, but the -amount of energy obtained in this way was out of all proportion to -the quantity and value of the material incinerated. In certain cases -the destructor was not harnessed to the power station. The ratepayers -have not experienced any sensible relief in regard to the fuel bills. -Even incineration of household refuse, despite the proportion of its -combustible contents, cannot be conducted satisfactorily without the -consumption of a certain volume of coal. And the process precipitates -a certain quantity of further refuse, in the form of clinker and ash, -the economic disposal of which has provoked another and even more -perplexing problem. - -When necessity, which knows no law, compelled us to economize in every -direction, and particularly in connection with food, we found it -expedient to turn round to ascertain whether or not we might be able -to effect tangible savings to minimize the disconcerting influences of -stringency. The domestic dust-bin was the first factor in the domestic -circle to undergo sensational overhaul. Material which had hitherto -been consigned to this dead end only too freely and perfunctorily, was -more closely scrutinized to see if it could not be induced to yield -further useful service before suffering complete abandonment by the -housewife. Contemporaneously with this manifestation of individual -private effort the civic and municipal authorities were compelled to -display unwonted activity. The whole problem of refuse disposal had to -be viewed from quite a new angle. - -Upon investigating the issue of household refuse at close quarters, and -under the microscope of concentrated interest, the country’s wastage -in this direction was found to exceed the wildest speculations of the -critics. For the first time illuminating statistics became available. -According to the National Salvage Council, the official department -created to stimulate the public mind in matters pertaining to this -question, the quantity of refuse “made” by householders throughout the -country during the year may be set down at 9,450,000 tons. - -At first sight this figure seems so startling as to be received with -incredulity, but analysis suffices to demonstrate that it does not -err upon the side of exaggeration. Rather is it conservative. It is -based upon an allowance of 1,680 lb. a day for each 1,000 members of -the total population during 300 days of the year. An allowance of 1·68 -lb. per head per day wastage cannot be construed as excessive. How -many households of six persons can show a weekly dust-bin collection -weighing less than 60 lb. especially when the extremely varied contents -of the receptacle are born in mind? - -Now, of what is the heterogeneous collection of the dust-bin composed, -and what is the proportion of each to the aggregate? The following -table, based upon the data collected by the official department already -mentioned, shows-- - - Material. | Average |Total per | Estimated Value. - |Percentage.| Year. | - --------------------------|-----------|----------|--------------------- - | | Tons. | £ | $ - Fine dust | 50·98 | 4,800,000| 240,000| 1,200,000 - Cinders | 39·63 | 3,700,000| 1,850,000| 9,250,000 - Bricks, pots, shales, etc.| 5·35 | 500,000| 25,000| 125,000 - Tins | 0·98 | 90,000| 360,000| 1,800,000 - Rags | 0·40 | 37,000| 555,000| 2,775,000 - Glass | 0·61 | 50,000| 100,000| 500,000 - Bones | 0·05 | 4,000| -- | -- - Vegetable matter | 0·72 | 68,000| -- | -- - Scrap iron | 0·06 | 5,000| 15,000| 75,000 - Shells (oyster, etc.) | 0·08 | 7,000| -- | -- - Paper | 0·62 | 58,000| 400,000| 2,000,000 - -From these figures it is evident that the dust-bin is a -veritable treasure ground. Of course the values are subject -to market fluctuations, but it is apparent that a round -£3,000,000--$15,000,000--more or less, a year, is being allowed to fly -up the chimney to vanish in smoke and gases, and to extend very meagre -return for its combustion. - -Let us consider the despised homely cinders as an illustration of how -we permit wicked waste to reign in the household circle. According -to the table they represent approximately two-fifths of the total -contents of the dust-bin, and make up the respectable aggregate of -3,700,000 tons a year for the whole country. As a straight fuel the -cinder is but slightly inferior to coal. When washed its calorific -value is about 10,000 British Thermal Units. Good steam coal only -averages 14,000 British Thermal Units. Accordingly the spurned cinder, -from the heat-raising point of view, is worth about five-sevenths of -coal drawn fresh from the mines. The householders of Britain have been -content to throw away 37,000,000,000 British Thermal Units every year -in ignorance. Translated into terms of coal this is equivalent to -2,642,857 tons. In other words we have wasted what is tantamount to -two-and-a-half millions of high-grade coal every year, and have spent -money on fuel which we might just as well have kept in our pockets or -have turned to other beneficial purposes. Obviously, if every house -undertook to turn its cinders to full account, the domestic call -upon the mines might be materially reduced, while there would be an -appreciable contribution to the conservation of our coal resources from -such a practice. - -Paper is another commodity which, in the past, we have handled along -woefully improvident lines, as related in the previous chapter. We -have not even taken the trouble to burn it, but have permitted it -to drift and flutter hither and thither to find a final repository, -grievously soiled and dirty, in the dust-bin. But even when so marred -and deteriorated it was worth, during the war period, no less than -£7--$35--a ton! - -The wastage of rags, both cotton and woollen, has been even more -deplorable. In this instance, however, possibly a reasonable excuse -for the prompt consignment of such material to the dust-bin and the -dust-destructor can be advanced. Popular opinion regards textile odds -and ends as an ideal vehicle for the transmission of the germs of -disease. Yet such does not justify the indiscriminate committal of -material worth £15--$75--per ton to incineration. Infected rags should -be burned forthwith in the household fire. But are they? Investigation -would probably reveal the disconcerting fact that they are thrown into -the dust-bin, as offering the most convenient means of disposal. Even -if they should be above suspicion when discarded, the chances are -that they become contaminated in the ash-barrel. Consequently upon -recovery such materials should be subjected to preliminary inexpensive -sterilization to ensure the public safety. - -When the necessity to practise household salvage upon a comprehensive -scale became imperative, a few discreet inquiries were made to secure -reliable statistics as to what wealth is ignored or thrown away by the -community of these islands. The results were somewhat surprising. - -In Sheffield, a city of some 500,000 persons, 56,000 jam-jars were -recovered in one week through a special collection conducted by school -children. They realized 6 shillings--$1.50--a gross, and so brought -in £120--$600. In Leicester the practice is, or was, to dispose of -certain articles to the local marine store dealers after collection, -and to divide the profit arising from the transaction among the -employees engaged in the refuse-gathering task. One quarter’s waste, -exclusive of old tins and waste-paper, netted £343--$1,715--of which -£249--$1,245--was obtained from rags alone. There were 264 dozen -jam-jars collected. They cost 15s.--$3.75--a gross new, and the trade -expressed its readiness to take over the reclaimed vessels at 7s. -6d.--$1.87--a gross. Kensington made £1,000--$5,000--from the sale -of one year’s collection of waste-paper. The Southport authorities -recovered £2,000--$10,000--over a similar transaction. The metropolitan -boroughs of Finsbury and Marylebone each swelled its local treasury -to the extent of £500--$2,500--in a similar manner. The City of -London garners 30 tons of this commodity every week. The ink-bottles -recovered from the garbage barrels of the metropolis would provide a -person with a comfortable income, averaging as they do several gross -a day. Liverpool derives £300--$1,500--from house-swill alone, which -it collects, dries, and turns into poultry-meal to sell at £15--$75--a -ton. Aberdeen, as the result of one day’s organized collection, secured -sufficient bottles to realize £567--$2,835. - -It is obvious that, no matter from what point of view the question is -regarded, systematic organized salvage of the contents of the household -dust-bin can be rendered a highly profitable enterprise. Certainly -it opens up a promisingly rich and legitimate field for municipal -trading, though it is equally accessible to private initiative. It is -only requisite to survey the whole situation of the disposal of house -garbage from the new angle of scientific application. It is not refuse -in the generally accepted interpretation of the term. Such material -should rightly be regarded as by-products of the private domestic -kitchen. - -The tardy recognition of this fact is responsible for a curious -reversion in practice. The open-air sifting of house refuse for the -recovery of substances possessed of commercial value was unequivocably -condemned from health motives, as previously mentioned. Yet, in -order to recover these articles, some system of selection and -hand manipulation are inevitable, notwithstanding the high degree -of intellectuality to which machinery has been advanced. But the -old system of hand-picking was primitive in its simplicity. The -circumstance that household refuse, both organic and inorganic, -possesses virtues which the vogue of the destructor caused to be -blindly ignored, has been responsible for a manifestation of marked -ingenuity upon the part of the engineering profession. The necessity -to recover every ounce of material possessing a market value was never -so acute as it is to-day. Supplies are short and are likely to remain -inadequate for some time to come, while the high level of prices is -apt to compel more rigid economy. Yet the strains encountered in this -direction may be very sensibly lessened by the practice of salvage -along more intensive lines. - -It would seem as if refuse recovery were destined to develop into -a highly specialized branch of the engineering craft. Hitherto -for the most part the engineer has confined his efforts towards -garbage-disposal by destruction, but the new tendency is far more -logical and deserving of every encouragement. Certainly it is a field -in which abundant scope is offered for brilliancy and ingenuity of -thought. This is demonstrated by the activity of certain firms, more -particularly of one in the North of England, the guiding hand of the -destinies of which has evolved a complete recovery plant, having many -decidedly ingenious features, and which is already being installed by -certain of our more progressive corporations and municipal authorities. - -This plant is self-contained, and, so far as is feasible, is -automatically operated. While hand-picking cannot be entirely -eliminated it has been reduced to the minimum. The system adopted -facilitates the task, and renders hand-picking as congenial as the -peculiar conditions will permit. Furthermore it is an individual -entity. While it can be established in an isolated centre it can also -be coupled up to the existing dust-destructor, or power-generating -station if preferred, thereby complying with the general desire to -centralize municipally-controlled installations. This is certainly a -powerful recommendation, because it avoids superfluous transport and -handling. - -Under this scheme the refuse-collecting vehicles discharge their loads -into a receiving hopper from which the material falls by gravitation -into a hexagonally-shaped revolving riddle. This screen or reel for -two-thirds of its length is perforated to allow the fine ash associated -with the waste to escape into another large hopper placed immediately -beneath. The ash may then either be withdrawn directly from this hopper -into wagons or carts for removal, or should arrangements be made for -its combination with other ingredients to produce a fertilizing agent, -it may be led by conveyor from the hopper to the compounding-room. - -For the remaining third of its length the hexagonal revolving screen -is perforated with a coarser mesh to permit the cinders to escape -into a separate hopper, at the base of which is a worm conveyor which -receives the cinders and bears them to a washer. The washing operation -is introduced to allow the separation of the light or combustible -fuel--cinders--from the heavier clinker, fragments of glass, pottery, -and other incombustible substances. At the same time all fine dust -clogging the interstices or pores of the cinders is removed, thereby -facilitating the subsequent combustion of the cinder, while, of course, -the heat produced from the cleansed fuel is greater than that derived -from such material loaded with incombustible dust. - -After being washed the cinders are picked up by a scraper elevator. If -it be intended to utilize this fuel for raising steam in the adjacent -power plant it can be carried by conveyor direct to the boiler-room, -to be discharged into the bunkers or furnaces. Should it be decided -to dispose of the cinders, either wholly or in part, to the general -public, they may be taken by the transporter to any suitable point to -be stored against sale in bulk or in bags. - -A second scraper elevator gathers the heavier debris separated from -the combustible fuel in the washer, and carries it to a pulverizer, -to which it is delivered through a chute. If the fine dust associated -with the raw refuse, and which fell through the receiving screen, be -not delivered from its hopper into vehicles for immediate disposal, it -may be led to this point to be stored in the pit receiving the material -from the pulverizer with which it may be mixed. Of course, the dust is -not passed through the grinding plant. - -The elimination of the dust and coarser material from the crude garbage -in the receiving screen leaves an appreciable quantity of organic -and inorganic matter, comprising such divers substances as paper, -fragments of wood, bottles, jars, bones, tins, and vegetable material -to be handled. As these cannot pass through the perforations in the -sifting screen they are delivered on to a broad endless conveyor-belt -travelling between two platforms. This is the “picking belt,” from the -fact that as the material is borne along between the two platforms -the useful material is removed by the hands of pickers, to be cast -into suitably disposed bins. In this manner the process of segregation -is carried out with the minimum of effort, while the material is in -movement, and under the most congenial conditions the character of the -work will permit. It represents the only stage at which recourse to -manual labour is required, so that it will be seen that hand-selection -is reduced to the absolute minimum. - -The waste-paper is not touched by hand. At a suitable point a specially -designed hood, connected to an exhauster, is mounted over the picking -belt. When this is set in motion the induced draught is sufficiently -powerful to suck up the paper, and to bear it through a special conduit -to be discharged into a convenient receptacle, whence it may be removed -to the baling press. - -This plant, known as the Hoyle refuse-recovery installation, after -its inventor and designer, Mr. H. P. Hoyle, is extremely efficient. -Simplicity is the outstanding feature, while its operation is -economical and requires only the minimum of labour. So far as power -is concerned a single 10 horse-power electric motor suffices for all -operations. The capital cost has also been kept down, the price of -the complete plant being from £1,500 to £2,000--$7,500 to $10,000. -At this figure the installation of the system should prove distinctly -profitable, more especially in conjunction with one or two auxiliary -appliances which offer the means to enhance the market value of the -recovered materials, although they are not essential. For instance, -an appreciable proportion of the tins thrown into the dust-bin are in -a bright condition and free from rust. Such tins can be made to yield -so much crude tin plate for the production of further tins, instead of -being subjected to the less economic process of crushing, baling, and -detinning or transference to the furnaces in billet form to be melted -down. - -A special type of machine has been evolved whereby the tops and bottoms -of the bright recovered tins can be cut off. The resultant cylinder is -then cut through on either side of the original seam, and the sheet -pressed out to form a flat plate. The eliminated joint, of course, is -set on one side to be treated for the recovery of the solder, while the -small pieces of tin find their way to the scrap-metal bin. The sheets -of bright tin which are thus recovered, and which are quite equal to -new tin-plate, command a ready sale, because they can be restamped into -smaller flat tins for packing boot polishes and similar commodities -extensively retailed in this form. The process is simple, rapid, and -can be made profitable. - -Rusted tins require to be treated in a different manner. Some -corporations merely crush them flat to facilitate and to cheapen -transport, selling them in bulk to firms who specialize in the handling -of such product. However, it is a matter for investigation, when such -tins are recoverable from the garbage in appreciable quantities, as to -whether it would not prove more remunerative to the local authorities -to deal with the tins themselves. A furnace is required to burn off the -tin-dirt and to recover the solder. The tin itself, representing about -1 per cent., is lost, although there are processes in operation for its -reclamation. The receptacles may then be crushed and baled into billets -for which an hydraulic press is necessary. A plant capable of making -a bale measuring 24 × 14 × 6 inches is well-adapted to this duty. The -solder is in demand, while the plate is worth from £3--$15--upwards -per ton as scrap metal. At this figure the local authorities would -undoubtedly find it far more profitable to incur the extra expense and -labour involved to prepare the billets rather than to dispose of the -tins in their crude form. When the quantity is heavy direct sale to -the steel-works is possible and the middleman’s profit diverted to the -benefit of the ratepayers. - -Paper should also be baled for reasons of transport. Either hand or -power appliances may be used, but unless the quantity likely to be -handled is pronounced, the hand-operated machine will be found adequate -for the task. Of course, it must be admitted that, to-day, prices for -the recovered materials rule somewhat high. Consequently it may be -averred by critics that, whereas such auxiliaries might be perfectly -justifiable under conditions such as now prevail, they would fail to -show an equally satisfactory result in normal circumstances. - -But it must not be forgotten that prices are steadily rising all round. -Accepted raw materials are costing more, labour is more expensive, -and the tendency in both directions is still in the ascendant. But -even should prices and costs droop, it must not be forgotten that -such a movement would be attended by the utilization of greater -quantities of the articles concerned. They would be recoverable from -the garbage in greater volume, and then it would be possible to keep -the plants running to their full capacities for no heavier operative or -overhead costs. Consequently, in the long run the disposal of enhanced -quantities of tins, either as “bright” or scrap, at a lower figure, -would probably prove more profitable in the aggregate than treating a -limited supply, such as obtains under stringent economic conditions, at -a high figure. - -How does a recovery plant of the foregoing description work out in -practice? This is the vital question. Upon this point it is possible -to advance some interesting figures. An investigation of the domestic -refuse problem as it affects the country as a whole has revealed -the circumstance of the contents of the dust-bin being tolerably -consistent, whether it be drawn from a residential or manufacturing -town, from the East-end or from the West-end, from the city or from -the suburb. On the basis of the analysis set forth elsewhere in this -chapter, and taking for our illustration a metropolitan suburb having a -population of 85,000 souls contributing 100 tons of refuse a day, the -possible recovery of by-products comes out as follows:-- - - --------------------------+--------+---------------+----------------- - Material. |Tons per| Price per Ton.| Total Value. - | Day. | | - --------------------------+--------+--------+------+--------+-------- - Fertilizer prepared from | | £ s. d.| $ | £ s. d.| $ - fine dust and pulverized| | | | | - debris from | | | | | - washer and picking | | | | | - belt | 65 | 0 1 0| 0.25| 3 5 0| 16.25 - Cinders | 25 | 0 10 0| 2.50| 12 10 0| 62.50 - Tins and metal | 2 | 4 0 0| 20.00| 8 0 0| 40.00 - Paper (unsorted, dirty) | 1 | 7 0 0| 35.00| 7 0 0| 35.00 - Rags | 0·5 |15 0 0| 75.00| 7 10 0| 37.50 - Glass | 0·5 | 2 0 0| 10.00| 1 0 0| 5.00 - --------------------------+--------+--------+------+--------+-------- - Gross total per day |£39 5 0| $196.25 - ---------------------------------------------------+--------+-------- - -The foregoing figures may be accepted as moderate. Thus the cinders, -with a heating value equal to five-sevenths of that of good steam coal, -are priced at 10s.--$2.50--per ton. But, as experience has proved, -they readily command 14s.--$3.50--per ton, providing, in their washed -condition, a first-class, clean, cheap and economical fuel for the -poorer classes of the community. At 10s.--$2.50--per ton they are equal -to coal costing 14s.--$3.50--per ton, at which price such fuel is -absolutely impossible to-day. Even coke cannot be purchased at double -the figure. In other words, by buying washed cinders at the prices -quoted the purchaser is receiving a fuel equal, if not superior, to -contemporary household coal costing 35s. to 50s.--$7 to $10--per ton. - -Again, the tins are assessed at a low scrap-metal value. Probably 50 -per cent. of the tins rescued from the dust-bin to-day coincide with -the term “bright,” and thus would pay to turn into tin-plate. The -quotation for this material ignores the value of the solder, as well -as that ruling for other metals, such as brass and copper, and of -which far more is recovered from the ash-barrel than may be popularly -imagined. The figure given, moreover, represents the official price, -but since the removal of control scrap-metal has recorded higher -quotations. So far as the other materials are concerned the prices may -be taken as representative. - -On the above showing of £39 5s.--$196.25--per day the plant gives a -gross return, in round figures, of £235--$1,175--for a six-day week, -or £11,775--$58,875--for a 300-day year. Allowing £5,000--$25,000--a -liberal figure--for the annual operation of the plant, the sum of -£6,775--$33,875--remains--the net return from the realization of some -of the utilitarian material recovered from the dust-bins into which -85,000 people throw what they consider to be useless during the course -of the year. Truly may it be said that the average member of the -public has but little, if any, idea of the wealth he allows to slip -through his hands as a result of carelessness or lack of knowledge. -Again, when it is reflected that, for the most part, the whole of such -potential wealth as this has been permitted to vanish in smoke, or if -incombustible to be kicked from pillar to post, we certainly cannot -complain when accused of deplorable extravagance. - -So far as the capital expenditure of a plant, such as is set forth -above, is concerned, this may be set down at £1,000 to £1,500--$5,000 -to $7,500. If for such a paltry expenditure a net revenue of -£6,775--$33,875--can be secured during the course of the year, surely -the moment has arrived when we ought to put our civic and municipal -houses in order. Granting that prices to-day are abnormal, and reducing -the net return by 50 per cent., even at £3,387--$16,935--per annum, -which may be taken as a safe assumption, a plant of this description is -able to pay its way within a short time after its installation, after -making even the most liberal allowances for capital charges, interest, -and depreciation. - -The Hoyle system is one which should make a powerful appeal to the -small communities, which, at the moment, are deficient in any system of -garbage disposal other than open dumping. It has the governing virtue -of being extremely flexible, being as readily applicable to the small -town, numbering only a few thousand--even hundreds--of inhabitants as -to the teeming city of a million or more souls. The financial outlay -involved is comparatively trivial for the results achieved, and varies -according to the size, capacity, and completeness of the plant. - -Should our smaller towns embrace the system the contributions to -the searching problems of the moment would, in the aggregate, be -decidedly startling. The materials thus recovered, turned into the -proper channels, would go a long way towards relieving the strains -which are being experienced. The small town has a golden opportunity -to demonstrate to the larger communities how things should be done. -For the most part it is not saddled with a costly, so-called hygienic, -destructor. The science of turning the contents of the dust-bin to -commercial advantage is one offering possibilities too numerous to -mention and might even lead to the establishment of local industries. -Nothing organic or inorganic possessed of any utilitarian value need be -lost. - -On the other hand the city is not in such a fortunate position. -It will have to forget a good deal of what it has assimilated in -connection with the disposal of the contents of the ash-barrel. A -change-over from the old to the new method must inevitably occupy time, -especially as those two dragging chains which always retard the march -of progress--prejudice and conservatism--have first to be released. -Nevertheless, as destruction of domestic waste by fire superseded -dumping upon open land, so must incineration, in turn, give way to the -latest demands of science and the immutable economic law. The dust -destructor never could possibly be construed into a scientific solution -of the problem: it has no constructional or creative value, except of -a nuisance in the form of accumulations of clinker. Even primitive -dumping upon the land did possess the distinct advantage of benefiting -the soil over which it was distributed. When the latest idea for -recovering and exploiting the by-products of the dust-bin achieves the -vogue which it deserves, land and industry will profit to the benefit -of the community and of the country. - -Naturally, certain local authorities, notoriously opposed to -progressive development, will seek to stop the tide by belittling the -new policy. They have become so firmly wedded to the destructor in -which so much of the ratepayers’ money has been sunk as to be blind -to improvement. They will continue still to waste money in supporting -their fetish, strenuously declining to honour the axiom that it is -often cheaper to cut the loss. - -In the absence of willingness to jettison the old and to adopt the new, -the pressure of compulsion should be applied. Local authorities must -be prevented from continuing to squander potential resources of raw -material. Alternatively, the exploitation of the despised dust-bin -should be brought within the reach of private enterprise, which should -be extended every encouragement. Other nations have always regarded our -much-vaunted dust destructor as the high-road to waste. It has never -found any pronounced favour beyond the confines of Britain. Have our -rivals been wiser than we? - -An interesting commentary upon this somewhat inexplicable -predisposition to destruction by fire is offered by the experience of -the city of San Francisco. In 1896 the city granted a fifty years’ -franchise for the provision of a destructor for the disposal of -household refuse to a private party. “This destructor,” remarks the -city engineer in a communication to myself, “is the second, and last, -example of the Thackery furnace and arrangement, the first having been -built in Montreal, Canada, the previous year (1895).” - -This plant has passed through somewhat strange vicissitudes. In 1910 -it was purchased, together with the franchise, by the city authorities -for £70,000--$350,000. It was then leased to a private party, under -privilege, in return for an annual payment of £3,700--$18,500--5 per -cent. upon the purchase price. During the early months of 1918, owing -to the great increase in wages and other costs of operation, the lessee -relinquished his lease, so that it was thrown back upon the hands of -the city authorities. It was then taken in hand by the Scavengers’ -Association under permit from the city, by whom it is at present being -run at a cost of about 4s.--$1--a ton for the 375 to 380 tons of refuse -collected daily by the scavengers. - -But the city authorities are not impressed with this method of -disposing of the contents of the ash-barrels of its citizens. “During -the past year or two,” continues the city engineer in the communication -already quoted, “we have become more than ever impressed with the -wrong of unnecessary waste and have been making special study of our -conditions and the means of improving them. Ordinances for segregation -at the source, and collection of all, both garbage and rubbish, are now -under action by the Board of Supervisors--the governing body of the -city--and specifications are being prepared and bids asked upon the -same for the collection and disposal of garbage and rubbish. - -“It is specially provided that all proposals shall be based on a -recognition of the need of conservation and the recovery of all values -to the point of balance between profit and loss. It is expected that -the garbage from households will amount to upwards of 100 tons daily, -and that it will be attractive to hog-raisers.” - - - - -CHAPTER X - -LIVING ON WASTE - - -War is Hell. So said Sherman, and it is a verdict with which the whole -world will agree. But war is also a powerful educating force. If -any convincing testimony upon this point were required we have only -to reflect upon the effective manner in which the recent European -conflagration caused the British nation to revise its methods and -practices. The stress of war, ravages by submarines, depletion of -transport facilities by sea, road, and rail, and the shortage of crops -and labour, compelled the community to consider the food question in a -light totally different from that with which it was regarded during the -days of cheapness and plenty. We were forced to digest lessons which -under normal conditions we would have ignored in contempt. Whether the -changes wrought in our complex social and commercial life are destined -to be permanent in character is another question, but the continuation -of high prices is tending to consummate this end, the process being -assisted by the reflection that the good old days are destined never to -return, at least not for many years to come. - -In the previous chapter I have recounted how the engineer is now -striving to conserve rather than to destroy what we throw to one side -as of no further use. By inventive ingenuity he is endeavouring to -bring home to our local authorities how to extract further utilitarian -value from what the household discards. The question immediately arises -as to what extent this tendency towards preservation and construction, -as opposed to destruction and loss, is being supported in a practical -manner by the authorities concerned. - -It is to be feared that, considered on the whole, the seeds which are -being sown are falling on barren ground. However, here and there our -civic and municipal authorities, especially those who evince a distinct -pride in being numbered among the pioneers of progress, are fully alive -to the possibilities of the problem, and are leaving no stone unturned, -nor sparing any exertion, to bring home to the public at large that -refuse is merely matter in the wrong place. In some instances this -reversion to rigid economical methods is not of modern record, the -practice of salvage or recovery of abandoned products having been -practised along more or less comprehensive lines, as indicated by -scientific thought, for many years past. - -The city of Glasgow is able to point to a convincing record of what -can be achieved in this direction. In the years 1908-9 the fathers -of the progressive Scottish city derived £41,000--$205,000--from -this source, while during the ten years ending 1918 what is commonly -regarded as rubbish and useless has been induced to yield no less than -£50,300--$251,500. Surely what can be achieved in one city is equally -possible of attainment in every other community throughout the British -Isles to a greater or lesser degree! - -Glasgow has evolved its own organization for retrieving and utilising -the city refuse and in accordance with the conditions which obtain in -the locality. Speaking generally, the system may be described as one -of separating the saleable from the unsaleable. Previous to the year -1917 efforts were devoted mainly to the preparation of fertiliser from -the contents of the domestic dust-bin, as well as the recovery of -tins, but, owing to the high prices which other so-called waste was -commanding, and in deference to the national appeal towards greater -economy, the reclamation of other materials was taken in hand with -highly gratifying results. - -The refuse of the city is collected in the usual manner and conveyed -to the depot. It is weighed upon receipt. It is then dispatched up -an inclined roadway to a tipping floor, where the vehicles discharge -their loads through shoots. Beneath the latter are disposed horizontal -revolving riddles of conical form. The fine refuse and cinders escape -through the grids, but the bulky material is carried forward to be -ejected on to a travelling conveyor. - -The ashes and cinders which fall through the open mesh of the first -riddles are caught by a second and stationary screen. The mesh of -this sieve being finer only allows the dust to escape to fall into -a mixing machine. Here it is combined with a regulated quantity of -excrementitious matter drawn from an overhead tank. The materials -are thoroughly blended, and the mixture ultimately falls direct into -railway wagons. In this way all intermediate handling is obviated. This -material constitutes a first-class fertilizing agent, is keenly sought -by farmers, and accordingly meets with a ready sale. - -The cinders, arrested by the secondary stationary screen, are collected -in a similar manner. They are not sold, but dumped into the bunkers -of the works to fire the boilers, thereby assisting materially in the -generation of the power necessary to drive the plant. - -The bulkier material remaining in the revolving conical grid is -discharged on to a conveyor. While being moved forward all material -of value, such as waste-paper, tins, scrap-metal, waste-food, rags, -bones, glass and so on are picked off by hand to be thrown into bins. -The manual labour employed to carry out this task of segregation may be -considered to be an adverse cost factor. But against this expenditure -for separation by hand must be set that formerly entailed in the -destruction or other disposal of this material. Accordingly, all things -considered, it may be accepted that the revenue derived from this -source virtually represents money saved. - -In addition to the recovery of paper from the above-mentioned -refuse the Cleansing Department also maintains a special service -for the collection of such waste from offices, warehouses, and -private residences throughout the city area. This procedure has been -in operation for many years, but, owing to the scarcity of paper -encountered during the war, and the need which consequently arose -to display accentuated enterprise in this direction, an auxiliary -collecting service was inaugurated. It was conducted by the members of -the Women’s Volunteer Reserve, who received a percentage of the profits -arising from the sale of the waste-paper thus gathered. - -So far as the waste-metal--light scrap, tins, and other odds and ends -of a metallic nature--is concerned this was formerly sold in the form -of detinned compressed billets. Under the present contract this is -delivered to the contractor in the condition in which it is received. -But it is quite possible that, at some future date, there may be a -reversion to the baling process which formerly obtained. In view of -this fact it has been deemed advisable to bale a certain proportion -of the recovered metal merely in order to maintain the hydraulic -compressing plant in good working conditions. The practice is to -separate and to classify metallic material under one or other of six -headings--bright tins, galvanized metal, light iron (black), cast iron, -enamelled ware, and burned tins respectively. - -While the Cleansing Department hitherto has not devoted any attention -to the recovery of garbage from the refuse for conversion into -pig-food, it is possible that this issue may be undertaken at a future -date. The authorities have the suggestion under serious consideration -with a view to its adoption. - -The clinker question commands the attention of the Glasgow authorities, -as it does all other communities equipped with facilities for carrying -out refuse destruction by incineration. But, so far as this city -is concerned, the problem does not bristle with perplexity as is -invariably the case. The residuum from the furnaces of the Corporation -works is mechanically screened into five varying grades, to meet the -requirements of contractors who find it eminently adapted to their -particular needs. No difficulty has yet been experienced in regard to -the disposal of this article, a ready sale always having prevailed for -the stocks available. - -That the reclamation of the utilitarian contents of the domestic -dust-bin is distinctly remunerative to the Glasgow civic authorities is -reflected from a perusal of the revenue derived from the recovery and -disposal of the city’s refuse during the year ended May 31, 1918. The -sales’ record is as follows:-- - - ---------------------------+---------------+--------- - Materials. | £ s. d. | $ - ---------------------------+---------------+--------- - Waste-paper | 8,993 14 5 | 44,969 - Old tins, light iron, etc. | 2,684 17 9 | 13,425 - Clinker | 718 10 10 | 3,592 - Sundries | 72 14 5 | 363 - ---------------------------+---------------+--------- - Total | £12,469 17 5 | $62,349 - ---------------------------+---------------+--------- - -To the above total there remains to be added the revenue derived -from the sale of the prepared manure, arising from the admixture of -the finely-screened dust and excremental material. This realized -£6,718 17s. 8d.--$33,594--bringing the grand total to £19,188 15s. -1d.--$95,943. In this return the cinders are totally ignored, but, -seeing that they constitute a highly serviceable fuel, the saving -in the coal-bill, which their use secured, should be taken into -consideration. - -It is necessary to explain that, inasmuch as the thorough separation of -the material is only of recent date, previous operations having been -confined to the recovery of paper, old metal and the preparation of -the fertilizer as already mentioned, the item “Sundries” cannot extend -any criterion as to the results now being recorded, nor of the revenue -derived from the recovery and disposal of the additional articles. - -The successful conversion of the volume of dust, comprising about 50 -per cent. of the aggregate, into a marketable fertiliser, offers a -satisfactory solution of a complex and perplexing problem. But when the -dust is coarser and yet deficient in “bite” or gritty characteristic, -its disposal is not so readily consummated because its possible -applications are thereby severely narrowed down in number. - -Speaking generally, the utilization of the fine dust may be said to -present a vexatious question. While it forms an excellent ingredient -for a compounded fertilizer, it is not a simple matter to discover an -inexpensive, and preferably second, refuse constituent of approved -manurial value with which to associate it. The majority of the -ingredients advocated as complying with the desired requirement possess -too high an independent fertilizing value for such an application. -In itself the dust is of very low soil-feeding power, and so active -investigation is being pursued in anticipation of the discovery of a -satisfactory adjustment to this question. - -Another enterprising illustration of what can be achieved with -domestic, office and warehouse refuse, both organic and inorganic, -is extended by the Port of Liverpool. Here, again, the developments -to be recorded in this connection are not attributable to the war, -although the last-named factor was responsible for the conduct of the -reclamatory process upon a more intensive scale. Liverpool is somewhat -peculiarly situated among the importing centres of the United Kingdom -seeing that it is probably the largest distributing centre for American -foodstuffs for this country. Consequently, as is only to be expected, -very considerable quantities of food which have suffered such damage -during transit or demurrage as to become unfit for human consumption -have to be handled. Under the old _régime_ all organic waste of this -character was either consigned right away to the destructor, or was -perfunctorially treated to be sold as manure. Neither science nor -brains was displayed in its disposal. The shortest way out of the -difficulty was accepted as being the most effective in the public -interests. But Liverpool was not the only port to follow such summary -practice. It was common to all ports of the country in greater or -lesser degree. The public loses heavily from the observance of such -deprecatory measures, especially when it is borne in mind that such -traffic runs into tens of thousands of tons during the course of the -year. But under pre-war conditions, owing to the plentitude of supplies -and the wide distribution of the losses incurred, the financial effect -was scarcely felt by the unit of the population. - -During the war a loud wail went up because a number of hams and a -quantity of bacon had been found in a decomposed condition at a certain -port. Had this occurred during pre-war days not a word would have found -its way into the public press, and the destructor alone would have -known of the incident. But because under war conditions the public -was directly affected--was clamouring for this particular article of -food--the wastage was declared to be intolerable. Fortunately, in this -instance, owing to our having become more enlightened, the spoiled food -was not totally lost. The fat was reclaimed, while the residue was -turned to its most profitable account. - -At Liverpool, as at other centres where a vigilant eye is maintained -upon the clock of progress, it was speedily discovered that the methods -of handling such refuse were distinctly deprecatory. It was decided to -introduce improved practice. One material was treated as an experiment, -and the process was found to be profitable. Gradually other condemned -articles of food were taken in hand. This logical development of -salvage was continued, until to-day there is very little material -entering into the composition of the Liverpool dust-bin which does not -find some one or other useful application. - -It was learned from studied investigation that waste-food products -collected with the refuse of the city might be classified into five -broad divisions, namely butchers’ and fishmongers’ offal, damaged fruit -and vegetables, damaged eggs, damaged canned foods, such as meat, fish, -milk and so forth, as well as warehouse sweepings. Over and above this -assortment, of course, came the miscellany to be found in every ash-bin -drawn from the home. To ensure the receipt of the offal from tradesmen -a special and separate collection from all retail shops dealing in fish -and greengrocery was inaugurated. Subsequently, to prevent the wastage -of swill suitable for the sustenance of pigs, a special collection from -private houses was introduced. - -In every city the isolation of the swill from the general material -consigned to the dust-bin though freely urged is a somewhat difficult -issue to carry into practice. Segregation at the source is imperative -to ensure the maximum results being attained. But the Liverpool -authorities overcome the obstacle very satisfactorily. The residents -were notified of the intention of the department charged with this -duty, while officials were detailed to visit and to explain to -residents the proposals, and to extend advice upon what, and what -should not, be thrown into the dust-bin. Moreover, the City Fathers -undertook to provide each house with a special receptacle for the -swill, and to collect it at frequent intervals. Experience proved that -collection twice a week sufficed to meet every requirement. - -But, as a rule, when the suggestion is made that local authorities -should provide special receptacles for swill, demur is made on the plea -that such a procedure must entail further capital expenditure. Yet it -can be carried out along very inexpensive lines if attacked in the -proper spirit. So far as Liverpool has been concerned it was even found -possible to turn a waste article to such account. Among the flotsam and -jetsam sent to the corporation depots for disposal were thousands of -tins measuring 9 × 9 × 13 inches, originally used for the conveyance of -oil to this country. Examination revealed the circumstance that these -discarded receptacles could readily be converted into swill-pails, -their dimensions and construction admirably adapting them to such -a duty. Forthwith they were cleaned, one or two minor alterations -carried out, and then painted. The cost of adaptation was less than -1s.--25 cents--per tin. These were then issued to the residents who -expressed readiness to co-operate with the efforts of the authorities, -and proved a complete success. It has often been advanced by local -authorities that the residents will never collaborate in such schemes -of segregation at the source, declining to be bothered, but the -experience gained at Liverpool does not support such a contention. The -inhabitants of the city astride the Mersey responded very promptly to -the request to save and segregate their swill, the result being that -enormous accumulations of potential and valuable pig-food were secured. - -Swill supplies being assured, the next step was to handle this waste -at the depot, and to prepare it for the piggeries. The City Engineer, -Mr. John A. Brodie, M.Inst.C.E., advanced a complete solution to this -problem and along economical lines. A number of old pitch boilers -and other plant was lying idle at the depot. This was turned out, -overhauled, rigged up and coupled up to the steam generating equipment -of the destructor. The household swill was cooked in these vessels, -and in this manner a first-class pig-food was produced. To ensure the -consumption of the swill thus obtained the Corporation installed its -own piggeries and poultry runs upon its farms. The swill, while still -hot, was conveyed to the piggeries in the municipal motor wagons and -doled out. Private pig-raisers were also at liberty to obtain the swill -in the heated condition if they cared to fetch it. This facility was -readily accepted, inasmuch as it saved the pig-keepers the trouble and -time of conducting collection from houses in the conventional manner -and then boiling it upon their farms for their animals. - -Continuous development of the reclamation of waste problem has been the -policy of the Liverpool civic authorities. Satisfied with the pecuniary -and other results attending their initial efforts the City Engineer -installed an inexpensive and complete plant working upon the Scott -system, described in another chapter, for the full reclamation of the -material contained in the city refuse. It was laid down at the central -depot primarily to treat the meat, fish, and other organic offal, -increasing quantities of which were forthcoming. The plant in question -comprises a digester, dryer, vacuum pump, disintegrator and fat tanks. -Electric drive is employed throughout, the necessary power being drawn -from the municipal generating station. - -The digester, made of steel, 7 feet long by 3 feet in diameter, is of -sufficient capacity to receive one ton of refuse at a time, and works -at a pressure of 60 lb. It is charged from the top and emptied from the -bottom. It works upon the jacket principle, and the necessary steam may -be admitted both at the top and bottom as desired. Top and bottom cocks -are fitted for drawing off all fatty and oily liquid for the fat tanks, -and also to draw off the liquor. About four hours are required to treat -the charge. - -The vacuum dryer is a drum, 4 feet 6 inches deep by 5 feet in diameter, -and is also able to receive a charge of one ton. Top and bottom -facilities, for charging and emptying respectively, are provided. -Within the vessel rotating blades are disposed to keep the contents in -agitation during treatment, these blades making about 25 revolutions -per minute. All foul gases arising during the process are drawn off -by a vacuum pump, and are led to the furnaces to be consumed, thereby -being rendered innocuous before escaping into the atmosphere. - -The disintegrator is a cast-iron cylinder provided with a continuous -automatic feed. Within the vessel are set a number of steel arms which -run at a very high speed--about 2,500 revolutions per minute--which -break up and thoroughly disintegrate the refuse introduced until it is -able to pass through the meshes of the screen placed at the bottom of -the machine. - -The process is very simple. The refuse is dumped into the digester -which, upon being filled, is sealed. Steam is turned on, and the -resultant cooking releases all the oleaginous constituents of the -contents, which are floated off through the cock to be led to the -fat-recovery tanks. The cooking is continued until the raw waste has -shed every drop of recoverable oil and grease. The digester is then -emptied, pressed, and the cooked material passed to the dryer to be -dried, thence to the disintegrator to be pulverized or ground to the -required degree of fineness. - -The fatty and oil liquors drawn from the digester fall into a tank, -and the fat and grease collecting on the surface are skimmed off to -be passed to a lower tank. All tanks are kept at a certain degree of -temperature by means of a steam-heated coil. The fat and oil reclaimed -in this manner are subsequently treated for their yield of glycerine, -the final residue entering into the preparation of soap and other -articles. - -The solid residues recovered from the disintegrator, representing the -fibres from the meat, fish offal and other solid matter, constitute an -excellent poultry food. According to the analyses which have been made -it is rich in the albuminoids and phosphates. - -While the foregoing naturally represents the foremost and greatest -phase of salvage activity pursued by the Liverpool Corporation it -by no means exhausts their efforts in this direction. Other refuse -is recovered and treated for some one or other specific commercial -purpose. All bones are collected, washed, and boiled to secure the fat, -the solid matter afterwards being ground into meal. Vegetable refuse, -of which large quantities are forthcoming, especially from the markets, -are dried and stored, having been found useful as a constituent for -poultry foods. Fish, both offal and unsold inedible surplus, is -converted directly into fertilizer. Wooden refuse, recovered from -dust-bins and other sources, is heated at low temperature to allow -carbonization for sale as charcoal. Large quantities of straw, -both clean and soiled, are also brought in, being recovered from -packing-cases and crates. The clean straw is segregated to be chopped -finely, and as such meets with a ready sale among poultry-raisers -because it constitutes a very effective scratching material. The dirty -straw, together with soiled paper and old wooden boxes incapable of -other treatment, as well as other light refuse, are burned in a special -furnace which has been installed, care being observed to collect the -ash. As the latter contains approximately 12 per cent. potash it -forms a first-class fertilizer. Banana stalks are likewise rich in -potash, and so, by submitting the stalks, large quantities of which -are forthcoming from the fruit markets under normal conditions, to a -special treatment, this potash is recovered and is turned over to the -soap-makers. Oyster shells are washed, calcined, and then ground for -sale as grit to poultry-raisers. - -Damaged and condemned eggs are frequently received in large quantities -from the docks, warehouses and wholesale establishments. One -consignment numbered no fewer than a quarter of a million. Instead of -being used as fuel for the destructor, these eggs are boiled, then -chopped, dried and together with the shells are finely ground into meal -for use as chicken food. - -Consignments of ham and bacon are often received in heavy quantities at -times from the docks. This inedible food is submitted to treatment to -secure the various commercial by-products such as oil and grease, the -residue being ground up into meal. - -From the foregoing it will be realized that Liverpool is not -permitting much waste of any commercial character to find its way to -the incinerator. The wise policy now being pursued is bearing fruit. -The prices which have been, and still are being, realized, render -the trouble and effort expended well worth while. The meal made from -fish offal, after the extraction of the oil, has fetched as much as -£25--$125--per ton, while the butchers’ offal, after similar treatment, -has commanded an equally satisfactory price. Even the refuse gathered -from the households of the city, and capable of being turned into -poultry-meal, which exceeds 20 tons a week, is promptly sold at prices -ranging up to £15--$75--per ton. The possibilities attending systematic -collection from private residences have also been conclusively -established, and at the moment the Corporation is gathering a round -1,000 tons of such waste from certain houses in the course of the -year. Reclaimed tins, after being washed and dried, have realized up -to £8--$40--per ton, while, to meet the enhanced request for organic -manure, an excellent fertilizer is being prepared from certain -materials which come into the hands of the authorities, or accrue from -the practice of waste-reclaiming. The Corporation are able to dispose -of this fertilizer with comparative ease at the rate of 50,000 tons -during the year. - -Other towns are able to point to comparable achievements in connection -with the exploitation of waste incurred within their areas. Some of -the small communities are even able to produce some startling records -in this connection. If all our civic and municipal authorities could -be brought into line and raised to the productive level of Glasgow or -Liverpool, the cumulative benefits to the nation would be enormous and -far reaching. But, as yet, only a fraction of what might be secured is -being turned to useful account. For instance, it is computed that 3,000 -tons of first-class pig-food could be recovered from London alone every -week--this in itself would show a heavy yield of fats and greases if -properly treated--but at present it is being wasted. - -Merely because foodstuffs--meat, fish, eggs, fruit, and other -commodities innumerable of a perishable nature--are condemned as being -unfit for the service of man, that is not to say they have completed -their mission in the scheme of things ordained by a so-called high -civilization. Doubtless they assist in the manufacture of excellent -paving-stones, but although we are in dire need of houses and this is -the concrete age, that is not a sufficiently reasonable excuse for -withdrawing nitrogenous products from the cycle of Nature. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -POTATO WASTE AS AN ASSET TO INDUSTRY - - -The potato has entered so intimately into our domestic life as to be -regarded as indispensable to the human dietary. Whether its food value -be exaggerated or otherwise, the fact remains that, speaking generally, -it now ranks second to wheat in the estimation of the bread-eating -nations. A potato-less dinner-table would create more dismay than one -from which the familiar roll is missing, while some of us may even -recall the widespread misery which was provoked in Ireland during the -black years of 1845 and 1846 from the failure of the potato crop. The -succulent tuber has achieved such a high estate among the community as -to be deemed capable of taking the place of the cereal associated with -the staff of life should exigencies so demand. - -In view of such extreme popularity it is not surprising to find -the potato cultivated extensively in the British Islands to serve -essentially as a foodstuff for both man and beast. No allotment-holder -would consider his endeavours to be complete without the inclusion of -this vegetable in his gardening programme. As illuminative of the grip -which the cult of the potato has secured upon the amateur son of Adam -it may be mentioned that the allotment-holders of England and Wales -raised a round 1,000,000 tons of this tuber, for the most part upon -10-rod plots, during the year 1918. Many farmers now regard it as the -backbone to their agricultural endeavours, especially in those parts of -the country where the soil conditions are particularly favourable to -its easy and prolific cultivation. - -Yet, in our use of the potato, we are extremely wasteful. We lose or -discard at least one-third of what we grow. It is estimated that 25 -per cent. of the value of a crop is lost to the farmer in cartage, -carriage, clamping, bagging, marketing, and grading. This figure does -not take into account the circumstance that only the cream of the -crop--the ware potato--is set aside for human consumption, for which, -of course, the maximum price is demanded. Neither does it refer to the -losses incurred from the ravages of diseases, which, while varying -according to the soil and weather conditions, are always material. An -appreciable proportion of this loss and waste might be avoided were -the practice of storage by clamping superseded by a method more in -accordance with contemporary thought. - -A further loss, even in connection with those set aside for the table, -is incurred in the preparation of the vegetable. Peeling, as a rule, is -clumsily and perfunctorily performed, “spud drill” being considered as -one of the drudgeries of domestic life, because a pronounced portion -of the edible flesh is removed with the skin, eyes and other unsightly -or inedible parts. The extent of this loss varies with the size of the -tuber and the carelessness or skill of the peeler. Consequently it may -vary from 10 to 30 per cent. or even more. - -What is done with the peelings? For the most part, notably in towns -and cities, they suffer cremation, either at the destructor, via the -dust-bin, or in the kitchen stove. But potato-peelings constitute -an expensive fuel. The rural resident is generally more thrifty. He -throws the peelings into the swill-tub for pig-food, or husbands them -to boil and to blend with grain offal to sustain his poultry-run, but -the quantity thus turned to economic account is really an insignificant -proportion of the whole. Quite 600,000 tons of potato offal are -destroyed in ignorance during the year--a deliberate wastage of -valuable raw material. - -The growers’ losses are equally startling, more particularly in -clamping. The tubers afflicted with disease meet with instant rejection -and destruction. Even the balance of good and sound tubers, remaining -after the selection of the ware and seed grades, is utilized along the -most wasteful lines, being regarded as fit for cattle only. - -The farmer is not to be blamed for such extravagant use of the -proportion of his crop which fails to rise to the high standard set -for the table. He has not been enlightened either in regard to the -constitution of the potato or its potential industrial uses. Even if -he be cognizant of these factors he cannot more profitably exploit his -surplus owing to the absence of all facilities to such an end. - -Of what is the potato composed? Here is the result of an average -analysis:-- - - Per cent. - Fat 0.3 - Cellulose 1 - Mineral matter 1 - Dextrine and pectose 2 - Fibrin and albumen 2.3 - Starch 17 - Water 75 - Waste 1.4 - -The term “waste” included in the above table in reality is somewhat -misplaced, as I explain later. The starch content is also a variable -factor. While one analysis may show a percentage of only 15, another -will yield a figure exceeding 18 per cent. Consequently that quoted may -be accepted as representative. - -Familiarity with the chemical composition of the humble potato prompted -the Germans to regard it from two distinct view-points. The one, -as in these islands, concerned its food potentialities; the second -took into consideration its possible application as a raw material -for several industries, such as the manufacture of alcohol, starch, -glucose, dextrine, and other articles of commerce. Consequently, potato -quotations upon the Teuton markets were dual and distinct. The one -price, which was the higher, related to produce intended for the table, -while the second, and lower, governed its industrial use. - -The provision of two separate markets for the commodity produced -the inevitable result. Farmers were assured of lucrative prices -for their crop set aside for edible use, while the second market -absorbed practically the whole of what was not required to satisfy the -first-named demand, and that at an attractive figure. Accordingly, -there was every inducement to bring more and more acres under the -tuber, which led to the reclamation of poor soils regarded as utterly -useless for general agriculture. - -But the encouragement thus extended wrought many other far-reaching -benefits. To persuade the poor soils devoted to the culture of the -potato to become fertile led to an increased demand for artificial -fertilizers, and provided a big domestic outlet for the native potash. -The farmers were enlightened as to the many virtues possessed by such -manures and were urged to use them liberally. The potash deposits were -not the only home resources to enjoy prosperity from such propaganda. -The steel industry reaped a certain measure of profit, because the -land offered an encouraging market for the enormous accumulations of -basic slag arising from the working in steel. Then the alcohol derived -from the potato assisted other industries, notably that concerned with -the manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs. From this it will be seen that -the increased production of the potato, and its submission to the -most economic processes, exercised a repercussive effect in various -directions. - -It was the pursuit of this policy which enabled Germany to raise -54,000,000 tons of potatoes a year. Of this enormous yield -approximately 30,000 tons were used to feed other industries with -essential raw materials. The energy displayed by the farmer resulted -in the supply exceeding the demand, so it became necessary to devise -measures to cope with the glut to avoid the grower, from the receipt -of absurdly low prices, being discouraged. The German farmer does not -favour clamping: he desires to dispose of his product immediately it is -gathered. With such an enormous output this tendency proved an awkward -obstacle. The auxiliary industries planned their operations upon a -twelve months scale. That is to say, they naturally desired to work -steadily the whole year round. The raw material from the soil came to -hand in tidal waves, and inconveniently. - -The problem of meeting these sudden seasonal surges provoked -difficulty and dissatisfaction. The dependent industries acquired -their requirements, which left a very large quantity of potatoes upon -the growers’ hands. They could not hold them through the winter owing -to the extreme susceptibility of this vegetable to injury from frost. -The merchants were ready to accept delivery and to hold them in store -against the calls of commerce, but only at a price which was so low -as to leave the growers on the wrong side. The latter, dissatisfied, -threatened retaliation in the form of curtailment of production. At -this declaration the alcohol-distilling interests took alarm. To secure -themselves against any shortage of raw material they decided to hasten -to the farmers’ assistance, the merchants being ignored. The Alcohol -Association and the Farmers’ Societies collaborated to perfect ways and -means of saving the surplus both from destruction and the profiteering -of the factors. The co-operation of the Government was also sought. The -last-named assented to extend tangible aid and forthwith prizes to the -value of £1,500--$7,500--were offered to stimulate inventive fertility. -As a result of the various discussions it was decided that the most -promising solution of the vital question would be to convert the potato -into a dried product. - -Inventive effort responded very promptly upon the narrowing down of -the issue. As a result of searching tests two dehydrating methods were -adopted. By these processes the potatoes are washed, cooked, dried, and -reduced to a flake and shredded form respectively. The product from -the first-named process is described as “flocken” from its flake-like -character, while the second is called “schnitzel.” The latter is the -cheaper process, the cost of dehydrating a ton of potatoes being about -4s.--$1.00--while the conversion of a ton of tubers into flocken -costs 10s.--$2.50. However, the capital investment incurred with the -machinery for producing schnitzel is higher than that for yielding the -flake, and initial outlay being the most compelling feature it is the -process which has been most widely adopted. In 1914 there were over -400 factories in operation converting the surplus potato crop into a -dried form, of which about 75 per cent. followed the flocken method. -But it does not matter which process is employed, the result is the -same--the production of a dried potato pulp, capable of being kept -indefinitely so long as it is protected against the ravages of damp, -and which suffers no injury from frost. From this dehydrated potato it -is possible to work up a cheap, excellent cattle-food. - -The ability to render the potato into a convenient dry form at a low -figure prompted other countries, notably Japan and the United States -of America, to resort to similar methods, but to a different end. -The potato is rich in carbohydrates, and this fact suggested the -subsequent milling of the dry material into a flour, commercially -known as “farina,” which has proved a conspicuous commercial success. -The demand for this flour is expanding rapidly, because it serves as -excellent material for the preparation of bun-flours, cake-flours, -custard-powders, soups, and other foodstuffs, designed and marketed -with the primary idea of lessening the worries and labours of the -housewife. - -Previous to the war the price for this imported article varied -between £25 and £35--$125 and $175--per ton, the cost of production -ranging from £14 to £20--$70 to $100--per ton. The margin of profit -was sufficiently wide to warrant the development of the process. -Under war conditions the price soared as high as £90--$450--per -ton, but subsequently dropped to about £45-£50--$225-$250. A very -marked diminution upon this latter figure is improbable, owing to the -increased manufacturing costs which now rule. - -Therefore the question arises as to whether Britain cannot turn the -balance of her potato crop to greater commercial advantage. There is no -reason why we should not do so, seeing that in 1913 we imported over -40,000 tons of farina, while in 1917 the value of our importation of -this flour rose to £1,040,319--$5,201,595--for about 25,000 tons. It -must be conceded, however, that under present conditions less scope -exists for such a manifestation of enterprise in this country, seeing -that our potato crop is only about one-tenth of what Germany normally -raises. But the demand for the by-products in this country is every -whit as heavy and sustained as in Germany, while the fact that in this -raw material we have the base wherewith to revive an industry--the -production of starch--which Germany wrenched from us by unscrupulous -trading, alone should be sufficiently attractive to warrant such an -attempt being made. Our consumption of starch is heavy, exceeding -50,000 tons a year, while our purchases of dextrine and unpotable -methylic-alcohol, both of which can be made from the potato, run into -£70,000--$350,000--apiece during the year. Even the industrial alcohol, -despite the adverse taxation conditions which prevail, is in urgent -demand for many new industries. - -If we confine the issue to the farina we have a distinctly promising -outlook. British inventive effort has been encouraged, and has evolved -a process and product of this character which are immeasurably superior -to those of the foreigner. To us the domestic manufacture of farina is -of far wider significance than its mere mention might suggest, inasmuch -as it would prove of far-reaching value as an ingredient to the loaf. -As a matter of fact the authorities, in their resolve to grapple with -the national food question, provisionally ear-marked 2,000,000 tons -of the 1918 British potato crop for conversion into farina, to be -blended with the domestic wheaten flour, to induce the supplies of the -last-named to go farther. The conclusion of hostilities rendered this -precautionary measure unnecessary. - -In the eyes of many people the addition of potato-flour to wheaten -flour for bread may seem reprehensible, and to savour of adulteration. -Prejudice is a wellnigh insuperable obstacle to overcome. But in this -instance such opposition is misplaced. The introduction of farina to -the loaf cannot be regarded as an adulterant, substitute, or even a -diluent. Rightly or wrongly, the potato is invested with a high food -value: in some quarters it is even held to be an equivalent to the -wheat flour. Doubtless opposition would arise from memories of the -practice which obtained during the early days of the war. But the -faults which were encountered then were due to the method and not to -any shortcomings upon the part of the ingredient. - -The utilization of the potato for the production of bread is not even -a modern innovation. It really represents a revival of a long-since -abandoned and wellnigh forgotten art. In the early years of the -Victorian era our bakers were compelled to make resort to the potato as -a constituent of the loaf. The home-grown wheat physiologically was not -adapted to the making of bread, and the same argument applies more or -less to the domestically grown cereal of these days. Normally, only a -certain volume can be used; it has to be blended with imported flour to -obtain the requisite percentage of gluten in which the domestic cereal -is deficient. The bakers of a century ago used the potato to obtain the -gluten content. With the availability of the more glutinous imported -flour recourse to the potato declined, until finally the practice was -abandoned. - -The revival of the principle to meet the conditions of war proved a -failure from the simple fact that the baker had lost his cunning, and -was neither so clean nor so painstaking as his forbears in regard to -his utensils and the handling of the tuber. The potato is particularly -sensitive to contamination. Should an imperfectly-cleaned utensil be -used the resultant bread will speedily sour. Moreover, the mashing of -the potato was carried out very indifferently, while its admixture with -the other constituents was still more unsatisfactorily fulfilled, with -the result that the loaf was a spongy, unattractive, unappetizing, and -indigestible mass of doubtful nutritive value. - -If the potato be used in the farinaceous form no such objections can -be levelled against the ultimate bread. The ingredients can be blended -more completely. It is this circumstance which renders the outlook -for the potato-flour so promising, and the British process which has -been perfected for its production should meet with far more gratifying -success. - -The preparation of the farina is simple and straightforward. The -potatoes are taken in hand immediately after they have been dug, and -so are perfectly fresh. They are emptied into hoppers to pass to -the washing machine. Then they proceed to the steam-cooker where, -unpeeled, they are partially cooked. Finally they are conveyed to the -flaking machine, where the first stage of the process is completed. -The potato is passed between closely-set, internally-heated rollers, -the pulp being rolled out into a continuous sheet about as thick as -tissue paper. During this stage the cooking process is completed, while -the product is dried and converted into a crisp substance which is -peeled from the final roller to fall in a shower of tiny flakes into a -trough. It will be observed that the skin, eyes, and other deleterious -portions, from which all flesh has fallen away, is collected with the -main product. - -Cooking, pulping, and flaking expels practically the whole of the 75 -per cent. of water entering into the composition of the raw potato. The -secret of the process is the control of the temperature, which must -be maintained at a critical level, to assure the perfection of the -product. If this be excessive there is the risk of the flake becoming -charred, while, similarly, should the heat fall below the predetermined -point, the product will lack dryness and crispness. As may be imagined, -the treatment reduces the bulk of the potato very perceptibly, 5 tons -of potatoes being required to furnish 1 ton of flake. - -The second process is of the conventional milling character, the flake -being ground to an extremely fine consistency. During this process the -skin and all other inedible portions are removed. It may be mentioned -that by turning the tubers into flake, slightly diseased potatoes, -which would be useless for the table, or which could only be wastefully -adapted to such a purpose, may be used without imperilling the purity -of the product in any way, and with the minimum of loss. The flaking -process presents an absolutely sterilized flour, the diseased portions -being removed during milling. - -All offal is carefully collected to be treated separately. It has -pronounced food value for cattle, and, consequently, is converted into -a meal. The production of 1 ton of farina yields about 300 lb. of -offal, worth about £20--$100--a ton. The farina itself is of very fine -consistency, yellowish-white in colour, appetizing in appearance, of -pleasing aroma, the distinctive fragrance of the potato being scarcely -discernible, and, if preserved from the damp, may be kept indefinitely. - -It is not imperative that the flake should be milled immediately. In -the former condition the potato may be safely stored in bags in a dry -place after the manner of grain. It is not even essential to turn it -into farina at all. In the flake form it constitutes an excellent -base for the other industries to which it may be applied. It may be -distilled for the extraction of the alcohol, excellent whisky, as -is doubtless well known, being made from the potato, while large -quantities of British brandies are produced from the starch which, by -treatment with weak sulphuric acid, is converted into glucose, which -is then fermented. Thus, it will be seen, the flake really represents -the starting-point for numerous applications, each of which has its -individual commercial possibilities. The outstanding advantage accruing -from the conversion of the potato into flake is that it enables the -product to be kept indefinitely, without suffering the slightest -deterioration, and without any waste being incurred. I have seen -samples which have been stored for seven years, and which to-day are in -every way as good as flake fresh from the machine. - -In setting forth the composition of the succulent tuber I referred to -the item waste, which in the analysis given stands at 1.4 per cent. -This is the ultimate residue from certain operations, but is not common -to all, as, for instance, in the production of farina, where everything -of a solid nature is utilized. But in some branches of industrial use -there results a residue for which, at present, no attractive purpose -has been found, although there are hopes that even this insignificant -fraction will ultimately prove capable of profitable exploitation. - -Turning once more to the utilization of farina as a constituent of the -loaf, we encounter a possible development which should play a very -emphatic part towards rendering ourselves less dependent upon foreign -sources of wheat supplies. A series of baking tests were conducted -under ordinary commercial conditions. The farina was mixed with the -wheat-flour in the proportion of 5 per cent. of the former to a sack of -the latter. Government Regulation flour was employed. The sack contains -280 lb., so that the addition of the farina was equal to 14 lb. Seeing -that the farina represents the potato in a highly concentrated form--5 -to 1--the addition was really equal to 70 lb. of mashed potatoes--a -degree to which no ordinary baker would be prepared to venture. - -In the first test the bread was moulded by hand, and the sack produced -104 loaves, each weighing, ready for the oven, 2 lb. 3 oz., as compared -with 94 loaves of equivalent weight normally obtained from the sack -at this bakery. Under machine bread-making conditions, which obtained -with the second test, and which was in accordance with the conventional -practice of the firm in question, the yield from the blended flour, for -technical reasons, was slightly lower, being 101 loaves, the weight of -the loaf, ready for the oven, being the same as in the first experiment. - -Baking was conducted at a temperature of 560 degrees, the loaves -scaling barely 2 lb. 2 oz. upon withdrawal from the oven, and falling -to 2 lb. net fifteen hours after baking. The bread was examined by -experts who were present, and was declared to leave little or nothing -to be desired. Judging from the public point of view it was held to -be more attractive, owing to its increased volume, even texture, and -perfect homogeneity, while it was found to be more digestible and -satisfying. - -In the hot condition the bread revealed only a slight trace of the -peculiar fragrance of the potato, but this disappeared entirely upon -cooling. The palate was unable to detect the potato-flour addition. The -keeping qualities of this bread aroused particular comment. Four days -after baking it was found to be still moist, while, upon the lapse of -a fortnight, two loaves were rebaked and then found to be totally free -from sourness. The striking success recorded was accepted by the expert -opinion to be sufficiently conclusive: indeed, the suggestion was made -that the proportion of farina might safely be increased to 7¹⁄₂ per -cent. without allowing the presence of the potato to be detected. Tests -were also carried out to determine the suitability of the potato-flour -as an ingredient in the preparation of cakes and pastries. Here again -the blended flour was unequivocally declared to yield better and more -appetizing articles than was possible with pure wheaten flour. - -But, taking the 5 per cent. addition as the figure coinciding with -all-round requirements, it will be seen that the potato holds out -great economic possibilities towards the reduction of the expense -of the nation’s bread bill. During the year 1916 our consumption of -flour totalled 37,000,000 sacks, of which approximately 12,000,000 -sacks represented imported flour. Assuming that 30,000,000 sacks were -devoted to the production of bread, the aggregate yield of loaves was -approximately 2,820,000,000. Had we used home-produced farina from -home-grown potatoes to the extent of 5 per cent. we could have reduced -the foregoing consumption of the wheaten product by 1,500,000 sacks, -and that without losing a single loaf. As a matter of fact we would -have been better off, because, on the higher average yield of 101 -loaves per sack to which farina has been added, we should have obtained -2,875,500,000 loaves--an increase of 55,500,000 loaves. - -The economy possible from the more enterprising utilization of the -potato in connection with our daily bread is so impressive as to -command attention, even to-day. Presuming that the foregoing figures -still hold good, the blending of 5 per cent. of native farina would -save 200,000 tons of shipping per year. To supply the requisite 188,000 -tons of farina would involve 940,000 tons of potatoes. Seeing that the -authorities, under the dictates of war, contemplated setting aside -2,000,000 tons from the 1918 crop for the production of potato-flour, -such a demand as indicated would not impose an intolerable strain upon -our potato-growing resources. Were such a scheme carried to fruition we -should also be able to recover 28,000 tons of valuable cattle meal to -feed our stock during the winter season. - -But, as already mentioned, the farina represents only one phase of -a big issue possessed of vast possibilities. The other available -openings for the products of the tuber would consume from four to eight -times the volume of potatoes available. In Germany, out of the total -54,000,000 tons raised during the year only a round 4,000,000 tons have -to be turned into flocken and schnitzel to save them from destruction -by frost. In these circumstances there would appear to be scope for the -cultivation of a further 5,000,000 tons, or twice the prevailing annual -crop in these islands, with this advantage. The farmer, assured of his -market and a fair price for his product, would be encouraged to extend -his activities, and would be prompted to exploit considerable acreage -of land which at present is regarded as waste, for the simple reason -that it cannot be cultivated under existing conditions to profit. - -Even disease and its ravages would be regarded by the growers with -perfect equanimity were the industrial uses of the potato to be -developed in this country. A farmer would not be faced with disaster in -such an eventuality, as is the case to-day, because the diseased tubers -would be available for the production of alcohol. Indeed, the more -advanced the stage of disease the more suitable is the potato to this -range of exploitation. - -Lifting the commercial horizon, in so far as it affects the potato, -demands support for other reasons. It would encourage inventive effort, -which, in turn, would undoubtedly lead to the elimination of wastage -in the household. Evaporative or dehydrating processes are already -in operation, and it is only logical to assume that this tendency -is capable of considerable expansion. The perfection of a simple -and inexpensive process of drying the potato, either whole or in -conveniently sized sections, as is common to culinary practice, capable -of restoration, if necessary, to the original condition before cooking -for the table, would benefit the whole community. “Spud drill,” the -_bête noire_ of every home, restaurant and hotel, with its concomitant -wastage of time and heavy loss of valuable food material, would be -eliminated. The removal of the greater part, or whole, of the 75 per -cent. of the water contained in the raw tuber would decrease bulk, and -effect a very valuable saving in transport. At the present moment the -carriage of one ton of potatoes involves the useless dragging about -of 15 cwt. of water which is superfluous. Only 5 cwt. of the load -represents solid foodstuff. Dry the potato, expel the water, and from -4 to 5 tons of the product could be carried in the space now demanded -to receive one ton. We have milk, peas, fruits, and other commodities -innumerable in an evaporated form, which in their raw condition are -associated with heavy proportions of water, so that there does not -appear to be any valid reason why the potato should not be supplied to -the housewife in a similar form and at a low figure. The perfection -of such a process would completely obviate all waste because the -offal--the peel and other inedible portions--would be recovered for -conversion into food for animals, instead of suffering incineration. -The recovery of the skin alone would bring within reach of the -cattle-raiser for winter feed upwards of 30,000 tons of meal worth from -£400,000 to £600,000--$2,000,000 to $3,000,000. - -We, who live in these islands, scarcely understand the potato. We -are content to cling tenaciously to the traditions established three -hundred years ago. It is estimated that the British farmers lost over -£6,000,000--$30,000,000--in handling their 1918 crop owing to the -employment of obsolete and wasteful methods. The greater part, if not -the whole, of this loss might have been averted had more enlightened -methods prevailed concerning the utilization of the tuber. The -above-mentioned figure does not take into account the losses suffered -from disease and other causes, which must also have amounted to -millions sterling. - -Our system is as pre-historic as many of the agricultural methods -practised by the fellaheen in the Land of the Pharaohs. The potatoes -are dug and then collected for storage in big clamps. These have to -be opened at intervals to allow the contents to be turned over and -inspected, to ascertain whether or no latent disease has asserted -itself. The potatoes have to be graded and bagged preparatory for -market, while there is the formidable item of transport to be -considered. Between the harvesting of the crop and its ultimate -disposal considerable handling ensues, while the difference in value -between the “ware,” or table, potatoes and the “chats,” or those -regarded as fit only for the pigs, is also very pronounced. - -Contrast this method with what would obtain were we to develop the -Continental system. After digging and grading the crop the farmer would -merely be called upon to convey his harvest to the factory, when all -anxiety, so far as he was concerned, would end. The method would be -comparable with that pertaining to the handling of the wheat harvest in -the great grain-growing countries, where the farmer is merely called -upon to gather his grain and to haul it to the elevator. The saving -in time and labour alone--two vital factors in these days--would be -incalculable, while the risks of loss of crop would be completely -obviated. - -The super-scientific exploitation of the potato would extend -far-reaching benefits in every direction. Not only would considerable -stretches of derelict agricultural Britain be brought into -productivity, but the very stimulation of the poor soils would bring -about startling expansion in the production of artificial fertilizers, -and would tend to stabilize such industries. In this way the recovery -of waste in many other directions would be fostered--potash from the -flues of the blast furnaces; basic slag from the dumps disfiguring the -countryside in the vicinity of our ironworks; sulphate of ammonia from -our gas and coking ovens; nitrates from the air. These would offer -scope for employment, and tend to keep money within the confines of -these islands, because the expansion of waste-recovery plants upon -a sufficiently impressive scale in the interests of agriculture, -with the local demand constituting the backbone of the trade, would -encourage production for export. The labour thus absorbed would more -than counter-balance the displacement experienced on the farms, and -would redound to the benefit of the latter, because foods for poor -and rich soils would be turned out in increasing streams and at lower -prices. Thus it will be seen that any development of the potato, along -modern scientific lines, and in such a way as to frustrate waste, must -represent a big stride forward in the progressive cycle. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -CONVERTING NITROGENOUS REFUSE INTO SOAP - - -A startling corollary of contemporary economic conditions is the -spirited struggle which is now being waged between the table and -the bath. The structural fabric of the human body demands a certain -proportion of fat to ensure its smooth rhythmic working in precisely -the same way as a machine requires oil. At the same time a cleanser is -necessary wherewith to scour the external surface of the body to obtain -protection against the ravages of disease. Fat is essential to fulfil -this mission also. But there is an insufficient supply forthcoming to -meet the complete claims of both. So the question arises--Which shall -be satisfied? Little Mary or Mother Hygeia? - -When Mégè Mouries, animated by the contention that it was preferable -for the poor of Paris to be able to obtain a first-class nutritive -butter substitute in preference to butter of doubtful quality, advanced -his discovery of margarine as the solution to this problem, he little -realized what a tremendous upheaval his invention was destined to -achieve, or the staggering problem it would ultimately present to -civilization. Certainly for many years his butter substitute, contrived -from animal fat and milk, was regarded askance by the community in -general. It was grudgingly conceded to be a possible food only for the -poorest of the poor--those denied the opportunity from lack of means to -purchase butter of any description. - -For many years margarine was the object of unprincipled prejudice and -obloquy. It struggled desperately for recognition. Inventive effort -was expended freely to render the product more and more attractive -in appearance and flavour, to attract all classes of the community. -Indeed, ingenuity was carried to such lengths as to produce a -substitute impossible of detection from the genuine article, except by -the most searching analysis. - -But the rejected of 1871 has become the indispensable of 1919. The -prevailing shortage of dairying products, confined not to one single -country or even continent, but common to the whole world, has compelled -the recognition of the virtues of margarine. The alternative is to go -without, inasmuch as other edible fats, which might have taken the -place of butter, have become unobtainable. But the British public, -which fought the advance and claims of margarine for nearly half a -century with a blind fury, and being forced to accept Hobson’s choice, -has encountered a pleasant surprise. The criticized butter substitute -is found to be not so bad as it has been painted. With improving -acquaintance opinion has veered round and now admits, somewhat tardily -perhaps, that what was once considered to be only the poor man’s butter -is, in reality, an excellent foodstuff in itself, and preferable to -many grades of the genuine article, some of which certainly are not -above suspicion. To convey some idea of the enormous hold which this -article of food has now secured upon the public it may be related that -the turnover of one firm, specializing in the preparation of this -product, aggregated no less than £22,000,000--$110,000,000--during the -year 1918. - -The increasing popularity of margarine speedily exercised a pronounced -reaction upon the soap-manufacturing industry. The fats which were -being utilized for the production of detergents were now demanded -for conversion into foodstuffs. Hitherto, the soap-boiler has been -regarded as the very lowest depths to which fatty waste can possibly -sink. Thereto gravitated all the flotsam and jetsam of greases arising -from other industries and in every stage of decay. But it did not -matter how rancid the substance might be by the time it reached the -soap-manufacturer. Here a scarcely credible metamorphosis could be -effected, the most repellent raw material being transformed into the -most attractive and fragrant acquisition to the toilet. Little wonder -therefore that fats condemned as unfit or considered superfluous, -though perfectly sound, for other use by man or beast, found their way -to this mill. The soap-maker could absorb it all. - -Thus, it will be seen, the soap trade is founded upon the commercial -utilization of waste, and this raw material is drawn from the three -kingdoms--animal, vegetable, and fish. As a matter of fact, the source -of the fat is immaterial. It can be compelled to play its allotted part -in the evolution of the cleansing agent. - -The British nation is a big consumer of soap. Supplies of animal fat -could never keep pace with the demand for this commodity. So the -vegetable kingdom was compelled to pay fat tribute to the soap-maker, -the coco-nut, palm-kernel, and other exotic nut products furnishing -the requisite oil expressed from the fleshy parts of their distinctive -fruits. Then the harvests of the sea were found able to contribute -impressive supplies of oils. These were likewise impressed into service. - -While the soap-maker was busily engaged in his task another chemical -wizard arose. He had discovered a means of hardening or solidifying -fish oils, which naturally are fluid except at very low temperatures. -This was a sensational discovery. Hydrogen was the agent which achieved -the apparently impossible, but it did far more than merely to harden -the oil. By harnessing the gas to this duty the peculiarly pungent -aroma, and distinctive taste of the fish, is completely removed from -the oil. - -This scientific achievement brought a further levy of waste into -industry. The refuse from whales which had hitherto been permitted -to rot, the inedible portions of fish from the canneries, even glut -catches of oil-yielding fish for which no profitable market could -be found, were treated to secure the oleaginous product, which was -subsequently hardened and then turned over to the margarine industry. -The hydrogenated fish oil has been found to furnish an excellent butter -substitute, and one so closely allied to the genuine article in every -essential respect as to demand the evolution of new and more exacting -methods to determine its actual origin. It offers the closest approach -to butter by synthetic agency which has ever been accomplished up to -this time. - -The striking improvements recorded in the process and manufacture of -margarine arrested the attention of the soap-maker. He reflected. Here -he was receiving fats of every description to turn them into a product -which only realized 4d.--8 cents--a pound. Yet he could take much of -that self-same raw material, and by submitting it to another treatment -he could produce an article which, as a foodstuff, was worth 1s.--25 -cents--a pound. Why should he trouble to turn the fat into soap when he -could derive three times the money by transforming it into an article -of diet? - -The war provided him with the opportunity for which he had been waiting -patiently. The deficiency in butter supplies had to be remedied with -margarine, which the public would have to accept willy-nilly. So the -soap-maker switched over all the fresh sound fats from the soap-pans to -the margarine mill. To-day thousands of tons of fats which five years -ago would have been reduced to soap, this being considered as the only -remaining utilization for the waste, is being turned into a food. The -table has triumphed over the bath. - -The devout worshippers at the feet of Hygeia may lament this inversion. -But they need not despair. The world is not destined to go short of -soap. Two British chemists, as a result of deep thinking, decided -to attack the soap manufacturing issue _de novo_. They were not -disposed to accept, at their face value, all that the textbooks set -forth concerning the chemistry of soap. They were rather impressed by -the fact that the manufacture of soap had undergone no fundamental -change since the first cake was placed upon the market, which was -during the days when Pepys was walking among us taking notes. So far -as soap chemistry theories prevailed the two chemists in question -were Bolshevic in their attitude towards them, which was a fortunate -circumstance. - -A cake of soap is as familiar as a loaf of bread. Yet how little do -we know about it, despite the brain-power which has been crowded upon -its preparation. As a cleansing agent it is without a rival. Many -big industries would have to close their mills to-morrow were their -supplies of soap cut off. Yet its composition is very simple. It is -composed of only two basic ingredients--fat, from which the glycerine -has been extracted, and caustic soda. No matter how much you may pay -for the article, be it a penny or half-a-crown a tablet, analyse it, -and you will find that there is the soda which achieves the cleansing -effect, and the fat which gives the lather. It is quite possible a -variety of other substances may be found associated with the two basic -constituents, such as diatomaceous earth, Fuller’s earth, farina, -traces of disinfectant, colouring matter, cereal grains, perfume, -and even water. But beyond rendering the soap attractive to the -eye, pleasant to the nose, or to a certain degree germicidal, these -additional materials perform no useful purpose. They are described as -fillers, but in more candid language may be set down, for the most -part, as sheer adulterants. Few articles lend themselves so readily -to adulteration as soap. Was it not an analyst who, in the courts, -described a piece of soap submitted to him for investigation as a -striking example of water standing upright! - -Although we profess to know so much about soap and its properties, we -are really labouring in ignorance. No chemist can tell you explicitly -whether the cleansing action exercised is the result of chemical, -physical, or mechanical action. It is one of those questions which the -seeker after truth had better not press home too energetically, because -the man of brains would probably retort firmly, but gently, that the -interrogation involves such a complex reply as to be beyond your powers -of comprehension. - -In our resolve to respect Hygeia we are most liberal in our use of -soap. We are even woefully extravagant, although the blame cannot be -laid upon the shoulders of the user. The water is the criminal. Did -it but rigidly adhere to the chemical formula of its composition, -namely H₂O, all would be well, but unfortunately it is associated -with certain salts which it picks up from the soil during its natural -movement. Water appears to exercise a bewitching fancy for two salts in -particular--lime and magnesia. It is the presence of these salts which -renders our water hard. I might mention that there are other impurities -in the water contributing to wastage of soap, but the two mentioned are -the worst offenders in this respect. - -Lime and magnesia have a remarkable affinity for fat, and until their -amorous inclination is satiated the soap cannot possibly settle down -to the duty for which it is employed. The moment the soap enters the -water a chemical reaction occurs, the lime or magnesia, perhaps both, -attracting the particles of fat until it is impossible for another -molecule to be taken up. The extent of this attraction of the salts for -the fat, and which the latter can no more resist than can iron filings -battle against the drawing power of the magnet, may be gathered from -the state of affairs prevailing in regard to the London water. The -particles of lime contained in every 1,000 gallons of water attract -approximately 15 pounds of fat contained in the soap before permitting -the latter to lather. Seeing that fat enters into the composition of -the average soap to the extent of approximately 60 per cent., it will -be seen that about 25 per cent. of the fatty content of the soap is put -out of action without performing any useful work. - -The total loss of soap incurred during the year in London alone through -this affinity runs into stupendous figures. The water consumption -for washing purposes in the metropolis, according to Mr. Townsend, -F.C.S., is 7,000,000 gallons a day. Consequently, at least 105,000 -pounds of fat slip down the drains during the course of every -twenty-four hours without fulfilling any useful service. The value -of this loss, according to the same authority, may be set down at -£1,000,000--$5,000,000--a year. This represents sheer waste, because -the fats escape without extending a fraction of benefit to any one. -It represents that section which has merely allied itself to the -pernicious salts to form the lime-soap. From the foregoing one can -form some estimate of the wastage of soap annually incurred throughout -the country from the mere union of 25 per cent. of the fat with the -lime--this figure fluctuates according to the degree of hardness of the -water. Certainly it attains a figure which baffles credulity. - -Confirmatory evidence of this waste is forthcoming from every -hand-basin, bath, and washing appliance. It is revealed in the -repulsive-looking greasy grey curds streaking the sides of the vessel, -and which the user in ignorance generally dismisses as dirt removed -by the soap. The housewife and launderer are often perplexed by the -yellowish tone which certain garments assume, and the harsh and -stickiness incidental to flannel after being washed. These defects -are directly due to the lime-soap. Its presence is additionally -exasperating owing to its extreme tenacity and penetrative powers, -which wellnigh defy removal, except by the aid of powerful agents, -the use of which is to be deplored, because they precipitate further -and peculiar worries and adversely affect the fabrics. In the textile -industries, more particularly the woollen trade, the lime-soap is -regarded as the greatest affliction upon the craft. - -The question arises as to whether the lime cannot be removed from the -water, or whether science can evolve a soap capable of hurling defiance -at the lime. The solution to the first-named suggestion is distillation -of the water before use, a tedious and costly operation, or the -subjection of the water to a softening process to effect the removal -of the lime before the soap be introduced. Great strides have been -recorded in this last-named field, but, unhappily, the question of cost -constitutes an adverse factor. Thus the true solution would seem to lie -in the preparation of a soap capable of resisting the blandishments of -the lime. - -It was this particular solution which the two British chemists, to whom -I have alluded, set out to discover, but many years of patient labour -in the laboratory was necessary to register the first success. This was -due to the fact that they set out upon quite an original and unexplored -line of research. They recognized that the margarine industry must -develop into one of the biggest industries of the country, and that, -accordingly, the tendency would be to abandon the conversion of -fats into soap owing to the heavier claims of the table, and the -more remunerative return which would arise from such an industrial -diversion. They were also aware of the fact that in preparing the fats -for the table a certain proportion of residue must result. At that time -there appeared to be no profitable field for the utilization of this -waste. So they decided to conduct their investigations along the path -which would admit of this refuse being employed. - -The fatty constituent decided, they cast around for another staple -which was indispensable to the process they had definitely resolved to -perfect. For this they required protein, the governing principle being -the perfection of a cereal soap, the nitrogenous compounds of which -should be turned to cleansing duty. Proteins were available in infinite -variety, but here again it was realized that it would be wanton waste -to use an article likely to be in request to serve as food for man or -beast. Then they discovered that there were ample quantities of protein -running to waste from commercial neglect. Accordingly, they decided -to utilize these materials. The third constituent was the soda which -must enter into the composition of any and every soap, but this did not -occasion the slightest anxiety. - -Equipped with these three materials they set to work. Experiment was -tedious, and progress was slow, due to the fact that research was being -conducted in quite a new and unknown field, absolutely deficient of any -previous experience to serve as a guide. The first success recorded was -the preparation of a soap in the form of a meal or powder coinciding -with their ideas. This was submitted to the most rigorous tests, and -the results obtained were quite in accordance with expectations. When -this soap is introduced into the water no coagulation of the fat -with the lime occurs. In this way the lime soap enemy was completely -vanquished. As a supreme test sea-water was tried, with which it -was found to lather as readily and as easily as when employed with -distilled water. - -The discovery represented a sensational achievement. It proved that -something was awry with the existing theories pertaining to the -chemistry of soap. Technical tests were undertaken, and they proved -just as startling, because effects diametrically opposed to standard -theories were observed. Whereas ordinary soap is insoluble in water, -but soluble in alcohol, the cereal soap, so-called because of the -starch which enters into its composition, is soluble in water, but -absolutely insoluble in alcohol. The position is reversed. - -A new era in soap manufacture was thus ushered in. The discovery came -as a bomb-shell to the soap-making world, and, because it could not be -explained through prevailing long-accepted chemical laws pertaining -to this subject, it was ridiculed in certain quarters. To aggravate -the situation chemists, who set out to fathom the secret of the new -process by rigorous analysis, found themselves baffled. They could -not determine the bases employed owing to the chemical reaction which -had taken place during the preparation of the article, and from the -circumstance that it belongs to colloidal chemistry. To indicate how -completely the trade was baulked it may be mentioned that the chemist -attached to one soap manufacturer in this country, and who had been -requested to analyse a sample, contemptuously dismissed the product -not as a soap, but as a filler! - -Undaunted by the flood of adverse criticism which they provoked, the -inventors requested the industries to which soap is essential, and -which were being harassed by the lime-soap bugbear, to subject the -discovery to a commercial test. They did so, and were so surprised at -the results obtained as to ask promptly for further supplies! It not -only offered them the means to reduce their consumption of soap, but it -performed the desired functions more efficaciously, and proved to be a -complete panacea for the many ills which had heretofore afflicted the -trade. So impressed were they by what the new detergent accomplished -that they established its use in their works there and then, and to -this day have never reverted to the article formerly used. - -In the powder form the application of the cereal soap was somewhat -restricted. Accordingly the inventors decided to produce it in the -familiar tablet and bar form, to enable a wider appeal to be made, even -to the home. As events proved it was far easier to attain the meal -stage than to pass therefrom to the solid cake. In fact, at one time it -seemed as if this desired end would never be consummated. It was only -by dint of unflagging effort that success was ultimately secured, and -the soap in tablet and bar form introduced to the market. - -As the manufacture of soap from waste vegetable bases represents -something entirely new, so do the actual methods of production. The -revolution is complete. In preparing the conventional soap from 10 -to 16 days are necessary. By the new process the cereal soap can be -made in sixty minutes! Furthermore, the operation is clean, absolutely -free from odour, and cold, no heat whatever being required, except to -warm the factory during the winter for the comfort of the employees. -The machinery necessary is also of the simplest and most inexpensive -character. Under these conditions there is not only a very marked -saving in time, but of fuel and labour. In these high-pressure days -wastage of time is as criminal as the wastage of material, and one -logically asks why spend ten days in consummating a specific end when -one hour will suffice for the purpose? - -The saving in capital expenditure is very impressive, being at least 75 -per cent. below that demanded for equipping the conventional factory. -In other words, £10,000--$50,000--will provide an installation capable -of turning out as much cereal soap as could be recorded with a plant -costing £40,000--$200,000--devoted to the orthodox system. - -The outstanding feature of the process is the complete absence of all -boiling operations. The starch and protein-yielding material are passed -through a mill to be reduced to a fine powder of the consistency of -flour. This being a straightforward milling operation, the machinery -ordinarily employed for grinding grain and other foods may be used. -The flour is then emptied into a mixing machine, which is naught but -the familiar dough-mixer used in the bakery. When the mixer is set -in motion the caustic soda is admitted in a fine controlled stream. -Directly the two materials come into contact the chemical reaction -commences, the soda attacking the starch granules and breaking them -down. Evidence of the battle in progress between the two chemicals -is betrayed by the emission of the strong ammonia fumes, which prove -that the nitrogenous compounds are being released. The admission of -caustic soda is continued until the chemical reaction is concluded -and the starch granules have been completely broken up. As the -process is advanced the vegetable oil is admitted, the operation -being so controlled as to yield a plastic mass of predetermined -consistency. This is thoroughly kneaded after the manner of baker’s -dough. The subsequent processes are common to those of the ordinary -soap manufactory, the material being passed successively through the -milling, plodding, and stamping machines. - -The raw materials for the provision of the essential protein are -drawn from the extensive vegetable kingdom. But in no instance is -any material having a claim upon the community or the animal world -as a possible food used for the purpose. Dependence is placed rather -upon the waste incurred by the preparation of other products, or of -materials which have been condemned as useless for food purposes. - -As a case in point it may be mentioned that a grain-carrying ship was -torpedoed, sunk, and, together with the cargo, subsequently salvaged. -The retrieved grain was dried in the anticipation that it might be -found suitable for cattle-feeding. But the expectations were doomed to -disappointment. The wheat had been too completely impregnated with the -salt from the sea. No other profitable use presenting itself, it was -acquired for conversion into soap. It was ground in the usual manner -and turned into the mixer. The presence of the salt, which had rendered -the grain useless even as a cattle food, did not constitute an adverse -factor. Had it not been for the cereal soap factory this cargo would -have had to suffer destruction and have been completely lost to the -community, whereas it was sold at a remunerative figure. Potato flour -has likewise been utilized, but has not been widely exploited for the -simple reason that this material constitutes an excellent foodstuff, -either for man in the form of farina, or for cattle. Maize has also -been used together with such products as rice, barley, oats, rye, -and so on, but, except where the produce of this nature has suffered -injury, it is not turned into soap. However, in those countries where a -heavy surplus of such crops is encountered it would be found profitable -to establish the cereal soap industry as a means of turning the glut to -profitable advantage. - -The principle governing the selection of the starch-yielding -constituent is also observed in regard to the fat which is necessary. -This is drawn exclusively from the margarine factories. It is a residue -and at the moment possesses no other known marketable value. The -ability to turn this refuse into an ingredient for soap has come as -a distinct relief to the margarine industry, which threatened to be -perplexed in the economical disposal of the accumulations. Seeing that -the margarine manufacture is progressing by leaps and bounds, there is -not likely to be any shortage in connection with the fat constituent of -the cereal soap. - -Supplies of a cheap and useless albeit rich starch waste product have -also been secured in illimitable quantities. This has materially -simplified the task of production. While a certain proportion of this -particular raw material is secured for the preparation of an article -of food, about 75 per cent. is discarded as waste. Since cattle -will not eat it there remains no other field of utilization beyond -the soap factory, for which it is eminently suited. In addition to -the above-mentioned quantities ample supplies of this material are -forthcoming, because it is freely used as ballast in ships sailing from -the corner of the world in which the plant grows in profusion. Should -the demand for the food product which this substance yields increase -it would not exercise any stringency, because the offal alone would -be adequate to satisfy soap-making requirements. In pre-war days this -waste cost only 10s.--$2.50--per ton, but during the war, owing to -freight inflation, the price rose to £10--$50--per ton, while little -was carried in ballast, more profitable cargo being readily obtainable. -Consequently imports declined, only sufficient being brought into the -country to furnish the needs of the industry from which the foodstuff -is made. But the vegetable world is wide, and so it is by no means -a difficult problem to satisfy requirements for this new industry, -even in regard to starch-yielding wastes. The only other essential -ingredient is soda. As enormous quantities of this article are -manufactured in this country supplies thereof are readily assured and -at an attractive figure. - -There is one feature concerning this conversion of vegetable wastes -into soap which deserves mention. Should all familiar starch-yielding -products become unobtainable, a remote contingency, or attain an -excessive figure, manufacture need not be suspended. As a last -extremity sawdust can be utilized as the protein base. The possibility -of turning sawdust into soap constitutes something distinctly new -and novel to the industry, but the apparently impossible is readily -feasible under the process described. Normally such an expedient would -not find favour, inasmuch as certain difficulty is experienced in the -complete subjugation, or elimination, of the fibre which is exceedingly -resistant to the breaking-up action resulting from milling and the -chemical reaction. Nevertheless, the circumstance that sawdust can be -used in this connection opens up vast possibilities, and represents -an opportunity for inventive effort in the perfection of simple and -completely effective means to overcome the fibre difficulty. - -So far as industry is concerned the use of nitrogenous and oil wastes -in the form of soap has enabled startling economies to be effected. -In the woollen industry alone the saving in the soap-bill ranges from -20 per cent. upwards, as compared with other soaps which have been -used, while the silk and cotton crafts can point to like economies. -The successful subjugation of the lime-soap fiend is beneficially -reflected in other directions. The effluents from the factories -are conducted into the local drainage systems. The presence of the -lime-soap in the drains provokes a host of troubles, such as clogging -of the pipes and the fouling of traps and gullies, the curds proving -exasperatingly tenacious and defying ready removal by ordinary -flushing measures. Furthermore, the sludge reclaimed from the sewage, -if contaminated by lime-soap, suffers material depreciation as a -fertilizing agent because the grease, which is eventually released from -the lime, tends to clog the soil. - -But the most impressive fact to the ordinary user, both domestic and -industrial, is the opportunity to reduce the wastage of soap. The -fat content of the cereal soap is 50 per cent. less than that of the -familiar article, and the whole of this is free to emulsify, from its -refusal to coagulate with the lime in the water. Moreover, it contains -two cleansing agents--the soda and the nitrogenous compounds--whereas -the rival carries only one--the soda. Therefore it is not surprising -to learn that in actual practice one pound of cereal soap will go as -far, and do as much useful work, as two pounds of the ordinary soap. -The ability to make a lather in sea-water is another distinct advantage -which has been responsible for the widespread use of this commodity in -the Royal Navy and mercantile marine. - -Applied to London, the avoidance of soap-waste is certainly -startling. It not only indicates how we can retrieve the -£1,000,000--$5,000,000--at present escaping down the drains during the -year, but the fat thus saved may be turned to more valuable account. -The soap contributing to this gross loss is made from the very material -possessing decided dietetic value. Therefore, by the law of economics, -it should be diverted from its present use, admirable though it be -to fulfil the claims of cleanliness, to the more vital application, -especially in these days of stress and shortage. The table must take -precedence over the bath. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -TURNING OLD OIL INTO NEW - - -Oil is the blood of industry. Do we ever pause to reflect as to what -would happen if we were suddenly to be deprived of our supplies of this -commodity? Do we realize that without oil every machine would instantly -be condemned to idleness, that our clocks would stop, and that it would -be impossible for a train, steamship, tram, or omnibus to move a yard? -The probability is that we have never given a thought to the subject, -otherwise we should scarcely be so extravagant in our use of the -article. Certainly we would not hesitate to expend appreciable effort -in the recovery of as much of the waste as possible for further use. - -Britain’s normal importations of lubricating oil are in the -neighbourhood of 68,000,000 gallons a year, and they cost us a round -£2,500,000--$12,500,000. The tendency in regard to consumption is -upwards owing to our enhanced industrial activity, so that we are -becoming more and more dependent upon extraneous sources of supply for -our requirements. - -But the wastage is colossal. Rags and cotton waste, after becoming so -soddened with oil as to be incapable of absorbing another drop, are -discarded without compunction. There is scarcely a workshop, factory -or office in the country which cannot point to improvidence in this -direction. Such absence of thought is deplorable for more reasons than -one. Not only is the oil, which might be recovered, irretrievably lost, -but the very absorbent which from its textile nature might prove of -distinct value for other applications shares a similar fate. Were only -50 per cent. of the oil wasted in this country during the course of -the year recovered, it would be possible to reduce our imports to a -very pronounced degree. The reclaimed oil might not be of any value for -its avowed purpose, but it must be remembered that lubrication does not -constitute the one and only purpose to which oil can be applied. - -The remarkable development of mechanical traction upon our highroads -has been responsible to a marked degree for our increased consumption -of this commodity, and this is the very field in which the greatest -losses are incurred. There are thousands of garages scattered over the -country. Many are of unpretentious calibre, but even the smallest of -these establishments contributes its quota to the oil wastage issue. -In cleaning operations oil is drawn off from engine crank-chambers and -gear-boxes to run to waste. Rags are used for wiping and cleaning to be -perfunctorily thrown away or burned when they have become too saturated -for further use. The private motor-owner is probably as pronounced a -contributory source of waste as the small garage, because he, too, -is prodigal in his use of oil in every direction, and scarcely ever -gives a thought to the retention of the waste for treatment to recover -the oil and to release the rag for other duty, even if it be only for -making paper. - -At the moment the losses in this direction may not be so heavy as they -have been in the past, for the simple reason that oil, in common with -other commodities and in compliance with the inexorable law of supply -and demand, has become more expensive. As the price rises the tendency -to be sparing and careful becomes more marked, which only serves to -prove that cheapness is the primary incentive to waste. - -Wherever machinery has to be kept steadily and rhythmically moving -oil is indispensable, so that it is not a difficult matter, when we -recall the immense quantity of machinery which is kept running in these -islands to maintain our industries, and to furnish our homes with -such amenities as water, gas, and electricity, to recognize that our -consumption of this article must necessarily run into huge figures. -Our imports do not extend the true index to our dependence upon this -article, because appreciable quantities thereof are derived from -domestic sources of supply, such as coal and shales. - -Machinery is insatiable in its hunger for oil. This circumstance, -combined with the increasing price of the article, has been responsible -for the display of striking fruitful thought and experiment in the -discovery of effective substitutes. This is particularly noticeable in -our machine-shops. A lubricating agent must be utilized to facilitate -the cutting of metals. Oil is admittedly the most efficient and best -suited for the purpose, but many excellent compounds have been evolved -to consummate the desired end and to conspicuous advantage. In one -machine-shop the consumption of oil by the large automatic tools became -so heavy as to prompt experiment. Many expedients were evolved and -submitted to practical test, but they failed from some peculiar cause -or other. However, perseverance brought its due reward. A substitute at -last was found, with the result that oil for cutting was abandoned. By -the change over the firm in question succeeded in effecting a saving of -£30--$150--per month on each large automatic machine it had in use by -the supercession of oil for cutting. - -Doubtless opportunities for substitutes still exist in many other -directions, but commercial rivalry under normal conditions, with -enhanced prices prevailing in regard to costs of production, has not -yet been sufficiently encountered to compel the use of the substitute -in preference to the ostensible staple to secure manufacturing -economies. But changes will, and must of necessity, be recorded as the -struggle for trade develops. - -In order to encourage the more economical use of oil in industry -many interesting and to a certain degree efficient devices have been -introduced. But for the most part these apparatus are devoted to the -filtering of what may be described as dirty free oil. They scarcely -venture beyond the removal of whatever impurities may be associated -with the product in the suspensory form. They do not attempt to -reclaim waste oil. Such timid treatment is readily explicable. Oil is -a somewhat sensitive product. Its inherent qualities may be easily -impaired. For example, oil prepared essentially for lubricating -purposes must be possessed of specific qualities, of which viscosity -is one and the most important. Then the requirements of lubricating -oil fluctuate so widely. An oil designed for use with a high-speed -engine, such as the petrol motor, is not adapted to the lubrication of -a slow-moving steam engine. Yet the depreciation of one single quality -in any one grade is adequate to render the oil unsuited to the purpose -for which it has been specially prepared. - -The consumption of lubricating oil by the authorities during the war -ran into imposing figures, and the liability to waste was proportionate -to the consumption. Aeroplane engines and lorry motors, together with -their auxiliary gearing, were in a constant condition of overhaul. -Every time an engine or gearbox had to be dismantled many gallons of -oil had to be drawn off. Consequently the handling of this enormous -quantity of material to frustrate waste demanded special consideration, -inasmuch as the oil could not be put back into the machinery after the -latter had been reassembled. The authorities solved the problem by the -perfection of an organization for the collection of this oil, which -was returned to the oil-refinery to be re-conditioned, that is to be -cleaned thoroughly and to have its original properties restored. By the -observance of this practice of turning old oil into new the country was -saved huge sums. - -But there is a vast difference between official and civil conditions. -So far as the former is concerned it was a comparatively simple matter -to introduce an efficient organization to cope with the problem, while -the waste oil was recovered in bulk, the hospitals for treating the -engines of the aeroplanes and motor vehicles being centralized. It is -the degree to which facilities for satisfying the civil demand are -scattered which renders collection and handling of the waste along -inexpensive lines so perplexing. It might be satisfactorily overcome -if each garage and private owner undertook to maintain a waste-bin and -to commit all oil-soddened rags thereto for periodical collection by a -centralized authority, either municipal or private. The waste would be -obtainable at a low figure, possibly free, inasmuch as the majority of -garage owners would only be too glad to be rid of it. Possibly it would -be found profitable to strike a bargain along the lines of free waste -in return for the de-oiled rags, particularly if they were dusters or -cloths. In this event the waste oil exploiter would only be called upon -to incur the expense of collection and the treatment of the spoil. The -return of the cloths would not entail further expense, because they -could be returned in exchange for another consignment of waste. The -vehicle would have to make the journey in any event, and it might just -as well make the outward trip laden as empty. It is quite possible, -moreover, that the garage would be readily disposed to pay a slight -charge for the cleaning of this material, particularly of cloths, -so long as the sum was attractively below the price ruling for new -supplies of the article. To the waste exploiter the value of the oil -recovered should be adequate to defray all expenses of collection and -treatment, and then leave a handsome profit capable of accretion from -the disposal of the cleaned rags, which the garage did not require, for -paper-making. It is merely a question of enterprise and organization, -and in a large centre could be rendered a highly attractive and -profitable venture. - -This fact is borne out by the experience of private firms. Of course, -it is essential that the volume of spoil handled should be of -sufficient bulk to keep the plant installed for the reclamation of the -oil going to its full capacity, or to one approaching the maximum. This -is possible in the case of a large private company, such as a railway, -electric-generating station, or even industrial plant. - -One of the largest motor omnibus companies in the world was induced to -consider the possibilities of this issue, and finally was induced to -make the experiment. The “Iwel” plant in question was designed to turn -out 6 tons of clean dry rags per week. This may seem to be an enormous -quantity to accumulate during a period of seven days, but it must be -pointed out that the company in question maintains 2,000 to 3,000 -public vehicles upon the roads, as well as several garages and repair -shops. - -The first three months’ experience served to bring home the economic -advantages accruing from the scientific exploitation of this form -of waste. During this brief period the company reclaimed 67 tons of -rags for further use, the value of which at the time was set down at -£1,007 7s. 1d.--over $5,000--while from this waste 4,080 gallons of -oil, valued at £59 10s.--$297.50--were recovered. Here was a distinct -gross saving of £1,066 17s. 1d.--$5,334--which figure was increased -to £1,489 15s. 7d.--$7,449--on the credit side by the delivery of new -rags to depots valued at £419 12s. 6d.--$2,098--and the sale of small -rags unsuited to further work for £3 6s.--$16.50. On the debit side -the heaviest expenses were incurred in connection with the purchase of -new rags, valued at £405 12s. 9d.--$2,028, cartage of the waste £152 -17s. 10d.--$764.44, wages and salaries £157 15s. 1d.--$788.74, and coal -£105 0s. 11d.--$525.22. The total outgoings amounted to £1,038 16s. -7d.--$5,194.14, which left a balance of £450 19s.--$2,254.72--actual -saving recorded by the treatment of the waste. So far as the reclaimed -oil was concerned, while this was unsuited to further utilization in -its original province, it was found to form an excellent fuel for the -operation of the Diesel engines, and consequently reduced the fuel bill -on this account by a corresponding amount. - -Another illuminating instance of the value of such waste is afforded -by the working account for one year, furnished by one of the foremost -British chemical manufacturers. The plant acquired in this instance -comprised two turbine centrifugal separators, one washing machine, -and one drying cabinet, the cost of which complete was £210--$1,050. -In the course of the twelve months 350,000 wiping and other cloths -were treated, and the losses incurred therewith were so slender as to -demand renewals to the extent of only 15,000 new cloths, which, at -2s. 1¹⁄₄d.--52.5 cents--per dozen came out at £131 10s. 2¹⁄₂d.--about -$657.55. The heaviest item in the operating account was wages--£132 -12s. ($663). Other expenditure, including repairs, fuel, and -interest on the first cost of plant, brought the total to £324 2s. -2¹⁄₂d.--$1,620.55. From the treatment of the 350,000 cloths 125 casks, -or 5,000 gallons, of oil were recovered, which, at 10d.--20 cents--per -gallon, represented £208 6s. 8d.--$1,041.64. The saving in cotton -waste due to the soiled cloths being rendered available for further -duty, set down at 392 lb. at £4 4s.--$21--per week, came out at £218 -8s.--$1,092. Thus the total value of the waste recovered was £426 14s. -8d.--$2,133.64, leaving a saving, after deducting expenditure, of £102 -12s. 5¹⁄₂d.--$533.11. The results of the year’s working, therefore, -enabled the firm to recoup approximately 50 per cent. of its original -outlay, while the value of the oil recovered was only a little below -the cost of the plant. The saving in cotton-waste--material which -otherwise would have had to be provided--actually exceeded the capital -outlay upon the plant. - -The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, in consonance with the -general practice, formerly utilized cotton-waste in its works for -cleaning purposes. In these operations the material becomes saturated -with ordinary lubricating, cylinder, and other oils, as well as grease -from rubbing down the locomotives and parts. Some years ago it decided -to abandon cotton-waste in lieu of sponge cloths, at the same time -installing a plant for the recovery of the oil and grease from the -soiled materials. During the year these sponge cloths are passed over -and over again through the cleansing process, the operations being -equivalent to the treatment of 6,500,000 cloths, and in this manner -approximately 45,000 to 56,000 gallons of oil are reclaimed. - -It does not matter to what phase of industry one turns, a certain -amount of oil is possible of reclamation from the waste employed -in connection with the conduct of the work. The volume recoverable -naturally varies widely according to the nature of the trade -pursued, and in some instances the individual yield may appear to be -insignificant. But, during the course of the year, even in a small -shop, the figure is certain to become impressive and well worth the -efforts expended, as well as the money invested in the requisite plant, -while, if the one instance be multiplied by the number of other similar -establishments distributed throughout the country, the aggregate must -necessarily be formidable. The table opposite furnishes a few actual -results in the selection of industries specified. - -It will be observed that the yield varies widely according to the -industry concerned, but in every instance it will be observed that the -figure is such as to render the process profitable, not only on account -of the oil thus procured, but from the release of the waste or other -absorbent for a further spell of useful service. If the waste, or other -material, has been employed only for wiping parts, or mopping up free -oil, passage through the oil separator will suffice, but if it has been -utilized for general work and has become badly soiled, it requires -washing. The sludge resulting from this process is subsequently -passed through the oil-recovery plant instead of being thrown away, -the reclamation thus being complete, while the rags or other textiles -are passed through cabinets or other suitable facilities to be dried -quickly. - - ----------------+-----------------+----------+--------------+--------- - Industry. |Material Treated.| Quantity.|Oil Recovered.|Per Cent. - ----------------+-----------------+----------+--------------+--------- - | | | Pints. | - Agricultural | Cotton-waste | 18 lb. | 9·75 | 54·16 - machinery | | | | - Biscuit | Cotton-waste[1] | 10 lb. | 4 | 40 - manufacture | | | | - Colliery |{Cotton-waste[2] | 39·75 lb.| 63 | 158·69 - |{Cotton-waste[3] | 15·75 lb.| 10 | 57·5 - | | | | - Cycle and parts |{Rags |112 lb. | 80 | 71·42 - |{Sponge cloths | 1 gross | 8 | -- - Foundry | Cotton-waste | 13 lb. | 11·25 | 86·53 - Machine-tool | Cotton-waste | 8·25 lb.| 2·75 | 33·33 - manufacture | | | | - Motor-car |{Cotton-waste | 16 lb. | 1·25 | 7·81 - |{Rags | 12 lb. | 2·75 | 22·91 - | | | | - Railway |{Cotton-waste | 14 lb. | 2·625 | 13·75 - |{Cotton-waste[4] | 10 lb. | 13 | 130 - | | | | - Steel and |{Cotton-waste | 8·25 lb.| 9·25 | 112·12 - iron-works | | | | - |{Mutton cloths | 2 lb. | 1·5 | 75 - Tramway | Cotton-waste | 13 lb. | 1·25 | 9·61 - Wood screw | Cotton-waste | 21 lb. | 13·75 | 65·47 - manufacture | | | | - ----------------+-----------------+----------+--------------+--------- - - -But so far as industrial operations are concerned oil reclamation is by -no means confined to the treatment of the waste and cloths. As already -mentioned, oil is freely used in working metal, acting as the lubricant -to the cutting tool. While trough facilities are provided to catch -the oil to enable it to be used again, much clings to the turnings -and other refuse. Even where works are not equipped with oil-recovery -apparatus of some description or another an attempt to secure a -proportion of what would otherwise be lost is made. The turnings are -permitted to drain. The quantity of oil recovered in this manner, -however, is very low. Certainly it does not exceed 40 per cent., -because the oil clings somewhat readily and freely to the metallic -surface. - -Accordingly, in the best equipped factories, the practice is to submit -the turnings to treatment. It is passed through the extractors and in -this way at least all but 10 per cent. of the oil is recovered. When -the solvent extraction process is exploited the recovery can be carried -as far as 99 per cent., the fraction resisting recovery thus being -extremely small. The yield obtainable from such metallic residue from -the machines is certainly sufficient to justify the treatment. In one -shop, devoted to the manufacture of cycles and cycle parts, the oil -recovery averaged 22 pints per 112 lb. of turnings treated. In another -instance, where the production of agricultural machinery is conducted, -26 lb. of steel turnings and 23 lb. 9 oz. of brass turnings yielded -1·75 and 1·125 pints of oil respectively. One motor-car manufacturing -firm recovers 1,200 gallons of cutting oil from the treatment of its -weekly accumulation of turnings. This becomes available for re-use, -and the absolute loss recorded is only about 10 per cent. In another -instance, 2,440 gallons of oil were recovered from the treatment of -41 tons 17 cwt. of metal turnings, 900 lb. of rags, and 19,300 sponge -cloths in the course of six months. - -Another interesting experience in this field is worthy of record. -It was found that the sawdust in the vicinity of certain machines, -provided as an absorbent, became somewhat heavily charged with oil -splashed and otherwise discharged from the machines. The presence of -the oil-soaked refuse on the floor was construed as being a menace -to the establishment, the hazard of fire being regarded as thereby -increased. Accordingly, the floor was swept more frequently than -otherwise would have been the case, the refuse being promptly shovelled -into the furnace merely to secure its prompt and complete riddance. -The sawdust was examined by a waste expert upon the occasion of a -visit to the works, and he suggested, from the fact that oil oozed -from a handful of the sawdust when squeezed, that the waste should -be subjected to the “Iwel” oil-reclamation process, instead of being -burned. The recommendation was followed, and the volume of oil thus -recovered was found to be of surprising quantity. In fact, its value -more than defrayed the cost of the small plant which was installed to -treat it. So effectively was the sawdust found to be cleaned of the -oil as to be redistributed time after time upon the floor around the -machines. In this instance destruction of the oil-soaked refuse by fire -represented a material loss in more senses than one. - -While it is only within the past few years that the possibility of -reclaiming oil from cotton-waste has aroused such earnest attention, -it must be acknowledged that many firms sought to reduce their -expenditure by submitting their cloths and waste to a laundrying -process. Of course, by this practice the textiles were recovered, but -the oil was lost, while material expense was incurred in the conduct of -the laundrying operations and the acquisition of suitable detergents. -An interesting record of the cost of the respective processes is -forthcoming from a certain firm in the South of England. It refers to -two years’ operations, the one referring to straight laundrying of the -sponge cloths and waste, while the other refers to the latest method -of dealing with such materials. Under the former _régime_ the cost for -the year was £219 9s. 2d.--$1,097.28. The heaviest items were for the -purchase of sponge cloths and waste, the figures for which were £62 -17s. and £137--$314.25 and $685--respectively. The cost of washing the -dirty cloths at 7s. 3d.--$1.78--per week was £18 17s.--$94.25. - -The firm then acquired a small oil reclamation and cloths-cleaning -plant at a cost of £125--$625. During the year, under the new -conditions, the expenditure on account of sponge cloths and waste -was £25 16s. and £85 15s.--$129 and $428.75--respectively, but, for -purposes of comparison, one-fifth was added to each item to counteract -the slackness encountered, and to bring the subject more in line with -the experience of the previous year. But even after making these -allowances the total expenditure for these two articles came out at -only £133 17s. 2d.--$669.28--against £199 17s.--$999.25--when the -textiles were laundered. Inclusive of all expenditure, including wages, -washing materials, power, and interest at 5 per cent. upon the first -cost of the plant, the total cost was £199 4s. 4d.--$996.8--as compared -with £219 9s. 2d.--$1,097.28--for the previous year--a saving of £20 -4s. 10d.--$101.20. But under the new system 716 gallons of oil, totally -lost under the previous method, were reclaimed, which represented £11 -15s.--$58.75, so that the total saving was £31 19s. 10d.--$159.98, -representing approximately 25 per cent. on the capital outlay incurred -for the installation of the plant. - -In view of the economies possible from the practice of such a system as -I have described, it is somewhat surprising that manufacturing firms -should hesitate to include an oil-reclamation plant in the equipment -of their establishments. It is likewise somewhat difficult to bring -home to them what really can be achieved by the scientific treatment -of their waste. In order to popularize the practice, and to further -the observance of economies which are inseparable from industrial -operations under contemporary conditions, more than one British firm -is prepared to advance an attractive commercial proposal. This is -that the equipment should be installed and its cost defrayed out of -the actual savings effected. Thus, in the case of the installation to -which I have made reference, and which deals with the rags accumulating -from the maintenance of public service vehicles, such a procedure -was initiated. The capital expenditure involved in this instance was -approximately £2,200--$11,000, but as the plant recorded a net saving -of £450--$2,250--as a result of three months’ work, which is equivalent -to £1,800--$9,000--a year, it should be able to defray the whole of the -initial outlay within about 16 months. However, all things being equal, -it is computed that a reclamation plant submitted to the work which -I have described should pay for itself within two years. Experience -serves to support this contention, although, under the conditions -which at present prevail, the possibility is that such a gratifying -achievement would be fulfilled within a shorter period. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] From engine-room. - -[2] From blast-furnaces. - -[3] From power-station. - -[4] Axle-box waste. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -BY-PRODUCTS FROM THE WASTE-BIN - - -The exploitation of waste presents grand opportunities for pioneer -research and investigation, not only to the chemist, but also to the -layman who is fruitful of thought. In the praiseworthy determination to -turn residues to advantage there is a tendency to follow the path of -least resistance, and to apply them to the fields which most readily -suggest themselves. This policy is regrettable. The true scientific -solution to the problem lies not so much in the conversion of a refuse -into a useful article, as the discovery of the precise province in -which it is capable of giving the most lucrative and economic return. - -This may appear to be a simple issue, but, as a matter of fact, it is -one bristling with perplexities, invariably involving the expenditure -of appreciable time and profound study. Some of the difficulties to be -overcome are of an extremely abstruse technical order, and so can only -be resolved through the indefatigability of the chemist, which goes to -prove that the scientist really dominates industry and commerce. This -fact was advanced many years ago, but it is only really acknowledged -to-day. - -A specific trade yields a conspicuous volume of residue of a -distinctive character. From its composition and general characteristics -it appears to be eminently adapted to a certain duty. But the chemist -attached to the industry for which the waste is provisionally -ear-marked delves into the problem, only to find that it is totally -unfitted for what seemed to be an obvious application. He may even -go so far as to assert his doubts as to the material possessing -qualifications for any known use, owing to its unfavourable nature, or -because application may prove to be too costly. In such an event that -residue must remain an apparently redundant product until a possible -field for its utilization happens to be found. - -A case in point may be cited. In the manufacture of boots for the -Services enormous quantities of trimmings accumulated, owing to the -specifications relative to the selection of skins for official needs -being more rigid than obtains for footwear designed for civilian -use. These trimmings proved to be quite useless to the trade, and -so endeavour became concentrated upon the discovery of some other -attractive utilitarian duty for them. - -The main objection to this residue--curried leather--was the grease. -It was decided to remove it--a relatively simple and commercially -practicable operation. But in solving the one problem another, every -whit as perplexing, was precipitated. The degreased leather could -be used, but what was to be done with the extracted grease, the -contribution of which was imposing? In appearance this grease resembles -the dubbin used for dressing footwear. Seeing that it was recovered -from _new_ leather the thought was entertained that this grease might -be used in lieu of, or at least to supplement the supplies of, the -conventional dubbin. - -When the chemist took the proposal in hand he speedily shattered all -hopes of turning the grease to such account. He produced an analysis -which proved that the grease, instead of being a leather preserver as -had been anticipated, was really a leather destroyer. The fatty acids -were too predominant. Forthwith that grease had to be abandoned as a -potential dubbin substitute. - -Yet the chances are a thousand to one that the chemist will succeed in -indicating a profitable use for this reclaimed fat from unused curried -leather, because with war we have acquired wisdom. We are not so ready -to throw away a substance just because we happen to be ignorant of an -immediate industrial application therefor. Rather are we disposed to -put forth a little exertion to strive to adapt, or to create, some -useful range of service for it. There are hundreds of heads at work -throughout the country attacking just such problems as the recovered -grease from leather, and, consequently, from such a distribution and -concentration of fertility of thought, it is only reasonable to -suppose that such issues will ultimately be fathomed satisfactorily to -one and all. - -Such close union of brain power and ingenuity is not confined to -any one industry. The search for the most promising fields for -waste-products is far too fascinating. Even the private member of the -community is taking a hand in the great game, and is contributing, in -varying degree, to the widespread success which has been, and still is -being, recorded. - -The rural housewife, in her lonely remote home, contributes to the -amenities of country life by bottling her own fruits, following this -practice to avoid wastage arising from a glut of produce in her own -garden, or in her appreciation of the prolific luscious contributions -offered by the wild hedgerow. She knows that the rubber rings with -which the bottles are sealed can only be used once. Hitherto, she has -always thrown the spent rings into the fire to get rid of them. Now, -true housewife that she is, she reasons that surely these rings, while -useless to her for fruit bottling, are suitable for some other equally -important purpose. Forthwith she makes inquiries to ascertain the -quarter in which they are likely to find favour, even if it be only to -swell the scrap-rubber melting-pot. - -The closely observant student of the countryside, during his autumnal -rambles through the copses and spinneys, reflects upon the profusion of -the hazel-nut, and the circumstance that this crop is permitted to fall -to the ground to rot, or to suffer only partial appropriation by the -thrifty squirrel. Surely, he ruminates, such wild fruit possesses some -commercial value. The shell can be turned into a high grade charcoal -for the laboratory, while the nut itself is rich in oil, which it ought -to pay to extract, leaving a residue to offer an excellent winter-feed -for cattle. As he ponders upon the problem the fact dawns upon him -that the country is rather more disposed to import vast quantities of -a similar product, derived from the coco-nut, palm kernels and other -exotic fruits, than to exert itself a trifle to turn its domestic -resources to account. - -It is useless for him to try to rouse the country to realize the wealth -it is allowing to slip through its fingers. Any suggestion concerning -the recovery of the hazel-nut meets with the instant retort that there -is no organization available to conduct the requisite collection -of the nuts in due season, and that the end would not justify the -means, owing to the time, labour, and expense involved. But when we -come face to face with stress such potential wealth of wild rural -Britain meets with recognition. Was it not stringency which prompted -the harvest of the blackberry crop in 1918 to avert the threatened -shortage of jam? Yet the very success which attended the gathering of -the blackberry crop, and the zest with which the task was pursued by -the juvenile section of the population of the country, should suffice -to indicate that the hazel-nut might just as profitably, easily, -cheaply, and efficiently be gathered to swell the output of margarine -or to be turned to other industrial account. Surely, by the exercise -of enterprise and thrift in this direction, we might be able to reduce -our expenditure of upwards of £16,000,000--$80,000,000--a year upon -oils and materials for the preparation of edible foodstuffs for both -man and beast to a certain degree, and thereby foster additional -native industries. If further testimony be required to demonstrate the -facility with which such a wild home-product might be secured were -collection attacked along the proper lines, does not the acquisition of -the horse-chestnut crop of the country in 1917 suffice? - -The photographer is another lamentable, albeit unconscious, contributor -to the great wastage problem. There are hundreds of thousands of -enthusiastic amateurs scattered up and down the country. Their -consumption of glass negatives and films during the course of the year -runs into colossal figures. Yet of the millions of exposures which are -made how many can be construed into successes, or, if satisfactory, -need be retained for any prolonged period? If preserved the negatives -accumulate at an alarming rate, to present exasperating posers in -regard to their safe storage. - -What becomes of these ruined and superfluous negatives? So far as the -films are concerned there is no mystery. They meet an unmourned fate -in flames. But the glass negatives are somewhat more troublesome to -scrap. Some idea of the immensity of the hoards of negatives possessed -by both amateur and professional photographers was revealed during the -war. The stupendous production of anti-gas masks was responsible for -huge inroads upon our glass manufacturing facilities. When the United -States of America entered the arena, and concluded arrangements in this -country for the supply of this indispensable article of equipment to -the American troops, the demand for suitable glass was forced up to -such a level as to tax our producing capacity to a supreme degree. - -The glass was required to furnish the eye-pieces to the masks. These -were circular in shape, and about 2¹⁄₂ inches in diameter. Each -eye-piece was made from two discs of glass which were superimposed, -with a thin layer of xylonite between. The last-named was introduced -to extend enhanced safety to the fighting men. A ricocheting shell -splinter might strike the goggle, shattering the outer layer, but the -inner section might possibly escape all injury. Even if the blow were -sufficiently severe to smash both sections of a single eye-piece the -goggle was not certain to be shivered like the window-pane struck by a -stone. The intermediate layer of xylonite nullified the force of the -impact to a striking degree, any starring that might be communicated to -the inner disc not necessarily being in line with that produced on the -outer glass, except, of course, in instances of a direct hit. Moreover, -the glass was deprived of its characteristic tendency to splinter under -a blow, owing to the intervening thin film of xylonite. Photographers -will appreciate the situation from their experience with their glass -negatives. When dropped the glass may be smashed into a hundred -fragments, but they are invariably held in position by the attached -film. - -The glass required for this purpose had to be of a certain standard, -not exceeding one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness, and free from -flaws. The authorities discovered that photographic negatives were made -of the very material desired, and realized that here was a peculiar -opportunity to remedy the deficiency they were experiencing in regard -to the supply of new material from the accepted manufacturing sources. -Accordingly, appeal was made to all photographers to turn out their -stocks of dismal failures and negatives which need be retained no -longer, and to surrender them to the Government. - -The demand was certainly pretentious. The eye-pieces were required -at the rate of 500,000 a week. As two quarter-plate negatives were -required to produce a single goggle--four for each mask--it will be -seen that 2,000,000 discarded quarter-plate negatives were sought -weekly to keep pace with demand. Of course, larger-sized plates enabled -the discs to be cut more economically, but it is the quarter-plate -which has the biggest vogue among the huge army of amateur photographic -enthusiasts, owing to questions of expense, and so appeal was -especially made for plates of this size, in the feeling that here was -the richest mine to be tapped. - -The negatives were stripped, the emulsion being dissolved from the -foundation by the aid of chemicals. In this manner the nitrate of -silver content was recovered to be turned to profitable account. The -metallic yield from the individual plate is negligible, but, under -quantitative treatment, as in this instance, the reclamation was -rendered profitable. No attempt was made to exploit the emulsion, but -there seems to be no reason why this should not have been utilized. - -All trimmings from the glass in cutting the discs were carefully -garnered. These formed what is known as “glass cullet,” which was -returned to the glass-makers. Being of high quality the cullet -commanded a ready sale, the glass obtained from re-melting being used -for the fabrication of ink-bottles, salt-cellars, scent-bottles and a -hundred and one other articles in urgent request, while an appreciable -quantity was again converted into the base for further photographic -negatives. - -Plates exceeding the officially inscribed thickness of one-sixteenth -of an inch were not unceremoniously consigned to the melting-pot, -but after being stripped of the emulsion, were sold to the trade for -contrivance into the _passe-partout_ photographic mounts so much the -vogue to-day among enthusiastic amateur photographers, for picture -framing, and numerous other applications for which their dimensions and -the quality of the glass rendered them eminently suitable. - -Turning to another phase of industry, gloves of every description -have soared in price, irrespective of the materials used in their -production. Even those contrived from stout textile, which five years -ago were readily procurable for a few pence, commanded shillings a -pair. In this instance the rise in price was primarily due to the call -for vast quantities by the munition factories to extend a measure of -protection to the hands of the workers, more especially the women. -Toiling Britain became converted to the gauntlet habit, so pronounced -across the Atlantic, as a result of war. - -As may be imagined, from the character of the work involved, these -gloves suffered speedy deterioration, becoming saturated with grease -and grime from the handling of metal and the operation of machinery -and tools. One firm found itself saddled with 112 lb. of these dirty -gloves every week, and the item “glove renewals” consequently grew -somewhat impressive. Feeling that this expenditure might be capable of -reduction, the firm sought a simple and inexpensive cleaning process -for the removal of the grease, to give the gloves a new lease of useful -life, the fact having been ascertained that the textile itself suffered -little injury as the result of a few days’ wear and tear. - -Experiments were made and the requirements of the firm were met very -effectively. Not only were the gloves turned out clean and sound, -enabling them to be used over and over again until the textile was worn -out, but the oil and grease with which they were sodden was recovered. -This was cleaned and found serviceable either as “cutting oil” for use -with the tools, or as fuel oil for engines of the Diesel type. - -I have previously referred to the reclamation of the grease from the -leather trimmings accruing from the manufacture of boots for the -Services. The trimmings represent pieces of good sound leather, of -all shapes and sizes, some of the fragments being of relatively large -dimensions. A selection of this waste from two large Northampton -factories was secured. It was carefully sorted. The larger pieces were -found to be useful for providing patches of varying sizes, capable -of profitable use by the trade for the repair of civilian footwear. -The larger sections of soleing leather were similarly sorted, having -been found adaptable to what is known as “packing-up” in resoleing -operations. - -By the time this sorting had been completed only shreds and tatters -of leather were left. These were degreased for the recovery of the -dubbin-like fat already described, and to leave the leather quite -clean, soft, and pliable. The fragments from the uppers were again -examined, and found capable of further selection to serve as raw -material for another industry which was being sorely harassed -from the non-availability of the raw leather upon which it was -normally dependent. This was the fabrication of the tiny, circular, -serrated-edge leather discs or “tufts” used in the making of mattresses -for bedding. - -This discovery proved to be extremely opportune. Leather had grown -so scarce that the normal supplies for this range of duty had been -summarily cut off. Yet mattresses cannot be made without these tufts, -and the bedding trade had been striving diligently to discover the -suitability of certain suggested substitutes, when along came the -suggestion that degreased uppers waste from the boot factories might -possibly satisfy all demands in this direction. - -The ability to exploit the residue in this manner provided the Lord -Roberts’ Memorial Workshops with an additional field for activity, -of which due advantage was taken. Then it was found that the soleing -leather might be put to equally useful service. Many trades were -reduced to a quandary from the inability to obtain leather supplies -from which to make washers. This waste was found to fill the bill very -neatly, because as with boots so with washers--there is nothing like -leather. Certainly no substitute therefore has yet been found able -to fulfil the required duty so efficiently as the hide from the cow, -although there has been no lack of enterprise in this direction. The -wisps and scraps of uppers and soles of leather remaining from this -selection--mere shavings and shreds--are ground up and converted into -fertilizer. - -That leather trimmings from the boot factories, hitherto regarded -as absolutely useless, are forthcoming in sufficient quantities to -fulfil the claims of the tuft and washer trades have been definitely -ascertained. The residue is far more imposing than might popularly be -conceived, especially in connection with the production of Service -boots. Organized collection alone is required to bring this source of -possible supply into contact with the market. From three factories -alone approximately 2,300 lb. of trimmings are obtainable every week. -Multiply this yield by the number of boot factories in the country, and -it will be seen that this leather waste could supply adequate material -to allow tufts and washers to be turned out in their millions during -the course of the year. - -Even the manufacture of civilian footwear, especially of feminine -fancy boots, yields its quota of waste. But the contribution is not -so pronounced as with Service footwear because wider scope exists for -working up the surplus. Nevertheless, all waste, no matter what its -character may be, has a utilitarian value. The cloth remnants find a -ready market for the manufacture of paper. The cork sole cuttings, -composed of cork, with cotton and wool attached, are similarly -retrieved by the ton. Sorting enables the cork to be recovered for the -manufacture of linoleum, the cotton for the paper mills, and the woolly -component for shoddy. - -Finally we get the floor sweepings--a collection of leather, -textiles, and other materials recovered by the aid of the broom. So -far as Northampton is concerned--the system probably prevails in -other boot-making centres--the practice has been for the municipal -authorities to collect these accumulations and to remove them to the -dust-destructor for incineration. This was regarded as the simplest, -cheapest, and most efficient method for their disposal. - -Salvage experts examined these sweepings. They found a far more -utilitarian use for this waste. It was worth £2--$10--a ton for -conversion into fertilizer. Seeing that about 1,000 tons a year of -these sweepings are recoverable from two or three factories it will be -seen that we have been content to send £2,000--$10,000--annually up -the chimney of a dust-destructor from sheer lack of foresight and the -expenditure of a little thought and trouble during the very period when -our land is clamouring for nitrogenous fertilizers. - -Before leaving the boot trade I might refer to another recent -development concerning a certain waste which is of decided interest. -Patent cuttings presented quite a different proposal from the odds and -ends of ordinary leather. The glossy finish was held to be a drawback, -because obviously it would have to be removed before the material could -be submitted to any of the purposes described. It was anticipated that -such preliminary treatment might prove too expensive to render the -recovery worth while. But a simple and cheap process for securing the -patent in the form of a fine dust--“curriers’ powder”--was found. This -left the leather free for further exploitation. Then the question of -turning the reclaimed dust to account arose. Inquiries were made, but -there appeared to be no opening for it. It looked as if this curriers’ -powder would have to be set on the shelf in company with the recovered -grease against a day of brilliant discovery upon the part of the -indefatigable chemist. - -But a firm specializing in a peculiar phase of activity came along. It -was experiencing distinct difficulty in finishing off the work with -which it is identified with the requisite degree of satisfaction. -Suddenly it had occurred to the technical staff that this fine dust -might possibly extricate them from the dilemma with which the firm -was confronted. The dust was submitted to trial. The tests are not -yet conclusive, but the results so far recorded have fully justified -the utilization of this material; certainly the firm in question is -disposed to concede its employment as the solution to their difficulty. -Should these expectations be fully realized there is every indication -that the demand for curriers’ powder will become exceedingly heavy, and -from a quarter which will arouse widespread surprise. The consumption -in this realm will eclipse that ever likely to be recorded in -connection with footwear. While industrial ethics preclude the mention -of the precise application in question, it may be added that it is -about as closely allied or has as much in common with boots as the use -of cheese in the production of steel. - -The one overwhelming obstacle to the commercial utilization of waste -is organized and cheap segregation and collection. This difficulty is -aggravated when the refuse in question happens to be in a combined -form, that is to say, when two or three--perhaps more--widely divergent -substances are associated to produce the one article. Possibly only one -of the constituents possesses a known market, or it may so happen that -each of the component substances has a distinct market but only in its -individual form. - -As a rule any waste of this character from industry is regarded with -contempt by the approved specialists in waste collection--the itinerant -merchant or the marine store dealer. Both these traders prefer to -conduct their operations with approved straight and unadulterated -materials. If the waste happens to be of the combined character, they -realize that they must expend a certain amount of time and labour in -its separation before carrying out its sale to advantage. As they are -not inclined towards such exertion they refuse to accept the residue. - -It is a foolish policy and one which directly reacts against their own -interests. Such combined waste can generally be procured at a trifling -figure. The factory in which it accrues cannot afford the labour or -time necessary to bring about the separation of the constituents. Yet -when separation is completed each class of material at once attains -its true value. Resolution of combined waste into its components does -not involve any skill, while it is immaterial how roughly the task is -performed. The merchants to whom allusion has been made will also spurn -waste of undoubted market value if it has been dressed or impregnated -with another substance. They will jump at rags no matter how soiled and -loathsome their appearance. They know the dirt can be removed readily -and cheaply, but they never pause to reflect that substances used for -impregnating textiles may be eliminated just as easily. Moreover, -unlike dirt, the recovered dressing may possess a distinct commercial -value in itself. - -Waxed flannel is a recognized commodity, and, in fabricating articles -therefrom, appreciable quantities of trimmings are obtained. One firm -was in a quandary as to the disposal of this waste. No rag-and-bone -merchant would touch it. The firm was quite prepared to sell the -refuse at a low figure, fully confident that it could be turned to -some profitable purpose. The material was investigated, and the -separation of the wax from the woollen base was found to offer no -supreme or expensive difficulty. Yet the extraction of the wax made all -the difference in the intrinsic worth of the waste. At that time the -de-waxed flannel fetched 85s.--$21.25--a hundredweight, while the wax, -which was a high-grade product, was also of distinct value because it -was available for re-use. - -A similar problem cropped up in connection with oil-skin trimmings -resulting from the manufacture of garments and other articles. The -factory concerned stated that the waste was somewhat pronounced from -the magnitude of its business, but what to do with it was beyond their -knowledge. Experiment proved the separation of the oil to be an easy -matter, and so the release of the cotton textile was secured. In the -degreased form the trimmings fetched from 50s. to 60s.--$12.50 to -$15--a hundredweight at the time, while the oil was also a valuable -by-product and was readily absorbed by industry at a favourable figure. - -It is a moot point whether any other textile enters so extensively into -industry in some form or other as cotton. Consequently cotton refuse -is recoverable in immense quantities from the factories and workshops -where this textile is converted from the piece into garments and other -utilitarian articles. These trimmings for the most part are unsoiled, -but equally imposing are the contributions from the domestic rag-bag -and the refuse bins of other trades, whence the residue is forthcoming -in a more or less soiled condition. But a simple cleaning process -renders it suitable for further use. Should all possible or promising -applications be exhausted to no effect then this residue can always be -absorbed by the paper-mill. The paper-making industry may truthfully be -described as the salvor’s sheet-anchor; certainly there is no excuse -for consigning any cotton fabric to the flames while the paper-maker’s -craft flourishes. - -But in the majority of instances this waste, as already mentioned, is -associated with some other substance, for the simple reason that it -constitutes an ideal inexpensive base, or foundation, for carrying -the medium desired. Take the rubber mackintosh sheeting as a case in -point. Here the cotton sheet foundation is impregnated with rubber to -secure the desired waterproofness of the material. But the trimmings -need only to be submitted to a solvent treatment to bring about the -removal of the rubber, when the cotton base at once becomes released -for the paper-maker. The rubber is also retrieved to advantage because -it is quite pure. Emery cloth, which has been discarded as too worn for -further use, may be similarly treated, the recovery in this instance -being of triple value when conducted upon a large scale, comprising -respectively the emery powder, the oil, the fabric base, and possibly -the metallic dust. - -The extraction of nicotine from tobacco is a flourishing industry. This -trade has been built upon the commercial utilization of waste, the raw -material comprising tobacco declared as unsuitable for the generally -recognized commercial applications. The nicotine is extracted for the -preparation of insecticides and other commodities for which the juice -is eminently adapted. - -To obtain the nicotine the discarded tobacco is placed in linen bags. -Subsequent treatment follows certain lines. As may be imagined, owing -to the extremely oleaginous or gummy character of the juice and grease, -these bags become clogged during the extracting process. In course -of time they become so saturated as to be unfit for further use, not -through any failure of the actual fabric, but because the fine mesh -of the material has become choked. Owing to their admitted repulsive -character the bags were thrown away or burned. - -One firm specializing in this industry accumulated soiled bags to the -extent of approximately 2,000 per month. It had never contemplated the -feasibility of subjecting them to any treatment, probably because new -bags were relatively cheap. But, as a result of the national demand -for linen for more vital purposes, and the exceeding scarcity of the -basic raw material, which had the effect of sending the price of flax -from £54 to £280--$270 to $1,400--per ton, the idea of recovering -the bags assumed more pressing significance. A sample was taken and -submitted to a degreasing process. It was discovered that the combined -action of steam and centrifugal action speedily separated the clogging -gummy constituents from the fibres of the linen. When examined after -treatment the bags were found to be quite free from every trace of the -nicotine, and it would have been difficult for the uninitiated ever -to have identified them with the industry of nicotine extraction. The -tobacco juice was recovered in appreciable bulk, but what was far more -important was the reclamation of the bags. In the cleansed condition -they were worth from £20 to £40--$100 to $200--per ton. - -To enumerate all the industries from which odds and ends of -cotton-waste are derivable would demand too much space. There are -stalks and ends of plumes from the fabrication of artificial feathers, -tangled bundles of loose tatters, fragments of silk in a thousand -and one forms, mercerized and natural, and so on. The yield from a -single factory or workroom may be trifling, perhaps, while there is -the rag-merchant to hand to take delivery of this residue. A firm -may readily concede the preservation of its waste until it assumes a -formidable bulk to be more troublesome than it is worth, as well as -littering the factory or occupying space which can be put to more -valuable account. So it generally throws the residue into the furnace, -but the utilization of such waste as fuel represents the most costly -method of disposal which could be practised. - -The losses arising from such action are immense and deplorable, more -especially when it is remembered how easily and readily they might be -avoided. It is somewhat consoling to reflect that, to-day, despite -the many perplexities involved, the salvage of this refuse is being -attacked along serious lines. Factories and workshops are beginning -to appreciate that these residues can always command good money -from the pulp-makers, the result being that much less residue is -being lost through the too handy furnace than formerly. Parings from -ladies’ velour hats, felt trimmings, odd pieces from billiard-table -cloths--woollen fragments in a thousand different forms are now finding -profitable utilization. All such waste is being snapped up greedily -by the shoddy mills. During the war some of this waste was somewhat -freely absorbed for carrying out elaborate camouflage schemes to screen -the movements and disposition of troops, guns, and transport from the -prying eyes of the enemy, but to-day it is all being released for -the reproduction of clothing material, blankets, and other articles -innumerable--all of far-reaching import to the community. - -My Lady, when she contemptuously discards her straw hat, does so -without venturing a thought as to its possible further value, except, -perhaps, as a lighter for the kitchen fire. But the abandoned headgear, -together with the straw refuse plaiting from the factory, now possesses -a market apart from that for making paper. It is being used extensively -for stuffing the backs and seats of cheap furniture. During the period -of war this waste was found suitable for another mission and one -which still obtains. This was as a substitute for wood-wool, which -virtually disappeared from the market. Wood-wool is prepared from wet -wood, and, naturally, a certain period of time must elapse to allow -it to dry before it can be set to its designed service. When wood was -cheap and plentiful this delay presented no handicap, manufacture -being continuous, but during hostilities wood became counted among the -luxuries of commercial life. It was far too valuable to be shredded -into wool, except in severely limited quantities, to act as packing. - -As a result of the experiment induced by stringency, plait from -old hats, and the factory waste, were found to be quite as good as -the wood-wool in this capacity. The colour of the straw, faded or -otherwise, constitutes no disadvantage. Consequently, to condemn -the abandoned summer friend of the head to serve as a fire-lighter -represents approximately its least economical application, although it -may come as an equal surprise to learn that the perfect dream of the -milliner’s creative faculty may reappear as the protective covering -to chocolate and confectionery during transit from manufactory to the -retailer in its familiar wooden box. - -Discarded umbrella coverings may not appear to possess any further -attraction except to the paper-maker. But the waste-expert declares -otherwise. A flaw in the silk covering or possible damage wrought while -attaching it to the frame no longer constitutes a passport for the -material to the dust-bin or flames. Finger-stalls and eye-shades may be -contrived from this waste. For making eye-shades it is only necessary -to cut a piece of cardboard, likewise retrieved from the waste-bin, to -the desired size and shape. Then, by the aid of a little glue the silk -section cut from the abandoned umbrella covering may be fastened to the -cardboard base. - -During the course of the year thousands of tons of string are made -in these islands. What becomes of it all? One industry utilizing -this material found itself saddled with about ten tons of odd -lengths, which, thrown into the waste-bin, became a tangled mass. The -bewildering array was examined by an expert. He found that whereas some -of the pieces were of only a few inches, others ran to three, four and -even more feet in length. He contemplated the pile and concluded that -it would never pay to unravel the tangle. It was a task calling for -weeks of labour and infinite patience. - -His first inclination was to hand over the bulky pile to the -paper-mills to be pulped. But further consideration of the quantity of -the long lengths of string in that junk heap prompted an alternative. -String, neatly prepared in large balls, is furnished to prisons to -serve as raw material to the prisoners engaged in the overhaul -and repair of bags. Why not send this collection of waste to the -penitentiaries? There the time occupied in unravelling the tangled -jumble is of minor importance. Prison labour does not count, while the -task is no less fruitful than that of picking oakum. Forthwith the -string was forwarded to these establishments, and was found to meet -the purpose very satisfactorily. Not only did this waste release an -appreciable quantity of new string for more valuable applications, but -it also enabled an appreciable saving in cost of bag repairs to be -recorded, while the work was just as neatly and efficiently fulfilled -with the odd lengths as with new string. - -In another case a farmer of a thrifty turn of mind saved all the odd -lengths of binder twine accruing from the use of the self-binder to -harvest his crops. When untying the sheaves for threshing he threw the -lengths into a bin, and in this way amassed quite a respectable pile. -It was promptly acquired by paper-makers who paid him 25s.--$6.25--a -hundredweight. This satisfactory result should prompt all our farmers -to exercise like economy in this connection. They would find it to -their financial advantage to do so. The annual consumption of binder -twine in these islands runs into big figures. In 1917 we imported -115,086 hundredweights for which we paid £417,168--$2,085,840--while -in the previous year the figure was 212,639 hundredweights valued at -£550,104--$2,750,520. - -To assist in the harvesting of the 1918 grain crop the Food Production -Department purchased 20,000 tons of this apparently insignificant -material to ensure farmers receiving adequate supplies. When the grain -is taken in hand to be threshed the recovery of this waste should -be an easy and simple matter. It is only necessary to provide a few -sacks to receive it. Even at 12s. 6d.--$3.12--a hundredweight it would -prove a profitable by-product to the farmer, and enable him to recoup -a certain proportion of its outlay upon this item, while it would -tangibly assist another industry. The recovery of 75 per cent. of the -above-mentioned 20,000 tons, provided through the instrumentality of -the Food Production Department, would have represented approximately -£140,000--$700,000--and have contributed towards the production of -2,500 to 4,000 tons of paper. - -To indicate how organized collection influences the value of so-called -waste and its economical use, the experience of an importing house -in the City of London deserves narration. This firm accumulated an -appreciable quantity of the special packing paper with which the -wooden cases are lined. This paper is very tough and is strengthened -with thick cotton netting of open mesh, while it is also waterproofed. -The firm did not know what to do with the waste, but was reluctant to -turn it over to the paper-maker. Inquiries were conducted, to result -in the discovery that a similar paper was used for packing motor -tyres. Thereupon a motor tyre dispatch firm was approached with the -suggestion that it might find it profitable to acquire this residue. -The tyre-packers were buying the paper specially manufactured for -wrapping purposes, but test revealed that this packing case lining was -equally adapted to the duty. Thereupon it expressed its readiness to -take over all the residue from the importing house at 25s.--$6.25--a -hundredweight. Unfortunately, in this instance, the offer could only -be met immediately with some 56 lb., but if all the firms importing -from the United States and other countries were to conserve the paper -lining to the cases coming into their hands, and to dispose of it to -other trades for which its peculiar construction renders it specially -suitable, there would be a material reduction in the strain imposed -upon our domestic paper-mills, while a proportionate quantity of this -indispensable commodity would be released for other applications. - -We are all familiar with the little disc of metal having a bent-over -corrugated rim and a cork lining which has displaced the glass stopper -and driven-in cork for sealing bottles. It is commercially known as -the “Crown Cork.” A slight angular prise and the cap flies off. It -is one of those little inventions which have proved a great boon to -many trades, especially to those identified with the bottling of -beers, mineral and drinking waters. Incidentally it has proved a great -money-maker. - -An observant mind discovered that the tiny cap suffers little or no -damage from its summary removal. Why should it not be used again? So -he reasoned, and conducted experiments to establish the feasibility -of such a suggestion. He has succeeded completely in his task. By a -simple, inexpensive process, which he has devised, these crown corks -can again be rendered as serviceable for their designed purpose as new -corks. As a result of his brilliant ingenuity, and saving turn of mind, -this observant and practical waste exploiter is readily disposing of -the renovated article at eightpence per gross--16 cents--which is 300 -per cent. below the price of the new article. - -That inventiveness in its application to economy is fascinating -and profitable is demonstrated very convincingly by the array of -contribution of sound practicable ideas which are being contributed -towards the “save the waste” problem. The potato-peelings attracted -one economist, who with this apparently useless material and no other -contrived an attractive biscuit. Another experimentor, securing a -few ounces of fat from a whale, which had been cast upon the beach -to the peril of the residents in the vicinity, converted them into a -solid white block somewhat reminiscent of candied sugar, by submitting -the fat to the hardening process. Another effort represents a bold -attempt to turn the spent tea-leaves to economical account. In this -instance this waste was mixed with another residue--sawdust--and -some inexpensive, readily combustible agent, such as naphthalene, -also waste. The mass was then pressed, and offered a presentable and -effective cheap fire-lighter. - -Within the space of this volume it is impossible to exhaust the many -efforts which are being made to turn apparent waste into something -useful. Sufficient has been narrated to indicate that there is no limit -to such manifestations of ingenuity. Matter is indestructible. Properly -handled, it can be used over and over again. Now that the ball of -economy has been set rolling in grim earnest, strenuous endeavours are -being made by the thrifty and provident to redeem the English-speaking -race from the indictment of being woefully extravagant, with which it -has been freely assailed for so many years. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE LIFTING-MAGNET AS A WASTE DEVELOPING FORCE - - -Waste is precarious to handle. The very nature of the material demands -that it shall be worked up in the most economical manner. Under the -fickle influences normally prevailing upon the market, the margin -between profit and loss may suffer such attenuation from inefficient -exploitation as to submerge the factor of profit, thus endangering the -very practice of utilizing the residue. It is immaterial whether time -or labour be the adverse circumstance. The one influence can be quite -as ruinous as the other. Should the cumulative effect of the two forces -be experienced simultaneously, then the results are almost certain to -be devastating and prompt in their action. Consequently, to secure the -uttermost benefits attainable it is imperative that the most economical -and efficient methods should be employed. - -This is particularly the case in the iron and steel trades. The -competition between the various nations in this manufacturing field -is excitingly keen. It must not be forgotten that, in this industry, -waste plays a very prominent part as a raw material. It may be tins -rescued from the domestic dust-bin, turnings from the lathe, a worn-out -locomotive boiler, or the battered hulk of a steamship snatched from -the jaws of the hungry seas through the ingenuity of the salvage -engineer. - -In the handling of scrap and junk the designing engineer has been -strikingly ingenious, resourceful, and free with his expressions of -resource. The cranes and other mechanical handling devices, which -he has evolved, compel attention for the simple reason that they -have been introduced to secure a reduction in the cost of moving the -material. In this direction finality is impossible of attainment; -the necessity to reduce the cost factor is so urgent and continuous. -Creative effort, thus fostered, has achieved a distinct triumph during -the past few years. It has evolved a new system of dealing with iron -and steel, especially the waste, which is rapidly displacing all other -methods which hitherto have held undisputed sway. I refer to the -lifting-magnet. - -It was a British mind which first conceived the idea of harnessing the -magnet to the wheels of the iron industry. Sir William Sturgeon saw no -reason why the toy of our childhood days, the pin-attracting properties -of which extended us infinite delight and provoked indescribable -wonder, should not be devoted to the movement of ponderous masses of -steel. So he made the experiment. But his noteworthy effort proved -only partially successful. It did not fulfil expectations, not because -the designer was wrong in his deductions, but because he conducted the -evolution along fallacious lines. But his failure set men thinking. -They followed up his reasonings and discovered why he did not record -success. The British pioneer had been content to accept the magnet’s -familiar form and to reproduce it upon a larger scale to fulfil his -objective. This was why he failed. For such as application as he had in -his mind’s eye a modification in design was imperative. The German and -American experimentors, who followed in his footsteps, quickly realized -this circumstance and accordingly abandoned the traditional horse-shoe -form for a magnet of flat drum-like shape. - -In this modernized and materially changed form the lifting-magnet -met with instant success. The Germans were the first to recognize -its possibilities, and accordingly developed and popularized its -utilization in accordance with their characteristic organized methods, -with the result that it was not long before all the leading iron- and -steel-works of the country were equipped therewith to their distinct -commercial advantage. - -So far as America and Britain, the home of the lifting-magnet, have -been concerned, progress has been slow and uneventful. The Germans set -out to reap advantage from our manufacturing apathy, and to a certain -degree succeeded. It remained for the war, with its drain upon cheap -labour on the one hand and the necessity to speed up and to increase -output on the other, which compelled us to regard the lifting-magnet -with enhanced favour. This tendency was accentuated by the urgent -requests circulated far and wide to save all waste metal and to turn -it over to the country for the production of munitions. In this manner -vast quantities of waste metal of every conceivable description were -released, which, in turn, led to a demand for handling appliances. -Under the conditions which obtained it was imperative that this -potential raw material should be handled with the utmost economy, both -of time and labour, but native ingenuity had nothing at its command to -compare with the lifting-magnet in this connection. Those firms which -had been sufficiently enterprising to equip themselves with the German -appliance found themselves in an overwhelming superior position, while -their lifting-magnets paid for themselves over and over again in the -course of a single year. - -The national deficiency in supply and its far-reaching adverse effects -were remedied through the combined enterprise and initiative of a -young electrical engineer and a British manufacturer. The former had -followed the German developments very closely and had discovered that, -notwithstanding their extravagant claims, these appliances really -fell somewhat short of the mark in point of efficiency and economy in -operation. Fortified with this knowledge he had promptly designed an -appliance of this character, in which the obvious Teuton defects were -eliminated, thereby giving a lifting-magnet which represented a decided -advance upon the best which Germany could offer. - -The Pickett-West lifting-magnet, so named after its designer and -manufacturer respectively, is one fully complying with traditional -British standards of production, while it also possesses many novel -features which have already emphasized their value. It is built along -robust lines, so that it completely fulfils the conditions peculiar -to its field of application. Moreover, its design can be modified -within wide limits to meet the individual requirements of the service -for which it is intended, one distinctly ingenious feature being the -model fitted with moving fingers, each of which constitutes a magnet -in itself, and wherewith the magnet is able to exercise the maximum -magnetic gripping power upon the article for the movement of which it -is being used. - -Without entering into a technical description of this apparatus it -may be said to comprise, in its simplest form, an inverted dish -with a central pole-piece. Round this pole-piece is built a coil -composed of alternate layers of copper of substantial dimensions and -insulating material. The coil is enclosed within the inverted dish -and a face-plate is bolted in position. Thus the coil which occupies -the whole of the case, with a special insulating compound run in -under pressure to occupy all the vacant space such as corners and -interstices, is completely encased and safe from tampering. Suitable -terminals are fitted and are coupled up to a flexible electric cable -through which the current is led to energize the coil and to impart -the requisite magnetic energy to the lifting face-plate. When the -coil is active, naturally the magnet will readily attract any ferrous -metal which it may chance to approach, or with which it may come into -contact, and this will continue to cling to the face of the magnet -until the current is switched off. The magnet is slung upon the hook -of the crane either by chains, or bars forming a tripod terminating in -a link. It is applicable to any type of crane, whether it be of the -locomotive, jib or derrick type or overhead travelling system, and with -equal facility. - -The foregoing description is merely a bald description of the -lifting-magnet in its simplest form. To secure the highest efficiency -many perplexing technical issues had to be resolved. The magnet -is necessarily of impressive dimensions and weight, circular or -rectangular in regard to the form of the face-plate according to the -nature of the work to be fulfilled, and ranging from 24 to 62 inches -in diameter. The most popular size is that measuring 52 inches across -the face. Massive construction is inevitable to enable the appliance to -withstand the rough wear and tear, as well as unceremonious handling, -to which it is exposed in the average iron-works by indifferently -skilled labour, or to meet the conditions of piece-work when operations -are necessarily conducted at relatively high pressure by the men who -are bent upon the consummation of one end--the maximum return in the -form of wages for the work accomplished. - -Robust construction involves weight. Precisely what this means may be -gathered from the fact that the German 52-inch lifting-magnet weighed 3 -tons, whereas its British rival, to which I am referring, weighs only -2¹⁄₂ tons and has a 20 per cent. greater lifting capacity, despite the -reduction in weight of the magnet itself. The magnet in question will -lift from 900 to 33,600 pounds--even more--according to the character -of the material to be handled, the lower figure applying to sheet-iron, -scrap, and bolts, while the other extreme refers to heavy solid steel -ingots or armour-plate. - -Precisely why the lifting-magnet should have taken so long to establish -its virtues, both in this country and the United States of America, -is somewhat inscrutable, especially in the latter country which, as a -rule, is disposed to introduce time-and labour-saving appliances with -alacrity. No matter from what point of view it may be regarded, it -represents the biggest time-and labour-saver as well as money-maker yet -introduced into the steel industry. - -One reason advanced for its comparatively slow adoption is rather -interesting. It was averred that to the men, accustomed as they were -to seeing loads slung by chains, the sight of a mass of steel clinging -to the face of the magnet by a force which they could not understand -verged on the uncanny. They knew little or nothing about magnets except -in the form of a toy, and could not understand that sufficiently -attractive effort could be exerted to keep the mass adhering to the -flat face of metal. The fact that the moment the current was switched -off released the load was something equally beyond their comprehension. -Forthwith they arraigned the lifting-magnet as dangerous, and, while -not openly condemning its use, declined to work in its vicinity. -Whether this was so or not has never been fathomed, but it is generally -observable that men working with such an appliance observe a wise -discretion, and refrain from working or moving beneath it. This very -respect for the apparatus has achieved one distinctly valuable result: -accidents are few and far between, even in America, in which country -respect for human safety is declared to be at zero, where the handling -of huge masses of metal is conducted by the lifting-magnet. - -But, eliminating the psychological effect upon the workmen, it is -to be feared that employers were slow to visualize its advantages. -Certainly in Britain there are many employers, who, notwithstanding the -impressive array of figures advanced in its favour, and who have been -brought face to face with the economies it is able to effect, still -cling tenaciously to antiquated practices. - -So far back as 1911 Mr. H. F. Stratton, in drawing the attention of -the American Foundrymen’s Association to the possibilities of the -lifting-magnet, presented some illuminating figures. At that time the -American steel industry was handling 10,000,000 tons annually by this -system and thereby was saving over £200,000--$1,000,000--a year. So -far as scrap was concerned he emphasized the opportunity it presented -in this field, because, out of an annual melt of 6,000,000 tons of -pig-iron and scrap, from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 was represented by -scrap-iron and steel. - -The American railways were among the first to appreciate the -possibilities of the system. The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific -Railroad introduced the idea for handling scrap and iron in 1909. Up -to that time all scrap had been handled by hand, the cost in and out -ranging from 30 to 35 cents--15d. to 17¹⁄₂d. per ton--which, according -to the authority cited, could be accepted as applicable to all the -railways following such a practice, and to record which figure, be it -noted, demanded excellent arrangements and efficient organization. Upon -the introduction of the lifting-magnet these costs were immediately -cut down to 10 to 12 cents--5d. to 6d.--per ton, in and out, inclusive -of every expense, the figure for the actual sorting being only 4 to 7 -cents--2d. to 3¹⁄₂d.--per ton. The authorities of this railway stated -that unsorted scrap could be unloaded by means of the magnet for 2 to -5 cents--1d. to 2¹⁄₂d.--per ton, while, if the scrap were sorted, the -cost came out ¹⁄₂ to 1¹⁄₂ cents--¹⁄₄d. to ³⁄₄d.--per ton! Similar work -conducted by hand labour, according to the previous practice, cost -about three times as much. - -That the experience of this one railroad was not isolated was proved by -the experience of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad, which -supplied Mr. Stratton with the following comparative figures for other -operations incidental to the conduct of its work:-- - - Loading locomotive tyres by hand 17 cents (8¹⁄₂d.) - ” ” ” crane with chains 8 ” (4d.) - ” ” ” ” magnet 4 ” (2d.) - ” heavy casting by crane with chains 20 ” (10d.) - ” ” ” ” magnet 3 ” (1¹⁄₂d.) - ” ” ” hand almost impossible. - -It will be observed that the handling charges by the magnet were -one-half of those by the crane with chains in connection with the -locomotive tyres, and one-seventh in the case of the heavy castings, -while the advantage over manual effort in the case of the first-named -was no less than 32·5 per cent. Little wonder that, during the past -nine years, the utilization of the lifting-magnet in connection with -the handling of iron and steel in the United States has advanced by -huge strides. To-day it constitutes an integral part of the wrecking -equipment of every leading American railroad. After the large debris -has been cleared up, the lifting-magnet is swept over the ground to -pick up nuts, bolts, nails, screws, and any other odds and ends of a -ferrous nature which have escaped recovery by the conventional methods. - -So far as these islands are concerned, considerable progress has been -made during the past five years in regard to its adoption. Extended -use has not been confined to the handling of metal in our steel-works, -but for the reclamation of iron and steel cargoes which were lost as a -result of the German submarine activity. Its employment in the salvage -field was suggested as the result of the sinking of a barge carrying -ingots of very special steel sunk at the entrance to a port on the -East Coast. Although the wreck lay in relatively shallow water, it was -speedily discovered that salvage by the orthodox methods would prove -somewhat uncertain, owing to the awkward position of the sunken barge -and the difficult tidal and other conditions. - -The possibility of retrieving the valuable steel by magnet was broached -to Mr. F. N. Pickett, the inventor of the British lifting-magnet, -to which I have referred. A certain doubt upon the point existed in -official circles from the knowledge that the German appliance could -not be employed in such duty, owing to the coil not being impervious -to water, which of course nullifies the utilization of the electric -current. But the British magnet, being built upon different lines, is -watertight, and so the designer expressed complete confidence in his -apparatus being suited to the task. The magnet was secured, and divers -went down to blow open the side of the barge to permit the magnet to -reach the cargo. - -The magnet was lowered and was found to work with as much ease and -simplicity as under conventional conditions in the steel-works. It -was plunged into the hold of the invisible craft, and subsequently -the sea-bed on either side was swept therewith. So successfully -and completely did it fulfil its unusual task that every ingot was -retrieved, and that within a very short time. The sinking of the barge -occasioned little damage beyond a slight delay in the delivery of the -material, which was valued at £150--$750--per ton. True, the barge was -lost, but that was an insignificant disaster, and but poor recompense -for the expenditure by the enemy of a torpedo costing possibly -£1,000--$5,000. - -The success of the magnet in this instance has been responsible for its -utilization in other fields of submarine endeavour. A freighter was -sunk with a valuable steel cargo aboard. The vessel was examined and -found to have settled upon an even keel. Divers descended and opened -the hatchways, while sections of the decks were cut away to expose the -cargo. The magnet was then brought into action, and the cargo unloaded -as readily as if moored alongside the dock. This success in the open -sea has been responsible for the salvage of similar cargoes which have -been lost around our coasts. So far as the Pickett-West lifting-magnet -is concerned, there is no obstacle to its use in this field so long -as sufficient swing can be imparted to the suspended apparatus to -ensure sweeping of the wreck, and up to the depth corresponding -to the pressure of the insulation in the coil drum. Seeing that -this is introduced at a pressure of 120 pounds to the square inch, -the lifting-magnet can be safely used in water up to a depth of -approximately 250 feet without the insulation collapsing under the -imposed water-pressure, and this is a depth far beyond that at which a -diver can work. But, taking the wrecks lying within water accessible -to the diver, appreciable recovery should be possible. - -It is generally conceded, in view of the success which has already been -achieved, that there is a promising future for the apparatus in this -field so long as it is designed and constructed along correct lines. -The cost of operations will be reduced therewith very materially, -and the strain imposed upon human effort as represented by the diver -will be decreased very markedly. Instead of salvage operations being -confined to an hour or two daily, according to the velocity of the -tides and currents, it will be possible to continue work during the -round twenty-four hours so long as the weather is propitious. The -operator will be able to sweep the wreck from end to end, as well as to -scavenge the sea-bed by swinging his magnet, confident in the knowledge -that magnetic metal will be trapped in the process for haulage to the -surface. Even if ships should prove impossible of recovery intact there -is nothing to prevent their reclamation piecemeal. Dynamite will reduce -the wreck to scrap of weight and size within the lifting capacity of -the apparatus, and at the price obtaining for such junk the expedient -should prove profitable. So we should be able to retrieve a certain -and imposing proportion of the wanton waste incurred by the ruthless -attacks of the enemy upon our sea-going traffic. - -It has even been suggested that the magnets might be employed to -salvage many of the German submarines which we have sunk, more -particularly the coastal type of craft. These were relatively small, -and for the most part were sunk in comparatively shallow water. In the -water-logged condition the dead load to be handled is approximately 800 -tons. If desired these craft could be lifted to the surface intact, or, -if in pieces, retrieved in sections for sale as scrap. The inventor -has elaborated his plans, which involve the suitable disposition of a -certain number of magnets over the sunken submarines. He suggests that -eight magnets would be adequate for the task. Seeing that each magnet -has a pulling power of 250 pounds per square inch of its surface, -the aggregate haul which could be brought to bear upon the submerged -craft simultaneously by the eight magnets would be at least 1,920 -tons, or twice the total weight of the submarine. With such a lifting -effort available it should be possible to drag the wreck from even -the extremely tenacious North Sea mud. The question arises, although -recovery of such waste is admitted to offer every attraction, as to -whether the German submarines are worth the trouble, even if they -be sold as scrap. In view of the price which the surrendered boats -realized this is extremely doubtful, although experienced salvage -engineers admit that even if prevailing scrap prices were obtained the -venture would prove profitable, that is in the strict commercial sense. - -As a scavenger for magnetic metals the lifting-magnet cannot be -excelled. It is far more thorough than hand-labour, and will fulfil its -mission more completely than any other mechanically-operated device to -this end. Lowered to twenty-four inches of the ground it may be swept, -or swung, to and fro in the certain knowledge that any stray scraps of -iron and steel will readily jump the intervening space in response to -the strong magnetic influence exerted. In this manner a wide area can -be completely cleaned of all stray iron and steel fragments, much of -which would otherwise be lost within a few moments. - -The recognition of the peculiar qualities of magnetic attraction -has led to an interesting development which should prove capable of -extensive application and to distinct commercial advantage in our -steel-works. As is well known, the slag is run off separately to be -dumped. But this slag often carries an appreciable quantity of metal -in a divided state. Hitherto this has been wasted, but it has been -found that, if the slag be broken up, by the aid of a magnet and -“skull-cracker” ball, and the magnet be swept over the mass, that the -fugitive metal can be retrieved and in sufficient quantities as to -render the operation profitable. - -For the movement of iron and steel in factories it is difficult to -excel. A consignment of kegs of nails, bolts, nuts, screws, or some -other small articles requires removal to or from store, or to vehicle. -Under normal conditions the practice would be, either to stack them -on trolleys or to pack and sling them from cranes, the loading -constituting the adverse factor from the appreciable time it takes. -If the magnet be used no such preliminaries of any description are -necessary. The magnet is merely lowered, the current switched on, and -the next moment as many loaded kegs as can squeeze themselves upon the -face of the magnet may be lifted. The attractive effort is sufficient -to exert its influence through the covers of the kegs to act upon the -metal within. Moreover, if the kegs be small, more than one layer -will be found possible of removal at a time, inasmuch as the depth to -which the magnetic influence can be exerted--“digging” effort as it is -called--has been found to be equal to the diameter of the magnet face. - -For handling metal waste in the form of turnings or swarf it is far -cheaper and quicker than any other known process. When the magnet is -dropped upon a pile of such residue and is then raised, it will tear -away a huge chunk of the heap--a ton or more of tousled and ragged -ribands of steel jostling and clinging tightly to one another and -to the magnet-face like a swarm of bees to the branch of a tree. It -will successfully handle, and for no heavier cost, swarf which defies -handling by any other means, except at prohibitive expense. At a -certain steel-works in the North of England ten tons of matted steel -turnings were permitted to stand for several weeks in a railway truck -in an open siding. When it was decided to unload the vehicle the -turnings were found to have rusted and to have settled down into as -tightly packed a heap as could be imagined. The normal practice was -for men to shovel such material with their forks into the charging -boxes, but they found that they could not force their tools into this -formidable heap. The mass was surveyed and the hopelessness of coping -promptly therewith was admitted. Under manual labour the job would -occupy several days, even if it could be successfully handled at all, -upon which point considerable doubt prevailed. - -It was decided to try the magnet. It was brought along on its traveller -and lowered into the truck. The winding drum was set going, and there -was a fearful snapping and snarling. The magnet refused to release its -hold, while the metal, being tightly jammed and packed, offered a stiff -resistance to the irresistible attraction of the magnet. But, within -a few moments, the magnet tore itself free with some 3,360 lb. of the -tangled rusted steel clinging to its face. Within six minutes, and by -half-a-dozen lifts, the vehicle was cleared of its ten tons of scrap. - -While the circular form of magnet is that generally favoured, -variations are made to comply with different requirements. Some -articles, such as steel rails, pipes and iron rods, from their -distinctive shape, only present an extremely limited surface upon which -the magnetic pull can be exerted. As a rule, to enable such articles to -be handled with efficiency and speed, two magnets, rectangular in form, -and spaced a short distance apart, are used. The magnets are coupled -together, but maintained a specific distance apart by spacing bars, -while they work in unison. While the area available for contact upon -each magnet is somewhat reduced, as compared with the circular type, -this deficiency is counterbalanced by the ability to apply the magnetic -lifting effort at two points. - -It is doubtful whether the true money-saving possibilities of the -lifting-magnet are really appreciated. The initial outlay may appear -heavy--in the case of the British magnet to which I have referred it -ranges from £150 to £600--$750 to $3,000--according to dimensions, -face-form and lifting capacity--but this expense is readily recouped. -The lifting-magnet is not only a time-saver but it enables given -work to be accomplished with fewer men. In some instances this -displacement of labour has attained striking proportions. At one -steel-works a lifting-magnet of 52-in. diameter was installed at a -cost of £400--$2,000. It is employed for handling pig-iron, and in -this work has dispensed with fifty men. The saving in wages, which its -introduction has rendered possible, sufficed to defray the capital cost -of the apparatus during the first three months of its use. - -The results recorded at another establishment are equally impressive. -A 36-in. magnet was acquired, and for one specific duty--loading -trucks--was employed for a total of twenty hours during the month. -Previous to its acquisition this work was carried out by manual labour, -and it used to demand the combined efforts of ten men for ten hours to -load the vehicle, the cost being £4--$20. With the magnet the truck is -now loaded in two hours and at a cost of 8s.--$2--this figure being -inclusive of all charges--electric current, depreciation, interest, -labour, etc. In the course of the year the magnet puts in 240 hours -truck-loading, the number of trucks dealt with during this time being -120. The saving effected by the utilization of the magnet is thus -£3 12s.--$18--per truck or £437--$2,185--per year. Seeing that the -magnet at the time of its installation cost £150--$750--it will be seen -that it pays for itself approximately three times over in the course -of each twelve months, and that upon one single range of duty for an -insignificant period of time. - -Under manual conditions of handling scrap and at the current contract -trade union rate the cost is 1s. 4d.--33 cents--per ton. With the -lifting-magnet, including labour and depreciation, the cost is -only one penny--2 cents--per ton for this work--a reduction of 1s. -3d.--31 cents--per ton! At the works of the Stobie Steel Company, -Dunston-on-Tyne, the initial cost of the lifting-magnet was recovered -during the first four months it was used. This company declares that -the annual saving which its employment effects is £800--$4,000. - -But the applications of the magnet are not confined to lifting and -carrying operations. As an instrument for breaking up masses of steel -too large to be handled conveniently, or to be passed into the cupola -of the furnace, it cannot be excelled, either in point of efficiency, -safety, or economy. Breaking-up is carried out by what is known as the -“skull-cracker,” which comprises a roughly-cast ball of steel which -may weigh as much as 22,400, 27,000 or even 36,000 lb. This is picked -up by the magnet and lifted to the desired height. The current is then -switched off, releasing the ball to fall and to strike the scrap-boiler -or some other cumbrous piece of junk a terrific blow. - -While the “skull-cracker” has been in vogue for many years with -mechanically operated devices, and so is not peculiar to the magnet, -yet this latest development represents the highest achievement yet -attained in this particular direction. Under mechanical conditions from -four to six men are required to carry out the work successfully. With -the magnet and ball the task can be fulfilled by two men--if exigencies -so demand it can be completed single-handed by the crane-magnet -operator--while the time occupied in such essential destruction is -very much less, more efficiently accomplished and with complete -safety, because under mechanical conditions breaking-up is generally -regarded as highly dangerous work. A further advantage is offered by -this system. The “skull-cracker” can be lifted and dropped alternately -until the scrap has been reduced to suitably sized pieces, and then -the magnet, disdaining the ball, can pick up the pieces of junk to bear -them away to the furnaces without any delay. - -Despite the forward strides which have been made in regard to the -adoption of the magnet in the British iron and steel trades during -the past four years, this system of handling ferrous metals is still -in its infancy. It has been neglected far too long. Yet it is a force -which in the future must play an increasing important role, because it -is generally admitted that, to offset the higher wages incidental to -production, it is imperative for manufacturers to exploit fully every -possible time, labour, and money-saving device. The magnet is one of -the most attractive contributory factors to this end, especially in -connection with the handling of iron and steel waste, that has yet been -contrived. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -RECLAIMING 321,000,000 GALLONS OF LIQUID FUEL FROM COAL - - -It has been said, doubtless with a good deal of truth, that Britain -owes her manufacturing prosperity to her abundant domestic resources -of fuel. But, in the exploitation of our coal reserves, we emulate the -rat in the corn-bin. We waste quite as much, if not more, than we ever -use. The country around our collieries is disfigured with huge dumps, -among which are thousands of tons of what is really low-grade fuel. -Occasionally a tip-heap will catch fire, to burn sullenly for weeks and -months. One such large dump in the United States burned uninterruptedly -for years. This would not be possible if there were not present a large -volume of combustible matter--coal--associated with the so-called -useless material. - -The colliery tip-heaps, while formidable in the aggregate, and -representing a crushing indictment against our so-called advanced -scientific attainments, merely constitute one, and a minor, tangible -illustration of the great coal-waste issue. No matter in what -direction we may turn in this colossal industry, we find evidences of -improvidence and stupendous losses in varying degree. - -It is a matter for speculation whether any other raw material is so -prolific of residuals as coal. Oil is probably the solitary exception, -but then petroleum is closely allied to the solid fuel. But refuse -in regard to coal is equally ambiguous. The wastes vary so widely -in nature, while each grade of residue possesses its individual -possibilities. We are disposed to pride ourselves upon the big strides -we have made in our exploitation of these residues but, as a matter of -fact, we have barely touched the Aladdin’s lamp which it represents. - -To render full justice to the coal-waste issue in all its kaleidoscopic -forms would absorb many volumes. The subject is so vast and complex. It -is my intention, within the scope of this chapter, to confine myself -to one specific substance derived from coal, one which we persistently -declined to consider in its real aspect until the fight for national -existence applied the sledge-hammer blows to drive into our heads that -we were guilty of criminal neglect. Why we should have required this -drastic force to compel us to admit our indifference towards a great -national asset it is difficult to explain. Our most formidable rival in -trade had been sparing no effort for years to achieve an overwhelming -industrial triumph therewith and to our discomfiture. - -As I have previously remarked, Germany revelled in our junk piles and -rubbish-heaps. The French _chiffonnier_ never raked over the contents -of a Parisian dust-bin more assiduously than did the German rummage -among our waste dumps. He was not too proud to bear away what we -disdained and rejected. It served as food to maintain the colossal -plants, equipped with elaborate and costly machinery, which he laid -down. We, on our part, were not backward in paying him, directly and -indirectly, to work up our wastes, especially those from coal, and were -ever ready to acquire the articles manufactured therefrom and at any -price he felt disposed to quote. - -While, to a certain degree, we have become wiser in our generation, -and are handling our coal resources and the residuals resulting -therefrom with less prodigality, we are still woefully improvident in -this field. The degree of waste, despite the reforms introduced, has -become accentuated essentially because of the increased magnitude of -this industry. The blind adherence to typically British methods and -ideas has led to some striking anomalies which to other nations must -appear almost incredible. For instance, the coming of the high-speed, -internal combustion motor emphasized the need for a volatile liquid -fuel. Experience proved the hydro-carbon, petrol, to be most eminently -adapted to the purpose. But Britain, as every one knows, has so far -proved to be as barren of paying petroleum deposits as is the Sahara -of cornfields. So, as we could not produce petrol, we decided to buy it -from abroad, and continue to do so to this day. - -Yet we need never have bought a single gallon from a foreign country, -to keep our huge fleets of motor-omnibuses, taxi-cabs, touring cars, -lorries, vans, agricultural tractors, and motor-boats moving. If we -were as wideawake as we ought to be we should cease to buy a further -pennyworth from beyond the confines of the Empire forthwith, turning -the millions sterling we spent annually in this connection into the -pockets of our own workers and industries. It would not involve the -withdrawal of a single vehicle, and we should have the satisfaction -of knowing that we were absolutely independent of the foreigner in a -matter of most vital concern to the community--transport. - -The domestic analogue to imported petrol is benzol, the volatile -hydrocarbon coaxed from our old friend, King Coal. From the motoring -point of view this derivative from the mineral fuel is capable of -fulfilling every purpose in regard to transport which petrol can or -ever will do. Why we still refrain from setting out to recover this -spirit to the uttermost ounce, notwithstanding the lessons taught by -the war, is beyond comprehension. There are some kinks in British -mentality which defy all unravelling. The exploitation of liquid fuel -from coal is one of them. - -If we turn to the trading figures for the fiscal year 1913 we find -that we imported petrol to the extent of 100,588,017 gallons for -which we paid £3,803,397--$19,016,985. This money was sent out of -the country. Even our Dominions did not reap much benefit from our -liberality. Turning to the other side of the account we find that -during the self-same period we sold to foreign purchasers 30,415 -gallons of motor spirit _made in the United Kingdom_, and valued at -£1,420--$7,100! Our delightfully unbusinesslike way of doing things -left us £3,801,977--$19,009,885--on the wrong side, when really we -ought to have shown a substantial balance in our favour. - -Benzol is not only essential to the motor industry, but it is -absolutely indispensable to numerous other trades. Without it the -vast range of synthetic colours, marketed by the German firms, could -never have been attained. Had Germany embarked upon an economic -instead of a military war she could have forced the whole world into -abject surrender within a few months by withholding supplies of these -dye-stuffs, medicinal preparations, synthetic drugs, disinfectants, -and chemicals. This is borne out by the abnormal prices realized from -the sale of the small quantity of dyes which were smuggled across the -Atlantic to the United States of America by the commercial submarine -_Deutschland_. One small box containing 100 lb. of sky-blue colouring -realized £190 or 38s.--$950 or $9.50--a pound! Before the war the -self-same dye-stuff could be purchased readily for 2s.--50 cents--a -pound. - -By making the plunge along industrial lines Germany could have brought -our cotton, woollen, silk and other textiles, paper, paint--in short, -every trade into which colourings enter--to a dead standstill within a -very short time. The United States of America, France, Italy, and other -countries would have been forced into a similar condition of stagnation -and disaster. Germany, by virtue of her unlimited supplies of these -essentials to contemporary industry, would have been in the position to -have supplied the whole world--upon her own terms. Fortunately for us, -a bloodless victory to secure world-wide domination did not appeal to -the Teuton temperament. - -The official attitude, so far as this country is concerned, towards the -reclamation of the volatile liquid constituent, or waste, from coal has -always been one of negation. Contrast this tendency with that obtaining -in Germany, which set out to support private enterprise by installing a -comprehensive plant upon Government property to win 6,000,000 gallons -of benzol a year from state-owned and state-mined coal. The British -official attitude is additionally remarkable when it is borne in mind -that adequate supplies of this material are absolutely imperative to -the maintenance of our national security, because benzol constitutes -the backbone of modern high explosives. - -The recovery of benzol is every whit as essential to the community of -these islands as is the provision of drinking water. It may appear to -be Draconic to compel the delivery of the last ounce of benzol from the -coal or gas we burn, but there are many other enactments in force of -a more exasperating character, and which are productive of extremely -little benefit either to the individual or the community. In this -particular instance no one would suffer in any way, because, while the -whole trend of scientific thought is towards the thorough recovery of -this valuable liquid fuel and industrial weapon, it does not hesitate -to demonstrate how the desired end can be obtained without inflicting -the slightest hardship upon the citizen. - -The steel trade demands huge quantities of coke to conduct its -operations. The carbon residue from coal is preferable to the raw -mineral fuel. To meet this technical requirement special ovens have had -to be evolved to turn the coal into coke. Yet for years we carried out -this conversion and allowed the substance thrown off in the process to -run to waste. We even continue to do this to-day. It was found that the -coke could be obtained more readily and easily, as well as cheaply, -by means of what is known as the bee-hive oven. This coke-producer -attracted the attention of the interests concerned because it was -not only cheap to install but inexpensive to maintain and renew, -while it facilitated compliance with the fluctuating demands for the -coke which naturally is due to the alternating periods of depression -and prosperity in the steel trade. But we have no monument to waste -comparable with the bee-hive oven. However, it became so firmly -entrenched as to prove wellnigh resistant to progress when science -came along with an improved system yielding a coke of equal quality, -but which had the additional recommendation of enabling all the other -products arising from distillation and which formerly were permitted to -escape, to be recovered. - -The virtues of the new method were conceded, but the heavier initial -expenditure which it entailed was regarded as an insurmountable adverse -feature, especially as the Britisher gave expression to another -peculiar trait in his character--would the revenue derived from the -by-products more than offset the increased costs, capital charges and -maintenance expenses? One disturbing factor demanded particularly -careful study. When the call for coke declines, and a certain number -of the ovens have to be closed down, they cannot be brought into -re-activity upon the revival in the steel trade without an overhaul. - -In restoring the ovens heavy expense is incurred. The antiquated and -wasteful bee-hive oven can be renovated at a trifling price, but the -modern by-products recovery oven entails far heavier expense before -the resumption of operations. The charge varies according to the care -which has been bestowed upon its maintenance, but, if this has not -been conducted along careful lines it may easily incur an expenditure -ranging up to 15 per cent. of the original cost of the plant. This -charge, unless defrayed out of the renewals account, must be carried to -capital. In view of this circumstance the general practice has been to -install the by-product system to take care of the constant load--the -output of coke to the degree below which it cannot fall even in periods -of extreme depression--and to utilize the obsolete bee-hive oven to -take care of the fluctuations from the irreducible minimum to the -maximum. This margin being extremely wide naturally, the bee-hive still -holds sway, and so continues its wasteful reign unchecked. - -To extend their field of activity and to provide an outlet for the -products of their brains the Germans made an astute commercial move. -They expressed their readiness to equip the British coking plants with -their modern by-product recovery system on condition that they were to -be at liberty to acquire the liquid residual--benzol. The suggestion -found certain favour in British eyes. The benzol was a drug on the -home market, so its shipment to Germany was regarded as the solution -of a perplexing problem. In this manner Germany secured the necessary -raw materials from the British scrap-heap to feed her dye industry and -to pile up her reserves of high explosives against the day when the -gauntlet should be thrown down. There is a tendency in certain quarters -to assail the cunning competitor, but are we rather not to blame for -our own extreme shortsightedness, lack of initiative, and indolence? - -The coking-ovens, however, only absorb a portion of our total output -of coal, the annual average of which may be set down at approximately -260,000,000 tons. Subtracting 60,000,000 tons as the export figure, we -are left with a round 200,000,000 tons consumed at home. Of this figure -a round 100,000,000 tons is consumed during the year in the domestic -fire-grate. - -We all revel in the blazing fire in our rooms during the winter, but do -we reckon on the cost? The volume of heat thrown into the room is but -a trifling proportion of that emitted by the glowing coal. The greater -part flies up the chimney, together with all the benzol, ammonia, and -other valuable constituents of the fuel. Immense volumes of soot pour -forth from the chimneys to pollute the atmosphere, disfigure buildings -and monuments, while the damage wrought within the rooms to fabrics, -curtains and other embellishments runs into millions sterling during -the year. - -Could this waste be avoided? Certainly. The domestic fire-grate does -not possess a single virtue. It should be scrapped forthwith. Coal, -as a household fuel, should be prohibited. It should be carbonized. -Coke, when burned under the most advantageous conditions, throws off -as much, if not more heat, and can be induced to shed practically the -whole thereof into the apartment. As the alternative to coke we might -rely exclusively on gas, releasing the whole of the carbon residue, -approximately 70 per cent. of which results from the distillation of -every ton of coal for industry. If we presume an average of 10,000 -cubic feet derivable from every ton of coal, then we find that the -100,000,000 tons burned annually in the household grates would give -us 1,000,000,000,000--one billion--cubic feet of gas, the whole of -which is at present being lost up the chimney. From this enormous -volume of gas, each 10,000 cubic feet of which contains on the average -two gallons of benzol capable of reclamation, we could, if we were -sufficiently energetic and enterprising, obtain 200,000,000 gallons of -benzol--twice the petrol imports for the year 1913. In comparison with -what liquid fuel we could derive from our coal the actual 41,000,000 -gallons secured to-day certainly appears to be trifling. - -Our methods of burning coal in the home, which is appallingly wasteful, -is equalled by the general folly investing our system of gas supply, -which is equally improvident, simply because we prefer to cling to the -obsolete order of things rather than to march with progress. Years ago, -to protect gas-consumers, a standard of value was established. The gas -had to comply with a certain candle-power standard. The unit thus was -one of luminosity. Such a system was satisfactory in days gone by, when -the practice was to use a burner and open flame of the fish-tail or -bat’s-wing shape. Then some method of standardizing gas according to -its luminous intensity undoubtedly was imperative. - -But judgment of gas by its luminosity with an open burner is effete. -It became relegated to the limbo of things that were by the discovery -of Welsbach, which effected a complete and wonderful revolution in gas -illumination. His invention supplied the means of securing brilliant -illumination with heat. This may sound paradoxical, but is readily -explained. The particles of the nitrates of the rare earths, thoria -and ceria, which enter into the composition of the incandescent gas -mantle, will not emit light until they have been raised to a high -degree of incandescence. This can only be achieved by using the mantle -in conjunction with an atmospheric, or Bunsen, burner. - -This invention rendered it no longer necessary for the gas to carry the -constituents which contributed to luminosity, among which was benzol. -With the mantle they are superfluous: in fact are deleterious. What -is required is a gas rich in the constituents contributing to heat. -Coal-gas, or as it is more familiarly called, town-gas, is rich in -these two essentials. They are hydrogen and methane or marsh-gas. When -burned under suitable conditions they are capable of giving off intense -heat, and the higher the degree of incandescence to which the rare -earths entering into the composition of the mantle can be raised, the -more brilliant the illumination. - -Consequently the time has arrived when the standardization of gas -according to luminous power should be thrown overboard in favour of one -based upon calorific value. This was introduced to a certain degree -as a temporary expedient during the war, but it should now be made -rigid. Signs of awakening to the true state of affairs are apparent. -The research committee appointed to investigate this question has -recommended that gas should be sold according to its calorific value, -and that all gas-consuming appliances should be adapted to the new -order of things. - -Should legislation be passed endorsing these recommendations it will -be possible for further huge quantities of benzol to be recovered from -our coal, or rather the gas derived from the volume of coal annually -absorbed for gas production. It is the benzol and toluene which impart -the luminous intensity to the gas, but which are unnecessary for the -production of heat. At the present moment the quantity of benzol -reclaimed from the coal absorbed by the gas-works is approximately -21,000,000 gallons a year--a fraction of what it might be. - -We may safely assume that of the 270,000,000 tons of coal we draw -from our collieries every year, at least 160,000,000 tons are capable -of such treatment as will enable the volatile liquid fuel to be -recovered. Upon the basis of two gallons per ton of coal this would -represent 320,000,000 gallons of benzol, of which huge quantity all but -41,000,000 gallons are being lost under contemporary conditions. The -value of this spirit at the moment may be set down at approximately -2s.--50 cents--per gallon. Thus we are deliberately throwing away -£27,900,000--$139,500,000--a year. It is being permitted to vanish into -thin air. This figure serves to bring home what the losses arising -from the neglect of waste really represent, and also reveals our -extraordinary lack of imagination and enterprise. - -Were we to recover the whole of the benzol content of coal we should -not only be able to satisfy the whole of the needs, aggregating about -150,000,000 gallons a year, of the domestic motor industry, but we -should be able to meet the requirements of the other industries -to which benzol is indispensable. There would be no need to grow -apprehensive concerning our coal-tar dye industry and the manufacture -of other products dependent upon materials derived from coal. The -British dye industry is in its infancy. At the moment its benzol -requirements are modest, being approximately 4,000,000 gallons a year. -But it is an industry which, given full opportunity, promises to thrive -and to expand amazingly, and so one may safely anticipate that its -benzol needs will advance by leaps and bounds. - -Moreover, one must not forget that, as yet, benzol itself is but little -understood, because it has not received the attention it deserves from -the chemist. If we decide to exploit our coal to the extent which -prudence dictates, the wizards of the laboratory will be encouraged -to embark upon further original research, and it is quite possible -that they will reveal other and equally promising applications for the -spirit of coal. - -While domestic users have not been fully alive to the possibilities of -British benzol other countries, notably France, were eager buyers of -what we ourselves failed to appreciate. We need not sacrifice this -export trade: rather we should be able to cultivate and to expand it to -a very pronounced degree. - -In view of the part which benzol played in the war one hopes that -the Government will consider the situation in a more enlightened -spirit. The circumstance that we might be able to retrieve a round -£28,000,000--$140,000,000--a year should offer every inducement towards -compulsory modernization of methods in this particular province. -Benzol should be made a national issue. To compel the use of coke, -instead of coal, in the household, would go a long way to relieve the -coking-ovens and other distillation plants of all apprehensions of glut -accumulations of coke, and would tend to steady the output of this -fuel, as well as to bring about the abolition of the wickedly wasteful -bee-hive oven. Our gas standardization system should be overhauled to -ensure the sale of gas by its calorific rather than its luminous value. -The country might even do worse than to nationalize benzol, taking over -the whole of the output as a corollary to the compulsory distillation -of all bituminous coal. As the alternative it might undertake to -purchase what the trade could not sell, for naval purposes, inasmuch as -in the Senior Service the consumption of petroleum oils has reached an -impressive figure from the increasing use of oil fuel, practically the -whole of which at present has to be imported. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -FERTILIZERS FROM WASTES - - -Nourishment is as essential to the land as it is to the animal kingdom. -This is particularly so in countries, such as the British Isles, -where the land has been worked assiduously, year after year, for -centuries. The co-relation between fertilizers and crop yields is too -obvious to demand other than mere mention. The main problem, in such -circumstances, is to secure sufficient quantities of the nutritive -constituents necessary, and at a price which shall render their -utilization profitable to the farmer, and enable the resultant food -products to be brought within the reach of the public at an attractive -figure. - -The worship of hygiene and the introduction of practices conducing -to the enhanced health and welfare of the community have served to -deprive the land of a heavy proportion of that food which, under -primitive conditions, it freely receives. Furthermore, the contemporary -agriculturist is not content with receiving from the land just what -Nature, if left to herself, is disposed to contribute. He practises -forced or intensive measures, and in so doing naturally accelerates and -accentuates the exhaustion of the soil. - -In so far as these islands are concerned--it was equally applicable to -other countries similarly affected--the stringency in natural manures -was aggravated by the acquisition of all available horse-power for -the battle-fronts as well as the need to husband straw for military -foraging purposes. So, to ensure the safety and yield of his crops, the -farmer has been compelled to fall back upon divers substances, natural -as well as chemical, or as they are more popularly termed, artificial -manures, although the word “artificial” in this interpretation is -somewhat ambiguous, seeing that the materials employed, for the most -part, enter into the scheme of Nature. - -Under normal conditions British soil was liberally fed with these -chemical fertilizers, especially of superphosphate, nitrate of soda, -and potash. And for all of these three indispensable soil-foods -we were dependent upon foreign sources of supply, which naturally -suffered interruption more or less as a result of the outbreak of -hostilities. During 1913 we imported 970,185 tons of these manuring -agents, for which we paid £3,333,612--$16,668,060. These figures do -not include potash, appreciable quantities of which, drawn from the -German mines, were used. But, taking the other two materials, phosphate -occupied first place in point of quantity with 539,016 tons valued -at £874,166--$4,370,830--while the Chilian nitrate claimed premier -position in value at £1,490,669--$7,453,345--for which we received -140,926 tons. - -Owing to the availability of the foreign manures there was a tendency -to turn a blind eye to our own producing capacity in regard to -plant-foods of the chemical order. But such an attitude was quite in -keeping with the British character; we preferred to pay compliments, in -the form of money, to other countries at the expense of our own. With -war we learned the folly of our ways and received an awakening, rude -but fruitful. - -Of the artificial fertilizers essential to plant life we can supply all -with the possible exception of the superphosphate, although in this -instance we are striving to develop our home resources. Chilian nitrate -may be superseded by the atmospheric nitrates: we can derive all the -potash we desire by the observance of the necessary care and the -lessons which science in its various phases is able to extend. Possibly -the results may not be so prolific as when the imported articles are -utilized, but this is merely a matter of opinion, and one upon which -even experts agree to differ. - -Of the domestic contributions to the artificial fertilizer issue, those -which have attracted the greatest measure of attention are sulphate of -ammonia and basic slag. So far as the first named, of the nitrogenous -group, is concerned, a remarkable reversion of opinion is to be -recorded. Prior to the war the British farmer, despite the fact that -sulphate of ammonia was obtainable in relatively large quantities from -home sources, was not deeply impressed with its plant-feeding value. -At all events the domestic consumption was relatively low, 60,000 tons -being the maximum amount used in any pre-war year. But what the British -yeoman disdained, his foreign contemporary seized with avidity. During -1913 our exports of this waste, or by-product from our gas-works and -coking-ovens, totalled 323,054 tons worth £4,390,547--$21,952,735--out -of a total export of 704,071 tons of fertilizers valued at -£5,745,484--$28,727,420. France and Spain, as well as our sugar-growing -Dominions, were our largest customers, the farmers of which were -prepared to pay more for this soil stimulator than were their -contemporaries at home. But, as a result of experience gained under the -stress imposed by war, sulphate of ammonia found greater favour in the -eyes of our husbandmen. During 1916 the home consumption increased by -15,000 tons, a further 15,000 tons’ improvement was recorded during the -first three months of 1917, while for the 1917 season the figure rose -to 150,000 tons. - -Under normal conditions, in accordance with the law of supply -and demand, prices tend to rise coincidentally with the enhanced -manifestation of request, but the country took steps to protect the -consumer, and at the same time to remunerate the producers adequately. -Whereas the pre-war price for this fertilizing agent ranged from £12 -10s. to £14--$62.50 to $70--per ton, the war price was officially fixed -at £16--$80--per ton. Inasmuch, however, as the controlled quotation -included transport and delivery charges, the actual increase in the -cost was not appreciable. - -But it was the 1917-18 season which revealed the circumstance that -the virtues of sulphate of ammonia at last had really gripped the -British farmer. From the estimates which were carefully prepared the -requirements were set down at 220,000 tons. As a matter of fact they -notched 230,000 tons. Thus, in two short years, the consumption of -sulphate of ammonia by the hungry soil of Britain was quadrupled, a -really startling achievement. The total output of this commodity, -both in the solid and liquid forms, reached a round 400,000 tons, -and to-day stands at about 460,000 tons. Approximately, one-half of -this aggregate is forthcoming from our gas-works and the other half -from our coking-ovens and blast-furnaces. During the war the balance -remaining after the needs of agriculture had been met, namely 170,000 -tons, was absorbed in the manufacture of munitions. But under restored -peace conditions this latter volume will be rendered available for home -consumption or export. - -Seeing that our pre-war export figure was 323,054 tons a year, it would -seem as if we are destined to lose some of our revenue from this trade. -Obviously only about 170,000, or at the utmost, 230,000 tons will be -available for our foreign customers. It would seem as if we are certain -to fall a round 100,000 tons short of their actual needs, which will -certainly be equal to the ante-bellum figure. As a matter of fact -the demand will probably be much heavier, considering that the land -of these customers has been denied this food for nearly five years; -at least supplies have only been forthcoming in small and totally -inadequate quantities. Moreover, the home demand is rising still, which -must tend to attenuate the quantities available for export. - -But there is no need for us to grow apprehensive. In another chapter -I deal with the benzol question, and illustrate how we might increase -our supplies of a home-produced fuel to displace imported petrol. In -meeting our domestic benzol requirements we can increase our output -of sulphate of ammonia at the same time. The ammonia is the substance -which so worried gas engineers during the early days of gas-lighting. -Then it was an unmitigated curse: to-day it is a blessing. The actual -yield of sulphate of ammonia from a ton of first-class gas-distilling -coal may be set down at 18 lb. However, seeing that this varies -according to the quality of the coal, I will set this figure at 15 lb., -which is distinctly conservative. On this basis, if the whole of the -coal burned to sheer waste in the private grates of the country, and -which may be set down at 100,000,000 tons under normal conditions, were -first carbonized, it would be possible to add at least 700,000 tons to -our present output of sulphate of ammonia, which would thus be brought -up to approximately 1,160,000 tons a year. This would be quite enough -to satisfy the needs of all our customers. But, at the present moment, -owing to our supineness, the ammonia and the benzol are being allowed -to fly up the chimney. Consequently every person who adheres to the -consumption of coal instead of coke, in the open grate, just because -a blaze is appreciated, is doing his or her bit towards the loss, -assuming the value of the fertilizing agent at the modest figure of £10 -per ton, of £7,000,000--$35,000,000--per annum. Truly we are paying -dearly for the gratification of a whim. - -Second in popularity among the artificial fertilizers comes basic slag. -This is another waste product, being the refuse from our steel-works. -It has been allowed to pile up in the vicinity of our blast-furnaces to -the detriment and disfigurement of our countryside. But an observant -and persevering individual probed these unsightly heaps to discover -that they contained a valuable food for plants, and in sufficient -quantity to render it remunerative to pulverize the rock-like mass into -a fine powder. Forthwith, where phosphatic content was sufficiently -favourable, the dumps were taken in hand to be ground up into a flour -to be distributed over the soil. - -But the story related of sulphate of ammonia was destined to be -repeated in connection with basic slag. It found greater favour in -the eyes of the foreign farmer than it did with the native yeoman, -although in this instance the circumstance that a mistake was being -committed was discovered possibly more promptly. In 1913 our exports of -phosphatic refuse from our blast-furnaces were 165,100 tons, for which -we received £633,034--$3,165,170. The consumption upon our home lands -was about the same, so that the total output was a round 330,000 tons a -year. Here again, once the possibilities of the fertilizer were driven -home, an increased demand set in. From an attitude of indifference -British farmers turned to one of clamour. Fortunately, the first rush -was met by placing an embargo upon the export of this article, and, in -this way, double the quantity was at once secured for native needs. - -The demand soon absorbed this extra quantity, and then it became -necessary to increase the output of the article. But in this instance -the problem was not so readily solved. In the first place the farmer -was not disposed to accept this fertilizer when its phosphatic content -fell below 25 per cent. But the proportion of phosphate varies widely -according to the district whence the ore is forthcoming, as well as the -actual smelting process followed. It may range up to as high as 44 per -cent. or more; on the other hand it may fall to as low as 12 per cent. -or less. - -Owing to the comparatively limited demand which prevailed for this -article before the war, only comparatively few firms essayed the -necessary grinding of the rock-like waste from the blast-furnaces. -Again it was by no means an easy matter to maintain the slag to the -desired phosphate quality. Another disturbing factor was that the -smelting of steel, in common with other industrial process, is in a -constant state of transition and improvement. This evolution was found -to be affecting the slag very adversely, because the tendency was -towards lowering of the phosphoric acid content. - -However, it was discovered that, while the available dumps showing a -phosphatic content of 25 per cent. or more were severely limited, there -were an appreciable number of slag heaps carrying a lower percentage, -ranging down to 17 per cent. of the necessary constituent. These were -taken in hand to be passed through the grinding mills. Even this -contribution proved insufficient. The demand was met only by working -heaps of inferior phosphate quality and adjusting the price according -to the percentage of the phosphoric acid present, the figure naturally -rising as the proportion improved. - -The increase in the consumption of basic slag was remarkable. The -1916 figure was double that of 1913, the whole of the 165,000 tons -formerly exported being absorbed. Increased producing facilities and -the exploitation of a lower grade waste, as already mentioned, served -to increase the consumption for 1917 a further 150,000 tons to 500,000 -tons, which represented the maximum capacity of the works specializing -in this product. But although the latter could not be extended to -meet the still rising demand, owing to the difficulties encountered -in connection with the provision of machinery, every effort was made -to keep supply astride of demand. Many cement works throughout the -country had been compelled to cease operations owing to the stoppage -of constructional activity and were lying dormant. As these possessed -machinery excellently adapted to the preparation and grinding of the -slag they were pressed into service, especially for dealing with the -lower-grade waste from the blast-furnaces. In this way provision was -made for lifting the output to 600,000 tons or more a year. - -So far as the superphosphates are concerned the deficiency experienced -in this connection has not been so easy of solution. Our resources in -the essential material, so far as is known, are somewhat sparse, while -a further problem arose in connection with the sulphuric acid, which -was in keen request for other purposes. The issue was met by continuing -the importation of the crude rock from the northern coast of Africa, -and in this manner we contrived to satisfy our needs. But, during this -period, the opportunity was taken to ascertain whether or no there did -happen to be any suitable rock or other waste which we were neglecting, -inasmuch as the moment war ceased immense quantities of sulphuric acid, -then being absorbed for the production of munitions and other military -requirements, would be released. Investigation was directed once again -to the coprolite beds in the Eastern Counties which were formerly -worked to yield artificial manures of this character, but which had -been abandoned. They were again taken up, and a domestic superphosphate -production industry resuscitated upon a limited scale. But whether -under normal trading conditions it will prove remunerative to continue -this phase of native activity time alone can prove. - -The only remaining fertilizer which was a source of perturbation to -the British agricultural industry was potash, which is absolutely -essential to certain lands and specific crops. Germany was in the -position to dominate this industry throughout the world, and she did -not hesitate to wield the power she possessed to her own advantage. In -pre-war days we imported about 240,000 tons of this chemical, but the -greater part was absorbed by other industries, such as glass-making, to -which it is vital. Only about 22,000 tons found their way to the land. -Nevertheless, the demand in this, as in other directions, was upwards -and prices rose by leaps and bounds, even touching about £60--$300--per -ton at one time. - -Yet we have virtually solved our potash difficulty, and certainly will -be able to meet all farming requirements in connection therewith if we -only sustain our initiative. We have an abundance of waste materials -whence we might obtain all that we need, but for the most part we -have spurned them with disdain. It has been so much easier to procure -our requirements from the country across the North Sea, although, -in expending money in this direction, we materially contributed -towards the construction of the much-vaunted High Seas Fleet. But when -necessity compelled us to cast around to work out our own salvation we -encountered many surprises. Germany will doubtless be equally surprised -in future when she discovers how little dependence we need place upon -her vast resources. During the war potash was in urgent request for -munitions, but the demand in this connection will no longer prevail, -or, at least, only to a limited extent, thereby allowing commercial and -industrial fields to acquire what they need, and at a fair price. We -shall be foolish if we allow ourselves to abandon the exploitation of -our potash-yielding wastes merely by slavishly clinging to the pre-war -price for this commodity, which was about £10--$50--per ton. To do so -will be to sacrifice our national security and wealth upon the altar of -cheapness. - -The wastes capable of being persuaded to yield potash are far more -numerous than may possibly be conceived. And this chemical is derivable -from some of the least-expected founts. A Yorkshire gentleman, Mr. E. -E. Lawson, threw a bundle of banana stalks upon his polished office -chair and allowed them to remain there for some time. When he removed -the stalks he noticed that the juice exuding from the stalks had played -sad havoc with the finish to the furniture. This action pointed to the -presence of potash in the juice, and apparently in material quantity to -remove the polish so effectively. So he suggested to a chemical friend, -Mr. R. H. Ellis, that it might be profitable to analyse the contents -of the stalk to ascertain just how much potash it carried. This was -done, and the result was somewhat startling, indicating 45·9 per cent. -of potash and practically no soda. The subject was then investigated -by Dr. A. J. Hanley, of the Agricultural Department of the Leeds -University, and his analysis confirmed the former finding. The dried -matter of the original banana stalk was found to be as rich in potash -as kainit, the popular fertilizer of this class. These investigations -sufficed to establish the possibility of extracting 188 lb. of dried -matter from a ton of banana stalk containing 13·7 per cent. of potash, -or 54 lb. of ash containing 47·5 per cent., or 25 lb. of pure potash. - -The yield from the individual ton may seem to be too small to be worth -considering. But reflect upon the normal consumption of bananas in -this country! The annual importation ranges from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 -bunches, which represents an equal number of stalks--mere refuse. -According to Mr. Ellis, under normal conditions the stalks average a -round 4,000 in number weekly in Leeds alone. When stripped, the average -weight of the stalk is 4 lb., so that there are 16,000 lb. of stalk -wasted every week in the Yorkshire city. Properly treated, about 1,340 -lb. of dried matter, rich in potash, could be secured therefrom to feed -the land. - -Applying the reclamation process to the whole of the country, it -should be possible to secure from 28,000,000 to 32,000,000 lb. of -banana stalk, giving from 2,350,000 to 2,700,000 lb. of dried matter -containing 13·7 per cent. of potash--from 321,000 to 370,000 lb. of -potash--during the year. If the stalks were carbonized they would -yield from 675,000 to 771,428 lb. of ash containing from 320,000 to -366,000 lb. of pure potash. This may represent but a small fraction of -the total agricultural consumption of 22,000 tons per annum, but it -would be a contribution from a waste product which now has to suffer -destruction with the total loss of all beneficial values. The primary -difficulty, of course, would be in connection with the recovery of -the stalks, but a reorganization of our selling methods, such as the -compulsory return of the denuded stalks to the fruit markets for -ultimate bulk collection, would go a long way towards the solution of -this problem. The question arises as to whether we should not find it -advisable to dispose of all vegetable and fruit waste along individual -lines, inasmuch as other refuse of this character contains potash in -varying proportions. By the establishment of a small, inexpensive and -suitable furnace in the markets for the treatment of all waste it -would be possible to recover valuable fertilizing ash in sufficient -quantities to allow bagging and sale upon the spot. Such treatment -would be no more expensive than that in operation to-day, involving -transport to, and combustion in, the destructor. - -Tobacco is another product rich in potash, particularly the ash. Here -recovery would prove an exceptionally difficult task, but it has been -suggested that the conservation of ash and the discarded ends of -cigars and cigarettes from clubs, hotels, and other centres possessing -smoking-room amenities might be encouraged. The total during the year -would be impressive. Certainly collection from such quarters would not -be attended with difficulty, while the price payable for the residue -might be made sufficiently attractive as to induce the attendants to -garner this residue. - -So far as the exploitation of waste for potash content in this country -is concerned only one established practice, which is extremely -precarious, has ever met with recognition upon a limited scale. This -is the extraction of the precious substance from kelp, or _vraic_, to -mention two of the names under which the familiar seaweed is known. -The treatment of this waste is conducted along crude lines, but it is -doubtful whether our available knowledge could suggest a more skilled -method. British seaweed does not resemble that recovered off the -coasts of Japan and the Pacific seaboard of the United States, where -the recovery of potash from this residue from the sea has become an -established industry. - -Yet Britain need not pay a further penny tribute to Germany. We -are able to free ourselves entirely from the German yoke, and can -confidently look forward to such a happy state of affairs so long as -the steel age reigns. The raw material dumped into the blast-furnaces -carries a certain proportion of potash. But it has always been -permitted to escape. Being associated with the fine dust it was borne -through the flues, a certain proportion being deposited therein, but at -least 90 per cent. was irretrievably lost. Threatened famine compelled -us to devote attention to the possibility of arresting this fugitive -potash, and our efforts have met with success. The furnace flue dust -is trapped to be passed through a special plant for further treatment. -Previous to the war the economical and fiscal conditions would not -have permitted such a practice with profit. The requisite plant is -necessarily somewhat costly to install and to operate. Had we decided -upon such a course of action the Germans would promptly have forced the -process into bankruptcy by resort to price-cutting tactics. The Potash -Syndicate was exceedingly powerful, and it never hesitated to wield its -power, as the United States of America have every occasion to remember -when, a few years ago, it came into conflict with the German Government -in regard to inter-trading, and was brought full tilt against the -potash ace of trumps. Had we ventured to dispute the German monopoly -by any attempt to exploit our flue-dust we should have upset a pretty -kettle of fish and should have been bludgeoned into surrender. It is -to be hoped that the authorities will hesitate to play so completely -into the enemy’s hands again, although this is fortunately very -unlikely because the Teuton monopoly has been broken effectively by the -restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France which carries, among other -numerous advantages in raw materials, the immense potash deposits -which the Germans worked so profitably to their own ends. Still, even -this achievement should not dissuade us from continuing to exploit the -waste dust recovered from our blast-furnaces. Immense quantities of -the essential material are forthcoming, the potash content of which -varies from 3 to 13 per cent. As output increases it should be capable -of recovery at a decreasing figure and at one which should enable the -indispensable product to be placed upon the market at a competitive -figure. - -The foregoing does not exhaust the list of potash-yielding wastes -possible of exploitation. It is recoverable from wool in the washing -process; feldspar also contains potash; farmyard manure will yield -it in attractive proportions--from 9 to 15 lb. per ton; while liquid -manure also carries it to the extent of 40 to 45 lb. per 1,000 gallons. -Thus it will be seen that we need never suffer from an actual famine in -potash if we but resolve to exploit our wastes to the utmost. - -I have referred in a previous chapter to the value of leather waste -as a fertilizer. Five years ago we did not pursue this problem -along determined lines, mainly because we did not really understand -its preparation, while our farmers did not regard the product then -marketed with favour. But to-day there is a welcome change both in -productive methods and the agricultural attitude. Some large plants -for the treatment of the leather waste have been laid down and are -being brought into operation. Two distinctive treatments are being -followed. In the one instance the curried leather--sheer residue from -the boot factories possessing no other possible use--is being submitted -to treatment for the extraction of the greases and fats used in the -dressing processes. In the second system these fats, owing to their low -grade and as yet absence of possible industrial use, are being ignored, -although they disappear for the most part from the product in the -course of treatment. Otherwise the two methods are broadly identical. -The leather is carbonized and then reduced to a dark greyish powder. In -this form it meets with the full approval of the farmer, and, as its -nitrogen content is said to range up to 9 per cent., it is meeting with -ready disposal, the demand at the present moment being far in excess -of supply. At one works an output of 60 tons a week is being recorded, -which incidentally indicates the quantity of leather waste incurred in -our boot-producing factories. - -I have also drawn attention to the extent to which fish scrap is now -being treated, and here again highly satisfactory developments are -to be narrated, the trade, especially in regard to the production -of fertilizer, being in a flourishing condition. Fish guano appeals -to the farmer, owing to its high content of ammonia and phosphate -which aggregate approximately 20 per cent. At one fish waste reducing -factory the output is 20 tons every 24 hours, the plant being run on -continuous lines, but arrangements are being completed to double the -capacity to secure an output of 40 tons during the 24 hours. Hitherto -the farmer has not been completely enamoured of fish manure because -in certain instances, notably in the treatment of the oily fish, such -as the herring, the grease content, which was as anathema to him, -was somewhat heavy. But the perfection of the solvent extraction -process which I have described, and whereby the oil contained in the -finished fertilizing meal can be reduced to as low as 1 per cent., has -completely removed this disability. - -As is well known, bone-meal is a popular fertilizer. In this -instance, although the fatty content of the crude bones may be high, -the processes of degreasing have been advanced to such a stage of -perfection as to bring about virtually the total elimination of this -objectionable constituent. The fertilizer, if properly prepared, -will not carry more than 1 per cent. of grease. The bones undergo a -very thorough treatment, because this waste is able to feed several -industries. - -Sewage is also coming more widely into favour as a fertilizer, as -I explain in another chapter, while residues incurred in other -ramifications of industry are now being carefully collected instead -of being permitted to dissipate into the air or to pass to the -furnaces for combustion. The dust arising from the reduction of -woollen rags into shoddy forms an excellent hop manure. Dried blood -is another first-class fertilizer--in fact it would be difficult to -enumerate all the wastes which can now be profitably exploited for -their soil-nourishing values. Speaking broadly, it may be stated that -any refuse which, upon investigation, is able to yield 3 or more per -cent. of nitrogen demands further examination for the discovery of -the cheapest ways and means to reduce it to a fertilizer for sale -at an attractive figure. If price be right no apprehensions need be -entertained concerning disposal; the farmer will absorb the plant food, -to nourish his crops, with eagerness. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -SAVING THE SEWAGE SLUDGE - - -In matters pertaining to sanitation and the movement of sewage Great -Britain undoubtedly leads the world. There our conquest ends. From -that point onwards we can only point to lamentable inefficiency. -For instance, the lay-out of the main drainage system of London, -undoubtedly the finest illustration of such engineering in the world, -has involved a capital expenditure of £12,514,606--$62,573,030. By the -provision of enormous conduits and feeders the excrementitious matter -from residences, offices, workshops, and factories of the metropolis -is borne for miles to central stations. In this manner those natural -and trade wastes, construed as being inimical to health, are removed -swiftly and hygienically, and we compliment ourselves upon our prowess, -which certainly is justifiable so far as it goes. - -But when we come to the treatment of this material we fail miserably. -At the central station the solid matter, in reality a mud or sludge, -is separated from the free liquid. The disposal of the latter offers -little or no difficulty. It can be rendered innocuous, and is therefore -permitted to resume its part in the scheme of Nature. But the sludge: -that is a different proposition. A few figures concerning the situation -in regard to London may prove illuminating. Certainly they will serve -to demonstrate the magnitude of the volume of this waste. During the -year over 100,000,000,000 million gallons of sewage are received -from approximately 5,350,000 people occupying 95,000 acres. Each -million gallons of sewage yields about 25 tons of sludge. The total -quantity of solid matter is approximately 200,000 tons. It costs about -30s.--$7.50--to treat and dispose of each million gallons of raw -sewage. - -The total yield of sludge exceeds 2,600,000 tons a year. It is an -incubus having no ostensible commercial value, so is transferred -to vessels to be carried out to sea where it is thrown overboard. -Seeing that it costs about £17 13s.--$88--to run each vessel out -and back again, and that some 111,000 journeys are made during the -year, dumping the sludge costs the ratepayers of London nearly -£2,000,000--$10,000,000--a year. The crime incidental to London is -repeated throughout the country, and in this way, as Sir William -Crookes pointed out, the nation is deliberately discarding 16,000,000 -tons of valuable nitrogenous material which, were it subject to proper -treatment, might be reclaimed to participate in the nourishment of our -broad acres. Estimating the value of this potential fertilizing agent -at the modest figure of one ¹⁄₂d.--1 cent--per pound we are, of malice -aforethought, throwing away a round £35,000,000--$175,000,000--per -annum. But this is not the most disturbing feature. For the most part -the sludge, and in the case of seaside towns the crude sewage, is -discharged upon potential valuable fishing grounds, to the destruction -or infection of the fish, especially shell-fish. Furthermore, one must -not imagine because the objectionable and dangerous refuse is abandoned -well out to sea its serious dangers are removed. Tides and currents -play strange tricks, the result being that much of this filth is thrown -back upon the coasts, perhaps at a distant point, to wreak possible -havoc. - -Civilization breeds a strange fastidiousness. The idea of reclaiming -sewage for exploitation is repulsive to the average individual, -although he does not turn a hair at the use of the comparative material -derived from the animal kingdom for the nourishment of the soil, and -the feeding of produce cultivated essentially for the table. The -argument often raised against any exploitation of excrement is that it -has become associated with many other deleterious substances, which -have been thrown or allowed to run down the drain, as the readiest -avenue for their disposal. But the very circumstance that such waste -has become compounded with other residues, many of which are worth -reclamation, should be sufficient to induce us to regard sewage not -as an incubus or danger, but as a mine worthy of development to its -fullest extent. - -Fortunately, the objection to the exploitation of sewage for its -commercial contents is in process of being over-ruled by the growth of -a more enlightened attitude towards the whole issue, although it is -to be feared, in accordance with the precept that what the eye does -not see the heart does not grieve, the more progressive policy is -being sanctioned unconsciously. It is safe to assert that, but for the -war, which retarded the hands of progress very pronouncedly, the new -movement in regard to the handling of this material would have made a -material advance. Even to-day the outlook is not hopeless, inasmuch as -the accentuated need to make every use possible of waste products may -result in the sewage exploitation problem being attacked with enhanced -energy. - -What can be done with sewage is revealed by the action of one or two -towns which have taken their courage into their own hands, notably -Bradford and Oldham. In these two instances the modern handling of -sewage was assumed before the war, so that the experience gathered -during the past six years may prove sufficiently convincing to permit -the whole subject to be attacked more in consonance with contemporary -thought, which views all wastes in one light--potential raw materials -for other industries. - -Changing conditions and the need to cope with this residue along more -comprehensive lines, in accordance with the growth of the population -and the quantity of material to be handled, were responsible for the -change from the old method to the new in both instances. In the case -of Bradford the Corporation found it necessary to establish new works -about six miles distant from the centre of the city, and was faced with -the necessity to expend £1,250,000--$6,250,000--in connection with the -undertaking. In view of such a heavy capital committal perhaps it was -only logical to consider the possibility of rendering the sewage more -remunerative in the future than it had been in the past. Any revenue -to be derived from exploitation in such a field must react to the -advantage of the community affected, more especially when such action -does not jeopardize the health of the citizens to the slightest degree. - -Of course, the situation in so far as it concerns Bradford was somewhat -unusual. The city is the hub of the wool-scouring trade of the country, -and in treating the sewage much of the wealth allowed to slip down the -drains from cleaning the wool is open to reclamation. The one great -mistake, if such it may be called, of which Bradford has been guilty, -in view of the volume of grease contained in the effluents, is ever to -have permitted these wastes to pass into the drains and sewers. They -should have been collected and treated as a separate entity. But, as -this would have entailed combination of the interests concerned, an -admittedly difficult undertaking under voluntary conditions, the city -authorities decided to repair the sins of omission upon the part of -its industrial citizens and to assume the recovery of the valuable -materials which were being allowed to escape. - -This manifestation of commendable enterprise and initiative owes its -origin mainly to the activity of Mr. Joseph Garfield, A.M.I.C.E., the -sewage engineer. Many years ago the idea of turning the sewage of the -city to industrial account occurred to him, and he embarked upon a -prolonged series of exhaustive experiments. These were sufficiently -conclusive and sufficiently promising of profit as to persuade the -adoption of the methods he advocated at the critical moment, which -arrived when the provision of a new sewage station became imperative. - -The plant for dealing with the sludge was moved from the old situation -to new buildings specially erected for the purpose at Esholt, and the -raw material is fed to the latter station through a special main. The -sludge contains only 80 per cent. of water, the free water having been -previously removed by settling. It is fed into the main by compressed -air. Upon its arrival at the station the sludge is lifted, also by -compressed air, into large vats, where it is heated by the waste -steam from the engines of the power plant. In this heated condition -the sludge passes into close-sealed vessels from which, still at a -temperature approaching boiling point, it is forced by compressed air -through the filter presses. Each of these presses, of which there are -about 100 disposed in rows, contains 47 chambers, each 3 feet square. - -As already stated, the sewage of Bradford is heavily charged with -grease resulting from wool-washing and other industries, and it is this -heavy proportion of grease which renders the process so attractive. -Moreover, by keeping the sludge in a heated condition during the -pressing process the expression of the fatty content is more readily -effected. From 40 to 48 hours are required to fill a press with -residuum, that is to say this period of time must elapse before the -whole of the available space within the press is occupied by the dry -cake from which the grease has been expressed, by which time from -four to five tons of sludge have been passed through. Each cake is 3 -feet square by 1¹⁄₂ inches thick and weighs about 30 cwt. The grease -and water which is driven out of the sludge is carried away from the -presses into tanks. Here the water and grease are separated, the water -to be re-discharged into the sewage, while the grease is led to the -purification tanks. Subsequently the fat is either drawn off into -barrels or is pumped into tank wagons for dispatch to the works where -it is worked up into articles of commerce, including soap. The oil is -found to yield three valuable products--olein, stearine, and pitch. The -two last named enter extensively into the dressing of leather, as well -as the manufacture of candles and as an insulator for electric cables, -respectively. - -The installation yields from 12 to 15 tons of grease throughout the -twenty-four hours, working, of course, being continuous. This product -in the days before the war commanded from £8 to £10--$40 to $50--per -ton, but the price is now higher. The sludge-cakes find favour as a -fertilizer, mainly from the fact that they are free from lime and -carry only from 28 per cent. to 30 per cent. of moisture. This residue -fetched from 3s.--75 cents--upwards per ton at the works in pre-war -days, when a healthy export was recorded, the product being shipped -in appreciable quantities to France and even to the Southern States -of America. The output of cake averages from 50 to 60 tons per day. -In addition to proving useful as a fertilizer it has been found to -furnish, when blended with coal-dust, a serviceable fuel. - -The revenue derived from this example of sewage industry is certainly -such as to attract widespread attention. In the early days of the -process, when only two presses were maintained to establish its -possibilities, the grease sales reached £222 10s. 6d.--$1,112.62--per -annum. In 1911 the annual revenue had risen to a figure ranging between -£20,000 and £30,000--$100,000 and $150,000--from the enlarged battery -of presses. When the new works were opened it was anticipated that the -Corporation would be deriving £50,000--$250,000--a year from the sale -of the products derived from its sewage upon the attainment of the -designed maximum output. Up to the year 1911 the total sales amounted -to no less than £100,000--$500,000. From the recital of these figures -it must be conceded that Bradford has a very profitable commercial -enterprise in its sewage works. - -Yet even the foregoing figures are undoubtedly capable of improvement -owing to the advances made in the whole issue of the recovery of fats -from wastes. The pressing system, even when conducted along the most -modern lines with up-to-date plant, leaves much to be desired in point -of yield. Under the most favourable pressing conditions at least 10 -per cent. of the original volume of grease is left in the residue. The -presence of this grease reacts against the value of the residue as a -fertilizer, grease being the bugbear of the farmer. With the latest -process for grease extraction this content can be reduced down to 1 per -cent. Not only does this represent an increased yield of 9 per cent. -of fat with its attendant enhanced financial return, but it gives a -fertilizer which, being exceedingly low in fat, appeals more strongly -to the farmer, and accordingly is able to command a higher price. This -fact appears to have become appreciated by the Bradford authorities -according to recent developments. - -Because such a striking success has been recorded at Bradford, it is -not to say that the self-same method would be equally profitable at -other places, especially those handling what might be termed purely -domestic sewage. The conditions existing at the Yorkshire city are -peculiar, owing to the wool-washing trade. The process which is more -likely to make the widest appeal, being the one adapted to meet the -average conditions, is that which has been installed in the borough -of Oldham. This is the invention of Mr. J. Grossmann, M.A., Ph.D., -F.I.C., the well-known chemical engineer, who has made the exploitation -of sewage his life-long study. The plant in question was laid down -in 1912, being set in operation in October of that year, since which -date it has been working without a break, giving the most satisfactory -results. At the time the installation was carried out the population of -the borough was 148,840, and both the water-carriage and sanitary-pan -system were in vogue, although the latter was giving way to the former -method at the rate of about one thousand per year. As the conversion -system was carried into effect the quantity of sludge which the sewage -works were called upon to handle increased, the quantity pressed in -1911 being nearly 8,000 tons a year as compared with 4,000 tons in -1899. This did not include the several hundred tons which were dealt -with in lagoons without pressing. As the quantities of pressed sludge -increased so did the difficulty of disposing thereof. - -The outlook was somewhat disconcerting. The agricultural land in the -vicinity could only absorb a portion of the available volume. The -necessity to incur the expense of carrying the residue a considerable -distance to dispose of it, which solution would have proved somewhat -costly, appeared to be inevitable. Experiments innumerable were carried -out, but to no purpose. Agriculture, which is regarded as the obvious -outlet for such material, was adverse to the proposal to absorb the -accumulation for the land, because it carried approximately 15 per -cent. of grease. The only escape from the dilemma appeared to be -the installation of further presses with the attendant expense for -auxiliaries to yield a dry material, and then to pay for the cartage -of this residue to some convenient tipping ground or carriage of the -settled sludge to sea to be dumped. As a round 30,000 tons of sludge -would have been involved, the sea-dumping expedient would have been -extremely costly. Further consideration of the question established the -possibility of converting the material into a marketable manure, but -this would have required the utilization of a trade process and also -would have incurred expense. - -At this juncture the attention of the Corporation was attracted to Dr. -Grossmann’s process. It was investigated and submitted to searching -experiments spread over a period of three years at the sewage works. -From the results obtained and the experience gathered, it gave promise -of being completely successful when conducted upon a large scale. So it -was adopted. - -The Grossmann process may be said to represent the most logical -exploitation of sewage yet attempted in accordance with the severe -hygienic conditions imposed to-day. Curiously enough, when the disposal -of sewage by water-carriage was first introduced, the critics of the -principle did not hesitate to point out that it represented the most -wasteful solution of the problem which had ever been accepted for -practice. But against these contentions the advocates of the idea urged -that the hygienic advantages to be gained were so overwhelming that the -question should not be considered from the commercial view-point at all. - -Other days, other manners. In this instance, however, not many years -passed before the issue attracted such widespread attention as to -demand searching investigation, the difficulty and cost attending -the disposal of the sludge being responsible for a pronounced outcry -against the method. The sludge problem was thoroughly probed by a Royal -Commission, by which the opinion was expressed that the value of this -waste, calculated upon the volume of dry substance contained therein, -was no more than 10s.--$2.50--per ton at the very outside. But as the -sludge is produced in a form showing a high percentage of water it -was hopeless to expect farmers to absorb it, owing to the transport -charges involved for such a comparatively low manurial return, unless -their land happened to be situate close to the centres of production. -To overcome the water difficulty attempts were made to dry the sludge, -in the effort to reduce its bulk, but it was discovered that drying did -not constitute a complete sterilization process, with the result that -the material was liable to carry infection. But the greatest objection -to drying is that this very process, while it achieves one end--the -transport difficulty--provokes another disability. The sewage is worth -less after drying than in the saturated form. - -The presence of fat in material quantities has always been responsible -for agricultural hostility towards this waste as a fertilizer. The fat -is due to soap used in the household, and which is thrown down the -drains, as well as the grease resulting from other domestic operations. -The great objection to grease is that it has the tendency to clog the -soil. - -In turn efforts were made to dispose of the nuisance as a fuel, the -heavy proportion of oil present in the dried cake being the attractive -feature prompting this application. This recommendation found scanty -favour. Another brilliant mind conceived the idea of consuming the -refuse in gas-producers, thus obtaining a low-grade gas for power -purposes. This attempt failed to meet approbation. A third expedient -was its conversion into an illuminating gas, but this likewise failed -to overcome the obstacle. In so far as lighting is concerned, in many -places the practice is followed of allowing the gas thrown off by -the decomposing fæcal matter during its passage through the sewers, -to be led to the burners of adjacent street lamps to mix with the -ordinary town gas and thus be consumed. But this is merely a safety -precaution; it is not followed from economical motives. Now that -electricity is widely displacing gas for street illumination, even this -quasi-utilitarian system is meeting with defeat. - -Under the Grossmann system, as practised at Oldham, the sludge is -subjected to a complete scientific treatment. The process is continuous -and automatic throughout. Moreover, the plant is designed and built -upon the unit principle, which allows the standardization of parts and -ability to meet any desired demand by merely acquiring a sufficient -number of units to comply with the sewage resulting from a given -population. Each unit is capable of dealing with sludge arising from -the purely domestic sewage of 20,000 inhabitants. Thus a town of -100,000 inhabitants would require 5 units, a city of one million souls -50 units, and so on in arithmetical progression. Furthermore, any -number of units can be worked together, so that in those centres where -the population fluctuates according to season or other conditions, a -certain number of units can be shut down during the off period. - -The sludge passes to a special tank and is permitted to settle down -to approximately 20 per cent. solid matter. It is then scooped up by -bucket elevators to be lifted and discharged into another tank at the -top of the building. This acts as the storage tank or hopper, whence -it is moved automatically by means of screw conveyors and distributed -among six hoppers. Each of these hoppers feeds a drying machine. The -driers, set out in pairs with their brickwork casings and flues, occupy -the upper room. The machines themselves comprise iron cylinders set in -the brickwork and coal-fired furnaces. They are fitted with a specially -designed gearing and pulley mechanism which gradually moves the crude -wet sludge from the inlet towards the opposite end or outlet. Being -exposed to heat during this passage the sludge is naturally deprived of -the water it contains, this being evaporated to be led to the furnace -where any offensive gases and other matter associated therewith in -suspension are consumed before passing to the chimney to escape into -the outer air. By the time the sludge reaches the outlet it has been -completely dried. - -The arrangement of the feed from the hopper to the drier is such that -only a measured quantity of sludge can be passed through in a given -time, which ensures the condition of the sludge at the outlet being -uniform. The provision of a similar measuring system at the outlet of -the drier ensures only a measured quantity of sludge being discharged -at that point. It will be observed that these protective devices guard -against forcing the apparatus to the detriment of the delivered sludge -which emerges from the drier in the form of a dry powder. - -If desired this residue may be burned. Mixed with coke it forms an -excellent fuel, and can be employed towards raising the requisite steam -to conduct the treatment of further sewage. But, in view of the fact -that this powder contains about 15 per cent. of fat, its disposal as a -fuel would constitute about the most wasteful conceivable. Accordingly, -the next stage is the extraction of the fatty content. As it comes -from the drying apparatus the sludge is passed automatically into a -distilling retort which is bricked-in and heated. Above this retort -is a tank containing acid, a certain quantity of which is passed -into the retort to be automatically mixed with the powdered sludge. -Simultaneously superheated steam is driven through the mass in such a -manner as to permeate the whole. The interior of the retort is fitted -with gearing and pulleys similar to those provided to the drier and -for a similar purpose--the steady gradual movement of the sludge from -one end to the other. By the time it has reached the outlet from the -machine the sludge, completely deprived of fat, is automatically -discharged as a valuable manure and is ready for distribution upon the -land. - -The superheated steam charged with the grease is passed into a -condenser, where water from a feed tank condenses the water and throws -down the grease. The mixture of condensed steam and grease is passed -into a recovery tank. The grease settling out on the top is removed -for boiling up in a separate vessel, upon the completion of which -treatment it is ready for packing and sale. The fatty matter consists -largely of stearine and palmitine, which to-day meet with a prompt sale -at lucrative prices. - -But it is the solid residue in the dry powdered form which attracts the -greatest measure of attention. Disposal of the grease from sewage has -never occasioned so much difficulty as the utilization of the ultimate -residue from reasons already explained. In this particular instance -the great problem has been solved. The manure is in the form of a fine -powder, containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, as well as -about 40 per cent. of organic material. It is very fine, brownish in -colour, odourless, and what is more to the point, absolutely innocuous, -having been completely sterilized. Consequently there is no risk of -infection being disseminated by its use. - -The circumstance that the process is absolutely automatic from the -time the sludge is charged into the hopper to the finished article -issuing from the distilling retort, is a distinct recommendation. Not -only does it conduce to extremely economical operation, but it reduces -the necessity to bring human labour into one of the most offensive of -industries, inasmuch as the atmosphere of such an establishment is -scarcely fragrant, as may well be imagined, although familiarity breeds -strange contempts. The only labour essential is that required for -heating up the drying machines and retorts. - -There is one overwhelming advantage incidental to this process which -cannot fail to arouse attention. Pressing in any form is eliminated. -This not only signifies a very pronounced saving in capital expenditure -in the first instance, but contributes to lower working charges, while -there is an enhanced recovery of grease and an absolutely grease-free -residue. - -Before the Corporation of Oldham decided to install this system upon a -practical scale searching experiments were conducted with the resultant -manure, to determine its plant-feeding value. It was the promise of -being able to find such a ready market for the ultimate residue which -constituted one of the attractions of the process. Experiments were -conducted at several farms with various produce, and these proved that -the manure gives remarkably good results and is more effective than any -other plant-feeder containing the same proportion of nitrogen, potash, -and phosphates. Finally it contains an ingredient which is absolutely -missing from every chemical fertilizer. The latter is certainly a -plant food, but it is imperative that the ground should be treated -with a certain quantity of organic matter to assure the physical and -mechanical working of the soil. Decaying organic matter fulfils this -end admirably, as one would suppose, being a natural process, but -during the past five years the bestowal of sufficient quantities of -necessary humus has been impossible, owing to the shortage in supplies -of farmyard manure. - -For this reason every farmer regards a grease-free manure carrying -substance of a humus-like nature for the improvement of his soil with -a particularly friendly eye, and he is prepared to pay a good price -for such an article. The sewage sludge fertilizer prepared under the -Grossmann process offers the agriculturist just what he desires in this -connection, inasmuch as it carries about 30 per cent. of the humus-like -substance. Then, again, the active manurial ingredients are distributed -over the mass in such a fine state of division as cannot possibly be -attained by resort to mechanical grinding. Finally, it is excellently -balanced, and the farmer keenly appreciates a well-balanced fertilizer. -Here he gets it because the essential operation has been conducted -by Nature, whose process cannot be rivalled. Applied to gardens this -manure is found to prevent the growth of yellow leaves, while the green -of the foliage is particularly rich and dark. In some quarters there -has been a certain degree of hesitation to utilize the fertilizer -merely because it is derived from sewage, owing to the prevalence of -many fallacious notions. Its origin is regarded with revulsion, and -its utilization with a certain degree of dread, but there need be no -apprehensions whatever concerning its use. The fact that in the course -of the treatment the material is raised to a temperature approaching -600 degrees Fahrenheit--where the superheated steam comes into contact -with the waste to expel the fat--effectively disposes of all germ life -inimical to the health of both animals and human beings, while it is -also clean to handle and odourless, it being impossible, from mere -cursory examination of the fertilizer, for the lay mind to determine -its origin. Finally, it may be stored for any length of time without -creating a nuisance, or deteriorating. - -The whole of the output from the Oldham sewage works, which, owing -to the process of concentration, is really limited, notwithstanding -the volume of crude sewage handled, is readily absorbed by farmers. -Disposal was entrusted to a firm to act as the selling agents for the -Corporation. Owing to the number of repeat orders received, year after -year, this house declares that it could easily place 20,000 tons of the -fertilizer, were it forthcoming, without increasing its present staff -of travellers. - -While the outbreak of hostilities militated against the expansion of -the process, although many other Corporations have expressed their -readiness to introduce the process into their respective sewage works, -the past five years have not been allowed to represent dead time. -Improvement upon improvement has been incorporated with the object -of securing still higher efficiency. In this direction the inventor -has made many distinct progressive strides. The one objection levied -against the process was the heavy expense incurred in regard to fuel -charges for drying the sludge, and these costs naturally have become -accentuated by the 200 to 300 per cent. rise in the price of coal. But -in this direction it is now possible to record noticeable reductions. - -As a result of experiment the inventor has evolved a new method for -settling the sludge. He found that, by adding a very slight amount of -sulphuric acid--about 1 part to 1,000--to the sludge coming from the -settling tanks, the usual settling process is completely reversed. -Instead of the sludge settling to the bottom, the addition of the acid -causes it to rise to the surface, and in a much more concentrated form. -The water settles to the bottom in a clearer condition and can be drawn -off. By further settling and draining this top layer--virtually a -thick scum--a sludge can be obtained carrying about 30 per cent. solid -matter, and therefore as a less volume of water needs to be evaporated -a considerable saving in the consumption of fuel and cost of drying is -achieved. - -Moreover, it is suggested that in laying down new installations, it -will be possible and profitable to install a destructor upon the sewage -works. In such cases it would be feasible to draw upon the waste -heat from the destructor to conduct the drying and other operations -demanding the application of heat. In combining the destructor -with the sewage plant the question of transport of the refuse from -the collecting ground to the destructor would demand very careful -consideration when horse haulage is employed, but with mechanical -traction the question of an extra mile or two in distance hauled is -not of such moment, especially as it would be off-set by the saving -of fuel which would attend the diversion of the waste heat to this -useful application. In fact, in cases where new lay-outs are being -contemplated it is a matter for serious reflection as to whether it -would not be found profitable to centralize destructor, electric -generating station and Grossmann sewage treatment plant in one -centralized spot, interlocking them together, and taking full advantage -of such inter-connection. The destructor would furnish the necessary -steam from the combustion of cinders and other refuse which it does not -pay at present to exploit, or preferably other low-grade fuel to drive -the electric plant, the waste steam being carried to the sewage works -for the drying and other machines together with the desired proportion -of live steam, while the electric station would furnish the requisite -power for operating the automatic mechanical appliances. - -The grease recovered from the sewage, which is of a domestic character, -is essentially that from soap, cooking and washing operations. It -is totally free from all objectionable smell. It can be purified -very easily and is of distinct value. In its crude condition the fat -contains about 70 per cent. of stearic acid. - -During the past few years the dry powdered residue has not only -been utilized in a direct form, but has also been exploited in the -production of compounded fertilizers. Mixed with phosphates, sulphate -of ammonia, and other nitrogenous products it has yielded a manure -which has given most excellent results in farming. Considerable -improvements with regard to greater efficiency and cheaper production -have been made in the manufacture of compounded fertilizers from this -residue, and there is every indication that still greater developments -are possible in this direction. - -Were all the sewage of this country treated along these lines British -agriculture would derive distinct benefit, while industry would -also be presented with a new source of supply of essential raw -material. It would go a long way to enable us to use our greases over -and over again, because the drain is the most popular avenue for -the escape of this material. Sewage represents the greatest waste -incidental to this country. Dr. Grossmann estimates its value at -approximately £22,000,000--$110,000,000--per annum, of which but only -an infinitesimal fraction is at present recovered. The value of the -fat alone thrown down our drains, and reclaimed in a marketable form -would realize from £500,000 to £1,000,000--$2,500,000 to $5,000,000--a -year. The value of the manurial product, of which at least 1,000,000 -tons are recoverable during the twelve months, may be set down at least -at £2,000,000--$10,000,000--the contents thereof being equivalent to -50,000 tons of phosphates, 50,000 tons of potash salts, with nitrogen -equal to that forthcoming from 100,000 tons of sulphate of ammonia. -This manure would suffice for the fertilization of at least 3,000,000 -acres of land from which we might safely anticipate gathering, at a -modest estimate, additional crops worth £5,000,000--$25,000,000. - -There is one other fact which deserves mention. Sewage is eminently -adapted to the feeding of sandy soils and other land which, at the -moment, is considered too poor for agricultural purposes. If this -manure were reserved for such land many thousand additional acres -might be brought under cultivation in these islands. At the present -moment these acres are being allowed to run to seed, constituting what -we erroneously term waste land, but only waste because we are not -sufficiently enterprising and energetic to reclaim it. - -From the point of view of the towns and cities called upon to handle -the sewage, the Grossmann process holds out many inducements. It -complies with the demands of sanitation because it precipitates -no nuisance. It is the most hygienic process yet evolved for the -disposal of sewage sludge. The revenue derived from the sale of the -by-products--manure and grease--is such as to render the operation -of the plant not only self-supporting but money-making. As a rule -the sewage works of the average town represent a sink in more senses -than one, more especially when it becomes incumbent to resort to the -tipping, dumping or other disposal of the enormous accumulations of -the sludge. But signs of awakening are apparent. The Oldham plant has -been investigated by Corporations and other authorities, not only of -this country but from other parts of the world, who have been satisfied -as to its commercial practicability. With the restoration of normal -trading conditions it is anticipated that the process will become more -extensively adopted, especially as during the past five years ceaseless -effort has been devoted to the perfection of details to assure the -establishment of the process upon a firm commercial basis. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -HOUSE-BUILDING WITH WASTES - - -Of the many problems of the day demanding prompt settlement, none, -perhaps, is so vital to the welfare of the community as the provision -of increased housing accommodation. The issue is by no means confined -to Great Britain; it is incidental more or less to every country. Such -a state of affairs is not surprising, seeing that building operations, -at least in the domestic sense, have been reduced to a condition of -comparative stagnation for five years. Even those countries which were -not drawn into the actual fighting arena have been unable to carry out -housing schemes to meet the needs of their growing populations owing, -primarily, to the dearth of the necessary materials and the enhanced -labour charges. - -So far as Britain is concerned the outlook is decidedly disquieting. -It is estimated that at least 1,000,000 houses are required to meet -the needs of the population. As a first instalment it is proposed to -complete forthwith 300,000 houses, but, here again, experience is -proving it to be far easier to adumbrate such comprehensive schemes on -paper than to carry them into expeditious effect. Questions of cost -have arisen. This constitutes the vital factor, because obviously it is -folly to build houses for people who cannot afford to live in them. And -the limit in the upward tendency has by no means been attained. - -The critical situation has been surveyed from every ostensible angle -without any practical solution being found. But have we not been -circumscribed in our attacks upon the problem? Have we not become so -deeply rutted in our ideas concerning everything pertaining to housing -as to be unable to regard the aspect from a totally new point of view? -Similar crises have developed in, and are constantly assailing, other -industries. Upon their occurrence they appear to be equally impossible -of successful adjustment, but, finally, as a result of attacking a -difficulty from quite a new angle and in a new way, it has been not -only subjugated satisfactorily, but a distinct improvement upon the -old method brought into operation at one and the same time. A new -line of thought and development, possessing greater and more economic -possibilities, has been opened up to the advantage of one and all. As -a rule one need never hesitate to abandon the existing for something -new, because the former is generally associated with some form of waste -which has become so heavy as to act as a drag. Directly this retarding -force is eliminated, or turned to account, a new era commences. - -The contemporary situation in the building trade recalls the state -of affairs which arose in American agricultural circles as a result -of the outbreak of the Civil War. The drainage of man-power from the -land precipitated an extremely depressing outlook. Farmers protested -that the soil must run to seed from lack of labour to wield the tools. -But thinking men held a contrary opinion. Farming had been conducted -along lines which had been followed slavishly for centuries. Manual -labour had attained undisputed sway and to decisive disadvantage. -Why not dispense with hand labour and use machines? The suggestion -that mechanism could displace brawn upon the land provoked a good -deal of hostile criticism and humour. But the imaginative were not to -be dismayed by conservatism, prejudice, or ridicule. They continued -perseveringly along their particular lines of reasoning. - -What was the result? McCormick introduced the self-binder which -revolutionized harvesting methods, while other brilliant minds -conceived equally striking time- and labour-saving appliances for other -agricultural duties. They not only solved the immediate crisis but -imparted quite a new prospect to agriculture the whole world over. It -is safe to assert that, but for the introduction of the self-binder, -one-half of the United States would still have remained as barren as -the wilderness from sheer lack of labour to cultivate it. - -If such a complete revolution proved possible of attainment in such an -ancient, rutted, and indispensable industry as agriculture, surely -it is not hopeless to anticipate the fulfilment of a similar complete -transformation in the craft of house-building? So far as farming is -concerned there is every excuse for hesitating to depart from the -proved and trusty. A false step may wreak untold harm, but so far as -house-building is concerned no such calamity need be apprehended. A -mistake can speedily be rectified. It is safe to assert that there is -no other line of activity, especially in Great Britain, so closely -identified with the effete and wasteful as house-building. In so far as -constructional methods are concerned we have scarcely changed our ways -since bricks were first brought into use. - -We must ruthlessly scrap the old, which has obtained for so long, in -favour of the new. Science is forcing the pace, and she will no more be -arrested by obsolete theories and arguments than the tides will be held -up by a child’s spade. Already she is asserting her power. Contemporary -methods are wickedly extravagant, and it is this absurd wastage which -is primarily responsible for enhanced costs. The ways of science are -inscrutable, but they are sure none the less: the first indications of -chafing at delay always assert themselves in the traditional becoming -too expensive to maintain. The pocket is the positive road to reform; -assail its contents, and the world commences to bestir itself. As the -farmer, raised in the old school, had to give way to the engineer, -so must our conceptions and ideas pertaining to providing houses for -the community undergo a complete change. The architect, his numerous -satellites, and the cumbrous rules and regulations which have been -framed to protect their vested interests must be jettisoned without a -thought of regret. The day has dawned when the engineer must assume the -responsibility for providing the people with residential accommodation, -and he will be assisted by a new force, including the chemist, which -will play a far more prominent part in this problem than many may be -disposed to imagine. - -This is a utilitarian age. People desire houses to live in--not -to look at, although every one will readily agree that a certain -regard must be paid to external æsthetic considerations. The average -house-owner troubles his head very little over the outside appearance -of his domicile or the materials of which it is built, so long as the -interior offers him all he desires in regard to comfort and health. -Too long have we clung tenaciously to specific theories which are no -more adapted to this age than is the slave-oared galley to mercantile -traffic. They are destructive rather than constructive. For a time such -clock-arresting dogma and precepts hold sway, but sooner or later the -pendulum of progress gives such a vicious kick as to break down the -whole of the obstructions disputing advance, to assume rhythmic running -in a new channel to the advantage of one and all. - -Science has the solution to the housing problem ready for immediate -application, but she must be allowed to pursue her progressive way -untrammelled. From what one might be able to assume, brick and stone -represent the only building materials at our command. But are they? In -other fields, where restraining forces are not allowed to secure the -upper hand, huge forward strides are being made and with a material we, -as a supposed commercial nation, have scarcely noticed. - -I refer to concrete. We have only to turn to the engineering world -to see what has been achieved with this material in the construction -of bridges, tunnels, piers, harbours, breakwaters, warehouses, -lighthouses, and even ships. If we turn to the United States and -Germany we are able to see how we have lagged. In both those countries -enormous strides have been made and incidentally, in the prosecution of -this task, other magnificent conquests in the world of science and of -the industrial employment of waste are recorded. To-day the manufacture -of cement constitutes one of the twelve most important industries in -the United States, and the greater part of this material is made from -what a few years ago was accepted as sheer waste--residue from the -iron-works which, having no further ostensible use, was dumped in huge -piles to the disfigurement of the landscape. To-day this waste is being -turned into building material, having usurped the product originally -selected for this duty. - -The reason why there should be such a deep-rooted antipathy to concrete -for house-building purposes in these islands is somewhat inscrutable. -Probably it is due to the experiments which were made many years -ago, and which owing to our limited knowledge were construed by the -quidnuncs into a failure. But because Brunel’s _Great Eastern_ did not -succeed we do not laugh at the mammoth steamship of to-day. Brunel’s -conception suffered merely from being premature. So were the first -attempts to use concrete in the house-building industry. During the -past few years we have acquired further knowledge which should enable -us to steer clear of the blunders of the past, but instead of grappling -with the problem along the lines which science is vividly blazing we -prefer to waste time in the idle discussion of quaint theories and -fantastic notions. - -Many are the reasons why concrete should be employed. In the first -place it is difficult to excel for simplicity. It comprises essentially -two materials--cement, sand and rubble, the two last-named being -generically described as the aggregate. The term is wide in its -meaning, comprising virtually any and every inorganic material capable -of being crushed to a pre-determined size, and the character of which -may be as varied as the number of days in the year or more, while -recent investigation has indicated that even the conventional sand may -be eliminated, provided a sharp and gritty substitute in a similar -powdered form be forthcoming. - -Think what this means and the many possibilities it opens up! In -the first place it enables material on site--waste--to be turned to -economic account, and the term waste in this instance is extremely -elastic. There is no need to disfigure the countryside with yawning -craters in the form of pits for the excavation of the special clay -suited to the making of bricks. Again we must not forget that by the -employment of the conventional building materials a demand is made upon -transport, which to-day is as acute as the scarcity of houses. With -concrete the only constituent calling for transport from a producing -point is cement, and this only involves the movement of one-seventh of -the load which would otherwise be involved were bricks to be used. In -other words, if seven tons of bricks were required to build a house it -would only be requisite to move one ton of cement to yield a similar -house in concrete--the other six tons of essential materials could be -acquired on the site. The avoidance of superfluous expenditure as well -as the economy in time and labour is obvious. - -Our towns and cities are daily shedding tons of a specific form -of waste--ashes and clinker from electric generating stations, -water-works, gas-works, and refuse destructors. The contribution -naturally varies according to the population, but a small town burning -40 tons of refuse in its destructor may safely anticipate accumulating -clinker at the rate of 8 to 10 tons a day. The disposal of this residue -presents a problem in itself. A certain quantity can be absorbed in -connection with the sewage beds, road-making and other incidental -tasks, but, for the most part, it has to be dumped, merely because -it possesses no ostensible application. When one reflects upon the -activities of the factories in a manufacturing town and the daily -output of clinker and ash from these sources alone, it will be seen -that the civic clinker disposal problem is likely to assume enormous -dimensions, and to prove a costly issue in itself. Thousands of tons -are dispatched by road, rail and water from our towns and cities to be -jettisoned at suitable points where unsightliness does not count. The -authorities of New York City used to ship hundreds of tons daily 60 -miles out to sea, while at Liverpool it had to be barged for 24 miles -to be thrown overboard into the Irish Sea at a cost of 2s. 6d.--60 -cents--a ton! Many borough authorities will readily give away the -material to those who care to fetch it, so keen are they to be relieved -of this incubus. Yet, in every instance, the equivalent of sovereigns -are being shot upon the land, dumped into the sea, or given away as the -case may be. - -Cannot a more economic use for this and kindred refuse be found? This -is the obvious question in this utilitarian age. Yet it is almost -superfluous to launch the inquiry. It can be turned into concrete: -could, and should, if we were sufficiently enterprising and astute, -as well as frugal in our habits, be turned into houses. Certain -attempts have been made towards the conversion of this residue into -constructional material such as kerb-stones for lining our pavements, -slabs to take the place of York flagstones and bricks for paving -purposes, the building of sheds and other insignificant structures, but -none represents a grim attempt to wrestle with the issue along bold and -comprehensive lines. - -Some years ago, the city engineer of Liverpool, Mr. John A. Brodie, -M.Inst.C.E., one of our most enterprising city engineers, essayed a -bigger step forward. He was faced with the disposal of 50,000 tons -of clinker from the city destructors during the year. He made a bold -effort to turn it to economic account in the obvious directions--paving -and kerbing operations--but these channels absorbed only a round 20,000 -tons, leaving some 30,000 tons to be shipped to sea to be dumped at a -total annual cost of nearly £4,000--$20,000. The city authorities had -resolved to carry out a tenement building scheme, and the city engineer -decided to provide them in concrete and to use the refuse from the -destructors as the aggregate, exacting tests having convinced him of -its suitability for this purpose. - -The building, covering an area of 3,717 square feet, of which total -1,611 square feet are open space, is of three floors with four -tenements on each floor, finished off with a flat roof, surrounded by a -parapet for washing, drying, or playground purposes. - -The construction of the building was carried out upon the section or -slab system. That is to say the walls, floors, ceilings, and other -parts, with all necessary openings, were moulded at the destructor -works, and set aside for a time to mature. Some of these slabs were of -imposing dimensions, ranging up to 16 feet in length by 13 feet wide, -14 inches thick and weighing 11 tons. Upon arrival at the site they -were slung into position and dovetailed into place, thus forming a -rigid structure. - -As an indication of how modern thought may be hampered severely by -prevailing notions it may be stated that, as a result of his deductions -and experiments, the engineer decided that a thickness of 7 inches -for the walls would be adequate. But his decision was over-ruled. The -existing regulations insisted that brick walls should be 14 inches -thick and the concrete had to comply with these rules. The result -of this indefensible policy, for which misconception and lack of -knowledge were responsible, was to double the weight of the structure -and to inflate the cost of the buildings to an unnecessary degree. The -engineer computed that if construction were carried out upon the lines -he advocated the building could be completed, including the provision -of all necessary plant, for £1,230--$6,150. Enforced compliance with -obsolete rules inflated the cost to £4,072--$20,360. In other words the -ratepayers of Liverpool were compelled to spend £2,842--$14,210--more -than they need have done--a flagrant waste of money, material, time, -labour, and knowledge. - -One objection which has been levelled against the concrete house is the -concrete floor. But to surmount this objection the Liverpool engineer -embedded wooden scantlings in the concrete, covered the surface of the -latter with a layer of pitch mixture applied hot, and then nailed down -¹⁄₄-inch floor-boards in the usual manner. In this way the so-called -defects of the concrete floor were completely overcome. The walls -were subjected to several experiments to determine the most suitable -internal finish, some being papered, others plastered, while in further -instances a simple coating of sanitary wash or lime was applied. It -was found, however, that for such buildings, distemper was the most -efficient finishing medium. - -This experiment conclusively substantiated the claims advanced by the -engineer. It demonstrated the fact that concrete lends itself to rapid -construction, the Liverpool building, despite its size, being erected -and roofed within three months, notwithstanding frequent cessations -owing to inclement weather, and was ready for occupation within another -eleven weeks--say six months in all. It is safe to assume that had -brick been employed it could never have been finished in the time. - -The advantages of concrete for such domiciles are obvious. The -structure is as near being fire-proof as it is possible to contrive. -It complies with every requirement of hygiene. It is substantial, -weather-proof, and sound-proof, while it improves with age. Concrete, -unlike the common grade of brick, does not deteriorate under the -influences of time and weather. The walls offer no refuge for vermin, -unless papered, and should a room become infected as a result of -contagious disease among the inmates, it can be promptly sterilized by -turning on a hose of boiling disinfectant and being scoured from top -to bottom. Rats and mice cannot secure a refuge, because the extreme -hardness of concrete taxes their gnawing powers to the superlative -degree. - -The experience of Liverpool was adequate to drive home the fact that -concrete dwellings are not only able to provide the poorer classes -with a substantial home, complying in every respect with modern -requirements, but also indicated a profitable use for an otherwise -useless waste product. Were comprehensive schemes carried out upon -these lines the cost factor might be reduced to the absolute minimum -by recourse to standardization in the preparation of the slabs. As -a result of this initial experiment--the first of its character -in Great Britain--the Liverpool city engineer estimated that he -could erect future buildings of this type, in blocks of five, at -£1,700--$8,500--each, and that this would show a saving of 25 per cent. -over the cost which would be incurred if brick were used. But, and this -was an important factor, to achieve this end it would be incumbent to -allow the engineer to pursue his way unfettered by obsolete ideas, -fallacious notions, and antiquated rules and regulations. - -Some years ago Edison precipitated a mild wave of excitement by the -perfection of a process for moulding houses complete in a solid block, -much along the lines followed by the housewife in the preparation of -jellies and other similar table dainties. He suggested the erection of -a mould to the design of the desired house, including both internal and -external artistic embellishments, and then to run the concrete into -the metal shell in liquid form and to allow it to set and harden. Then -the mould was to be demolished, leaving a solid monolithic-structure -from foundation to roof, and without a crack or a joint. The mould, -naturally, was built up in sections, which could be standardized and -interchanged, so that once a set of moulds had been acquired a house of -any desired dimensions might be erected. Of course, this demanded an -imposing array of moulds, entailing heavy initial capital expenditure. -Edison frankly admitted this to be the weak point in his scheme, -because the mould bill for the construction of a “poured” house, as it -was called, costing £240--$1,200--would be at least £5,000--$25,000. -Consequently the suggestion was impracticable, unless the builder were -given an imposing house-building scheme to complete, to enable him to -distribute his mould charges in such a manner over the houses as to -increase the actual building cost of each only by a trifling amount. - -Edison’s conception aroused extreme interest in America and provoked -widespread ridicule in these islands. The “poured” house was regarded -in the same light as was the telephone upon its first appearance in -London. As the latter was declared to be merely a “scientific toy,” -so was the poured house described as nothing but a wild dream. -But, be it noted, antagonism and objection have been levelled from -the fickle standpoint of theory; we have no practical experiment to -guide us in our assault upon Edison’s idea. Instead of setting to -work to prove, or disprove, the practicability of the poured house -we wasted time in academic discussions concerning “sweating walls,” -condensation, coldness in winter, and to embark upon high-falutin -diatribes concerning the imperative necessity for such abstract demands -as “breathing bricks,” and other fantastic ideas which possibly are -of interest but do not advance the realization of the cheap house, -contribute to the solution of the housing question, or proffer a single -step towards the utilization of waste. - -The Americans are more enlightened. A new idea is subjected to -practical test and discussed afterwards, not destructively, but in -the hope of being able to solve the defects which have manifested -themselves in the experiment with a view to establishing the commercial -success of the idea. While our house-building quidnuncs are leaving -no stone unturned to prevent poured houses becoming an established -practice, our engineers are setting to work in the American fashion, -and as a result we are building poured concrete ships and other -articles of utilitarian value. Possibly they are not poured in the -strict interpretation of the Edisonian term, but modified according to -experience which has been gathered. - -In 1909 the International Congress on Tuberculosis assembled at -Washington D.C. To stimulate interest in a house built along such lines -as to comply with the searching requirements of perfect sanitation -and which would be particularly adapted for occupation by persons -suffering from tuberculosis, a reward was offered for the best model -of a germ-proof house. A young Washington architect-engineer attacked -the problem, submitted his conception for such a house, of the “poured” -type, and because it triumphed over all competitors, which clung to the -rutted line of thought, in the provision of light, air, and sanitation -features, carried off the prize. - -In this design the cellar which, if damp, forms an ideal -breeding-ground for germs and disease, was eliminated. Floors, walls, -ceilings, cornices, bath--all were of cement poured into moulds. In -each room the floor was given a slightly sloping depression at one -corner and provided with a suitable outlet and trap. The idea was -obvious. The housewife on cleaning day did not raise impenetrable -clouds of dust to pollute the room. She simply removed her furniture, -together with all hangings, to be beaten in the open air. Then she -turned on a hose and flushed floor, walls, and ceilings, the water -escaping through the trap. No dust whatever was raised, and the -room was left dry, sweet, and clean. There were many other features -contributing to the general attractiveness of the scheme. The model -aroused more interest than any other at the Congress exhibition, but, -while one and all declared the house to possess every attractive -feature, it was regarded as merely a fantastic conception. - -But, within the past eight years, more than one little “poured cement” -garden city has come into being in the United States. The first -commercialization of the germ-proof house was made near Washington. It -was run up and occupied within 30 days, and was conceded to be one of -the prettiest and most comfortable homes in the countryside, although -it cost only about £400--$2,000. To-day it is surrounded by many others. - -The scheme has triumphed because the Washington architect-engineer, -instead of deriding Edison and dwelling upon the defects of the idea, -set out to overcome the problems involved, especially that identified -with the moulds. He has succeeded. Instead of demanding an initial -expenditure of £5,000--$25,000--upon this preliminary he has reduced -the mould expense down to £100--$500. This brings the idea within -the reach of commerce. He does not advocate a mould for the complete -house, but pursues what may be described as sectional-stage moulding. -Plates of steel are pressed into flanged sections 24 inches square. -These are clipped and wedged together to form a trough to hold the -liquid cement until it hardens. Above this row of plates is disposed a -second similar row, forming another trough upon the top of that which -has already been filled, and which is setting. When the lower trough -contents have hardened the lower array of plates is rolled over to form -another trough above the one in which the cement has been run, this -overlapping process, as the wall hardens, being continued until the top -has been reached. These plates also serve as forms for the moulding -of the floors and roof, and are additionally attractive because they -readily admit of the introduction of any desired artistic finish. It is -a system which lends itself to cheap and rapid construction, as events -have amply proved. That the “poured” germ-proof house, built in one -solid block, possesses distinct advantages over the building carried -out along orthodox lines is evident from the alacrity with which such -homes are purchased or occupied, a tendency which is just as pronounced -in this country as in the United States. This tends to demonstrate that -while the man-in-the-street knows nothing concerning the pros and cons -of building materials, he certainly does appreciate the overwhelming -advantages of concrete, which, be it noted, is the logical antidote to -jerry-building. - -That the poured, one-piece house is not merely attractive because -of its relative cheapness is evidenced by the number of stately -homes which have been built in accordance with this principle upon -the other side of the Atlantic. Seeing that these homes have been -built to the order of, and are occupied by, those to whom cost is a -trifling consideration, it would certainly seem as if the so-called -defects of the poured house were more imaginary than real. I have seen -magnificent homes, ranging in cost from £5,000 to £25,000--$25,000 to -$125,000--built from foundation to roof upon the Edisonian idea. They -certainly would have been promptly demolished and rebuilt in other -material if the monolithic house possessed even the slightest sign of -any one of the many ills to which it is academically said to be exposed. - -Industrial corporations in the United States, as in Britain, are faced -with problems concerning the housing of their employees. And they are -just as perplexing to solve. The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western -Railroad Company was concerned with the provision of homes for its -wage-earners in the vicinity of one of its mines. The question was -surveyed from every possible angle, and finally it was decided that the -only really attractive solution was the provision of a little garden -city of concrete houses, built upon the poured system. The authorities -concluded that in this way only would it be possible to provide -model sanitary homes, possessing every inducement, at an attractive -price, and the project was handed over to the architect-engineer -whose germ-proof house had aroused the interest of the International -Tuberculosis Congress two years previously. - -The houses are built in pairs, thus being semi-detached. Each is of -two floors with flat roof, the accommodation comprising on the ground -floor living- and dining-rooms measuring 11 feet and 11 feet 6 inches by -12 feet 4 inches, respectively, large kitchen, pantry, and commodious -lobby with the projecting porch incidental to American homes. Upon -the first floor are two bedrooms measuring 11 feet 3 inches and 11 -feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, a smaller room, and a porch which -may be used as an open-air sleeping chamber, if desired, or lounge, -with the usual offices. The houses are set out after the manner now -being followed in these islands, that is around the four sides of a -rectangle, facing a commodious green and flanked on the opposite side -by a deep green lawn. The roads skirt the village on all sides, the -highway approaches to the inner square being diagonally from each of -the four corners. - -In carrying out the scheme the designer decided to utilize to the full -the available materials upon the spot. This was waste from the adjacent -mines, in the form of cinders, with hydrate of lime to give density and -weather-proofness. Speed in construction being a vital factor, a novel -system was introduced. A railway track was laid around the entire group -of 40 houses. The mixing plant was mounted upon one flat car which -was also equipped with an efficient apparatus to hoist the concrete. -Behind this was a second car carrying the cement, sand, and cinder. The -ingredients were shovelled into the mixer, work being continuous. The -train pulled up before the first pair of houses, the moulds forming -the trough of which were in position. The concrete was hoisted and -discharged into an elevated hopper on the vehicle from which a feed -pipe and spout was extended to the mould trough of the house-wall. The -concrete was run into the trough until it was filled, when the stream -was shut off, the feed pipe lifted, and the train moved on to the next -house, where the cycle of operations was repeated. By the time the -train had completed its circuit and had again reached the first house -the concrete previously poured had hardened sufficiently to permit the -moulds to be raised to form the succeeding trough, and so was ready to -receive another pouring of cement. It will be seen that construction -throughout the 40 houses was not only continuous but each supply of -concrete increased the height of the wall by about 24 inches, or -completed the flooring as the case might be. The building process was -not only exceedingly simple, being free from all complicated mechanism, -but involved the employment of the minimum of labour, which conduced -to extremely cheap erection. The re-setting of the moulds occasions in -this system no difficulty, inasmuch as being hinged they are merely -swung up and automatically fall into position to form the mould. The -work was commenced late in the year 1911 and was completed in the -spring of 1912, having to be suspended during the winter months, when, -of course, all building operations, irrespective of materials used, is -brought to a standstill. - -The houses provided in this manner are not only attractive, but are -provided at a price bringing them readily within the reach of the -wage-earner. True, one objection might be levelled against such -standardization as it were, and that is the stereotyped design, but in -this instance this is possible of decided relief by resort to tree, -shrub, and flower embellishment in which individuality is given free -rein, and which effectively breaks up all tendency towards monotony. -But apart from extraneous treatment, the village cannot be described -as being more monotonous than our terrace system of providing homes -for the workers so common to our industrial centres, while even our -much-vaunted garden cities are freely criticized from the general -atmosphere of similarity. - -However, it is cost of construction which constitutes the all-important -factor, and the poured house has demonstrated what can be done in -this instance. A similar cement city is under way for residential -purposes upon the outskirts of Chicago. The bungalow type of house is -being favoured here. In this instance cellar walls and first-story -walls, measuring some 30 by 40 feet, have been poured in four days. -The cost of construction has been exceptionally low, even for America -where higher wages and charges prevail, the cost of building a 6-inch -wall which in poured concrete is ample for either one-or two-story -buildings, having been brought down to 4d.--8 cents--per foot, which is -well below the cost of frame houses, admittedly the cheapest form of -construction in the United States. - -The poured house or any other system of monolithic structure wrought -in concrete is freely assailed in these islands for being damp, -intolerably cold in winter, hot in summer, and the walls liable -to condensation. These are the popular objections raised against -the idea. But the experience of those who live in such homes in -America completely refutes such statements. The houses are declared -emphatically to be bone-dry, exceptionally warm in winter with a -freedom from draughts, cool in summer, and free from condensation. The -latter defect, it is pointed out, even if it should become manifest, -is not irremediable. The chemist can solve it quickly and cheaply. But -the great feature which makes irresistible appeal to those who dwell in -such homes is that they are always sweet and clean. Washing down walls, -ceilings and floors of a room at one and the same time with a garden -hose is something beyond the comprehension of British householders, -but they will scarcely deny its virtues, and, probably, wish heartily -that they were in a similar happy position, because nothing detracts -so seriously from the pleasures and comfort of the home as dust and -dinginess. - -While we display an inexplicable hesitation to build a single house -upon the poured system to discover the character of the objections -which are said to obtain, thereby ignoring the precept that an ounce of -solid fact is worth a ton of theory, we are steadily moving towards the -concrete home, although the pioneers are being called upon to battle -fiercely against the organized forces of prejudice, conservatism, -and vested interests. In order to comply with national and other -traditions, so far as practicable, the brick system is being followed. -Machines have been devised whereby bricks, but wrought in concrete, are -speedily and cheaply produced. - -The outstanding characteristic of the most approved of these appliances -is the ability to fashion brick-like masses of concrete of varying -sizes and dimensions. One of the most handy machines of this character -is the “Winget,” wherewith a wide variety of concrete formations may be -fashioned cheaply and expeditiously, and adapted to every conceivable -building requirement. This machine is noteworthy from the simplicity of -its design and operation, compactness, and high speed of working, as -well as imposing the minimum demand upon skilled labour. The concrete -is not run, but is shovelled into the mould and tamped down. When -charged the depression of a lever lifts the block, and in such a manner -as to permit its ready removal by two men armed with a carrying bar -fitted with forks which grip the under edges of the mass. - -This machine has been extensively utilized in this country, and it -has proved highly efficient in working. It is excellently adapted -for the preparation of blocks or slabs from waste materials, such -as the clinker refuse from electric light generating stations, -dust-destructors, and other industrial establishments in general, as -well as such other residues as coke breeze, chalk, and rubble. High -speed of working, combined with the size of the block which may be -turned out therewith, enables it to consume such material at relatively -high speed. In a Midland town where aggregate of a waste character -was required for the fashioning of such blocks, the whole of the -daily accumulation of residue from the local electric light station, -averaging seven tons, had to be supplemented by supplies of similar -waste from private industrial establishments to keep the machine -working steadily throughout the day. - -With such a machine practically any form of inorganic residue can -be put to useful constructional account. Its perfection is enabling -private authorities to exploit profitably dumps of refuse which have -long been eyesores in the locality for material to satisfy their own -building needs. One gas company, which formerly contracted in the usual -way for extensions to its buildings, generally in brick or stone, now -completes all such work with its own labour and with its own waste, its -one expenditure for material being the requisite cement. It encountered -pronounced difficulty in disposing of the coke breeze or dust; it -was virtually unmarketable. Conspicuous piles accumulated because it -was disdained as fuel. The company acquired a “Winget ” machine, and -by mixing the breeze with cement converted the useless refuse into -substantial building blocks. Those which it does not require for its -own building operations find a ready market. The outstanding fact, -however, is that all recent building extensions are carried out with -concrete blocks prepared upon the spot from material which the company -produces during the conduct of its business and which has always been -considered waste having no commercial value whatever. - -To the municipality, faced with residue accumulating from the refuse -destructor, gas, and electric lighting installations, such a machine -is virtually indispensable. It offers a complete economic solution to -a perplexing problem. A certain amount of official building is always -necessary, and concrete blocks with clinker forming the aggregate -constitutes an ideal and inexpensive material. One great objection -often raised against the utilization of cinder and other similar -residue for this purpose is the dingy tone of the resultant block. But -this need not constitute a handicap. If used for the external walls of -cottages the concrete can be finished off in rough-cast, or may even -be plastered and painted. In many instances excellent reproductions of -half-timbered styles have been carried out in this material, and are -far more substantial than those wrought in the conventional brick. - -But the chemist must be harnessed to the development, that is if the -most satisfactory results are to be obtained. It is the tendency -to ignore the chemist which has been responsible for much concrete -failure for homes in the past. It is imperative that clinker refuse be -analysed. If it be associated with fused glass it is useless for the -purpose, for the simple reason that the smooth surface of the glass -fails to afford the requisite gripping surface to the cement. Unless -care be displayed in this connection disintegration of the block will -set in, in which event the concrete will be condemned as a failure -when, as a matter of fact, it is the ignorance of the individual and -the presence of the glass which are responsible for collapse. Similarly -it is essential that the aggregate should be free from organic -material. This may be intensely dry when the mixing of the concrete -is taken in hand. But the organic material will absorb the moisture -after the manner of a sponge, continuing to do so until completely -saturated. As a result of this action the material necessarily expands, -and so will bring about the breakdown of the concrete. Therefore, if -full advantage be taken of the chemist specializing in constructional -material in the scientific preparation of concrete, as is done in -Germany and the United States, failures will be few and far between. - -The authorities of our towns and cities are called upon to handle -5,300,000 tons of dust and rubble collected in the dust-bins of the -population during the year. In addition millions of tons of similar -refuse accumulate from the consumption of coal and coke by the -thousands of industrial establishments scattered over the country. How -much of this huge yield of waste is turned to industrial account? But -an insignificant fraction, as is proved by its commanding no market -value. Certain enterprising authorities, such as the City Fathers of -Glasgow, by taking a little trouble, are able to dispose of the whole -of their output of this residue and at a profitable figure. Surely what -can be done by one authority is capable of being achieved by others up -and down the country. - -But clinker waste is not the only refuse adapted to building -operations. Concrete is something like paper--can be made virtually -from anything. There are few building sites which are not capable -of yielding something in this respect. This was demonstrated very -conclusively in the course of the development of an estate in Ireland. -The work was most comprehensive, involving the provision of factories, -workshops, farm buildings, and private residences. To prepare the -site it was necessary to remove a substantial hill. Instead of -excavating the obstacle, dumping and levelling the soil in the usual -manner, it was turned into a “Winget” machine to be converted into -concrete blocks, which were then utilized as the wherewithal for the -construction of the buildings. The result was conspicuously successful, -and it is doubtful whether the development scheme could have been -carried out so economically and inexpensively in any other way. - -There are welcome signs of revived interest in the possibilities -of concrete for the building of our homes. In many parts of the -country there are enormous hillocks which at the moment are nothing -but eyesores. The pottery district may be cited as a case in point. -These disfiguring piles have hitherto been ignored, although the -localities are clamouring wildly for increased housing accommodation -to satisfy the demands of their citizens. Yet these heaps are really -potential mines of wealth. Associated with cement and deftly fashioned -they can be converted into concrete bricks, the waste constituting -ideal material for the aggregate, while, should we be sufficiently -enterprising to acknowledge the possibilities of the poured cement -house, their value is equally established. No city, town, or village -in these islands should suffer from a shortage of houses for its -peoples, and none need tarry for bricks. They have ample constructional -material at their very doors to build as many houses as they can -possibly desire. To turn these potential resources to account it is -only necessary to abandon our moth-eaten shibboleths, revise our laws -and regulations governing building operations, forget a good deal of -what we are supposed to have learned in the past, and turn to science -and engineering with a more enlightened spirit. By combining the artist -with the engineer and the chemist, and by admitting the utilitarian -possibilities of waste, all the difficulties assailing this country -at the present moment in regard to one of its greatest sociological -problems might be overcome, and the inhabitants of the British Isles -provided with drier, more comfortable, and more durable and artistic -homes than have ever been brought within their reach during the -centuries which have passed, and at a fraction of the cost which is now -held to be inevitable if brick is to be employed. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -THE FUTURE OF THE WASTE PROBLEM: POSSIBILITIES FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT - - -What is to be the future of the Waste Problem? This is the question -agitating all circles to-day. The observance and practice of economic -methods are being forced upon us owing to the high prices which are -obtaining for every description of raw material, whether intended for -the table or the factory. - -To a certain degree the action is automatic, from the simple -circumstance that supplies are strictly limited. Money does not -constitute such a determining factor to-day as was the case five years -ago, although of course it still exercises a far-reaching influence. -But the mere fact that an adequacy of raw materials cannot be procured -merely because one may be disposed to pay fictitious prices, is -stimulating interest in the waste issue to a degree which, under -conventional conditions, would never have obtained. In times of plenty -one does not pause to consider for a moment as to whether it is worth -while to devote any time and energy to the exploitation of a certain -refuse. - -But the great question is one not so much concerning what we can derive -from wastes, but whether we have really digested the lessons which -the enemy has taught us. On every side we see startling evidences of -what he was able to do by scientifically turning over and using the -rubbish-heap, and the great wealth he was able to acquire by following -such practices. We found ourselves hit at every turn and, in the hope -of solving the critical situations which arose, were forced to follow -the enemy’s example and become a nation of _chiffonniers_. We have -acquired wealth in the process, have discovered the value of the mine -which the junk pile represents, and realize that more wealth still -remains to be extracted from such untapped resources. - -We have also become intimately conversant with what may be described as -the most perplexing phases of the problem, the greatest of which is the -segregation and collection of the residues. It is upon this rock that -all future effort regarding the scientific exploitation of waste, in -these islands at all events, is in danger of being wrecked. - -The mere description of what we ourselves cannot use in the course -of our operations, as waste, or rubbish, invests the project with a -dangerously false atmosphere. Being regarded as worthless there is a -tendency towards the opinion that its collection and segregation should -be conducted along honorary lines. This is a precarious policy, because -it repudiates the fundamental law of the labourer being worthy of his -hire, whether it be in ploughing, the smelting of steel, shipbuilding, -or the collection of waste. - -Simultaneously another immutable law is being flouted. All matter, -irrespective of its character, which is capable of being considered as -a raw material, must command a market value. It may be high, or it may -be low, but the fact remains unchallenged that it possesses a certain -intrinsic worth. Refuse, which can be worked into something useful, -is just as much raw material as a shipload of ore, or a consignment -of gold. It is its mere classification as waste which imperils its -commercial significance. This is demonstrated by the sudden importance -and value it instantly commands when it becomes labelled, not “waste,” -but a by-product. - -In these circumstances, therefore, it would represent a decided -progressive step if a recognized market could be established in waste -products. By so doing all residues could be given accepted commercial -values with which one and all might become acquainted by perusing -quotations, in precisely the same way as the movement in the prices -of raw materials may be followed by reference to the daily or weekly -market lists. Until such time as wastes become so recognized the -uncertainty of supply must obtain, because it is the very ignorance -of the subject which contributes to the loss of such material through -fire and other equally destructive measures with its appalling loss of -wealth. - -The establishment of a market price for all and every description -of waste would act as the direct incentive to preserve anything and -everything for further possible use. This was proved very conclusively -during the war, when bones and paper were in such urgent request, the -one for the reclamation of the fat, and the other for re-pulping. Under -normal conditions both wastes had received indifferent consideration, -and immense quantities of the two materials suffered complete useless -destruction by fire. The premium placed upon the price of bones was -only ½d., or 1 cent, a pound, the butcher being regarded as the -collecting medium. That is to say the bones would be paid for at the -above rate upon surrender to the butcher. The reward was not high, but -it proved to be sufficient to induce people to husband their bones -and to dispose of them in the recognized market. It was the same -with paper. The average housewife devoted but little attention to -the harvesting of this waste until she learned that the authorities -were ready to pay 1d.--2 cents--at least per pound therefor through -its accredited agents. Instantly she commenced to display thrift, and -was somewhat surprised by the money which could be picked up in this -manner. Yet it is safe to assert that had no financial value been -placed upon these wastes barely 50 per cent. of what was actually -secured would have been forthcoming. - -Unfortunately there is a large class of waste exploiters which is -disposed to trade upon the ignorance or indifference of the community. -In the knowledge that the average house, office and factory has no -conception of the value of its refuse, or is ready to part with it -for nothing because it is regarded as a nuisance, the waste merchant -is disposed to become discriminatory and autocratic. He is perfectly -ready to acquire what he knows full well possesses a distinct value so -long as he can get it for nothing. The moment the owner sets a value -upon the flotsam and jetsam the waste merchant will have nothing to do -with it. He assumes an indifferent if not a dictatorial and impossible -attitude to which the second party to the projected bargain takes -immediate exception. The upshot is that sooner than part with the -material for nothing, and in the knowledge that the acquirer is certain -to sell out in turn at a profit, the material is withdrawn completely -from possible circulation, and so suffers irretrievable loss. To -barter is human, and this applies as forcibly to waste as to houses, -commodities and produce in general. - -The waste market must be set upon a firm and solid basis. Those who -have specialized in this field of trading during the past few years, -and, as a result, have become acquainted with its possibilities, and -the true value of such material as is to be obtained through the -devious channels, are in the position to effect such a reform. The -price of waste is naturally subsidiary to the fluctuations in the -market quotations of the materials whence it is drawn, as well as -of those normally employed in the industries to which waste may be -applied. The general conditions are decidedly more complex than those -prevailing in the handling of straight materials, for the simple reason -that then only the one market needs to be watched. - -Factors of cost also require to be closely followed. In the true -economic and scientific exploitation of all waste products the question -of cost is vital. It may easily jeopardize such utilization. Naturally -a margin of profit must be available from the working-up of the -material, not only to ensure its use, but also to safeguard the sources -of supply. This margin must be determined, not on the top of the market -as is the case at the present moment when conditions are abnormal, -but when prices for raw materials are at their minimum. If, then, the -exploitation of waste can be conducted in such a way as to compete -successfully with ostensible raw materials, recovery must hold its own -to become more and more profitable as the market rises. By-products can -be exploited only so long as the cost of preparing them for commerce -proves profitable. If it should become cheaper to treat raw materials -for a similar article then waste reclamation must suffer abandonment, -except in those rare instances where every contributory source of -supply must be pressed into service. Such conditions rarely obtain -on a low market, because the latter is directly attributable to the -circumstance that supply is in advance of demand. It is the inversion -of this law which forces high prices. - -Efforts have been made to stimulate the preservation and surrender -of waste along voluntary lines. But such measures cannot hope to be -commercially successful, except under peculiar circumstances, as for -instance when patriotism may act as the incentive. The voluntary -handling of waste must of necessity prove wanting because it is -deficient in discipline, method, and organization such as science -demands to fulfil the conquests she indicates. Compulsory measures -are absolutely imperative, otherwise all the mickle which makes the -muckle must slip through the meshes of the net, no matter how well it -may be cast. The Germans were enabled to bid defiance to the world, -notwithstanding the stringency of the blockade, by the elaboration of -rigid laws ensuring the collection of all waste. Such measures were in -force more or less during the halcyon pre-war days, but were severely -tightened up when national existence was seriously threatened. Similar -compulsory methods will need to be introduced into this country to -ensure the full recovery of valuable materials for industry, that is -if we are to reduce our purchases from abroad. The desired end can -be achieved indirectly by prohibiting the acquisition of the obvious -raw materials from foreign sources, because instantly the refuse and -residues capable of taking the place of the raw materials will commence -to appreciate in value and accordingly will be preserved and utilized. - -But the citizens of Britain are opposed to compulsion in any and every -form. To impose such conditions is to interfere with the liberty of the -subject, although absolute and unfettered freedom, as experience has -adequately testified, reacts against the welfare of the individual and -the community in general. Failing uncompromising compulsory measures -is it possible to achieve comparative success by spontaneous private -enterprise? - -To obtain an indication of what can be achieved in this direction it -is necessary to go to the French capital. There an enterprising and -energetic Frenchman, Monsieur Verdier-Dufour, undoubtedly built up one -of the largest businesses in the world--founded upon dust-bin waste. -The organization was somewhat intricate and full of inner workings -although highly effective in the production of results, because the -guiding spirit knew that everything has its specific use. - -The operation commences in the gutter at the bin in which the -householder has dumped his refuse and which he has moved to the -kerbstone for collection. Now the Frenchman is a cute bargainer, as -the whole world knows, and the concierge, after the passing of the -ordinance compelling the householder to bin his refuse, promptly saw -a means to improve his pocket. The bin was a lucky dip and accordingly -was well worth exploiting as a concession. He promptly drove a bargain -with one class of the vast army of Paris waste-gatherers which entitled -the individual to rummage the bin before the collector came along, the -only requirement being that the “miner” should be up early and on the -spot before the refuse carts commenced operations. The _placier_, as -this individual is called, did his work well--the bin contained little -of material value after he had sorted its contents. But other less -luckless members of the garbage-rummaging fraternity did not spurn to -submit the tailings from the first process to another treatment and -reap a harvest in the process. - -The odds and ends gathered in this manner, and which were of a most -diversified nature, for the most part found their way to Monsieur -Verdier-Dufour’s establishment, where the precise value of each -article, and the grade of each range of substances, became known to -the uttermost centime. Nothing was too small to be examined and each -article had its individual bin. The man at the helm knew the exact -application for each article, while he was a master-mind in following -the markets. When quotations were abnormally low he could hold on for -the return of better times. His waste commanded the admiration of the -firms with which he dealt because he maintained the standard of his -products which were exactly as described. Manufacturers merely had to -dump the waste into their machines, thus treating it as if it were -raw material. There was no interference with the rigid routine of -their business, nor were they called upon to expend a further penny in -rendering the waste suitable for their intentions. So the master-mind -built up a large and highly lucrative business and thus there was very -little household waste which escaped reclamation. - -Co-operative societies among the rag-pickers supplemented individual -effort in this field. In this instance the process is simpler because -it is conducted along broader lines. Sorting is not conducted to -such a fine degree as under the individual system above described. -Consequently it suffers because lower prices are paid. Waste commands a -price according to the time and labour which will have to be expended -by the purchaser before such material can be safely turned into the -precise channels of the huge manufacturing machine for which it has -been acquired. - -The objection to both co-operative and individual methods, such as I -have described, is that they can only be conducted upon the requisite -scale in the very largest cities where the volume of material to -be handled is relatively heavy. Waste must be forthcoming in a -steady stream of uniform volume to justify its exploitation, and the -fashioning and maintenance of these streams is the supreme difficulty. - -Ostensibly, in this country we have the very finest machinery in -existence for the reclamation of waste of every description--the -municipal and civic authorities. But, as results have conclusively -demonstrated, they are the least efficient institutions in this -respect. The few cities which are able to point to great achievements -in this field are the very exceptions which serve to prove the rule. -They do so in the most convincing manner, and incidentally bring home -to us very vividly the enormous wealth which we are deliberately -throwing away through lack of enterprise and adequate organization. - -The system is responsible for this deplorable state of affairs. The -average municipal engineer, even if anxious to excel in this province, -finds himself hampered at every turn. He is not vested with sufficient -authority or freedom to carry any carefully prepared scheme into -operation without the sanction of this, or that, Committee which, -as a rule, is notorious for its lack of practical knowledge, more -particularly in all matters pertaining to the value of waste. Then -the multiplicity of officials and their salaries reacts against every -possibility of a scheme being turned into a financial success. - -It is a matter for serious discussion as to whether our whole system -of waste recovery, in so far as it affects municipalities, should -not be overhauled from top to bottom--even superseded. It should be -entrusted to private enterprise acting under licence. Were such a force -encouraged we might safely anticipate the provision of well-equipped -comprehensive plants, similar to those which I have described, for the -treatment of waste of every description incurred within the district -in which it operates. To this centre should be borne refuse of every -description for segregation and preparation for the mills of industry. -Private enterprise, from its close contact with the markets, would be -able to set prices at which it would be prepared to purchase waste of -every description from a dog-mauled bone to a worn-out scrubbing-brush; -a discarded daily paper to an abandoned straw hat or pair of tattered -boots. - -By fixing prices for all and every description of residue preservation -and segregation at the source would be encouraged. The housewife, -caretaker of the office, and manager of the factory would see that -all waste was carefully husbanded, and that nothing possessing the -slightest value would be thrown away. The dust-collectors could be -encouraged to participate in the general round-up of waste by being -given a commission upon all useful material brought in. It might be -an over-riding commission to ensure complete and frequent collection. -It is only necessary to apply sufficient stimulus in the form of hard -cash to ensure that nothing is wasted. Private enterprise could carry -out such a scheme whereas municipal authorities are precluded from -following such a course. - -Under private auspices it would also become possible to exploit the -waste accruing in our rural districts. Residences by the wayside, -hamlets and country homes from their isolation have escaped the -tentacles of previous recovery systems. No recognized specialist in -residues, with the exception perhaps of the wardrobe dealer, ever -passes their way to pay a call. But, with modern motor transport -facilities it would be possible to call at these possible scattered -sources of supply for anything and everything, and at regular -intervals, so that the owners might be induced to preserve their useful -materials. It is maintained that such collection would never prove -profitable. Possibly not when considered upon its own footing, but when -contemplated in a general scheme it would not only be lucrative, but -contribute to the higher efficiency of the plant employed from being -able to raise the working output to one more closely approaching the -maximum capacity. - -Such a method of recovering the waste would stimulate competition -which, in turn, would tend to the hardening of prices to the advantage -of those who have waste for disposal. The plant would only need to -study local conditions in so far as the disposal of readily decomposing -refuse was concerned, such as that from householders, fish, meat and -other organic matter. The municipal authorities, by virtue of their -powers, would be able to ensure that this class of refuse was collected -and treated promptly in the interests of the health of the community. -Such waste as is not susceptible to deterioration could be sent or -drawn from distant points, according to the advantage of price offered, -as is actually the case to-day in regard to certain materials. - -Private enterprise would also exercise another far-reaching beneficial -influence. It would not lag behind the clock of progress. Science -is ever advancing and the exploitation of waste lies in its true -scientific utilization. Under the present conditions inventive effort -in this province is not able to exercise the influence or reap the -benefits which it really deserves. The tendency to be satisfied with -what is already installed, no matter how inefficient it may be, is too -deeply implanted. On the other hand, competition is the lever which -impels private enterprise. To turn a blind eye to invention is to court -disaster. - -Although we have made vast strides during the past few years in the -processes of reclamation and utilization of waste we are still far from -having penetrated the threshold of the new world of industry, science, -and invention which it embraces. The unknown lies before us. For -aught contemporary knowledge can say, other triumphs and vast fields -of conquest, comparable with those associated with the gas and oil -industries, are waiting to be discovered, and this fact is adequate to -foster experiment, research, and investigation. - -We talk glibly of exploiting waste, but how many products entering -intimately into our everyday life are being passed through the mill of -reclamation? A little reflection will speedily exhaust the list. If we -look around we can satisfy ourselves how much and what a variety of -substances are still being permitted to run to utter loss. We have not -yet found a use for spent matches, or a means of retipping those which -have been scarcely lighted, despite the fact that this indispensable -attribute to modern civilization has increased from 300 to 800 per -cent. in price. How many typewriter ribbons are used by the tens of -thousands of offices in the country during the year, and what is done -with them when withdrawn from the machines as being unfit for further -service? What is done with the stones and kernels from the millions -of pounds of stone-fruits consumed during the year? The inventor is -still confronted with the prize which will result from the discovery -of an economic use for the 370,000,000 lb. of spent tea-leaves and -100,000,000 lb. of coffee-grounds left in our pots, cups, and urns -during the twelve months. - -The lists of wastes awaiting profitable disposal are extremely -lengthy. Some appear to be as impossible of successful solution as the -discovery of the non-refillable bottle. But effort is not confined to -the perfection of processes for the treatment of untouched wastes, -because the real solution of this problem lies in the full scientific -utilization of the product reclaimed. The fact that a waste is being -exploited does not imply that such utilization is the most profitable. -Investigation may indicate another and totally different, as well as -more lucrative application for a certain material. So the inventor is -not confined to a narrow field; his opportunities are illimitable. - -There is one outstanding factor governing waste reclamation which often -escapes observation. It is the only means whereby the cost of living -may be reduced. Obviously, if a specific substance, whether it be a -foodstuff or raw material for manufacture, be applied exclusively to -one individual purpose, and without the residues resulting from its -preparation, a certain quantity of which must necessarily be incurred, -being turned to any economic account, the one application must bear -the whole of the cost involved. It is by turning the residues to some -profitable account that the cost of the primary product can be reduced -to an attractive level, and the wider the margin of profit on the -by-products and the more numerous the latter, the greater the reduction -possible upon the quotation for the staple. - -For instance, were coal still to be distilled exclusively for its gas, -the price of the latter to-day would be so high as to be prohibitive -to all but the wealthy. It is the ability to exploit from two to three -hundred, or more, by-products arising in the distillation process, -which enables the gas itself to be sold at a figure bringing it within -the reach of all. What would be the cost of our clothes were it not -possible for the mills to take the discarded woollen garments, shred -them, combine the reconstructed fleece with new wool, and thus produce -a new cloth? It is shoddy, or mungo, which has solved the problem of -good clothing at a relatively low price for all, because, to-day, there -are very few of us who could afford to buy suits made of 100 per cent. -new wool. - -There are few spheres of activity offering such attractions, or holding -out such tremendous prizes to the persevering and brilliant of thought -as that identified with the exploitation of wastes. The field is so -vast as to be open to the endeavours of the layman as much as to the -master of knowledge. While many of the questions to be answered are of -severe technical significance, there are many which are equally capable -of solution by the man, or woman, who has had no technical training. -There are many “crown cork” problems awaiting solution, while there -is equal scope and opportunity for those possessed of the powers of -organization. - -The opinion prevails in certain quarters that the present wave of -interest in the scientific reclamation of waste is merely ephemeral. -Doubtless this feeling prevails because of the extreme length to which -the fetish of cheapness and extravagance had carried us and which -shortcomings appeared to be so firmly ingrained as to form part of -the British character. To a certain degree prevailing high prices -are certain to persuade us to pay closer regard to this issue than -has heretofore been the case. Nevertheless, the longer such abnormal -conditions obtain the more impressed shall we become of the wealth -to be won from waste. They will compel us to strive to extract the -utmost from the raw material placed in our hands. They will induce us -to become more and more reluctant to discard a material after we have -secured all apparent worth which it appears to be capable of yielding, -from the fear that the ultimate residue may still contain something of -potential value which we have not succeeded in discovering. - -While, doubtless, the gradual relapse of conditions to the normal -will exercise the effect of causing us to pay decreasing regard to -the value of the wastes, it is to be hoped that, by the time such a -stage has been reached, we shall have become so powerfully impressed -with the potentialities of residues as to continue to exploit them -instinctively. If such be the case we shall find ourselves in the -position of being better armed for the coming commercial struggle -with Germany, to whom waste has brought extraordinary wealth in the -past. Thus equipped we should be able to meet a remorseless and clever -commercial antagonist on more than level terms. - -Of one thing we may rest assured. Germany, past-master in the art -of exploiting wastes, will exert herself far more strenuously in -this field in the future than she has ever done before. Economic -considerations will compel her to keep her foreign purchases of raw -materials down to the irreducible minimum and to force her sales abroad -to the absolute maximum in order to secure the rehabilitation of her -trade balance. To consummate this end she will leave no stone unturned -to exploit her refuse of every description to the full. No one knows -more than Germany what can be done with the so-called rubbish-heap, -and no other country is more cognizant of the fact that the industrial -exploitation of waste creates wealth. So it behoves us to keep a tight -hand upon our residues from household, office, and factory, and to -exploit them ourselves to our own financial and economic advantage. - - -THE END - - - _Printed in Great Britain by_ - UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious errors in punctuation have been fixed. - -Page 12: “preparation of magarine” changed to “preparation of margarine” - -Page 38: “aggreeable surprise” changed to “agreeable surprise” - -Page 44: “authorities succintly” changed to “authorities succinctly” - -Page 121: “in these circumstance” changed to “in these circumstances” - -Page 136: “rather then decreasing” changed to “rather than decreasing” - -Page 141: “while thay have achieved” changed to “while they have -achieved” - -Page 149: “a specialy designed” changed to “a specially designed” - -Page 162: “peculiarly situate” changed to “peculiarly situated” - -Page 272: “enchanced recovery” changed to “enhanced recovery” - -Page 300: “naturally subsidary” changed to “naturally subsidiary” - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MILLIONS FROM WASTE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Talbot</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Millions from Waste</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Frederick A. Talbot</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 14, 2022 [eBook #67837]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MILLIONS FROM WASTE ***</div> - - - - - -<h1>MILLIONS FROM WASTE</h1> - - -<p class="center p2 small"> BY</p> - -<p class="center p2 big"> FREDERICK A. TALBOT</p> - -<p class="center p2 small"> Author of<br /> “The Building of a Great Canadian Railway”—“Inventions - and Discoveries”—“The Steamship Conquest of the - World”—“The Oil Conquest of the World,” - &c., &c.</p> - - -<p class="center p4"> PHILADELPHIA<br /> -<span class="big">J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY</span><br /> - LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN <abbr title="limited">LTD.</abbr></p> - -<p class="center small"> 1920 -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - - - -<p class="center p2 small"> (<i>All rights reserved</i>)<br /> - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN -</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The reclamation and exploitation of waste products for a variety of -industrial uses constitute one of the most fascinating and increasingly -important developments in modern industry. It is a subject of which -very little is known outside privileged circles, and the possibilities -of which are but scantily appreciated by the average individual.</p> - -<p>The purpose of this volume is to indicate certain of the most obvious -channels through which wealth incalculable is being permitted to -escape, as well as the narration of something concerning the highly -ingenious efforts which are being made to prevent such wastage. While -written essentially for the uninitiated reader, the hope is entertained -that it may prove of certain service to those who are fully alive -to the potentialities of refuse of every description, and who are -endeavouring to redeem the country from the charge of being wantonly -extravagant in its use and consumption of raw materials, both edible -and industrial.</p> - -<p>The subject of waste reclamation is too vast and intricate, albeit -romantic and fascinating, to be treated within the scope of a single -volume. Consequently I have confined myself rather to those phases -which are familiar to the average person and to the losses which are -incurred from their inadvertent destruction—losses which affect -both the individual and the community in general. If it succeeds in -acquainting the man-in-the-street and the woman at home with the -enormous wastage, both of finance and kind, which are incurred in these -most familiar fields during the course of the year, and persuades them -to observe methods<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> of thrift, a material contribution to the national -wealth should be effected.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of this work I have been extended liberal and -courteous assistance from numerous sources. I am especially indebted -to the War Office, the National Salvage Council, the Food Production -Department, and the Paper Controller, also to several civic and -municipal authorities, notably of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Bradford, and San -Francisco. I have also been fortunate in securing valuable co-operation -from several gentlemen interested in the waste problem, including -Messrs. J. H. Pooley and James Macgregor, of Messrs. Ernest Scott & -Co., Limited, of London, Glasgow, Fall River, Mass., U.S.A., Montreal, -and Buenos Aires; <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Jean Schmidt, of Industrial Waste Eliminators, -Limited, London; Winget Limited, London; <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> H. P. Hoyle, of the -Grange Iron Company, Limited, Durham; <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> F. N. Pickett, Hove; and J. -Grossmann, Esq., M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C., etc., as well as the Editors of -the <i>World’s Work</i> and <i>Chambers’s Journal</i>, to all of whom I -express my best thanks.</p> - -<p class="right"> -FREDERICK A. TALBOT.<br /> -</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Brighton</span>, <i>July 1919</i>.</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<th class="tdr"> -CHAPTER -</th> -<th class="tdr page" colspan="2"> -PAGE -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl"> -PREFACE -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_5">5</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> -WASTE: ITS RELATION TO COMMERCE AND NATIONAL ECONOMY -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_9">9</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> THE GERMAN CONQUEST OF WASTE -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_23">23</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> SALVAGE FROM THE ARMY SWILL-TUB -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_37">37</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> THE RECLAMATION OF MILITARY ORGANIC WASTE -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_50">50</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> INVENTION IN ITS APPLICATION TO WASTE RECOVERY -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_63">63</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> SAVING THE SCRAP FROM THE SEA -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_80">80</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> WINNING WEALTH FROM SLAUGHTER-HOUSE OFFAL, CONDEMNED MEAT, BONES, AND BLOOD -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_100">100</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> TURNING WASTES INTO PAPER -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_117">117</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> SUPPLYING INDUSTRIES FROM THE DUST-BIN -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_141">141</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> LIVING ON WASTE -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_157">157</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> POTATO WASTE AS AN ASSET TO INDUSTRY -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_169">169</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> CONVERTING NITROGENOUS REFUSE INTO SOAP -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_183">183</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> TURNING OLD OIL INTO NEW -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_196">196</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> BY-PRODUCTS FROM THE WASTE-BIN -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_207">207</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> THE LIFTING MAGNET AS A WASTE-DEVELOPING FORCE -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_225">225</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> RECLAIMING 321,000,000 GALLONS OF LIQUID FUEL FROM COAL -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_239">239</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> FERTILIZERS FROM WASTES -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_249">249</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> SAVING THE SEWAGE SLUDGE -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_262">262</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">XIX.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> HOUSE-BUILDING WITH WASTES -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_278">278</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XX">XX.</a> -</td> -<td class="tdl"> THE FUTURE OF THE WASTE PROBLEM; POSSIBILITIES FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_297">297</a> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Millions_from_Waste">Millions from Waste</h2> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br />WASTE: ITS RELATION TO COMMERCE AND NATIONAL ECONOMY</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>Extravagance is the inevitable corollary to cheap living. The -expression “living” is used in its very broadest sense, and is by -no means confined to the mere consumption of foodstuffs. If living -be cheap the thousand and one attributes complementary thereto, -from wearing apparel to creature comforts for the home and from raw -materials to finished goods, must necessarily rule low in price. Under -such conditions the very fact that it is cheaper, as well as easier and -simpler, to incur a further capital charge, rather than to endeavour to -induce additional service from what is already in hand, though possibly -damaged slightly, prompts waste, in precisely the same way as it is -more expedient to replace the damaged part of a standardized article, -whether it be a motor-car, sewing machine, typewriter, or watch, than -to attempt to carry out a repair.</p> - -<p>The ready availability of a spare part directly encourages waste -more or less. The convenience is provided at an attractive figure to -appeal to the consumer, while to the producer it renders a higher -proportion of profit than is attainable when it forms part and parcel -of the complete finished article. The latter is not marketed at the -aggregate of the prices of the integral parts, as one may promptly -verify if they feel so disposed. From this it must not be imagined that -replacement <em>per se</em> is to be condemned, except that it is often -attended by the complete loss of the displaced and damaged part. Were -the conservation of the removed part conducted the system would be -deserving of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> whole-hearted support, because in this way the material -of which it is wrought would be available for further use. Those firms -which insist upon the return of a damaged section before they undertake -to forward the replacement are pursuing a wise policy. It is true they -consign the faulty or worn part to the junk pile, but, at intervals, -the latter is turned over to the manufacturing interests to undergo -further exploitation.</p> - -<p>It is also somewhat significant to record that improvidence is -intimately associated with cheap labour. Cheap living and cheap -labour go hand-in-hand. As a matter of fact, until recently the -average working members of the community, from the comparative point -of view, have been guilty of greater improvidence than those who are -well-blessed with this world’s goods.</p> - -<p>This apparent anomaly is readily explicable. In the houses of the -wealthy the accumulation of residues of every description must -necessarily attain imposing dimensions. But these wastes are not -lost to commerce and industry. In the majority of cases they are -handed over to the employees by whom they are regarded as legitimate -perquisites. To gratify some individual whim, passing fancy, or from -inherent tendency to bargain, these residues are carefully garnered -and harboured to be converted into cash through one or other of the -many purchasing channels which appear to diverge to these centres. The -cooks dispose of bones, fats, and greases, as well as other wastes from -the kitchen, to the itinerant rag-and-bone merchant; rejected wearing -apparel finds its way to the wardrobe dealer; worn-out copper, iron -and aluminium culinary utensils, as well as divers other metallic odds -and ends gravitate to the specialists in old iron and waste metals; -superfluous produce from the kitchen garden meets with profitable -distribution, while even the swill is able to command its market.</p> - -<p>It is the opportunity to profit in pocket from such “extras” which acts -as the incentive to collect, separate and to bargain for the sale of -wastes from a pretentious house. But, as the social scale is descended, -the tendency to keep a tight hand upon the refuse suffers unconscious -relaxation. This is primarily due to the fact that the volume of such -accumulations undergoes attenuation as the social<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> ladder is descended. -As the bulk diminishes so does the impression, “Oh! it is not worth -while troubling about!” become accentuated. Finally, when we reach the -bottom of the ladder—the average working household—the quantity of -waste is considered to be so trifling as to be deemed quite unworthy -of consideration. Consequently, here we find the whole, or at least 90 -per cent., of the refuse consigned to the fire, or to the rubbish heap, -instead of being preserved and turned into a profitable channel to -receive a new lease of utility.</p> - -<p>As with the home so with the office and factory. The small workshop -or business establishment accommodated within one or two rooms -records its proportion of waste, but it apparently is so slender as -to be comparatively insignificant. Furthermore, as a rule, it is so -varied as to aggravate the thought of being more nuisance than it is -worth. Accordingly, the refuse is neither sorted nor retained, but, -especially if it be combustible, meets with an untimely end. On the -other hand, in the large factory, the accumulations being of distinct -magnitude, segregation and careful retention are observed to facilitate -ready sale, while arrangements are even completed for the periodical -clearance of the refuse at mutually satisfactory if not prevailing -market prices. Whether the waste ever commands its real intrinsic value -is a matter of opinion, because we have never been persuaded to regard -the residue disposal problem in the strict commercial sense.</p> - -<p>Reflection gives rise to the question—What is waste? A more -appropriate explanation than a paraphrase of Palmerston’s famous -dictum concerning dirt would be difficult to find. Waste is merely raw -material in the wrong place. In the spirit fostered by our traditional -improvidence we have sought to adapt another existing term to meet the -situation. We glibly dismiss waste as rubbish. It is not, but because -we have been too indolent to occupy our minds in the elaboration of -further possible applications for what we do not actually require -for conduct of the operations with which our individual exertions -are identified, we seek to satisfy our consciences in the easiest -manner. In so doing we essay to flout a fundamental law of Nature—the -indestructibility of matter. We have failed to appreciate that what may -be of no immediate value to ourselves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> may, indeed can, with judicious -and scientific handling be persuaded to serve in the capacity of -indispensable raw material to other ranges of endeavour. It may even go -so far as to supply the wherewithal for the creation of new industries, -widening the possible fields of employment, and contribute pronouncedly -towards the wealth of the nation.</p> - -<p>This fact can be brought home very conclusively. In the opening days of -this century the amount of fats, oils, and greases which were allowed -to run to waste was colossal. They were cheap commodities and, although -they occur in greater or lesser degree with the majority of organic -materials in popular request, not a thought was expended upon the -possible losses which their discard with so-called wastes represented. -But, during the past few years, the demand for these substances has -advanced by leaps and bounds. They have become vital to the table -in several forms, and this request has brought the food-producing -industry into conflict with another trade of far-reaching importance, -namely, the manufacture of soap. The situation is rather peculiar, as -I point out in a subsequent chapter. Some idea of the volume of fats -absorbed in the preparation of margarine and soap, respectively, may be -gathered from the narration of the fact that one of the largest soap -manufactories in the world demands the supply of fat in a steady stream -of about 5,000 tons per week.</p> - -<p>A few years ago the activities of this particular firm were -concentrated upon the manufacture of soap. It was the solitary product. -But it had its attention attracted to the growth and possibilities of -the margarine trade, and it decided to enter this market. To-day, its -activities are divided between the production of the two commodities, -and, curiously enough, almost equally. From its works issue out about -6,000 tons of soap and 4,000 tons of margarine every week.</p> - -<p>This merely represents the endeavours of one firm. There are scores -of others following a similar line of action. The result is that the -demand for fats has reached an unprecedented level. At the moment of -writing the coarsest grade of fat is able to command approximately -£50—$250—a ton. Is it surprising therefore that every effort should -now be made to extract the fats, grease, and oil associated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> with every -form of organic waste, and that keen effort should be made to secure -increasing quantities of waste capable of yielding this material?</p> - -<p>So far as the public is concerned this spirited search for fat may be -regarded with misgiving, if not absolute alarm. The wizardry of the -chemist is acknowledged, and the thought possibly prevails that much -of the fat now being turned into margarine is really only fitted for -the production of soap. But alarmist or pessimistic feelings in this -direction may be speedily allayed, though it is permissible to point -out that ten years ago much fat was turned into the cleanser which -should have been utilized as a foodstuff, inasmuch as its freshness -and wholesomeness were above all criticism. It was merely turned over -to the soap-maker because no alternative application was apparent. -But conceding the magical qualifications of the chemist, there are -some feats which yet remain beyond his powers. The ability to turn -bad fat into good for dietetic purposes must be numbered among those -achievements which as yet have proved impracticable. If a fat be rancid -it cannot possibly be reconditioned for edible purposes. No matter how -its preparation may be coaxed and nursed it cannot be converted into a -foodstuff. The palate would detect rancidity instantly. Consequently, -only the highest grades of animal fat are used for the preparation of -margarine; the fact that the big-scale production of a food should -have been embraced by the soap-maker merely represents one of those -inexplicable coincidences of industry.</p> - -<p>It is distinctly interesting, if not actually amusing, to follow what -may be described as the utilitarian conjugation of waste. It remains -an incubus, if not an unmitigated nuisance, until the chemist, or some -other keenly observant individual possessed of a fertile mind, comes -along to rake it over and to indulge in experiments. Such efforts -are often followed with ill-concealed amusement. A few years since -they were even regarded as so much waste of time. In due course some -definite conclusion is reached, and the fact becomes driven home that, -if such-and-such a process be followed a particular spurned refuse -can be utilized as raw material for the production of some specific -article. Then scepticism and amusement give way to intense interest and -speculative rumination. The new idea is submitted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> to the stern test of -practical application upon a commercial basis, while the financial end -of the proposal, which is the determining factor, is carefully weighed.</p> - -<p>These complex issues being satisfactorily settled the exploitation -of the erstwhile waste, or rubbish, is energetically pursued. It has -now become a potentially valuable by-product, and, accordingly, must -be worked for all it is worth. Firmly entrenched upon the market -development is vigorously pursued, often to culminate in the quondam -waste, now an established by-product, being lifted to such a position -of commercial eminence as to dispute premier recognition with the -staple in the production of which it is incurred. In more than one -instance the by-product has even eclipsed the primary product, or at -least attained a level of equal importance, while occasionally the -staple has even suffered virtual deposition to rank as little else but -a by-product. There are even some cases on record where the manufacture -of the staple has been abandoned, at all events for a time, because -the by-product, the former incubus of the industry has become invested -with such far-reaching importance as to demand the concentration of -effort upon its production. Waste—by-product—staple: such constitutes -the brief evolution of more than one of the world’s leading lines of -trading.</p> - -<p>Many instances of remarkable topsy-turvydom in this connection might -be cited. Possibly one of the most impressive illustrations in this -respect, although the transposition is not yet quite complete, is -offered by coal-gas. When Clayton first demonstrated the practicability -of extracting illuminating gas from coal commercialism feverishly -set to work to exploit the gas, and gas only. But the gas proved to -be associated with a variety of substances which threatened the very -future of Clayton’s discovery. Ammonia fumes poisoned the atmosphere -of the room in which the gas was burned to the grave danger of -the health—even lives—of the occupants according to the cynics, -critics, and caricaturists of the day. The tar carried in suspension -in the gas was every whit as exasperating because it condensed in the -mains to choke them. Ammonia and tar became the bane of life to the -gas-engineers of the period, harassing them to the verge of endurance, -while the elimination of the two deleterious substances involved the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -expenditure of enormous sums of money and prodigious thought.</p> - -<p>What is the position to-day. Gas, the staple product from the -distillation of coal three-quarters of a century ago, now, to all -intents and purposes, is the by-product. The world could roll along -very comfortably without it. Indeed, we may have to do so in the near -future when the gas is stripped of every other marketable constituent, -leaving only a mixture of methane and hydrogen gases to be burned under -boilers to raise steam for the generation of electricity in enormous -bulk. The ammonia which formerly jeopardized health and lives, and to -remove and to throw away which the pioneer engineers strained every -nerve, is now trapped to be converted into fertilizer. Then the tar -which likewise nearly drove the engineers frantic is now carefully -drawn off, collected and resolved into a host of wonderful articles to -furnish a diversity of indispensable materials. It would be wearisome -to recite the list. It is so lengthy. But it would seem as if the -by-products of coal touch every other industry, ranging from dyes to -chemicals, flavourings to disinfectants, perfumes to therapeutics and -soporifics.</p> - -<p>As with coal so with oil. Forty years ago the boring of a well was -followed with mixed feelings by the indefatigable driller. A “strike,” -while devoutly to be desired, was just as likely to bring dreadful -disaster swift and sudden, even death, as wealth untold. The driller -probed the earth animated by one idea. This was to tap the subterranean -lake of crude petroleum. But in driving his bore the driller invariably -crashed through the roof of an underground reservoir of petroleum gas. -Ignorant of the value of this product, though painfully aware of its -danger if allowed to break away and to get beyond control, the early -seekers for oil led this gas through a pipe to a point some distance -away. There the flow from the open end was ignited and the gas allowed -to burn merrily in the open air. The driller knew no peace of mind -until the flame flickered and expired as a result of the exhaustion of -the subterranean gasometer. Then, and not until, he could resume his -boring for the precious liquid with complacency.</p> - -<p>But with passing years and progress came enlightenment. The gas is -no longer wasted; it is trapped. In some instances it is led through -piping for hundreds of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> miles to feed hungry furnaces engaged in the -making of steel and other products. The earth is even being drilled, -not for petroleum, but for its huge supplies of natural gas, and the -huge reservoirs thus discovered are being harnessed to the thousand -wheels of industry. We even find trains fitted with cylinders carrying -natural gas stored under high pressure to furnish light for the -convenience of passengers, and to enable dainty meals to be cooked in -the kitchens of the dining-cars.</p> - -<p>The oil refineries, upon receiving the crude petroleum, set out to -recover as much paraffin as they could. This was the primary product, -because a brilliant British chemist, Young, had discovered how to -distil paraffin from petroleum for lighting, heating, and cooking. -It represented a huge advance upon the lamp dependent upon whale oil -and the tallow dip. But before the refiners could reach the paraffin -they were called upon to wrestle with a lighter spirit which sorely -harassed and perplexed them. It was extremely volatile, and highly -inflammable—even explosive in the vapour form when mixed with air—and -accordingly was construed into a menace to the refinery. It was -carefully drawn off and dumped into large pits, where it was burned -merely to get rid of it. Its commercial value was set down as nil. A -certain quantity was used by laundries and dry-cleaners because of its -striking cleansing qualities, but it was used sparingly and cautiously -owing to its dangerous character. It could be purchased only with -difficulty, and in small quantities by the members of the public, the -retailers for the most part being chemists and druggists. If one were -glib of tongue and a master of the persuasive art, one might succeed in -obtaining as much as half-a-pint in a single purchase.</p> - -<p>Suddenly a creative mind evolved the high-speed internal combustion -engine, which heralded the coming of the motor-car, the submarine, and -more recently the aeroplane and airship. The volatile spirit which -hitherto had been spurned and burned wastefully by the refineries was -immediately discovered to be invested with a value which had heretofore -escaped attention. It formed the ideal fuel for the new motor. -Forthwith wanton destruction of the volatile spirit was abandoned. -Every drop was carefully collected, and, as time went on and the -demand for the light liquid fuel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> increased, the refiners put forth -greater effort to wring every possible dram of petrol from the crude -petroleum. Paraffin, which had hitherto been regarded as the staple, -was ignored. It even dropped in commercial estimation as a by-product -and became a drug on the market, although, fortunately, the refineries -hesitated from repeating the practice they had honoured in regard to -petrol—summary destruction by fire.</p> - -<p>So insistent and overwhelming has grown the demand for petrol that -the producers are hard put to it to keep pace with the requirements. -A petroleum boom has reverberated around the world, eclipsing in -intensity any stampede identified with the search for gold. To these -islands the petroleum age has contributed very little wealth, although -it has been responsible for revived interest in the exploitation of -our shale—another form of waste—but to Russia, the United States of -America, Mexico, and the East, where the earth reeks with petroleum, it -has brought wealth untold. It has completely transformed the economic -outlook of certain nations, and in some instances has served to rescue -a country from bankruptcy. To us it is of appreciable significance -because, so far, we have been compelled to draw upon distant sources -for our requirements and so have to contribute to the national wealth -of others, some of whom are our most spirited rivals in trade.</p> - -<p>In 1913 our imports of petroleum products aggregated 488,106,963 -gallons, valued at £10,856,806—$54,284,030—the contribution -from Greater Britain being 22,172,701 gallons, valued at -£829,868—$4,149,340. Of this enormous volume 100,858,017 gallons -represented petrol for our motors—the waste product of forty years ago -at the refineries—for which we had to pay £3,803,397—$19,016,985. In -the year when mechanical road propulsion was ushered in petrol could -be obtained for about 4d.—8 cents—a gallon: in 1918 it commanded -3s. 6d.—84 cents—a gallon. An increase of over 900 per cent. in -value within approximately 35 years represents no mean achievement in -commercial expansion, but when it relates to an erstwhile waste product -the record is far more sensational.</p> - -<p>To relate all the fortunes which have been amassed from the -commercialization of what was once rejected and valueless would -require a volume. Yet it is a story of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> fascinating romance and one -difficult to parallel in the whole realm of human activity. It was the -waste energy of water which laid the foundations of Lord Armstrong’s -fortune and the enormous fabric of the huge firm on Tyneside. Sir -Hiram Maxim revolutionized warfare by harnessing the wasted kick or -recoil to reload and fire his machine-gun, thereby introducing one -of the most formidable small arms ever devised to conduct the gentle -art of killing. Lord Masham established a new industry and became a -millionaire by taking the “chassum” or silk waste—a refuse which had -even suffered rejection as a manure because it took such a long time -to rot—and utilizing it as a raw material for the production of a -new and wonderful range of beautiful fabrics in velvet and plush. It -was another textile wizard, Sir Titus Salt, who perfected the process -for turning the wool sheared from the back of a member of the camel -family roaming the heights of the Andes, and which was classed as sheer -rubbish, into the soft glossy fabric known as alpaca.</p> - -<p>But one of the most powerful expressions of the possibilities attending -the scientific utilization of waste, and one which brings home very -forcibly to us the national wealth to be won from refuse, is associated -with our woollen industry. Where would Yorkshire be without mungo or -shoddy? Dewsbury has become the world’s centre for the disposal of -old clothes and woollen rags. Here converge all the streams bearing -abandoned flotsam and jetsam into the preparation of which wool has -entered. There is scarcely anything more disreputable, if not actually -repellent, than a sack of woollen rags. But pass that waste through -suitable machines and a wonderful transformation in attractiveness, -colouring, and design, as well as texture, is accomplished.</p> - -<p>Wool can never be worn out. That is an indisputable axiom in woollen -circles. It does not matter how many years ago the textile may first -have been prepared, nor the many and varied vicissitudes through -which it may have passed; it can be used over and over again. It may -have travelled through the machines forty or fifty times, may have -graced the form of a hundred persons, may have clothed a scarecrow -or have been retrieved from a river in the course of its career. -True, with each new lease of life it suffers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> a certain depreciation, -but blended with new wool or cotton it is effectively revived. The -history of a fibre of wool would be distinctly romantic and thrilling -could it be but written, and even the wildest flights of imagination -would be unable to rival stern fact. It is the ability to work -and re-work up woollen textile for an indefinite period which has -contributed to the prosperity of Yorkshire, and which has enabled -this country to build up an export trade in this commodity exceeding -£500,000,000—$2,500,000,000—a year in value.</p> - -<p>An impressively successful, yet sinister, utilization of waste was -brought to light during the war. In their methodical investigation -of the dye-stuffs problem the Germans found it necessary to prepare -a certain substance which constitutes the starting-point for the -production of one of their leading products. Toluol, a by-product from -the manufacture of gas, is taken and treated with nitric acid. Now -orthonitrotoluol is the specific product in request, but nitrification -produces two substances, orthonitrotoluol and paranitrotoluol, -respectively. The last-named is of no use whatever, but its production -has to be suffered, though, unfortunately, the yield thereof is twice -that of the essential article. So far as the industrial pursuit in -question is concerned the paranitrotoluol represented a sheer waste.</p> - -<p>Now the German, when he encounters a waste, does not throw it away -or allow it to remain an incubus. Saturated with the principle that -the residue from one process merely represents so much raw material -for another line of endeavour, he at once sets to work to attempt to -discover some use for a refuse. Manufacturers in other countries were -equally troubled with the accumulations of paranitrotoluol because -the production of the two substances as a result of nitrifying toluol -is strictly in accordance with constitutional chemical law. They also -learned that the Germans had succeeded in turning it to advantage. What -was this application? This was the poser. They sought enlightenment in -this direction but found that the German was resolutely keeping his -discovery to himself.</p> - -<p>Other countries remained in ignorance until the Germans set out to -materialize their fantastic dream of world-wide domination. When -their hordes burst upon the frontier<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> defences of Belgium, and their -bombardment played sad havoc with the fortifications of Liege and -Namur, the world marvelled. The intense destructive power of the high -explosive which was being used was something new to warfare. It was -promptly investigated, and then the use for the paranitrotoluol, the -apparent incubus of the dye-stuffs-producing factories, was discovered. -It was being turned into the destructive agent familiarly known as -T.N.T., or trinitrotoluol, to give the explosive its true chemical -designation.</p> - -<p>It is perfectly obvious, from what has been related, that, if one -will only devote sufficient energy and fertility of thought to the -study of so-called rubbish and its properties, incalculable economic -and financial benefits must redound to the individual. And as with -individuals so with nations. The British race is generally assailed as -being woefully improvident and remiss in the profitable exploitation -of waste, but it errs in excellent company. The United States of -America are probably far more guilty in this respect. According to the -statement of the American Food Administrator the inhabitants of 24 -cities between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by ignoring the latent -wealth contained in their garbage barrels, are throwing away sufficient -grease and fat during the year to produce 30,000,000 one-pound bars -of soap. On the other hand, 300 small towns, by pursuing thrift in -this direction, are producing sufficient food from the disposal of -their swill to yield 50,000,000 additional pounds of pork worth -£1,600,000 ($8,000,000) a year, although in this instance the results -might be doubled by the practice of more perfect methods. Another 350 -towns, which disdain the value of their swill-tubs, are throwing away -approximately £2,000,000 ($10,000,000) a year because they are not -inclined to take a little trouble concerning the disposal of their -garbage.</p> - -<p>Contrast the methods obtaining in the United States and Britain with -those peculiar to France. That picturesque figure of French civic -life, the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chiffonnier</i>, is the perennial butt of humorists -and cartoonists. But he is a powerful economic factor. Through his -efforts millions sterling are saved annually to the French nation. -The rag-picker and his colleagues “specializing” in other forms of -spoil lurking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> in the ash-barrel pursue their work so diligently as to -secure everything, except vegetable matter, which is capable of being -worked up into other forms by the exercise of brains and commercial -enterprise. It may not seem a savoury occupation to rake over the -repulsive assorted contents of the household dust-bin, but it serves -to swell, to an appreciable degree, the streams of raw materials -flowing into the insatiable maws of industry. What is left after these -industrious toilers have completed their work finds its way to the -dust-destructor to assist in the raising of steam to drive engines and -generators for the supply of electricity.</p> - -<p>The diligent exploitation of waste exercises a far-reaching influence -upon the wealth of nations. If we were to turn the whole of our -residues, both industrial and domestic, to the utmost account we -should be able to cut down our annual expenditure upon purchases from -abroad to a very startling degree. Every ton of import saved not -only represents the retention of so much sterling in our pocket, but -releases a ton of shipping for the movement of other material, not -necessarily to these islands, but between other countries, since it -must not be forgotten that we derive an appreciable proportion of our -national income from carrying the trade of the world. If we were to -salvage all the rags entering into the domestic refuse of the nation we -could reduce our imports of wool during the year by 19,000 tons, and -allow 15,000 tons of shipping space to be devoted to other purposes. -From the yield of cotton refuse derived from the dust-bins we could -turn out 16,000 tons of new paper. If we were to become miserly in -our collection of waste-paper and to turn it back into the mills, we -could secure a further 44,000 tons of new paper during the year and -save the import of 75,000 tons of wet pulp from Scandinavia. Were all -our old tins handed over to the steel-makers we could reproduce from -this raw material 74,000 tons of new steel and dispense with 148,000 -tons of Spanish ore. The steel obtainable from the re-smelting of old -tins alone would furnish sufficient material to construct approximately -forty 3,000-ton vessels.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, a change in the national habits of extravagance is to be -recorded. The increased cost of living is compelling more sparing use -of the necessaries of life and industry. The incontrovertible truth of -the axiom “Waste<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> not; want not,” although it may sound rather trite, -has been brought home to us. But the complete salvage of waste is -probably impossible of realization so long as the kitchen stove and -furnace remain. Fire is an excellent destructive agency, but is far too -handy for the removal from sight, if not from memory, of the multitude -of odds and ends incidental to our complex social and industrial -existence. With the coming of the electric age, and the supersession of -kitchen stoves and factory furnaces by cheap current, the facilities -for the ready destruction of what is really valuable raw material under -the guise of waste will be removed. In the interests of economy and -wealth, both individual and national, it is to be hoped that the coming -of the electric era may not be unduly delayed.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br />THE GERMAN CONQUEST OF WASTE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Waste creates wealth. If one desire a convincing illustration of the -truth of this latter-day precept one has only to cross the North Sea. -It is generally conceded that, at the dawn of the second decade of the -twentieth century, the Teutonic Empire had the world at its feet so -far as commerce is concerned. There is little reason to doubt but that -Germany would have become the super-trading nation of the world within -a few more years had not territorial ambition and the lust for military -conquest have blinded Reason.</p> - -<p>The pre-war wealth of the country, that is as it stood in 1914, is -universally acknowledged. But what is not so generally appreciated -is the circumstance that, to a very marked degree, this wealth was -secured as a result of the scientific utilization of waste. In every -ramification of industrial and social activity thrift, system, -and organization were conspicuous. Circumstances were primarily -responsible for the pursuance of such a policy. Germany is essentially -an agricultural country. She was dependent upon outside sources of -supply for many of the staple raw materials wherewith to keep her mills -and factories going. Consequently she was compelled to rely for her -existence upon the margin between buying and selling, and she naturally -strove to render this difference as pronounced as possible by turning -her purchases to the maximum advantage. Even in the exploitation of her -natural resources this tendency was manifest, but little wastage being -suffered.</p> - -<p>The Germans went farther. From the experience amassed in the -development of wealth from waste products they were quite prepared to -buy residues from foreign competitors, to ship them to the Homeland, -and there to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> work them up. The country was quite prepared to act as a -marine store upon a big scale, because thereby it was able to acquire -valuable potential raw materials for infinitesimal expense. The vending -countries, as a rule, were quite ready to dispose of their waste at a -trifling figure, and often more unfeignedly glad to be rid of what they -considered to be a nuisance, comforting themselves with the thought -that they had been able to drive good bargains from the sale of what -was useless to themselves.</p> - -<p>The Teuton buyers were equally satisfied. They generally succeeded -in buying useful material at an absurdly low figure. Very often -the heaviest item of expense in such transactions was the cost of -freighting the waste to Germany, but here they were able to reap -distinct advantages from preferential rates. However, such expenditure -was speedily recouped because the articles contrived from the erstwhile -rubbish commanded a ready sale and at attractive prices. It was by no -means uncommon for the Germans to sell the commercial products wrought -from the waste back to the very firms whence the last-named had been -acquired, and at a considerably enhanced figure.</p> - -<p>The strangest feature about these transactions was the keenness with -which they were conducted. The countries concerned were far readier to -resort to such commercial tactics than to bestir themselves to turn -their wastes to similar account, although it must be admitted that -the wily Teutons, recognizing the advantage they held, were disposed -to invest their processes for translating refuse into commodities -with distinct secrecy. They played a gigantic game of bluff and their -temerity met with success. If the victims had only reflected they would -have realized that such activity was quite possible to themselves; -that such enterprise would have provided additional avenues for the -employment of their own citizens, and would have contributed materially -to their individual commercial wealth.</p> - -<p>The Germans ransacked the world for wastes. For instance, who but the -Teuton would have gone to stone-fruit packers on the other side of the -world and have offered to purchase the stones which the preservers -discarded and burned under the factory boilers to assist in raising -steam? But the purchasing German firm was astute. The stones were -sent home and the packers laughed at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> the idea of moving such refuse -half-way round the world. The buyers suffered the taunts in silence. -Upon reaching the German factories the fruit-stones were cracked and -the nuts extracted. These were submitted to treatment to yield a wide -range of oils, some of which were turned into essences and liqueurs. -Then the Germans dispatched much of this reclaimed produce back to the -territory where the stones were purchased, where it was bought with -avidity, and at inordinately high prices. Little did the packers think -that they were buying back their own refuse in another and useful form -and were being compelled to pay heavily for the privilege!</p> - -<p>The fibrous residue, remaining after the expression of the oil, was -turned into cattle-food, much of which also was sold in foreign -markets. The nut-shells were turned into carbon or charcoal, which, -from its peculiar quality and high grade, was eminently adapted to -laboratory and other uses. We were forced to realize that such shells -possess distinct virtues, for did we not encourage one and all to save -the stones from fruit to furnish the requisite absorbent material with -which to equip the gas-masks served to our soldiers to combat the -evils of the poison-gas used in the war! In this connection we were -completely forestalled by the enemy. Undoubtedly he was encouraged to -launch such a devilish weapon from his discovery of a complete antidote -to such aggressive measures in the charcoal made from the spurned -nut-shells accruing to the fruit-packing country on the other side of -the globe.</p> - -<p>Sawdust accumulates in Germany as it does in every country where -working in wood is practised extensively. But there the waste is not -turned into rivers or burned in destructors as in the United States -and Canada. Nor is it dumped in unsightly heaps to rot slowly, used to -bed-down stock, or distributed over the floors of butchers’ shops and -public-houses as in these islands.</p> - -<p>A firm conceived the idea of turning this residue to account in the -fabrication of a special form of plastic floor-covering. It was mixed -with magnesium chloride to form a cement to be applied somewhat after -the manner of asphalt, the whole of the area thus being covered -and finished off with suitable tools to yield a smooth, level, and -attractive finish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span></p> - -<p>However, it was speedily discovered that this floor-covering suffered -from one disability. Magnesium chloride is hygroscopic: it absorbs -water, even moisture from the atmosphere, very readily. Consequently -it became soft and damp in humid and wet weather. Otherwise it left -nothing to be desired, being comfortable to the tread, silent, and warm.</p> - -<p>The German is nothing if not thorough. He does not hesitate to harness -science to the wheels of industry when the occasion so demands. He -realized that to utilize sawdust as a floor-covering it would be -necessary to follow strict scientific lines. Accordingly the chemist -was called in. He, as a result of prolonged investigations and numerous -tests, succeeded in overcoming the outstanding inherent defect of the -sawdust paving, and at the same time emphasized that control of the -proportions of sawdust and magnesium chloride was essential owing to -the first-named varying so widely in its characteristics according -to the nature of the wood from which it is derived. Consequently the -manufacture of this floor-covering is now supervised by the chemist, -and the hygroscopic difficulty has been effectively overcome. The -material has achieved a distinct vogue, not only in Germany, but -in other countries. It is extremely effective and is relatively -inexpensive—the cost averages from 5 to 7 shillings ($1.25 to $1.75) -per square yard—bearing in mind its durable and wearing qualities. -Incidentally the country has found a highly profitable outlet for its -accumulations of sawdust.</p> - -<p>The world’s consumption of tin-plate has risen to enormous proportions, -the extraordinary expansion of the tinned or canned food industry -being responsible for this development. Thousands of tons of steel are -absorbed in the manufacture of these containers, as well as hundreds of -tons of tin and solder. Upon the removal of the contents the tins are -generally thrown away, especially by the prodigal nations. This wastage -became so flagrant as to arouse the severe condemnation of economists -in every country, but these would-be apostles found it well-nigh -hopeless to persuade their compatriots to endeavour to exploit the -empty tins. Here and there spasmodic efforts were made upon a limited -scale to recover the solder, tin, and steel-plate for further use, but -the problem did not prove so easy of solution as it had appeared.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span></p> - -<p>The bulk of the vessel constituted a formidable obstacle, while its -susceptibility to the ravages of rust was also discovered to be a -distinct drawback. In this country the general practice has beep -to crush the tins flat and to feed them into the blast furnaces as -scrap, but in this process the tin vanishes up the chimney, while -the solder is also lost, though the steel-plate, which forms 99 per -cent. of the composition of the vessel, becomes available as raw -material. Nevertheless, although the quantity of tin used is trifling, -representing only approximately one per cent., the Germans considered -it to be quite worthy of recovery, especially when tin commanded from -£150 to £200—$750 to $1,000—per ton.</p> - -<p>The Teuton attacked the tin-recovery problem more energetically than -his colleagues in other countries and apparently achieved success, -although the degree of triumph recorded in this connection has always -remained a matter for considerable speculation. Be that as it may -the German interests concerned were quite prepared to purchase empty -British tins and to ship them across the North Sea to be treated in -their home plants. From this fact it is only logical to assume that -they had found practical ways and means to consummate the desired end, -otherwise they would scarcely have gone to the lengths of organizing -a complete collecting system in these islands, and of incurring the -freightage charges, although the waste was carried at a low figure. -With the outbreak of war, and the rise in the price of tin to -approximately £300 ($1,500) a ton, we were forced to inquire into the -possibilities of recovering the tin and solder from this refuse, and by -energetic action were able to equal, if not to surpass, German effort, -so that to-day de-tinning may be said to represent an established -British industry.</p> - -<p>The fact that Germany was compelled to depend extensively upon outside -sources for supplies of raw materials prompted the theory in many -quarters that, once the British blockade was firmly established, -surrender must follow quickly from economic pressure. But the enemy -displayed his ability to hold out for a far longer period than we had -anticipated. Why? Simply because the moment he saw himself isolated -from his outside sources of supply he inaugurated a more rigid system -for the compulsory collection,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> segregation and utilization of his -domestic waste. We know to-day how sternly these orders were enforced, -and how completely the country was covered by official organizations -established to this end.</p> - -<p>To ensure that nothing of industrial value should be lost a collecting -centre was established in every village and hamlet, the local chief -magistrate being vested with wide powers for the conduct of the work -placed in his charge. It was his duty to see that everything and -anything capable of further exploitation was retrieved. The inhabitants -were notified by public placard that they must bring and surrender -their accumulations of refuse to the collecting centre at specific -intervals, according to the available machinery and the population of -the village. The head of every family or household was held personally -responsible for the preservation of anything capable of further use -and residue incurred within his home. Any dereliction in this respect, -or infraction of the official commands, was subject to punishment -according to the nature of the offence.</p> - -<p>The materials which were in greatest demand were duly set forth. They -included such junk as old metal of every description, from useless -cooking utensils to fragments of wire, worn-out tools, abandoned -implements and nails recovered from packing cases: textile odds and -ends no matter how old and threadbare from the heterogeneous contents -of the rag-bag to discarded suits, dresses, hosiery, frills, ribbon, -and hats: and kitchen waste in infinite variety. The metal was turned -over to the munition plants, the textile waste to the woollen, paper, -and other mills, while the organic waste was distributed throughout -the countryside for feeding stock after the fats and greases had been -extracted.</p> - -<p>In the towns and cities similar organizations were created, only in -these instances the regulations were somewhat more stringent. All and -every kind of kitchen waste had to be surrendered daily. In the leading -cities it was incumbent upon every householder to have his accumulation -of refuse from the previous day ready for the arrival of the official -collecting cart. As this passed through the street in which he resided -he had to carry and discharge his consignment of refuse into the -vehicle. In some instances,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> as in Berlin, this task involved early -rising because the collecting duty had to be completed before 7 a.m.</p> - -<p>In the towns and cities the waste was most rigorously controlled. It -was criminal for the housewife or maid to permit the grease clinging to -the plates and dishes from the table to escape down the sink. This fat -had to be emptied into a special pail, and with the minimum of water. -Terse instructions as to how this could be done to the satisfaction of -the authorities were issued. It would seem as if the salvage of grease -were carried to an absurdly fine degree, but in view of the prevailing -circumstances the authorities were justified in compelling the recovery -of such an apparently insignificant trifle as a dab or two of grease -upon a dinner-plate, since it was found that the daily yield of fat -from the average town was about 8,000 pounds. Truly the enemy may be -said to have fully realized the truth that “many a mickle makes a -muckle.”</p> - -<p>But the inhabitants, though forced to gather all their fat with such -scrupulous care and to surrender it to the authorities, were enabled to -receive a certain proportion back again—by paying for it—in the form -of soap. The fat was secured in order to extract its glycerine content -for the production of explosives, a certain quantity being set on one -side to be turned into a lubricating grease to keep the oil-starved -mammoth machine plants of the country going. The residue remaining -after the extraction of the glycerine was turned into soap.</p> - -<p>Skins, rags, bones, feathers, hair, rubber-scrap and other articles too -numerous to specify were collected by this machinery. All waste arising -in the slaughter of animals for food was carefully gathered. Special -factories were reserved for treating the carcases of animals which had -succumbed from old age, accident, disease and other causes. A farmer -was not even permitted to bury the corpse of a dog. The authorities -alone were vested with the power to handle deceased animals. These -were thrown into suitably designed vessels, sufficiently large in some -instances to receive a horse intact, which were then hermetically -sealed to prevent the escape of noisome gases. Cooking was pursued -to secure the fats and other products arising from the destructive -distillation of the dead animal. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> gases which were thrown off -during the process were carefully collected, condensed to shed any -foreign particles which happened to be in suspension, and then fed to -the furnaces to assist in raising the heat required for cooking. By the -time the distillation process had been completed only a minute quantity -of fibrous residue remained together with the solid particles of bones. -This mass was ground up and converted into chemical manure.</p> - -<p>The shortage of oil was most keenly felt because this affected every -range of the industrial and domestic life. Perhaps we do not generally -realize the fact that all machinery would be condemned to immobility -were lubricating oil supplies to be cut off. But it was not only -imperative to keep the war material factories, trains, trams, motor -vehicles, electric generating stations and a host of other plants in -operation. Fats were in demand for a more vital issue—the table. To -meet the shortage of butter, vegetable or nut-oil and animal margarine, -fats and greases were in urgent request.</p> - -<p>To mitigate the deficiency in this direction as far as possible a -further rigorous enactment was put into force. It was rendered a penal -offence to throw away the kernels of plums, peaches, apricots, prunes, -cherries and other stone fruits or even the pips of apples and pears. -One and all had to be carefully husbanded and surrendered to the -authorities at special collecting stations, which, for the most part, -were established in schools and municipal buildings. Juvenile effort -and enthusiasm were fired. The school children were urged to maintain -an alert eye for such raw material and were also encouraged to gather -acorns, horse-chestnuts, and beech-nuts. The yield of such residues -must have been enormous in the aggregate. One city alone reported the -production of over 300,000 pounds of oil during a single year from the -various nuts collected within its jurisdiction.</p> - -<p>In the exploitation of gaseous products the Germans have undoubtedly -displayed remarkable initiative. They certainly pioneered the use -of the gases arising from the manufacture of pig-iron. It was the -practice to allow the gases from the blast-furnaces to escape into -the atmosphere. Seeing that approximately 150,000 cubic feet of gas -arise from the production of a ton of pig-iron, and bearing in mind -the output of the ironworks, it will be seen that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> wastage in -this direction must have represented a formidable item during the -twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p>These waste gases were chemically investigated, and it was discovered -that approximately one-fifth of the total volume thrown off consisted -of carbon monoxide gas which has a very high heating value. Thereupon -the Germans set to work to recover this gas, to clean it and to convert -it into a fuel for driving suitably designed gas engines. Years of -labour and study were devoted to the problem, which was discovered -to be exceedingly abstruse. But the obstacles were overcome and the -blast-furnace gas engine made its appearance. The perfection of this -means of utilizing a waste product has revolutionized a certain phase -of industry throughout the world. One of the first firms to adopt the -new idea was the Krupp establishment, where the gas collected from -eight blast-furnaces which hitherto had been allowed to escape into and -mingle with the atmosphere was harnessed to drive fifteen big engines. -The perfection of this achievement in waste utilization speedily became -reflected throughout the country and was subsequently introduced into -this country where vast strides in connection with its use have been -made.</p> - -<p>Much has been related concerning the development of the airship -in Germany, but this has been due in no small measure to the fact -that it afforded a profitable outlet for the utilization of a waste -product—one absolutely vital to the airship. I refer to hydrogen. -This gas is produced in enormous quantities at many German works, and, -for a considerable period, had to be ignored because no industrial use -for it was apparent. A certain quantity was absorbed in the synthetic -production of precious stones—topaz, rubies, and sapphires—but this -consumption was trifling. Its fellow, oxygen, remained a drug on -the market for many years until the coming of the oxy-acetylene and -oxy-hydrogen method of welding and cutting metals came into popular -favour. Then the demand for oxygen expanded so rapidly as to compel -the laying down of plants for the production of oxygen from water by -electrolysis. But the increased output of oxygen released still larger -quantities of hydrogen for which practically no market obtained.</p> - -<p>Consequently the endeavours of Zeppelin and his contemporaries received -every encouragement. With the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> conquest of the air by the dirigible -all anxiety concerning the profitable use of hydrogen disappeared. At -one large factory, producing this gas in huge volumes, a special plant -capable of filling the largest Zeppelin craft was laid down. The low -figure at which hydrogen was obtainable was responsible in no small -measure for the popularity of ballooning in Germany in days previous -to the coming of the airship. The use of coal-gas for this purpose was -discouraged: it was far more valuable for fuel applications, whereas -the hydrogen was not only a superior lifting agent but deserved -employment because it offered a remunerative outlet for a waste, and -would assist in the expansion of other industries depending upon -supplies of cheap oxygen.</p> - -<p>To encourage the aeronautical use of hydrogen the firm in question -embarked upon another branch of trading. It assumed the manufacture -of cylinders or steel bottles for the storage of the gas under -pressure—up to 200 atmospheres. Batteries of these bottles were -maintained in a charged condition ready for instant dispatch to any -part of the country in reply to a telegraphic or telephonic order. The -airship pioneers in Germany were never in a quandary concerning the -acquisition of the indispensable gas, nor were they faced with the -obligation to lay down their own plants for its supply to meet their -individual needs. Hydrogen was obtainable in any desired quantity at -the end of a wire, and could be purchased as readily as a truck-load -of coal from a colliery, while it was also available at an attractive -price.</p> - -<p>To deal fully with the German conquest of waste would prove wearisome. -Enterprise and initiative are apparent in every direction from the use -of recovered solder for the production of toy soldiers to the wholesale -stripping of motor-cars and cheap clocks for their integral parts. -Little wonder therefore that the Germans built up a wealthy national -fabric. But probably the most striking evidence of the truth of the -assertion that waste creates wealth is extended by the coal dye-stuffs -industry. Sixty years ago the tar arising from the distillation of -coal was as anathema to the engineers concerned, as I have previously -related. Its disposal offered a pretty problem. It was difficult to -burn, could not be turned into streams or the drains, and could not be -allowed to dissipate itself into the ground.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> Any one who was prepared -to fetch it could take it away with the engineer’s most profound -blessings. It was waste in its most compelling form.</p> - -<p>Then came Perkin with his discovery of mauve from the much-maligned -tar. Immediately the former anathema of the gas-works became invested -with a new and indefinable significance. But so far as Britain was -concerned little progress was to be recorded. Perkin struggled -valiantly to establish a new industry in this country, only to suffer -discouragement and ham-stringing obstruction for his ingenuity and -enterprise. The Germans appropriated the discovery and prosecuted -researches and experiments so vigorously and whole-heartedly as to -build up one of the biggest monopolies known to industrial effort.</p> - -<p>It was not until the declaration of war that the world recognized -the extent of the tribute it had been prepared to pay annually to -the Teuton in this one field of trading. The sudden interruption of -supplies of colouring agents derived from coal-tar, and made in the -huge factories fringing the Rhine, Main and Spree, threatened a whole -host of trades from China to Peru. The competitive nations were forced -to turn their attention to the mastery of an industry which hitherto -they had virtually neglected in order to keep their industries alive, -only to discover that they had much to learn. In the United States -thousands suffered want and distress from unemployment just because -the stocks of dyes had run out and their domestic dye-manufacturing -plants were unable to rise to the occasion with sufficient promptitude. -Antiseptics were difficult to procure, especially those which had -achieved such a wide measure of popular favour during recent years, -because they were of German origin and were no longer forthcoming. -Amateur photographers were compelled to pack away their cameras and to -forgo the pursuance of their hobby until such time as the essential -chemicals once more became procurable and cheaper, while doctors were -forced to polish up long-forgotten or rusty knowledge concerning -the herbaceous drugs which had been displaced by those derived from -coal-tar.</p> - -<p>A few figures will serve to drive home the stranglehold which the -Germans had secured upon the trade of the world from the scientific -exploitation of a waste product. For<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> 5,000 years India supplied the -world with indigo which was of vegetable origin. Apparently it held -an unassailable commercial position and was held in particularly high -esteem by Japan and China. Bauer, the German chemist, resolved to solve -the indigo riddle and at once set out to make it from coal-tar. It -proved a difficult quest occupying many years and involving thousands -of experiments. But perseverance brought its due reward although -success was not recorded until a round £1,000,000 had been spent. Then, -before it had become established upon the market, it suffered eclipse -by an improved process which had also been perfected by a German.</p> - -<p>Within five years of its appearance upon the market synthetic indigo -had driven its natural rival from India virtually into oblivion. The -coal-tar competitor even established a firm foothold in the land -where the vegetable article had held sway for so many thousand years. -Throughout China and Japan a similar story was related. Indian indigo -was no longer required. It was beaten hopelessly in price, the factor -which counts in commercial circles, by the synthetic German article. -Of the artificial colouring materials imported by China German indigo -claimed two-thirds. A seventh of the artificial dyes imported by Japan -was German indigo, while one-tenth of the dye-stuffs imported from -Germany into the United States was artificial indigo.</p> - -<p>As a result of less than fifty years’ ceaseless endeavour Germany built -up an industry specializing in the manufacture of tinctorial matters -derived from coal-tar, capitalized at £50,000,000—$250,000,000—and -had a list of 2,000 different colours of a synthetic character which -she could supply, one thousand of which were in steady daily demand. We -talk about the restoration of the British coal-tar dye-stuffs industry. -The Americans voice a similar story. It is glib. How far have we got? -As a result of five years’ hard work in Britain we are in the position -to market about 300 of the 2,000 dye-stuffs which Germany has in her -trade catalogue, while America can point to a list of about 200. True, -these represent many of the colours which are in heaviest request, but -it will be seen that we have a very long way to go yet before we can -claim to have wrested the industry from Germany, while in comparison -with the £50,000,000—$250,000,000—of capital invested in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> Teuton -industry, the £5,000,000—$25,000,000—sunk in the British enterprise -appears paltry.</p> - -<p>To indicate how industriously and comprehensively the German houses -have probed this particular waste utilization problem it may be -mentioned that one of the leading houses in the industry has taken -out approximately 6,500 patents to protect its activities, while it -turns out a round 2,000 different products all made from coal-tar. -The manufacture of the synthetic drugs—aspirin, veronal, sulphonal, -phenacetin—and a host of others runs into stupendous figures. That -concerning antiseptic preparations as well as the production of -chemicals incidental to photography and the leather trades is equally -imposing. It is estimated that the total capital sunk in German -enterprises identified with the exploitation of coal-tar ranges between -£140,000,000 and £160,000,000—$700,000,000 to $800,000,000. The return -is exceedingly attractive, exceeding £80,000,000—$400,000,000—per -annum in value.</p> - -<p>To the British nation the magnitude and prosperity of this huge traffic -in coal-tar derivatives with its enormous wealth is particularly -galling. Had we displayed a more sympathetic attitude towards the -discovery of Perkin and his endeavours, and had we displayed similar -initiative, energy and enterprise the monopoly which became Germany’s -might have been ours. But we disdained to exploit a waste. We left it -to a persevering rival, and became content to pay him tribute for the -utilization of a fundamental British discovery and incidentally to -charge his coffers with the sinews of war. Had we kept the potential -treasure-house of coal-tar to ourselves the history of the world might -have been written very differently. It was the wealth accruing from -the coal-tar dye-stuffs industry which enabled Germany to play a far -bigger part than may be generally conceived in the development of her -other industries, especially that pertaining to the chemical trade, the -dye-works constituting the nursery where Germany raised her battalions -of chemists.</p> - -<p>It must not be inferred from what I have narrated that the German has -a peculiar prerogative in the mastery of waste products: far from -it. In certain ranges of industry we have eclipsed the Teuton and -have paddled our own canoe so far as blazing the trail of industrial -economy is concerned. Nor is the Teuton temperamentally better<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> adapted -to the scientific exploitation of refuse. For the most part he has -been compelled to investigate these divers potential raw materials -to maintain his industrial existence. Moreover, as may be readily -conceived from what I have related, the issue has been forced upon him -by repressive official machinery and legislative measures. Discipline -in this as in many other fields has fulfilled its purpose. Certainly -it has reduced every German scrap-heap and dump into a Tom Tiddler’s -ground and the application of its contents into a semi-automatic -operation, or at least into part of the intricate routine of industry. -It is to be hoped that we have not allowed the lesson thus taught to be -lost. By now we should have learned, and digested thoroughly, the truth -of the precept that waste creates wealth—and commercial power.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br />SALVAGE FROM THE ARMY SWILL-TUB</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>Waste is one of the concomitant evils of a high civilization. -Undoubtedly it is incidental to the primitive as well, but to a -lesser degree. In this instance, however, the waste incurred does not -represent a complete loss, because upon being discarded it decomposes, -and thus continues the cycle of Nature.</p> - -<p>Under conditions of advanced civilization, where a blind worship of -Hygiene rules, residues of an organic character, from their very ready -susceptibility to decomposition, are construed into a menace of health, -although, as a matter of fact, the danger in this connection is more -imaginary than real. Such refuse invariably suffers destruction by -fire or by some other so-called sanitary method involving either the -total or almost complete loss of valuable materials. We satisfy our -consciences, however, by reflecting that the pursuance of such drastic -methods satisfies the faith of hygiene, although the community suffers -very pronouncedly in pocket in the long run.</p> - -<p>It is only when pressure becomes exerted by some stupendous cataclysm, -such as war, bringing in its train the peril of a bare sufficiency -of foodstuffs, which in turn provokes high prices, that it becomes -possible to combat the ignorance born of erroneous enlightenment -in regard to matters hygienic. Under such conditions the gospel of -retrenchment and reform may be preached with greater promise of -accomplishing success. But the community, considered as a whole, -even in time of adversity, is slow to depart from accepted practice. -Precious time is lost in the application of the precept of making one -pound go as far as did two pounds under more congenial conditions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span></p> - -<p>It is a matter for extreme satisfaction, if not one of agreeable -surprise, to learn that, so far as Britain is concerned, it was -the army which blazed the trail of economy, particularly in regard -to foodstuffs. This certainly sounds amazing, because the Military -Service has ever been regarded as the national sink both for finance -and kind. Nevertheless, no matter how guilty of squandering it may -have been during the opening months of the war, the sins of omission -were subsequently rectified, to present a striking object-lesson to -the civilian section of the community in regard to the scientific -utilization of what the soldier was unable to consume, and its ultimate -presentation to commerce in a variety of forms for the manufacture of -other products of an indispensable character, or foodstuffs. By the -practice of rigid economy along these lines, and without pinching or -squeezing the food allowances to the soldier in the slightest degree, -millions sterling a year were, and still are being, saved to the -tax-payer.</p> - -<p>When signs of coming food stringency for the civilian element of -the nation became manifest, as a result of the relentless submarine -campaign inaugurated by the Germans, combined with the necessity to -concentrate shipping upon forwarding supplies to the fighting forces, -the moment was considered to be propitious for putting into operation -a scheme of retrenchment and reform. It had already been prepared, and -was merely awaiting application. The only question demanding care was -the introduction of the proposal in such a manner as not to impair the -soldier’s physique and health.</p> - -<p>During the opening days of the war, when the authorities were faced -with the absorbing problem of enrolling men, food wastage assumed -enormous proportions. Severe criticisms were levelled against the -military authorities, and doubtless the strictures were more or less -deserved. But extravagance under the conditions which prevailed was -inevitable. By a stroke of the pen the effective strength of the -British Army was increased from 180,000 to over a million men. Lord -Kitchener’s call proved so irresistible as to persuade men to enlist -in far more imposing masses than had ever been anticipated. The ranks -were swelled by recruits from all stations of life, and their tastes -were as diverse as were the positions they had previously held<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> in the -complex social scale. The transition from civilian to military life was -too sudden. The men naturally clamoured for subsistence more or less in -consonance with what they had been for so long accustomed in private -life. If the food did not coincide with their fancies it was promptly -thrown away.</p> - -<p>The difficulty of the situation was further aggravated from the -circumstance that many men who were promoted to commissioned rank were -generally deficient of all knowledge pertaining to the commissariat. -Consequently it is not surprising to find that the elaboration of an -economic reform from the victualling chaos which prevailed proved a -stupendous task.</p> - -<p>In pre-war days the disposal of the waste from the soldier’s table -constituted a relatively simple task. All residue went into what is -known as the “swill-tub.” This convenient receptacle did not completely -represent the military equivalent of its civilian counterpart, nor were -the contents on a level with the combined solid and liquid odds and -ends of an organic nature from the table of the ordinary individual. -The military swill-tub was regarded rather as a handy vessel for the -receipt of anything and everything which was no longer required, or -which did not present any further apparent use to the soldier.</p> - -<p>The system of disposal was likewise adapted to the prevailing -circumstances. The 180,000 troops forming the standing army at home -were distributed throughout the length and breadth of the United -Kingdom, and thus became resolved into scattered military colonies, -not one of which was of pronounced numerical strength. Consequently -a centralized scheme for dealing with the waste could scarcely be -introduced with any likelihood of proving profitable or successful in -working. Local circumstances governed the issue very materially. The -disposal of the garbage was vested in the local commanding officer, -while the proceeds from the sale of the swill to farmers and others -went into the regimental funds.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding this ostensibly haphazard arrangement it must not be -supposed that the farmer was able to secure the spoil from the local -garrison for a ridiculous figure. The erstwhile army officer has often -been assailed for his apparent lack of business acumen, but, in so far -as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> disposal of this swill was concerned, he often proved a hard -bargainer as many farmers and swill-buyers will readily concede. The -higher the figure the officer was able to realize over the transaction -the more enhanced was the sum with which he could swell the regimental -coffers. It was only in those instances where disposal was attended -with difficulty, or where accumulation of the garbage would have -constituted a distinct menace to the health of the troops, that low -prices obtained.</p> - -<p>This method had to hold sway during the initial rush to the colours. -But the moment the opportunity opened for an attack upon this -problem as a whole it was accepted. A new inspection department was -created by the Quarter-Master-General which became known as the -Quarter-Master-General’s Services, accompanied by the appointment of a -chief inspector who was charged with the control of the whole question -of messing and the profitable exploitation of the residues accruing -from the feeding of the troops. This department appointed competent -inspectors to conduct the work in hand to a successful issue, while the -catering issue became centralized under an Inspector of Army Catering.</p> - -<p>The combined scheme of centralization and decentralization brought -the Chief Inspector into intimate touch with the problem in all its -varied phases, and the messing of the army as a whole was now placed -upon a solid foundation. The inspectors attached to the Home Commands -distributed throughout the United Kingdom drew up exhaustive reports -upon the issue as it affected their respective centres. From the -subsequent digestion of these reports it was found possible to adjust -the supply of food to the soldier’s actual requirements and to effect -the first reduction in his rations.</p> - -<p>The original issue comprised 1 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of bread and ³⁄₄ <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of meat per man -per day, because, in accordance with the long-established peace-time -procedure of the army, which was continued after the outbreak of -war, the national upkeep of the fighting man involved the supply of -only these two staples. Whatever else the soldier fancied he had -to purchase for himself, in which direction he was assisted by his -messing allowance of 7¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr> (15 cents) per day. When the matter was -investigated it was learned that this issue was in excess of the -average man’s actual needs. Nevertheless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> the full ration of meat was -generally cooked, the soldier consuming as much as he desired, while -what he left over was relegated to the swill-tub. It was the same with -the bread, the residue likewise being discarded to this convenient -receptacle. Consequently the first move was to adapt the rations to the -soldier’s consuming powers.</p> - -<p>It was also discovered that considerable waste arose from the -indifferent manner in which the meat was prepared and cooked. The -tastes of the men, especially of the recruits to the New Armies, -varied very widely according to the social scales from which they -had been drawn. But while the men from the higher ranks of life were -not fastidious they did at least demand the skilful and appetizing -presentation of their food. If the meat were indifferently cooked it -was simply left untouched to find its way to the swill-tub.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, it was decided to improve the military cuisine forthwith. -The kitchen service was severely overhauled, only the most competent -and expert cooks being retained in this service. In pre-war days the -army maintained only one Cookery School—at Aldershot—from which all -military cooks graduated. But as the armies grew in millions this -solitary university proved hopelessly inadequate. Accordingly, cookery -schools were established in each command while a totally new curriculum -was introduced.</p> - -<p>The cookery school became the “key” to the whole situation. It not -only became the nursery where the autocrats of the field-kitchen -were raised, but it was the hive in which many little wrinkles were -learned, where new ideas were submitted to initial test and practice, -to be adopted throughout the armies if they established their value, -and where economies were subjected to exacting trial for widespread -application upon issuing unscathed from the ordeals to which they were -imposed. The improvement in the personnel, training, and methods of -the men in charge of the field hotels proved successful in another -direction. Higher efficiency and contentment among the troops were -recorded, for the simple reason that a satisfied, well-fed soldier -provides the finest fighting material.</p> - -<p>With improvements in cookery the contents of the swill-tub commenced -to dwindle in volume. Less food was wasted while the residue from the -table similarly decreased.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> As this development was pursued it was -ultimately found possible to reduce the rations of bread and meat still -further without provoking the slightest discontent. A third reduction -in the rations took place in 1917 to the extent of an additional -two ounces of bread, except in the case of soldiers under nineteen -years of age, and a quarter of an ounce of salt per man per day. The -cumulative results of these economies represented a direct saving -annual of £4,000,000—$20,000,000—in cash to the nation in respect -of the soldiers’ rations. In other words, the huge armies of 1918 -consumed less food to the value of four millions sterling than was -the case two years previously, and this satisfactory end was achieved -without stinting a man. Such a remarkable result was primarily due to -the improved method of preparing and serving the food. During the war -more than 50,000 men were passed through the cookery schools attached -to the Home Commands. The effect of such imposing economies proved of -distinct benefit to the community, because the reduced supplies to the -Army released so much more bread and meat to the non-combatant element -of the country.</p> - -<p>The serving of meals, at least so far as the Home units were concerned, -was also completely transformed. Instead of the men being compelled -to indulge in a wild scramble with their messing-tins for their meat -supplies, the latter was cut up in the cook-house and assigned to -dishes for the table. Each man thus became assured of his allotted -ration. But in the event of the allocation exceeding what the soldier -desired, as for instance when he was a trifle off his feed, instead of -being compelled to take his ration willy-nilly, eating as much as he -fancied and leaving the balance on his plate to swell the swill-tub, -he was instructed not to help himself to more than he felt he could -attack. If, after settling down to his meal, he found his appetite to -return unexpectedly, he was free, after the manner of Oliver Twist, to -ask for more, with this difference—he was sure to receive it.</p> - -<p>Although under this <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régime</i> the cooks were given less raw -material with which to carry out their appointed tasks, yet it was -found possible to induce the lesser quantity to go farther than the -larger allotment had ever gone before. Other economies resulting from -the observance of more scientific culinary methods were also recorded. -The introduction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> of women into the kitchen was tried. This experiment, -doubtless owing to the fact that this represented a woman’s true -sphere and from her inherent tendency to be careful, efficient, and -thorough in every detail concerning the preparation of meals, proved a -conspicuous success.</p> - -<p>Now, no matter how persistently and effectively the lessons of economy -may be preached in the kitchen and at the table as much in the home -as in the army, and notwithstanding the infinitesimal degree to which -the proportion of spoiled food may be reduced by the introduction of -superior methods and skill, a certain amount of waste is unavoidable. -It cannot be overcome in its entirety. Tastes differ so widely that -odds and ends are certain to be left untouched upon the plate, while a -certain accumulation of gristle, bone, fat and other inedible portions -must be expected.</p> - -<p>The residue upon the individual plate may be so insignificant as to -render a second thought concerning its probable value superfluous. -But, multiply that individual plate and its contribution of waste by -the tens of thousands of plates in use at one time, as in the army, -and it will be realized that, in the aggregate, the fragments assume -a very imposing volume. Furthermore, in the kitchen where the joints -are cut up, the accumulation of pieces is striking. Lastly, in washing -up the plates, dishes and other utensils what an avenue is offered for -the escape of immense quantities of fat through the sink gully? I have -already indicated in a previous chapter what wealth may be lost in this -manner, and how it only needs adequate reclamation methods to enable -such loss to be avoided.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, contemporaneously with the reorganization of the catering -and cooking issues, the exploitation of the now appreciably attenuated -swill-tub contents was investigated. This residue was still being -sold to the farmers, but they were not regarding their purchases with -unalloyed delight. Contrary to general opinion, perhaps, raw swill does -not constitute an ideal foodstuff for porkers. As a rule it is too rich -in fat and so tends to exercise a debilitating and impoverishing effect -upon the animals, being a frequent cause of scour.</p> - -<p>About this time a grave problem asserted itself in another field of -military activity. The Ministry of Munitions had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> decided to speed-up -the output of explosives, but such acceleration was threatened by a -shortage of the indispensable constituent, glycerine. It was not a -question of the facilities for the production of this essential being -insufficient to cope with the demand because ample plant was available. -The difficulty was the dearth of animal fat which yields the basic -material in question. Soap manufacturers were also being hard-pressed -for similar fats to conduct their operations. As a result of the -depressing outlook the price of glycerine commenced to advance upon the -market at a disconcerting rate.</p> - -<p>The military authorities, cognizant of the huge quantities of animal -fat reclaimable from the swill-tubs throughout the service, recognized -the opportunity to ease the crisis to an appreciable degree. The -segregation, collection, and surrender of this potential raw material -to the industry concerned were merely matters of organization. It was -promptly realized that if the issue were left for adjustment to the -interests generally identified with such enterprises, and in which -the itinerant rag-and-bone merchant and marine store dealer figure -prominently, confusion would ensue, conducing to further disturbance of -prices.</p> - -<p>To achieve the desired efficiency the authorities invited the trade, -comprising the soap-makers and the bone degreasers, to discuss the -question. The authorities succinctly narrated what they could do -towards the solution of the problem. The trade was agreeably surprised -by the facts and figures which were set before them, and was quick to -appreciate that here indeed was a new and unexpectedly rich mine of -raw material to be advantageously tapped. The Ministry of Munitions, -also represented at the conference, announced its preparedness to -extend a willing hand. It would take over all the glycerine derived -from fats procured from military sources at a fixed price. This was -mutually settled at £59 10s.—$297.50—per ton, and it was agreed -that the figure should remain relatively firm irrespective of market -fluctuations. It must be conceded that the Ministry drove an astute -bargain, because at the time glycerine was commanding £300—$1,500—per -ton upon the open market, which sum the country would have been -compelled to pay had the military sources of supply not been available.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p> - -<p>The trade acquiesced and formed a committee including officers -nominated by the War Office to complete all negotiations and -transactions. Private buyers were nominated to cover the whole country -and a flat rate for the purchase of all fats from military sources -was decided. By this simple arrangement every unit throughout these -islands, no matter how remote its situation, was assured of a definite -market for its fats and bones. Moreover, these units were given strict -instructions to sell their produce only to the trade representative at -the price decided, notwithstanding that other would-be buyers might -proffer a higher quotation.</p> - -<p>So far as the army was concerned the remunerative market for all -waste in the form of fats and bones being established, it now became -necessary to whip up the contributions of these residues to the -uttermost ounce. A whirl-wind campaign was conducted throughout the -whole of the Home Commands to demonstrate how this end might be -consummated. Officers of the department concerned visited the various -camps. It was calmly but firmly impressed upon the local responsible -officers that they must resort to every artifice to trap fats and bones -during their devious journeys, so that nothing might escape. There were -heart-to-heart chats with the cooks, who, their imagination fired and -enthusiasm kindled, promised to leave no stone unturned to satisfy the -authorities in this direction.</p> - -<p>Only one danger was to be apprehended as a result of this campaign -of enlightenment. In their zest to save the fat the autocrats of the -kitchens and others might unconsciously deprive the soldier of his -proportion of this food so essential to the maintenance of a high -standard of health. Accordingly, while one and all were urged to keep a -tight grip upon the waste, they were instructed to allow the fighting -man to eat just as much fat as he fancied: indeed his consumption -of the highly nutritive dripping was to be specifically encouraged -because, in this manner, it would become possible to release increased -quantities of butter and margarine to the civil population. Holding the -scales evenly between the soldier and the cook-house on the one hand, -and between the troops and the civilians on the other, proved to be -one of the most intricate and delicate problems associated with this -waste-saving campaign.</p> - -<p>To secure the fullest co-operation of the cooks the Army<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> Council -agreed to the extension of a specially attractive inducement. An extra -daily financial allowance was sanctioned on the basis of the more fat -the cooks saved and turned over to the making of munitions the better -they would be off in pocket. This allocation, however, was not to -become a charge upon the public purse. It was insisted that it should -be defrayed from the sum realized by a unit in the disposal of its -waste fats and bones, while the balance was to be devoted wholly to the -provision of kitchen utensils and other amenities. The units alone were -to benefit from the practise of economy and obviation of all waste.</p> - -<p>The consummation of this arrangement led to one or two amusing sequels -which, it is to be feared, had scarcely been anticipated. Naturally -every camp became uncannily keen to derive the utmost profit from this -phase of permissible trading, and a certain rivalry developed between -the various units to score top marks.</p> - -<p>There was one camp, composed of men drawn from units scattered all over -the country, undergoing musketry training. The men became affected with -the “save your bones” craze to an acute degree. As a result of his -periodical investigation the commanding officer suddenly discovered -that he was getting all the fat he wanted. But the bones! That was a -different story: the yield was by no means what it should have been. -The startling discrepancy prompted inquiry, and the officer found -that the soldiers were more fully alive to the real significance of -the swill-tub than he had imagined. But they were more loyal to their -own units than to the musketry camp to which their attachment was -only temporary. They were waging a quiet campaign among themselves, -collecting all the bones upon which they could place their hands, -and determined that their colleagues should derive all the benefits -accruing from the sale of this waste were posting their bone-hauls back -to their own units!</p> - -<p>Another instance of similar zeal was even more humorous. A certain -Imperial unit was camped next door to some troops from Overseas. The -“save-your-fat-and-bones” scheme was carefully explained to the latter, -but having come from a land where meat was plentiful they failed to see -the object of being so vigilant and miserly in regard to the residue -in question. The authorities, realizing the situation, refrained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> from -further pursuit of their proposal, being content to allow what they had -already expressed to sink into the minds of the soldiers, confident -that, upon reflection, the Overseas unit would appreciate the wisdom of -the official recommendation.</p> - -<p>The expected happened. The men from Yonder Britain in the end did -conclude that there was something in this waste-saving stunt, and -that they might profit from following the general practice. They -commenced to indulge in bone-collecting and hoarding with rare gusto. -No school-boy ever collected postage-stamps more keenly than did those -fighting men from Farther Britain save bones and fat.</p> - -<p>This outburst of zealous economy delighted the authorities. They -saw the yields from the camp of the Overseas fighting men rising by -leaps and bounds. But there was a decrease in the bone-yield from the -Home unit next door! The supply officer, feeling that something must -be amiss, and that possibly the Overseas troops were receiving an -inordinate quantity of bone in the issue to stimulate collecting, dived -into the mystery. It did not prove to be a very baffling quest. The -Overseas unit was able to show a high yield of bones because it was -indulging in surreptitious nocturnal raids, at opportune moments, upon -the bone-stocks of its neighbours!</p> - -<p>As the scheme was brought into wider and wider application it was found -that the exploitation of the actual swill-tub might be conducted to -still greater advantage. Hitherto the task had been the redemption of -the bones and waste fat before it reached the actual garbage barrel. -But to turn the actual contents of the swill-tub properly so-called -to economic account it was seen that certain plant would have to be -installed, although investigation revealed that such appliances need -neither be elaborate nor expensive. The suggestion was thoroughly -ventilated, and as a result it was decided to approach the authorities -with a proposal which was decidedly novel and which was certainly -unprecedented.</p> - -<p>Convincing facts and figures were obtained to indicate what the -probable yield from this latest endeavour to turn military waste to -profitable account would be. These estimates took into consideration -the expenditure incurred by the acquisition and operation of the plant -adopted.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> The proposed outlay was not heavy, but it was felt by those -who had elaborated this latest scheme that to request the authorities -to incorporate it as part and parcel of existing military routine would -defeat the primary principle underlying the idea. It was felt that, if -the enterprise could be rendered profitable under military conditions, -it might lead to its practical application by the civil community. The -impression obtained that the few thousand pounds capital expenditure -which would have to be incurred, together with the revenue, would be -lost among the maze of millions sterling incidental to current military -expenditure, even if it did not suffer actual inclusion, from its -comparative triviality, among “sundry expenses.” In this event all the -lessons to be derived therefrom would be lost. On the other hand if the -enterprise could be kept separate and could be conducted, as desired, -along accepted commercial lines, success would impress the civilian, -and might assist in persuading the municipal and other authorities to -do likewise with the similar raw materials available in plenty from -domestic sources of supply.</p> - -<p>Thereupon it was suggested that the War Office should sanction the -formation of a limited liability company to handle this latest -exploitation of the actual swill along orthodox business lines. To -allay any suspicions of private interests profiteering at the expense -of the tax-payer it was recommended that the whole of the capital -should be subscribed, and held, by the authorities, who should also be -invested with the power to appoint the directors, and who should hold -office at the pleasure of the War Office.</p> - -<p>The novelty of the proposal was conceded, but the promoters were so -sanguine of achieving success that the requisite sanction was extended. -Thereupon a company was duly registered at Somerset House in due -compliance with the law, with its articles of association complete in -every respect, under the title “Army Waste Products, Limited,” with a -nominal capital of 7s. ($1.75)! That company proved an overwhelming -successful venture from the country’s point of view. Its results -conclusively demonstrated the fact that there are literally millions in -waste.</p> - -<p>Small plants were established in military camps in several parts of -the country, and subsequently the system was extended to the army in -France, while the American<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> Expeditionary Force, impressed with its -achievements, embraced the scheme and the plants employed. Operations -were not confined to the treatment of the despised contents of the -swill-tub, but also to the recovery of waste gravy and fats from the -plates, the reclamation of breadcrumbs from the table, sweepings from -the bakery and stores, and of odd crusts which heretofore had found -no application other than as food for the wild birds, as well as the -treatment of bones before they were handed over to the degreasers.</p> - -<p>A policy of rigid commercialism was introduced and sedulously followed. -The contents of the swill-tubs, as well as all other waste described -above, were purchased, the prevailing prices being paid so that -other commercial concerns were denied the opportunity of preferring -the charge of unfair trading. Items of rental, wages, as well as -maintenance, depreciation and capitalization charges were also taken -fully into account, while the resultant products were also sold at -market prices, which, as subsequent results revealed, left an ample -margin of profit.</p> - -<p>The plant employed, as well as the procedure followed in reclaiming and -working the wastes up into raw material for industrial uses, possesses -many interesting features, and are fully described in the next chapter.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br />THE RECLAMATION OF MILITARY ORGANIC WASTE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In deciding the type of plant suited to the recovery of military -organic waste regard was specially devoted to two governing principles. -The one was the standardization of plant, so far as was practicable, to -facilitate duplication and installation of the machinery in the various -camps. The second was the selection of such plant as could be installed -readily and cheaply in an improvised building, and which, if the -conditions warranted, would enable a standard type of cheap and simple -building to be adopted.</p> - -<p>So far as the initial plants were concerned dependence had to be -placed upon existing structures, otherwise delay in putting the scheme -into practical application would have been inevitable, owing to the -difficulty attending the acquisition of constructional material. But -the installation of the plants in extemporized buildings sufficed to -establish the applicability of the idea to any type of building of -adequate dimensions, and in such a manner as to impose only the minimum -of structural alterations to secure the requisite efficiency. This -adaptability is an outstanding feature, because it indicates how the -recovery of organic waste may be attacked along the most economical yet -comprehensive lines, and with the minimum of capital expenditure and -its concomitant amortization charges.</p> - -<p>Two types of plant were adopted, both being standardized. One coincided -with what might be described as the central or permanent waste-recovery -station, while the second presented all the necessary elements of -portability with the added advantages of inexpensive dismantling, -removal, and expeditious reassembling at another point according to -exigencies. But the processes are common to both types.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span></p> - -<p>In the case of the permanent mill which I visited structural -alterations had been reduced to the absolute minimum, the most -conspicuous outlay being the provision of a simple form of elevator to -lift the swill to a level above the plant to permit of gravity feed. -The total cost of this station, including the installation of the -necessary machinery, which included a steam-boiler, bone-crusher, small -engine, melter, centrifugal or turbine fat extractor, and settling -tanks, with one or two further accessories, was only £2,500—$12,500.</p> - -<p>The swill is brought to the mill by motor-lorry. Operations are -commenced at an early hour, because health considerations demand that -waste of this character shall be handled with all possible promptitude -in a big camp. The clearance is carried out daily and is complete, -including all garbage, bones and other profit-yielding organic residue -from the cook-house. Segregation is conducted as far as practicable at -the source, special sanitary vessels for distinctive residues being -provided. The mill continues working throughout the day until the whole -of the morning’s collection has been duly treated. No accumulation or -carrying-over of some of one day’s swill to the next day is permitted. -Swill is susceptible to speedy fermentation, especially during hot and -sultry weather, and so would become noisome within a very short period, -as well as developing into an ideal breeding-ground for flies and other -pests.</p> - -<p>The contents of the collecting lorries are distinctly heterogeneous, -the vehicles being laden with swill, bones, empty tins, jam and pickle -jars, bottles—in short, anything possessing an element of salvage -value. In segregating the waste at the cook-house special stress is -laid upon the necessity to keep all green vegetable matter, such as -outer leaves, stumps and other inedible trimmings, distinct from the -general swill for the reason explained later.</p> - -<p>The swill is transferred by the elevator to the upper level, where it -is dumped into a capacious sink to drain. The proportion of free liquid -is not pronounced, the swill being rather in the nature of a slush, -whatever fat there may be present, apart from the solid pieces, being -either congealed in flakes and globules, either free or clinging to -the more stable substance. The superfluous water having<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> run off the -residue is permitted to fall through a trap into a hopper feeding the -capacious cooker or melter. Where the height of the building does not -permit the provision of an elevated draining sink the swill, dumped at -ground-level, is shovelled into the melter.</p> - -<p>The melter is a cylindrical vessel or drum fitted with a steam jacket, -the steam circulating at a pressure of about 80 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> per square inch -through the annular space between the inner and outer jackets. The -capacity of the vessel is approximately 1,700 pounds, and the contents -are kept agitated during the process by paddles mounted upon a -revolving shaft forming the longitudinal axis of the drum.</p> - -<p>The cooking process drives off all remaining moisture in the form of -steam, and, at the same time, liberates whatever fat may be present -by melting and rendering it fluid. It gravitates to the bottom of the -cylinder to make its escape through a suitable vent and pipe into the -settling tank. The last-named is also steam-heated by a coiled pipe -system which not only sterilizes but clarifies the reclaimed fat, which -is then permitted to cool and to solidify.</p> - -<p>The swill remains in the drum for 70 to 90 minutes. By the end of this -period the contents have been practically cooked, while all free fat -has effected its escape. It will be observed that the steam does not -come into contact with the contents, but is confined to circulation -between the jackets. When withdrawn from the melter the swill resembles -a stiff slush. This is transferred to a canvas bag to be dropped into -a wire cage forming the inner vessel of the second machine, which is -a vertical turbine extractor. The vessel when charged is closed by -clamping down the lid.</p> - -<p>Steam is turned on and the second stage of the fat reclamation process -proceeds. Beneath the wire cage a series of steam jets are radially -disposed in such a manner as to allow the steam to impinge upon the -cage at an angle. The cage itself is supported freely upon a suitable -vertical shaft and so, under the impetus imparted by the steam issuing -from the jets, naturally revolves. By varying the volume and pressure -of the steam the revolving speed of the cage may be varied within wide -limits. Consequently it is possible to give the cage a very high rotary -velocity.</p> - -<p>The steam, after performing its mission towards rotating the cage, is -induced to ascend in such a manner as to permeate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> the contents of the -canvas bag imprisoned within the wire cage. All fatty matter still -associated with the organic material, owing to the high temperature of -the steam, becomes still more fluid. Under the centrifugal action set -up by the high rotary speed of the cage this fat becomes separated from -the solids to be expressed through the pores of the canvas container -and also the perforations of the outer cage, and to be flung against -the inner wall of the extractor. The extreme fluidity of the very -hot grease facilitates and expedites this separation, the expelled -fat finally dropping to the bottom of the vessel to make its escape -through suitable drain holes to pass into the settling tanks previously -mentioned.</p> - -<p>Under the whirling action of the turbine quite 91 per cent. of the -fatty content of the mash is extracted and recovered. The treatment -in the turbine extractor is continued until the flow of grease to the -settling tanks is observed to cease, when steam is shut off and the -extractor is emptied. The mash, somewhat resembling peat in consistency -and of a rich chocolate colour, cooked through and through, is spread -upon the floor to cool. Unless one has followed the cycle of operations -one would never associate this odourless, clean, dry and sterilized -product with the repulsive looking slush from the swill-tubs which had -entered the mill barely two hours previously.</p> - -<p>This residue constitutes an ideal pig-food. It is rich in the -essentials for building up the frame and flesh of the porker, and as -may be supposed finds a ready sale. It appeals to the farmer because -it is clean to handle, is easier to transport than the conventional -swill, because it can be bagged, while it possesses excellent keeping -qualities. In effect it is a concentrated food, and accordingly can be -broken down by blending with ordinary swill to increase the calories -of the latter as they affect the pig, or it may be used instead of -pig-meal, for which it is an excellent substitute.</p> - -<p>Finally, it meets with the farmer’s favour because its fat content, -being only about 9 per cent., coincides more closely with the animal’s -dietetic requirements. It is not surprising, in these circumstances, -that the farmer should be eager to procure as much of this sterilized -food as he can obtain at a fair price. Certainly the authorities -experience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> no difficulty in regard to its disposal at a remunerative -figure.</p> - -<p>The bones, upon reaching the mill, are dumped apart. They represent -waste from the cook-house stripped as cleanly of meat and fat -as a sharp knife in dexterous practised hands will allow. Their -gravy-yielding and other nutritious constituents have been extracted -from prolonged sojourn in the stock-pots. When they reach the -swill-mill they appear to be as capable of rendering any further -contribution to the general scheme as those bones which have passed -through the hands of a frugal housewife. They have reached the stage -when such refuse is either thrown into the kitchen fire, dust-bin, or -handed over to the peripatetic rag-and-bone monger.</p> - -<p>Yet they still possess distinct fat value, but it can only be wrung out -by drastic effort. The bones are first passed through a crusher to be -reduced to small size. At times the bone-dump from the cook-house will -be found to be swollen by the dismantled framework of what was once -a horse or some other animal, and which is to be passed through the -fat reclamation factory. The crushed bones are submitted to the same -process as the swill, being passed through the melter and extractor -successively. The combined action of cooking and whizzing brings about -a far more impressive release of fat than may possibly be imagined. -Furthermore, cooking and whirling effectively release all slender -strings and shreds of fat which may have escaped the butcher’s sharp -knife, while clinging tatters of meat and sinew are also thoroughly -cooked. Upon withdrawal from the extractor the bones are thrown over a -riddle, this action being sufficient to detach all shreds of fibrous -matter which fall through the meshes of the sieve.</p> - -<p>The bones are now ready for dispatch to the degreasers. The loose -fibrous residue resulting from riddling is collected for subsequent use -in the preparation of poultry foods. Seeing that the treatment of the -bones in this mill is pursued for the express purpose of reclaiming -only the loose and easily secured fat and grease there is no conflict -with industry. The degreasers are concerned rather with the recovery of -fat resistant to ordinary salvage methods, as well as glue, size, and -many other commodities involving the submission of the bone waste to -many special processes, the ultimate residue being ground up to form a -fertilizer.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span></p> - -<p>The fat, after cooking, clarification, and solidification, presents an -attractive, odourless, sterilized mass. This is dispatched to the trade -for resolution into tallow, glycerine, and the requisite basic material -for the production of soap.</p> - -<p>I mentioned that, in the segregation of the wastes at the cook-house, -special emphasis is laid upon the necessity to prevent the combination -of all green vegetable refuse with the swill. This is essential, -because in the subsequent cooking operation the dye from the green -waste is extracted as every housewife knows, and, mingling with the -fat, will steep the latter a pronounced greenish hue. This detracts -very pronouncedly from the value of the fat because the dye, being -of vegetable origin, cannot possibly be eliminated in the subsequent -manufacturing operations through which the fat is passed. On the other -hand, the deep yellow tinge which is likely to result from the presence -of curry waste in the swill is not deleterious because it can be -readily discharged.</p> - -<p>For some time the disposal of the green vegetable waste presented a -thorny problem. Farmers were not prepared to purchase it with the -ordinary cooked pig-food, for the simple reason that they already -possessed a surfeit of this refuse in their fields. Cremation appeared -to be the only possible solution of the difficulty, the accumulations -being somewhat formidable, but as a result of experiment the difficulty -was very neatly and profitably overcome. This garbage, together with -other waste of a comparative character, is subjected to a desiccating -process to yield a product which is adapted to association with other -approved by-products, without depreciating the pecuniary or other value -of the whole, for poultry feeding.</p> - -<p>Both plant and processes are extremely simple. Nor is a pretentious -staff required. Six men suffice to attend to an installation capable of -dealing with the swill contributed daily by a unit of 15,000 men. One -hand tends the engine and boiler for the supply of steam and power; two -men are responsible for the conduct of the melter; while two additional -men wait upon the turbine extractor. The sixth man is retained to -operate the bone crusher. This staff need only be increased, as the -volume of work rises from any accretion to the camp, to the extent of -one man for every additional 5,000 soldiers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span></p> - -<p>The wastage of bread, for the most part inadvertently, is far heavier -than may be supposed. Possibly the heaviest proportion of waste arises -from unconscious crumbling of the article during conversation at the -table. Observation revealed that the accumulation of such crumbs and -crusts was pronounced, while it was also discovered that a heavy -contribution was extended by the bakery as the result of cutting up the -loaves. The loss of flour incurred during the preparation of the bread -and pastry was also found to be appreciable.</p> - -<p>Thereupon it was decided to reclaim all bread waste and flour residues. -The crumbs, together with the odd crusts and other small fragments, are -collected, while the bakery floors and tables are regularly swept to -yield grist to the salvage harvest. Moreover, despite the observance -of all possible precautions to avoid waste, accidents are unavoidable. -Occasionally a batch of bread is ruined in the baking. Being unfit -for human consumption it is handed over to the salvage department to -be worked up into readily marketable products instead of suffering -destruction as was formerly the practice.</p> - -<p>Bread and flour waste is subjected to a simple and inexpensive -roasting treatment and is then roughly graded. The larger fragments -and condemned loaves are reduced to a convenient size, while the -finer material is reduced to a meal. The granulated residue is -absorbed by the firms specializing in the manufacture of compounded -proprietary poultry foods, entering into the composition thereof to -approximately 20 per cent., which experience has proved to represent -an excellent balance. During the war this granulated waste, sold in -bulk, realized about 1¹⁄₈<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr> (2¹⁄₄ cents) per <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, plus an additional -charge of 10 per cent. to cover administration expenses. The coarser -grade of waste proved to be an excellent feed for horses—superior to -oats—and consequently was somewhat in demand at 1³⁄₄<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr> (3¹⁄₂ cents) -per <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, the availability of such feed during the period when horses -were necessarily rationed owing to the shortage of the conventional -feeding-stuffs being keenly appreciated. In this instance the extra -charge on account of administration expenses was also made.</p> - -<p>Other expressions of military “save-the-waste” activity cover the -recovery of tins, bottles, and jars. But the difficulties<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> concerning -transport somewhat adversely affected success in this direction -for a time. The preserve and pickle manufacturers intimated their -readiness to accept all bottles and jars owing to the short supply -of new receptacles of this character, but for some time it was found -impossible to spare the requisite carrying facilities. The provision of -canned and bottled comestibles does not enter into the official scheme -of rations, the supply of such articles, “extras,” being conducted -through the Navy and Army Canteen Board, which, as a protection, -imposes a charge upon all jars and bottles sold to the canteen attached -to a unit. As a result every care is observed to preserve these -vessels to avoid any financial loss arising from their non-return. -Consequently, consignments of empty jars and bottles are generally -returned intact, such losses as are incurred being unavoidable, and, in -the main are due to accidental breakage.</p> - -<p>An effort was also made to discover a possible commercial outlet for -spent tea-leaves. This beverage is particularly popular in the army, -and the accumulation of this waste is enormous. At one period the -Home Commands were called upon to handle over 13,500,000 pounds of -this refuse a month. The thought was entertained that the extraction -of the caffeine from this residue might prove a profitable venture, -but the experiments were inconclusive, and so the proposal was -abandoned. Then the circumstance that the tea-leaves carry a certain -proportion of potash suggested another line of application—conversion -into fertilizer. But here again success failed to be recorded. The -profitable exploitation of spent tea-leaves still awaits conclusive -resolution. But it happens to be one of those problems beset with -supreme difficulties, while it is imperative that every precaution -should be observed to prevent this waste finding its way into -unscrupulous hands to be turned to base account to the disadvantage of -the community.</p> - -<p>I have already mentioned that, while every effort was made to recover -the uttermost ounce of fat-yielding residue from the kitchens, every -encouragement was extended to the troops to cultivate the consumption -of the nourishing dripping. Although it would seem as if these two -recommendations were in utter conflict, no such trouble as might -have been anticipated has been recorded. The troops<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> appreciated the -concession, and the request for this fat has led to considerable -fertility of thought and individual resource among the officers of the -various units. Such initiative received commendation from headquarters -because it not only contributed to the economical consumption of food -in the army, but reacted to the advantage of the civil population -who, unable to obtain dripping owing to the rigorous meat rationing -in operation, were compelled to depend upon butter and margarine -for their fat requirements. The increasing consumption of dripping -by the soldiers to whom it was readily available served to permit -increased quantities of the restricted supplies of other articles to be -distributed among the community.</p> - -<p>In one cook-house I witnessed an interesting method to increase the -dripping yield. A big pail had been filled with little shreds of -fat and meat, shaved and scraped by the cooks from the bones of the -freshly-cut-up quarters of beef. This pail was placed within an outer -vessel containing water, the improvised double saucepan then being -placed upon the hot stove. As the water boiled the fat clinging to -the shreds of fibre dissolved, while the meat-juices also became -dissociated from the fibre under the influence of the heat. Boiling was -continued until the whole of the fat had melted, when the vessel was -removed and set upon one side to cool. The fat solidified at the top -to yield a fine chunk of appetizing rich dripping, while immediately -beneath was a jellied mass of gravy and disintegrated meat-fibre, -forming a concentrated beef-tea. The dripping was reserved for issuance -in lieu of butter and margarine, while the jelly sediment was set upon -one side to improve the contents of steak-pies, puddings, and other -savoury dishes.</p> - -<p>The soldier is also a gourmet for cheese. But exigencies of war -speedily elevated this comestible to the status of a luxury, even -in the army. Unfortunately the average cheese does not lend itself -to economic use. It is friable, the loss in crumbs being somewhat -pronounced, while the rind is lost.</p> - -<p>An officer conceived an ingenious idea to persuade the cheese to go -farther, and in such a manner as to eliminate all possibility of waste. -A whole cheese was taken, thoroughly washed and cleaned. It was then -placed in a mill with a quantity of dripping, the proportion being -60 per<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> cent. of the former to 40 per cent. of the latter. The two -constituents were then pulped and blended together.</p> - -<p>The resultant product was distinctly surprising. The cheddar cheese -was converted, by compounding with the animal fat, into a delicious -cream-like article of the consistency of butter, allowing it to be -spread upon bread and biscuits. The flavour was distinctly improved; -indeed, the soldiers expressed a decided preference for this blended -food. Its nutritive value cannot be gainsaid, because it carries all -the virtues of the cheese plus those incidental to rich animal fat.</p> - -<p>By this simple expedient all wastage of cheese was overcome. Even the -rind, generally conceded to represent the richest part of the product, -was used, being thoroughly disintegrated, macerated and blended with -the dripping by passage through the little mill. Not only did the -officer reduce the item for the consumption of cheese by his unit to -a very significant degree, but he achieved the desired end without -penalizing the men to the slightest degree.</p> - -<p>The process is so simple that it might even be emulated to profit by -the thrifty housewife. The kitchen mincing machine will suffice for the -purpose. It is only necessary to pulp and to blend the two constituents -thoroughly together. It certainly offers a means of inducing a pound -of cheese to go as far as, if not farther than, a pound and a half has -ever gone before.</p> - -<p>In so far as the arrest of the elusive fat was concerned there remained -only one other possible avenue of escape demanding interruption. This -was the sink where all plates, dishes, and cooking utensils in general -are washed. In the first effort to secure this contribution the hot -water carrying the desired material was led into a pit. Here the fat -collected in the form of a scum, which was skimmed off at intervals and -sent to the swill mill for further treatment. But this crude method -gave way to one more in consonance with modern ideas. The fat is now -caught at the gully.</p> - -<p>One device I saw installed to achieve this end was of an extremely -simple character. It comprised a wooden box, about three feet in length -by one foot in width, and about two feet in depth. It was subdivided -into three cells by two partitions, which, however, did not extend to -the full<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> depth of the box. The pipe from the sink entered the box at -one end while the outlet to the drain was placed at the opposite end. -The box was filled with cold water, which need only be renewed when the -box is emptied for cleaning and flushing, since normally it is kept -charged with the water coming from the sink. The hot water bearing the -fat circulates through the three cells and finally, upon reaching a -certain level, passes into the drainage system.</p> - -<p>But during its passage through the box the hot water becomes so -effectively chilled as to be compelled to release any fat which it -may be carrying. This congeals and rises to the surface. Within a -short time the top of each cell is crusted with a thick layer of solid -fat which may be removed as frequently as desired. The box not only -constitutes an efficient and simple, as well as inexpensive, fat-trap, -but also acts as a water seal to the sink, thus preventing all nuisance -or fouling of the sink pipe.</p> - -<p>The amount of fat capable of being retrieved in this manner is -certainly startling. The fat-trap which I saw fitted to one of the -sinks of an army cook-house yielded several pounds of fat every -day—sheer waste recovered from washing plates, pots and pans. The -fat is dispatched to the swill-mill to be passed through the melter -and extractor in the usual manner, thereby undergoing thorough -clarification and sterilization. The recovery during the course of -the year of several thousand pounds of fat which otherwise would have -vanished down the drain, by the introduction of a small wooden box -such as I have described, represents no mean achievement. Certainly -it serves to bring home the losses which are incurred at this point -in every house during the twelve months. The device might profitably -be installed at every sink by every householder. The few shillings -involved by its provision would be quickly recouped, because the fat -always has a market. Moreover, the introduction of this device would -contribute towards the efficiency of the drain, keeping it clear and -free to fulfil its designed function.</p> - -<p>That it pays to recover all fats and greases lost to consumption or -permitted to escape because it is merely residue is conclusively borne -out by the results recorded in connection with the military operations -which I have described. During the year 1917 the fats—waste—reclaimed -from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> Home Commands of the British Army yielded 13,000 tons of -tallow. The value of all the by-products recovered from the refuse was -£700,000—$3,500,000. The cost of securing this waste for commercial -exploitation, including the extra pay extended in the form of bonus to -the cooks, and other allowances, was £400,000—$2,000,000—leaving a -balance of £300,000—$1,500,000—which was returned to the public.</p> - -<p>As previously mentioned, the fats were urgently needed to furnish -glycerine for the manufacture of munitions. One ton of crude fat yields -10 per cent. of glycerine, so that 1,300 tons of this indispensable -article were derived from this one source of supply. The fat was sold -to the bone-degreasers and the soap manufacturers, who effected the -recovery of the glycerine, selling the product to the Ministry of -Munitions at the agreed price of £59 10s. to £63—$297.50 to $315—per -ton, as compared with £300—$1,500—per ton which we should have been -compelled to pay had we bought the glycerine upon the open market.</p> - -<p>Here was a direct saving of £237 to £240 10s.—$1,185 to $1,202.50—per -ton. Altogether the purchase of glycerine recovered from military -organic waste represented a saving of £312,650—$1,563,250—because -the nation obtained for £77,350—$386,750—what otherwise would -have cost £390,000—$1,950,000. This figure is not quite complete -because, inspired by the success achieved from the milling of the -swill at home, the army in France established similar stations -behind the lines upon the other side of the Channel. When these were -brought into operation the shipment of fat and grease recovered -from the organic waste of the British Expeditionary Force in France -represented 5,000 tons a year, whence 500 tons of glycerine were -derived. The 5,000 tons of fat won from the swill-tubs of the army in -France realized £140,000—$700,000—while the total saving recorded -under the heading of glycerine secured from army waste fat was -augmented to £432,000—$2,160,000. During the year in question the -aggregate financial economies directly secured from the exploitation -of organic army waste, in conjunction with the introduction of ways -and means to reduce the yield of such residue from the observance of -improved culinary methods and reduced consumption of foodstuffs was -approximately £5,626,000—$28,130,000.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> Finally, to demonstrate the -value of this contribution to the aggressive resources of this country, -it may be stated that the 1,800 tons of glycerine derived from the -18,000 tons of tallow recovered from the army swill-tubs, rendered -it possible to turn out sufficient nitro-glycerine to serve as the -propellant charges for 18,000,000 eighteen-pounder shells.</p> - -<p>The success accomplished with the army waste fat and grease prompts -the obvious inquiry as to why comparative methods cannot be adopted in -civilian circles. The average household has but little conception of -the value of its fat losses. It should not be an impossible task to -segregate the waste from the house at the source, and to submit it to -similar treatment. The majority of our civic and municipal authorities -possess buildings which could readily be adapted to the installation -of the necessary plant, and the capital outlay therefore need not be -heavy. The disposal of the various by-products would not be attended by -any difficulty. True, under war conditions abnormal prices ruled, but -even to-day they are attractive and are likely to continue to remain so -for an appreciable time to come.</p> - -<p>Of course, the municipal authorities could not aspire to net such -profits as are possible in the army. In the first place the wage -problem must be taken into consideration. Under military conditions -this does not arise. Fatigue parties are always available to collect -the swill and to conduct its conversion into fat. But even if the -practice were pursued at a loss it would redound to the distinct -benefit of the community in general, because it would comply with one -of the fundamental laws of National Economy and would conduce towards -the reduction in the cost of living. But unprofitable exploitation -would not result so long as the methods were conducted along commercial -lines. Ineptitude and wastage in administration and operation alone -could be responsible for any such eventuality in this connection. -Happily we are becoming wiser in our knowledge: domestic organic waste -is now being exploited on broader lines, as I relate in subsequent -chapters.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br />INVENTION IN ITS APPLICATION TO WASTE RECOVERY</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>The necessity to conserve our industrial resources, which is so -pronounced to-day, is acting as a powerful stimulant to inventive -effort. The mere circumstance that approved apparatus exist for the -reclamation of wastes and are readily available to those of a thrifty -or enterprising turn of mind no longer suffices to meet the situation. -In the past we have been content to practise waste recovery along what -may be described as satisfactory lines, but satisfactory only in so far -as they represented an attempt to turn refuse to commercial account. In -many instances the appliances employed have only been extemporized and, -as may be imagined, are far from being efficient. They only enable a -certain proportion of the available materials to be recovered. In many -instances residues treated for fats have carried away just as much of -the essential article after treatment as were actually recovered. In -other words, the work was only half completed: the system followed has -been unable to give a higher yield owing to errors in its design and -construction.</p> - -<p>Waste recovery as it should be practised to-day is a science. It is -just as precise a science as the extraction of nitrogen from the -atmosphere, the smelting of steel, or the production of artificial -silk. Hit-and-miss methods may have sufficed during the years when -commodities were cheap and plentiful, but to-day there is a world-wide -stringency in the supply of anything and everything necessary to -commerce. As a consequence prices are ruling high, and so the practice -of waste recovery along extremely well-defined scientific lines is -essential.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span></p> - -<p>The harnessing of science to this peculiar industry is imperative for -more reasons than one. As the process of extraction, say of fats, -is pushed to its logical conclusion, the task becomes more and more -exacting and expensive, demanding the employment of refined methods. -It is far more difficult to draw from the material the last ounce -of possibly reclaimable fat than to whip out the first ounce. The -last-named is surrendered readily, but to recover the first-named -enormous persuasive effort is entailed.</p> - -<p>But it is the uttermost ounce which the scientist is determined to -obtain. Easy conquest does not appeal to his well-ordered mind, and -so we see a spirited struggle in progress to increase efficiency. At -the same time in attaining this eminent factor the inventor must keep -his eye and hand upon the issue of cost. If it is going to cost more -to extract the last absolute ounce than that ounce is worth, then the -effort is futile. Commercialism, which considers inventive ingenuity -merely from the angle of pounds, shillings and pence, or dollars and -cents as the case may be, is not impressed by the mere beauty of any -process or apparatus.</p> - -<p>The financial issue is surveyed from every possible angle—capital -outlay, fuel consumption, simplicity of operation, maintenance charges, -depreciation, renewals, and labour. Any one of these several factors -may be sufficient to cause the refusal of an advocated process, while -should they be experienced cumulatively then the likelihood of the -process being adopted is extremely remote. Waste recovery is such a -sensitive range of endeavour as to prevent all consideration along -philanthropic lines.</p> - -<p>An instance in point may be narrated to indicate how perplexing and -intricate the problem is. As is well-known, wood, in common with -all vegetation, carries a certain proportion of alcohol, a product -in keen demand for numerous industries. It is also common knowledge -that in working wood enormous waste is incurred, notably in the -form of sawdust. This fact induced inventors to attack the problem -of extracting the alcoholic content from this residue. Laboratory -experiment confirmed the practicability of the project, and even went -so far as to indicate how the idea might be commercially developed.</p> - -<p>But there is a tremendous gulf between the laboratory<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> and the factory. -It was many years ago that the possibility of extracting alcohol from -wood first aroused the serious attention of the industrial chemists. -They are still wrestling with the problem. Time after time the world is -startled by the announcement of a new and inexpensive process for the -distillation of alcohol from wood and the prospect of extracting whisky -and other popular beverages from sawdust excites intense interest. -But, metaphorically speaking, nine days later a strange silence is -encountered. The new process has vanished from aught but a memory of -much claimed but nothing forthcoming. Fortunes have been sunk and lost -in the attempts to solve this momentous problem, and it is probable, -from the state of knowledge and the stage of experiment at the moment -attained, that many millions more will be expended before commercial -success is achieved. One of the greatest obstacles to the realization -of the chemist’s dream has been the extremely high temperatures to -which resort has to be made, which plays sad havoc with the plant -involved, and the charges incident to the renewal of which are so heavy -as to render the financial outlook extremely depressing. Even the -conditions of war, which scouted all considerations of expense, have -not carried us an inch forward. We built one factory to conduct the -distillation of wood for the alcohol which was so sorely needed, and -planned a second installation. The first factory was promptly abandoned -after the signing of the armistice, while the second factory was never -completed, owing to the indifferent results achieved with the conduct -of the initial plant.</p> - -<p>Similar experiences may be narrated in many other fields of attempted -waste recovery. Fortunately, however, for every dismal failure recorded -a dozen or more overwhelming triumphs can be related. It is this -circumstance which induces the experimenter to persevere upon his -ventures of discovery. But this is not the only satisfactory feature -of success in this field. The spirit of rivalry is so keen that the -industrial chemist and the chemical engineer are for ever striving -might and main to improve the methods which they have evolved, and -in the determination to secure the uttermost ounce of the elusive -fat, they proceed to extreme lengths. The eternal quest for improved -efficiency is not confined to the extraction of fats; it is equally -applicable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> to the recovery of other products in keen demand and -commanding an attractive market price, but I select fat as an example -because it is familiar to all.</p> - -<p>Moreover, in elaborating his fruitful thoughts the investigator is -compelled to bear in mind varying conditions. Accordingly he must -adapt his ideas to the prevailing requirements. Obviously it would be -inexpedient to concentrate perfecting effort upon one definite system. -The plant involved may necessitate a capital outlay possible only to -the wealthy firm or city, and utterly beyond the small man anxious to -embark upon such an enterprise, or be impracticable to the average -town, to which the plant, owing to the limited volume of material to be -handled, would never justify the probable expense.</p> - -<p>In these circumstances we see plants and methods being adapted to -varying demands so that the reclamation of the urgently required fats, -oils and greases may be pursued by one and all. In a previous chapter, -describing the recovery of these commodities from the swill-tubs of -the army, I referred to one system which is wholly mechanical in its -operation. In this instance success depends essentially upon the -centrifugal turbine extractor or “whizzer,” which it must be admitted -has proved exceedingly attractive in application. For this reason the -“Iwel” system, as it is called, has met with conspicuous success and -wide application, being found in every industry.</p> - -<p>But there is another system, or rather wide range of systems, known as -the Scott, differing entirely from the one already mentioned. This, -too, is of British origin and construction, and compels attention from -its applicability to every possible requirement as well as adaptability -to every conceivable condition, from the factory handling only a few -thousand pounds of miscellaneous fat-carrying refuse a day, to the -huge packing plants to be found upon the American continent, both -North and South, Australia and New Zealand, where the accumulations of -fresh fat are imposing, and where the necessity for prompt big-scale -treatment to secure the attractive prices ruling for high-grade fats is -so obvious. The operations of the firm under review demand additional -attention inasmuch as, through the combined efforts of its chemists and -engineers, it has been able to evolve and perfect a process which is -distinctly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> remarkable, seeing that it enables all but 1 per cent. of -the fat contained in the crude refuse to be reclaimed, and in such a -manner as to render the method completely profitable.</p> - -<p>The Scott systems, fundamentally, are three in number. In the one the -waste animal products are digested with open steam in conjunction with -a vacuum; the second method comprises the <em>dry</em> rendering of -edible fats under vacuum; while the third practice is the extraction -of the grease by what is known as the solvent system. Each possesses -its individual features, making direct appeal to the situation to -which it is most eminently adapted, and, to a certain degree, the -three respective methods may be said to represent an equal number -of progressive strides towards maximum efficiency, with the solvent -process constituting the pinnacle of success so far achieved in this -province from the simple fact that it reduces the loss of fat to 1 per -cent. absolute.</p> - -<p>However, it is difficult to lay down any hard-and-fast rule concerning -the selection of any of these three processes because, in deciding -a question of this character, full consideration must be given to -the class of material to be handled. For instance, although the -dry rendering system under vacuum is especially applicable for the -reclamation of edible fats, it is not to say that the first, or open -steam, process is only adapted to the production of non-edible fats. -As a matter of fact there are certain classes of offal which are not -suited to dry steam rendering. The fat contained in such refuse can -be most advantageously extracted only by the open steam process. -This particularly applies to the offal produced in the large killing -establishments, where such refuse can be dealt with in the fresh -condition.</p> - -<p>The dry steam rendering process is particularly applicable to the -production of fine or high grade edible fats. The finest fat recovered -from an animal source is that known as “Oleo” margarine or “Premier -Jus.” This is rendered from the very finest crude fat obtainable, -and in order to ensure super quality being obtained the conventional -treatment is one demanding extreme care so that its inherent qualities -may not suffer the slightest injury. The general practice is to mince -the raw material very finely and then to treat it in hot water-jacketed -pans at a very low temperature, every attention being observed to -prevent the temperature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> rising above a rigidly predetermined point. -In these circumstances it will readily be observed that the process -is necessarily somewhat costly and occupies appreciable time. But by -means of the dry rendering process under vacuum the raw material may -be subjected to very high temperatures, and that without the product -being impaired in any way. In fact, it is equal in every respect to -that obtained by the orthodox process, while, of course, it is far more -expeditious and cheaper.</p> - -<p>The plant necessary to the vacuum system is simple. It comprises a -cylinder or boiler called a digester, into which the offal to be -treated is placed. Under the wet steam process and after the vessel -has been closed a vacuum is created. Open steam then is admitted into -the digester and in such a way as to enable the steam to pass upwards -through the mass, thereby thoroughly permeating it. Naturally the hot -steam renders the fat fluid, that which is free running readily to the -attached tanks.</p> - -<p>Rendering is conducted under a pressure varying from 20 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> to 40 -<abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> as the case may be, but the lower the pressure the better. The -application of the vacuum to the process constitutes the crux of the -invention. At first sight the advantages of the principle may not -be readily apparent, but they may be simply explained. In the first -instance the creation of vacuum conditions effects the removal of the -greatest obstruction to the influence of heat, namely air. If this be -eliminated cooking can be conducted at a much lower temperature than -would otherwise be practicable. Fat, indeed all animal matter, carries -a certain proportion of moisture and this must be withdrawn before -the actual release of the commodity can be effected. In vacuum water -boils at a temperature below one-half of that required at ordinary -atmospheric pressure. In other words, instead of the boiling-point -of water being 212 degrees Fahrenheit, as is the case with the -kettle on the hob, it will boil at less than 106 degrees Fahrenheit. -Consequently, if a high vacuum be established within the digester the -latent water can be converted into steam to assist in the melting -process proper, which then can be conducted unhampered. Temperature, -moreover, exercises a decisive influence upon the quality of the -product, this being very superior in quality when the recovery is -carried out at a low degree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span></p> - -<p>Another point to be noted is that all noisome odours which are thrown -off during cooking, and which cannot be avoided, are exhausted from -the vessel. They are not allowed to escape into the open air, but -are led to the furnace to be discharged into the hottest part of the -fire. They have to ascend through the incandescent fuel resting upon -the fire-bars, and, since they are not allowed to become mixed with -air, must undergo complete combustion. Consequently no pollution of -the atmosphere can possibly result from the treatment of even the most -rancid offal. It being impossible to construe the operation into a -nuisance, the plant can be installed at any convenient point even in -a densely-settled area in safety, because the system fully complies -with all the rigid requirements of the local sanitary authorities and -health officers. This is a most important feature and one which will -be readily appreciated when one recalls the insufferable conditions -precipitated by the recovery of fats and greases from refuse under the -old systems.</p> - -<p>But the outstanding characteristic of the vacuum system is the -increased yield of fat forthcoming. No mechanical system, whether -it be pressure or high-speed whizzing, can extend completely -satisfactory efficiency results. As is well known, the fat entering -into the constitution of animal matter is contained in myriads of -minute cells which are surrounded by tissue. The walls of these cells -are exceedingly elastic and of prodigious strength. They may be -compressed to an inordinately intense degree in a press, or distorted -and stretched by recourse to centrifugal action without breaking. It -is this circumstance which reacts against a high recovery of fat by -recourse to pressing and whizzing because the cells cannot be induced -to burst.</p> - -<p>When a vacuum is applied a totally different result is recorded. The -application of heat causes the fat and air within the tiny cells to -expand, and in this manner the walls of the cells become distended to -the limits of their elasticity. The removal of the surrounding air -within the vessel by the vacuum pump completely upsets all equilibrium. -The air pressure within the cells is higher than that applied from -without, and consequently there results an accentuated expansive effort -within the cells. But the tissue has already been stretched to its -utmost limit, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> so being unable to withstand the increased strain -imposed collapses, thus releasing the imprisoned air and fat. Under the -vacuum process the disruption of the fat-carrying cells is complete, -and this explains why an augmented yield of fat is obtained by this -method.</p> - -<p>Under the open steam vacuum process the actual practice is to apply -the vacuum three times at intervals during the operation. The first -application serves to remove the obstructive air to facilitate -and expedite cooking of the contents. The second brings about the -disruption of the cells and the release of the fat which they contain. -The third application of the vacuum, which is effected towards the end -of the process, effects the withdrawal of the foul vapours arising from -the digesting operation and their discharge into the fire.</p> - -<p>Owing to the steam being admitted to the digester and being allowed to -come into direct contact with the mass, the residue upon withdrawal -is wet. The grease, which has been rendered fluid in the process, -has escaped from the digester through a suitable draining pipe into -a tank where settlement and clarification are carried out. But all -the grease cannot be recovered in this manner. A certain proportion, -notwithstanding the disruption of the fat cells, is held up in the -mass and can only be recovered to an appreciable degree by submitting -the residue to treatment in a press. In this way the greater part of -the remaining fat suffers expulsion and recovery. The wet cakes upon -removal from the press then have to be dried and disintegrated.</p> - -<p>The dry vacuum process, which is essentially adapted to the rendering -of edible fat, has many advantages over the wet steam method. Whilst -the plant employed is broadly similar to that employed in the process -already described, there is one notable difference. The digester is -enveloped in an outer shell or jacket, and the steam is circulated -through the space between the two walls. It is not brought into -contact with the contents of the digester at any stage of the process. -The action taking place within the vessel during the operation is -precisely the same as when the steam is brought into direct contact -with the refuse, the fat being rendered fluid by the heat and the cells -undergoing disruption by the creation of the vacuum. A high vacuum is -maintained throughout the whole rendering<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> process. Consequently the -moisture inherent to the raw material is withdrawn as rapidly as it is -converted into steam, resulting in the production of a fine edible fat -totally free from moisture. Moreover, the residue withdrawn from the -digester at the end of the process, known as “crackling” or “greaves,” -is likewise quite free from moisture, although, as in the case of that -resulting from the open steam process, an appreciable proportion of -fat is held up in the mass which can only be recovered to a pronounced -degree by the application of pressure.</p> - -<p>The dry steam or jacketed vacuum process is especially adapted to -the treatment of fresh fat waste, the reclaimed product of which is -primarily intended for the preparation of edible foodstuffs, such as -oleo-margarine. By carrying out reclamation without bringing the steam -into contact with the fat several distinct advantages are obtained, -the most important being the retention of the natural properties of -the fat, and no loss of glycerine which otherwise is inevitable to a -certain degree. Consequently, it is an ideal process for the treatment -of the “Premier Jus.” There is no need to mince the fat finely, as in -the orthodox rendering process, it being necessary only to cut the -waste roughly for charging the digester.</p> - -<p>A special press has been devised for the treatment of the crackling or -greaves. It is of the cage type which allows the fat, during pressure, -and which operation is carried out while the residue is very hot, to -be expressed between the bars of the cage to fall into a trough for -recovery. The cakes, after pressing, are dry, excellent in quality, -light in colour and of attractive flavour, a result due to the fact -that the tissues have not been scorched or charred in any way during -the rendering process. The greaves constitute an excellent ingredient -for the preparation of kennel and poultry foods, and enter extensively -into the manufacture of dog-cakes. In a few instances the dry greaves, -owing to their high nutritive value, are served to the kennel in the -straight form as they issue from the press.</p> - -<p>While the dry vacuum process is certainly efficient, it does not -fully comply with the latest ideas pertaining to the recovery of fats -from organic waste. The press is the weak link, because thereby it is -only possible to recover a certain proportion of the fat held up in -the mass, even when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> the cellular construction has been completely -broken up. It is stated, as a result of accumulated experience, that -the amount of fat left in the greaves may run up to as high as 10 per -cent. of the original fatty content of the offal: in many instances -it has been found to range as high as 20 per cent. The fact that this -remaining fat defying reclamation by pressing must be relatively high -is evident from the readiness with which certain waste exploiters will -buy up the greaves, not to turn them into kennel and poultry foods, but -to submit them to further treatment in order to wring out still more of -the fat which they carry.</p> - -<p>This manifestation of enterprise has been rendered possible by the -advance of the science of fat recovery from offal to such a level as to -enable 9 per cent. of the fat remaining in a 10 per cent. greaves to -be extracted. It is the prevailing high price commanded by fats which -renders such additional treatment upon an extensive scale so attractive -and eminently profitable.</p> - -<p>The process in question is the Scott solvent recovery invention to -which I have referred, and which represents the greatest achievement -yet recorded in the whole science of fat reclamation from organic -waste. The process was perfected and patented shortly before the war, -and although hostilities militated against its immediate and rapid -development, thereby delaying the recognition of its overwhelming -virtues, it is satisfactory to learn that many plants operating upon -this principle have been laid down, not only in this country, but in -other parts of the world. It is the process which at the moment is -arousing the most intense interest, owing to the progressive stride -which it represents in this field.</p> - -<p>The process is delightfully simple, although apparently it involves an -intricate plant and demands a higher level of skilled labour, but where -the work of reclamation is conducted along ambitious lines it cannot be -excelled. Briefly described, it turns upon the employment of benzine, -or some other equally volatile solvent which, as we all know, will -readily dissolve fat and absorb it. What can be done with this agent is -familiar to every housewife who practises the removal of grease spots -and other unsightly marks from clothing by the aid of benzine, while it -is the medium whereby dry-cleaning is rendered practicable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p> - -<p>The raw material—condemned meat, offal and other organs of the animal -recovered from the slaughter-house which possess no edible value—is -charged into a steam-jacketed horizontal extractor fitted with stirring -gear. When condemned carcasses are to be treated there is no need -to carry out preliminary deboning; it is merely necessary to reduce -the material to rough pieces for convenience of handling. It will be -observed that the steam is not brought into contact with the mass, but -is circulated through the jacket as in the dry vacuum process.</p> - -<p>The solvent is introduced in the first instance in the form of -vapour, being passed through boxes of special construction, to pass -finally into the extractor. The contents of the latter being in a -condition of constant agitation as a result of the manipulation of the -stirring gear, the benzine vapour is able to permeate the mass. The -heat radiated from the steam circulating through the jacket converts -the moisture present in the material into vapour and with which the -solvent comes into contact. Vaporization of the moisture causes the -solvent itself to condense to a certain degree, and in the liquid form -it dissolves out the grease. The process is continued until the bulk -of the moisture has been eliminated, when the grease and solvent are -withdrawn. When the grease has been fully extracted down to a limit -which will result in a dry meat-meal, containing about 1 per cent. of -grease, the benzine is steamed off in the usual manner. The benzine -itself is recovered because it is only permitted to work in a closed -circuit, and, after fulfilling its purpose, is passed to a still to be -cleaned and purified, after which it is again passed to the extractor -to repeat the cycle of operation.</p> - -<p>The process, it will be observed, is continuous, while the benzine -may be used over and over again. All that is required is to place -a sufficient quantity of the solvent into the circuit to carry -out the operation with the essential efficiency. Naturally, the -quantity involved varies with the size of the plant and the work to -be fulfilled, but it may run up to 5,000 or more gallons. The plant -is generally laid out upon the unit principle, which is the most -satisfactory, because it facilitates the adaptation of the installation -to the volume of work in hand. One or more units can be shut down -during the “off” period, allowing the remainder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> to be worked up to -their full capacity, which, of course, is the most efficient and -economical method. The losses of benzine are very low—not exceeding -1 per cent. of the weight of the raw material treated. In fact, there -are many installations in operation where, over a period of one year, -the benzine loss recorded is actually below 1 per cent. This factor is -vitally influenced by the care and attention bestowed upon the plant. -If it be carefully tended, all joints being kept in the tightly packed -condition, and the condenser maintained in a high degree of efficiency, -the benzine loss may be reduced to an infinitesimal degree, the value -thereof representing but an insignificant fraction of the value of the -increased yield of oil and fat.</p> - -<p>The solvent acts upon the grease only. It does not affect in any way -the gelatinous material, and, consequently, the nitrogenous or ammonia -value of the ultimate meal is considerably enhanced as compared with -the results achieved with the digesting plant. The meal is discharged -from the extractor in a dry crisp condition ready for immediate -grinding, and is admirably adapted for poultry and cattle feeding. No -traces of the benzine remain.</p> - -<p>The bones may be ground immediately, if desired, but if these should -be forthcoming in sufficient quantity they should be passed on to the -glue and gelatine plant. There is no necessity to submit them to a -further degreasing process, because this has been completed in the one -operation in the extractor. As a rule, however, with installations -devoted to the treatment of condemned meat and other offal, the bones -are not forthcoming in sufficient quantities to justify the attachment -of a glue recovery plant although, of course, they can be sold to other -works specializing in this work. It is merely a question as to whether -it would pay to transport the degreased bones to the glue works. If -not, they can be ground up to be utilized as fertilizer, for which, it -is needless to say, a good price can be obtained.</p> - -<p>The recovery of fat down to 1 per cent. of that contained in the crude -material does not constitute the only outstanding advantage of the -solvent extraction process. It enables the whole of the operations -to be condensed into one task, completely dispensing with all -auxiliary apparatus. The refuse is merely charged into the extractor -and withdrawn in the form of powder, and, if condemned carcasses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -have been exploited, bone as well. What this means may readily be -realized. Under the open steam digesting system—even with the wet -and dry vacuum systems to a lesser degree—the refuse must first be -cooked. The material upon withdrawal from the digester must be passed -through the press, after which treatment it has to be disintegrated -and dried. If the reclamation of the gelatinous or “stick” liquor, as -it is called, be part of the process this also demands handling. Thus -one may safely anticipate having to conform with five distinct and -separate operations, involving intermediate handling and supplementary -plant, while the loss of fat in passing from stage to stage is far -heavier than may possibly be imagined. But, with the solvent extraction -process, the numerous above-mentioned operations are resolved into -one, and one only—the charging of the extractor with the refuse. The -saving in labour by the elimination of all interhandling is obvious, -which in these days of enhanced wage costs demands consideration, while -there are no intermediate losses of oil. In so far as saving of time -is concerned there is little, if any, difference. Under the solvent -extraction method a period of eight to ten hours is required to deal -completely with a charge of 4,500 to 9,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></p> - -<p>The fruits accruing from this latest manifestation of ingenuity in -connection with the reclamation of waste may be tersely emphasized. -The reclamation of the fat down to 1 per cent. being accepted, it may -also prove interesting to indicate how effectively the nitrogenous or -ammonia value of the product is preserved. The following represents -a typical analysis of a meat meal, which, it should be pointed out, -contains no bone whatever. The figures are:—</p> - -<table class="thin"> -<tr> -<th class="tdr" colspan="2">Per cent.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Tribasic phosphate of lime (superphosphate) -</td> -<td class="tdr">3·25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Nitrogen -</td> -<td class="tdr">11·37</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> ⤷ = ammonia -</td> -<td class="tdr">13·81</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>At the large cattle-slaughtering establishments of North and South -America, and at the sheep-killing stations in Australia and New -Zealand, the residues from which the edible fat has been recovered -by the open steam process are turned over to the solvent extraction -plants which have now been introduced to form an integral part of -the waste-recovery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> system, the value of the invention being fully -appreciated. At first the practice was to dry the residues from the -digesters before committing them to the extraction plant, but since -it was found superfluous to carry out such a preliminary, the residue -is turned over from the open steam digester where the edible fats are -obtained to the solvent extraction plant, the idea of course being to -secure the proportion of fat escaping recovery in the digester. In -this manner 99 per cent. of the fat contained in the crude waste is -obtained, but the proportion reclaimed from the practice of the solvent -extraction process is set aside for manufacturing purposes—conversion -into soap and other utilitarian commodities.</p> - -<p>In the course of digesting the fresh fat with open steam a considerable -quantity of the “stick” liquor is precipitated, and its recovery for -size is fully justified. In the crude form this liquor is somewhat -weak, but by means of the Scott multiple-effect vacuum evaporating -plant it can be concentrated to any required degree of density. This -product is blended with the meat-meal from the solvent extraction plant -in a suitable vessel and is then dried to a powder, the ultimate meal -being high in ammonia.</p> - -<p>In the case of the offal which is not suitable for the production of -an edible fat, recourse to the open steam digester is eliminated. -The refuse, along with the condemned meat, is consigned directly to -the extraction plant to be dealt with in one operation. A similar -practice is followed at the large pig-killing establishments. At -one installation in South America, where there is an impressive -illustration of British ingenuity and enterprise in regard to -waste recovery upon the Scott principle, the tallow produced is -immediately dispatched to the adjoining soap works—also a British -installation—where the glycerine is recovered and soap is produced. In -this instance therefore we have a powerful example of a self-contained -establishment completely equipped for the recovery of the whole of the -by-products incurred in the course of its normal operations and to the -utmost advantage.</p> - -<p>The Germans have been extremely active in advancing the possibilities -of the solvent extraction process. Several large plants are in -operation in the Fatherland, of which we heard a good deal during -the war, but the character of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> operations of which were grossly -misrepresented and exaggerated. Those behind the lines were reserved -exclusively for the disposal of fallen horses as well as the offal -and other wastes resulting from the feeding of the troops. The fat, -immediately upon its extraction, was treated for its glycerine, which -was dispatched to the explosive manufactories in Germany, while the -residues were converted into soap upon the spot. This practice was -followed because the glycerine was the staple in most urgent demand, -and the transport of which was far simpler than the movement of the -crude reclaimed fats. So far as soap was concerned the German soldiers, -even up to the front lines, had little or no room for complaint, for -the simple reason that it was prepared in their midst at the plants -which were installed within easy access of the centres of suitable raw -material supply.</p> - -<p>British manufacturers, although somewhat conservative, are becoming -alive to the fact that only by the solvent extraction process can -the utmost wealth be won from fats derived from waste materials, and -many interesting expressions of enterprise in this direction may be -recorded. For instance, the manufacture of maize flour has made decided -strides in these islands during the past five years, doubtless owing -to the deficiency in connection with the wheaten product. However, -before this grain can be converted into the farinaceous form the germ -must be extracted, otherwise the keeping qualities of the flour are -seriously impaired. But, seeing that the germ represents approximately -20 per cent. of the whole grain, it will be seen that the industry -has to face a loss of one-fifth of its raw material in preparing the -flour—an imposing quantity. However, the germ is rich in oil, this -constituting approximately 20 per cent. of its bulk. The demand for -oil, particularly those of vegetable origin, is such that the maize -germ, instead of being turned over directly to cattle, is now being -exploited for its oil. By the solvent extraction process 99 per cent. -of this available 20 per cent. of oil is being extracted, the resultant -meal thus being virtually free of oil.</p> - -<p>When the idea was first taken in hand it was maintained that the -withdrawal of the oil would imperil the feeding qualities of the meal -residue. This being conclusively disproved it was then argued that the -employment of benzine for the purpose would depreciate its cattle-food -value, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> idea doubtless being entertained that it must be associated -with a certain benzine flavour from coming into contact with the -solvent. But here again practice did not coincide with precept, because -horses will devour the meal, freshly drawn from the extractor, with -avidity, and look round for more, proving very convincingly that -the benzine is completely exhausted from the extractor after having -fulfilled its designed function. Experience has shown that meal made -from the de-oiled maize germ is every whit as good and as nourishing -as, if not actually superior to, that which has not been subjected to -the oil-recovery process.</p> - -<p>The solvent extraction process has proved to be of incalculable value -to the firms specializing in the dry-cleaning of clothes, fabrics, -and textiles in general. When the articles are likely to be charged -with appreciable quantities of dirt, such as carpets, they are first -subjected to a dusting treatment which removes the superfluous or free -dirt. Wearing apparel, except in a few instances, does not require -submission to this preliminary operation and so is passed into the -washing machine, which contains only benzine, together with a slight -proportion of ammoniacal liquor. The garments are passed through -several successive washings and rinsings in various machines, to be -submitted finally to the hydro-extractor, where practically the whole -of the benzine is recovered, the goods being delivered practically dry. -But to be positive upon this point they are hung for three or four -hours in a drying room. The articles are then examined for any stains, -such as blood and grease marks, which have resisted elimination in the -mechanical cleaning process. These are removed by hand—“hand-spotting” -as it is called, either with water, or with benzine and a little -soluble soap and a brush.</p> - -<p>The dirt and other deleterious matter removed by the benzine in the -washing and rinsing machines is separated from the solvent, which -undergoes a simple treatment, bringing about its complete purification, -when it is returned to the service-tanks for further use. The process -is one of continuous distillation, the benzine, as previously -mentioned, being used over and over again, it only being necessary to -add certain quantities from time to time to remedy the unavoidable -losses incurred. The wastage of benzine averages about 15 per cent. -of the weight of the goods treated.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> Seeing that about 4,500 gallons -may pass hourly through the machines and the circuit, the loss is -relatively low. The quantity of dirt removed, despite the thoroughness -of the process, is comparatively trifling.</p> - -<p>One interesting phase of the dry-cleaning process deserves mention, -if only to bring home the assiduity with which the reclamation of -grease from every conceivable source is now being prosecuted. Some -of the firms are devoting attention to the separation of the grease -removed from the clothes by the benzine. Seeing that the only likely -contribution of grease is that removed from the hands or other part -of the body coming into contact with the fabric, and that the grease -in question is only natural perspiration, it will be seen that, under -the most favourable conditions, such deposit must necessarily be -exceedingly trifling. That it should be deemed worthy of recovery seems -almost incredible. But it is being done, though the yield is low, and -it is proving profitable.</p> - -<p>Probably no other waste is to be found in such a multiplicity of forms -and in such unexpected quarters as that capable of yielding grease, but -that it should pay to recover natural perspiration to assist in the -lubrication of a railway locomotive, or some other piece of machinery, -serves to emphasize the extremely fine limits to which fat-reclamation -science has been carried. It is admitted that, in the majority of -cases, the possible yields are so small as to render reclamation -absolutely impossible by any but the solvent extraction process, which -undoubtedly constitutes the highest testimony to the efficiency and -value of this wonderful British invention it is possible to advance.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br />SAVING THE SCRAP FROM THE SEA</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>If the human race be extravagant in one, more than in any other -direction, it is undoubtedly in connection with the utilization of -the harvests of the sea. It is a failing as strongly asserted by the -primitive as by the cultured races. The aborigine, when there is a -big run, will trap as many fish as he can, not for consumption, but -apparently for the mere sake of catching his prey. He will select what -he requires and leave the remainder to rot. His civilized brother -pursues a broadly similar course, only in this event decomposition may -not be permitted to run its course without fulfilling a beneficial -purpose. The process can be harnessed, as it were, to a more or less -useful function.</p> - -<p>Improvidence in the consumption of fish is particularly noticeable -among those nations which are able to point to an extensive salt-water -front, combined with a densely-settled population within a relatively -small area. It becomes accentuated when the country is possessed of an -intricate and excellent system of rapid inland transportation, allowing -the prompt movement of the catches from the points of landing to the -centres of consumption.</p> - -<p>Such a country is Great Britain. With us fish is an exceedingly cheap -food and one which, normally, is readily procurable in adequate -quantities. The “long haul” by rail occasions no apprehensions, -inasmuch as the railway transport problem, so far as fish is concerned, -has been magnificently solved, it being possible to move consignments -four hundred, even six hundred miles within a few hours.</p> - -<p>The sea’s contribution to the table is prolific. At the same time -it is variable. This factor in itself conduces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> towards pronounced -wastage. We seem to have failed lamentably in our efforts to cope with -the alternating spells of plenty and relative scarcity in a scientific -manner. We have not mastered the adjustment of seasonal gluts, arising -from the periodic massed movements of the fish, to shortages in order -to maintain a steady and uniform supply the whole year round. In view -of the immense strides which have been made in the art of preserving -perishable foodstuffs, this deficiency is certainly somewhat remarkable.</p> - -<p>The extremely low prices at which the bulk of the food from the sea, -particularly of herring and sprat—occasionally mackerel—is available, -are primarily responsible for the extravagance which rules. This -state of affairs offers another interesting illustration of the fact -that extremely cheap living promotes waste. We need only to recall -the experience of the war to assure ourselves upon this point. Under -the system of price control, coupled with abnormally high rates, fish -purchases had to be conducted by the trade with extreme caution to -obviate financial losses, while, similarly, the consumer was compelled -to be more economic and less fastidious in his, or her, tastes. Under -such conditions far less of the single fish was wasted, while greater -ingenuity was exercised in the preparation of the less attractive -edible portions for the table.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, no matter how extreme the care or economy manifested, a -certain degree of wastage is unavoidable. For the most part the offal, -which in itself is appreciable in volume, is regarded as irreclaimable -and valueless except as a fertilizer. But this reasoning is fallacious. -Fish-waste is capable of furnishing raw material in several forms to -feed other industries. As yet this notable circumstance has not become -fully appreciated in these islands, the practicability of using such -refuse only having been established during the past few years.</p> - -<p>Ability to turn fish offal to distinct profitable advantage not only -solves the problem in its economic aspect, but at the same time -indicates a promising outlook for glut catches and to which the -ordinary markets are often denied. In this country the conventional -disposal of surplus fish is decidedly deplorable for the reason that it -follows the line of least resistance. A glut or late catch is generally -sold at an absurd price in bulk to serve merely as manure.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span></p> - -<p>If the fish could be turned directly into the soil such a use might -not be exposed to severe condemnation, although it is to be deprecated -because it represents a serious misuse of valuable food. But, as a -rule, this cannot be conducted with the essential promptitude for -obvious reasons. Then the farmer suffers a heavy loss. Vigilant gulls -and other birds having a well-defined penchant for fish diet raid the -land to enjoy a Gargantuan feast with the minimum of effort on their -part. The birds will even follow a train, or road wagons, bearing a -manurial consignment of their food, for miles from the point of landing -and then, after it has been dumped, will swoop down to gorge themselves -to the full. In many instances a farmer has been known to lose at -least 50 per cent. of his purchase in this manner. He may essay alert -and effective measures to combat the birds’ attacks, but he will find -it an unequal contest. In one instance, which came before my notice, -the insatiable birds, catching sight of one or two open trucks laden -with a freshly-landed catch <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en route</i> to the land, attacked the -wagons so vigorously as to cause a very perceptible shrinkage in the -load before it reached its destination. Another farmer, who had been -persuaded to buy two or three truckloads of freshly-landed fish just -because it was cheap, subsequently expressed his doubt as to whether -he had driven a good bargain after all. The birds attacked the field -over which the loads were distributed in such overwhelming numbers as -to prompt the opinion that the field really contained more gulls than -fish! So, after all, it is extremely questionable whether the purchase -of a bumper catch for use as a fertilizer is really such a bargain as -it may appear from a cursory reflection.</p> - -<p>In our large cities and towns the treatment of fish offal and surplus -supplies drawn from the markets, stores, and retail shops, as well as -the hotels, restaurants, and clubs, for industrial exploitation, should -present no difficulty whatever. It is an offal apart and a noisome one. -Its susceptibility to rapid decomposition and the emission of obnoxious -odours during the process demand its prompt removal. It cannot be -handled with other refuse owing to its offensiveness. Consequently the -system of special collection by vehicles of the closed tank type has -become the general practice. In this manner the disconcerting factor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -pertaining to the utilization of organic waste—effective segregation -at the source—is assured.</p> - -<p>Although, so far as we are concerned, the record of practical -achievements concerning the industrial utilization of fish-waste is -slender, owing to the few firms having been persuaded to embrace this -phase of trading, it is consoling to learn that we possess what may be -described as the leading authorities competent to deal with this issue -in all its varying aspects, and to be equipped with the best approved -facilities for conducting this work along the latest and most promising -lines. There is one firm in particular which has built up a unique -reputation in this direction, having been responsible for the design -and construction, as well as installation, of the largest fish-waste -reclamation plants in operation throughout the world. Some of these -equipments are most elaborate in character, and their very dimensions, -activity, scale of operations and prosperity, serve to demonstrate, in -the most convincing manner, the enormous wealth capable of being won -from fish scrap when the task is conducted along the lines advanced -by scientific development. The British firm in question, to whose -apparatus I have devoted extensive description in a previous chapter, -has been responsible for the complete installations forming part and -parcel of the huge canneries scattered along the western seaboard of -the North American continent.</p> - -<p>It somewhat redeems our own short-sightedness and lack of enterprise to -know that we have a firm in our midst which has achieved many distinct -triumphs in the great issue of waste reclamation. It retains an -imposing staff of highly-trained chemists who have become specialists -in this privileged province, and they have devoted especial attention -to the exploitation of fish-scrap in the anticipation that this may -yet develop into a pretentious British industry. The presiding genius -of this organization has also associated himself intimately with -the problem from the severely scientific side, as well as becoming -thoroughly familiarized with the latest methods as practised in -Germany, Scandinavia, and other countries in order to reap full -advantage from the lessons which they are able to extend in point -of equipment and practice. In the opinion of this active-minded and -enterprising authority we have nothing to learn from the foreigner -either in point of processes, plant, or efficiency.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> We merely lack the -necessary imagination, initiative, and commercial acumen to be able to -reap the full financial and trading harvest to be gathered from the -exploitation of fish-scrap. While we are apathetic and backward in this -connection our Dominions are alert and astute. We need only to turn to -the extensive installation recently laid down in Australia—a model of -its type—and which was completed by the firm in question, to grasp -what can be accomplished in this peculiar field.</p> - -<p>It was extremely fortunate for us, as a nation, to be possessed of -the knowledge and creative resources of a progressive firm. During -the war, when the economic conditions became so tense, the question -of the economic disposal of fish-waste to full commercial advantage -suddenly assumed an unexpected significance. Specific raw materials -were urgently demanded, and it was decided to search sedulously -for additional domestic sources of supply. In the conduct of these -investigations the potentialities of fish-scrap were forced to the -forefront. The enemy was exploiting this field to its absolute limits, -so why should we continue to ignore it? Cognizant of the precise -possibilities of this industry and the financial attractions which it -possessed the head of the firm of which I have written expressed his -readiness to extend all assistance in his power. His knowledge of the -craft, together with that of what the enemy could and could not do, -proved invaluable, and enabled us to place the recovery of the wealth -from this waste upon a solid foundation, and in such a manner as to -allow of its indefinite expansion in the future.</p> - -<p>So far as turning fish-scrap to commercial account has been concerned -in these islands the axiom pertaining to the prophet and his own -country has not been wholly applicable. The Germans endeavoured to -establish an industry upon this raw material among us but signally -failed. One or two small plants were laid down along the broad lines -in vogue upon the other side of the North Sea, but they fell so far -short of expectations or requirements, and were so strikingly inferior -to British thought as to fall into disuse. They have long since been -broken up.</p> - -<p>The Teuton, however, was not solicitous of the welfare of the British -nation in exploiting British fish-waste. He was merely prompted to -plant himself here because the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> necessary refuse—raw material from -his point of view—was obtainable in such huge quantities and at a -low figure. The output was shipped to Germany, where it commanded an -attractive price and was in keen demand. The spurned and rejected of -Britain became the highly prized of Germany.</p> - -<p>Fish-waste falls into two broad classes, which are yet somewhat sharply -defined. These are white fish and oily offal respectively, the herring -being the best example of the latter category. Consequently, to conduct -fish-waste reclamation and exploitation for the by-products upon a -sufficiently comprehensive scale in these islands it would be necessary -to separate the offal into the two distinctive classifications at -the source. However, this would not be such a perplexing problem as -it might appear at first sight. Such segregation is imperative for -specific technical reasons, while one must also remember that the salt -content of the offal varies widely in the two classes of fish.</p> - -<p>Scrap of this character can be induced to yield three commercial -products as a result of inexpensive treatment. They are respectively -meal for poultry and cattle, oil, and fertilizer. A fourth commodity -might be included, namely, fish-glue. Hitherto we have been content to -draw upon other countries for our supplies of this article, although -abundant raw material for its production has always been readily -obtainable. But manufacture was doubtless regarded as being extremely -speculative for the simple reason that the demand for this article -was severely limited. For some reason or other fish-glue, though -extensively used by the peoples of other nations, has never been -regarded with pronounced favour in British circles although it cannot -be excelled as an adhesive. Probably its peculiarly pungent odour has -been responsible for our indifferent appreciation of its virtues. One -or two small factories were equipped to conduct domestic manufacture, -but they were far from being pretentious in their scale of operation.</p> - -<p>Fish-glue has attained its greatest vogue in Germany, Scandinavia, -Canada, and the United States of America—the last-named more -particularly. Yet there is no reason why it should not become equally -popular here. All that is required is to enlighten the community -concerning its properties, and here is a grand opportunity for -propaganda in support of a new industry. There is no secret associated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -with its production as might possibly be imagined. The quality most -essential to secure its widespread appreciation is merely a display of -grim energy, push, and go. It is not a case of being called upon to -advance the claims of an entirely new product. It is known more or less -throughout the country from the circumstance that it is being exploited -in varying degree throughout the world. In these circumstances the -manufacture of British fish-glue from British fish-waste presents -enormous possibilities, capable of illimitable development.</p> - -<p>There are signs that we are bestirring ourselves in this direction. -Heretofore fish-glue has always been made from the skins of white fish. -It has now been suggested that, in this country, the bones might be put -to similar account, the gummy content thereof being quite pronounced. -Expert opinion favours the contention that such might be carried out -to advantage, but there is one supreme difficulty—the adequate supply -of the essential bones. They could be drawn from the filleting trade, -but the extent of this supply is somewhat problematical. Fish-bones as -such have not yet attained the high estate of recognition as a distinct -article of commerce. Nevertheless a possible way out of this difficulty -has been suggested. It should be quite practicable, when employing the -oil extraction process to which I refer later, to sift out the larger -bones before submitting the dry residue to the grinding process. In -this way it would be possible to secure a ready supply of the necessary -raw material for the production of the glue.</p> - -<p>It has also been suggested in certain home circles that herring -offal might be treated in such a way as to yield fish-glue, but this -represents a venture upon untrodden ground. From such a statement it -must not be inferred that this residue could not be induced to yield -the substance desired, but so far as is known the offal has never -been devoted to this purpose. Nevertheless, the suggestion is to be -applauded. It is indicative of the new spirit attending the disposal of -fish offal and goes to prove that British commercial pioneering is far -from being numbered among the lost arts. The mere launch of the inquiry -has sufficed to spur the chemist to investigate the problem, and any -success achieved in the laboratory in this direction will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> represent -an enormous progressive stride owing to the magnitude of our herring -fishery.</p> - -<p>At the moment it is the recovery of the oil, meal, and fertilizer -which constitutes the primary objectives of the industry. Of the three -possible by-products the meal is doubtless the most remunerative. -To a certain degree the contemporary concentration of effort upon -the conversion of the offal into meal is due to the fact that this -constituted the essence of German endeavour in these islands before -the war. This meal was in keen demand in Germany, and the bulk thereof -was dispatched to that country and Japan. The interruption of this -supply to the former, as a result of the outbreak of hostilities, hit -the enemy somewhat severely. Not only was he thus deprived of the -crude meal prepared in Britain, but he was also denied the opportunity -to turn the waste accruing from the consumption in the Fatherland of -the heavy imports of British herring which were also summarily cut -off. Doubtless Germany cherishes hopes that her industrious sons, who -specialized in this distinctive craft, will be permitted to return to -the scene of their former labours and to exploit British fish-scrap -once again to the advantage of the German nation upon the conclusion of -peace. May the wish become no more than father to the thought. We have -not failed to profit from the many lessons taught by the war: we have -been forced to recognize the many virtues of fish-meal and have made, -and still are making, spirited efforts to repair the losses in this -line of trading which, from our indifference and lack of imagination, -we lost.</p> - -<p>To galvanize British effort the fish-meal and fish-manure (guano) -manufacturers have joined hands. Propaganda has been waged vigorously -by the association, while agricultural societies and colleges have -willingly co-operated to spread the gospel of enlightenment. Farmers -have been canvassed sedulously, and the value of these by-products -for feeding stock and soil have been brought convincingly before -them. As a poultry food fish-meal is declared to be unsurpassable, -and this circumstance has been driven well home. The result of this -onslaught has been to force the farmer, an admittedly difficult -individual to convince, into the admission that these products are -possessed of far-reaching potentialities, the result being that, -to-day, an increasing demand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> for fish-meal and guano prevails, which -has exercised the obvious effect of stimulating the exploitation of -fish-scrap to a very pronounced degree.</p> - -<p>During the war circumstances militated against the fulfilment of any -impressive programme of development along modern lines. Plant and -machinery could not be procured owing to the prior claims advanced by -other industries. Consequently the problem became resolved rather into -the modernization and adaptation of existing plants, many of which -suffered from being woefully inefficient. But even in this direction -much was achieved which cannot fail to be of distinct value, since it -has served to illustrate what can be done in this field to financial -profit. Now that trade is returning to the normal we may safely -anticipate a striking advance along the whole industrial line in the -installation of comprehensive plants coinciding with the very latest -expressions of scientific thought, and which will not fail to conduce -to the winning of impressively additional wealth from this hitherto -sadly-neglected material.</p> - -<p>So far as the white fish is concerned the conversion of the offal -into meal represents a straightforward operation. It is merely dried -under vacuum along the lines already described, a steam-jacketed -drier or concentrator being used for the purpose. If the waste be -stale or heavily impregnated with salt it cannot be used as food, the -product in this instance being bagged for sale as a fertilizer. But -the manufacturer, owing to the enhanced profit to be derived from the -sale of the product in the feeding-meal form naturally strives to -secure this article, and so, if designed for this use, the meal, after -issuance from the drier, is passed through a disintegrator and is then -graded through a sifting reel.</p> - -<p>It is the exploitation of the herring and the sprat, both in the form -of offal, glut catches, and condemned consignments, which presents the -most attractive future in these islands. When it is remembered that -the annual yield of the sea to the fishermen of Britain represents -a round 4,000,000,000 herrings, it will be conceded that here must -be a Klondyke of waste. Unfortunately, however, the issue is not so -straightforward as it would seem to be. An enormous quantity of the -catches are set aside for salting and curing to allow of export to -foreign markets. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> past Russia and Germany were our largest -customers for this foodstuff, their combined purchases running to -a round 800,000,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> and exceeding £4,000,000—$20,000,000—in -value. When the fish is salted the treatment of the offal presents a -rather teasing problem. Its excessive salt content reacts against its -conversion into poultry-meal except in very small quantities which are -almost too insignificant to demand attention. When a fish-meal carries -salt in excess of 5 per cent. it can be used as a constituent of -blended or compounded foods, and then only sparingly. Consequently the -possible consumption in this field can only be relatively trifling.</p> - -<p>By salting the herring the saline content is increased to 20 or even 25 -per cent., and the removal of the added salt offers a supreme obstacle. -Fortunately it crops up only at certain seasons, but, at these periods, -the quantities of offal and scrap to be treated assume imposing -dimensions. As may be imagined, from what has been related, salt is -the bugbear to the meal manufacturer and he is hard put to it to bring -the figure down to one coinciding with trading requirements. What he -desires is a simple, inexpensive process whereby the excessive salt may -be eliminated without impairing the other virtues of the material in -any way. Needless to say the discovery of such a preliminary treatment, -meeting with his desires, will be received with unfeigned delight.</p> - -<p>The suggestion has been advanced that the extraneous, or added, -salt might be removed by subjecting the offal to a washing process. -Undoubtedly, in this way, the desired end could be consummated to a -certain degree, but, at the same time, there is the danger that the -water would not only carry away the salt but would bear with it an -appreciable proportion of the valuable nitrogenous matter which it is -imperative should be retained. Unfortunately the salt is not completely -free; it permeates the fish through and through and is held by the -tissues. In view of the difficulty obtaining the manufacturer, as -a rule, converts the heavily salted offal into fertilizer, but the -enhanced salt content of the manure is regarded with certain misgivings -even by the farmer.</p> - -<p>This problem assumed its maximum intensity during the war. Huge -quantities of barrelled herrings, destined<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> for export to the countries -upon the other side of the North Sea, were held up by the authorities, -who feared that they might ultimately find their way into enemy -countries. As there was no other outlet for this produce, the salted -herrings not being regarded with favour here, these prohibited exports -were ultimately thrown upon the hands of the meal manufacturers. Such -an instance is decidedly abnormal, but as already mentioned the issue -arises to a lesser degree under conditions of ordinary trading, and, -consequently, demands a certain amount of attention.</p> - -<p>The engineering firm specializing in plants for the exploitation of -fish-scrap, to which I have alluded, is attacking this problem in its -extensive well-equipped laboratories. The chemist favours the theory -that the extraneous salt is capable of ready removal. He also realizes -that the perfection of a simple and cheap process to this end will -probably accomplish a further beneficial purpose. Traces of blood -are occasionally encountered in the offal, and their presence tends -to discolour the resultant meal. These might possibly be eliminated -contemporaneously with the removal of the added salt.</p> - -<p>While I have dealt somewhat at length with the artificial salt problem, -as it were, it must not be imagined that it constitutes a constant or -inseparable feature of the fish-waste by-product recovery industry: -far from it. Herring offal, while extremely varied, falls into certain -distinctive classes. There is the scrap, or waste, as well as condemned -consignments and surplus incidental to the fresh fish trade, which -during the recurring periods undoubtedly touches a very high figure. -Then there is the kippering and curer offal, the yield of which is much -more formidable and easily recoverable from accumulations at central -plants where such work is carried out upon a large scale. The kippering -refuse, of course, represents that incurred in the process of kippering -the herring and, comprising for the most part the gut of the fish, -presents a material having little body or substance.</p> - -<p>This waste is difficult to treat except along the most modern lines. -For this reason, in pre-war days it was exploited only to a limited -degree. Yet its accumulation was enormous. At some plants the piles of -such refuse, which were to be seen, contained several hundred tons.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> It -failed to arouse earnest attention until the famine in oil burst upon -us during hostilities. Then these dumps created interest because it was -realized that such residue is rich in oil, enormous quantities of which -were lying dormant. Forthwith plants were erected and equipped with the -very latest types of machinery, which augurs well for the continuation -of this manifestation of industrial enterprise in the future, owing to -the great possibilities attending such reclamation.</p> - -<p>Curer offal presents the heads and other waste portions as well as a -material quantity of broken fish. This refuse has far more body, and -so can be more readily treated to allow the valuable by-products to be -recovered.</p> - -<p>While we undoubtedly lagged behind our competitors in turning -fish-scrap to commercial account it must not be imagined that we -completely ignored this potential source of wealth. Nevertheless, for -the most part, we were content to conduct operations along obsolete, -inefficient lines, obtaining a return far below what might have -been recorded. Had these plants been of modern design and equipment -fish-waste reclamation would have advanced by leaps and bounds during -the war period. As new machinery could not be obtained the main -task was to adapt the existing plant to satisfy the demands of the -authorities, which proved a task of distinct magnitude in itself, -because the majority of the installations in operation possessed no -striking feature other than that of being extremely wasteful from every -point of view, offering, in fact, the most convincing illustrations of -How <em>not</em> to do it!</p> - -<p>In some works the practice was to cook the offal in steam-jacketed -cookers. Now, when kippering offal, for instance, is being treated, -the material, owing to lack of body, tends to coagulate at a certain -stage in the process, a large volume of oil being liberated. This oil -was skimmed and the residue, resembling a stiff mud, was removed to -be wrapped in cloths for submission to extreme pressure in hydraulic -presses. This action served to express a certain proportion of the oil -remaining in the sludge. The compressed cakes were then transferred to -a steam-jacketed drier to be reduced to meal.</p> - -<p>This process, which has not yet been completely superseded, suffers -from being involved and prolonged, although<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> these do not constitute -the most adverse features. The greatest objections to it are the -retention of an appreciable quantity of oil in the residue, even after -subjection to pressure, which accordingly becomes associated with -the meal. The last-named being sold for fertilizing purposes, the -presence of the oil is objectionable, while the product also suffers -from being low in ammonia. Furthermore, while the sludge is being -pressed a pronounced volume of watery liquid is driven out to be lost -down the drains. Seeing that this liquid carries valuable manurial -constituents its loss is greatly to be deplored, and materially lowers -the fertilizing—and financial—value of the meal.</p> - -<p>A variation of the foregoing process is made in other works, but it -only tends towards greater inefficiency and heavier losses. In this -case only the oil resulting from treatment of the material in the -hydraulic press is recovered! A third system involves the passage of -the pressed cakes through a continuous direct fire-heated drier. This -method is particularly objectionable, not only from the offensive -odours which are thrown off, but because the ammonia content of the -waste undergoes serious depreciation, owing to the high temperature -employed. In certain instances the herring offal is even charged into -the apparatus without any attempt having been made to separate the oil! -Such a system, as will readily be recognized, has nothing whatever to -recommend it.</p> - -<p>It is the observance of such indifferent and unscientific methods -as the foregoing which has been responsible for the commercial -possibilities of fish-scrap to be belittled. The oil is undoubtedly -ignored intentionally because fish oils are generally held to be -worthy of inclusion only among the lowest grades of industrial oils. -Nevertheless, were a chemist to be attached to such wasteful plants -much needed reforms could be promptly introduced, although it is highly -probable that the plants would be scrapped instantly at his instigation -because of their lamentable inefficiency.</p> - -<p>But we need labour no longer in ignorance. Modern science, as -represented by chemistry and engineering, is able to offer an equipment -capable of extracting the whole of the oil content down to 1 per cent. -In other words, 99 per cent. of the oil contained in the raw offal -and scrap can be recovered both cheaply and easily. The loss<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> of such -a minute fraction as 1 per cent. undoubtedly represents a remarkable -chemico-mechanical achievement.</p> - -<p>The new process completely coincides with the dictates of contemporary -science. The fundamental features are cooking the refuse under vacuum -and the ultimate extraction of the oil by the aid of a suitable solvent -such as benzine or other equally volatile spirit, or the benzine -extraction system may be used from the very beginning, in a single -and complete process. I have described this highly ingenious system -in a previous chapter together with the system of operation followed. -Obviously while the highest efficiency can only be derived from the -installation of the complete plant, the processes being interrelated, -the designer found it possible to modernize some of the old-fashioned -and wasteful equipments to a very striking degree by the introduction -of certain features to meet the exigencies of the moment.</p> - -<p>A very convincing illustration of what can be achieved in this -connection may be related. A firm specializing in the exploitation -of herring offal desired to extend its plant, but was baulked in its -intentions owing to the various restrictions which were in force. -Accordingly it was compelled to consider the situation of how to -derive more from the existing facilities without adding to them, at -least only to an insignificant degree. At first sight this may seem -to have presented a somewhat intricate, if not actually impossible, -undertaking. Yet it was effected.</p> - -<p>The modified arrangement introduced is decidedly interesting. The -offal is cooked in the steam-jacketed cooker, as much as possible -of the oil being skimmed from the mixture at the critical stage of -coagulation. The sediment, or mud-like residue, is then transferred -to an extractor where the remaining oil is recovered. This converts -the residue into a still stiffer substance to be finished off in the -ordinary steam-jacketed drier, instead of being completely dried in the -extractor as originally designed.</p> - -<p>This solution has proved to be exceedingly simple and eminently -efficient. Although considerable handling is involved the extracting -capacity of the plant has been nearly doubled. The advantages to be -recorded are:—</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>(1) Ability to handle very much larger charges of waste when not -reducing the material to a dry meal;</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span></p> - -<p>(2) Reduction of the raw material to the extent of the oil removed -from the cookers;</p> - -<p>(3) Reduction of the time required for the oil extraction by -approximately 50 per cent.</p> -</div> - -<p>Consequently, although the adapted, or modified, process entails the -employment of extra labour, a result entirely due in this instance to -the disposition of the plant in the works, the firm in question is able -to obtain the value of the oil which would otherwise be lost, and which -more than offsets the cost of the extra labour involved.</p> - -<p>As a result of this development a review of the whole problem -associated with the recovery of the by-products from fish-scrap was -made. Cooking plant is not so expensive as extraction equipment. The -question arose as to whether, or not, it would be possible, by the -introduction of suitable automatic handling and other labour-saving -devices, to obtain highly satisfactory results and efficiency from a -combined plant. If this could be done then it would be comparatively -easy and inexpensive to bring many of the existing recovery plants up -to date to the advantage of the firms concerned. But the factor of -capital outlay demands careful consideration, more especially in all -matters pertaining to the utilization of waste products, because costs -must be forced down to the irreducible minimum to show the necessary -return to render them attractive. The result of close investigation -of the issue led to the ultimate conclusion that the cost involved -in connection with the cookers, extraction plant, and driers, in all -probability, would be heavier than that incidental to the laying down -of a straightforward extraction plant, pure and simple, to deal with -the raw material and to turn it out as a dry product in one operation. -One admitted advantage accrues from subjecting the material to -preliminary cooking in steam-jacketed cookers. The oil thus obtained is -somewhat better in quality than that derived by recourse to the solvent.</p> - -<p>The modified or combined process above described enables one distinct -end to be achieved. The objectionable and wasteful, as well as -expensive pressing plant can be dispensed with. It also enables the -ammonia content of the finished meal to be improved very noticeably, -as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> following analyses of typical meals produced by the respective -processes prove somewhat conclusively.</p> - - -<table class="thin"> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th class="tdc"> -<span class="smcap">Phosphates.</span><br />Per cent. -</th> -<th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Ammonia.</span><br />Per cent.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Pressing process -</td> -<td class="tdc">6·5</td> -<td class="tdc">7·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Combined process -</td> -<td class="tdc">9·5</td> -<td class="tdc">10·5</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p>From the foregoing it will be seen that the enhanced yield of -phosphates and ammonia fully justifies the additional expenditure -incurred in regard to the plant and labour in connection with the -extraction process, quite apart from the main duty of the plant. This -is to extract all the oil, multiplying the usual yield many times over. -Moreover, the quality of the oil-free meal obviously is superior.</p> - -<p>With herring offal the extraction process by benzine ensures nothing -being removed except the moisture and the oil. None of the liquor with -its valuable ammonia is lost. Consequently the whole of the nitrogenous -matter is combined with the resultant fertilizing meal.</p> - -<p>To indicate the advantage of the benzine extraction process over the -old-fashioned method of cooking, pressing, and subsequently drying the -pressed cakes the accompanying analyses may prove informative. They -refer to herring-mixed meal produced from kippering offal and damaged -herring respectively.</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Benzine Extraction Process.</span></p> - -<table class="thin"> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th class="tdc"> -Per cent. -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Ammonia -</td> -<td class="tdc">11·79</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Tribasic phosphate of lime -</td> -<td class="tdc">9·66</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Oil -</td> -<td class="tdc">1·10</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Old Process.</span></p> - -<table class="thin"> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th class="tdc"> -Per cent. -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Ammonia -</td> -<td class="tdc">7·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Tribasic phosphate of lime -</td> -<td class="tdc">6·5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Oil -</td> -<td class="tdc">15·5</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Both essential fertilizing constituents are lower by the second than -by the first process. This is not surprising in view of the fact that -the subjection of the sludge to pressure drives off the watery liquor -which is allowed to escape into the drains, notwithstanding that it -carries a pronounced proportion of the ammonia and phosphate. Then it -will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> be seen that the benzine process yields a manure carrying a less -proportion of the oil which the farmer regards with misgiving, because -the oil has been recovered for sale as such. In other words it will be -seen that, under the old process, 14.4 per cent. of oil is allowed to -pass to the land where it is not required, instead of to industry where -it is in keen request. At the prices which prevailed during the war -this represented a wastage of £7—$35—per ton of fertilizer.</p> - -<p>Under the extraction or solvent process the meal is turned out in -a perfectly dry condition, either for use as a poultry food or -fertilizer, the recovery of the oil and drying being completed in the -one operation. The method is not only the acme of simplicity but it -assures the maximum yield of oil, only 1 per cent. being lost. It is -also rapid, it being possible to treat a charge of 8 tons of offal in -10 to 12 hours in one unit.</p> - -<p>White fish and general offal do not contain sufficient oil to warrant -the expense of solvent extraction. If it should be desired to secure 99 -per cent. of the slight proportion the offal carries then submission to -the benzine process is imperative, for the simple reason that it cannot -possibly be recovered in any other way. The modern system of drying -such offal is by steam heat under vacuum or reduced pressure.</p> - -<p>This process, to which I have also devoted adequate attention -previously, not only enables a product of high quality to be obtained, -enabling it to command an enhanced price in the market, but it also -conduces towards the retention of the nitrogenous contents of the meal. -From the fertilizing point of view this is the main end to be achieved. -Colour of the meal is another factor which demands recognition. It -plays a far more prominent part in the commercial value of the product -than might possibly be conceived. The American drying system, operating -along direct fire-heated lines, while efficient so far as it goes, -namely, the elimination of the moisture, yields a darker coloured meal, -owing to the high temperature which has to be used, while, of course, -the nitrogen content is lowered by such practice.</p> - -<p>The vacuum system has also proved highly efficient for the production -of cod-liver oil. The temperature of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> rendering being low gives an oil -of superior colour and odour, two factors of vital importance when -the oil is being extracted for medicinal purposes. This is a somewhat -delicate product to manufacture, especially when the livers are in a -state of partial decomposition, because in this instance colour and -sweet taste are particularly vital and difficult to assure.</p> - -<p>I have referred to the circumstance that fish oils commercially rule -low in the scale of industrial oils. But even fish oils possess one -feature common to the highest grades of oils. They carry a certain -proportion of glycerine. During the war the oil extracted from -fish-scrap and offal was subjected to further treatment to swell our -domestic supplies of this indispensable commodity. Even under normal -conditions the reclamation of oil from fish waste to secure this -glycerine offers further inducement to this phase of industry, and is -also capable of considerable development.</p> - -<p>Fish oils are also destined to play a more prominent part upon the -table than has been the case heretofore. Their inherent fluidity -and refusal to solidify, except at low temperatures, have hitherto -reacted against their use in this direction. But the increasing demand -for margarine as a substitute for butter, and the discovery of the -hydrogenating process for eliminating the two outstanding defects, have -invested the future for fish oils with additional significance, more -especially as by the hardening process, as it is called, the pungent -taste and aroma so distinctively of the sea and its inhabitants are -removed. By virtue of this discovery fish oils are entering more and -more extensively into the manufacture of margarine. The circumstance -that they yield a product so closely allied to the genuine article -from the dairy as to be difficult of detection, except by elaborate -investigation and specialized methods, has served to accentuate this -tendency.</p> - -<p>We must derive far-reaching benefits from the utilization of our -fish waste of every description—not only the offal arising from the -preparation of the foodstuff for the table either in a fresh, kippered, -cured, or canned condition, but the inedible contributions from the -trawls. Those members of the sea’s vast and varied population, such -as the whale, which are trapped for certain highly-prized portions of -their bodies, must be fully exploited. For decades the whale<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> fishery -has been conducted along the most wickedly wasteful lines for which we -are paying to-day. The Scandinavian whalers have been among the worst -offenders in this respect, but they are now being compelled to turn -from the folly of their ways and are endeavouring to utilize the whole -of the carcases of their prizes.</p> - -<p>So far as the average member of the community in these islands is -concerned it is a moot point whether he, or she, has any tangible -idea of the magnitude of the British sea-fishing industry. From the -abundance and cheapness of the food a vague notion obtains that it -must certainly be somewhat impressive. To obtain a graphic idea of its -enormous proportions we must venture beyond the limits of domestic -consumption and see how we help to feed the foreigner. Under normal -conditions we ship approximately 1,250,000,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of fish every year, -representing in value a round £7,750,000—$38,750,000. Of this huge -total the humble herring represents nearly 1,120,000,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, valued -at approximately £6,000,000—$30,000,000. Of the total herring catch -about one thousand million—1,000,000,000—<abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> are subjected to curing -or salting for the foreign markets, the value of those exports being -£5,350,000—$26,750,000—so that the herring may truly be said to form -the backbone of the British sea-fisheries. In these circumstances, and -bearing in mind the huge quantities handled, the item of waste must -necessarily loom heavy. It cannot be avoided. Therefore it behoves -us to turn our harvest from the sea to the utmost advantage and to -eliminate the item “loss” from our operations.</p> - -<p>As the by-products from fish-waste become appreciated we may even -proceed to the lengths pursued along the northern Atlantic seaboard of -the United States. There the harvest of the menhaden, a fish totally -unfit for human consumption, is carried out expressly for the oil -obtainable therefrom. It has become a flourishing trade—one which is -steadily expanding—special vessels being engaged in the fishery. While -it is questionable if much fish of a comparative character and totally -unsuited to the table is to be caught in the waters around our coasts, -Farther Britain can point to a different state of things. Our Dominions -should find it profitable to emulate the American example and exploit -adjacent waters essentially for inedible fish to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> extract the oil and -to convert the residue either into fertilizer or poultry food. There is -a lucrative and developing market for all three commodities.</p> - -<p>But the problem of to-day, in so far as it particularly affects Great -Britain, is to solve the issue incidental to the glut catches, so as -to prevent the wasteful distribution of the raw fish over the land as -the easiest way out of a perplexing dilemma. If we can divert such -unwanted hauls from the sea to reclamation factories, confident in the -knowledge that there they will be worked up to their utmost in the -interests of commerce, we shall be able to record an industrial and -economic achievement of incalculable consequence to ourselves. To dump -newly-caught fish upon the land merely because it cannot be absorbed -by the community as a foodstuff constitutes one of the most deplorably -wasteful, if not actually criminally extravagant, charges ever levelled -against contemporary civilization.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br />WINNING WEALTH FROM SLAUGHTER-HOUSE OFFAL, CONDEMNED MEAT BONES, AND -BLOOD</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Undoubtedly one of the wonders of civilization is the ability to -preserve and transport such a readily perishable foodstuff as meat in a -chilled and frozen condition for an indefinite period of time. By this -means cattle roaming the extensive ranches of North and South America, -Australia and New Zealand, are rendered available in a fresh form for -presentation upon the tables of Britain to supplement the severely -limited domestic supplies. During recent years the growth of this -traffic has been remarkable, and it will not be long before we touch -the million-tons-a-year mark for imported beef, mutton, pork, exclusive -of ham and bacon.</p> - -<p>Yet the development of this trade has reacted directly against our -own interests. The dispatch of the carcases to these islands in the -dressed condition has deprived, and still is depriving us, of much -valuable raw material to which we should have access were we to raise -sufficient meat to satisfy our own needs. This is the exploitation of -the offal or inedible portions of the beast, the products obtained -from which are not only of marked intrinsic value, but enter into so -many other and varied industries. From this statement it must not be -imagined that we are entirely prevented from establishing a meat-waste -industry, since our domestic killing trade is of distinct significance -and is supplemented to a certain degree by the “home-killed” business. -The latter, as is well known, represents the shipment of cattle to this -country in the live condition to be slaughtered upon landing.</p> - -<p>In these circumstances it would be perfectly feasible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> for us to -establish the meat residue exploitation industry upon a comprehensive -scale but for the fact that existing conditions are decisively -adverse, although we could scarcely aspire to attain the magnitude and -operations of the huge meat-packing plants of Chicago. It is extremely -doubtful if we really appreciate the possibilities of this business, -and, because of our ignorance, we, as a nation, are the losers. We have -permitted the local or territorial slaughter of cattle to be carried to -an extreme length. The municipal abattoir constitutes the feature of -the slaughtering trade of these islands, and although this practice was -introduced to overcome the shortcomings of the private slaughter-house, -which were many, and to ensure killing and dressing animals under -the most hygienic and scientific conditions, yet it is a matter for -serious consideration as to whether the municipal practice should not -be superseded by a centralized system, acting under State or private -control, the latter for preference, so as to give full rein to the -display of initiative.</p> - -<p>There is no logical reason why the slaughter of domestic cattle -should not be conducted at a central point. Such a plant conducted -along the lines practised at Chicago would be of far-reaching benefit -to the community. Supervision would be more effective, simpler and -less expensive, inasmuch as it would be possible to dispense with -the multiplicity of officials now obtaining—another form of waste. -It would also enable the residues from the trade to be turned to -utilitarian advantage along the most economic and profitable lines, -owing to their very bulk. A visit to the Chicago stockyards brings -home very forcibly the magnitude of this trade and the wealth to be -won from the residues which accrue. It has been declared, and with -considerable truth, that at the American stockyards the development -of the by-products is every whit as extensive and as important as the -preparation of the ostensible staple product. It is actually more -profitable, and brings in as great if not greater revenue.</p> - -<p>The arguments which would be levelled against the establishment of a -central meat-packing plant in this country are many and obvious. In -the first place full voice would be given to the apparent futility of -sending a live animal from 20 to 600 or 700 miles merely to be killed, -and to return the dressed carcase to be sold. Superficially it does -appear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> to be a senseless employment of transport and to incur needless -expense. Yet such a practice is followed upon the North American -continent. Animals are shipped alive over hundreds of miles to be -killed and returned to the point where they were bought, in the form -of dressed meat ready for consumption. But the argument is fatuous. -Centralized slaughtering facilities secure equitable distribution, -as well as prompt movement, since the trade is sufficiently heavy -to demand the inauguration of a special handling and transportation -system. Then again such a practice allows bulk shipment combined with -long haulage, two essential conditions to economic transportation. -If the method were practised in these islands, not only would it be -possible to take full advantage of the latest manifestations of science -in so far as it affected the industry, but it would enable the residues -forthcoming in enormous quantities to be treated upon the spot in the -reclamation plant forming an integral part of the stockyard equipment. -The revenue derived from the disposal of the by-products rendered -available in a commercial form would not only more than offset the -charges incurred concerning transportation, but would tend towards the -primary product—the meat—being sold at a lower figure to the public.</p> - -<p>Under the present system of local killing much of the offal escapes -reclamatory treatment for the simple reason that the quantity -forthcoming is so limited as not to be deemed worthy of exploitation, -or else is subjected to obsolete or inefficient by-product recovery -methods. In many instances it is sold to a contractor who endeavours -to conduct bulk treatment upon a reduced scale, paying a relatively -low price for the refuse and one quite disproportionate to its true -value. In some instances the contractor does not attempt to carry out -by-product recovery, but merely acts as a middleman, dispatching the -various residues to the quarters where he knows they will be taken in -hand to be worked up.</p> - -<p>During the past few years the science of winning wealth from -slaughter-house offal of every description has made enormous strides, -effort having been concentrated upon the recovery of the very utmost -yield of by-products for the simple reason that the demand therefor -is exceedingly keen, while prices are necessarily attractive. -This applies particularly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> to the fats, the value of which ranges -up to as much as £50 per ton, according to grade, although other -commodities simultaneously secured, such as meal for cattle-feeding -and fertilizers, are able to command equally impressive prices. A -graphic idea of the degree to which this science has been advanced -is obvious from the dimensions, comprehensiveness and modernity of -the by-product installations which have been laid down as adjuncts to -the mammoth cattle-killing plants in various parts of the world, the -majority of which, as I have pointed out in a previous chapter, are of -British origin, design and construction, and many of which have been, -and still are being, supplied from this country. Surely it is somewhat -anomalous that other countries should come to us for the latest -expressions of ingenuity and invention in this province when we are -unable to point to a single pretentious plant in this country! At the -same time it is distinctly gratifying to learn that if Britain cannot -display sufficient imagination or commercial acumen to use plants of -this character, she certainly can build them, and is not only able to -keep well astride of the times, but is fertile in thought concerning a -highly specialized ramification of industry.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact it may come somewhat of a surprise to learn that -British thought is far in advance of American practise, as manifested -by the stockyards at Chicago in regard to the utilization of appliances -and process for the treatment of meat residues. The interests at the -mammoth plant were approached with the latest British development in -this line—the solvent extraction process described in a previous -chapter—it being recognized that its introduction to the American -stockyards would apply the seal of highest approval to the invention -and represent a great achievement for the British interests which had -evolved and perfected it. It possessed every virtue likely to make -appeal, more particularly the means of enabling the American packers -to add to their already huge profits. The process was investigated, -and its superiority over the methods in vogue was frankly conceded. -But the Chicago industry firmly declined to embrace the invention, not -from feelings of hostility, but because the interests concerned had -developed their own plant along lines, and to a degree which would not -readily permit a revolution. To have introduced the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> new idea would -have been to disorganize the whole business of by-product reclamation -and would have demanded the revision of methods, knowledge, practice, -and routine. Questions of cost did not enter into the issue at all. The -packers merely declined to disturb the system they had standardized and -had carried to such a level of perfection.</p> - -<p>But the packers were not wholly opposed to progress. Although not -willing to introduce the system into their plants, they were quite -ready to turn over their wastes, after they had extracted as much as -they could of material value therefrom under their system, to the -British interests. The inventors accepted the proposal, and to-day one -may witness the strange and anomalous spectacle of British interests -taking over the residues from residues from the packing plants for -further treatment, and conducting the unusual method of trading to -their financial profit. It was confidence in the superiority of the new -idea which brought such signal success. Yet this exploitation of wastes -from wastes is not peculiar to Chicago. It is even being practised to a -limited degree in these islands, which suffices to prove that certain -quarters are fully cognizant of the wealth awaiting to be won from -waste, and that it pays to conduct the process to the recovery of the -uttermost retrievable ounce even from such material.</p> - -<p>Certain of our municipalities, fully alive to the value of the waste -incidental to the operations of their abattoirs, are sparing no effort -to utilize such material to the full. However, in many instances, -their enterprise is thwarted by the circumstance that the butchers -making avail of the Corporation facilities extended, possess certain -vested interests which must be honoured. Accordingly it is not possible -to conduct reclamation to such limits as would be attainable were -methods comparable with those prevailing at the Chicago stockyards -in operation. To be able to extract the utmost from the refuse it is -imperative that the authorities should be given unrestricted control -of the animal, preferably absolute ownership. This is the reason -why the big private packing plants are able to achieve such eminent -success. They purchase the live animals, and consequently are free to -exploit them in accordance with the principles they have elaborated. -Nevertheless, despite the difficulties<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> obtaining, much good work -is being accomplished in British circles concerning abattoir waste -exploitation.</p> - -<p>The case of Edinburgh may be cited as an illustration. I purposely -select the Scottish city for the reason that—so far as municipalities -are concerned—it is possessed of one of the most up-to-date -installations in the country, is enterprising, and serves to bring -home how vested interests can mar a record of possible achievement by -restrictive action. The blood is sold to a contractor, who, however, -is compelled to sell back to the meat trade such quantities of this -article as may be required. A proportion of the offal is also sold by -the meat trade.</p> - -<p>Diseased meat, condemned as unfit for human consumption, is treated by -the authorities in the Scott plant which they have acquired. The waste -is thoroughly sterilized by steam, the residuals, comprising non-edible -tallow, meat fibre and bones being sold. The plant cost £600—$3,000. -The working costs may be set down at approximately £200—$1,000—per -annum, while the income from the sale of the uncertain quantities of -meat of which disposal is made averages about £430—$2,150—per year. -The hoofs and spurs of the feet of cattle, the parings of ox-feet, a -small proportion of waste offal, and the manure originating in the -slaughter-house, are sold by the Corporation. The sum derived from -these sources during the 1917-18 financial year amounted to £533 -5s.—$2,666.25—while the revenue from the sale of blood was £437 -11s.—$2,187.75. All things considered it must be conceded that the -by-products resulting from the operation of the slaughter-house by -the Corporation of the Scottish city are fully utilized, although the -defects arising from divided responsibility for the development and -disposal of the wastes are obvious.</p> - -<p>Divided interests exert another reactive influence. The public -authorities are debarred from making full avail of the latest -improvement in the art and craft of waste recovery. For instance, -although the leading abattoirs of these islands have acquired -reasonably up-to-date plants, they are all operated upon the open steam -principle, with and without vacuum. The method, while satisfactory so -far as it goes, does not offer the means of securing the utmost from -the available material. But the authorities do not feel justified -in going to the expense of acquiring the latest appliances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> for the -prosecution of the work of reclamation, an attitude which is perfectly -explicable in the circumstances.</p> - -<p>Of course, the community suffers, though imperceptibly. The plants in -question allow a certain proportion of waste to be lost which in the -course of the year represents an imposing figure. Furthermore, the -whole, or the greater part, of the “stick liquor” or gelatinous liquid -thrown off during the fat reclamation process is lost, being allowed -to escape down the drains. The abandonment of the stick liquor is -regrettable because it constitutes a waste capable of being treated -with profit, as I explain later. But it is doubtful whether the average -municipal plant, even if it had absolutely unfettered control of all -the waste products arising from the slaughter of cattle for food, would -be in the position to treat the stick liquor to commercial advantage. -An evaporative plant would have to be incorporated to concentrate -the gelatinous substance to the desired density, and only in a few -instances would the quantity of material treated be adequate to render -the utilization of the stick liquor profitable. But this constitutes an -additional argument for centralized meat packing and offal exploitation -in these islands.</p> - -<p>Accordingly effort is exclusively confined to the recovery of the -grease. I have described the outstanding features of the vacuum system -in a previous chapter, to which I would refer the reader desiring -enlightenment in connection therewith. The grease is drawn off by -a special skimming device into a fat tank to be clarified. Then it -is run into barrels or other suitable receptacles for transport. It -is scarcely necessary to point out that the grease and tallow thus -obtained from condemned meat and other offal, although thoroughly -sterilized in the rendering process, are graded only as fit for the -manufacture of soap and other articles of utility, as distinct from -products of edible importance.</p> - -<p>The term “offal” in its application to meat residues is somewhat -ambiguous. It not only comprises material coinciding with the general -interpretation of the term, but certain portions of the animal which -are really suited to the preparation of foodstuffs for the table. -Consequently all grease recovered from the digester is not necessarily -adapted to manufacturing purposes only. In these circumstances it is -necessary to grade the fat before treatment, the fresh fat, which is -quite suitable for yielding material<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> adapted to the preparation of -margarine, for instance, being kept distinct from the lower grades -which cannot possibly be classed as edible. Selection and separation -treatment of the two grades—edible and inedible—are profitable -because, while both are in keen demand, it is the former which is able -to command the higher market figure. But when edible fats are sought -it is preferable to employ the steam-jacketed digester because the fat -thus obtained, from the fact that the steam is not brought into contact -with the material during the cooking process, is of enhanced quality, -being sweeter, while all the natural properties of the fat are retained -for reasons already set forth.</p> - -<p>Although, therefore, the most popular system in vogue for reclaiming -fat from slaughter-house residues is exposed to criticism, owing to -what may be described as lack of efficiency in operation due to the -recovery of the fat not being as high as it might be, it appears to -meet the conditions of the average municipal abattoir. City and borough -corporations, unlike private organizations, are not in the position -to scrap an existing plant for one which is of later date and greater -efficiency, because there is not the same incentive to reap the utmost -benefits attainable as prevails under private conditions where the -full brunt of competition is encountered. Of course, the initiative -of corporations is just as pronounced as that of private firms and -individuals, but it is the exception rather than the rule. Furthermore, -the municipality is not in the position to run a plant under full load, -or even at a uniform pressure the whole time. It is only able to handle -the waste as it accumulates during its own abattoir operations. On the -other hand, the private exploiter can acquire a plant of such capacity -as to cope with the steady flow of material from the slaughter-houses, -thereby keeping the by-product recovery installation working steadily -at a point approaching its productive limits.</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, the results achieved with the prevailing type of plant -afford interesting reading, although it is somewhat misleading -to cite them. The material varies so widely both in quantity and -quality, while the ultimate fat-yield likewise fluctuates markedly. -A fat bullock which has been condemned would naturally be expected -to furnish a good contribution of fat. On the other hand, only a low -percentage could reasonably be anticipated from a lean cow. In these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -circumstances a comparison without full details concerning the material -handled is difficult. The figures available may be set down as being -representative, though they should be accepted as being typical rather -than empirical.</p> - -<p>A consignment of condemned meat, weighing 2,240 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, was placed in the -digester. The quantities of the respective materials recovered were:—</p> - -<table class="thin"> -<tr><th></th> -<th class="tdc"><abbr title="pounds">Lb.</abbr></th> -<th></th> -<th class="tdc"> -Per cent. -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Tallow -</td> -<td class="tdc">336</td> -<td class="tdc">or</td> -<td class="tdc">15</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Fibrine or meat-meal -</td> -<td class="tdc">392-428</td> -<td class="tdc">or</td> -<td class="tdc">17¹⁄₂-20</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Bone-meal -</td> -<td class="tdc">280-336</td> -<td class="tdc">or</td> -<td class="tdc">12¹⁄₂-15</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>In another instance a somewhat heavier consignment of condemned meat -was committed to the recovery plant. Its composition was:—</p> - -<table class="thin"> -<tr><th></th><th class="tdr"><abbr title="pounds">Lb.</abbr></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Beef -</td><td class="tdr">84,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Pork -</td><td class="tdr">1,607</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mutton -</td><td class="tdr">818</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Veal -</td><td class="tdr">354</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Offal -</td><td class="tdr">20,370</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Total -</td><td class="tdr bt">107,149</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The tallow yield was 21,638 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, or 20 per cent. of the total volume -passed through the digester. Pronounced quantities of the fibrine and -bone-meal were also secured. But the tallow yield alone should serve -to convince even the most sceptical that it pays to submit condemned -meat and slaughter-house refuse to a process of by-product recovery. -It was not so many years ago that such valuable waste met with an -untimely end—incineration in the destructor as the most effective and -economical means for its disposal. Had this practice been followed -in the instance under review the authorities would have allowed -material worth, according to current market quotations, at least -£500—$2,500—to vanish up the chimney in preference to the display -of a little exertion and knowledge to secure what is in such wide and -urgent request—the fat.</p> - -<p>While the average organization, either municipal or private, conducts -operations upon too limited a scale to deal with the gelatinous or -“stick liquor,” the large establishments,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> on the other hand, are -confronted with such immense quantities thereof as to render its -further treatment justifiable and profitable. But the liquid is -extremely thin or weak, that is low in the gelatinous constituent in -its crude form, and so requires to be concentrated. To effect this at -the lowest cost it should be passed through the Scott multiple effect -vacuum evaporators. These are heated by the exhaust steam. In this -form of evaporator the heating effect of the steam is multiplied in -several stages, thus doing so many times more work for one supply of -fuel as compared with a simple evaporator. The evaporation proceeds -progressively and continuously, the liquor leaving the evaporator at a -high degree of concentration owing to the water having been driven off. -The gelatinous residue accruing from this treatment may be blended with -the fibrine or meat-meal, thereby enhancing the value of the latter, -which thus becomes enriched with ammonia and protein to an appreciable -degree.</p> - -<p>For some reason or other the treatment of the “stick liquor” has -not aroused the measure of serious attention in these islands which -it deserves. While, of course, greater results are attainable from -treatment of the liquid upon a huge scale, yet relatively small -quantities can be exploited very profitably, because the jelly finds -an attractive market as crude tub size, the demand for which to-day -is somewhat keen and firm. Doubtless hesitation to turn the stick -liquor to economic account is due to lack of knowledge concerning the -improvements in the rendering process, and the difficulty encountered -in this direction in the past. Under the old system, where the -practice was to evaporate these liquors in open vessels, the nuisance -created constituted the insurmountable obstacle. The work could not be -carried out without polluting the whole neighbourhood. With the Scott -evaporator, however, no more nuisance is created in concentrating the -offensive liquor than attends the exploitation of noisome fats by -the patent digesting process, for the simple reasons that the work -is conducted in closed vessels, and all obnoxious vapours thrown off -during the treatment are led to the furnace to be consumed, escape of -the free gases into the air being rendered totally impossible.</p> - -<p>British waste exploiters are beginning to appreciate the advantages of -the closed evaporative system, and in their determination to secure -every retrievable ounce of commercially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> valuable products from waste -are now devoting greater attention to the stick liquor. The policy -is one which cannot fail to pay so long as it is conducted along the -correct lines such as I have indicated.</p> - -<p>Before leaving the question of the stick liquor it is curious to remark -how some firms, while complimenting themselves upon the assiduity -and diligence with which they treat their wastes, are yet likely -to allow a certain material, and one which is of distinct value to -their own businesses, to slip through their fingers merely from lack -of knowledge. The abandonment of the stick liquor arising from the -digestive treatment of meat-waste represents an interesting example of -such inadvertence.</p> - -<p>Many manufacturers dealing with meat products have installed a -fat-recovery system for the treatment of their waste upon the spot, -the primary idea being to secure the good edible fat for re-use -in connection with their own processes. Furthermore, from their -association with the cooked-meat trade they find it necessary to absorb -material quantities of gelatine to carry out the glazing work in the -preparation of brawn, pies and other dainties. They purchase the crude -gelatine for the purpose, submitting it to careful treatments to adapt -it to their varying requirements. Yet, if they but knew it, they have -no need to spend a single penny—or cent—upon gelatine wherewith to -conduct the final appetizing touches to their wares. They have as much -of this raw material as they can possibly require immediately to hand -in the stick liquor, and which, in the majority of instances, they -allow to escape.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact this liquid residue is far preferable to the -commercial gelatine which they buy for glazing purposes. They need -only to attach an evaporator to their recovery plant to bring about -its concentration. But this is not the only advantage. The gelatine -has to be of varying densities or strengths according to its precise -application. When they have their own evaporator this desideratum -is readily fulfilled. It is only necessary to draw off the material -from the evaporators when it has reached the requisite degree of -concentration for immediate use. Not only is appreciable time saved, -but the up-to-date firms are better off in pocket because they are -utilizing a waste for which otherwise they would have to employ a -purchased commodity. Even<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> if they conduct concentration to the -absolute it does not matter; the article is then recovered in the form -of an edible jelly. This can be clarified, if desired, to be sold as -such, or it can be sold to fellow-manufacturers who do not happen to -have such a plant. Failing such disposal there is no difficulty in -selling the jellied mass as tub size.</p> - -<p>In a previous chapter I have described the reclamation process -practised by the military authorities in connection with bones -arising from the cutting-up of meat for the army, as well as those -recovered from the swill-tubs. As indicated, however, exploitation is -conducted only to a certain point, when the bones are handed over to -the degreasers. It is then that the true recovery of the commercial -constituents of the bone commences. The bone is an invaluable friend -to the human race as an article of commerce, though it is to be feared -that what may be described as the “bone tree” is only imperfectly -understood. Its far-reaching value as a fertilizer is certainly -appreciated, but this really represents the final application of the -article, and may be said to be the only remaining field of utility for -the ultimate residue of a residue. Bones enter into a wide range of -industrial and manufacturing operations. For this reason they should be -carefully gathered and retained for surrender to recognized collecting -mediums rather than suffer abandonment or destruction.</p> - -<p>The housewife is prone to regard them as mere waste when she has -extracted the utmost recoverable value therefrom in the kitchen. -She may possibly retain them until the itinerant specialist in this -commodity, to wit, the rag-and-bone man, comes round, in which event it -is sure to be sped once more on a journey of industrial exploitation. -But at least one-third of the bones which enter the households of -Britain escape reclamation. They are wantonly wasted, and it is to be -feared that the kitchen stove is mainly responsible for this loss. The -volume of bones which should be forthcoming from domestic circles in -Great Britain, were the dictates of thrift religiously followed, is -scarcely appreciated, but it is estimated that the supply should be at -least 100 tons per week from every million members of the population.</p> - -<p>In these islands the bones are divided into two broad classes. The one -division, comprising what is known as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> “green” (raw) bones, represents -those collected from butchers’ shops, bacon-cutting works, and other -similar sources. The second class, defined as “streeters,” include -those forthcoming from the recognized collectors of such waste, hotels, -restaurants, clubs, and private houses, and are those which have been -passed through one or more cooking processes.</p> - -<p>In the case of green bones it is customary to digest them, when really -fresh, with open steam to recover the edible fat. Shank and marrow -bones, as distinct from rough bones, are also able to yield a certain -proportion of edible fat, and after having been digested or boiled -still retain a considerable percentage of grease which it pays to -extract. Consequently these, together with a certain quantity of less -fresh green bones, and the streeters, are then passed through the -benzine extractor to be degreased down to 1 per cent.</p> - -<p>The shank and marrow bones are sawn up, the centre sections being -selected for the production of such useful articles as knife and fork -handles, buttons, and other utilitarian commodities for which their -composition renders them eminently suitable. The ends or knuckles are -degreased by submission to the solvent extraction process, and then, -in some works, are subjected to further chemical treatment, which is -somewhat elaborate, to be converted into baking-powder.</p> - -<p>Otherwise the bones, after being degreased, are passed through other -processes for the extraction of their gelatinous constituent. This -is secured in the form of a liquor which is evaporated in vacuo to a -jelly. The last-named is cooled into cakes and then dried on nets, -or, if preferred, the liquor may be dried direct into glue-powder. By -following a more complicated process gelatine can also be prepared from -the degreased bones. But the gelatine thus obtained does not compare in -quality with that extracted from skins. The degelatinizing process is -not always followed, for the reason that some makers prefer to produce -the higher quality bone-meal which is procurable from non-degelatinized -bone. Obviously, however, the more profitable and economic procedure is -to pass the bones through an associated glue plant.</p> - -<p>The ultimate residue, whether degelatinised or not,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> is a bone-meal -which constitutes the well-known fertilizer. The bone-meal, to be of -the utmost feeding value to the soil, should carry little or no fat. -At the same time, however, it should be rich in ammonia and phosphoric -acid or superphosphate, which is determined in terms of tribasic -phosphate of lime. To show how these requirements can be adequately -fulfilled by submitting the raw waste to a complete recovery process, -such as I have described, an analysis of a typical bone-meal produced -from degreased bones—degreased by the benzine extraction process—but -which have not been degelatinized, is given thus:—</p> - - -<table class="thin"> -<tr> -<th></th> -<th class="tdc"> -Per cent. -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Tribasic phosphate of lime -</td> -<td class="tdc">46·60</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Nitrogen, 6·07 per cent. = ammonia -</td> -<td class="tdc">7·37</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Moisture -</td> -<td class="tdc">8·04</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Fat -</td> -<td class="tdc">1</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p>The high percentage of ammonia, namely 7·37 per cent., deserves -especial notice inasmuch as it compares with a yield of 4·5 per cent., -which is the average figure recorded with fertilizing meal obtained -from steamed bones. It may possibly come as a surprise to many to learn -that it is the proportion of the nitrogenous content, as represented -by the ammonia, rather than the phosphoric acid content, which really -determines the commercial value of this manure. The higher the figure -to which the ammonia figure can be forced the more attractive the price -which the fertilizer will command upon the market. Thus, under normal -conditions, every 1 per cent. rise in the ammonia constituent will -increase the price of the bone-meal by 14s.—$3.50. On the other hand, -a 1 per cent. increase in the proportion of superphosphate only serves -to increase the price of the meal by 11d. to 1s. 2d.—22 to 28 cents.</p> - -<p>The grease obtainable from green bones varies somewhat. It is affected -to a marked degree by the skill and care with which the butcher wields -his knife. If the bone should be scraped very clean and carefully, -naturally the bulk of the attached fat is removed. But an average -collection of green bones will yield about 15 per cent., or 360 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, -of fat per ton of bones treated, while the dry bone-meal will range -from 1,286 to 1,344 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> Bones which have been collected from marine -store dealers and rag-and-bone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> merchants are not so liberal in fat -yield. The repeated cooking to which they have been subjected in -connection with the preparation of dishes for the table relieves them -of approximately 5 per cent. of the fat which they originally carried, -i.e. in the raw condition. Consequently, degreasing only enables about -10 per cent., or 250 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, of fat to be recovered from every ton of -bones treated. In this instance the bone-meal yield may be set down at -1,568 to 1,680 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> per ton of bones. The grease remaining in the meal -varies from 0·5 to 1 per cent.</p> - -<p>As may logically be supposed, cattle-slaughtering for food produces -large quantities of blood. This is an extremely valuable residue, and -so is carefully collected in suitable vessels. It is then transferred -to shallow receptacles and permitted to stand for a time. Blood is -composed of two fundamental constituents—the serum and the clot -respectively. The former, which is the albumen, is the glutinous-like, -yellowish liquid which comes to the surface, the clot settling to -form as it were a sediment. The serum is recovered by skimming with a -suitable device, to be distributed in extremely thin layers, applied -with a brush, to dry. Such a careful procedure is imperative owing to -the difficulty of drying out albumen. When dry the blood-albumen is -peeled in the form of thin flakes. Its applications are numerous, one -of the most important being its employment for the clarification of -sugar. The clot is likewise secured to be sent to the special plant, -where it is also dried.</p> - -<p>It is common knowledge that blood constitutes a magnificent fertilizer, -and this is the purpose to which the dried clot is applied. In a -well-designed vacuum drying plant, such as the Scott, which has been -designed especially to treat such residue, the efficiency is high. The -yield from the clot may be said to range from 25 to 30 per cent.—560 -to 672 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>—per ton of raw clot treated, and is recovered in the form -of a rich red dry powder.</p> - -<p>One great objection levelled against the recovery of the blood for -fertilizing purposes has been the very offensive odour which is thrown -off during the drying operation. But when the task is conducted under -the vacuum system no such nuisance is created, because the obnoxious -gases are led to the fire to suffer combustion. In dryers of the -conventional type, in which the noxious gases are removed by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> the -aid of an exhausting fan, or suffer discharge into the chimney, the -process does represent an intolerable nuisance to the neighbourhood, -because there is nothing to prevent the pollution of the atmosphere. -Furthermore, and this is the most important point to remember, by -drying the blood under the vacuum system the ammonia content of the -waste, which normally is high, can be preserved to the full, owing to -the drying operation being carried out at a much lower temperature than -is incidental to the usual practice.</p> - -<p>Dried blood appeals to the farmer for the nourishment of his land -essentially because of its pronounced proportion of nitrogen or -ammonia. Consequently it is incumbent to keep this figure as high as -possible and thus secure the advantages of market quotation. Naturally -the percentage thereof in the resultant meal will vary strikingly -according to the drying process practised. Ammonia is an exceedingly -volatile ingredient, its tendency to escape being accentuated as the -temperature employed is increased. It is only by keeping the heat -factor at a low level consistent with the complete fulfilment of the -desired operation, that the ammonia can be retained. Under the vacuum -system this end is assured, owing to the low boiling-point due to the -reduced pressure or vacuum. A typical analysis of vacuum-dried clot -blood may be cited:—</p> - - -<table class="thin"> -<tr> -<th class="tdr" colspan="2">Per cent.</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Moisture -</td> -<td class="tdr">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -Mineral matter -</td> -<td class="tdr">1·61</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Nitrogen -</td> -<td class="tdr">14·02</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> ⤷ = ammonia -</td> -<td class="tdr">17·02</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>In cases where the albumen is not required separately the whole blood -is dried without being separated or “clotted.”</p> - -<p>It is obvious from what I have related, that the recovery of -by-products from what has always been regarded as waste of a most -repulsive character, that is from the popular point of view, can be -turned to striking commercial and industrial account. Similarly it -is only too apparent that such by-product reclamation as is possible -demands a plant of the most complete description, to ensure all and -every substance of utilitarian value being secured along the most -efficient lines and to the uttermost ounce.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span></p> - -<p>The day has gone when the crude methods which sufficed to satisfy -individual or specific requirements should be continued. To endeavour -to render it profitable to recover but one article out of many which -are reclaimable simultaneously, and for the expenditure of only a -little more effort, time and money, may be compared with mining for one -hundred carat diamonds and allowing all those of lesser weight to fall -back into the earth.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br />TURNING WASTES INTO PAPER</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Paper has been described as the World’s Friend. Truly the application -is apt, when we recall the varied, and, in some instances, almost -incredible uses to which it is put, from carpets to boxes, wheels of -infinite variety to artificial flowers, table linen to boards. Little -wonder, therefore, that we have come to regard it as indispensable to -our everyday social and industrial existence. Being cheap, abundant -and easy to obtain, is it surprising that we became extravagant in its -use? We scarcely ever hesitate to bestow even a passing thought as to -where, and how, we get it. We talk glibly of “imported” without pausing -a moment to reflect upon the real significance of the expression. It -was not until war burst upon us to deliver its many disconcerting jolts -that we came to our senses, and were then compelled to acknowledge that -while paper may be a most tractable servant it is certainly a tyrannous -master.</p> - -<p>How many people would credit the statement that paper could exercise -any influence upon the cost of living? Not one in a thousand it is safe -to hazard. But let us reflect. In the days when paper or cardboard was -forthcoming in plenty the tradesman never contemplated for a moment -the suggestion that he should be sparing in his use of the commodity, -or even saddle his customer with the cost of this indispensable -wrapping material. What if a sheet of brown paper cost a farthing—half -a cent—or paper bags could be secured for ten a penny (2 cents)? -The expense was so trivial as to be insignificant. He could readily -shoulder it without any financial detriment to himself. But when that -sheet of paper cost approximately 1³⁄₄<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—3¹⁄₂ cents—or when the bag -involved an outlay of 1¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—3 cents—the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> tradesman, turning over in -his mind the huge quantities he would be compelled to provide during -the business of the day, regarded the whole question in a different -spirit. He declined to bear the burden, and so promptly passed it on to -the customer.</p> - -<p>To grasp the paper situation as it affects this island kingdom we -must hark back to the glorious days preceding 1914. We made paper -upon a relatively extensive scale in our own mills, and the industry -flourished amazingly. But to what extent did indigenous materials enter -into the composition of the article? Barely 10 per cent. We preferred -to buy 90 per cent. of our raw materials from foreign mills brought -into existence for this especial purpose, and, be it remarked <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en -passant</i>, the foreigner found it highly lucrative to trade upon our -disinclination to prepare the products ourselves.</p> - -<p>A British firm, which had built huge mills in Scandinavia for the -preparation of the essential raw material, disposed of its financial -interests to a foreign concern. The bargain was settled for a -round £7,000,000—$35,000,000! Surely this transaction suffices to -demonstrate that there is big money to be made preparing paper pulp, -as the raw material is called, for British paper mills. The fact -that in pre-war days we imported a round 2,000,000 tons of pulp and -paper during the course of the year serves to convey some idea of the -magnitude of the industry, and the extent to which this country became -dependent upon foreign sources of supply.</p> - -<p>One hundred years ago, or even less, the British paper-making industry -was a staple. The paper was British made from British materials. In the -light of this knowledge one may well ask why, and how, we allowed this -profitable trade to slip through our fingers? The cause was not far to -seek. Our old pugnacious friend the wasp was primarily responsible for -the passing of this British industry. He, from his paper-making prowess -in the fabrication of his wonderful nest, set certain imaginative men -thinking hard. If this humble insect could contrive such a remarkably -tough and stout paper for home-building purposes from wood surely it -was not beyond the wit of men, with the bewildering array of mechanical -and chemical handmaids at his elbow, to do likewise!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span></p> - -<p>Accordingly the observant, fertile, and patient minds went to work. -Within a short time they not only succeeded in imitating the wasp, -but evolved such a simple process in the doing of it as to make an -irresistible appeal to commerce. Incidentally while this one line -of investigation, the purely mechanical, was being pursued other -equally brilliant minds were perfecting a second means of achieving -a similar end by mechanical-chemical agency. In this manner commerce -became equipped with two efficient means for the reduction of trees -into paper, and at such a low figure as to render the conventional -competitive methods impossible, at least for the cheapest grades of -paper, such as are employed for our newspapers, popular periodicals, -and low-priced books.</p> - -<p>To reap the rich rewards which invention dangled before commerce only -two fundamental requirements had to be fulfilled. The one was ample -cheap power in close proximity to virtually inexhaustible supplies -of the essential material, namely soft woods, which constituted -the second factor. Scandinavia held unrivalled attractions in this -respect. Accordingly the princes of the paper-making industry trekked -to Norway and Sweden, to convenient points amid the endless reaches -of forest, and there planted huge mills beside waterfalls and swiftly -running rivers, which were harnessed to provide the cheap power which -hydro-electric energy offered. The outlook was additionally alluring -from the circumstance that these mills, metaphorically speaking, could -be established within the proverbial stone’s throw of the biggest and -most promising markets of the world.</p> - -<p>So Scandinavia succeeded in building up a rich monopoly which -experienced continuous prosperity until a few years ago. Then similar -activity became manifest in certain corners of Farther Britain, notably -in Newfoundland, Eastern Canada, and British Columbia, where, owing to -the prevailing climatic conditions favouring huge reserves of suitable -forests, ribbed with abundant water power, a bold bid was made, not -only for the European but the American markets as well. For the first -time in its history the Scandinavian interests were brought full tilt -against powerful competition.</p> - -<p>With the advent of the halfpenny newspaper, the popular periodical, -and the cheap edition of a favourite author, all of which depend upon -mammoth circulations for their financial successes, the wood-pulp -industry received a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> tremendous boom. In 1913 British imports from -Scandinavia aggregated 756,252 tons valued at £3,533,509—$17,667,545. -Germany, attracted by the glamour of the commercial possibilities held -out in this direction, essayed to participate in the boom, her exports -of pulp to these islands during the above-mentioned year reaching -40,972 tons worth £330,456—$1,697,280. In comparison with the figure -for Scandinavia the Teuton contribution may appear small, but it must -not be forgotten that this represented a 50 per cent. increase in -Germany’s favour within two years. During the year in question Canada -and Newfoundland also swelled the home market, the aggregate of pulp -and paper accepted from their mills by Britain being 119,742 tons -valued at £279,374—$1,396,870.</p> - -<p>Then came the war, and this upset the upward tendency of the foreign -manufacturers to an alarming degree, as well as causing distinct -stringency among ourselves. Germany was knocked out of the market in -one blow, while the demand for shipping likewise extinguished the -Canadian contributions. Then came the appointment of a Controller to -adjust the Scandinavian situation, and official action in regard to -restrictions, which were admittedly severe, threw the Scandinavian -industry all sixes and sevens. Some idea of the degree to which the -imports of paper and pulp from Scandinavia were hit may be gathered -from the figures for 1918—390,000 tons as compared with the pre-war -supply of 2,000,000 tons, representing a fall of 82 per cent.</p> - -<p>The situation at home assumed an ominous aspect. Cutting off imports -reduced supplies to a figure hopelessly below demand. The issue was -further aggravated from the circumstance that the domestic industry had -not been advanced to the position where it could take up the producing -reins to make up the deficiency. The output from British mills during -1918 only approximately equalled the importation for the year, and was -less than double the figure at which it stood five years before, which -was about 200,000 tons.</p> - -<p>In these circumstances the Controller was called upon to make a round -700,000 tons of paper go as far as had 2,000,000 in pre-war days. As -a matter of fact the last-named figure was short of the mark, for the -simple reason that sources of consumption, and heavy ones at that, -which had been non-existent five years previously had sprung<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> up and -were in the full blaze of activity. I refer to the various Government -departments created as a direct result of the war.</p> - -<p>Where does all the paper go? To the lay mind this question appears -impossible of a comprehensive answer. He concedes that the publishing -and commercial worlds, from the magnitude of their operations, must -absorb colossal quantities, but this reflection does not bring complete -comfort. During the war period it was not so difficult to reduce the -apparent enigma to simple explanation. The Stationery Office devoured -paper to the extent of 57,000 tons a year. The Ministry of Munitions -absorbed 1,000 tons a week in the actual manufacture of missiles, one -use being the substitution of aluminium by paper for filling the tips -of bullets, while fuse cylinders were also contrived from paper instead -of from tin. The Ministry of Food called for 400 to 500 tons of paper -to provide the cards for sugar, meat and butter rations, while the -issuance of the subsequent ration books ran away with another 750 tons. -The War Office was probably the heaviest consumer, from the simple fact -that all jams and preserves issued to the army, and packed in one-pound -consignments, were served in paper cartons instead of tins. Seeing that -the quantities of jams issued in this manner ran into millions, the -consumption of paper for the containers was stupendous. Such zealous -and ingenious recourse to paper instead of metals for such purposes was -readily explicable. For instance, at the time, tin was costing about -£320—$1,600—per ton as compared with brown paper at £35—$175—and -cardboard at £50—$250—per ton respectively. It was to the advantage -of the nation to abandon costly metals whenever and wherever a paper -substitute was equally serviceable.</p> - -<p>To counteract the shortage in supplies from abroad every effort was -made to extend and to develop the domestic manufacturing facilities. -This was not such a simple task as it appeared, inasmuch as we are -sadly lacking in the reserves of the necessary material. We possess -no soft-wood forests waiting to be turned into paper. In these -circumstances the alternative was to embark upon a voyage of discovery -and experiment in the hope that an efficient inexpensive range of -substitutes might be unearthed to take the place of the imported -wood-pulp, either<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> exclusively, which was scarcely to be expected, or -to a very pronounced degree.</p> - -<p>Official intervention brought home to us one very heavy wastage. This -was in regard to the pulp which we imported. Two different kinds -of pulp are produced abroad: The one, produced after the manner -practised by our friend the wasp, but by mechanical agency, is known -as mechanical pulp; the other, contrived by the aid of chemicals, is -commercially known as chemical or sulphite pulp. In so far as the -first named was concerned official investigation revealed that the -Scandinavian mills were accustomed to send the article in a wet form. -Now, seeing that wet pulp comprises 50 per cent. of moisture, it will -be seen that the vessels bearing this commodity—and tonnage was -severely limited—were really working only to one-half of their actual -carrying capacity. With every ton of pulp the ships were compelled to -carry one ton of water, and to ship water to Britain is comparable with -sending snow to Greenland.</p> - -<p>The Scandinavian mills were more than willing to ship wet pulp by -the thousands of tons, and the British paper-makers were every whit -as ready to receive it. To obtain the raw material in this form -facilitated, expedited and cheapened the actual paper-making process. -It was another instance of British readiness to sacrifice every other -interest upon the altars of cheapness and minimum of effort. The -Controller, naturally, demurred against paying freight for the carriage -of water which is only too abundant in these islands, and forthwith -demanded that the pulp should be sent over in the dry form. In this -manner he achieved a laudable object: he doubled the quantity of pulp -supplied to Britain without calling upon a further ton of shipping for -the purpose.</p> - -<p>The pulp-makers of Scandinavia, and the paper-makers of Britain, -objected to this rational action. Strong protests were levelled against -the new order. The affected interests went to great length to explain -that the wet pulp was essential, and advanced their reasons—technical, -financial and otherwise, but they failed to upset the decision which -had been made. The Controller was not seeking the unattainable, because -a certain proportion of dry mechanical pulp has always been shipped -to this country. It was merely another instance of affected interests -desiring to achieve their respective<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> purposes along the lines of least -resistance. In no circumstances, normal or war, can the conveyance of -water with raw material to these islands be justifiable.</p> - -<p>The reason why the pulp-maker was so anxious to ship his pulp wet was -because under such conditions he could market it at a lower figure and -dispatch it with greater facility. The paper-maker championed the wet -form for the reason that it was more convenient to him; he was able -to turn it straightaway into his machines. But when imported dry the -pulp must be subjected to certain preliminary treatment which involves -time, trouble, and a certain expense. Consequently, out of 100 tons of -mechanical pulp normally shipped to Britain, only one ton was in the -dry form; the other 99 tons were in the more handy wet form. Certainly -there are accepted technical objections to dry pulp. It is brittle and -apt to chip. But wet or dry it cannot be used exclusively and solely -in the preparation of even the lowest grades of newspaper. A certain -proportion of the chemical pulp must be added to impart the requisite -degree of firmness and stoutness to the fabric.</p> - -<p>A little investigation reveals why the Scandinavian pulp-makers were -firmly set upon shipping the pulp wet. In pre-war days the British -paper-maker paid from £2 5s. to £2 10s.—$11.25 to $12.50—a ton -for the moist pulp delivered at a British port. Freight was a mere -bagatelle, averaging about 5s.—$1.25—per ton. To convert the wet into -dry pulp prior to shipment the Swedish pulp-makers must use coal. This, -thanks to hydro-electric energy, is not required in the fabrication -of the actual pulp. But Sweden is deficient in coal resources and -compliance with the British official request involved the importation -of British coal. Inasmuch as it takes from 1,120 to 1,680 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of coal -to dry one ton of pulp it will be seen that the Swedish manufacturers -were faced with a fuel bill which was likely to run into big figures. -Under war conditions British coal was expensive, while quality was -subject to wide variation. At that time the coal commanded from £8 -to £10—$40 to $50—per ton in Sweden. Consequently, to his disgust, -the pulp-maker was confronted with the necessity to incur an extra -manufacturing charge ranging from £4 to £8—$20 to $40—per ton of pulp -produced.</p> - -<p>It is to be feared that the Swedish manufacturers, while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> anxious to -sell as much as possible to, were very reluctant to buy, from these -islands. They denounced the British official decree in no unmeasured -terms, and sought by every means in their power to secure its -withdrawal. But for once British authority was not solicitous of the -interests of the foreigner. Recognizing the futility of protest the -Scandinavian makers set to work to comply with our demands, and so -shipped the pulp in the dry form. We received the benefits accruing -from this line of action because we received twice as much pulp as -formerly for the same amount of tonnage. True, it cost us more, the -price running up to £32—$160—per ton, but it is to be feared that the -foreign manufacturers took full advantage of the peculiar situation -which prevailed in accordance with that inexorable law of supply and -demand, although they maintained that their manufacturing charges -were heavily inflated, not only from the purchase of the necessary -coal, but from the higher wages which labour demanded. But even at the -above figure we derived distinct advantage. Seeing that one ton of -dry represented the equivalent to two tons of wet pulp we were really -paying at the rate of only £16—$80—per ton, less the sum which had -to be deducted from the sale of our coal. Restriction of freight had a -good deal to do with the enhanced prices. Only 250,000 tons of shipping -a year were allocated to this traffic, and what cost 5s.—$1.25—a -ton to ship in 1913 cost £13—$65 per ton in 1918. British ships -participating in this trade were thus able to get back something of the -heavy prices we paid to the foreigner for an indispensable commodity. -But even £32—$160—per ton for dry mechanical pulp contrasted -favourably with the chemical pulp, also shipped dry. This, which before -the war cost £7 10s.—$37.50—per ton shot up to £47—$235—a ton at -one period, and recorded £35—$175—per ton during 1918, while paper, -even of the lowest grade, which commanded £10—$50—a ton in 1913, -realized £45—$225—per ton in 1918.</p> - -<p>Contemporaneously with the adjustment of the various questions -pertaining to the Scandinavian pulp and paper, the authorities set to -work to develop the domestic raw material industry. Obviously the most -promising founts were rags and waste-paper. It was computed that, if -these available sources were fully exploited, it would be possible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> to -secure some 300,000 tons of suitable material during the year.</p> - -<p>However, it was seen that the first step would be to instil into the -minds of the community the necessity to observe rigid economy in the -use of paper. Rationing brought home the fact that a paper shortage -existed, and, of itself, led users to be more sparing in their uses -of this article, in precisely the same way as similar measures -effected comparative results in connection with foodstuffs and other -commodities. But in so far as paper is concerned it is difficult to -preach the gospel of economy; it has been ridiculously cheap and -abundant for far too long. Nevertheless much was accomplished, but -whether the lessons thus imparted have been taken sufficiently to heart -as to become ingrained is problematical. Reversion to former conditions -will probably promote a state of affairs as bad as, if not worse than, -before.</p> - -<p>The wasteful consumption of paper was by no means confined to any -particular class of the community. Industry was every whit as -improvident. For instance, the soap-making trade naturally absorbs -immense quantities of the article, but the manufacturers were shown -how, by practising simple saving methods, they might do with 10,000 -tons less per year, which, at the prices then prevailing, represented a -round £350,000—$1,750,000—per annum. To one firm alone the suggestion -represented a possible economy of £75,000—$375,000—a year. What is -possible of attainment in the soap-making industry is equally feasible -in other trades, especially those identified with provisions. If such -broad economies be carried out they could scarcely fail to exercise, -under competitive trading conditions, an appreciable influence upon -the price of the products concerned. Consequently, paper, as already -indicated, has a more or less direct bearing upon the cost of living.</p> - -<p>The wastage of paper throughout the country is appalling. Upon the -completion of its designed function the material is either burned, -consigned to dust-bin, or allowed to pursue an aimless journey at the -mercy of the wind through our highways and byways. People of a thrifty -turn of mind undoubtedly save their waste, disposing of it at intervals -to itinerant collectors, who acquire the litter of the house in -exchange for something more or less attractive, if not useful, in kind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p> - -<p>Previous to the war very little of this waste found its way back -to the domestic paper mills to be re-made. The percentage of waste -blended with new pulp was very low, certainly not more than 2 per -cent. Even this was almost entirely restricted to what is known as -“broke,” that is the trimmings from the reels when repairing breakages -in the continuous lengths running through the printing or paper-making -machines.</p> - -<p>Strange to relate, nearly the whole of the waste-paper recovered from -the household, office and factory was exported, principally to the -United States of America, until an American firm, discovering Britain -to be a waste-paper mine, established itself in our midst to salvage -an appreciable quantity of what we regarded as a nuisance. This refuse -was utilized as raw material for the manufacture of paper-boards, the -American analogue to our familiar strawboard, to form book covers, -stout packing, and to meet other conditions where adequate protection -to contents is demanded. This became a prosperous undertaking and -afforded merely another instance of how the stranger within our gates -has been able to reap material profit at our expense and through our -folly.</p> - -<p>Although this firm absorbed an enormous quantity of our waste-paper -it could not cope with the avalanche of this refuse. Many additional -thousands of tons were shipped annually to the New World to be worked -up. It seems remarkable that the Americans should have found it -profitable to collect our residue, to freight it across 3,000 miles -of ocean, and to fabricate therefrom their particular range of goods, -instead of turning the material available on their own side to such -account. But the venture proved decidedly profitable as the results -testified. Indeed, it was the enterprise of this pushing firm which -first brought home to us the wealth capable of being derived from the -commercial exploitation of waste-paper, and which led us to introduce a -collecting system upon an organized basis.</p> - -<p>When the authorities grasped the significance of the waste-paper issue -they promptly took steps to retain the whole of the residue in these -islands. Export was prohibited; it could only be returned to British -mills. A country-wide appeal was made urging every trader and every -private citizen to conserve his waste-paper, whether it were used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> -envelopes, newspapers, postcards or fragments of brown paper. So urgent -became the demand for this raw material that housewives were requested -to ransack their cupboards and lumber-rooms for odds and ends of every -description in the paper line—old novels, abandoned magazines and -what not; business houses, workshops, and factories were invited to -indulge in spring-cleanings to turn out musty files of old letters, -receipts, memoranda, obsolete account books and other accumulations; -paper hangings stripped from walls in course of redecoration, instead -of being burned, were sedulously bagged; even hoardings were divested -of their hard thick hides of superimposed posters to provide food for -the paper mills. Municipal authorities were urged to participate in the -round-up, since it was recognized that imposing quantities of paper -evaded all other methods of recovery from inadvertent committal to the -dust-bin. In another chapter I have indicated what was done in this -direction.</p> - -<p>The authorities stimulated the great national paper-chase by -every possible artifice. Waste-paper organizers, to the number of -thirty-five, were appointed to various parts of the country to foster -and to supervise the collection of this refuse. Licences were granted -to approved merchants authorizing them to deal in the article. Prices -were fixed and graduated according to the quality of the waste, and -upon a liberal basis to encourage one and all to conserve and to hand -over their accumulations of what they considered to be sheer rubbish. -In this way waste-paper was poured back into the British mills for -remanufacture in a steady stream of 4,300 tons a week. For a time the -volume was maintained, but then it gradually and persistently declined -because as the founts became exhausted the quantity of paper put back -into circulation suffered a steady decrease.</p> - -<p>Despite the elaborate precautions observed, and the salvage -organizations instituted, a vast quantity of the refuse escaped -recovery. Paper is something like the elusive pin: where it goes no one -appears to know. During the period when salvage was being pressed home -with all vigour the British mills were turning out about 700,000 tons -of paper a year. Of this aggregate approximately one-fifth—150,000 -tons—went to the army in the field in France<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> in some form or other. -A further 150,000 tons could not be expected to be recovered as waste, -being either retained or submitted to certain necessary applications -such as filing, the lighting of fires, and so on. This left a balance -of 400,000 tons which went into circulation, but of which only 200,000 -tons were retrieved to be sent back to the mills to be repulped. What -became of the outstanding 200,000 tons it was impossible to say: -it simply disappeared. Probably much suffered destruction through -ignorance, while no doubt much was lost through being soiled to such a -degree as to be beyond redemption. But the fact remained that of the -700,000 tons produced at least 50 per cent., or 350,000 tons—including -the 150,000 tons sent to France—were completely lost, whereas by the -exercise of a little forethought, care and trouble the greater part -thereof might have been retrieved. Through negligence or ignorance the -nation was losing a round £3,350,000—$16,750,000—a year, because the -paper was worth at least one penny—2 cents—a pound in the waste form.</p> - -<p>From the magnitude of the absolute losses it is obvious that we could -never have sustained ourselves for long upon the forthcoming supplies -of waste-paper and the diminished foreign imports of pulp to serve -as raw materials. Accordingly search was made for other potential -raw materials of domestic origin, the governing principle of this -mission being to place the country in such a position as to be quite -independent of the foreigner in all matters pertaining to paper, not -only during the war period, but after the cessation of hostilities.</p> - -<p>Paper, in one respect, is a curious manufactured product. It can be -made from almost any fibrous material with the exception of wool. -The knowledge of this fact prompted members of the general public to -advance the claims of divers and wondrous substances. As may be readily -imagined, the majority of these suggestions erred somewhat upon the -side of the fantastic and chimerical. The mere fact that paper can -be made from almost anything does not necessarily imply that it is -commercially practicable to exploit even the most obvious raw materials -indiscriminately. There is a wide and deep gulf between the laboratory, -the cradle of experiment, and the factory, the home of application. -In the first-named the factor of cost of production does not count; -in the last-named it constitutes the crux of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> issue. Consequently -the majority of the recommendations submitted by the uninitiated -suffered from the disability of being perfectly feasible but hopelessly -impracticable. Submission of a suggestion to the cold, unrelenting, -unsympathetic manufacturing analysis and subsequent translation into -pounds, shillings, and pence offered the incontestable reply to the -inevitable question “Will it pay?”</p> - -<p>One article of domestic origin, the spartina, or common couch grass, -which thrives in abundance upon many stretches of our coastline, -notably Hampshire, was responsible for an avalanche of letters -containing inquiries as to why this material was not being turned to -account. Apparently every individual who had visited the neighbourhood -of the Solent, and had observed the density of this growth, assailed -the authorities for their lethargy. Esparto grass was imported from -Spain to make paper, and yet here we were ignoring a readily obtainable -indigenous grass similar in every respect!</p> - -<p>But the claims of spartina had been promptly investigated—to be -found wanting. In the first place, when a new material appears to be -promising the question as to whether sufficiently imposing supplies -could be forthcoming must be considered carefully. The paper-making -machines are insatiable and avaricious, devouring raw material not by -the ton but by the thousands of tons. This in turn gives rise to the -question as to the cost of securing the necessarily heavy supplies. -One enthusiast, who had advanced the claims of the couch grass, was -interrogated upon the subject because he had evolved a means of -gathering the spartina. When he was asked the cost of his process he -blandly replied that he could do it for £15—$75—per ton. He received -a shock when he was told that there was another material, forthcoming -in far greater quantities, and far more suitable for the purpose, which -could be obtained and delivered to the mill for £4 10s.—$22.50—a ton! -I may remark that spartina grass is being used for paper-making where -the conditions favour its cheap collection and transport. Speaking -generally, however, with prices at an artificial level, any material -costing more than £5—$25—per ton delivered at the mill—this figure -is inclusive of collecting, transport, and other charges—stands little -chance of favourable consideration.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> Under normal trading conditions -the prospect will be even less attractive.</p> - -<p>The acquisition of the raw material represents merely the preliminary -phase of the whole issue. To reduce it to pulp involves the consumption -of coal—cheap water-power is rare in these islands—and so the -probable fuel bill requires to be sounded. How many tons of coal will -be required to produce a ton of pulp? It is a simple question and one -which prompts another, closely allied thereto, namely, “How many tons -of such-and-such material will be required to furnish a ton of paper?”</p> - -<p>This is the rock upon which many buoyant expectations have been -completely wrecked. Still confining ourselves to the couch grass, and -considering the second factor first, we find that it has rather a low -yield efficiency, this being in the neighbourhood of 27 per cent. In -other words, it will require nearly four tons of crude grass to produce -one ton of paper. When ranged beside esparto grass, with which it seems -to have much in common, and which therefore is a convenient comparative -unit, the outlook for the couch grass is completely shattered, because -the efficiency yield of esparto is high, 43·5 per cent. Only a little -more than two tons of grass are necessary to produce one ton of paper.</p> - -<p>But the fuel factor is far more destructive to the claims of the -waste grass growing upon the seashore. To make one ton of paper from -esparto grass, under the most favourable conditions, requires 3 tons -of coal. In actual practice it ranges from 3·5 to 4 tons. But with -spartina grass the coal consumption is forced up to 5, and even to 7, -tons under the unfavourable conditions prevailing in many paper-mills. -Accordingly, it will be seen that couch grass cannot be construed -into an attractive raw material for paper. I may say there are other -objections to its use, but the foregoing are sufficient to bring about -its rejection in this phase of utility.</p> - -<p>Even if we take those materials which are accepted as being the most -favourable to the manufacture of paper we gain enlightenment. One -ton of waste-paper will not yield one ton of new paper as might be -imagined. The loss in re-manufacture is about 25 per cent., so that -from the 58,000 tons which enter into the made waste of the country we -could produce about 44,000 tons of new paper. Cotton<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> rags have a high -yield efficiency, being in the neighbourhood of 85 per cent. and upon -this basis we might safely expect a yield of some 16,000 tons of paper -from the 19,000 tons of rags committed to the dust-bins of the country.</p> - -<p>It may be mentioned that in the search for indigenous materials -whence paper might be manufactured, the whole gamut of obvious -domestic contributions to the issue have been examined, including such -substances as sawdust, wood-shavings, wood-slats, grasses of which -there are over 100 varieties, mimosa bark, peat, straw, flax-wastes, -flax-shoves, and dried potato vine. Of this wide selection only four -materials hold out any promise of extending commercial possibilities. -These include sawdust, wood-shavings, wood-slats and straw, with -potato haulm serving as an excellent material for the fabrication of a -coarse, strong, brown packing paper. Of course, it must be explained -that these materials are in addition to those generally utilized in the -industry, such as rags, sacking, bagging and reeds, to mention only a -few substances.</p> - -<p>The definite end sought in the first instance was not so much the -discovery of suitable substances to supersede entirely the imported -mechanical and chemical pulps, as the presentation of materials which -might be considered effectively as useful for dilution purposes. By -this is meant the production of a pulp, made perhaps from some familiar -product, which, when added to a certain proportion of the conventional -pulp, would yield a paper comparable with that derived from the -last-named exclusively. Any success recorded in connection with a -diluent offers the means to enable a specific quantity of the imported -raw material to be induced to go farther than would be the case -otherwise, this tendency becoming accentuated as dilution is increased.</p> - -<p>It was essentially in this light that the feasibility of pressing -sawdust, wood-slats, and other wood and vegetable refuse was -considered. Of course, behind all these developments, experiments, -and researches, there has been the lingering hope that ways and means -might ultimately be found of enabling us to dispense with outside -sources of supply in their entirety. This hope still prevails, and, -if properly fostered, may lead to realization. But to consummate such -an end it is essential to employ materials capable of yielding a pulp -as closely resembling the article derived<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> from the tree as possible. -Patient investigation proved that sawdust offered the most attractive -possibilities in this connection.</p> - -<p>While doubt has been expressed concerning the adaptability of sawdust -to this duty there are the experiences of Canada and the United States -to guide us. Indeed, we need not go out of these islands to obtain -confirmatory evidence of its applicability to paper-making. Britain -pioneered the utilization of sawdust for the manufacture of paper, and, -by a strange coincidence, it was the Napoleonic wars which compelled -us to resort to such a manifestation of enterprise. With the exit of -Napoleon from the world’s political stage the necessity to exploit -sawdust in this connection disappeared, and so the process fell into -disuse, to lie dormant for a round one hundred years. Consequently the -use of sawdust really represents but a revival of an old practice.</p> - -<p>But, so far as these islands are concerned, and under normal -conditions, sawdust can scarcely be regarded as a paper-making -material. The quantity available from our sawmills is too meagre to -enable the idea to be practised extensively. There is just one chance -of placing the development upon a firm footing. We are big consumers -of timber, but the greater part of our requirements in this field -are satisfied by importing supplies in a manufactured condition. -Attempts are being made to restore the British wood-working industry -by importing lumber in the slabbed condition, that is square trimmed -logs either in the form of huge rafts or demountable ships. Should -this development mature then our sawmills will become clogged with -huge accumulations of wood-waste in the form of the sawdust, the -exploitation of which will be keenly appreciated.</p> - -<p>During the war, however, the necessity to exploit the forests of -Britain to contribute to the requirements of the army and mines in -regard to wood has resulted in the piling-up of huge heaps of sawdust. -It was discovered that in Scotland alone this residue was accumulating -at the rate of 60,000 tons a year, through the activity of the -Canadian lumberjacks. Conservative estimates place the annual sawdust -yield throughout the British Isles at 150,000 tons. Of this gigantic -contribution only from 5 to 10 per cent. is drawn from hard woods. The -balance, 90 to 95 per cent.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> is derived from the soft woods and so -furnishes a huge reservoir of potential raw material for paper-making.</p> - -<p>Coincident with the accumulation of sawdust are the fabrication of huge -piles of wood-slats—the trimmings from the logs. These also represent -sheer refuse, the only possible disposal being in the form of fire or -kindling wood. At one lumber-camp in Scotland there was found a pile, a -sprawling, ragged and jagged stack, house-high, covering 20 acres, and -containing, at a modest estimate, from 300 to 500 tons of wood-waste. -It was ideal for paper-making as investigations proved, but was then -merely being allowed to rot.</p> - -<p>The process of preparing sawdust for the paper-maker is very simple and -inexpensive. It may be described as an application of the system for -producing mechanical pulp, because, in the main, the resultant product -is very similar to the latter in its essential characteristics. The -waste, being the product of the buzz-saw, is coarse in texture. It is -first passed over a riddle of wide mesh, which, while allowing the dust -proper to fall through readily, collects the pieces of bark, chips, -and other fragments of wood which may have become associated with the -dust. This residue is thrown to one side for conversion by a different -method. The sifted sawdust is dumped into a hopper to fall by gravity -in a steady stream into the mill, which is somewhat reminiscent of the -familiar mortar-mill, below. As it enters the latter it is caught up by -the revolving grindstone and crushed against the stationary stone, the -result being that it is disintegrated and pulverized. By virtue of the -centrifugal action set up the dust, as it is whirled round, naturally -works from the centre to the periphery of the wheels, the coarser -particles or tailings being flung out, while the finely-divided dust, -produced by the grinding action, falls into a separate receptacle.</p> - -<p>The tailings are recovered to be re-passed through the mill, and, -in time, for the most part are also ground to the desired degree of -fineness. A certain proportion of residue defies reduction in this -manner, but it is not discarded. It is retrieved to be used in the -manufacture of coarse brown paper. Two methods of grinding, even in the -vertical mill, are practised. The one known as the wet process involves -the addition of water to the dust, which thus becomes hydrated, the -resultant saw-pulp, as it is called, being somewhat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> similar to the -familiar wet mechanical pulp. The alternative process is described as -dry grinding, the sap in the wood constituting the only moist agent.</p> - -<p>It may be mentioned that, in the very earliest attempts to emulate the -wasps’ paper-making process, the experimenter ground the wood to dust -by applying the log to the face of a grindstone which was revolving, -water being the lubricant, the practice recalling the grinding of -tools. The particles of wood fell, with the water, into the trough -beneath. The surplus water was drawn off, leaving a mashy residue or -pulp—hence the name.</p> - -<p>In grinding the sawdust the coarse material is reduced to a fine -powdery substance, soft and silky in texture when dry, but which -retains the essential fibrous characteristic, though naturally the -length of the individual fibre is extremely minute. But pulp so -produced possesses one advantage for the paper-maker—it demands no -preliminary boiling. It can be discharged direct into the beater, -as the machine which prepares the raw material for the paper-making -machine is called, with the waste-paper, sulphite or mechanical pulp, -or a mixture of both, it only being necessary for the agitation of the -contents of the beater to be conducted thoroughly to bring about the -perfect blending of the ingredients.</p> - -<p>I have emphasized the circumstance that this saw-pulp may only be -considered as a diluent. This may be varied from 10 to 35 per cent. -according to the quality of the paper desired. The issue of the -<i>Times</i>, dated June 15, 1918, was printed on paper containing 20 -per cent. of this saw-pulp, but I have seen other newspapers the paper -for which was prepared from pulp diluted to the extent of 35 per cent. -with the saw-pulp. With the accumulation of experience in the working -up of this material marked improvements are to be recorded in regard to -quality of the resultant paper which has enabled dilution to be carried -to an enhanced degree without imperilling the factor of strength which -the finished product must possess to enable it to be passed through the -newspaper printing machine at a speed of 500 feet per minute without -breaking. Under modern conditions it is difficult to determine whether -or not saw-pulp has been introduced into the composition of the paper, -which testifies conclusively to the perfection of production.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span></p> - -<p>This economic utilization of one waste from the sawmill is of decisive -financial significance. Cost of production is extremely low, because -the power for driving the grinding mill may be obtained by firing the -steam boilers either with sawdust itself, the consumption thereof being -small, or with the refuse resulting from the preliminary sifting of -the dust. Indeed, the process holds out such alluring possibilities -that there is no reason why every sawmill should not include a grinding -mill to treat the residue on the spot, shipping the saw-pulp direct -to the mill, thus turning what is now an unmitigated nuisance and a -source of danger into a distinct commercial asset. It is estimated -that a grinding mill requiring 25 h.p. for its operation could turn -out 1¹⁄₃ tons of saw-pulp in the course of the ordinary 8 hours’ -working day or 7 tons a week. The cost of such a plant would be about -£400—$2,000—and the price obtainable for the product should be -sufficient to render the conversion of the waste to this useful purpose -attractive after paying all outgoings. At the time the practice was -brought into operation the cost of reducing the sawdust to saw-pulp -of the desired character was from £5 to £6—$25 to $30—per ton. It -is estimated that the saw-pulp maker would be equitably rewarded with -£8—$40—per ton for the finished material ready for transport to the -mill. On this basis a grinding mill, working to full capacity through -the 44 hours’ working week, should be able to show a gross profit of -£21—$105—which should leave an adequate margin of net profit to -encourage such exploitation of the waste. The expansion of this young -industry, however, depends entirely upon the conditions which will -obtain upon the restoration of normal trading. It is a moot point -whether the Scandinavian pulp-makers will ever be able to revert to -pre-war quotations for their product, owing to the increasing costs -of production, and this fact should render the outlook distinctly -promising for the home producers, more especially if the sawmill -trade be destined to undergo a decided revival. Every ton of saw-pulp -produced from the waste will prove beneficial to the nation, for the -simple reason that it will enable us to reduce our purchases from -foreign sources of pulp by a corresponding amount.</p> - -<p>While saw-pulp can only be regarded as a contribution to the -paper-making problem, there happens to be another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> waste product -suitable for this purpose, one which is available in much larger -quantities, and the supply of which would seem to be increasing rather -than decreasing. I refer to straw. Hitherto we have sadly neglected the -many possibilities offered in this connection, having preferred to turn -our by-product of the grain fields to other applications and to import -vast quantities of strawboard for the manufacture of boxes, containers, -and what not. Other countries have been more industrious and -enterprising than we, but what they have achieved is equally feasible -in these islands. To bring home the magnitude of this industry it is -only necessary to relate that our annual pre-war imports of strawboard -from Holland reached 250,000 tons.</p> - -<p>There is no reason why such a lamentable state of affairs should -continue. Straw is not only useful for the production of strawboard, -but it constitutes an excellent material for the manufacture of paper. -Its yield efficiency, while lower than that of esparto grass, being -only 33·3 per cent., is sufficiently high to render its exploitation -in this direction highly promising, especially as the material can be -obtained in huge quantities.</p> - -<p>At the present moment our supplies of straw for civilian needs may -rule low and prices may be high. But this is due to the heavy military -demands. Once the latter retire from the market and leave the article -to take care of itself, a marked drop in price may be confidently -anticipated, particularly if our new agricultural policy be maintained. -So long as it pays the farmer to grow corn he will continue to do so, -and the more acres he brings under this indispensable commodity the -greater will be the quantity of the by-product thrown upon the market. -It is anticipated that, when things settle down, from 2,000,000 to -3,000,000 tons of straw in excess of civilian needs will be available, -and the only possible outlet then for this waste from our grain-fields -will be the paper-mill. The utilization of the straw in this direction -will be influenced by charges for fuel and labour, while, of course, -the price of the imported pulp will affect any decision which may be -contemplated in regard to the exploitation of our home resources. But -assuming that the Scandinavian pulp will be dearer as a result of -enhanced production charges, and assuming that dumping tactics just -to hold the market will be frustrated, it is quite possible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> that we -shall find it cheaper to depend upon our own exertions with domestic -materials. If the quantity of straw which I have mentioned should -become available and be absorbed for this purpose, it will be adequate -to furnish from 670,000 to 1,000,000 tons of paper.</p> - -<p>The straw, borne directly from the land, is relatively cheap. The -cost, delivered to the mill, even during the war was only about £4 -10s.—$22.50—per ton. This figure is likely to fall. It produces -an excellent paper, but it is essential that it should be chopped -very finely preparatory to treatment, after which it is boiled with -chemicals and finally bleached. The yield efficiency being 33·3 per -cent. it follows that three tons of straw are required to produce one -ton of paper.</p> - -<p>But the straw is not only required for the production of paper; it -is equally necessary for the manufacture of strawboard. Under war -conditions an appreciable quantity of the reclaimed paper was being -repulped to furnish cardboard and paper-board for packing purposes -to make good the shortage prevailing in regard to the Dutch product. -But the waste-paper is more useful for paper-making. Accordingly it -is being switched over to this duty. It was merely utilized otherwise -during the war because it was so urgently required, the national -consumption running into approximately 100,000 tons annually. Efforts -are being made to establish the strawboard industry in these islands. -The Dutch method has been adopted, and there are hopes that the output -will be speedily raised to 50,000 tons a year. While this falls far -short of the actual imports it represents a bold commencement to -emancipate us from the necessity to pay tribute to the foreigner to the -extent of nearly £1,000,000—$5,000,000—per year for an article which -we might just as well produce at home.</p> - -<p>Why do we not undertake the manufacture of wood-pulp in this country? -This is an obvious question. But so far as these islands are concerned -the absence of supplies of raw material in the form of forests has been -responsible for the British abandonment of this range of activity. -Anterior to the outbreak of war there were three mills in this country -possessing integral facilities for pulping wood by the sulphite -process, but it was unremunerative owing to the insufficient supplies -of suitable indigenous timber. Two mills permitted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> their sulphite -plant to fall into disuse and in course of time dismantled them. The -third mill maintained operations, though under difficulties, while its -contribution was small in comparison with that of Scandinavia, its -capacity being only 6,000 tons a year.</p> - -<p>The enormous accumulations of wood-slats arising from the exploitation -of our forests to meet military requirements turned native thought -towards the resuscitation of the chemical system of pulping. A scheme -was promulgated for the erection of a plant in Scotland to work upon -the <em>sulphate</em> process, the proposed site for the plant happening -to be in close proximity to one of the largest ephemeral logging -camps. By the sulphate system the wood is reduced to a pulp by boiling -in a solution of caustic soda, and for this reason is often known as -soda pulp to distinguish it from the sulphite pulp. It requires three -tons of wood chips to yield one ton of pulp, which incidentally I may -mention is one of the strongest pulps known to the paper-making craft. -At the time the problem was discussed this pulp commanded £40—$200—a -ton, and so manufacture was considered to offer an alluring prospect -for British enterprise. The only defect in this pulp is that it is -difficult to bleach, and therefore can be used only sparingly in the -production of white paper. It is used principally in the manufacture -of strong brown papers, such as “thin kraft,” the brown paper used for -fruit and other bags, or for packing-paper where colour is of minor -importance.</p> - -<p>Henceforth “kraft” will be in heavy demand for quite a new range of -activity. This is the production of paper textiles in which British -inventiveness has far out-distanced the German achievements in this -field. At the moment the British company specializing in these textiles -is being called upon to pay £40—$200—per ton for its raw material -drawn from Scandinavia, so that any fall in price which was anticipated -as a result of the cessation of hostilities, which would be likely -to undercut British production, has failed to materialize so far. It -may also be mentioned that British enterprise is quite ready to bring -over illimitable quantities of soft woods from the forests of Eastern -Canada in the log condition, and at a rate which is far cheaper than -that which has hitherto prevailed. This is due to a complete revolution -which has been wrought in the water movement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> of lumber, and it will -not only enable the requisite material to be acquired at a figure -severely competitive, but allow much of the waste lumber in Canada, at -present being ignored, to be submitted to commercial service.</p> - -<p>But the exploitation of the foregoing materials by no means exhausts -our possibilities in this field. There are other substances, of a -refuse character, possessing undoubted virtues for paper-making. Among -these may be mentioned potato haulm. There is every indication that -our output of the potato will record a decided increase owing to the -development of industrial science in other fields. Consequently it is -only logical to expect increased accumulations of the bine. At the -present moment the vegetation in question is regarded more or less -as useless. It should be turned back into the ground to assist in -feeding the soil, but many farmers are disinclined to follow such a -practice for the reason that the bine is apt to foul the plough, and -thus delay the ground-breaking task. Its fertilizer content, or rather -the phosphoric acid and potash constituents, are generally reclaimed -by burning the bine and turning in the ash, but this process is to be -deprecated inasmuch as the whole of the valuable nitrogen content is -lost.</p> - -<p>The haulm, owing to the nature of its fibres, is held to be an -excellent material for the production of brown paper where strength is -the essential requirement. So a British inventor devised what may be -described as a kind of decorticating machine to rend the tough fibre -to pieces upon the spot. The machine is simple, free from liability -to easy derangement, and ingenious. It is suggested that it should -be acquired by the farmer to permit the treatment of this waste as -recovered during the lifting season. It is held to make especial -appeal to the agriculturist possessing a motor-tractor, the requisite -energy being drawn therefrom through belt and pulley. It is estimated -that the manufacture of the machine, upon a sufficiently large scale, -will enable it to be sold at about £100—$500. The shredded stalk or -fibre should be able to command from £4 10s. to £5 10s.—$22.50 to -$27.50—per ton at the mill and should appeal to the paper-maker owing -to its high yield efficiency, which is in the neighbourhood of 65 per -cent. Of course, the suggestion that this waste should be recovered for -the production of paper is one that can only be entertained by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> -large grower, but it is computed that at least 1,000 machines would be -necessary to cope with the country’s annual output of this refuse.</p> - -<p>Another waste product which has also been subjected to test, and found -promising, is the husk from the oat which accrues from milling. The -useless offal resulting from grinding this grain is approximately -35 per cent. In its general characteristics the oat-husk closely -resembles sawdust, while its preparation for paper-making entails a -broadly identical process—passage through a grinding mill to reduce -the residue to the desired consistency. Investigations proved the -suitability of this husk-pulp as an ingredient for making certain -low-grade papers, such as are used by grocers, and for the very -cheapest literature. Paper so made is composed of oat-husks, 35 per -cent.; waste-paper, 50 per cent.; imported pulp, 15 per cent. But the -most gratifying feature of such paper is that it can be made from -domestic raw materials—waste—to the extent of 85 per cent.</p> - -<p>It is evident, from what I have related, that the paper situation -need never occasion us any undue alarm. We have abundant materials -available in the form of waste which we might exploit to our material -and financial profit. War, with its concomitant evils, has turned the -world upside down. What we could not exploit previously to advantage, -owing to severely competitive prices, is now rendered feasible. It only -remains for us to submit the results of proved experiments to actual -commercial practice.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br />SUPPLYING INDUSTRIES FROM THE DUST-BIN</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>During the past few years no effort has been spared to improve the -health and well-being of the community. Laws innumerable have been -passed compelling the mitigation of nuisances and the removal of -menaces to hygiene. These efforts are laudable, but, while they have -achieved the desired end, they have been directly responsible for many -other shortcomings. The greatest of these is waste, more especially in -so far as it affects the household.</p> - -<p>Probably no other factor has contributed so materially towards the -factor of heavier domestic prodigality than the provision of the -portable dust-bin, and the introduction of systematic and regular -collection of the flotsam and jetsam contributed thereto. The very -convenience which the dust-bin or ash-barrel represents has served -to accentuate household extravagance. “Throw it in the dust-bin!” is -the popular slogan in domestic circles. Consequently this receptacle -has become the harbour for much domestic refuse which, under previous -conditions, would never have been so summarily discarded.</p> - -<p>This disposition to be wasteful might have been checked, or at least -the errors of the domestic circle might have been rectified very -considerably, but for one disturbing element. We became such devout -worshippers of hygiene as to become insensible to all reasoning. A few -years ago the practice was to discharge the contents of the ash-barrel -upon open waste land. A small army of workers, even the nomadic element -of the community, turned to and raked over the spoil from our homes -very diligently. In this way immense quantities of odds and ends in -infinite variety which otherwise would have been lost found a market as -raw materials for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> many industries. Even the ultimate organic residue -fulfilled a mission of utility and one in consonance with the laws of -Nature, because, in the process of decomposition, the nitrogen and -phosphoric acid contents of the dump suffered release to feed the soil -to raise sustenance for man and beast.</p> - -<p>But ransacking the garbage heap was declared to be a degrading and -health-menacing occupation and practice. Indeed, the whole system of -household refuse disposal was held up to obloquy. Reform was achieved -by the energetic advocacy of another means wherewith to cope with such -waste. It received widespread support because it fully coincided with -all the requirements of hygiene, while, furthermore, it was simple, -expeditious, effective and apparently cheap.</p> - -<p>This was destruction by fire along so-called scientific lines. The new -idea arrested public fancy mainly for the reason that its champions -laid emphasis upon the fact that it presented the possibility of -obtaining energy to generate electric light and power and to drive -tramways for nothing. Municipalities became affected with the -incineration fever. Steam was necessary to drive the electric plant -which had been acquired. Why not cut down the coal-bill by making use -of the fuel properties possessed by household refuse? The contents -of the domestic dust-bin are so varied, ranging from waste-paper, -grease-laden bones, fragments of fat, cinders, rags and vegetable odds -and ends as to present, in the aggregate, a readily combustible mass -possessing distinct calorific value. By utilizing the garbage, which -has to be collected, in this manner, the coal-bill might be reduced by -so much.</p> - -<p>So argued the advocates of the new idea, and their reasonings proved -so specious as to gain the day. The prospect of being able to get -“Something for nothing” was so alluring as to silence effectively all -adverse criticism. Of course, it was futile to gainsay that cremation -could be rivalled as a prompt, simple, and completely sanitary means of -coping with the refuse which accumulates in every city and big town. -Forthwith destruction by fire became the widely-accepted means of -getting rid of the unsightly and unsavoury contents of the dust-bin.</p> - -<p>Yet the coming of the dust-destructor proved to be a distinctly -retrograde step in the science of economics. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> contributed to -increased improvidence in the home, because the ash-barrel became the -receptacle for a still wider assortment of organic material than ever -before, and in greater bulk.</p> - -<p>It must be conceded that not all of the garbage which suffered -this fate was destroyed to futility. A certain volume of steam was -certainly raised wherewith to drive the electric generators, but the -amount of energy obtained in this way was out of all proportion to -the quantity and value of the material incinerated. In certain cases -the destructor was not harnessed to the power station. The ratepayers -have not experienced any sensible relief in regard to the fuel bills. -Even incineration of household refuse, despite the proportion of its -combustible contents, cannot be conducted satisfactorily without the -consumption of a certain volume of coal. And the process precipitates -a certain quantity of further refuse, in the form of clinker and ash, -the economic disposal of which has provoked another and even more -perplexing problem.</p> - -<p>When necessity, which knows no law, compelled us to economize in every -direction, and particularly in connection with food, we found it -expedient to turn round to ascertain whether or not we might be able -to effect tangible savings to minimize the disconcerting influences of -stringency. The domestic dust-bin was the first factor in the domestic -circle to undergo sensational overhaul. Material which had hitherto -been consigned to this dead end only too freely and perfunctorily, was -more closely scrutinized to see if it could not be induced to yield -further useful service before suffering complete abandonment by the -housewife. Contemporaneously with this manifestation of individual -private effort the civic and municipal authorities were compelled to -display unwonted activity. The whole problem of refuse disposal had to -be viewed from quite a new angle.</p> - -<p>Upon investigating the issue of household refuse at close quarters, and -under the microscope of concentrated interest, the country’s wastage -in this direction was found to exceed the wildest speculations of the -critics. For the first time illuminating statistics became available. -According to the National Salvage Council, the official department -created to stimulate the public mind in matters pertaining to this -question, the quantity of refuse “made” by householders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> throughout the -country during the year may be set down at 9,450,000 tons.</p> - -<p>At first sight this figure seems so startling as to be received with -incredulity, but analysis suffices to demonstrate that it does not -err upon the side of exaggeration. Rather is it conservative. It is -based upon an allowance of 1,680 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> a day for each 1,000 members of -the total population during 300 days of the year. An allowance of 1·68 -<abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> per head per day wastage cannot be construed as excessive. How -many households of six persons can show a weekly dust-bin collection -weighing less than 60 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> especially when the extremely varied contents -of the receptacle are born in mind?</p> - -<p>Now, of what is the heterogeneous collection of the dust-bin composed, -and what is the proportion of each to the aggregate? The following -table, based upon the data collected by the official department already -mentioned, shows—</p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bb bt"> -<th class="tdc br">Material.</th><th class="tdc br">Average Percentage.</th><th class="tdc br">Total per Year.</th><th class="tdc" colspan="2">Estimated Value.</th></tr> -<tr> -<td class="br"></td> -<td class="br"> -</td> -<td class="br tdc"> -Tons.</td> -<td class="br tdc">£ -</td><td class="tdc">$</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Fine dust -</td> -<td class="br tdr">50·98 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">4,800,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">240,000</td><td class="tdr">1,200,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Cinders -</td> -<td class="br tdr">39·63 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">3,700,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">1,850,000</td><td class="tdr">9,250,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Bricks, pots, shales, etc. -</td> -<td class="br tdr">5·35 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">500,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">25,000</td><td class="tdr">125,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Tins -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·98 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">90,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">360,000</td><td class="tdr">1,800,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Rags -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·40 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">37,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">555,000</td><td class="tdr">2,775,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Glass -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·61 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">50,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">100,000</td><td class="tdr">500,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Bones -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·05 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">4,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdc">—</td><td class="tdc">—</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Vegetable matter -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·72 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">68,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdc">—</td><td class="tdc">—</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Scrap iron -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·06 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">5,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">15,000</td><td class="tdr">75,000</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Shells (oyster, etc.) -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·08 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">7,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdc">—</td><td class="tdc">—</td></tr> -<tr class="bb"><td class="br">Paper -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·62 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">58,000 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">400,000</td><td class="tdr">2,000,000</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>From these figures it is evident that the dust-bin is a -veritable treasure ground. Of course the values are subject -to market fluctuations, but it is apparent that a round -£3,000,000—$15,000,000—more or less, a year, is being allowed to fly -up the chimney to vanish in smoke and gases, and to extend very meagre -return for its combustion.</p> - -<p>Let us consider the despised homely cinders as an illustration of how -we permit wicked waste to reign in the household circle. According -to the table they represent approximately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> two-fifths of the total -contents of the dust-bin, and make up the respectable aggregate of -3,700,000 tons a year for the whole country. As a straight fuel the -cinder is but slightly inferior to coal. When washed its calorific -value is about 10,000 British Thermal Units. Good steam coal only -averages 14,000 British Thermal Units. Accordingly the spurned cinder, -from the heat-raising point of view, is worth about five-sevenths of -coal drawn fresh from the mines. The householders of Britain have been -content to throw away 37,000,000,000 British Thermal Units every year -in ignorance. Translated into terms of coal this is equivalent to -2,642,857 tons. In other words we have wasted what is tantamount to -two-and-a-half millions of high-grade coal every year, and have spent -money on fuel which we might just as well have kept in our pockets or -have turned to other beneficial purposes. Obviously, if every house -undertook to turn its cinders to full account, the domestic call -upon the mines might be materially reduced, while there would be an -appreciable contribution to the conservation of our coal resources from -such a practice.</p> - -<p>Paper is another commodity which, in the past, we have handled along -woefully improvident lines, as related in the previous chapter. We -have not even taken the trouble to burn it, but have permitted it -to drift and flutter hither and thither to find a final repository, -grievously soiled and dirty, in the dust-bin. But even when so marred -and deteriorated it was worth, during the war period, no less than -£7—$35—a ton!</p> - -<p>The wastage of rags, both cotton and woollen, has been even more -deplorable. In this instance, however, possibly a reasonable excuse -for the prompt consignment of such material to the dust-bin and the -dust-destructor can be advanced. Popular opinion regards textile odds -and ends as an ideal vehicle for the transmission of the germs of -disease. Yet such does not justify the indiscriminate committal of -material worth £15—$75—per ton to incineration. Infected rags should -be burned forthwith in the household fire. But are they? Investigation -would probably reveal the disconcerting fact that they are thrown into -the dust-bin, as offering the most convenient means of disposal. Even -if they should be above suspicion when discarded, the chances are -that they become contaminated in the ash-barrel. Consequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> upon -recovery such materials should be subjected to preliminary inexpensive -sterilization to ensure the public safety.</p> - -<p>When the necessity to practise household salvage upon a comprehensive -scale became imperative, a few discreet inquiries were made to secure -reliable statistics as to what wealth is ignored or thrown away by the -community of these islands. The results were somewhat surprising.</p> - -<p>In Sheffield, a city of some 500,000 persons, 56,000 jam-jars were -recovered in one week through a special collection conducted by school -children. They realized 6 shillings—$1.50—a gross, and so brought -in £120—$600. In Leicester the practice is, or was, to dispose of -certain articles to the local marine store dealers after collection, -and to divide the profit arising from the transaction among the -employees engaged in the refuse-gathering task. One quarter’s waste, -exclusive of old tins and waste-paper, netted £343—$1,715—of which -£249—$1,245—was obtained from rags alone. There were 264 dozen -jam-jars collected. They cost 15s.—$3.75—a gross new, and the trade -expressed its readiness to take over the reclaimed vessels at 7s. -6d.—$1.87—a gross. Kensington made £1,000—$5,000—from the sale -of one year’s collection of waste-paper. The Southport authorities -recovered £2,000—$10,000—over a similar transaction. The metropolitan -boroughs of Finsbury and Marylebone each swelled its local treasury -to the extent of £500—$2,500—in a similar manner. The City of -London garners 30 tons of this commodity every week. The ink-bottles -recovered from the garbage barrels of the metropolis would provide a -person with a comfortable income, averaging as they do several gross -a day. Liverpool derives £300—$1,500—from house-swill alone, which -it collects, dries, and turns into poultry-meal to sell at £15—$75—a -ton. Aberdeen, as the result of one day’s organized collection, secured -sufficient bottles to realize £567—$2,835.</p> - -<p>It is obvious that, no matter from what point of view the question is -regarded, systematic organized salvage of the contents of the household -dust-bin can be rendered a highly profitable enterprise. Certainly -it opens up a promisingly rich and legitimate field for municipal -trading, though it is equally accessible to private initiative. It is -only requisite to survey the whole situation of the disposal of house -garbage from the new angle of scientific application.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> It is not refuse -in the generally accepted interpretation of the term. Such material -should rightly be regarded as by-products of the private domestic -kitchen.</p> - -<p>The tardy recognition of this fact is responsible for a curious -reversion in practice. The open-air sifting of house refuse for the -recovery of substances possessed of commercial value was unequivocably -condemned from health motives, as previously mentioned. Yet, in -order to recover these articles, some system of selection and -hand manipulation are inevitable, notwithstanding the high degree -of intellectuality to which machinery has been advanced. But the -old system of hand-picking was primitive in its simplicity. The -circumstance that household refuse, both organic and inorganic, -possesses virtues which the vogue of the destructor caused to be -blindly ignored, has been responsible for a manifestation of marked -ingenuity upon the part of the engineering profession. The necessity -to recover every ounce of material possessing a market value was never -so acute as it is to-day. Supplies are short and are likely to remain -inadequate for some time to come, while the high level of prices is -apt to compel more rigid economy. Yet the strains encountered in this -direction may be very sensibly lessened by the practice of salvage -along more intensive lines.</p> - -<p>It would seem as if refuse recovery were destined to develop into -a highly specialized branch of the engineering craft. Hitherto -for the most part the engineer has confined his efforts towards -garbage-disposal by destruction, but the new tendency is far more -logical and deserving of every encouragement. Certainly it is a field -in which abundant scope is offered for brilliancy and ingenuity of -thought. This is demonstrated by the activity of certain firms, more -particularly of one in the North of England, the guiding hand of the -destinies of which has evolved a complete recovery plant, having many -decidedly ingenious features, and which is already being installed by -certain of our more progressive corporations and municipal authorities.</p> - -<p>This plant is self-contained, and, so far as is feasible, is -automatically operated. While hand-picking cannot be entirely -eliminated it has been reduced to the minimum. The system adopted -facilitates the task, and renders hand-picking as congenial as the -peculiar conditions will permit.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> Furthermore it is an individual -entity. While it can be established in an isolated centre it can also -be coupled up to the existing dust-destructor, or power-generating -station if preferred, thereby complying with the general desire to -centralize municipally-controlled installations. This is certainly a -powerful recommendation, because it avoids superfluous transport and -handling.</p> - -<p>Under this scheme the refuse-collecting vehicles discharge their loads -into a receiving hopper from which the material falls by gravitation -into a hexagonally-shaped revolving riddle. This screen or reel for -two-thirds of its length is perforated to allow the fine ash associated -with the waste to escape into another large hopper placed immediately -beneath. The ash may then either be withdrawn directly from this hopper -into wagons or carts for removal, or should arrangements be made for -its combination with other ingredients to produce a fertilizing agent, -it may be led by conveyor from the hopper to the compounding-room.</p> - -<p>For the remaining third of its length the hexagonal revolving screen -is perforated with a coarser mesh to permit the cinders to escape -into a separate hopper, at the base of which is a worm conveyor which -receives the cinders and bears them to a washer. The washing operation -is introduced to allow the separation of the light or combustible -fuel—cinders—from the heavier clinker, fragments of glass, pottery, -and other incombustible substances. At the same time all fine dust -clogging the interstices or pores of the cinders is removed, thereby -facilitating the subsequent combustion of the cinder, while, of course, -the heat produced from the cleansed fuel is greater than that derived -from such material loaded with incombustible dust.</p> - -<p>After being washed the cinders are picked up by a scraper elevator. If -it be intended to utilize this fuel for raising steam in the adjacent -power plant it can be carried by conveyor direct to the boiler-room, -to be discharged into the bunkers or furnaces. Should it be decided -to dispose of the cinders, either wholly or in part, to the general -public, they may be taken by the transporter to any suitable point to -be stored against sale in bulk or in bags.</p> - -<p>A second scraper elevator gathers the heavier debris separated from -the combustible fuel in the washer, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> carries it to a pulverizer, -to which it is delivered through a chute. If the fine dust associated -with the raw refuse, and which fell through the receiving screen, be -not delivered from its hopper into vehicles for immediate disposal, it -may be led to this point to be stored in the pit receiving the material -from the pulverizer with which it may be mixed. Of course, the dust is -not passed through the grinding plant.</p> - -<p>The elimination of the dust and coarser material from the crude garbage -in the receiving screen leaves an appreciable quantity of organic -and inorganic matter, comprising such divers substances as paper, -fragments of wood, bottles, jars, bones, tins, and vegetable material -to be handled. As these cannot pass through the perforations in the -sifting screen they are delivered on to a broad endless conveyor-belt -travelling between two platforms. This is the “picking belt,” from the -fact that as the material is borne along between the two platforms -the useful material is removed by the hands of pickers, to be cast -into suitably disposed bins. In this manner the process of segregation -is carried out with the minimum of effort, while the material is in -movement, and under the most congenial conditions the character of the -work will permit. It represents the only stage at which recourse to -manual labour is required, so that it will be seen that hand-selection -is reduced to the absolute minimum.</p> - -<p>The waste-paper is not touched by hand. At a suitable point a specially -designed hood, connected to an exhauster, is mounted over the picking -belt. When this is set in motion the induced draught is sufficiently -powerful to suck up the paper, and to bear it through a special conduit -to be discharged into a convenient receptacle, whence it may be removed -to the baling press.</p> - -<p>This plant, known as the Hoyle refuse-recovery installation, after -its inventor and designer, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> H. P. Hoyle, is extremely efficient. -Simplicity is the outstanding feature, while its operation is -economical and requires only the minimum of labour. So far as power -is concerned a single 10 horse-power electric motor suffices for all -operations. The capital cost has also been kept down, the price of -the complete plant being from £1,500 to £2,000—$7,500 to $10,000.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> -At this figure the installation of the system should prove distinctly -profitable, more especially in conjunction with one or two auxiliary -appliances which offer the means to enhance the market value of the -recovered materials, although they are not essential. For instance, -an appreciable proportion of the tins thrown into the dust-bin are in -a bright condition and free from rust. Such tins can be made to yield -so much crude tin plate for the production of further tins, instead of -being subjected to the less economic process of crushing, baling, and -detinning or transference to the furnaces in billet form to be melted -down.</p> - -<p>A special type of machine has been evolved whereby the tops and bottoms -of the bright recovered tins can be cut off. The resultant cylinder is -then cut through on either side of the original seam, and the sheet -pressed out to form a flat plate. The eliminated joint, of course, is -set on one side to be treated for the recovery of the solder, while the -small pieces of tin find their way to the scrap-metal bin. The sheets -of bright tin which are thus recovered, and which are quite equal to -new tin-plate, command a ready sale, because they can be restamped into -smaller flat tins for packing boot polishes and similar commodities -extensively retailed in this form. The process is simple, rapid, and -can be made profitable.</p> - -<p>Rusted tins require to be treated in a different manner. Some -corporations merely crush them flat to facilitate and to cheapen -transport, selling them in bulk to firms who specialize in the handling -of such product. However, it is a matter for investigation, when such -tins are recoverable from the garbage in appreciable quantities, as to -whether it would not prove more remunerative to the local authorities -to deal with the tins themselves. A furnace is required to burn off the -tin-dirt and to recover the solder. The tin itself, representing about -1 per cent., is lost, although there are processes in operation for its -reclamation. The receptacles may then be crushed and baled into billets -for which an hydraulic press is necessary. A plant capable of making -a bale measuring 24 × 14 × 6 inches is well-adapted to this duty. The -solder is in demand, while the plate is worth from £3—$15—upwards -per ton as scrap metal. At this figure the local authorities would -undoubtedly find it far more profitable to incur the extra expense and -labour involved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> to prepare the billets rather than to dispose of the -tins in their crude form. When the quantity is heavy direct sale to -the steel-works is possible and the middleman’s profit diverted to the -benefit of the ratepayers.</p> - -<p>Paper should also be baled for reasons of transport. Either hand or -power appliances may be used, but unless the quantity likely to be -handled is pronounced, the hand-operated machine will be found adequate -for the task. Of course, it must be admitted that, to-day, prices for -the recovered materials rule somewhat high. Consequently it may be -averred by critics that, whereas such auxiliaries might be perfectly -justifiable under conditions such as now prevail, they would fail to -show an equally satisfactory result in normal circumstances.</p> - -<p>But it must not be forgotten that prices are steadily rising all round. -Accepted raw materials are costing more, labour is more expensive, -and the tendency in both directions is still in the ascendant. But -even should prices and costs droop, it must not be forgotten that -such a movement would be attended by the utilization of greater -quantities of the articles concerned. They would be recoverable from -the garbage in greater volume, and then it would be possible to keep -the plants running to their full capacities for no heavier operative or -overhead costs. Consequently, in the long run the disposal of enhanced -quantities of tins, either as “bright” or scrap, at a lower figure, -would probably prove more profitable in the aggregate than treating a -limited supply, such as obtains under stringent economic conditions, at -a high figure.</p> - -<p>How does a recovery plant of the foregoing description work out in -practice? This is the vital question. Upon this point it is possible -to advance some interesting figures. An investigation of the domestic -refuse problem as it affects the country as a whole has revealed -the circumstance of the contents of the dust-bin being tolerably -consistent, whether it be drawn from a residential or manufacturing -town, from the East-end or from the West-end, from the city or from -the suburb. On the basis of the analysis set forth elsewhere in this -chapter, and taking for our illustration a metropolitan suburb having a -population of 85,000 souls contributing 100 tons of refuse a day, the -possible recovery of by-products comes out as follows:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bb bt"> -<th class="tdc br">Material.</th><th class="tdc br">Tons per Day.</th><th class="tdc br" colspan="2">Price per Ton.</th><th class="tdc" colspan="2">Total Value.</th></tr> -<tr> -<td class="br" rowspan="2">Fertilizer prepared from fine dust and pulverized<br /> debris from washer and picking belt</td> -<td class="br"></td><td class="br tdc"> -£ <abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr> <abbr title="pence">d.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">$</td> -<td class="br tdc">£ <abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr> <abbr title="pence">d.</abbr> -</td><td class="tdc">$</td></tr><tr> -<td class="br tdr">65 -</td> -<td class="br tdr"> -0 1 0</td><td class="br tdr">0.25</td> -<td class="br tdr">3 5 0 -</td><td class="tdr">16.25</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Cinders -</td> -<td class="br tdr">25 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0 10 0 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">2.50 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">12 10 0</td><td class="tdr">62.50</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Tins and metal -</td> -<td class="br tdr">2 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">4 0 0 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">20.00 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">8 0 0</td><td class="tdr">40.00</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Paper (unsorted, dirty) -</td> -<td class="br tdr">1 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">7 0 0 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">35.00 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">7 0 0</td><td class="tdr">35.00</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Rags -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·5 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">15 0 0 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">75.00 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">7 10 0</td><td class="tdr">37.50</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br">Glass -</td> -<td class="br tdr">0·5 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">2 0 0 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">10.00 -</td> -<td class="br tdr">1 0 0</td><td class="tdr">5.00</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bb"><td class="br">Gross total per day -</td> -<td class="br tdr"> -</td> -<td class="br tdr"> -</td> -<td class="br tdr"> -</td> -<td class="br tdr">£39 5 0</td><td class="tdr">$196.25</td></tr> -</table> - - - -<p>The foregoing figures may be accepted as moderate. Thus the cinders, -with a heating value equal to five-sevenths of that of good steam coal, -are priced at 10s.—$2.50—per ton. But, as experience has proved, -they readily command 14s.—$3.50—per ton, providing, in their washed -condition, a first-class, clean, cheap and economical fuel for the -poorer classes of the community. At 10s.—$2.50—per ton they are equal -to coal costing 14s.—$3.50—per ton, at which price such fuel is -absolutely impossible to-day. Even coke cannot be purchased at double -the figure. In other words, by buying washed cinders at the prices -quoted the purchaser is receiving a fuel equal, if not superior, to -contemporary household coal costing 35s. to 50s.—$7 to $10—per ton.</p> - -<p>Again, the tins are assessed at a low scrap-metal value. Probably 50 -per cent. of the tins rescued from the dust-bin to-day coincide with -the term “bright,” and thus would pay to turn into tin-plate. The -quotation for this material ignores the value of the solder, as well -as that ruling for other metals, such as brass and copper, and of -which far more is recovered from the ash-barrel than may be popularly -imagined. The figure given, moreover, represents the official price, -but since the removal of control scrap-metal has recorded higher -quotations. So far as the other materials are concerned the prices may -be taken as representative.</p> - -<p>On the above showing of £39 5s.—$196.25—per day<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> the plant gives a -gross return, in round figures, of £235—$1,175—for a six-day week, -or £11,775—$58,875—for a 300-day year. Allowing £5,000—$25,000—a -liberal figure—for the annual operation of the plant, the sum of -£6,775—$33,875—remains—the net return from the realization of some -of the utilitarian material recovered from the dust-bins into which -85,000 people throw what they consider to be useless during the course -of the year. Truly may it be said that the average member of the -public has but little, if any, idea of the wealth he allows to slip -through his hands as a result of carelessness or lack of knowledge. -Again, when it is reflected that, for the most part, the whole of such -potential wealth as this has been permitted to vanish in smoke, or if -incombustible to be kicked from pillar to post, we certainly cannot -complain when accused of deplorable extravagance.</p> - -<p>So far as the capital expenditure of a plant, such as is set forth -above, is concerned, this may be set down at £1,000 to £1,500—$5,000 -to $7,500. If for such a paltry expenditure a net revenue of -£6,775—$33,875—can be secured during the course of the year, surely -the moment has arrived when we ought to put our civic and municipal -houses in order. Granting that prices to-day are abnormal, and reducing -the net return by 50 per cent., even at £3,387—$16,935—per annum, -which may be taken as a safe assumption, a plant of this description is -able to pay its way within a short time after its installation, after -making even the most liberal allowances for capital charges, interest, -and depreciation.</p> - -<p>The Hoyle system is one which should make a powerful appeal to the -small communities, which, at the moment, are deficient in any system of -garbage disposal other than open dumping. It has the governing virtue -of being extremely flexible, being as readily applicable to the small -town, numbering only a few thousand—even hundreds—of inhabitants as -to the teeming city of a million or more souls. The financial outlay -involved is comparatively trivial for the results achieved, and varies -according to the size, capacity, and completeness of the plant.</p> - -<p>Should our smaller towns embrace the system the contributions to -the searching problems of the moment would, in the aggregate, be -decidedly startling. The materials thus recovered, turned into the -proper channels, would go<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> a long way towards relieving the strains -which are being experienced. The small town has a golden opportunity -to demonstrate to the larger communities how things should be done. -For the most part it is not saddled with a costly, so-called hygienic, -destructor. The science of turning the contents of the dust-bin to -commercial advantage is one offering possibilities too numerous to -mention and might even lead to the establishment of local industries. -Nothing organic or inorganic possessed of any utilitarian value need be -lost.</p> - -<p>On the other hand the city is not in such a fortunate position. -It will have to forget a good deal of what it has assimilated in -connection with the disposal of the contents of the ash-barrel. A -change-over from the old to the new method must inevitably occupy time, -especially as those two dragging chains which always retard the march -of progress—prejudice and conservatism—have first to be released. -Nevertheless, as destruction of domestic waste by fire superseded -dumping upon open land, so must incineration, in turn, give way to the -latest demands of science and the immutable economic law. The dust -destructor never could possibly be construed into a scientific solution -of the problem: it has no constructional or creative value, except of -a nuisance in the form of accumulations of clinker. Even primitive -dumping upon the land did possess the distinct advantage of benefiting -the soil over which it was distributed. When the latest idea for -recovering and exploiting the by-products of the dust-bin achieves the -vogue which it deserves, land and industry will profit to the benefit -of the community and of the country.</p> - -<p>Naturally, certain local authorities, notoriously opposed to -progressive development, will seek to stop the tide by belittling the -new policy. They have become so firmly wedded to the destructor in -which so much of the ratepayers’ money has been sunk as to be blind -to improvement. They will continue still to waste money in supporting -their fetish, strenuously declining to honour the axiom that it is -often cheaper to cut the loss.</p> - -<p>In the absence of willingness to jettison the old and to adopt the new, -the pressure of compulsion should be applied. Local authorities must -be prevented from continuing to squander potential resources of raw -material. Alternatively,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> the exploitation of the despised dust-bin -should be brought within the reach of private enterprise, which should -be extended every encouragement. Other nations have always regarded our -much-vaunted dust destructor as the high-road to waste. It has never -found any pronounced favour beyond the confines of Britain. Have our -rivals been wiser than we?</p> - -<p>An interesting commentary upon this somewhat inexplicable -predisposition to destruction by fire is offered by the experience of -the city of San Francisco. In 1896 the city granted a fifty years’ -franchise for the provision of a destructor for the disposal of -household refuse to a private party. “This destructor,” remarks the -city engineer in a communication to myself, “is the second, and last, -example of the Thackery furnace and arrangement, the first having been -built in Montreal, Canada, the previous year (1895).”</p> - -<p>This plant has passed through somewhat strange vicissitudes. In 1910 -it was purchased, together with the franchise, by the city authorities -for £70,000—$350,000. It was then leased to a private party, under -privilege, in return for an annual payment of £3,700—$18,500—5 per -cent. upon the purchase price. During the early months of 1918, owing -to the great increase in wages and other costs of operation, the lessee -relinquished his lease, so that it was thrown back upon the hands of -the city authorities. It was then taken in hand by the Scavengers’ -Association under permit from the city, by whom it is at present being -run at a cost of about 4s.—$1—a ton for the 375 to 380 tons of refuse -collected daily by the scavengers.</p> - -<p>But the city authorities are not impressed with this method of -disposing of the contents of the ash-barrels of its citizens. “During -the past year or two,” continues the city engineer in the communication -already quoted, “we have become more than ever impressed with the -wrong of unnecessary waste and have been making special study of our -conditions and the means of improving them. Ordinances for segregation -at the source, and collection of all, both garbage and rubbish, are now -under action by the Board of Supervisors—the governing body of the -city—and specifications are being prepared and bids asked upon the -same for the collection and disposal of garbage and rubbish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span></p> - -<p>“It is specially provided that all proposals shall be based on a -recognition of the need of conservation and the recovery of all values -to the point of balance between profit and loss. It is expected that -the garbage from households will amount to upwards of 100 tons daily, -and that it will be attractive to hog-raisers.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br />LIVING ON WASTE</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>War is Hell. So said Sherman, and it is a verdict with which the whole -world will agree. But war is also a powerful educating force. If -any convincing testimony upon this point were required we have only -to reflect upon the effective manner in which the recent European -conflagration caused the British nation to revise its methods and -practices. The stress of war, ravages by submarines, depletion of -transport facilities by sea, road, and rail, and the shortage of crops -and labour, compelled the community to consider the food question in a -light totally different from that with which it was regarded during the -days of cheapness and plenty. We were forced to digest lessons which -under normal conditions we would have ignored in contempt. Whether the -changes wrought in our complex social and commercial life are destined -to be permanent in character is another question, but the continuation -of high prices is tending to consummate this end, the process being -assisted by the reflection that the good old days are destined never to -return, at least not for many years to come.</p> - -<p>In the previous chapter I have recounted how the engineer is now -striving to conserve rather than to destroy what we throw to one side -as of no further use. By inventive ingenuity he is endeavouring to -bring home to our local authorities how to extract further utilitarian -value from what the household discards. The question immediately arises -as to what extent this tendency towards preservation and construction, -as opposed to destruction and loss, is being supported in a practical -manner by the authorities concerned.</p> - -<p>It is to be feared that, considered on the whole, the seeds which are -being sown are falling on barren ground. However,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> here and there our -civic and municipal authorities, especially those who evince a distinct -pride in being numbered among the pioneers of progress, are fully alive -to the possibilities of the problem, and are leaving no stone unturned, -nor sparing any exertion, to bring home to the public at large that -refuse is merely matter in the wrong place. In some instances this -reversion to rigid economical methods is not of modern record, the -practice of salvage or recovery of abandoned products having been -practised along more or less comprehensive lines, as indicated by -scientific thought, for many years past.</p> - -<p>The city of Glasgow is able to point to a convincing record of what -can be achieved in this direction. In the years 1908-9 the fathers -of the progressive Scottish city derived £41,000—$205,000—from -this source, while during the ten years ending 1918 what is commonly -regarded as rubbish and useless has been induced to yield no less than -£50,300—$251,500. Surely what can be achieved in one city is equally -possible of attainment in every other community throughout the British -Isles to a greater or lesser degree!</p> - -<p>Glasgow has evolved its own organization for retrieving and utilising -the city refuse and in accordance with the conditions which obtain in -the locality. Speaking generally, the system may be described as one -of separating the saleable from the unsaleable. Previous to the year -1917 efforts were devoted mainly to the preparation of fertiliser from -the contents of the domestic dust-bin, as well as the recovery of -tins, but, owing to the high prices which other so-called waste was -commanding, and in deference to the national appeal towards greater -economy, the reclamation of other materials was taken in hand with -highly gratifying results.</p> - -<p>The refuse of the city is collected in the usual manner and conveyed -to the depot. It is weighed upon receipt. It is then dispatched up -an inclined roadway to a tipping floor, where the vehicles discharge -their loads through shoots. Beneath the latter are disposed horizontal -revolving riddles of conical form. The fine refuse and cinders escape -through the grids, but the bulky material is carried forward to be -ejected on to a travelling conveyor.</p> - -<p>The ashes and cinders which fall through the open mesh of the first -riddles are caught by a second and stationary screen. The mesh of -this sieve being finer only allows the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> dust to escape to fall into -a mixing machine. Here it is combined with a regulated quantity of -excrementitious matter drawn from an overhead tank. The materials -are thoroughly blended, and the mixture ultimately falls direct into -railway wagons. In this way all intermediate handling is obviated. This -material constitutes a first-class fertilizing agent, is keenly sought -by farmers, and accordingly meets with a ready sale.</p> - -<p>The cinders, arrested by the secondary stationary screen, are collected -in a similar manner. They are not sold, but dumped into the bunkers -of the works to fire the boilers, thereby assisting materially in the -generation of the power necessary to drive the plant.</p> - -<p>The bulkier material remaining in the revolving conical grid is -discharged on to a conveyor. While being moved forward all material -of value, such as waste-paper, tins, scrap-metal, waste-food, rags, -bones, glass and so on are picked off by hand to be thrown into bins. -The manual labour employed to carry out this task of segregation may be -considered to be an adverse cost factor. But against this expenditure -for separation by hand must be set that formerly entailed in the -destruction or other disposal of this material. Accordingly, all things -considered, it may be accepted that the revenue derived from this -source virtually represents money saved.</p> - -<p>In addition to the recovery of paper from the above-mentioned -refuse the Cleansing Department also maintains a special service -for the collection of such waste from offices, warehouses, and -private residences throughout the city area. This procedure has been -in operation for many years, but, owing to the scarcity of paper -encountered during the war, and the need which consequently arose -to display accentuated enterprise in this direction, an auxiliary -collecting service was inaugurated. It was conducted by the members of -the Women’s Volunteer Reserve, who received a percentage of the profits -arising from the sale of the waste-paper thus gathered.</p> - -<p>So far as the waste-metal—light scrap, tins, and other odds and ends -of a metallic nature—is concerned this was formerly sold in the form -of detinned compressed billets. Under the present contract this is -delivered to the contractor in the condition in which it is received. -But it is quite<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> possible that, at some future date, there may be a -reversion to the baling process which formerly obtained. In view of -this fact it has been deemed advisable to bale a certain proportion -of the recovered metal merely in order to maintain the hydraulic -compressing plant in good working conditions. The practice is to -separate and to classify metallic material under one or other of six -headings—bright tins, galvanized metal, light iron (black), cast iron, -enamelled ware, and burned tins respectively.</p> - -<p>While the Cleansing Department hitherto has not devoted any attention -to the recovery of garbage from the refuse for conversion into -pig-food, it is possible that this issue may be undertaken at a future -date. The authorities have the suggestion under serious consideration -with a view to its adoption.</p> - -<p>The clinker question commands the attention of the Glasgow authorities, -as it does all other communities equipped with facilities for carrying -out refuse destruction by incineration. But, so far as this city -is concerned, the problem does not bristle with perplexity as is -invariably the case. The residuum from the furnaces of the Corporation -works is mechanically screened into five varying grades, to meet the -requirements of contractors who find it eminently adapted to their -particular needs. No difficulty has yet been experienced in regard to -the disposal of this article, a ready sale always having prevailed for -the stocks available.</p> - -<p>That the reclamation of the utilitarian contents of the domestic -dust-bin is distinctly remunerative to the Glasgow civic authorities is -reflected from a perusal of the revenue derived from the recovery and -disposal of the city’s refuse during the year ended May 31, 1918. The -sales’ record is as follows:—</p> - -<table class="thin"> -<tr class="bt bb"><th class="tdc br">Materials.</th><th class="tdc br">£ <abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr> <abbr title="pence">d.</abbr></th><th class="tdc">$</th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Waste-paper</td> -<td class="tdr br">8,993 14 5</td> -<td class="tdr">44,969</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Old tins, light iron, etc.</td> -<td class="tdr br">2,684 17 9</td> -<td class="tdr">13,425</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Clinker</td> -<td class="tdr br">718 10 10</td> -<td class="tdr">3,592</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Sundries</td> -<td class="tdr br">72 14 5</td> -<td class="tdr">363</td></tr> -<tr class="bt bb"><td class="tdl br">Total</td> -<td class="tdr br">£12,469 17 5</td> -<td class="tdr">$62,349</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span></p> - -<p>To the above total there remains to be added the revenue derived -from the sale of the prepared manure, arising from the admixture of -the finely-screened dust and excremental material. This realized -£6,718 17s. 8d.—$33,594—bringing the grand total to £19,188 15s. -1d.—$95,943. In this return the cinders are totally ignored, but, -seeing that they constitute a highly serviceable fuel, the saving -in the coal-bill, which their use secured, should be taken into -consideration.</p> - -<p>It is necessary to explain that, inasmuch as the thorough separation of -the material is only of recent date, previous operations having been -confined to the recovery of paper, old metal and the preparation of -the fertilizer as already mentioned, the item “Sundries” cannot extend -any criterion as to the results now being recorded, nor of the revenue -derived from the recovery and disposal of the additional articles.</p> - -<p>The successful conversion of the volume of dust, comprising about 50 -per cent. of the aggregate, into a marketable fertiliser, offers a -satisfactory solution of a complex and perplexing problem. But when the -dust is coarser and yet deficient in “bite” or gritty characteristic, -its disposal is not so readily consummated because its possible -applications are thereby severely narrowed down in number.</p> - -<p>Speaking generally, the utilization of the fine dust may be said to -present a vexatious question. While it forms an excellent ingredient -for a compounded fertilizer, it is not a simple matter to discover an -inexpensive, and preferably second, refuse constituent of approved -manurial value with which to associate it. The majority of the -ingredients advocated as complying with the desired requirement possess -too high an independent fertilizing value for such an application. -In itself the dust is of very low soil-feeding power, and so active -investigation is being pursued in anticipation of the discovery of a -satisfactory adjustment to this question.</p> - -<p>Another enterprising illustration of what can be achieved with -domestic, office and warehouse refuse, both organic and inorganic, -is extended by the Port of Liverpool. Here, again, the developments -to be recorded in this connection are not attributable to the war, -although the last-named factor was responsible for the conduct of the -reclamatory process upon a more intensive scale. Liverpool is somewhat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> -peculiarly situated among the importing centres of the United Kingdom -seeing that it is probably the largest distributing centre for American -foodstuffs for this country. Consequently, as is only to be expected, -very considerable quantities of food which have suffered such damage -during transit or demurrage as to become unfit for human consumption -have to be handled. Under the old <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régime</i> all organic waste of -this character was either consigned right away to the destructor, or -was perfunctorially treated to be sold as manure. Neither science nor -brains was displayed in its disposal. The shortest way out of the -difficulty was accepted as being the most effective in the public -interests. But Liverpool was not the only port to follow such summary -practice. It was common to all ports of the country in greater or -lesser degree. The public loses heavily from the observance of such -deprecatory measures, especially when it is borne in mind that such -traffic runs into tens of thousands of tons during the course of the -year. But under pre-war conditions, owing to the plentitude of supplies -and the wide distribution of the losses incurred, the financial effect -was scarcely felt by the unit of the population.</p> - -<p>During the war a loud wail went up because a number of hams and a -quantity of bacon had been found in a decomposed condition at a certain -port. Had this occurred during pre-war days not a word would have found -its way into the public press, and the destructor alone would have -known of the incident. But because under war conditions the public -was directly affected—was clamouring for this particular article of -food—the wastage was declared to be intolerable. Fortunately, in this -instance, owing to our having become more enlightened, the spoiled food -was not totally lost. The fat was reclaimed, while the residue was -turned to its most profitable account.</p> - -<p>At Liverpool, as at other centres where a vigilant eye is maintained -upon the clock of progress, it was speedily discovered that the methods -of handling such refuse were distinctly deprecatory. It was decided to -introduce improved practice. One material was treated as an experiment, -and the process was found to be profitable. Gradually other condemned -articles of food were taken in hand. This logical development of -salvage was continued, until to-day there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> is very little material -entering into the composition of the Liverpool dust-bin which does not -find some one or other useful application.</p> - -<p>It was learned from studied investigation that waste-food products -collected with the refuse of the city might be classified into five -broad divisions, namely butchers’ and fishmongers’ offal, damaged fruit -and vegetables, damaged eggs, damaged canned foods, such as meat, fish, -milk and so forth, as well as warehouse sweepings. Over and above this -assortment, of course, came the miscellany to be found in every ash-bin -drawn from the home. To ensure the receipt of the offal from tradesmen -a special and separate collection from all retail shops dealing in fish -and greengrocery was inaugurated. Subsequently, to prevent the wastage -of swill suitable for the sustenance of pigs, a special collection from -private houses was introduced.</p> - -<p>In every city the isolation of the swill from the general material -consigned to the dust-bin though freely urged is a somewhat difficult -issue to carry into practice. Segregation at the source is imperative -to ensure the maximum results being attained. But the Liverpool -authorities overcome the obstacle very satisfactorily. The residents -were notified of the intention of the department charged with this -duty, while officials were detailed to visit and to explain to -residents the proposals, and to extend advice upon what, and what -should not, be thrown into the dust-bin. Moreover, the City Fathers -undertook to provide each house with a special receptacle for the -swill, and to collect it at frequent intervals. Experience proved that -collection twice a week sufficed to meet every requirement.</p> - -<p>But, as a rule, when the suggestion is made that local authorities -should provide special receptacles for swill, demur is made on the plea -that such a procedure must entail further capital expenditure. Yet it -can be carried out along very inexpensive lines if attacked in the -proper spirit. So far as Liverpool has been concerned it was even found -possible to turn a waste article to such account. Among the flotsam and -jetsam sent to the corporation depots for disposal were thousands of -tins measuring 9 × 9 × 13 inches, originally used for the conveyance of -oil to this country. Examination revealed the circumstance that these -discarded receptacles could readily be converted into swill-pails, -their dimensions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> and construction admirably adapting them to such -a duty. Forthwith they were cleaned, one or two minor alterations -carried out, and then painted. The cost of adaptation was less than -1s.—25 cents—per tin. These were then issued to the residents who -expressed readiness to co-operate with the efforts of the authorities, -and proved a complete success. It has often been advanced by local -authorities that the residents will never collaborate in such schemes -of segregation at the source, declining to be bothered, but the -experience gained at Liverpool does not support such a contention. The -inhabitants of the city astride the Mersey responded very promptly to -the request to save and segregate their swill, the result being that -enormous accumulations of potential and valuable pig-food were secured.</p> - -<p>Swill supplies being assured, the next step was to handle this waste -at the depot, and to prepare it for the piggeries. The City Engineer, -<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> John A. Brodie, M.Inst.C.E., advanced a complete solution to this -problem and along economical lines. A number of old pitch boilers -and other plant was lying idle at the depot. This was turned out, -overhauled, rigged up and coupled up to the steam generating equipment -of the destructor. The household swill was cooked in these vessels, -and in this manner a first-class pig-food was produced. To ensure the -consumption of the swill thus obtained the Corporation installed its -own piggeries and poultry runs upon its farms. The swill, while still -hot, was conveyed to the piggeries in the municipal motor wagons and -doled out. Private pig-raisers were also at liberty to obtain the swill -in the heated condition if they cared to fetch it. This facility was -readily accepted, inasmuch as it saved the pig-keepers the trouble and -time of conducting collection from houses in the conventional manner -and then boiling it upon their farms for their animals.</p> - -<p>Continuous development of the reclamation of waste problem has been the -policy of the Liverpool civic authorities. Satisfied with the pecuniary -and other results attending their initial efforts the City Engineer -installed an inexpensive and complete plant working upon the Scott -system, described in another chapter, for the full reclamation of the -material contained in the city refuse. It was laid down at the central -depot primarily to treat the meat, fish, and other organic offal, -increasing quantities of which were forthcoming. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> plant in question -comprises a digester, dryer, vacuum pump, disintegrator and fat tanks. -Electric drive is employed throughout, the necessary power being drawn -from the municipal generating station.</p> - -<p>The digester, made of steel, 7 feet long by 3 feet in diameter, is of -sufficient capacity to receive one ton of refuse at a time, and works -at a pressure of 60 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> It is charged from the top and emptied from the -bottom. It works upon the jacket principle, and the necessary steam may -be admitted both at the top and bottom as desired. Top and bottom cocks -are fitted for drawing off all fatty and oily liquid for the fat tanks, -and also to draw off the liquor. About four hours are required to treat -the charge.</p> - -<p>The vacuum dryer is a drum, 4 feet 6 inches deep by 5 feet in diameter, -and is also able to receive a charge of one ton. Top and bottom -facilities, for charging and emptying respectively, are provided. -Within the vessel rotating blades are disposed to keep the contents in -agitation during treatment, these blades making about 25 revolutions -per minute. All foul gases arising during the process are drawn off -by a vacuum pump, and are led to the furnaces to be consumed, thereby -being rendered innocuous before escaping into the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>The disintegrator is a cast-iron cylinder provided with a continuous -automatic feed. Within the vessel are set a number of steel arms which -run at a very high speed—about 2,500 revolutions per minute—which -break up and thoroughly disintegrate the refuse introduced until it is -able to pass through the meshes of the screen placed at the bottom of -the machine.</p> - -<p>The process is very simple. The refuse is dumped into the digester -which, upon being filled, is sealed. Steam is turned on, and the -resultant cooking releases all the oleaginous constituents of the -contents, which are floated off through the cock to be led to the -fat-recovery tanks. The cooking is continued until the raw waste has -shed every drop of recoverable oil and grease. The digester is then -emptied, pressed, and the cooked material passed to the dryer to be -dried, thence to the disintegrator to be pulverized or ground to the -required degree of fineness.</p> - -<p>The fatty and oil liquors drawn from the digester fall into a tank, -and the fat and grease collecting on the surface<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> are skimmed off to -be passed to a lower tank. All tanks are kept at a certain degree of -temperature by means of a steam-heated coil. The fat and oil reclaimed -in this manner are subsequently treated for their yield of glycerine, -the final residue entering into the preparation of soap and other -articles.</p> - -<p>The solid residues recovered from the disintegrator, representing the -fibres from the meat, fish offal and other solid matter, constitute an -excellent poultry food. According to the analyses which have been made -it is rich in the albuminoids and phosphates.</p> - -<p>While the foregoing naturally represents the foremost and greatest -phase of salvage activity pursued by the Liverpool Corporation it -by no means exhausts their efforts in this direction. Other refuse -is recovered and treated for some one or other specific commercial -purpose. All bones are collected, washed, and boiled to secure the fat, -the solid matter afterwards being ground into meal. Vegetable refuse, -of which large quantities are forthcoming, especially from the markets, -are dried and stored, having been found useful as a constituent for -poultry foods. Fish, both offal and unsold inedible surplus, is converted -directly into fertilizer. Wooden refuse, recovered from dust-bins and -other sources, is heated at low temperature to allow carbonization for -sale as charcoal. Large quantities of straw, both clean and soiled, -are also brought in, being recovered from packing-cases and crates. -The clean straw is segregated to be chopped finely, and as such meets -with a ready sale among poultry-raisers because it constitutes a very -effective scratching material. The dirty straw, together with soiled -paper and old wooden boxes incapable of other treatment, as well as -other light refuse, are burned in a special furnace which has been -installed, care being observed to collect the ash. As the latter -contains approximately 12 per cent. potash it forms a first-class -fertilizer. Banana stalks are likewise rich in potash, and so, by -submitting the stalks, large quantities of which are forthcoming from -the fruit markets under normal conditions, to a special treatment, -this potash is recovered and is turned over to the soap-makers. Oyster -shells are washed, calcined, and then ground for sale as grit to -poultry-raisers.</p> - -<p>Damaged and condemned eggs are frequently received in large quantities -from the docks, warehouses and wholesale<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> establishments. One -consignment numbered no fewer than a quarter of a million. Instead of -being used as fuel for the destructor, these eggs are boiled, then -chopped, dried and together with the shells are finely ground into meal -for use as chicken food.</p> - -<p>Consignments of ham and bacon are often received in heavy quantities at -times from the docks. This inedible food is submitted to treatment to -secure the various commercial by-products such as oil and grease, the -residue being ground up into meal.</p> - -<p>From the foregoing it will be realized that Liverpool is not -permitting much waste of any commercial character to find its way to -the incinerator. The wise policy now being pursued is bearing fruit. -The prices which have been, and still are being, realized, render -the trouble and effort expended well worth while. The meal made from -fish offal, after the extraction of the oil, has fetched as much as -£25—$125—per ton, while the butchers’ offal, after similar treatment, -has commanded an equally satisfactory price. Even the refuse gathered -from the households of the city, and capable of being turned into -poultry-meal, which exceeds 20 tons a week, is promptly sold at prices -ranging up to £15—$75—per ton. The possibilities attending systematic -collection from private residences have also been conclusively -established, and at the moment the Corporation is gathering a round -1,000 tons of such waste from certain houses in the course of the -year. Reclaimed tins, after being washed and dried, have realized up -to £8—$40—per ton, while, to meet the enhanced request for organic -manure, an excellent fertilizer is being prepared from certain -materials which come into the hands of the authorities, or accrue from -the practice of waste-reclaiming. The Corporation are able to dispose -of this fertilizer with comparative ease at the rate of 50,000 tons -during the year.</p> - -<p>Other towns are able to point to comparable achievements in connection -with the exploitation of waste incurred within their areas. Some of -the small communities are even able to produce some startling records -in this connection. If all our civic and municipal authorities could -be brought into line and raised to the productive level of Glasgow or -Liverpool, the cumulative benefits to the nation would be enormous and -far reaching. But, as yet, only a fraction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> of what might be secured is -being turned to useful account. For instance, it is computed that 3,000 -tons of first-class pig-food could be recovered from London alone every -week—this in itself would show a heavy yield of fats and greases if -properly treated—but at present it is being wasted.</p> - -<p>Merely because foodstuffs—meat, fish, eggs, fruit, and other -commodities innumerable of a perishable nature—are condemned as being -unfit for the service of man, that is not to say they have completed -their mission in the scheme of things ordained by a so-called high -civilization. Doubtless they assist in the manufacture of excellent -paving-stones, but although we are in dire need of houses and this is -the concrete age, that is not a sufficiently reasonable excuse for -withdrawing nitrogenous products from the cycle of Nature.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br />POTATO WASTE AS AN ASSET TO INDUSTRY</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The potato has entered so intimately into our domestic life as to be -regarded as indispensable to the human dietary. Whether its food value -be exaggerated or otherwise, the fact remains that, speaking generally, -it now ranks second to wheat in the estimation of the bread-eating -nations. A potato-less dinner-table would create more dismay than one -from which the familiar roll is missing, while some of us may even -recall the widespread misery which was provoked in Ireland during the -black years of 1845 and 1846 from the failure of the potato crop. The -succulent tuber has achieved such a high estate among the community as -to be deemed capable of taking the place of the cereal associated with -the staff of life should exigencies so demand.</p> - -<p>In view of such extreme popularity it is not surprising to find -the potato cultivated extensively in the British Islands to serve -essentially as a foodstuff for both man and beast. No allotment-holder -would consider his endeavours to be complete without the inclusion of -this vegetable in his gardening programme. As illuminative of the grip -which the cult of the potato has secured upon the amateur son of Adam -it may be mentioned that the allotment-holders of England and Wales -raised a round 1,000,000 tons of this tuber, for the most part upon -10-rod plots, during the year 1918. Many farmers now regard it as the -backbone to their agricultural endeavours, especially in those parts of -the country where the soil conditions are particularly favourable to -its easy and prolific cultivation.</p> - -<p>Yet, in our use of the potato, we are extremely wasteful. We lose or -discard at least one-third of what we grow. It is estimated that 25 -per cent. of the value of a crop is lost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> to the farmer in cartage, -carriage, clamping, bagging, marketing, and grading. This figure does -not take into account the circumstance that only the cream of the -crop—the ware potato—is set aside for human consumption, for which, -of course, the maximum price is demanded. Neither does it refer to the -losses incurred from the ravages of diseases, which, while varying -according to the soil and weather conditions, are always material. An -appreciable proportion of this loss and waste might be avoided were -the practice of storage by clamping superseded by a method more in -accordance with contemporary thought.</p> - -<p>A further loss, even in connection with those set aside for the table, -is incurred in the preparation of the vegetable. Peeling, as a rule, is -clumsily and perfunctorily performed, “spud drill” being considered as -one of the drudgeries of domestic life, because a pronounced portion -of the edible flesh is removed with the skin, eyes and other unsightly -or inedible parts. The extent of this loss varies with the size of the -tuber and the carelessness or skill of the peeler. Consequently it may -vary from 10 to 30 per cent. or even more.</p> - -<p>What is done with the peelings? For the most part, notably in towns -and cities, they suffer cremation, either at the destructor, via the -dust-bin, or in the kitchen stove. But potato-peelings constitute -an expensive fuel. The rural resident is generally more thrifty. He -throws the peelings into the swill-tub for pig-food, or husbands them -to boil and to blend with grain offal to sustain his poultry-run, but -the quantity thus turned to economic account is really an insignificant -proportion of the whole. Quite 600,000 tons of potato offal are -destroyed in ignorance during the year—a deliberate wastage of -valuable raw material.</p> - -<p>The growers’ losses are equally startling, more particularly in -clamping. The tubers afflicted with disease meet with instant rejection -and destruction. Even the balance of good and sound tubers, remaining -after the selection of the ware and seed grades, is utilized along the -most wasteful lines, being regarded as fit for cattle only.</p> - -<p>The farmer is not to be blamed for such extravagant use of the -proportion of his crop which fails to rise to the high standard set -for the table. He has not been enlightened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> either in regard to the -constitution of the potato or its potential industrial uses. Even if -he be cognizant of these factors he cannot more profitably exploit his -surplus owing to the absence of all facilities to such an end.</p> - -<p>Of what is the potato composed? Here is the result of an average -analysis:—</p> - -<table class="thin"> -<tr><th class="tdr" colspan="2">Per cent.</th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fat </td><td class="tdr">0.3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Cellulose </td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mineral matter </td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Dextrine and pectose </td><td class="tdr">2</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fibrin and albumen </td><td class="tdr">2.3</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Starch </td><td class="tdr">17</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water </td><td class="tdr">75</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Waste </td><td class="tdr">1.4</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The term “waste” included in the above table in reality is somewhat -misplaced, as I explain later. The starch content is also a variable -factor. While one analysis may show a percentage of only 15, another -will yield a figure exceeding 18 per cent. Consequently that quoted may -be accepted as representative.</p> - -<p>Familiarity with the chemical composition of the humble potato prompted -the Germans to regard it from two distinct view-points. The one, -as in these islands, concerned its food potentialities; the second -took into consideration its possible application as a raw material -for several industries, such as the manufacture of alcohol, starch, -glucose, dextrine, and other articles of commerce. Consequently, potato -quotations upon the Teuton markets were dual and distinct. The one -price, which was the higher, related to produce intended for the table, -while the second, and lower, governed its industrial use.</p> - -<p>The provision of two separate markets for the commodity produced -the inevitable result. Farmers were assured of lucrative prices -for their crop set aside for edible use, while the second market -absorbed practically the whole of what was not required to satisfy the -first-named demand, and that at an attractive figure. Accordingly, -there was every inducement to bring more and more acres under the -tuber, which led to the reclamation of poor soils regarded as utterly -useless for general agriculture.</p> - -<p>But the encouragement thus extended wrought many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span> other far-reaching -benefits. To persuade the poor soils devoted to the culture of the -potato to become fertile led to an increased demand for artificial -fertilizers, and provided a big domestic outlet for the native potash. -The farmers were enlightened as to the many virtues possessed by such -manures and were urged to use them liberally. The potash deposits were -not the only home resources to enjoy prosperity from such propaganda. -The steel industry reaped a certain measure of profit, because the -land offered an encouraging market for the enormous accumulations of -basic slag arising from the working in steel. Then the alcohol derived -from the potato assisted other industries, notably that concerned with -the manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs. From this it will be seen that -the increased production of the potato, and its submission to the -most economic processes, exercised a repercussive effect in various -directions.</p> - -<p>It was the pursuit of this policy which enabled Germany to raise -54,000,000 tons of potatoes a year. Of this enormous yield -approximately 30,000 tons were used to feed other industries with -essential raw materials. The energy displayed by the farmer resulted -in the supply exceeding the demand, so it became necessary to devise -measures to cope with the glut to avoid the grower, from the receipt -of absurdly low prices, being discouraged. The German farmer does not -favour clamping: he desires to dispose of his product immediately it is -gathered. With such an enormous output this tendency proved an awkward -obstacle. The auxiliary industries planned their operations upon a -twelve months scale. That is to say, they naturally desired to work -steadily the whole year round. The raw material from the soil came to -hand in tidal waves, and inconveniently.</p> - -<p>The problem of meeting these sudden seasonal surges provoked -difficulty and dissatisfaction. The dependent industries acquired -their requirements, which left a very large quantity of potatoes upon -the growers’ hands. They could not hold them through the winter owing -to the extreme susceptibility of this vegetable to injury from frost. -The merchants were ready to accept delivery and to hold them in store -against the calls of commerce, but only at a price which was so low -as to leave the growers on the wrong side. The latter, dissatisfied, -threatened retaliation in the form<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> of curtailment of production. At -this declaration the alcohol-distilling interests took alarm. To secure -themselves against any shortage of raw material they decided to hasten -to the farmers’ assistance, the merchants being ignored. The Alcohol -Association and the Farmers’ Societies collaborated to perfect ways and -means of saving the surplus both from destruction and the profiteering -of the factors. The co-operation of the Government was also sought. The -last-named assented to extend tangible aid and forthwith prizes to the -value of £1,500—$7,500—were offered to stimulate inventive fertility. -As a result of the various discussions it was decided that the most -promising solution of the vital question would be to convert the potato -into a dried product.</p> - -<p>Inventive effort responded very promptly upon the narrowing down of -the issue. As a result of searching tests two dehydrating methods were -adopted. By these processes the potatoes are washed, cooked, dried, and -reduced to a flake and shredded form respectively. The product from -the first-named process is described as “flocken” from its flake-like -character, while the second is called “schnitzel.” The latter is the -cheaper process, the cost of dehydrating a ton of potatoes being about -4s.—$1.00—while the conversion of a ton of tubers into flocken -costs 10s.—$2.50. However, the capital investment incurred with the -machinery for producing schnitzel is higher than that for yielding the -flake, and initial outlay being the most compelling feature it is the -process which has been most widely adopted. In 1914 there were over -400 factories in operation converting the surplus potato crop into a -dried form, of which about 75 per cent. followed the flocken method. -But it does not matter which process is employed, the result is the -same—the production of a dried potato pulp, capable of being kept -indefinitely so long as it is protected against the ravages of damp, -and which suffers no injury from frost. From this dehydrated potato it -is possible to work up a cheap, excellent cattle-food.</p> - -<p>The ability to render the potato into a convenient dry form at a low -figure prompted other countries, notably Japan and the United States -of America, to resort to similar methods, but to a different end. -The potato is rich in carbohydrates, and this fact suggested the -subsequent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> milling of the dry material into a flour, commercially -known as “farina,” which has proved a conspicuous commercial success. -The demand for this flour is expanding rapidly, because it serves as -excellent material for the preparation of bun-flours, cake-flours, -custard-powders, soups, and other foodstuffs, designed and marketed -with the primary idea of lessening the worries and labours of the -housewife.</p> - -<p>Previous to the war the price for this imported article varied -between £25 and £35—$125 and $175—per ton, the cost of production -ranging from £14 to £20—$70 to $100—per ton. The margin of profit -was sufficiently wide to warrant the development of the process. -Under war conditions the price soared as high as £90—$450—per -ton, but subsequently dropped to about £45-£50—$225-$250. A very -marked diminution upon this latter figure is improbable, owing to the -increased manufacturing costs which now rule.</p> - -<p>Therefore the question arises as to whether Britain cannot turn the -balance of her potato crop to greater commercial advantage. There is no -reason why we should not do so, seeing that in 1913 we imported over -40,000 tons of farina, while in 1917 the value of our importation of -this flour rose to £1,040,319—$5,201,595—for about 25,000 tons. It -must be conceded, however, that under present conditions less scope -exists for such a manifestation of enterprise in this country, seeing -that our potato crop is only about one-tenth of what Germany normally -raises. But the demand for the by-products in this country is every -whit as heavy and sustained as in Germany, while the fact that in this -raw material we have the base wherewith to revive an industry—the -production of starch—which Germany wrenched from us by unscrupulous -trading, alone should be sufficiently attractive to warrant such an -attempt being made. Our consumption of starch is heavy, exceeding -50,000 tons a year, while our purchases of dextrine and unpotable -methylic-alcohol, both of which can be made from the potato, run into -£70,000—$350,000—apiece during the year. Even the industrial alcohol, -despite the adverse taxation conditions which prevail, is in urgent -demand for many new industries.</p> - -<p>If we confine the issue to the farina we have a distinctly promising -outlook. British inventive effort has been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> encouraged, and has evolved -a process and product of this character which are immeasurably superior -to those of the foreigner. To us the domestic manufacture of farina is -of far wider significance than its mere mention might suggest, inasmuch -as it would prove of far-reaching value as an ingredient to the loaf. -As a matter of fact the authorities, in their resolve to grapple with -the national food question, provisionally ear-marked 2,000,000 tons -of the 1918 British potato crop for conversion into farina, to be -blended with the domestic wheaten flour, to induce the supplies of the -last-named to go farther. The conclusion of hostilities rendered this -precautionary measure unnecessary.</p> - -<p>In the eyes of many people the addition of potato-flour to wheaten -flour for bread may seem reprehensible, and to savour of adulteration. -Prejudice is a wellnigh insuperable obstacle to overcome. But in this -instance such opposition is misplaced. The introduction of farina to -the loaf cannot be regarded as an adulterant, substitute, or even a -diluent. Rightly or wrongly, the potato is invested with a high food -value: in some quarters it is even held to be an equivalent to the -wheat flour. Doubtless opposition would arise from memories of the -practice which obtained during the early days of the war. But the -faults which were encountered then were due to the method and not to -any shortcomings upon the part of the ingredient.</p> - -<p>The utilization of the potato for the production of bread is not even -a modern innovation. It really represents a revival of a long-since -abandoned and wellnigh forgotten art. In the early years of the -Victorian era our bakers were compelled to make resort to the potato as -a constituent of the loaf. The home-grown wheat physiologically was not -adapted to the making of bread, and the same argument applies more or -less to the domestically grown cereal of these days. Normally, only a -certain volume can be used; it has to be blended with imported flour to -obtain the requisite percentage of gluten in which the domestic cereal -is deficient. The bakers of a century ago used the potato to obtain the -gluten content. With the availability of the more glutinous imported -flour recourse to the potato declined, until finally the practice was -abandoned.</p> - -<p>The revival of the principle to meet the conditions of war proved a -failure from the simple fact that the baker<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> had lost his cunning, and -was neither so clean nor so painstaking as his forbears in regard to -his utensils and the handling of the tuber. The potato is particularly -sensitive to contamination. Should an imperfectly-cleaned utensil be -used the resultant bread will speedily sour. Moreover, the mashing of -the potato was carried out very indifferently, while its admixture with -the other constituents was still more unsatisfactorily fulfilled, with -the result that the loaf was a spongy, unattractive, unappetizing, and -indigestible mass of doubtful nutritive value.</p> - -<p>If the potato be used in the farinaceous form no such objections can -be levelled against the ultimate bread. The ingredients can be blended -more completely. It is this circumstance which renders the outlook -for the potato-flour so promising, and the British process which has -been perfected for its production should meet with far more gratifying -success.</p> - -<p>The preparation of the farina is simple and straightforward. The -potatoes are taken in hand immediately after they have been dug, and -so are perfectly fresh. They are emptied into hoppers to pass to -the washing machine. Then they proceed to the steam-cooker where, -unpeeled, they are partially cooked. Finally they are conveyed to the -flaking machine, where the first stage of the process is completed. -The potato is passed between closely-set, internally-heated rollers, -the pulp being rolled out into a continuous sheet about as thick as -tissue paper. During this stage the cooking process is completed, while -the product is dried and converted into a crisp substance which is -peeled from the final roller to fall in a shower of tiny flakes into a -trough. It will be observed that the skin, eyes, and other deleterious -portions, from which all flesh has fallen away, is collected with the -main product.</p> - -<p>Cooking, pulping, and flaking expels practically the whole of the 75 -per cent. of water entering into the composition of the raw potato. The -secret of the process is the control of the temperature, which must -be maintained at a critical level, to assure the perfection of the -product. If this be excessive there is the risk of the flake becoming -charred, while, similarly, should the heat fall below the predetermined -point, the product will lack dryness and crispness. As may be imagined, -the treatment reduces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> the bulk of the potato very perceptibly, 5 tons -of potatoes being required to furnish 1 ton of flake.</p> - -<p>The second process is of the conventional milling character, the flake -being ground to an extremely fine consistency. During this process the -skin and all other inedible portions are removed. It may be mentioned -that by turning the tubers into flake, slightly diseased potatoes, -which would be useless for the table, or which could only be wastefully -adapted to such a purpose, may be used without imperilling the purity -of the product in any way, and with the minimum of loss. The flaking -process presents an absolutely sterilized flour, the diseased portions -being removed during milling.</p> - -<p>All offal is carefully collected to be treated separately. It has -pronounced food value for cattle, and, consequently, is converted into -a meal. The production of 1 ton of farina yields about 300 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of -offal, worth about £20—$100—a ton. The farina itself is of very fine -consistency, yellowish-white in colour, appetizing in appearance, of -pleasing aroma, the distinctive fragrance of the potato being scarcely -discernible, and, if preserved from the damp, may be kept indefinitely.</p> - -<p>It is not imperative that the flake should be milled immediately. In -the former condition the potato may be safely stored in bags in a dry -place after the manner of grain. It is not even essential to turn it -into farina at all. In the flake form it constitutes an excellent -base for the other industries to which it may be applied. It may be -distilled for the extraction of the alcohol, excellent whisky, as -is doubtless well known, being made from the potato, while large -quantities of British brandies are produced from the starch which, by -treatment with weak sulphuric acid, is converted into glucose, which -is then fermented. Thus, it will be seen, the flake really represents -the starting-point for numerous applications, each of which has its -individual commercial possibilities. The outstanding advantage accruing -from the conversion of the potato into flake is that it enables the -product to be kept indefinitely, without suffering the slightest -deterioration, and without any waste being incurred. I have seen -samples which have been stored for seven years, and which to-day are in -every way as good as flake fresh from the machine.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span></p> - -<p>In setting forth the composition of the succulent tuber I referred to -the item waste, which in the analysis given stands at 1.4 per cent. -This is the ultimate residue from certain operations, but is not common -to all, as, for instance, in the production of farina, where everything -of a solid nature is utilized. But in some branches of industrial use -there results a residue for which, at present, no attractive purpose -has been found, although there are hopes that even this insignificant -fraction will ultimately prove capable of profitable exploitation.</p> - -<p>Turning once more to the utilization of farina as a constituent of the -loaf, we encounter a possible development which should play a very -emphatic part towards rendering ourselves less dependent upon foreign -sources of wheat supplies. A series of baking tests were conducted -under ordinary commercial conditions. The farina was mixed with the -wheat-flour in the proportion of 5 per cent. of the former to a sack of -the latter. Government Regulation flour was employed. The sack contains -280 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, so that the addition of the farina was equal to 14 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> Seeing -that the farina represents the potato in a highly concentrated form—5 -to 1—the addition was really equal to 70 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of mashed potatoes—a -degree to which no ordinary baker would be prepared to venture.</p> - -<p>In the first test the bread was moulded by hand, and the sack produced -104 loaves, each weighing, ready for the oven, 2 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> 3 <abbr title="ounces">oz.</abbr>, as compared -with 94 loaves of equivalent weight normally obtained from the sack -at this bakery. Under machine bread-making conditions, which obtained -with the second test, and which was in accordance with the conventional -practice of the firm in question, the yield from the blended flour, for -technical reasons, was slightly lower, being 101 loaves, the weight of -the loaf, ready for the oven, being the same as in the first experiment.</p> - -<p>Baking was conducted at a temperature of 560 degrees, the loaves -scaling barely 2 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> 2 <abbr title="ounces">oz.</abbr> upon withdrawal from the oven, and falling -to 2 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> net fifteen hours after baking. The bread was examined by -experts who were present, and was declared to leave little or nothing -to be desired. Judging from the public point of view it was held to -be more attractive, owing to its increased volume, even texture, and -perfect homogeneity, while it was found to be more digestible and -satisfying.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span></p> - -<p>In the hot condition the bread revealed only a slight trace of the -peculiar fragrance of the potato, but this disappeared entirely upon -cooling. The palate was unable to detect the potato-flour addition. The -keeping qualities of this bread aroused particular comment. Four days -after baking it was found to be still moist, while, upon the lapse of -a fortnight, two loaves were rebaked and then found to be totally free -from sourness. The striking success recorded was accepted by the expert -opinion to be sufficiently conclusive: indeed, the suggestion was made -that the proportion of farina might safely be increased to 7¹⁄₂ per -cent. without allowing the presence of the potato to be detected. Tests -were also carried out to determine the suitability of the potato-flour -as an ingredient in the preparation of cakes and pastries. Here again -the blended flour was unequivocally declared to yield better and more -appetizing articles than was possible with pure wheaten flour.</p> - -<p>But, taking the 5 per cent. addition as the figure coinciding with -all-round requirements, it will be seen that the potato holds out -great economic possibilities towards the reduction of the expense -of the nation’s bread bill. During the year 1916 our consumption of -flour totalled 37,000,000 sacks, of which approximately 12,000,000 -sacks represented imported flour. Assuming that 30,000,000 sacks were -devoted to the production of bread, the aggregate yield of loaves was -approximately 2,820,000,000. Had we used home-produced farina from -home-grown potatoes to the extent of 5 per cent. we could have reduced -the foregoing consumption of the wheaten product by 1,500,000 sacks, -and that without losing a single loaf. As a matter of fact we would -have been better off, because, on the higher average yield of 101 -loaves per sack to which farina has been added, we should have obtained -2,875,500,000 loaves—an increase of 55,500,000 loaves.</p> - -<p>The economy possible from the more enterprising utilization of the -potato in connection with our daily bread is so impressive as to -command attention, even to-day. Presuming that the foregoing figures -still hold good, the blending of 5 per cent. of native farina would -save 200,000 tons of shipping per year. To supply the requisite 188,000 -tons of farina would involve 940,000 tons of potatoes. Seeing that the -authorities, under the dictates of war, contemplated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> setting aside -2,000,000 tons from the 1918 crop for the production of potato-flour, -such a demand as indicated would not impose an intolerable strain upon -our potato-growing resources. Were such a scheme carried to fruition we -should also be able to recover 28,000 tons of valuable cattle meal to -feed our stock during the winter season.</p> - -<p>But, as already mentioned, the farina represents only one phase of -a big issue possessed of vast possibilities. The other available -openings for the products of the tuber would consume from four to eight -times the volume of potatoes available. In Germany, out of the total -54,000,000 tons raised during the year only a round 4,000,000 tons have -to be turned into flocken and schnitzel to save them from destruction -by frost. In these circumstances there would appear to be scope for the -cultivation of a further 5,000,000 tons, or twice the prevailing annual -crop in these islands, with this advantage. The farmer, assured of his -market and a fair price for his product, would be encouraged to extend -his activities, and would be prompted to exploit considerable acreage -of land which at present is regarded as waste, for the simple reason -that it cannot be cultivated under existing conditions to profit.</p> - -<p>Even disease and its ravages would be regarded by the growers with -perfect equanimity were the industrial uses of the potato to be -developed in this country. A farmer would not be faced with disaster in -such an eventuality, as is the case to-day, because the diseased tubers -would be available for the production of alcohol. Indeed, the more -advanced the stage of disease the more suitable is the potato to this -range of exploitation.</p> - -<p>Lifting the commercial horizon, in so far as it affects the potato, -demands support for other reasons. It would encourage inventive -effort, which, in turn, would undoubtedly lead to the elimination -of wastage in the household. Evaporative or dehydrating processes -are already in operation, and it is only logical to assume that this -tendency is capable of considerable expansion. The perfection of a -simple and inexpensive process of drying the potato, either whole or -in conveniently sized sections, as is common to culinary practice, -capable of restoration, if necessary, to the original condition before -cooking for the table, would benefit the whole community. “Spud -drill,” the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bête noire</i> of every<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> home, restaurant and hotel, -with its concomitant wastage of time and heavy loss of valuable food -material, would be eliminated. The removal of the greater part, or -whole, of the 75 per cent. of the water contained in the raw tuber -would decrease bulk, and effect a very valuable saving in transport. -At the present moment the carriage of one ton of potatoes involves the -useless dragging about of 15 cwt. of water which is superfluous. Only -5 cwt. of the load represents solid foodstuff. Dry the potato, expel -the water, and from 4 to 5 tons of the product could be carried in the -space now demanded to receive one ton. We have milk, peas, fruits, and -other commodities innumerable in an evaporated form, which in their -raw condition are associated with heavy proportions of water, so that -there does not appear to be any valid reason why the potato should not -be supplied to the housewife in a similar form and at a low figure. The -perfection of such a process would completely obviate all waste because -the offal—the peel and other inedible portions—would be recovered for -conversion into food for animals, instead of suffering incineration. -The recovery of the skin alone would bring within reach of the -cattle-raiser for winter feed upwards of 30,000 tons of meal worth from -£400,000 to £600,000—$2,000,000 to $3,000,000.</p> - -<p>We, who live in these islands, scarcely understand the potato. We -are content to cling tenaciously to the traditions established three -hundred years ago. It is estimated that the British farmers lost over -£6,000,000—$30,000,000—in handling their 1918 crop owing to the -employment of obsolete and wasteful methods. The greater part, if not -the whole, of this loss might have been averted had more enlightened -methods prevailed concerning the utilization of the tuber. The -above-mentioned figure does not take into account the losses suffered -from disease and other causes, which must also have amounted to -millions sterling.</p> - -<p>Our system is as pre-historic as many of the agricultural methods -practised by the fellaheen in the Land of the Pharaohs. The potatoes -are dug and then collected for storage in big clamps. These have to -be opened at intervals to allow the contents to be turned over and -inspected, to ascertain whether or no latent disease has asserted -itself. The potatoes have to be graded and bagged preparatory for -market, while there is the formidable item of transport<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> to be -considered. Between the harvesting of the crop and its ultimate -disposal considerable handling ensues, while the difference in value -between the “ware,” or table, potatoes and the “chats,” or those -regarded as fit only for the pigs, is also very pronounced.</p> - -<p>Contrast this method with what would obtain were we to develop the -Continental system. After digging and grading the crop the farmer would -merely be called upon to convey his harvest to the factory, when all -anxiety, so far as he was concerned, would end. The method would be -comparable with that pertaining to the handling of the wheat harvest in -the great grain-growing countries, where the farmer is merely called -upon to gather his grain and to haul it to the elevator. The saving -in time and labour alone—two vital factors in these days—would be -incalculable, while the risks of loss of crop would be completely -obviated.</p> - -<p>The super-scientific exploitation of the potato would extend -far-reaching benefits in every direction. Not only would considerable -stretches of derelict agricultural Britain be brought into -productivity, but the very stimulation of the poor soils would bring -about startling expansion in the production of artificial fertilizers, -and would tend to stabilize such industries. In this way the recovery -of waste in many other directions would be fostered—potash from the -flues of the blast furnaces; basic slag from the dumps disfiguring the -countryside in the vicinity of our ironworks; sulphate of ammonia from -our gas and coking ovens; nitrates from the air. These would offer -scope for employment, and tend to keep money within the confines of -these islands, because the expansion of waste-recovery plants upon -a sufficiently impressive scale in the interests of agriculture, -with the local demand constituting the backbone of the trade, would -encourage production for export. The labour thus absorbed would more -than counter-balance the displacement experienced on the farms, and -would redound to the benefit of the latter, because foods for poor -and rich soils would be turned out in increasing streams and at lower -prices. Thus it will be seen that any development of the potato, along -modern scientific lines, and in such a way as to frustrate waste, must -represent a big stride forward in the progressive cycle.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br />CONVERTING NITROGENOUS REFUSE INTO SOAP</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>A startling corollary of contemporary economic conditions is the -spirited struggle which is now being waged between the table and -the bath. The structural fabric of the human body demands a certain -proportion of fat to ensure its smooth rhythmic working in precisely -the same way as a machine requires oil. At the same time a cleanser is -necessary wherewith to scour the external surface of the body to obtain -protection against the ravages of disease. Fat is essential to fulfil -this mission also. But there is an insufficient supply forthcoming to -meet the complete claims of both. So the question arises—Which shall -be satisfied? Little Mary or Mother Hygeia?</p> - -<p>When Mégè Mouries, animated by the contention that it was preferable -for the poor of Paris to be able to obtain a first-class nutritive -butter substitute in preference to butter of doubtful quality, advanced -his discovery of margarine as the solution to this problem, he little -realized what a tremendous upheaval his invention was destined to -achieve, or the staggering problem it would ultimately present to -civilization. Certainly for many years his butter substitute, contrived -from animal fat and milk, was regarded askance by the community in -general. It was grudgingly conceded to be a possible food only for the -poorest of the poor—those denied the opportunity from lack of means to -purchase butter of any description.</p> - -<p>For many years margarine was the object of unprincipled prejudice and -obloquy. It struggled desperately for recognition. Inventive effort -was expended freely to render the product more and more attractive -in appearance and flavour, to attract all classes of the community. -Indeed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> ingenuity was carried to such lengths as to produce a -substitute impossible of detection from the genuine article, except by -the most searching analysis.</p> - -<p>But the rejected of 1871 has become the indispensable of 1919. The -prevailing shortage of dairying products, confined not to one single -country or even continent, but common to the whole world, has compelled -the recognition of the virtues of margarine. The alternative is to go -without, inasmuch as other edible fats, which might have taken the -place of butter, have become unobtainable. But the British public, -which fought the advance and claims of margarine for nearly half a -century with a blind fury, and being forced to accept Hobson’s choice, -has encountered a pleasant surprise. The criticized butter substitute -is found to be not so bad as it has been painted. With improving -acquaintance opinion has veered round and now admits, somewhat tardily -perhaps, that what was once considered to be only the poor man’s butter -is, in reality, an excellent foodstuff in itself, and preferable to -many grades of the genuine article, some of which certainly are not -above suspicion. To convey some idea of the enormous hold which this -article of food has now secured upon the public it may be related that -the turnover of one firm, specializing in the preparation of this -product, aggregated no less than £22,000,000—$110,000,000—during the -year 1918.</p> - -<p>The increasing popularity of margarine speedily exercised a pronounced -reaction upon the soap-manufacturing industry. The fats which were -being utilized for the production of detergents were now demanded -for conversion into foodstuffs. Hitherto, the soap-boiler has been -regarded as the very lowest depths to which fatty waste can possibly -sink. Thereto gravitated all the flotsam and jetsam of greases arising -from other industries and in every stage of decay. But it did not -matter how rancid the substance might be by the time it reached the -soap-manufacturer. Here a scarcely credible metamorphosis could be -effected, the most repellent raw material being transformed into the -most attractive and fragrant acquisition to the toilet. Little wonder -therefore that fats condemned as unfit or considered superfluous, -though perfectly sound, for other use by man or beast, found their way -to this mill. The soap-maker could absorb it all.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span></p> - -<p>Thus, it will be seen, the soap trade is founded upon the commercial -utilization of waste, and this raw material is drawn from the three -kingdoms—animal, vegetable, and fish. As a matter of fact, the source -of the fat is immaterial. It can be compelled to play its allotted part -in the evolution of the cleansing agent.</p> - -<p>The British nation is a big consumer of soap. Supplies of animal fat -could never keep pace with the demand for this commodity. So the -vegetable kingdom was compelled to pay fat tribute to the soap-maker, -the coco-nut, palm-kernel, and other exotic nut products furnishing -the requisite oil expressed from the fleshy parts of their distinctive -fruits. Then the harvests of the sea were found able to contribute -impressive supplies of oils. These were likewise impressed into service.</p> - -<p>While the soap-maker was busily engaged in his task another chemical -wizard arose. He had discovered a means of hardening or solidifying -fish oils, which naturally are fluid except at very low temperatures. -This was a sensational discovery. Hydrogen was the agent which achieved -the apparently impossible, but it did far more than merely to harden -the oil. By harnessing the gas to this duty the peculiarly pungent -aroma, and distinctive taste of the fish, is completely removed from -the oil.</p> - -<p>This scientific achievement brought a further levy of waste into -industry. The refuse from whales which had hitherto been permitted -to rot, the inedible portions of fish from the canneries, even glut -catches of oil-yielding fish for which no profitable market could -be found, were treated to secure the oleaginous product, which was -subsequently hardened and then turned over to the margarine industry. -The hydrogenated fish oil has been found to furnish an excellent butter -substitute, and one so closely allied to the genuine article in every -essential respect as to demand the evolution of new and more exacting -methods to determine its actual origin. It offers the closest approach -to butter by synthetic agency which has ever been accomplished up to -this time.</p> - -<p>The striking improvements recorded in the process and manufacture of -margarine arrested the attention of the soap-maker. He reflected. Here -he was receiving fats of every description to turn them into a product -which only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> realized 4d.—8 cents—a pound. Yet he could take much of -that self-same raw material, and by submitting it to another treatment -he could produce an article which, as a foodstuff, was worth 1s.—25 -cents—a pound. Why should he trouble to turn the fat into soap when he -could derive three times the money by transforming it into an article -of diet?</p> - -<p>The war provided him with the opportunity for which he had been waiting -patiently. The deficiency in butter supplies had to be remedied with -margarine, which the public would have to accept willy-nilly. So the -soap-maker switched over all the fresh sound fats from the soap-pans to -the margarine mill. To-day thousands of tons of fats which five years -ago would have been reduced to soap, this being considered as the only -remaining utilization for the waste, is being turned into a food. The -table has triumphed over the bath.</p> - -<p>The devout worshippers at the feet of Hygeia may lament this inversion. -But they need not despair. The world is not destined to go short of -soap. Two British chemists, as a result of deep thinking, decided to -attack the soap manufacturing issue <i lang="pt" xml:lang="pt">de novo</i>. They were not -disposed to accept, at their face value, all that the textbooks set -forth concerning the chemistry of soap. They were rather impressed by -the fact that the manufacture of soap had undergone no fundamental -change since the first cake was placed upon the market, which was -during the days when Pepys was walking among us taking notes. So far -as soap chemistry theories prevailed the two chemists in question -were Bolshevic in their attitude towards them, which was a fortunate -circumstance.</p> - -<p>A cake of soap is as familiar as a loaf of bread. Yet how little do -we know about it, despite the brain-power which has been crowded upon -its preparation. As a cleansing agent it is without a rival. Many -big industries would have to close their mills to-morrow were their -supplies of soap cut off. Yet its composition is very simple. It is -composed of only two basic ingredients—fat, from which the glycerine -has been extracted, and caustic soda. No matter how much you may pay -for the article, be it a penny or half-a-crown a tablet, analyse it, -and you will find that there is the soda which achieves the cleansing -effect, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> the fat which gives the lather. It is quite possible a -variety of other substances may be found associated with the two basic -constituents, such as diatomaceous earth, Fuller’s earth, farina, -traces of disinfectant, colouring matter, cereal grains, perfume, -and even water. But beyond rendering the soap attractive to the -eye, pleasant to the nose, or to a certain degree germicidal, these -additional materials perform no useful purpose. They are described as -fillers, but in more candid language may be set down, for the most -part, as sheer adulterants. Few articles lend themselves so readily -to adulteration as soap. Was it not an analyst who, in the courts, -described a piece of soap submitted to him for investigation as a -striking example of water standing upright!</p> - -<p>Although we profess to know so much about soap and its properties, we -are really labouring in ignorance. No chemist can tell you explicitly -whether the cleansing action exercised is the result of chemical, -physical, or mechanical action. It is one of those questions which the -seeker after truth had better not press home too energetically, because -the man of brains would probably retort firmly, but gently, that the -interrogation involves such a complex reply as to be beyond your powers -of comprehension.</p> - -<p>In our resolve to respect Hygeia we are most liberal in our use of -soap. We are even woefully extravagant, although the blame cannot be -laid upon the shoulders of the user. The water is the criminal. Did -it but rigidly adhere to the chemical formula of its composition, -namely H₂O, all would be well, but unfortunately it is associated -with certain salts which it picks up from the soil during its natural -movement. Water appears to exercise a bewitching fancy for two salts in -particular—lime and magnesia. It is the presence of these salts which -renders our water hard. I might mention that there are other impurities -in the water contributing to wastage of soap, but the two mentioned are -the worst offenders in this respect.</p> - -<p>Lime and magnesia have a remarkable affinity for fat, and until their -amorous inclination is satiated the soap cannot possibly settle down -to the duty for which it is employed. The moment the soap enters the -water a chemical reaction occurs, the lime or magnesia, perhaps both, -attracting the particles of fat until it is impossible for another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> -molecule to be taken up. The extent of this attraction of the salts for -the fat, and which the latter can no more resist than can iron filings -battle against the drawing power of the magnet, may be gathered from -the state of affairs prevailing in regard to the London water. The -particles of lime contained in every 1,000 gallons of water attract -approximately 15 pounds of fat contained in the soap before permitting -the latter to lather. Seeing that fat enters into the composition of -the average soap to the extent of approximately 60 per cent., it will -be seen that about 25 per cent. of the fatty content of the soap is put -out of action without performing any useful work.</p> - -<p>The total loss of soap incurred during the year in London alone through -this affinity runs into stupendous figures. The water consumption -for washing purposes in the metropolis, according to <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Townsend, -F.C.S., is 7,000,000 gallons a day. Consequently, at least 105,000 -pounds of fat slip down the drains during the course of every -twenty-four hours without fulfilling any useful service. The value -of this loss, according to the same authority, may be set down at -£1,000,000—$5,000,000—a year. This represents sheer waste, because -the fats escape without extending a fraction of benefit to any one. -It represents that section which has merely allied itself to the -pernicious salts to form the lime-soap. From the foregoing one can -form some estimate of the wastage of soap annually incurred throughout -the country from the mere union of 25 per cent. of the fat with the -lime—this figure fluctuates according to the degree of hardness of the -water. Certainly it attains a figure which baffles credulity.</p> - -<p>Confirmatory evidence of this waste is forthcoming from every -hand-basin, bath, and washing appliance. It is revealed in the -repulsive-looking greasy grey curds streaking the sides of the vessel, -and which the user in ignorance generally dismisses as dirt removed -by the soap. The housewife and launderer are often perplexed by the -yellowish tone which certain garments assume, and the harsh and -stickiness incidental to flannel after being washed. These defects -are directly due to the lime-soap. Its presence is additionally -exasperating owing to its extreme tenacity and penetrative powers, -which wellnigh defy removal, except by the aid of powerful agents, -the use of which is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> to be deplored, because they precipitate further -and peculiar worries and adversely affect the fabrics. In the textile -industries, more particularly the woollen trade, the lime-soap is -regarded as the greatest affliction upon the craft.</p> - -<p>The question arises as to whether the lime cannot be removed from the -water, or whether science can evolve a soap capable of hurling defiance -at the lime. The solution to the first-named suggestion is distillation -of the water before use, a tedious and costly operation, or the -subjection of the water to a softening process to effect the removal -of the lime before the soap be introduced. Great strides have been -recorded in this last-named field, but, unhappily, the question of cost -constitutes an adverse factor. Thus the true solution would seem to lie -in the preparation of a soap capable of resisting the blandishments of -the lime.</p> - -<p>It was this particular solution which the two British chemists, to whom -I have alluded, set out to discover, but many years of patient labour -in the laboratory was necessary to register the first success. This was -due to the fact that they set out upon quite an original and unexplored -line of research. They recognized that the margarine industry must -develop into one of the biggest industries of the country, and that, -accordingly, the tendency would be to abandon the conversion of -fats into soap owing to the heavier claims of the table, and the -more remunerative return which would arise from such an industrial -diversion. They were also aware of the fact that in preparing the fats -for the table a certain proportion of residue must result. At that time -there appeared to be no profitable field for the utilization of this -waste. So they decided to conduct their investigations along the path -which would admit of this refuse being employed.</p> - -<p>The fatty constituent decided, they cast around for another staple -which was indispensable to the process they had definitely resolved to -perfect. For this they required protein, the governing principle being -the perfection of a cereal soap, the nitrogenous compounds of which -should be turned to cleansing duty. Proteins were available in infinite -variety, but here again it was realized that it would be wanton waste -to use an article likely to be in request to serve as food for man or -beast. Then they discovered that there were ample quantities of protein -running to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> waste from commercial neglect. Accordingly, they decided -to utilize these materials. The third constituent was the soda which -must enter into the composition of any and every soap, but this did not -occasion the slightest anxiety.</p> - -<p>Equipped with these three materials they set to work. Experiment was -tedious, and progress was slow, due to the fact that research was being -conducted in quite a new and unknown field, absolutely deficient of any -previous experience to serve as a guide. The first success recorded was -the preparation of a soap in the form of a meal or powder coinciding -with their ideas. This was submitted to the most rigorous tests, and -the results obtained were quite in accordance with expectations. When -this soap is introduced into the water no coagulation of the fat -with the lime occurs. In this way the lime soap enemy was completely -vanquished. As a supreme test sea-water was tried, with which it -was found to lather as readily and as easily as when employed with -distilled water.</p> - -<p>The discovery represented a sensational achievement. It proved that -something was awry with the existing theories pertaining to the -chemistry of soap. Technical tests were undertaken, and they proved -just as startling, because effects diametrically opposed to standard -theories were observed. Whereas ordinary soap is insoluble in water, -but soluble in alcohol, the cereal soap, so-called because of the -starch which enters into its composition, is soluble in water, but -absolutely insoluble in alcohol. The position is reversed.</p> - -<p>A new era in soap manufacture was thus ushered in. The discovery came -as a bomb-shell to the soap-making world, and, because it could not be -explained through prevailing long-accepted chemical laws pertaining -to this subject, it was ridiculed in certain quarters. To aggravate -the situation chemists, who set out to fathom the secret of the new -process by rigorous analysis, found themselves baffled. They could -not determine the bases employed owing to the chemical reaction which -had taken place during the preparation of the article, and from the -circumstance that it belongs to colloidal chemistry. To indicate how -completely the trade was baulked it may be mentioned that the chemist -attached to one soap manufacturer in this country, and who had been -requested to analyse a sample,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> contemptuously dismissed the product -not as a soap, but as a filler!</p> - -<p>Undaunted by the flood of adverse criticism which they provoked, the -inventors requested the industries to which soap is essential, and -which were being harassed by the lime-soap bugbear, to subject the -discovery to a commercial test. They did so, and were so surprised at -the results obtained as to ask promptly for further supplies! It not -only offered them the means to reduce their consumption of soap, but it -performed the desired functions more efficaciously, and proved to be a -complete panacea for the many ills which had heretofore afflicted the -trade. So impressed were they by what the new detergent accomplished -that they established its use in their works there and then, and to -this day have never reverted to the article formerly used.</p> - -<p>In the powder form the application of the cereal soap was somewhat -restricted. Accordingly the inventors decided to produce it in the -familiar tablet and bar form, to enable a wider appeal to be made, even -to the home. As events proved it was far easier to attain the meal -stage than to pass therefrom to the solid cake. In fact, at one time it -seemed as if this desired end would never be consummated. It was only -by dint of unflagging effort that success was ultimately secured, and -the soap in tablet and bar form introduced to the market.</p> - -<p>As the manufacture of soap from waste vegetable bases represents -something entirely new, so do the actual methods of production. The -revolution is complete. In preparing the conventional soap from 10 -to 16 days are necessary. By the new process the cereal soap can be -made in sixty minutes! Furthermore, the operation is clean, absolutely -free from odour, and cold, no heat whatever being required, except to -warm the factory during the winter for the comfort of the employees. -The machinery necessary is also of the simplest and most inexpensive -character. Under these conditions there is not only a very marked -saving in time, but of fuel and labour. In these high-pressure days -wastage of time is as criminal as the wastage of material, and one -logically asks why spend ten days in consummating a specific end when -one hour will suffice for the purpose?</p> - -<p>The saving in capital expenditure is very impressive, being at least 75 -per cent. below that demanded for equipping<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> the conventional factory. -In other words, £10,000—$50,000—will provide an installation capable -of turning out as much cereal soap as could be recorded with a plant -costing £40,000—$200,000—devoted to the orthodox system.</p> - -<p>The outstanding feature of the process is the complete absence of all -boiling operations. The starch and protein-yielding material are passed -through a mill to be reduced to a fine powder of the consistency of -flour. This being a straightforward milling operation, the machinery -ordinarily employed for grinding grain and other foods may be used. -The flour is then emptied into a mixing machine, which is naught but -the familiar dough-mixer used in the bakery. When the mixer is set -in motion the caustic soda is admitted in a fine controlled stream. -Directly the two materials come into contact the chemical reaction -commences, the soda attacking the starch granules and breaking them -down. Evidence of the battle in progress between the two chemicals -is betrayed by the emission of the strong ammonia fumes, which prove -that the nitrogenous compounds are being released. The admission of -caustic soda is continued until the chemical reaction is concluded -and the starch granules have been completely broken up. As the -process is advanced the vegetable oil is admitted, the operation -being so controlled as to yield a plastic mass of predetermined -consistency. This is thoroughly kneaded after the manner of baker’s -dough. The subsequent processes are common to those of the ordinary -soap manufactory, the material being passed successively through the -milling, plodding, and stamping machines.</p> - -<p>The raw materials for the provision of the essential protein are -drawn from the extensive vegetable kingdom. But in no instance is -any material having a claim upon the community or the animal world -as a possible food used for the purpose. Dependence is placed rather -upon the waste incurred by the preparation of other products, or of -materials which have been condemned as useless for food purposes.</p> - -<p>As a case in point it may be mentioned that a grain-carrying ship was -torpedoed, sunk, and, together with the cargo, subsequently salvaged. -The retrieved grain was dried in the anticipation that it might be -found suitable for cattle-feeding. But the expectations were doomed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> to -disappointment. The wheat had been too completely impregnated with the -salt from the sea. No other profitable use presenting itself, it was -acquired for conversion into soap. It was ground in the usual manner -and turned into the mixer. The presence of the salt, which had rendered -the grain useless even as a cattle food, did not constitute an adverse -factor. Had it not been for the cereal soap factory this cargo would -have had to suffer destruction and have been completely lost to the -community, whereas it was sold at a remunerative figure. Potato flour -has likewise been utilized, but has not been widely exploited for the -simple reason that this material constitutes an excellent foodstuff, -either for man in the form of farina, or for cattle. Maize has also -been used together with such products as rice, barley, oats, rye, -and so on, but, except where the produce of this nature has suffered -injury, it is not turned into soap. However, in those countries where a -heavy surplus of such crops is encountered it would be found profitable -to establish the cereal soap industry as a means of turning the glut to -profitable advantage.</p> - -<p>The principle governing the selection of the starch-yielding -constituent is also observed in regard to the fat which is necessary. -This is drawn exclusively from the margarine factories. It is a residue -and at the moment possesses no other known marketable value. The -ability to turn this refuse into an ingredient for soap has come as -a distinct relief to the margarine industry, which threatened to be -perplexed in the economical disposal of the accumulations. Seeing that -the margarine manufacture is progressing by leaps and bounds, there is -not likely to be any shortage in connection with the fat constituent of -the cereal soap.</p> - -<p>Supplies of a cheap and useless albeit rich starch waste product have -also been secured in illimitable quantities. This has materially -simplified the task of production. While a certain proportion of this -particular raw material is secured for the preparation of an article -of food, about 75 per cent. is discarded as waste. Since cattle -will not eat it there remains no other field of utilization beyond -the soap factory, for which it is eminently suited. In addition to -the above-mentioned quantities ample supplies of this material are -forthcoming, because it is freely used as ballast in ships sailing from -the corner of the world in which the plant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span> grows in profusion. Should -the demand for the food product which this substance yields increase -it would not exercise any stringency, because the offal alone would -be adequate to satisfy soap-making requirements. In pre-war days this -waste cost only 10s.—$2.50—per ton, but during the war, owing to -freight inflation, the price rose to £10—$50—per ton, while little -was carried in ballast, more profitable cargo being readily obtainable. -Consequently imports declined, only sufficient being brought into the -country to furnish the needs of the industry from which the foodstuff -is made. But the vegetable world is wide, and so it is by no means -a difficult problem to satisfy requirements for this new industry, -even in regard to starch-yielding wastes. The only other essential -ingredient is soda. As enormous quantities of this article are -manufactured in this country supplies thereof are readily assured and -at an attractive figure.</p> - -<p>There is one feature concerning this conversion of vegetable wastes -into soap which deserves mention. Should all familiar starch-yielding -products become unobtainable, a remote contingency, or attain an -excessive figure, manufacture need not be suspended. As a last -extremity sawdust can be utilized as the protein base. The possibility -of turning sawdust into soap constitutes something distinctly new -and novel to the industry, but the apparently impossible is readily -feasible under the process described. Normally such an expedient would -not find favour, inasmuch as certain difficulty is experienced in the -complete subjugation, or elimination, of the fibre which is exceedingly -resistant to the breaking-up action resulting from milling and the -chemical reaction. Nevertheless, the circumstance that sawdust can be -used in this connection opens up vast possibilities, and represents -an opportunity for inventive effort in the perfection of simple and -completely effective means to overcome the fibre difficulty.</p> - -<p>So far as industry is concerned the use of nitrogenous and oil wastes -in the form of soap has enabled startling economies to be effected. -In the woollen industry alone the saving in the soap-bill ranges from -20 per cent. upwards, as compared with other soaps which have been -used, while the silk and cotton crafts can point to like economies. -The successful subjugation of the lime-soap fiend is beneficially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> -reflected in other directions. The effluents from the factories -are conducted into the local drainage systems. The presence of the -lime-soap in the drains provokes a host of troubles, such as clogging -of the pipes and the fouling of traps and gullies, the curds proving -exasperatingly tenacious and defying ready removal by ordinary -flushing measures. Furthermore, the sludge reclaimed from the sewage, -if contaminated by lime-soap, suffers material depreciation as a -fertilizing agent because the grease, which is eventually released from -the lime, tends to clog the soil.</p> - -<p>But the most impressive fact to the ordinary user, both domestic and -industrial, is the opportunity to reduce the wastage of soap. The -fat content of the cereal soap is 50 per cent. less than that of the -familiar article, and the whole of this is free to emulsify, from its -refusal to coagulate with the lime in the water. Moreover, it contains -two cleansing agents—the soda and the nitrogenous compounds—whereas -the rival carries only one—the soda. Therefore it is not surprising -to learn that in actual practice one pound of cereal soap will go as -far, and do as much useful work, as two pounds of the ordinary soap. -The ability to make a lather in sea-water is another distinct advantage -which has been responsible for the widespread use of this commodity in -the Royal Navy and mercantile marine.</p> - -<p>Applied to London, the avoidance of soap-waste is certainly -startling. It not only indicates how we can retrieve the -£1,000,000—$5,000,000—at present escaping down the drains during the -year, but the fat thus saved may be turned to more valuable account. -The soap contributing to this gross loss is made from the very material -possessing decided dietetic value. Therefore, by the law of economics, -it should be diverted from its present use, admirable though it be -to fulfil the claims of cleanliness, to the more vital application, -especially in these days of stress and shortage. The table must take -precedence over the bath.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br />TURNING OLD OIL INTO NEW</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Oil is the blood of industry. Do we ever pause to reflect as to what -would happen if we were suddenly to be deprived of our supplies of this -commodity? Do we realize that without oil every machine would instantly -be condemned to idleness, that our clocks would stop, and that it would -be impossible for a train, steamship, tram, or omnibus to move a yard? -The probability is that we have never given a thought to the subject, -otherwise we should scarcely be so extravagant in our use of the -article. Certainly we would not hesitate to expend appreciable effort -in the recovery of as much of the waste as possible for further use.</p> - -<p>Britain’s normal importations of lubricating oil are in the -neighbourhood of 68,000,000 gallons a year, and they cost us a round -£2,500,000—$12,500,000. The tendency in regard to consumption is -upwards owing to our enhanced industrial activity, so that we are -becoming more and more dependent upon extraneous sources of supply for -our requirements.</p> - -<p>But the wastage is colossal. Rags and cotton waste, after becoming so -soddened with oil as to be incapable of absorbing another drop, are -discarded without compunction. There is scarcely a workshop, factory -or office in the country which cannot point to improvidence in this -direction. Such absence of thought is deplorable for more reasons than -one. Not only is the oil, which might be recovered, irretrievably lost, -but the very absorbent which from its textile nature might prove of -distinct value for other applications shares a similar fate. Were only -50 per cent. of the oil wasted in this country during the course<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> of -the year recovered, it would be possible to reduce our imports to a -very pronounced degree. The reclaimed oil might not be of any value for -its avowed purpose, but it must be remembered that lubrication does not -constitute the one and only purpose to which oil can be applied.</p> - -<p>The remarkable development of mechanical traction upon our highroads -has been responsible to a marked degree for our increased consumption -of this commodity, and this is the very field in which the greatest -losses are incurred. There are thousands of garages scattered over the -country. Many are of unpretentious calibre, but even the smallest of -these establishments contributes its quota to the oil wastage issue. -In cleaning operations oil is drawn off from engine crank-chambers and -gear-boxes to run to waste. Rags are used for wiping and cleaning to be -perfunctorily thrown away or burned when they have become too saturated -for further use. The private motor-owner is probably as pronounced a -contributory source of waste as the small garage, because he, too, -is prodigal in his use of oil in every direction, and scarcely ever -gives a thought to the retention of the waste for treatment to recover -the oil and to release the rag for other duty, even if it be only for -making paper.</p> - -<p>At the moment the losses in this direction may not be so heavy as they -have been in the past, for the simple reason that oil, in common with -other commodities and in compliance with the inexorable law of supply -and demand, has become more expensive. As the price rises the tendency -to be sparing and careful becomes more marked, which only serves to -prove that cheapness is the primary incentive to waste.</p> - -<p>Wherever machinery has to be kept steadily and rhythmically moving -oil is indispensable, so that it is not a difficult matter, when we -recall the immense quantity of machinery which is kept running in these -islands to maintain our industries, and to furnish our homes with -such amenities as water, gas, and electricity, to recognize that our -consumption of this article must necessarily run into huge figures. -Our imports do not extend the true index to our dependence upon this -article, because appreciable quantities thereof are derived from -domestic sources of supply, such as coal and shales.</p> - -<p>Machinery is insatiable in its hunger for oil. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> circumstance, -combined with the increasing price of the article, has been responsible -for the display of striking fruitful thought and experiment in the -discovery of effective substitutes. This is particularly noticeable in -our machine-shops. A lubricating agent must be utilized to facilitate -the cutting of metals. Oil is admittedly the most efficient and best -suited for the purpose, but many excellent compounds have been evolved -to consummate the desired end and to conspicuous advantage. In one -machine-shop the consumption of oil by the large automatic tools became -so heavy as to prompt experiment. Many expedients were evolved and -submitted to practical test, but they failed from some peculiar cause -or other. However, perseverance brought its due reward. A substitute at -last was found, with the result that oil for cutting was abandoned. By -the change over the firm in question succeeded in effecting a saving of -£30—$150—per month on each large automatic machine it had in use by -the supercession of oil for cutting.</p> - -<p>Doubtless opportunities for substitutes still exist in many other -directions, but commercial rivalry under normal conditions, with -enhanced prices prevailing in regard to costs of production, has not -yet been sufficiently encountered to compel the use of the substitute -in preference to the ostensible staple to secure manufacturing -economies. But changes will, and must of necessity, be recorded as the -struggle for trade develops.</p> - -<p>In order to encourage the more economical use of oil in industry -many interesting and to a certain degree efficient devices have been -introduced. But for the most part these apparatus are devoted to the -filtering of what may be described as dirty free oil. They scarcely -venture beyond the removal of whatever impurities may be associated -with the product in the suspensory form. They do not attempt to -reclaim waste oil. Such timid treatment is readily explicable. Oil is -a somewhat sensitive product. Its inherent qualities may be easily -impaired. For example, oil prepared essentially for lubricating -purposes must be possessed of specific qualities, of which viscosity -is one and the most important. Then the requirements of lubricating -oil fluctuate so widely. An oil designed for use with a high-speed -engine, such as the petrol motor, is not adapted to the lubrication of -a slow-moving steam engine. Yet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span> the depreciation of one single quality -in any one grade is adequate to render the oil unsuited to the purpose -for which it has been specially prepared.</p> - -<p>The consumption of lubricating oil by the authorities during the war -ran into imposing figures, and the liability to waste was proportionate -to the consumption. Aeroplane engines and lorry motors, together with -their auxiliary gearing, were in a constant condition of overhaul. -Every time an engine or gearbox had to be dismantled many gallons of -oil had to be drawn off. Consequently the handling of this enormous -quantity of material to frustrate waste demanded special consideration, -inasmuch as the oil could not be put back into the machinery after the -latter had been reassembled. The authorities solved the problem by the -perfection of an organization for the collection of this oil, which -was returned to the oil-refinery to be re-conditioned, that is to be -cleaned thoroughly and to have its original properties restored. By the -observance of this practice of turning old oil into new the country was -saved huge sums.</p> - -<p>But there is a vast difference between official and civil conditions. -So far as the former is concerned it was a comparatively simple matter -to introduce an efficient organization to cope with the problem, while -the waste oil was recovered in bulk, the hospitals for treating the -engines of the aeroplanes and motor vehicles being centralized. It is -the degree to which facilities for satisfying the civil demand are -scattered which renders collection and handling of the waste along -inexpensive lines so perplexing. It might be satisfactorily overcome -if each garage and private owner undertook to maintain a waste-bin and -to commit all oil-soddened rags thereto for periodical collection by a -centralized authority, either municipal or private. The waste would be -obtainable at a low figure, possibly free, inasmuch as the majority of -garage owners would only be too glad to be rid of it. Possibly it would -be found profitable to strike a bargain along the lines of free waste -in return for the de-oiled rags, particularly if they were dusters or -cloths. In this event the waste oil exploiter would only be called upon -to incur the expense of collection and the treatment of the spoil. The -return of the cloths would not entail further expense, because they -could be returned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span> in exchange for another consignment of waste. The -vehicle would have to make the journey in any event, and it might just -as well make the outward trip laden as empty. It is quite possible, -moreover, that the garage would be readily disposed to pay a slight -charge for the cleaning of this material, particularly of cloths, -so long as the sum was attractively below the price ruling for new -supplies of the article. To the waste exploiter the value of the oil -recovered should be adequate to defray all expenses of collection and -treatment, and then leave a handsome profit capable of accretion from -the disposal of the cleaned rags, which the garage did not require, for -paper-making. It is merely a question of enterprise and organization, -and in a large centre could be rendered a highly attractive and -profitable venture.</p> - -<p>This fact is borne out by the experience of private firms. Of course, -it is essential that the volume of spoil handled should be of -sufficient bulk to keep the plant installed for the reclamation of the -oil going to its full capacity, or to one approaching the maximum. This -is possible in the case of a large private company, such as a railway, -electric-generating station, or even industrial plant.</p> - -<p>One of the largest motor omnibus companies in the world was induced to -consider the possibilities of this issue, and finally was induced to -make the experiment. The “Iwel” plant in question was designed to turn -out 6 tons of clean dry rags per week. This may seem to be an enormous -quantity to accumulate during a period of seven days, but it must be -pointed out that the company in question maintains 2,000 to 3,000 -public vehicles upon the roads, as well as several garages and repair -shops.</p> - -<p>The first three months’ experience served to bring home the economic -advantages accruing from the scientific exploitation of this form -of waste. During this brief period the company reclaimed 67 tons of -rags for further use, the value of which at the time was set down at -£1,007 7s. 1d.—over $5,000—while from this waste 4,080 gallons of -oil, valued at £59 10s.—$297.50—were recovered. Here was a distinct -gross saving of £1,066 17s. 1d.—$5,334—which figure was increased -to £1,489 15s. 7d.—$7,449—on the credit side by the delivery of new -rags to depots valued at £419 12s. 6d.—$2,098—and the sale of small -rags unsuited<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span> to further work for £3 6s.—$16.50. On the debit side -the heaviest expenses were incurred in connection with the purchase of -new rags, valued at £405 12s. 9d.—$2,028, cartage of the waste £152 -17s. 10d.—$764.44, wages and salaries £157 15s. 1d.—$788.74, and coal -£105 0s. 11d.—$525.22. The total outgoings amounted to £1,038 16s. -7d.—$5,194.14, which left a balance of £450 19s.—$2,254.72—actual -saving recorded by the treatment of the waste. So far as the reclaimed -oil was concerned, while this was unsuited to further utilization in -its original province, it was found to form an excellent fuel for the -operation of the Diesel engines, and consequently reduced the fuel bill -on this account by a corresponding amount.</p> - -<p>Another illuminating instance of the value of such waste is afforded -by the working account for one year, furnished by one of the foremost -British chemical manufacturers. The plant acquired in this instance -comprised two turbine centrifugal separators, one washing machine, -and one drying cabinet, the cost of which complete was £210—$1,050. -In the course of the twelve months 350,000 wiping and other cloths -were treated, and the losses incurred therewith were so slender as to -demand renewals to the extent of only 15,000 new cloths, which, at -2s. 1¹⁄₄<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—52.5 cents—per dozen came out at £131 10s. 2¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—about -$657.55. The heaviest item in the operating account was wages—£132 -12s. ($663). Other expenditure, including repairs, fuel, and -interest on the first cost of plant, brought the total to £324 2s. -2¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—$1,620.55. From the treatment of the 350,000 cloths 125 casks, -or 5,000 gallons, of oil were recovered, which, at 10d.—20 cents—per -gallon, represented £208 6s. 8d.—$1,041.64. The saving in cotton -waste due to the soiled cloths being rendered available for further -duty, set down at 392 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> at £4 4s.—$21—per week, came out at £218 -8s.—$1,092. Thus the total value of the waste recovered was £426 14s. -8d.—$2,133.64, leaving a saving, after deducting expenditure, of £102 -12s. 5¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—$533.11. The results of the year’s working, therefore, -enabled the firm to recoup approximately 50 per cent. of its original -outlay, while the value of the oil recovered was only a little below -the cost of the plant. The saving in cotton-waste—material which -otherwise would have had to be provided—actually exceeded the capital -outlay upon the plant.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span></p> - -<p>The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, in consonance with the -general practice, formerly utilized cotton-waste in its works for -cleaning purposes. In these operations the material becomes saturated -with ordinary lubricating, cylinder, and other oils, as well as grease -from rubbing down the locomotives and parts. Some years ago it decided -to abandon cotton-waste in lieu of sponge cloths, at the same time -installing a plant for the recovery of the oil and grease from the -soiled materials. During the year these sponge cloths are passed over -and over again through the cleansing process, the operations being -equivalent to the treatment of 6,500,000 cloths, and in this manner -approximately 45,000 to 56,000 gallons of oil are reclaimed.</p> - -<p>It does not matter to what phase of industry one turns, a certain -amount of oil is possible of reclamation from the waste employed -in connection with the conduct of the work. The volume recoverable -naturally varies widely according to the nature of the trade -pursued, and in some instances the individual yield may appear to be -insignificant. But, during the course of the year, even in a small -shop, the figure is certain to become impressive and well worth the -efforts expended, as well as the money invested in the requisite plant, -while, if the one instance be multiplied by the number of other similar -establishments distributed throughout the country, the aggregate must -necessarily be formidable. The table opposite furnishes a few actual -results in the selection of industries specified.</p> - -<p>It will be observed that the yield varies widely according to the -industry concerned, but in every instance it will be observed that the -figure is such as to render the process profitable, not only on account -of the oil thus procured, but from the release of the waste or other -absorbent for a further spell of useful service. If the waste, or other -material, has been employed only for wiping parts, or mopping up free -oil, passage through the oil separator will suffice, but if it has been -utilized for general work and has become badly soiled, it requires -washing. The sludge resulting from this process is subsequently -passed through the oil-recovery plant instead of being thrown away, -the reclamation thus being complete, while the rags or other textiles -are passed through cabinets or other suitable facilities to be dried -quickly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span></p> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr class="bt bb"><th class="br tdc">Industry.</th><th class="br tdc">Material Treated.</th><th class="br tdc">Quantity.</th><th class="br tdc">Oil Recovered.</th><th class="tdc">Per Cent.</th></tr> -<tr> -<td class="br"></td> -<td class="br"></td> -<td class="br"></td><td class="br tdc">Pints.</td><td></td></tr> -<tr> -<td class="br tdl"> -Agricultural machinery</td><td class="br tdl"> -Cotton-waste</td><td class="br tdc">18 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">9·75</td><td class="tdc">54·16</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Biscuit manufacture</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></td><td class="br tdc">10 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">4</td><td class="tdc">40</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl" rowspan="2">Colliery</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td><td class="br tdc">39.75 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">63</td><td class="tdc">158·69</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></td><td class="br tdc">15·75 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">10</td><td class="tdc">57·5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl" rowspan="2">Cycle and parts</td><td class="br tdl">Rags</td><td class="br tdc">112 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">80</td><td class="tdc">71·42</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Sponge cloths</td><td class="br tdc">1 gross</td><td class="br tdc">8</td><td class="tdc">—</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Foundry</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste</td><td class="br tdc">13 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">11.25</td><td class="tdc">86·53</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Machine-tool manufacture</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste</td><td class="br tdc">8·25 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc"> 2·75</td><td class="tdc">33·33</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl" rowspan="2">Motor-car</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste</td><td class="br tdc">16 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">1·25</td><td class="tdc">7·81</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Rags</td><td class="br tdc">12 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc"> 2·75</td><td class="tdc">22·91</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl" rowspan="2">Railway</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste</td><td class="br tdc">14 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">2·625</td><td class="tdc">13·75</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></td><td class="br tdc">10 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> </td><td class="br tdc">13</td><td class="tdc">130</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl" rowspan="2">Steel and iron-works</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste</td><td class="br tdc">8·25 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc"> 9·25</td><td class="tdc">112·12</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Mutton cloths</td><td class="br tdc">2 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">1·5</td><td class="tdc">75</td></tr> -<tr><td class="br tdl">Tramway</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste</td><td class="br tdc">13 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">1·25</td><td class="tdc">9·61</td></tr> -<tr class="bb"><td class="br tdl">Wood screw manufacture</td><td class="br tdl">Cotton-waste</td><td class="br tdc">21 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr></td><td class="br tdc">13·75</td><td class="tdc">65·47</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>But so far as industrial operations are concerned oil reclamation is by -no means confined to the treatment of the waste and cloths. As already -mentioned, oil is freely used in working metal, acting as the lubricant -to the cutting tool. While trough facilities are provided to catch -the oil to enable it to be used again, much clings to the turnings -and other refuse. Even where works are not equipped with oil-recovery -apparatus of some description or another an attempt to secure a -proportion of what would otherwise be lost is made. The turnings are -permitted to drain. The quantity of oil recovered in this manner, -however, is very low. Certainly it does not exceed 40 per cent., -because the oil clings somewhat readily and freely to the metallic -surface.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, in the best equipped factories, the practice is to submit -the turnings to treatment. It is passed through the extractors and in -this way at least all but 10 per cent. of the oil is recovered. When -the solvent extraction process is exploited the recovery can be carried -as far as 99 per cent., the fraction resisting recovery thus being -extremely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> small. The yield obtainable from such metallic residue from -the machines is certainly sufficient to justify the treatment. In one -shop, devoted to the manufacture of cycles and cycle parts, the oil -recovery averaged 22 pints per 112 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of turnings treated. In another -instance, where the production of agricultural machinery is conducted, -26 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of steel turnings and 23 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> 9 <abbr title="ounces">oz.</abbr> of brass turnings yielded -1·75 and 1·125 pints of oil respectively. One motor-car manufacturing -firm recovers 1,200 gallons of cutting oil from the treatment of its -weekly accumulation of turnings. This becomes available for re-use, -and the absolute loss recorded is only about 10 per cent. In another -instance, 2,440 gallons of oil were recovered from the treatment of -41 tons 17 cwt. of metal turnings, 900 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of rags, and 19,300 sponge -cloths in the course of six months.</p> - -<p>Another interesting experience in this field is worthy of record. -It was found that the sawdust in the vicinity of certain machines, -provided as an absorbent, became somewhat heavily charged with oil -splashed and otherwise discharged from the machines. The presence of -the oil-soaked refuse on the floor was construed as being a menace -to the establishment, the hazard of fire being regarded as thereby -increased. Accordingly, the floor was swept more frequently than -otherwise would have been the case, the refuse being promptly shovelled -into the furnace merely to secure its prompt and complete riddance. -The sawdust was examined by a waste expert upon the occasion of a -visit to the works, and he suggested, from the fact that oil oozed -from a handful of the sawdust when squeezed, that the waste should -be subjected to the “Iwel” oil-reclamation process, instead of being -burned. The recommendation was followed, and the volume of oil thus -recovered was found to be of surprising quantity. In fact, its value -more than defrayed the cost of the small plant which was installed to -treat it. So effectively was the sawdust found to be cleaned of the -oil as to be redistributed time after time upon the floor around the -machines. In this instance destruction of the oil-soaked refuse by fire -represented a material loss in more senses than one.</p> - -<p>While it is only within the past few years that the possibility of -reclaiming oil from cotton-waste has aroused such earnest attention, -it must be acknowledged that many firms<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span> sought to reduce their -expenditure by submitting their cloths and waste to a laundrying -process. Of course, by this practice the textiles were recovered, but -the oil was lost, while material expense was incurred in the conduct of -the laundrying operations and the acquisition of suitable detergents. -An interesting record of the cost of the respective processes is -forthcoming from a certain firm in the South of England. It refers to -two years’ operations, the one referring to straight laundrying of the -sponge cloths and waste, while the other refers to the latest method of -dealing with such materials. Under the former <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régime</i> the cost -for the year was £219 9s. 2d.—$1,097.28. The heaviest items were for -the purchase of sponge cloths and waste, the figures for which were £62 -17s. and £137—$314.25 and $685—respectively. The cost of washing the -dirty cloths at 7s. 3d.—$1.78—per week was £18 17s.—$94.25.</p> - -<p>The firm then acquired a small oil reclamation and cloths-cleaning -plant at a cost of £125—$625. During the year, under the new -conditions, the expenditure on account of sponge cloths and waste -was £25 16s. and £85 15s.—$129 and $428.75—respectively, but, for -purposes of comparison, one-fifth was added to each item to counteract -the slackness encountered, and to bring the subject more in line with -the experience of the previous year. But even after making these -allowances the total expenditure for these two articles came out at -only £133 17s. 2d.—$669.28—against £199 17s.—$999.25—when the -textiles were laundered. Inclusive of all expenditure, including wages, -washing materials, power, and interest at 5 per cent. upon the first -cost of the plant, the total cost was £199 4s. 4d.—$996.8—as compared -with £219 9s. 2d.—$1,097.28—for the previous year—a saving of £20 -4s. 10d.—$101.20. But under the new system 716 gallons of oil, totally -lost under the previous method, were reclaimed, which represented £11 -15s.—$58.75, so that the total saving was £31 19s. 10d.—$159.98, -representing approximately 25 per cent. on the capital outlay incurred -for the installation of the plant.</p> - -<p>In view of the economies possible from the practice of such a system as -I have described, it is somewhat surprising that manufacturing firms -should hesitate to include an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span> oil-reclamation plant in the equipment -of their establishments. It is likewise somewhat difficult to bring -home to them what really can be achieved by the scientific treatment -of their waste. In order to popularize the practice, and to further -the observance of economies which are inseparable from industrial -operations under contemporary conditions, more than one British firm -is prepared to advance an attractive commercial proposal. This is -that the equipment should be installed and its cost defrayed out of -the actual savings effected. Thus, in the case of the installation to -which I have made reference, and which deals with the rags accumulating -from the maintenance of public service vehicles, such a procedure -was initiated. The capital expenditure involved in this instance was -approximately £2,200—$11,000, but as the plant recorded a net saving -of £450—$2,250—as a result of three months’ work, which is equivalent -to £1,800—$9,000—a year, it should be able to defray the whole of the -initial outlay within about 16 months. However, all things being equal, -it is computed that a reclamation plant submitted to the work which -I have described should pay for itself within two years. Experience -serves to support this contention, although, under the conditions -which at present prevail, the possibility is that such a gratifying -achievement would be fulfilled within a shorter period.</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> From engine-room.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> From blast-furnaces.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> From power-station.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Axle-box waste.</p> - -</div> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br />BY-PRODUCTS FROM THE WASTE-BIN</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>The exploitation of waste presents grand opportunities for pioneer -research and investigation, not only to the chemist, but also to the -layman who is fruitful of thought. In the praiseworthy determination to -turn residues to advantage there is a tendency to follow the path of -least resistance, and to apply them to the fields which most readily -suggest themselves. This policy is regrettable. The true scientific -solution to the problem lies not so much in the conversion of a refuse -into a useful article, as the discovery of the precise province in -which it is capable of giving the most lucrative and economic return.</p> - -<p>This may appear to be a simple issue, but, as a matter of fact, it is -one bristling with perplexities, invariably involving the expenditure -of appreciable time and profound study. Some of the difficulties to be -overcome are of an extremely abstruse technical order, and so can only -be resolved through the indefatigability of the chemist, which goes to -prove that the scientist really dominates industry and commerce. This -fact was advanced many years ago, but it is only really acknowledged -to-day.</p> - -<p>A specific trade yields a conspicuous volume of residue of a -distinctive character. From its composition and general characteristics -it appears to be eminently adapted to a certain duty. But the chemist -attached to the industry for which the waste is provisionally -ear-marked delves into the problem, only to find that it is totally -unfitted for what seemed to be an obvious application. He may even -go so far as to assert his doubts as to the material possessing -qualifications for any known use, owing to its unfavourable nature, or -because application may prove to be too costly.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> In such an event that -residue must remain an apparently redundant product until a possible -field for its utilization happens to be found.</p> - -<p>A case in point may be cited. In the manufacture of boots for the -Services enormous quantities of trimmings accumulated, owing to the -specifications relative to the selection of skins for official needs -being more rigid than obtains for footwear designed for civilian -use. These trimmings proved to be quite useless to the trade, and -so endeavour became concentrated upon the discovery of some other -attractive utilitarian duty for them.</p> - -<p>The main objection to this residue—curried leather—was the grease. -It was decided to remove it—a relatively simple and commercially -practicable operation. But in solving the one problem another, every -whit as perplexing, was precipitated. The degreased leather could -be used, but what was to be done with the extracted grease, the -contribution of which was imposing? In appearance this grease resembles -the dubbin used for dressing footwear. Seeing that it was recovered -from <em>new</em> leather the thought was entertained that this grease -might be used in lieu of, or at least to supplement the supplies of, -the conventional dubbin.</p> - -<p>When the chemist took the proposal in hand he speedily shattered all -hopes of turning the grease to such account. He produced an analysis -which proved that the grease, instead of being a leather preserver as -had been anticipated, was really a leather destroyer. The fatty acids -were too predominant. Forthwith that grease had to be abandoned as a -potential dubbin substitute.</p> - -<p>Yet the chances are a thousand to one that the chemist will succeed in -indicating a profitable use for this reclaimed fat from unused curried -leather, because with war we have acquired wisdom. We are not so ready -to throw away a substance just because we happen to be ignorant of an -immediate industrial application therefor. Rather are we disposed to -put forth a little exertion to strive to adapt, or to create, some -useful range of service for it. There are hundreds of heads at work -throughout the country attacking just such problems as the recovered -grease from leather, and, consequently, from such a distribution and -concentration of fertility of thought, it is only reasonable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span> to -suppose that such issues will ultimately be fathomed satisfactorily to -one and all.</p> - -<p>Such close union of brain power and ingenuity is not confined to -any one industry. The search for the most promising fields for -waste-products is far too fascinating. Even the private member of the -community is taking a hand in the great game, and is contributing, in -varying degree, to the widespread success which has been, and still is -being, recorded.</p> - -<p>The rural housewife, in her lonely remote home, contributes to the -amenities of country life by bottling her own fruits, following this -practice to avoid wastage arising from a glut of produce in her own -garden, or in her appreciation of the prolific luscious contributions -offered by the wild hedgerow. She knows that the rubber rings with -which the bottles are sealed can only be used once. Hitherto, she has -always thrown the spent rings into the fire to get rid of them. Now, -true housewife that she is, she reasons that surely these rings, while -useless to her for fruit bottling, are suitable for some other equally -important purpose. Forthwith she makes inquiries to ascertain the -quarter in which they are likely to find favour, even if it be only to -swell the scrap-rubber melting-pot.</p> - -<p>The closely observant student of the countryside, during his autumnal -rambles through the copses and spinneys, reflects upon the profusion of -the hazel-nut, and the circumstance that this crop is permitted to fall -to the ground to rot, or to suffer only partial appropriation by the -thrifty squirrel. Surely, he ruminates, such wild fruit possesses some -commercial value. The shell can be turned into a high grade charcoal -for the laboratory, while the nut itself is rich in oil, which it ought -to pay to extract, leaving a residue to offer an excellent winter-feed -for cattle. As he ponders upon the problem the fact dawns upon him -that the country is rather more disposed to import vast quantities of -a similar product, derived from the coco-nut, palm kernels and other -exotic fruits, than to exert itself a trifle to turn its domestic -resources to account.</p> - -<p>It is useless for him to try to rouse the country to realize the wealth -it is allowing to slip through its fingers. Any suggestion concerning -the recovery of the hazel-nut meets with the instant retort that there -is no organization available<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span> to conduct the requisite collection -of the nuts in due season, and that the end would not justify the -means, owing to the time, labour, and expense involved. But when we -come face to face with stress such potential wealth of wild rural -Britain meets with recognition. Was it not stringency which prompted -the harvest of the blackberry crop in 1918 to avert the threatened -shortage of jam? Yet the very success which attended the gathering of -the blackberry crop, and the zest with which the task was pursued by -the juvenile section of the population of the country, should suffice -to indicate that the hazel-nut might just as profitably, easily, -cheaply, and efficiently be gathered to swell the output of margarine -or to be turned to other industrial account. Surely, by the exercise -of enterprise and thrift in this direction, we might be able to reduce -our expenditure of upwards of £16,000,000—$80,000,000—a year upon -oils and materials for the preparation of edible foodstuffs for both -man and beast to a certain degree, and thereby foster additional -native industries. If further testimony be required to demonstrate the -facility with which such a wild home-product might be secured were -collection attacked along the proper lines, does not the acquisition of -the horse-chestnut crop of the country in 1917 suffice?</p> - -<p>The photographer is another lamentable, albeit unconscious, contributor -to the great wastage problem. There are hundreds of thousands of -enthusiastic amateurs scattered up and down the country. Their -consumption of glass negatives and films during the course of the year -runs into colossal figures. Yet of the millions of exposures which are -made how many can be construed into successes, or, if satisfactory, -need be retained for any prolonged period? If preserved the negatives -accumulate at an alarming rate, to present exasperating posers in -regard to their safe storage.</p> - -<p>What becomes of these ruined and superfluous negatives? So far as the -films are concerned there is no mystery. They meet an unmourned fate -in flames. But the glass negatives are somewhat more troublesome to -scrap. Some idea of the immensity of the hoards of negatives possessed -by both amateur and professional photographers was revealed during the -war. The stupendous production of anti-gas masks was responsible for -huge inroads upon our glass manufacturing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span> facilities. When the United -States of America entered the arena, and concluded arrangements in this -country for the supply of this indispensable article of equipment to -the American troops, the demand for suitable glass was forced up to -such a level as to tax our producing capacity to a supreme degree.</p> - -<p>The glass was required to furnish the eye-pieces to the masks. These -were circular in shape, and about 2¹⁄₂ inches in diameter. Each -eye-piece was made from two discs of glass which were superimposed, -with a thin layer of xylonite between. The last-named was introduced -to extend enhanced safety to the fighting men. A ricocheting shell -splinter might strike the goggle, shattering the outer layer, but the -inner section might possibly escape all injury. Even if the blow were -sufficiently severe to smash both sections of a single eye-piece the -goggle was not certain to be shivered like the window-pane struck by a -stone. The intermediate layer of xylonite nullified the force of the -impact to a striking degree, any starring that might be communicated to -the inner disc not necessarily being in line with that produced on the -outer glass, except, of course, in instances of a direct hit. Moreover, -the glass was deprived of its characteristic tendency to splinter under -a blow, owing to the intervening thin film of xylonite. Photographers -will appreciate the situation from their experience with their glass -negatives. When dropped the glass may be smashed into a hundred -fragments, but they are invariably held in position by the attached -film.</p> - -<p>The glass required for this purpose had to be of a certain standard, -not exceeding one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness, and free from -flaws. The authorities discovered that photographic negatives were made -of the very material desired, and realized that here was a peculiar -opportunity to remedy the deficiency they were experiencing in regard -to the supply of new material from the accepted manufacturing sources. -Accordingly, appeal was made to all photographers to turn out their -stocks of dismal failures and negatives which need be retained no -longer, and to surrender them to the Government.</p> - -<p>The demand was certainly pretentious. The eye-pieces were required -at the rate of 500,000 a week. As two quarter-plate negatives were -required to produce a single goggle—four<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> for each mask—it will be -seen that 2,000,000 discarded quarter-plate negatives were sought -weekly to keep pace with demand. Of course, larger-sized plates enabled -the discs to be cut more economically, but it is the quarter-plate -which has the biggest vogue among the huge army of amateur photographic -enthusiasts, owing to questions of expense, and so appeal was -especially made for plates of this size, in the feeling that here was -the richest mine to be tapped.</p> - -<p>The negatives were stripped, the emulsion being dissolved from the -foundation by the aid of chemicals. In this manner the nitrate of -silver content was recovered to be turned to profitable account. The -metallic yield from the individual plate is negligible, but, under -quantitative treatment, as in this instance, the reclamation was -rendered profitable. No attempt was made to exploit the emulsion, but -there seems to be no reason why this should not have been utilized.</p> - -<p>All trimmings from the glass in cutting the discs were carefully -garnered. These formed what is known as “glass cullet,” which was -returned to the glass-makers. Being of high quality the cullet -commanded a ready sale, the glass obtained from re-melting being used -for the fabrication of ink-bottles, salt-cellars, scent-bottles and a -hundred and one other articles in urgent request, while an appreciable -quantity was again converted into the base for further photographic -negatives.</p> - -<p>Plates exceeding the officially inscribed thickness of one-sixteenth -of an inch were not unceremoniously consigned to the melting-pot, -but after being stripped of the emulsion, were sold to the trade for -contrivance into the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">passe-partout</i> photographic mounts so much -the vogue to-day among enthusiastic amateur photographers, for picture -framing, and numerous other applications for which their dimensions and -the quality of the glass rendered them eminently suitable.</p> - -<p>Turning to another phase of industry, gloves of every description -have soared in price, irrespective of the materials used in their -production. Even those contrived from stout textile, which five years -ago were readily procurable for a few pence, commanded shillings a -pair. In this instance the rise in price was primarily due to the call -for vast quantities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span> by the munition factories to extend a measure of -protection to the hands of the workers, more especially the women. -Toiling Britain became converted to the gauntlet habit, so pronounced -across the Atlantic, as a result of war.</p> - -<p>As may be imagined, from the character of the work involved, these -gloves suffered speedy deterioration, becoming saturated with grease -and grime from the handling of metal and the operation of machinery -and tools. One firm found itself saddled with 112 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of these dirty -gloves every week, and the item “glove renewals” consequently grew -somewhat impressive. Feeling that this expenditure might be capable of -reduction, the firm sought a simple and inexpensive cleaning process -for the removal of the grease, to give the gloves a new lease of useful -life, the fact having been ascertained that the textile itself suffered -little injury as the result of a few days’ wear and tear.</p> - -<p>Experiments were made and the requirements of the firm were met very -effectively. Not only were the gloves turned out clean and sound, -enabling them to be used over and over again until the textile was worn -out, but the oil and grease with which they were sodden was recovered. -This was cleaned and found serviceable either as “cutting oil” for use -with the tools, or as fuel oil for engines of the Diesel type.</p> - -<p>I have previously referred to the reclamation of the grease from the -leather trimmings accruing from the manufacture of boots for the -Services. The trimmings represent pieces of good sound leather, of -all shapes and sizes, some of the fragments being of relatively large -dimensions. A selection of this waste from two large Northampton -factories was secured. It was carefully sorted. The larger pieces were -found to be useful for providing patches of varying sizes, capable -of profitable use by the trade for the repair of civilian footwear. -The larger sections of soleing leather were similarly sorted, having -been found adaptable to what is known as “packing-up” in resoleing -operations.</p> - -<p>By the time this sorting had been completed only shreds and tatters -of leather were left. These were degreased for the recovery of the -dubbin-like fat already described, and to leave the leather quite -clean, soft, and pliable. The fragments from the uppers were again -examined, and found capable of further selection to serve as raw -material for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> another industry which was being sorely harassed -from the non-availability of the raw leather upon which it was -normally dependent. This was the fabrication of the tiny, circular, -serrated-edge leather discs or “tufts” used in the making of mattresses -for bedding.</p> - -<p>This discovery proved to be extremely opportune. Leather had grown -so scarce that the normal supplies for this range of duty had been -summarily cut off. Yet mattresses cannot be made without these tufts, -and the bedding trade had been striving diligently to discover the -suitability of certain suggested substitutes, when along came the -suggestion that degreased uppers waste from the boot factories might -possibly satisfy all demands in this direction.</p> - -<p>The ability to exploit the residue in this manner provided the Lord -Roberts’ Memorial Workshops with an additional field for activity, -of which due advantage was taken. Then it was found that the soleing -leather might be put to equally useful service. Many trades were -reduced to a quandary from the inability to obtain leather supplies -from which to make washers. This waste was found to fill the bill very -neatly, because as with boots so with washers—there is nothing like -leather. Certainly no substitute therefore has yet been found able -to fulfil the required duty so efficiently as the hide from the cow, -although there has been no lack of enterprise in this direction. The -wisps and scraps of uppers and soles of leather remaining from this -selection—mere shavings and shreds—are ground up and converted into -fertilizer.</p> - -<p>That leather trimmings from the boot factories, hitherto regarded -as absolutely useless, are forthcoming in sufficient quantities to -fulfil the claims of the tuft and washer trades have been definitely -ascertained. The residue is far more imposing than might popularly be -conceived, especially in connection with the production of Service -boots. Organized collection alone is required to bring this source of -possible supply into contact with the market. From three factories -alone approximately 2,300 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of trimmings are obtainable every week. -Multiply this yield by the number of boot factories in the country, and -it will be seen that this leather waste could supply adequate material -to allow tufts and washers to be turned out in their millions during -the course of the year.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span></p> - -<p>Even the manufacture of civilian footwear, especially of feminine -fancy boots, yields its quota of waste. But the contribution is not -so pronounced as with Service footwear because wider scope exists for -working up the surplus. Nevertheless, all waste, no matter what its -character may be, has a utilitarian value. The cloth remnants find a -ready market for the manufacture of paper. The cork sole cuttings, -composed of cork, with cotton and wool attached, are similarly -retrieved by the ton. Sorting enables the cork to be recovered for the -manufacture of linoleum, the cotton for the paper mills, and the woolly -component for shoddy.</p> - -<p>Finally we get the floor sweepings—a collection of leather, -textiles, and other materials recovered by the aid of the broom. So -far as Northampton is concerned—the system probably prevails in -other boot-making centres—the practice has been for the municipal -authorities to collect these accumulations and to remove them to the -dust-destructor for incineration. This was regarded as the simplest, -cheapest, and most efficient method for their disposal.</p> - -<p>Salvage experts examined these sweepings. They found a far more -utilitarian use for this waste. It was worth £2—$10—a ton for -conversion into fertilizer. Seeing that about 1,000 tons a year of -these sweepings are recoverable from two or three factories it will be -seen that we have been content to send £2,000—$10,000—annually up -the chimney of a dust-destructor from sheer lack of foresight and the -expenditure of a little thought and trouble during the very period when -our land is clamouring for nitrogenous fertilizers.</p> - -<p>Before leaving the boot trade I might refer to another recent -development concerning a certain waste which is of decided interest. -Patent cuttings presented quite a different proposal from the odds and -ends of ordinary leather. The glossy finish was held to be a drawback, -because obviously it would have to be removed before the material could -be submitted to any of the purposes described. It was anticipated that -such preliminary treatment might prove too expensive to render the -recovery worth while. But a simple and cheap process for securing the -patent in the form of a fine dust—“curriers’ powder”—was found. This -left the leather free for further exploitation. Then the question of -turning the reclaimed dust to account arose. Inquiries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span> were made, but -there appeared to be no opening for it. It looked as if this curriers’ -powder would have to be set on the shelf in company with the recovered -grease against a day of brilliant discovery upon the part of the -indefatigable chemist.</p> - -<p>But a firm specializing in a peculiar phase of activity came along. It -was experiencing distinct difficulty in finishing off the work with -which it is identified with the requisite degree of satisfaction. -Suddenly it had occurred to the technical staff that this fine dust -might possibly extricate them from the dilemma with which the firm -was confronted. The dust was submitted to trial. The tests are not -yet conclusive, but the results so far recorded have fully justified -the utilization of this material; certainly the firm in question is -disposed to concede its employment as the solution to their difficulty. -Should these expectations be fully realized there is every indication -that the demand for curriers’ powder will become exceedingly heavy, and -from a quarter which will arouse widespread surprise. The consumption -in this realm will eclipse that ever likely to be recorded in -connection with footwear. While industrial ethics preclude the mention -of the precise application in question, it may be added that it is -about as closely allied or has as much in common with boots as the use -of cheese in the production of steel.</p> - -<p>The one overwhelming obstacle to the commercial utilization of waste -is organized and cheap segregation and collection. This difficulty is -aggravated when the refuse in question happens to be in a combined -form, that is to say, when two or three—perhaps more—widely divergent -substances are associated to produce the one article. Possibly only one -of the constituents possesses a known market, or it may so happen that -each of the component substances has a distinct market but only in its -individual form.</p> - -<p>As a rule any waste of this character from industry is regarded with -contempt by the approved specialists in waste collection—the itinerant -merchant or the marine store dealer. Both these traders prefer to -conduct their operations with approved straight and unadulterated -materials. If the waste happens to be of the combined character, they -realize that they must expend a certain amount of time and labour in -its separation before carrying out its sale to advantage.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span> As they are -not inclined towards such exertion they refuse to accept the residue.</p> - -<p>It is a foolish policy and one which directly reacts against their own -interests. Such combined waste can generally be procured at a trifling -figure. The factory in which it accrues cannot afford the labour or -time necessary to bring about the separation of the constituents. Yet -when separation is completed each class of material at once attains -its true value. Resolution of combined waste into its components does -not involve any skill, while it is immaterial how roughly the task is -performed. The merchants to whom allusion has been made will also spurn -waste of undoubted market value if it has been dressed or impregnated -with another substance. They will jump at rags no matter how soiled and -loathsome their appearance. They know the dirt can be removed readily -and cheaply, but they never pause to reflect that substances used for -impregnating textiles may be eliminated just as easily. Moreover, -unlike dirt, the recovered dressing may possess a distinct commercial -value in itself.</p> - -<p>Waxed flannel is a recognized commodity, and, in fabricating articles -therefrom, appreciable quantities of trimmings are obtained. One firm -was in a quandary as to the disposal of this waste. No rag-and-bone -merchant would touch it. The firm was quite prepared to sell the -refuse at a low figure, fully confident that it could be turned to -some profitable purpose. The material was investigated, and the -separation of the wax from the woollen base was found to offer no -supreme or expensive difficulty. Yet the extraction of the wax made all -the difference in the intrinsic worth of the waste. At that time the -de-waxed flannel fetched 85s.—$21.25—a hundredweight, while the wax, -which was a high-grade product, was also of distinct value because it -was available for re-use.</p> - -<p>A similar problem cropped up in connection with oil-skin trimmings -resulting from the manufacture of garments and other articles. The -factory concerned stated that the waste was somewhat pronounced from -the magnitude of its business, but what to do with it was beyond their -knowledge. Experiment proved the separation of the oil to be an easy -matter, and so the release of the cotton textile was secured. In the -degreased form the trimmings fetched<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span> from 50s. to 60s.—$12.50 to -$15—a hundredweight at the time, while the oil was also a valuable -by-product and was readily absorbed by industry at a favourable figure.</p> - -<p>It is a moot point whether any other textile enters so extensively into -industry in some form or other as cotton. Consequently cotton refuse -is recoverable in immense quantities from the factories and workshops -where this textile is converted from the piece into garments and other -utilitarian articles. These trimmings for the most part are unsoiled, -but equally imposing are the contributions from the domestic rag-bag -and the refuse bins of other trades, whence the residue is forthcoming -in a more or less soiled condition. But a simple cleaning process -renders it suitable for further use. Should all possible or promising -applications be exhausted to no effect then this residue can always be -absorbed by the paper-mill. The paper-making industry may truthfully be -described as the salvor’s sheet-anchor; certainly there is no excuse -for consigning any cotton fabric to the flames while the paper-maker’s -craft flourishes.</p> - -<p>But in the majority of instances this waste, as already mentioned, is -associated with some other substance, for the simple reason that it -constitutes an ideal inexpensive base, or foundation, for carrying -the medium desired. Take the rubber mackintosh sheeting as a case in -point. Here the cotton sheet foundation is impregnated with rubber to -secure the desired waterproofness of the material. But the trimmings -need only to be submitted to a solvent treatment to bring about the -removal of the rubber, when the cotton base at once becomes released -for the paper-maker. The rubber is also retrieved to advantage because -it is quite pure. Emery cloth, which has been discarded as too worn for -further use, may be similarly treated, the recovery in this instance -being of triple value when conducted upon a large scale, comprising -respectively the emery powder, the oil, the fabric base, and possibly -the metallic dust.</p> - -<p>The extraction of nicotine from tobacco is a flourishing industry. This -trade has been built upon the commercial utilization of waste, the raw -material comprising tobacco declared as unsuitable for the generally -recognized commercial applications. The nicotine is extracted for the -preparation of insecticides and other commodities for which the juice -is eminently adapted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span></p> - -<p>To obtain the nicotine the discarded tobacco is placed in linen bags. -Subsequent treatment follows certain lines. As may be imagined, owing -to the extremely oleaginous or gummy character of the juice and grease, -these bags become clogged during the extracting process. In course -of time they become so saturated as to be unfit for further use, not -through any failure of the actual fabric, but because the fine mesh -of the material has become choked. Owing to their admitted repulsive -character the bags were thrown away or burned.</p> - -<p>One firm specializing in this industry accumulated soiled bags to the -extent of approximately 2,000 per month. It had never contemplated the -feasibility of subjecting them to any treatment, probably because new -bags were relatively cheap. But, as a result of the national demand -for linen for more vital purposes, and the exceeding scarcity of the -basic raw material, which had the effect of sending the price of flax -from £54 to £280—$270 to $1,400—per ton, the idea of recovering -the bags assumed more pressing significance. A sample was taken and -submitted to a degreasing process. It was discovered that the combined -action of steam and centrifugal action speedily separated the clogging -gummy constituents from the fibres of the linen. When examined after -treatment the bags were found to be quite free from every trace of the -nicotine, and it would have been difficult for the uninitiated ever -to have identified them with the industry of nicotine extraction. The -tobacco juice was recovered in appreciable bulk, but what was far more -important was the reclamation of the bags. In the cleansed condition -they were worth from £20 to £40—$100 to $200—per ton.</p> - -<p>To enumerate all the industries from which odds and ends of -cotton-waste are derivable would demand too much space. There are -stalks and ends of plumes from the fabrication of artificial feathers, -tangled bundles of loose tatters, fragments of silk in a thousand -and one forms, mercerized and natural, and so on. The yield from a -single factory or workroom may be trifling, perhaps, while there is -the rag-merchant to hand to take delivery of this residue. A firm -may readily concede the preservation of its waste until it assumes a -formidable bulk to be more troublesome than it is worth, as well as -littering the factory or occupying space<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span> which can be put to more -valuable account. So it generally throws the residue into the furnace, -but the utilization of such waste as fuel represents the most costly -method of disposal which could be practised.</p> - -<p>The losses arising from such action are immense and deplorable, more -especially when it is remembered how easily and readily they might be -avoided. It is somewhat consoling to reflect that, to-day, despite -the many perplexities involved, the salvage of this refuse is being -attacked along serious lines. Factories and workshops are beginning -to appreciate that these residues can always command good money -from the pulp-makers, the result being that much less residue is -being lost through the too handy furnace than formerly. Parings from -ladies’ velour hats, felt trimmings, odd pieces from billiard-table -cloths—woollen fragments in a thousand different forms are now finding -profitable utilization. All such waste is being snapped up greedily -by the shoddy mills. During the war some of this waste was somewhat -freely absorbed for carrying out elaborate camouflage schemes to screen -the movements and disposition of troops, guns, and transport from the -prying eyes of the enemy, but to-day it is all being released for -the reproduction of clothing material, blankets, and other articles -innumerable—all of far-reaching import to the community.</p> - -<p>My Lady, when she contemptuously discards her straw hat, does so -without venturing a thought as to its possible further value, except, -perhaps, as a lighter for the kitchen fire. But the abandoned headgear, -together with the straw refuse plaiting from the factory, now possesses -a market apart from that for making paper. It is being used extensively -for stuffing the backs and seats of cheap furniture. During the period -of war this waste was found suitable for another mission and one -which still obtains. This was as a substitute for wood-wool, which -virtually disappeared from the market. Wood-wool is prepared from wet -wood, and, naturally, a certain period of time must elapse to allow -it to dry before it can be set to its designed service. When wood was -cheap and plentiful this delay presented no handicap, manufacture -being continuous, but during hostilities wood became counted among the -luxuries of commercial life. It was far too valuable to be shredded -into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span> wool, except in severely limited quantities, to act as packing.</p> - -<p>As a result of the experiment induced by stringency, plait from -old hats, and the factory waste, were found to be quite as good as -the wood-wool in this capacity. The colour of the straw, faded or -otherwise, constitutes no disadvantage. Consequently, to condemn -the abandoned summer friend of the head to serve as a fire-lighter -represents approximately its least economical application, although it -may come as an equal surprise to learn that the perfect dream of the -milliner’s creative faculty may reappear as the protective covering -to chocolate and confectionery during transit from manufactory to the -retailer in its familiar wooden box.</p> - -<p>Discarded umbrella coverings may not appear to possess any further -attraction except to the paper-maker. But the waste-expert declares -otherwise. A flaw in the silk covering or possible damage wrought while -attaching it to the frame no longer constitutes a passport for the -material to the dust-bin or flames. Finger-stalls and eye-shades may be -contrived from this waste. For making eye-shades it is only necessary -to cut a piece of cardboard, likewise retrieved from the waste-bin, to -the desired size and shape. Then, by the aid of a little glue the silk -section cut from the abandoned umbrella covering may be fastened to the -cardboard base.</p> - -<p>During the course of the year thousands of tons of string are made -in these islands. What becomes of it all? One industry utilizing -this material found itself saddled with about ten tons of odd -lengths, which, thrown into the waste-bin, became a tangled mass. The -bewildering array was examined by an expert. He found that whereas some -of the pieces were of only a few inches, others ran to three, four and -even more feet in length. He contemplated the pile and concluded that -it would never pay to unravel the tangle. It was a task calling for -weeks of labour and infinite patience.</p> - -<p>His first inclination was to hand over the bulky pile to the -paper-mills to be pulped. But further consideration of the quantity of -the long lengths of string in that junk heap prompted an alternative. -String, neatly prepared in large balls, is furnished to prisons to -serve as raw material to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span> prisoners engaged in the overhaul -and repair of bags. Why not send this collection of waste to the -penitentiaries? There the time occupied in unravelling the tangled -jumble is of minor importance. Prison labour does not count, while the -task is no less fruitful than that of picking oakum. Forthwith the -string was forwarded to these establishments, and was found to meet -the purpose very satisfactorily. Not only did this waste release an -appreciable quantity of new string for more valuable applications, but -it also enabled an appreciable saving in cost of bag repairs to be -recorded, while the work was just as neatly and efficiently fulfilled -with the odd lengths as with new string.</p> - -<p>In another case a farmer of a thrifty turn of mind saved all the odd -lengths of binder twine accruing from the use of the self-binder to -harvest his crops. When untying the sheaves for threshing he threw the -lengths into a bin, and in this way amassed quite a respectable pile. -It was promptly acquired by paper-makers who paid him 25s.—$6.25—a -hundredweight. This satisfactory result should prompt all our farmers -to exercise like economy in this connection. They would find it to -their financial advantage to do so. The annual consumption of binder -twine in these islands runs into big figures. In 1917 we imported -115,086 hundredweights for which we paid £417,168—$2,085,840—while -in the previous year the figure was 212,639 hundredweights valued at -£550,104—$2,750,520.</p> - -<p>To assist in the harvesting of the 1918 grain crop the Food Production -Department purchased 20,000 tons of this apparently insignificant -material to ensure farmers receiving adequate supplies. When the grain -is taken in hand to be threshed the recovery of this waste should -be an easy and simple matter. It is only necessary to provide a few -sacks to receive it. Even at 12s. 6d.—$3.12—a hundredweight it would -prove a profitable by-product to the farmer, and enable him to recoup -a certain proportion of its outlay upon this item, while it would -tangibly assist another industry. The recovery of 75 per cent. of the -above-mentioned 20,000 tons, provided through the instrumentality of -the Food Production Department, would have represented approximately -£140,000—$700,000—and have contributed towards the production of -2,500 to 4,000 tons of paper.</p> - -<p>To indicate how organized collection influences the value<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span> of so-called -waste and its economical use, the experience of an importing house -in the City of London deserves narration. This firm accumulated an -appreciable quantity of the special packing paper with which the -wooden cases are lined. This paper is very tough and is strengthened -with thick cotton netting of open mesh, while it is also waterproofed. -The firm did not know what to do with the waste, but was reluctant to -turn it over to the paper-maker. Inquiries were conducted, to result -in the discovery that a similar paper was used for packing motor -tyres. Thereupon a motor tyre dispatch firm was approached with the -suggestion that it might find it profitable to acquire this residue. -The tyre-packers were buying the paper specially manufactured for -wrapping purposes, but test revealed that this packing case lining was -equally adapted to the duty. Thereupon it expressed its readiness to -take over all the residue from the importing house at 25s.—$6.25—a -hundredweight. Unfortunately, in this instance, the offer could only -be met immediately with some 56 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, but if all the firms importing -from the United States and other countries were to conserve the paper -lining to the cases coming into their hands, and to dispose of it to -other trades for which its peculiar construction renders it specially -suitable, there would be a material reduction in the strain imposed -upon our domestic paper-mills, while a proportionate quantity of this -indispensable commodity would be released for other applications.</p> - -<p>We are all familiar with the little disc of metal having a bent-over -corrugated rim and a cork lining which has displaced the glass stopper -and driven-in cork for sealing bottles. It is commercially known as -the “Crown Cork.” A slight angular prise and the cap flies off. It -is one of those little inventions which have proved a great boon to -many trades, especially to those identified with the bottling of -beers, mineral and drinking waters. Incidentally it has proved a great -money-maker.</p> - -<p>An observant mind discovered that the tiny cap suffers little or no -damage from its summary removal. Why should it not be used again? So -he reasoned, and conducted experiments to establish the feasibility -of such a suggestion. He has succeeded completely in his task. By a -simple, inexpensive process, which he has devised, these crown corks -can again be rendered as serviceable for their designed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span> purpose as new -corks. As a result of his brilliant ingenuity, and saving turn of mind, -this observant and practical waste exploiter is readily disposing of -the renovated article at eightpence per gross—16 cents—which is 300 -per cent. below the price of the new article.</p> - -<p>That inventiveness in its application to economy is fascinating -and profitable is demonstrated very convincingly by the array of -contribution of sound practicable ideas which are being contributed -towards the “save the waste” problem. The potato-peelings attracted -one economist, who with this apparently useless material and no other -contrived an attractive biscuit. Another experimentor, securing a -few ounces of fat from a whale, which had been cast upon the beach -to the peril of the residents in the vicinity, converted them into a -solid white block somewhat reminiscent of candied sugar, by submitting -the fat to the hardening process. Another effort represents a bold -attempt to turn the spent tea-leaves to economical account. In this -instance this waste was mixed with another residue—sawdust—and -some inexpensive, readily combustible agent, such as naphthalene, -also waste. The mass was then pressed, and offered a presentable and -effective cheap fire-lighter.</p> - -<p>Within the space of this volume it is impossible to exhaust the many -efforts which are being made to turn apparent waste into something -useful. Sufficient has been narrated to indicate that there is no limit -to such manifestations of ingenuity. Matter is indestructible. Properly -handled, it can be used over and over again. Now that the ball of -economy has been set rolling in grim earnest, strenuous endeavours are -being made by the thrifty and provident to redeem the English-speaking -race from the indictment of being woefully extravagant, with which it -has been freely assailed for so many years.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV<br />THE LIFTING-MAGNET AS A WASTE DEVELOPING FORCE</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>Waste is precarious to handle. The very nature of the material demands -that it shall be worked up in the most economical manner. Under the -fickle influences normally prevailing upon the market, the margin -between profit and loss may suffer such attenuation from inefficient -exploitation as to submerge the factor of profit, thus endangering the -very practice of utilizing the residue. It is immaterial whether time -or labour be the adverse circumstance. The one influence can be quite -as ruinous as the other. Should the cumulative effect of the two forces -be experienced simultaneously, then the results are almost certain to -be devastating and prompt in their action. Consequently, to secure the -uttermost benefits attainable it is imperative that the most economical -and efficient methods should be employed.</p> - -<p>This is particularly the case in the iron and steel trades. The -competition between the various nations in this manufacturing field -is excitingly keen. It must not be forgotten that, in this industry, -waste plays a very prominent part as a raw material. It may be tins -rescued from the domestic dust-bin, turnings from the lathe, a worn-out -locomotive boiler, or the battered hulk of a steamship snatched from -the jaws of the hungry seas through the ingenuity of the salvage -engineer.</p> - -<p>In the handling of scrap and junk the designing engineer has been -strikingly ingenious, resourceful, and free with his expressions of -resource. The cranes and other mechanical handling devices, which -he has evolved, compel attention<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span> for the simple reason that they -have been introduced to secure a reduction in the cost of moving the -material. In this direction finality is impossible of attainment; -the necessity to reduce the cost factor is so urgent and continuous. -Creative effort, thus fostered, has achieved a distinct triumph during -the past few years. It has evolved a new system of dealing with iron -and steel, especially the waste, which is rapidly displacing all other -methods which hitherto have held undisputed sway. I refer to the -lifting-magnet.</p> - -<p>It was a British mind which first conceived the idea of harnessing the -magnet to the wheels of the iron industry. Sir William Sturgeon saw no -reason why the toy of our childhood days, the pin-attracting properties -of which extended us infinite delight and provoked indescribable -wonder, should not be devoted to the movement of ponderous masses of -steel. So he made the experiment. But his noteworthy effort proved -only partially successful. It did not fulfil expectations, not because -the designer was wrong in his deductions, but because he conducted the -evolution along fallacious lines. But his failure set men thinking. -They followed up his reasonings and discovered why he did not record -success. The British pioneer had been content to accept the magnet’s -familiar form and to reproduce it upon a larger scale to fulfil his -objective. This was why he failed. For such as application as he had in -his mind’s eye a modification in design was imperative. The German and -American experimentors, who followed in his footsteps, quickly realized -this circumstance and accordingly abandoned the traditional horse-shoe -form for a magnet of flat drum-like shape.</p> - -<p>In this modernized and materially changed form the lifting-magnet -met with instant success. The Germans were the first to recognize -its possibilities, and accordingly developed and popularized its -utilization in accordance with their characteristic organized methods, -with the result that it was not long before all the leading iron- and -steel-works of the country were equipped therewith to their distinct -commercial advantage.</p> - -<p>So far as America and Britain, the home of the lifting-magnet, have -been concerned, progress has been slow and uneventful. The Germans set -out to reap advantage from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span> our manufacturing apathy, and to a certain -degree succeeded. It remained for the war, with its drain upon cheap -labour on the one hand and the necessity to speed up and to increase -output on the other, which compelled us to regard the lifting-magnet -with enhanced favour. This tendency was accentuated by the urgent -requests circulated far and wide to save all waste metal and to turn -it over to the country for the production of munitions. In this manner -vast quantities of waste metal of every conceivable description were -released, which, in turn, led to a demand for handling appliances. -Under the conditions which obtained it was imperative that this -potential raw material should be handled with the utmost economy, both -of time and labour, but native ingenuity had nothing at its command to -compare with the lifting-magnet in this connection. Those firms which -had been sufficiently enterprising to equip themselves with the German -appliance found themselves in an overwhelming superior position, while -their lifting-magnets paid for themselves over and over again in the -course of a single year.</p> - -<p>The national deficiency in supply and its far-reaching adverse effects -were remedied through the combined enterprise and initiative of a -young electrical engineer and a British manufacturer. The former had -followed the German developments very closely and had discovered that, -notwithstanding their extravagant claims, these appliances really -fell somewhat short of the mark in point of efficiency and economy in -operation. Fortified with this knowledge he had promptly designed an -appliance of this character, in which the obvious Teuton defects were -eliminated, thereby giving a lifting-magnet which represented a decided -advance upon the best which Germany could offer.</p> - -<p>The Pickett-West lifting-magnet, so named after its designer and -manufacturer respectively, is one fully complying with traditional -British standards of production, while it also possesses many novel -features which have already emphasized their value. It is built along -robust lines, so that it completely fulfils the conditions peculiar -to its field of application. Moreover, its design can be modified -within wide limits to meet the individual requirements of the service -for which it is intended, one distinctly ingenious feature being the -model fitted with moving fingers,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span> each of which constitutes a magnet -in itself, and wherewith the magnet is able to exercise the maximum -magnetic gripping power upon the article for the movement of which it -is being used.</p> - -<p>Without entering into a technical description of this apparatus it -may be said to comprise, in its simplest form, an inverted dish -with a central pole-piece. Round this pole-piece is built a coil -composed of alternate layers of copper of substantial dimensions and -insulating material. The coil is enclosed within the inverted dish -and a face-plate is bolted in position. Thus the coil which occupies -the whole of the case, with a special insulating compound run in -under pressure to occupy all the vacant space such as corners and -interstices, is completely encased and safe from tampering. Suitable -terminals are fitted and are coupled up to a flexible electric cable -through which the current is led to energize the coil and to impart -the requisite magnetic energy to the lifting face-plate. When the -coil is active, naturally the magnet will readily attract any ferrous -metal which it may chance to approach, or with which it may come into -contact, and this will continue to cling to the face of the magnet -until the current is switched off. The magnet is slung upon the hook -of the crane either by chains, or bars forming a tripod terminating in -a link. It is applicable to any type of crane, whether it be of the -locomotive, jib or derrick type or overhead travelling system, and with -equal facility.</p> - -<p>The foregoing description is merely a bald description of the -lifting-magnet in its simplest form. To secure the highest efficiency -many perplexing technical issues had to be resolved. The magnet -is necessarily of impressive dimensions and weight, circular or -rectangular in regard to the form of the face-plate according to the -nature of the work to be fulfilled, and ranging from 24 to 62 inches -in diameter. The most popular size is that measuring 52 inches across -the face. Massive construction is inevitable to enable the appliance to -withstand the rough wear and tear, as well as unceremonious handling, -to which it is exposed in the average iron-works by indifferently -skilled labour, or to meet the conditions of piece-work when operations -are necessarily conducted at relatively high pressure by the men who -are bent upon the consummation of one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span> end—the maximum return in the -form of wages for the work accomplished.</p> - -<p>Robust construction involves weight. Precisely what this means may be -gathered from the fact that the German 52-inch lifting-magnet weighed 3 -tons, whereas its British rival, to which I am referring, weighs only -2¹⁄₂ tons and has a 20 per cent. greater lifting capacity, despite the -reduction in weight of the magnet itself. The magnet in question will -lift from 900 to 33,600 pounds—even more—according to the character -of the material to be handled, the lower figure applying to sheet-iron, -scrap, and bolts, while the other extreme refers to heavy solid steel -ingots or armour-plate.</p> - -<p>Precisely why the lifting-magnet should have taken so long to establish -its virtues, both in this country and the United States of America, -is somewhat inscrutable, especially in the latter country which, as a -rule, is disposed to introduce time-and labour-saving appliances with -alacrity. No matter from what point of view it may be regarded, it -represents the biggest time-and labour-saver as well as money-maker yet -introduced into the steel industry.</p> - -<p>One reason advanced for its comparatively slow adoption is rather -interesting. It was averred that to the men, accustomed as they were -to seeing loads slung by chains, the sight of a mass of steel clinging -to the face of the magnet by a force which they could not understand -verged on the uncanny. They knew little or nothing about magnets except -in the form of a toy, and could not understand that sufficiently -attractive effort could be exerted to keep the mass adhering to the -flat face of metal. The fact that the moment the current was switched -off released the load was something equally beyond their comprehension. -Forthwith they arraigned the lifting-magnet as dangerous, and, while -not openly condemning its use, declined to work in its vicinity. -Whether this was so or not has never been fathomed, but it is generally -observable that men working with such an appliance observe a wise -discretion, and refrain from working or moving beneath it. This very -respect for the apparatus has achieved one distinctly valuable result: -accidents are few and far between, even in America, in which country -respect for human safety is declared to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> at zero, where the handling -of huge masses of metal is conducted by the lifting-magnet.</p> - -<p>But, eliminating the psychological effect upon the workmen, it is -to be feared that employers were slow to visualize its advantages. -Certainly in Britain there are many employers, who, notwithstanding the -impressive array of figures advanced in its favour, and who have been -brought face to face with the economies it is able to effect, still -cling tenaciously to antiquated practices.</p> - -<p>So far back as 1911 <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> H. F. Stratton, in drawing the attention of -the American Foundrymen’s Association to the possibilities of the -lifting-magnet, presented some illuminating figures. At that time the -American steel industry was handling 10,000,000 tons annually by this -system and thereby was saving over £200,000—$1,000,000—a year. So -far as scrap was concerned he emphasized the opportunity it presented -in this field, because, out of an annual melt of 6,000,000 tons of -pig-iron and scrap, from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 was represented by -scrap-iron and steel.</p> - -<p>The American railways were among the first to appreciate the -possibilities of the system. The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific -Railroad introduced the idea for handling scrap and iron in 1909. Up -to that time all scrap had been handled by hand, the cost in and out -ranging from 30 to 35 cents—15d. to 17¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr> per ton—which, according -to the authority cited, could be accepted as applicable to all the -railways following such a practice, and to record which figure, be it -noted, demanded excellent arrangements and efficient organization. Upon -the introduction of the lifting-magnet these costs were immediately -cut down to 10 to 12 cents—5d. to 6d.—per ton, in and out, inclusive -of every expense, the figure for the actual sorting being only 4 to 7 -cents—2d. to 3¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—per ton. The authorities of this railway stated -that unsorted scrap could be unloaded by means of the magnet for 2 to -5 cents—1d. to 2¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—per ton, while, if the scrap were sorted, the -cost came out ¹⁄₂ to 1¹⁄₂ cents—¹⁄₄<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr> to ³⁄₄<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—per ton! Similar work -conducted by hand labour, according to the previous practice, cost -about three times as much.</p> - -<p>That the experience of this one railroad was not isolated was proved by -the experience of the Lake Shore and Michigan<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span> Southern Railroad, which -supplied <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Stratton with the following comparative figures for other -operations incidental to the conduct of its work:—</p> - -<table class="thin"> -<tr><td class="tdl">Loading locomotive tyres by hand -</td> -<td class="tdr">17 cents (8¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ” ” ” crane with chains -</td> -<td class="tdr"> 8 ” (4d.)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ” ” ” ” magnet -</td> -<td class="tdr">4 ” (2d.)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ” heavy casting by crane with chains -</td> -<td class="tdr">20 ” (10d.)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ” ” ” ” magnet -</td> -<td class="tdr">3 ” (1¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> ” ” ” hand -</td> -<td class="tdr">almost impossible.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>It will be observed that the handling charges by the magnet were -one-half of those by the crane with chains in connection with the -locomotive tyres, and one-seventh in the case of the heavy castings, -while the advantage over manual effort in the case of the first-named -was no less than 32·5 per cent. Little wonder that, during the past -nine years, the utilization of the lifting-magnet in connection with -the handling of iron and steel in the United States has advanced by -huge strides. To-day it constitutes an integral part of the wrecking -equipment of every leading American railroad. After the large debris -has been cleared up, the lifting-magnet is swept over the ground to -pick up nuts, bolts, nails, screws, and any other odds and ends of a -ferrous nature which have escaped recovery by the conventional methods.</p> - -<p>So far as these islands are concerned, considerable progress has been -made during the past five years in regard to its adoption. Extended -use has not been confined to the handling of metal in our steel-works, -but for the reclamation of iron and steel cargoes which were lost as a -result of the German submarine activity. Its employment in the salvage -field was suggested as the result of the sinking of a barge carrying -ingots of very special steel sunk at the entrance to a port on the -East Coast. Although the wreck lay in relatively shallow water, it was -speedily discovered that salvage by the orthodox methods would prove -somewhat uncertain, owing to the awkward position of the sunken barge -and the difficult tidal and other conditions.</p> - -<p>The possibility of retrieving the valuable steel by magnet was broached -to <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> F. N. Pickett, the inventor of the British lifting-magnet, -to which I have referred. A certain doubt upon the point existed in -official circles from the knowledge that the German appliance could -not be employed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span> in such duty, owing to the coil not being impervious -to water, which of course nullifies the utilization of the electric -current. But the British magnet, being built upon different lines, is -watertight, and so the designer expressed complete confidence in his -apparatus being suited to the task. The magnet was secured, and divers -went down to blow open the side of the barge to permit the magnet to -reach the cargo.</p> - -<p>The magnet was lowered and was found to work with as much ease and -simplicity as under conventional conditions in the steel-works. It -was plunged into the hold of the invisible craft, and subsequently -the sea-bed on either side was swept therewith. So successfully -and completely did it fulfil its unusual task that every ingot was -retrieved, and that within a very short time. The sinking of the barge -occasioned little damage beyond a slight delay in the delivery of the -material, which was valued at £150—$750—per ton. True, the barge was -lost, but that was an insignificant disaster, and but poor recompense -for the expenditure by the enemy of a torpedo costing possibly -£1,000—$5,000.</p> - -<p>The success of the magnet in this instance has been responsible for its -utilization in other fields of submarine endeavour. A freighter was -sunk with a valuable steel cargo aboard. The vessel was examined and -found to have settled upon an even keel. Divers descended and opened -the hatchways, while sections of the decks were cut away to expose the -cargo. The magnet was then brought into action, and the cargo unloaded -as readily as if moored alongside the dock. This success in the open -sea has been responsible for the salvage of similar cargoes which have -been lost around our coasts. So far as the Pickett-West lifting-magnet -is concerned, there is no obstacle to its use in this field so long -as sufficient swing can be imparted to the suspended apparatus to -ensure sweeping of the wreck, and up to the depth corresponding -to the pressure of the insulation in the coil drum. Seeing that -this is introduced at a pressure of 120 pounds to the square inch, -the lifting-magnet can be safely used in water up to a depth of -approximately 250 feet without the insulation collapsing under the -imposed water-pressure, and this is a depth far beyond that at which a -diver can work. But, taking the wrecks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span> lying within water accessible -to the diver, appreciable recovery should be possible.</p> - -<p>It is generally conceded, in view of the success which has already been -achieved, that there is a promising future for the apparatus in this -field so long as it is designed and constructed along correct lines. -The cost of operations will be reduced therewith very materially, -and the strain imposed upon human effort as represented by the diver -will be decreased very markedly. Instead of salvage operations being -confined to an hour or two daily, according to the velocity of the -tides and currents, it will be possible to continue work during the -round twenty-four hours so long as the weather is propitious. The -operator will be able to sweep the wreck from end to end, as well as to -scavenge the sea-bed by swinging his magnet, confident in the knowledge -that magnetic metal will be trapped in the process for haulage to the -surface. Even if ships should prove impossible of recovery intact there -is nothing to prevent their reclamation piecemeal. Dynamite will reduce -the wreck to scrap of weight and size within the lifting capacity of -the apparatus, and at the price obtaining for such junk the expedient -should prove profitable. So we should be able to retrieve a certain -and imposing proportion of the wanton waste incurred by the ruthless -attacks of the enemy upon our sea-going traffic.</p> - -<p>It has even been suggested that the magnets might be employed to -salvage many of the German submarines which we have sunk, more -particularly the coastal type of craft. These were relatively small, -and for the most part were sunk in comparatively shallow water. In the -water-logged condition the dead load to be handled is approximately 800 -tons. If desired these craft could be lifted to the surface intact, or, -if in pieces, retrieved in sections for sale as scrap. The inventor -has elaborated his plans, which involve the suitable disposition of a -certain number of magnets over the sunken submarines. He suggests that -eight magnets would be adequate for the task. Seeing that each magnet -has a pulling power of 250 pounds per square inch of its surface, -the aggregate haul which could be brought to bear upon the submerged -craft simultaneously by the eight magnets would be at least 1,920 -tons, or twice the total weight of the submarine. With such a lifting -effort available<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span> it should be possible to drag the wreck from even -the extremely tenacious North Sea mud. The question arises, although -recovery of such waste is admitted to offer every attraction, as to -whether the German submarines are worth the trouble, even if they -be sold as scrap. In view of the price which the surrendered boats -realized this is extremely doubtful, although experienced salvage -engineers admit that even if prevailing scrap prices were obtained the -venture would prove profitable, that is in the strict commercial sense.</p> - -<p>As a scavenger for magnetic metals the lifting-magnet cannot be -excelled. It is far more thorough than hand-labour, and will fulfil its -mission more completely than any other mechanically-operated device to -this end. Lowered to twenty-four inches of the ground it may be swept, -or swung, to and fro in the certain knowledge that any stray scraps of -iron and steel will readily jump the intervening space in response to -the strong magnetic influence exerted. In this manner a wide area can -be completely cleaned of all stray iron and steel fragments, much of -which would otherwise be lost within a few moments.</p> - -<p>The recognition of the peculiar qualities of magnetic attraction -has led to an interesting development which should prove capable of -extensive application and to distinct commercial advantage in our -steel-works. As is well known, the slag is run off separately to be -dumped. But this slag often carries an appreciable quantity of metal -in a divided state. Hitherto this has been wasted, but it has been -found that, if the slag be broken up, by the aid of a magnet and -“skull-cracker” ball, and the magnet be swept over the mass, that the -fugitive metal can be retrieved and in sufficient quantities as to -render the operation profitable.</p> - -<p>For the movement of iron and steel in factories it is difficult to -excel. A consignment of kegs of nails, bolts, nuts, screws, or some -other small articles requires removal to or from store, or to vehicle. -Under normal conditions the practice would be, either to stack them -on trolleys or to pack and sling them from cranes, the loading -constituting the adverse factor from the appreciable time it takes. -If the magnet be used no such preliminaries of any description are -necessary. The magnet is merely lowered, the current switched on, and -the next moment as many loaded kegs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span> as can squeeze themselves upon the -face of the magnet may be lifted. The attractive effort is sufficient -to exert its influence through the covers of the kegs to act upon the -metal within. Moreover, if the kegs be small, more than one layer -will be found possible of removal at a time, inasmuch as the depth to -which the magnetic influence can be exerted—“digging” effort as it is -called—has been found to be equal to the diameter of the magnet face.</p> - -<p>For handling metal waste in the form of turnings or swarf it is far -cheaper and quicker than any other known process. When the magnet is -dropped upon a pile of such residue and is then raised, it will tear -away a huge chunk of the heap—a ton or more of tousled and ragged -ribands of steel jostling and clinging tightly to one another and -to the magnet-face like a swarm of bees to the branch of a tree. It -will successfully handle, and for no heavier cost, swarf which defies -handling by any other means, except at prohibitive expense. At a -certain steel-works in the North of England ten tons of matted steel -turnings were permitted to stand for several weeks in a railway truck -in an open siding. When it was decided to unload the vehicle the -turnings were found to have rusted and to have settled down into as -tightly packed a heap as could be imagined. The normal practice was -for men to shovel such material with their forks into the charging -boxes, but they found that they could not force their tools into this -formidable heap. The mass was surveyed and the hopelessness of coping -promptly therewith was admitted. Under manual labour the job would -occupy several days, even if it could be successfully handled at all, -upon which point considerable doubt prevailed.</p> - -<p>It was decided to try the magnet. It was brought along on its traveller -and lowered into the truck. The winding drum was set going, and there -was a fearful snapping and snarling. The magnet refused to release its -hold, while the metal, being tightly jammed and packed, offered a stiff -resistance to the irresistible attraction of the magnet. But, within -a few moments, the magnet tore itself free with some 3,360 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of the -tangled rusted steel clinging to its face. Within six minutes, and by -half-a-dozen lifts, the vehicle was cleared of its ten tons of scrap.</p> - -<p>While the circular form of magnet is that generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span> favoured, -variations are made to comply with different requirements. Some -articles, such as steel rails, pipes and iron rods, from their -distinctive shape, only present an extremely limited surface upon which -the magnetic pull can be exerted. As a rule, to enable such articles to -be handled with efficiency and speed, two magnets, rectangular in form, -and spaced a short distance apart, are used. The magnets are coupled -together, but maintained a specific distance apart by spacing bars, -while they work in unison. While the area available for contact upon -each magnet is somewhat reduced, as compared with the circular type, -this deficiency is counterbalanced by the ability to apply the magnetic -lifting effort at two points.</p> - -<p>It is doubtful whether the true money-saving possibilities of the -lifting-magnet are really appreciated. The initial outlay may appear -heavy—in the case of the British magnet to which I have referred it -ranges from £150 to £600—$750 to $3,000—according to dimensions, -face-form and lifting capacity—but this expense is readily recouped. -The lifting-magnet is not only a time-saver but it enables given -work to be accomplished with fewer men. In some instances this -displacement of labour has attained striking proportions. At one -steel-works a lifting-magnet of 52-in. diameter was installed at a -cost of £400—$2,000. It is employed for handling pig-iron, and in -this work has dispensed with fifty men. The saving in wages, which its -introduction has rendered possible, sufficed to defray the capital cost -of the apparatus during the first three months of its use.</p> - -<p>The results recorded at another establishment are equally impressive. -A 36-in. magnet was acquired, and for one specific duty—loading -trucks—was employed for a total of twenty hours during the month. -Previous to its acquisition this work was carried out by manual labour, -and it used to demand the combined efforts of ten men for ten hours to -load the vehicle, the cost being £4—$20. With the magnet the truck is -now loaded in two hours and at a cost of 8s.—$2—this figure being -inclusive of all charges—electric current, depreciation, interest, -labour, etc. In the course of the year the magnet puts in 240 hours -truck-loading, the number of trucks dealt with during this time being -120. The saving effected by the utilization of the magnet is thus -£3 12s.—$18—per truck or £437—$2,185—per year. Seeing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span> that the -magnet at the time of its installation cost £150—$750—it will be seen -that it pays for itself approximately three times over in the course -of each twelve months, and that upon one single range of duty for an -insignificant period of time.</p> - -<p>Under manual conditions of handling scrap and at the current contract -trade union rate the cost is 1s. 4d.—33 cents—per ton. With the -lifting-magnet, including labour and depreciation, the cost is -only one penny—2 cents—per ton for this work—a reduction of 1s. -3d.—31 cents—per ton! At the works of the Stobie Steel Company, -Dunston-on-Tyne, the initial cost of the lifting-magnet was recovered -during the first four months it was used. This company declares that -the annual saving which its employment effects is £800—$4,000.</p> - -<p>But the applications of the magnet are not confined to lifting and -carrying operations. As an instrument for breaking up masses of steel -too large to be handled conveniently, or to be passed into the cupola -of the furnace, it cannot be excelled, either in point of efficiency, -safety, or economy. Breaking-up is carried out by what is known as the -“skull-cracker,” which comprises a roughly-cast ball of steel which -may weigh as much as 22,400, 27,000 or even 36,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> This is picked -up by the magnet and lifted to the desired height. The current is then -switched off, releasing the ball to fall and to strike the scrap-boiler -or some other cumbrous piece of junk a terrific blow.</p> - -<p>While the “skull-cracker” has been in vogue for many years with -mechanically operated devices, and so is not peculiar to the magnet, -yet this latest development represents the highest achievement yet -attained in this particular direction. Under mechanical conditions from -four to six men are required to carry out the work successfully. With -the magnet and ball the task can be fulfilled by two men—if exigencies -so demand it can be completed single-handed by the crane-magnet -operator—while the time occupied in such essential destruction is -very much less, more efficiently accomplished and with complete -safety, because under mechanical conditions breaking-up is generally -regarded as highly dangerous work. A further advantage is offered by -this system. The “skull-cracker” can be lifted and dropped alternately -until the scrap has been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span> reduced to suitably sized pieces, and then -the magnet, disdaining the ball, can pick up the pieces of junk to bear -them away to the furnaces without any delay.</p> - -<p>Despite the forward strides which have been made in regard to the -adoption of the magnet in the British iron and steel trades during -the past four years, this system of handling ferrous metals is still -in its infancy. It has been neglected far too long. Yet it is a force -which in the future must play an increasing important role, because it -is generally admitted that, to offset the higher wages incidental to -production, it is imperative for manufacturers to exploit fully every -possible time, labour, and money-saving device. The magnet is one of -the most attractive contributory factors to this end, especially in -connection with the handling of iron and steel waste, that has yet been -contrived.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI<br />RECLAIMING 321,000,000 GALLONS OF LIQUID FUEL FROM COAL</h2> -</div> - - -<p>It has been said, doubtless with a good deal of truth, that Britain -owes her manufacturing prosperity to her abundant domestic resources -of fuel. But, in the exploitation of our coal reserves, we emulate the -rat in the corn-bin. We waste quite as much, if not more, than we ever -use. The country around our collieries is disfigured with huge dumps, -among which are thousands of tons of what is really low-grade fuel. -Occasionally a tip-heap will catch fire, to burn sullenly for weeks and -months. One such large dump in the United States burned uninterruptedly -for years. This would not be possible if there were not present a large -volume of combustible matter—coal—associated with the so-called -useless material.</p> - -<p>The colliery tip-heaps, while formidable in the aggregate, and -representing a crushing indictment against our so-called advanced -scientific attainments, merely constitute one, and a minor, tangible -illustration of the great coal-waste issue. No matter in what -direction we may turn in this colossal industry, we find evidences of -improvidence and stupendous losses in varying degree.</p> - -<p>It is a matter for speculation whether any other raw material is so -prolific of residuals as coal. Oil is probably the solitary exception, -but then petroleum is closely allied to the solid fuel. But refuse -in regard to coal is equally ambiguous. The wastes vary so widely -in nature, while each grade of residue possesses its individual -possibilities. We are disposed to pride ourselves upon the big strides -we have made in our exploitation of these residues but,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span> as a matter of -fact, we have barely touched the Aladdin’s lamp which it represents.</p> - -<p>To render full justice to the coal-waste issue in all its kaleidoscopic -forms would absorb many volumes. The subject is so vast and complex. It -is my intention, within the scope of this chapter, to confine myself -to one specific substance derived from coal, one which we persistently -declined to consider in its real aspect until the fight for national -existence applied the sledge-hammer blows to drive into our heads that -we were guilty of criminal neglect. Why we should have required this -drastic force to compel us to admit our indifference towards a great -national asset it is difficult to explain. Our most formidable rival in -trade had been sparing no effort for years to achieve an overwhelming -industrial triumph therewith and to our discomfiture.</p> - -<p>As I have previously remarked, Germany revelled in our junk piles and -rubbish-heaps. The French <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chiffonnier</i> never raked over the -contents of a Parisian dust-bin more assiduously than did the German -rummage among our waste dumps. He was not too proud to bear away what -we disdained and rejected. It served as food to maintain the colossal -plants, equipped with elaborate and costly machinery, which he laid -down. We, on our part, were not backward in paying him, directly and -indirectly, to work up our wastes, especially those from coal, and were -ever ready to acquire the articles manufactured therefrom and at any -price he felt disposed to quote.</p> - -<p>While, to a certain degree, we have become wiser in our generation, -and are handling our coal resources and the residuals resulting -therefrom with less prodigality, we are still woefully improvident in -this field. The degree of waste, despite the reforms introduced, has -become accentuated essentially because of the increased magnitude of -this industry. The blind adherence to typically British methods and -ideas has led to some striking anomalies which to other nations must -appear almost incredible. For instance, the coming of the high-speed, -internal combustion motor emphasized the need for a volatile liquid -fuel. Experience proved the hydro-carbon, petrol, to be most eminently -adapted to the purpose. But Britain, as every one knows, has so far -proved to be as barren of paying petroleum deposits as is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span> the Sahara -of cornfields. So, as we could not produce petrol, we decided to buy it -from abroad, and continue to do so to this day.</p> - -<p>Yet we need never have bought a single gallon from a foreign country, -to keep our huge fleets of motor-omnibuses, taxi-cabs, touring cars, -lorries, vans, agricultural tractors, and motor-boats moving. If we -were as wideawake as we ought to be we should cease to buy a further -pennyworth from beyond the confines of the Empire forthwith, turning -the millions sterling we spent annually in this connection into the -pockets of our own workers and industries. It would not involve the -withdrawal of a single vehicle, and we should have the satisfaction -of knowing that we were absolutely independent of the foreigner in a -matter of most vital concern to the community—transport.</p> - -<p>The domestic analogue to imported petrol is benzol, the volatile -hydrocarbon coaxed from our old friend, King Coal. From the motoring -point of view this derivative from the mineral fuel is capable of -fulfilling every purpose in regard to transport which petrol can or -ever will do. Why we still refrain from setting out to recover this -spirit to the uttermost ounce, notwithstanding the lessons taught by -the war, is beyond comprehension. There are some kinks in British -mentality which defy all unravelling. The exploitation of liquid fuel -from coal is one of them.</p> - -<p>If we turn to the trading figures for the fiscal year 1913 we find -that we imported petrol to the extent of 100,588,017 gallons for -which we paid £3,803,397—$19,016,985. This money was sent out of -the country. Even our Dominions did not reap much benefit from our -liberality. Turning to the other side of the account we find that -during the self-same period we sold to foreign purchasers 30,415 -gallons of motor spirit <em>made in the United Kingdom</em>, and valued -at £1,420—$7,100! Our delightfully unbusinesslike way of doing things -left us £3,801,977—$19,009,885—on the wrong side, when really we -ought to have shown a substantial balance in our favour.</p> - -<p>Benzol is not only essential to the motor industry, but it is -absolutely indispensable to numerous other trades. Without it the -vast range of synthetic colours, marketed by the German firms, could -never have been attained. Had Germany embarked upon an economic -instead of a military<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span> war she could have forced the whole world into -abject surrender within a few months by withholding supplies of these -dye-stuffs, medicinal preparations, synthetic drugs, disinfectants, -and chemicals. This is borne out by the abnormal prices realized from -the sale of the small quantity of dyes which were smuggled across the -Atlantic to the United States of America by the commercial submarine -<i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutschland</i>. One small box containing 100 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of sky-blue -colouring realized £190 or 38s.—$950 or $9.50—a pound! Before the war -the self-same dye-stuff could be purchased readily for 2s.—50 cents—a -pound.</p> - -<p>By making the plunge along industrial lines Germany could have brought -our cotton, woollen, silk and other textiles, paper, paint—in short, -every trade into which colourings enter—to a dead standstill within a -very short time. The United States of America, France, Italy, and other -countries would have been forced into a similar condition of stagnation -and disaster. Germany, by virtue of her unlimited supplies of these -essentials to contemporary industry, would have been in the position to -have supplied the whole world—upon her own terms. Fortunately for us, -a bloodless victory to secure world-wide domination did not appeal to -the Teuton temperament.</p> - -<p>The official attitude, so far as this country is concerned, towards the -reclamation of the volatile liquid constituent, or waste, from coal has -always been one of negation. Contrast this tendency with that obtaining -in Germany, which set out to support private enterprise by installing a -comprehensive plant upon Government property to win 6,000,000 gallons -of benzol a year from state-owned and state-mined coal. The British -official attitude is additionally remarkable when it is borne in mind -that adequate supplies of this material are absolutely imperative to -the maintenance of our national security, because benzol constitutes -the backbone of modern high explosives.</p> - -<p>The recovery of benzol is every whit as essential to the community of -these islands as is the provision of drinking water. It may appear to -be Draconic to compel the delivery of the last ounce of benzol from the -coal or gas we burn, but there are many other enactments in force of -a more exasperating character, and which are productive of extremely -little benefit either to the individual or the community.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span> In this -particular instance no one would suffer in any way, because, while the -whole trend of scientific thought is towards the thorough recovery of -this valuable liquid fuel and industrial weapon, it does not hesitate -to demonstrate how the desired end can be obtained without inflicting -the slightest hardship upon the citizen.</p> - -<p>The steel trade demands huge quantities of coke to conduct its -operations. The carbon residue from coal is preferable to the raw -mineral fuel. To meet this technical requirement special ovens have had -to be evolved to turn the coal into coke. Yet for years we carried out -this conversion and allowed the substance thrown off in the process to -run to waste. We even continue to do this to-day. It was found that the -coke could be obtained more readily and easily, as well as cheaply, -by means of what is known as the bee-hive oven. This coke-producer -attracted the attention of the interests concerned because it was -not only cheap to install but inexpensive to maintain and renew, -while it facilitated compliance with the fluctuating demands for the -coke which naturally is due to the alternating periods of depression -and prosperity in the steel trade. But we have no monument to waste -comparable with the bee-hive oven. However, it became so firmly -entrenched as to prove wellnigh resistant to progress when science -came along with an improved system yielding a coke of equal quality, -but which had the additional recommendation of enabling all the other -products arising from distillation and which formerly were permitted to -escape, to be recovered.</p> - -<p>The virtues of the new method were conceded, but the heavier initial -expenditure which it entailed was regarded as an insurmountable adverse -feature, especially as the Britisher gave expression to another -peculiar trait in his character—would the revenue derived from the -by-products more than offset the increased costs, capital charges and -maintenance expenses? One disturbing factor demanded particularly -careful study. When the call for coke declines, and a certain number -of the ovens have to be closed down, they cannot be brought into -re-activity upon the revival in the steel trade without an overhaul.</p> - -<p>In restoring the ovens heavy expense is incurred. The antiquated and -wasteful bee-hive oven can be renovated at a trifling price, but the -modern by-products recovery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span> oven entails far heavier expense before -the resumption of operations. The charge varies according to the care -which has been bestowed upon its maintenance, but, if this has not -been conducted along careful lines it may easily incur an expenditure -ranging up to 15 per cent. of the original cost of the plant. This -charge, unless defrayed out of the renewals account, must be carried to -capital. In view of this circumstance the general practice has been to -install the by-product system to take care of the constant load—the -output of coke to the degree below which it cannot fall even in periods -of extreme depression—and to utilize the obsolete bee-hive oven to -take care of the fluctuations from the irreducible minimum to the -maximum. This margin being extremely wide naturally, the bee-hive still -holds sway, and so continues its wasteful reign unchecked.</p> - -<p>To extend their field of activity and to provide an outlet for the -products of their brains the Germans made an astute commercial move. -They expressed their readiness to equip the British coking plants with -their modern by-product recovery system on condition that they were to -be at liberty to acquire the liquid residual—benzol. The suggestion -found certain favour in British eyes. The benzol was a drug on the -home market, so its shipment to Germany was regarded as the solution -of a perplexing problem. In this manner Germany secured the necessary -raw materials from the British scrap-heap to feed her dye industry and -to pile up her reserves of high explosives against the day when the -gauntlet should be thrown down. There is a tendency in certain quarters -to assail the cunning competitor, but are we rather not to blame for -our own extreme shortsightedness, lack of initiative, and indolence?</p> - -<p>The coking-ovens, however, only absorb a portion of our total output -of coal, the annual average of which may be set down at approximately -260,000,000 tons. Subtracting 60,000,000 tons as the export figure, we -are left with a round 200,000,000 tons consumed at home. Of this figure -a round 100,000,000 tons is consumed during the year in the domestic -fire-grate.</p> - -<p>We all revel in the blazing fire in our rooms during the winter, but do -we reckon on the cost? The volume of heat thrown into the room is but -a trifling proportion of that emitted by the glowing coal. The greater -part flies up the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span> chimney, together with all the benzol, ammonia, and -other valuable constituents of the fuel. Immense volumes of soot pour -forth from the chimneys to pollute the atmosphere, disfigure buildings -and monuments, while the damage wrought within the rooms to fabrics, -curtains and other embellishments runs into millions sterling during -the year.</p> - -<p>Could this waste be avoided? Certainly. The domestic fire-grate does -not possess a single virtue. It should be scrapped forthwith. Coal, -as a household fuel, should be prohibited. It should be carbonized. -Coke, when burned under the most advantageous conditions, throws off -as much, if not more heat, and can be induced to shed practically the -whole thereof into the apartment. As the alternative to coke we might -rely exclusively on gas, releasing the whole of the carbon residue, -approximately 70 per cent. of which results from the distillation of -every ton of coal for industry. If we presume an average of 10,000 -cubic feet derivable from every ton of coal, then we find that the -100,000,000 tons burned annually in the household grates would give -us 1,000,000,000,000—one billion—cubic feet of gas, the whole of -which is at present being lost up the chimney. From this enormous -volume of gas, each 10,000 cubic feet of which contains on the average -two gallons of benzol capable of reclamation, we could, if we were -sufficiently energetic and enterprising, obtain 200,000,000 gallons of -benzol—twice the petrol imports for the year 1913. In comparison with -what liquid fuel we could derive from our coal the actual 41,000,000 -gallons secured to-day certainly appears to be trifling.</p> - -<p>Our methods of burning coal in the home, which is appallingly wasteful, -is equalled by the general folly investing our system of gas supply, -which is equally improvident, simply because we prefer to cling to the -obsolete order of things rather than to march with progress. Years ago, -to protect gas-consumers, a standard of value was established. The gas -had to comply with a certain candle-power standard. The unit thus was -one of luminosity. Such a system was satisfactory in days gone by, when -the practice was to use a burner and open flame of the fish-tail or -bat’s-wing shape. Then some method of standardizing gas according to -its luminous intensity undoubtedly was imperative.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span></p> - -<p>But judgment of gas by its luminosity with an open burner is effete. -It became relegated to the limbo of things that were by the discovery -of Welsbach, which effected a complete and wonderful revolution in gas -illumination. His invention supplied the means of securing brilliant -illumination with heat. This may sound paradoxical, but is readily -explained. The particles of the nitrates of the rare earths, thoria -and ceria, which enter into the composition of the incandescent gas -mantle, will not emit light until they have been raised to a high -degree of incandescence. This can only be achieved by using the mantle -in conjunction with an atmospheric, or Bunsen, burner.</p> - -<p>This invention rendered it no longer necessary for the gas to carry the -constituents which contributed to luminosity, among which was benzol. -With the mantle they are superfluous: in fact are deleterious. What -is required is a gas rich in the constituents contributing to heat. -Coal-gas, or as it is more familiarly called, town-gas, is rich in -these two essentials. They are hydrogen and methane or marsh-gas. When -burned under suitable conditions they are capable of giving off intense -heat, and the higher the degree of incandescence to which the rare -earths entering into the composition of the mantle can be raised, the -more brilliant the illumination.</p> - -<p>Consequently the time has arrived when the standardization of gas -according to luminous power should be thrown overboard in favour of one -based upon calorific value. This was introduced to a certain degree -as a temporary expedient during the war, but it should now be made -rigid. Signs of awakening to the true state of affairs are apparent. -The research committee appointed to investigate this question has -recommended that gas should be sold according to its calorific value, -and that all gas-consuming appliances should be adapted to the new -order of things.</p> - -<p>Should legislation be passed endorsing these recommendations it will -be possible for further huge quantities of benzol to be recovered from -our coal, or rather the gas derived from the volume of coal annually -absorbed for gas production. It is the benzol and toluene which impart -the luminous intensity to the gas, but which are unnecessary for the -production of heat. At the present moment the quantity of benzol -reclaimed from the coal absorbed by the gas-works<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span> is approximately -21,000,000 gallons a year—a fraction of what it might be.</p> - -<p>We may safely assume that of the 270,000,000 tons of coal we draw -from our collieries every year, at least 160,000,000 tons are capable -of such treatment as will enable the volatile liquid fuel to be -recovered. Upon the basis of two gallons per ton of coal this would -represent 320,000,000 gallons of benzol, of which huge quantity all but -41,000,000 gallons are being lost under contemporary conditions. The -value of this spirit at the moment may be set down at approximately -2s.—50 cents—per gallon. Thus we are deliberately throwing away -£27,900,000—$139,500,000—a year. It is being permitted to vanish into -thin air. This figure serves to bring home what the losses arising -from the neglect of waste really represent, and also reveals our -extraordinary lack of imagination and enterprise.</p> - -<p>Were we to recover the whole of the benzol content of coal we should -not only be able to satisfy the whole of the needs, aggregating about -150,000,000 gallons a year, of the domestic motor industry, but we -should be able to meet the requirements of the other industries -to which benzol is indispensable. There would be no need to grow -apprehensive concerning our coal-tar dye industry and the manufacture -of other products dependent upon materials derived from coal. The -British dye industry is in its infancy. At the moment its benzol -requirements are modest, being approximately 4,000,000 gallons a year. -But it is an industry which, given full opportunity, promises to thrive -and to expand amazingly, and so one may safely anticipate that its -benzol needs will advance by leaps and bounds.</p> - -<p>Moreover, one must not forget that, as yet, benzol itself is but little -understood, because it has not received the attention it deserves from -the chemist. If we decide to exploit our coal to the extent which -prudence dictates, the wizards of the laboratory will be encouraged -to embark upon further original research, and it is quite possible -that they will reveal other and equally promising applications for the -spirit of coal.</p> - -<p>While domestic users have not been fully alive to the possibilities of -British benzol other countries, notably France, were eager buyers of -what we ourselves failed to appreciate.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span> We need not sacrifice this -export trade: rather we should be able to cultivate and to expand it to -a very pronounced degree.</p> - -<p>In view of the part which benzol played in the war one hopes that -the Government will consider the situation in a more enlightened -spirit. The circumstance that we might be able to retrieve a round -£28,000,000—$140,000,000—a year should offer every inducement towards -compulsory modernization of methods in this particular province. -Benzol should be made a national issue. To compel the use of coke, -instead of coal, in the household, would go a long way to relieve the -coking-ovens and other distillation plants of all apprehensions of glut -accumulations of coke, and would tend to steady the output of this -fuel, as well as to bring about the abolition of the wickedly wasteful -bee-hive oven. Our gas standardization system should be overhauled to -ensure the sale of gas by its calorific rather than its luminous value. -The country might even do worse than to nationalize benzol, taking over -the whole of the output as a corollary to the compulsory distillation -of all bituminous coal. As the alternative it might undertake to -purchase what the trade could not sell, for naval purposes, inasmuch as -in the Senior Service the consumption of petroleum oils has reached an -impressive figure from the increasing use of oil fuel, practically the -whole of which at present has to be imported.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII<br />FERTILIZERS FROM WASTES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Nourishment is as essential to the land as it is to the animal kingdom. -This is particularly so in countries, such as the British Isles, -where the land has been worked assiduously, year after year, for -centuries. The co-relation between fertilizers and crop yields is too -obvious to demand other than mere mention. The main problem, in such -circumstances, is to secure sufficient quantities of the nutritive -constituents necessary, and at a price which shall render their -utilization profitable to the farmer, and enable the resultant food -products to be brought within the reach of the public at an attractive -figure.</p> - -<p>The worship of hygiene and the introduction of practices conducing -to the enhanced health and welfare of the community have served to -deprive the land of a heavy proportion of that food which, under -primitive conditions, it freely receives. Furthermore, the contemporary -agriculturist is not content with receiving from the land just what -Nature, if left to herself, is disposed to contribute. He practises -forced or intensive measures, and in so doing naturally accelerates and -accentuates the exhaustion of the soil.</p> - -<p>In so far as these islands are concerned—it was equally applicable to -other countries similarly affected—the stringency in natural manures -was aggravated by the acquisition of all available horse-power for -the battle-fronts as well as the need to husband straw for military -foraging purposes. So, to ensure the safety and yield of his crops, the -farmer has been compelled to fall back upon divers substances, natural -as well as chemical, or as they are more popularly termed, artificial -manures, although the word “artificial” in this interpretation is -somewhat ambiguous, seeing that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span> materials employed, for the most -part, enter into the scheme of Nature.</p> - -<p>Under normal conditions British soil was liberally fed with these -chemical fertilizers, especially of superphosphate, nitrate of soda, -and potash. And for all of these three indispensable soil-foods -we were dependent upon foreign sources of supply, which naturally -suffered interruption more or less as a result of the outbreak of -hostilities. During 1913 we imported 970,185 tons of these manuring -agents, for which we paid £3,333,612—$16,668,060. These figures do -not include potash, appreciable quantities of which, drawn from the -German mines, were used. But, taking the other two materials, phosphate -occupied first place in point of quantity with 539,016 tons valued -at £874,166—$4,370,830—while the Chilian nitrate claimed premier -position in value at £1,490,669—$7,453,345—for which we received -140,926 tons.</p> - -<p>Owing to the availability of the foreign manures there was a tendency -to turn a blind eye to our own producing capacity in regard to -plant-foods of the chemical order. But such an attitude was quite in -keeping with the British character; we preferred to pay compliments, in -the form of money, to other countries at the expense of our own. With -war we learned the folly of our ways and received an awakening, rude -but fruitful.</p> - -<p>Of the artificial fertilizers essential to plant life we can supply all -with the possible exception of the superphosphate, although in this -instance we are striving to develop our home resources. Chilian nitrate -may be superseded by the atmospheric nitrates: we can derive all the -potash we desire by the observance of the necessary care and the -lessons which science in its various phases is able to extend. Possibly -the results may not be so prolific as when the imported articles are -utilized, but this is merely a matter of opinion, and one upon which -even experts agree to differ.</p> - -<p>Of the domestic contributions to the artificial fertilizer issue, those -which have attracted the greatest measure of attention are sulphate of -ammonia and basic slag. So far as the first named, of the nitrogenous -group, is concerned, a remarkable reversion of opinion is to be -recorded. Prior to the war the British farmer, despite the fact that -sulphate of ammonia was obtainable in relatively large quantities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span> from -home sources, was not deeply impressed with its plant-feeding value. -At all events the domestic consumption was relatively low, 60,000 tons -being the maximum amount used in any pre-war year. But what the British -yeoman disdained, his foreign contemporary seized with avidity. During -1913 our exports of this waste, or by-product from our gas-works and -coking-ovens, totalled 323,054 tons worth £4,390,547—$21,952,735—out -of a total export of 704,071 tons of fertilizers valued at -£5,745,484—$28,727,420. France and Spain, as well as our sugar-growing -Dominions, were our largest customers, the farmers of which were -prepared to pay more for this soil stimulator than were their -contemporaries at home. But, as a result of experience gained under the -stress imposed by war, sulphate of ammonia found greater favour in the -eyes of our husbandmen. During 1916 the home consumption increased by -15,000 tons, a further 15,000 tons’ improvement was recorded during the -first three months of 1917, while for the 1917 season the figure rose -to 150,000 tons.</p> - -<p>Under normal conditions, in accordance with the law of supply -and demand, prices tend to rise coincidentally with the enhanced -manifestation of request, but the country took steps to protect the -consumer, and at the same time to remunerate the producers adequately. -Whereas the pre-war price for this fertilizing agent ranged from £12 -10s. to £14—$62.50 to $70—per ton, the war price was officially fixed -at £16—$80—per ton. Inasmuch, however, as the controlled quotation -included transport and delivery charges, the actual increase in the -cost was not appreciable.</p> - -<p>But it was the 1917-18 season which revealed the circumstance that -the virtues of sulphate of ammonia at last had really gripped the -British farmer. From the estimates which were carefully prepared the -requirements were set down at 220,000 tons. As a matter of fact they -notched 230,000 tons. Thus, in two short years, the consumption of -sulphate of ammonia by the hungry soil of Britain was quadrupled, a -really startling achievement. The total output of this commodity, -both in the solid and liquid forms, reached a round 400,000 tons, -and to-day stands at about 460,000 tons. Approximately, one-half of -this aggregate is forthcoming from our gas-works and the other half -from our coking-ovens and blast-furnaces. During the war the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span> balance -remaining after the needs of agriculture had been met, namely 170,000 -tons, was absorbed in the manufacture of munitions. But under restored -peace conditions this latter volume will be rendered available for home -consumption or export.</p> - -<p>Seeing that our pre-war export figure was 323,054 tons a year, it would -seem as if we are destined to lose some of our revenue from this trade. -Obviously only about 170,000, or at the utmost, 230,000 tons will be -available for our foreign customers. It would seem as if we are certain -to fall a round 100,000 tons short of their actual needs, which will -certainly be equal to the ante-bellum figure. As a matter of fact -the demand will probably be much heavier, considering that the land -of these customers has been denied this food for nearly five years; -at least supplies have only been forthcoming in small and totally -inadequate quantities. Moreover, the home demand is rising still, which -must tend to attenuate the quantities available for export.</p> - -<p>But there is no need for us to grow apprehensive. In another chapter -I deal with the benzol question, and illustrate how we might increase -our supplies of a home-produced fuel to displace imported petrol. In -meeting our domestic benzol requirements we can increase our output -of sulphate of ammonia at the same time. The ammonia is the substance -which so worried gas engineers during the early days of gas-lighting. -Then it was an unmitigated curse: to-day it is a blessing. The actual -yield of sulphate of ammonia from a ton of first-class gas-distilling -coal may be set down at 18 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> However, seeing that this varies -according to the quality of the coal, I will set this figure at 15 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, -which is distinctly conservative. On this basis, if the whole of the -coal burned to sheer waste in the private grates of the country, and -which may be set down at 100,000,000 tons under normal conditions, were -first carbonized, it would be possible to add at least 700,000 tons to -our present output of sulphate of ammonia, which would thus be brought -up to approximately 1,160,000 tons a year. This would be quite enough -to satisfy the needs of all our customers. But, at the present moment, -owing to our supineness, the ammonia and the benzol are being allowed -to fly up the chimney. Consequently every person who adheres to the -consumption of coal instead of coke, in the open grate, just because -a blaze is appreciated,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span> is doing his or her bit towards the loss, -assuming the value of the fertilizing agent at the modest figure of £10 -per ton, of £7,000,000—$35,000,000—per annum. Truly we are paying -dearly for the gratification of a whim.</p> - -<p>Second in popularity among the artificial fertilizers comes basic slag. -This is another waste product, being the refuse from our steel-works. -It has been allowed to pile up in the vicinity of our blast-furnaces to -the detriment and disfigurement of our countryside. But an observant -and persevering individual probed these unsightly heaps to discover -that they contained a valuable food for plants, and in sufficient -quantity to render it remunerative to pulverize the rock-like mass into -a fine powder. Forthwith, where phosphatic content was sufficiently -favourable, the dumps were taken in hand to be ground up into a flour -to be distributed over the soil.</p> - -<p>But the story related of sulphate of ammonia was destined to be -repeated in connection with basic slag. It found greater favour in -the eyes of the foreign farmer than it did with the native yeoman, -although in this instance the circumstance that a mistake was being -committed was discovered possibly more promptly. In 1913 our exports of -phosphatic refuse from our blast-furnaces were 165,100 tons, for which -we received £633,034—$3,165,170. The consumption upon our home lands -was about the same, so that the total output was a round 330,000 tons a -year. Here again, once the possibilities of the fertilizer were driven -home, an increased demand set in. From an attitude of indifference -British farmers turned to one of clamour. Fortunately, the first rush -was met by placing an embargo upon the export of this article, and, in -this way, double the quantity was at once secured for native needs.</p> - -<p>The demand soon absorbed this extra quantity, and then it became -necessary to increase the output of the article. But in this instance -the problem was not so readily solved. In the first place the farmer -was not disposed to accept this fertilizer when its phosphatic content -fell below 25 per cent. But the proportion of phosphate varies widely -according to the district whence the ore is forthcoming, as well as the -actual smelting process followed. It may range up to as high as 44 per -cent. or more; on the other hand it may fall to as low as 12 per cent. -or less.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span></p> - -<p>Owing to the comparatively limited demand which prevailed for this -article before the war, only comparatively few firms essayed the -necessary grinding of the rock-like waste from the blast-furnaces. -Again it was by no means an easy matter to maintain the slag to the -desired phosphate quality. Another disturbing factor was that the -smelting of steel, in common with other industrial process, is in a -constant state of transition and improvement. This evolution was found -to be affecting the slag very adversely, because the tendency was -towards lowering of the phosphoric acid content.</p> - -<p>However, it was discovered that, while the available dumps showing a -phosphatic content of 25 per cent. or more were severely limited, there -were an appreciable number of slag heaps carrying a lower percentage, -ranging down to 17 per cent. of the necessary constituent. These were -taken in hand to be passed through the grinding mills. Even this -contribution proved insufficient. The demand was met only by working -heaps of inferior phosphate quality and adjusting the price according -to the percentage of the phosphoric acid present, the figure naturally -rising as the proportion improved.</p> - -<p>The increase in the consumption of basic slag was remarkable. The -1916 figure was double that of 1913, the whole of the 165,000 tons -formerly exported being absorbed. Increased producing facilities and -the exploitation of a lower grade waste, as already mentioned, served -to increase the consumption for 1917 a further 150,000 tons to 500,000 -tons, which represented the maximum capacity of the works specializing -in this product. But although the latter could not be extended to -meet the still rising demand, owing to the difficulties encountered -in connection with the provision of machinery, every effort was made -to keep supply astride of demand. Many cement works throughout the -country had been compelled to cease operations owing to the stoppage -of constructional activity and were lying dormant. As these possessed -machinery excellently adapted to the preparation and grinding of the -slag they were pressed into service, especially for dealing with the -lower-grade waste from the blast-furnaces. In this way provision was -made for lifting the output to 600,000 tons or more a year.</p> - -<p>So far as the superphosphates are concerned the deficiency<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span> experienced -in this connection has not been so easy of solution. Our resources in -the essential material, so far as is known, are somewhat sparse, while -a further problem arose in connection with the sulphuric acid, which -was in keen request for other purposes. The issue was met by continuing -the importation of the crude rock from the northern coast of Africa, -and in this manner we contrived to satisfy our needs. But, during this -period, the opportunity was taken to ascertain whether or no there did -happen to be any suitable rock or other waste which we were neglecting, -inasmuch as the moment war ceased immense quantities of sulphuric acid, -then being absorbed for the production of munitions and other military -requirements, would be released. Investigation was directed once again -to the coprolite beds in the Eastern Counties which were formerly -worked to yield artificial manures of this character, but which had -been abandoned. They were again taken up, and a domestic superphosphate -production industry resuscitated upon a limited scale. But whether -under normal trading conditions it will prove remunerative to continue -this phase of native activity time alone can prove.</p> - -<p>The only remaining fertilizer which was a source of perturbation to -the British agricultural industry was potash, which is absolutely -essential to certain lands and specific crops. Germany was in the -position to dominate this industry throughout the world, and she did -not hesitate to wield the power she possessed to her own advantage. In -pre-war days we imported about 240,000 tons of this chemical, but the -greater part was absorbed by other industries, such as glass-making, to -which it is vital. Only about 22,000 tons found their way to the land. -Nevertheless, the demand in this, as in other directions, was upwards -and prices rose by leaps and bounds, even touching about £60—$300—per -ton at one time.</p> - -<p>Yet we have virtually solved our potash difficulty, and certainly will -be able to meet all farming requirements in connection therewith if we -only sustain our initiative. We have an abundance of waste materials -whence we might obtain all that we need, but for the most part we -have spurned them with disdain. It has been so much easier to procure -our requirements from the country across the North Sea, although, -in expending money in this direction, we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span> materially contributed -towards the construction of the much-vaunted High Seas Fleet. But when -necessity compelled us to cast around to work out our own salvation we -encountered many surprises. Germany will doubtless be equally surprised -in future when she discovers how little dependence we need place upon -her vast resources. During the war potash was in urgent request for -munitions, but the demand in this connection will no longer prevail, -or, at least, only to a limited extent, thereby allowing commercial and -industrial fields to acquire what they need, and at a fair price. We -shall be foolish if we allow ourselves to abandon the exploitation of -our potash-yielding wastes merely by slavishly clinging to the pre-war -price for this commodity, which was about £10—$50—per ton. To do so -will be to sacrifice our national security and wealth upon the altar of -cheapness.</p> - -<p>The wastes capable of being persuaded to yield potash are far more -numerous than may possibly be conceived. And this chemical is derivable -from some of the least-expected founts. A Yorkshire gentleman, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> E. -E. Lawson, threw a bundle of banana stalks upon his polished office -chair and allowed them to remain there for some time. When he removed -the stalks he noticed that the juice exuding from the stalks had played -sad havoc with the finish to the furniture. This action pointed to the -presence of potash in the juice, and apparently in material quantity to -remove the polish so effectively. So he suggested to a chemical friend, -<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> R. H. Ellis, that it might be profitable to analyse the contents -of the stalk to ascertain just how much potash it carried. This was -done, and the result was somewhat startling, indicating 45·9 per cent. -of potash and practically no soda. The subject was then investigated -by <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> A. J. Hanley, of the Agricultural Department of the Leeds -University, and his analysis confirmed the former finding. The dried -matter of the original banana stalk was found to be as rich in potash -as kainit, the popular fertilizer of this class. These investigations -sufficed to establish the possibility of extracting 188 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of dried -matter from a ton of banana stalk containing 13·7 per cent. of potash, -or 54 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of ash containing 47·5 per cent., or 25 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of pure potash.</p> - -<p>The yield from the individual ton may seem to be too small to be worth -considering. But reflect upon the normal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</span> consumption of bananas in -this country! The annual importation ranges from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 -bunches, which represents an equal number of stalks—mere refuse. -According to <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Ellis, under normal conditions the stalks average a -round 4,000 in number weekly in Leeds alone. When stripped, the average -weight of the stalk is 4 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr>, so that there are 16,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of stalk -wasted every week in the Yorkshire city. Properly treated, about 1,340 -<abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of dried matter, rich in potash, could be secured therefrom to feed -the land.</p> - -<p>Applying the reclamation process to the whole of the country, it -should be possible to secure from 28,000,000 to 32,000,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of -banana stalk, giving from 2,350,000 to 2,700,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of dried matter -containing 13·7 per cent. of potash—from 321,000 to 370,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of -potash—during the year. If the stalks were carbonized they would -yield from 675,000 to 771,428 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of ash containing from 320,000 to -366,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of pure potash. This may represent but a small fraction of -the total agricultural consumption of 22,000 tons per annum, but it -would be a contribution from a waste product which now has to suffer -destruction with the total loss of all beneficial values. The primary -difficulty, of course, would be in connection with the recovery of -the stalks, but a reorganization of our selling methods, such as the -compulsory return of the denuded stalks to the fruit markets for -ultimate bulk collection, would go a long way towards the solution of -this problem. The question arises as to whether we should not find it -advisable to dispose of all vegetable and fruit waste along individual -lines, inasmuch as other refuse of this character contains potash in -varying proportions. By the establishment of a small, inexpensive and -suitable furnace in the markets for the treatment of all waste it -would be possible to recover valuable fertilizing ash in sufficient -quantities to allow bagging and sale upon the spot. Such treatment -would be no more expensive than that in operation to-day, involving -transport to, and combustion in, the destructor.</p> - -<p>Tobacco is another product rich in potash, particularly the ash. Here -recovery would prove an exceptionally difficult task, but it has been -suggested that the conservation of ash and the discarded ends of -cigars and cigarettes from clubs, hotels, and other centres possessing -smoking-room<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span> amenities might be encouraged. The total during the year -would be impressive. Certainly collection from such quarters would not -be attended with difficulty, while the price payable for the residue -might be made sufficiently attractive as to induce the attendants to -garner this residue.</p> - -<p>So far as the exploitation of waste for potash content in this country -is concerned only one established practice, which is extremely -precarious, has ever met with recognition upon a limited scale. This is -the extraction of the precious substance from kelp, or <i>vraic</i>, -to mention two of the names under which the familiar seaweed is known. -The treatment of this waste is conducted along crude lines, but it is -doubtful whether our available knowledge could suggest a more skilled -method. British seaweed does not resemble that recovered off the -coasts of Japan and the Pacific seaboard of the United States, where -the recovery of potash from this residue from the sea has become an -established industry.</p> - -<p>Yet Britain need not pay a further penny tribute to Germany. We -are able to free ourselves entirely from the German yoke, and can -confidently look forward to such a happy state of affairs so long as -the steel age reigns. The raw material dumped into the blast-furnaces -carries a certain proportion of potash. But it has always been -permitted to escape. Being associated with the fine dust it was borne -through the flues, a certain proportion being deposited therein, but at -least 90 per cent. was irretrievably lost. Threatened famine compelled -us to devote attention to the possibility of arresting this fugitive -potash, and our efforts have met with success. The furnace flue dust -is trapped to be passed through a special plant for further treatment. -Previous to the war the economical and fiscal conditions would not -have permitted such a practice with profit. The requisite plant is -necessarily somewhat costly to install and to operate. Had we decided -upon such a course of action the Germans would promptly have forced the -process into bankruptcy by resort to price-cutting tactics. The Potash -Syndicate was exceedingly powerful, and it never hesitated to wield its -power, as the United States of America have every occasion to remember -when, a few years ago, it came into conflict with the German Government -in regard to inter-trading, and was brought full tilt against the -potash ace of trumps. Had we ventured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span> to dispute the German monopoly -by any attempt to exploit our flue-dust we should have upset a pretty -kettle of fish and should have been bludgeoned into surrender. It is -to be hoped that the authorities will hesitate to play so completely -into the enemy’s hands again, although this is fortunately very -unlikely because the Teuton monopoly has been broken effectively by the -restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France which carries, among other -numerous advantages in raw materials, the immense potash deposits -which the Germans worked so profitably to their own ends. Still, even -this achievement should not dissuade us from continuing to exploit the -waste dust recovered from our blast-furnaces. Immense quantities of -the essential material are forthcoming, the potash content of which -varies from 3 to 13 per cent. As output increases it should be capable -of recovery at a decreasing figure and at one which should enable the -indispensable product to be placed upon the market at a competitive -figure.</p> - -<p>The foregoing does not exhaust the list of potash-yielding wastes -possible of exploitation. It is recoverable from wool in the washing -process; feldspar also contains potash; farmyard manure will yield -it in attractive proportions—from 9 to 15 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> per ton; while liquid -manure also carries it to the extent of 40 to 45 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> per 1,000 gallons. -Thus it will be seen that we need never suffer from an actual famine in -potash if we but resolve to exploit our wastes to the utmost.</p> - -<p>I have referred in a previous chapter to the value of leather waste -as a fertilizer. Five years ago we did not pursue this problem -along determined lines, mainly because we did not really understand -its preparation, while our farmers did not regard the product then -marketed with favour. But to-day there is a welcome change both in -productive methods and the agricultural attitude. Some large plants -for the treatment of the leather waste have been laid down and are -being brought into operation. Two distinctive treatments are being -followed. In the one instance the curried leather—sheer residue from -the boot factories possessing no other possible use—is being submitted -to treatment for the extraction of the greases and fats used in the -dressing processes. In the second system these fats, owing to their low -grade and as yet absence of possible industrial use, are being ignored, -although they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</span> disappear for the most part from the product in the -course of treatment. Otherwise the two methods are broadly identical. -The leather is carbonized and then reduced to a dark greyish powder. In -this form it meets with the full approval of the farmer, and, as its -nitrogen content is said to range up to 9 per cent., it is meeting with -ready disposal, the demand at the present moment being far in excess -of supply. At one works an output of 60 tons a week is being recorded, -which incidentally indicates the quantity of leather waste incurred in -our boot-producing factories.</p> - -<p>I have also drawn attention to the extent to which fish scrap is now -being treated, and here again highly satisfactory developments are -to be narrated, the trade, especially in regard to the production -of fertilizer, being in a flourishing condition. Fish guano appeals -to the farmer, owing to its high content of ammonia and phosphate -which aggregate approximately 20 per cent. At one fish waste reducing -factory the output is 20 tons every 24 hours, the plant being run on -continuous lines, but arrangements are being completed to double the -capacity to secure an output of 40 tons during the 24 hours. Hitherto -the farmer has not been completely enamoured of fish manure because -in certain instances, notably in the treatment of the oily fish, such -as the herring, the grease content, which was as anathema to him, -was somewhat heavy. But the perfection of the solvent extraction -process which I have described, and whereby the oil contained in the -finished fertilizing meal can be reduced to as low as 1 per cent., has -completely removed this disability.</p> - -<p>As is well known, bone-meal is a popular fertilizer. In this -instance, although the fatty content of the crude bones may be high, -the processes of degreasing have been advanced to such a stage of -perfection as to bring about virtually the total elimination of this -objectionable constituent. The fertilizer, if properly prepared, -will not carry more than 1 per cent. of grease. The bones undergo a -very thorough treatment, because this waste is able to feed several -industries.</p> - -<p>Sewage is also coming more widely into favour as a fertilizer, as -I explain in another chapter, while residues incurred in other -ramifications of industry are now being carefully collected instead -of being permitted to dissipate into the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span> air or to pass to the -furnaces for combustion. The dust arising from the reduction of -woollen rags into shoddy forms an excellent hop manure. Dried blood -is another first-class fertilizer—in fact it would be difficult to -enumerate all the wastes which can now be profitably exploited for -their soil-nourishing values. Speaking broadly, it may be stated that -any refuse which, upon investigation, is able to yield 3 or more per -cent. of nitrogen demands further examination for the discovery of -the cheapest ways and means to reduce it to a fertilizer for sale -at an attractive figure. If price be right no apprehensions need be -entertained concerning disposal; the farmer will absorb the plant food, -to nourish his crops, with eagerness.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII<br />SAVING THE SEWAGE SLUDGE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In matters pertaining to sanitation and the movement of sewage Great -Britain undoubtedly leads the world. There our conquest ends. From -that point onwards we can only point to lamentable inefficiency. -For instance, the lay-out of the main drainage system of London, -undoubtedly the finest illustration of such engineering in the world, -has involved a capital expenditure of £12,514,606—$62,573,030. By the -provision of enormous conduits and feeders the excrementitious matter -from residences, offices, workshops, and factories of the metropolis -is borne for miles to central stations. In this manner those natural -and trade wastes, construed as being inimical to health, are removed -swiftly and hygienically, and we compliment ourselves upon our prowess, -which certainly is justifiable so far as it goes.</p> - -<p>But when we come to the treatment of this material we fail miserably. -At the central station the solid matter, in reality a mud or sludge, -is separated from the free liquid. The disposal of the latter offers -little or no difficulty. It can be rendered innocuous, and is therefore -permitted to resume its part in the scheme of Nature. But the sludge: -that is a different proposition. A few figures concerning the situation -in regard to London may prove illuminating. Certainly they will serve -to demonstrate the magnitude of the volume of this waste. During the -year over 100,000,000,000 million gallons of sewage are received -from approximately 5,350,000 people occupying 95,000 acres. Each -million gallons of sewage yields about 25 tons of sludge. The total -quantity of solid matter is approximately 200,000 tons. It costs about -30s.—$7.50—to treat and dispose of each million gallons of raw -sewage.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span></p> - -<p>The total yield of sludge exceeds 2,600,000 tons a year. It is an -incubus having no ostensible commercial value, so is transferred -to vessels to be carried out to sea where it is thrown overboard. -Seeing that it costs about £17 13s.—$88—to run each vessel out -and back again, and that some 111,000 journeys are made during the -year, dumping the sludge costs the ratepayers of London nearly -£2,000,000—$10,000,000—a year. The crime incidental to London is -repeated throughout the country, and in this way, as Sir William -Crookes pointed out, the nation is deliberately discarding 16,000,000 -tons of valuable nitrogenous material which, were it subject to proper -treatment, might be reclaimed to participate in the nourishment of our -broad acres. Estimating the value of this potential fertilizing agent -at the modest figure of one ¹⁄₂<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>—1 cent—per pound we are, of malice -aforethought, throwing away a round £35,000,000—$175,000,000—per -annum. But this is not the most disturbing feature. For the most part -the sludge, and in the case of seaside towns the crude sewage, is -discharged upon potential valuable fishing grounds, to the destruction -or infection of the fish, especially shell-fish. Furthermore, one must -not imagine because the objectionable and dangerous refuse is abandoned -well out to sea its serious dangers are removed. Tides and currents -play strange tricks, the result being that much of this filth is thrown -back upon the coasts, perhaps at a distant point, to wreak possible -havoc.</p> - -<p>Civilization breeds a strange fastidiousness. The idea of reclaiming -sewage for exploitation is repulsive to the average individual, -although he does not turn a hair at the use of the comparative material -derived from the animal kingdom for the nourishment of the soil, and -the feeding of produce cultivated essentially for the table. The -argument often raised against any exploitation of excrement is that it -has become associated with many other deleterious substances, which -have been thrown or allowed to run down the drain, as the readiest -avenue for their disposal. But the very circumstance that such waste -has become compounded with other residues, many of which are worth -reclamation, should be sufficient to induce us to regard sewage not -as an incubus or danger, but as a mine worthy of development to its -fullest extent.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, the objection to the exploitation of sewage<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</span> for its -commercial contents is in process of being over-ruled by the growth of -a more enlightened attitude towards the whole issue, although it is -to be feared, in accordance with the precept that what the eye does -not see the heart does not grieve, the more progressive policy is -being sanctioned unconsciously. It is safe to assert that, but for the -war, which retarded the hands of progress very pronouncedly, the new -movement in regard to the handling of this material would have made a -material advance. Even to-day the outlook is not hopeless, inasmuch as -the accentuated need to make every use possible of waste products may -result in the sewage exploitation problem being attacked with enhanced -energy.</p> - -<p>What can be done with sewage is revealed by the action of one or two -towns which have taken their courage into their own hands, notably -Bradford and Oldham. In these two instances the modern handling of -sewage was assumed before the war, so that the experience gathered -during the past six years may prove sufficiently convincing to permit -the whole subject to be attacked more in consonance with contemporary -thought, which views all wastes in one light—potential raw materials -for other industries.</p> - -<p>Changing conditions and the need to cope with this residue along more -comprehensive lines, in accordance with the growth of the population -and the quantity of material to be handled, were responsible for the -change from the old method to the new in both instances. In the case -of Bradford the Corporation found it necessary to establish new works -about six miles distant from the centre of the city, and was faced with -the necessity to expend £1,250,000—$6,250,000—in connection with the -undertaking. In view of such a heavy capital committal perhaps it was -only logical to consider the possibility of rendering the sewage more -remunerative in the future than it had been in the past. Any revenue -to be derived from exploitation in such a field must react to the -advantage of the community affected, more especially when such action -does not jeopardize the health of the citizens to the slightest degree.</p> - -<p>Of course, the situation in so far as it concerns Bradford was somewhat -unusual. The city is the hub of the wool-scouring trade of the country, -and in treating the sewage much of the wealth allowed to slip down the -drains from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</span> cleaning the wool is open to reclamation. The one great -mistake, if such it may be called, of which Bradford has been guilty, -in view of the volume of grease contained in the effluents, is ever to -have permitted these wastes to pass into the drains and sewers. They -should have been collected and treated as a separate entity. But, as -this would have entailed combination of the interests concerned, an -admittedly difficult undertaking under voluntary conditions, the city -authorities decided to repair the sins of omission upon the part of -its industrial citizens and to assume the recovery of the valuable -materials which were being allowed to escape.</p> - -<p>This manifestation of commendable enterprise and initiative owes its -origin mainly to the activity of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Joseph Garfield, A.M.I.C.E., the -sewage engineer. Many years ago the idea of turning the sewage of the -city to industrial account occurred to him, and he embarked upon a -prolonged series of exhaustive experiments. These were sufficiently -conclusive and sufficiently promising of profit as to persuade the -adoption of the methods he advocated at the critical moment, which -arrived when the provision of a new sewage station became imperative.</p> - -<p>The plant for dealing with the sludge was moved from the old situation -to new buildings specially erected for the purpose at Esholt, and the -raw material is fed to the latter station through a special main. The -sludge contains only 80 per cent. of water, the free water having been -previously removed by settling. It is fed into the main by compressed -air. Upon its arrival at the station the sludge is lifted, also by -compressed air, into large vats, where it is heated by the waste -steam from the engines of the power plant. In this heated condition -the sludge passes into close-sealed vessels from which, still at a -temperature approaching boiling point, it is forced by compressed air -through the filter presses. Each of these presses, of which there are -about 100 disposed in rows, contains 47 chambers, each 3 feet square.</p> - -<p>As already stated, the sewage of Bradford is heavily charged with -grease resulting from wool-washing and other industries, and it is this -heavy proportion of grease which renders the process so attractive. -Moreover, by keeping the sludge in a heated condition during the -pressing process the expression of the fatty content is more readily -effected.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</span> From 40 to 48 hours are required to fill a press with -residuum, that is to say this period of time must elapse before the -whole of the available space within the press is occupied by the dry -cake from which the grease has been expressed, by which time from -four to five tons of sludge have been passed through. Each cake is 3 -feet square by 1¹⁄₂ inches thick and weighs about 30 cwt. The grease -and water which is driven out of the sludge is carried away from the -presses into tanks. Here the water and grease are separated, the water -to be re-discharged into the sewage, while the grease is led to the -purification tanks. Subsequently the fat is either drawn off into -barrels or is pumped into tank wagons for dispatch to the works where -it is worked up into articles of commerce, including soap. The oil is -found to yield three valuable products—olein, stearine, and pitch. The -two last named enter extensively into the dressing of leather, as well -as the manufacture of candles and as an insulator for electric cables, -respectively.</p> - -<p>The installation yields from 12 to 15 tons of grease throughout the -twenty-four hours, working, of course, being continuous. This product -in the days before the war commanded from £8 to £10—$40 to $50—per -ton, but the price is now higher. The sludge-cakes find favour as a -fertilizer, mainly from the fact that they are free from lime and -carry only from 28 per cent. to 30 per cent. of moisture. This residue -fetched from 3s.—75 cents—upwards per ton at the works in pre-war -days, when a healthy export was recorded, the product being shipped -in appreciable quantities to France and even to the Southern States -of America. The output of cake averages from 50 to 60 tons per day. -In addition to proving useful as a fertilizer it has been found to -furnish, when blended with coal-dust, a serviceable fuel.</p> - -<p>The revenue derived from this example of sewage industry is certainly -such as to attract widespread attention. In the early days of the -process, when only two presses were maintained to establish its -possibilities, the grease sales reached £222 10s. 6d.—$1,112.62—per -annum. In 1911 the annual revenue had risen to a figure ranging between -£20,000 and £30,000—$100,000 and $150,000—from the enlarged battery -of presses. When the new works were opened it was anticipated that the -Corporation would be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</span> deriving £50,000—$250,000—a year from the sale -of the products derived from its sewage upon the attainment of the -designed maximum output. Up to the year 1911 the total sales amounted -to no less than £100,000—$500,000. From the recital of these figures -it must be conceded that Bradford has a very profitable commercial -enterprise in its sewage works.</p> - -<p>Yet even the foregoing figures are undoubtedly capable of improvement -owing to the advances made in the whole issue of the recovery of fats -from wastes. The pressing system, even when conducted along the most -modern lines with up-to-date plant, leaves much to be desired in point -of yield. Under the most favourable pressing conditions at least 10 -per cent. of the original volume of grease is left in the residue. The -presence of this grease reacts against the value of the residue as a -fertilizer, grease being the bugbear of the farmer. With the latest -process for grease extraction this content can be reduced down to 1 per -cent. Not only does this represent an increased yield of 9 per cent. -of fat with its attendant enhanced financial return, but it gives a -fertilizer which, being exceedingly low in fat, appeals more strongly -to the farmer, and accordingly is able to command a higher price. This -fact appears to have become appreciated by the Bradford authorities -according to recent developments.</p> - -<p>Because such a striking success has been recorded at Bradford, it is -not to say that the self-same method would be equally profitable at -other places, especially those handling what might be termed purely -domestic sewage. The conditions existing at the Yorkshire city are -peculiar, owing to the wool-washing trade. The process which is more -likely to make the widest appeal, being the one adapted to meet the -average conditions, is that which has been installed in the borough -of Oldham. This is the invention of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> J. Grossmann, M.A., Ph.D., -F.I.C., the well-known chemical engineer, who has made the exploitation -of sewage his life-long study. The plant in question was laid down -in 1912, being set in operation in October of that year, since which -date it has been working without a break, giving the most satisfactory -results. At the time the installation was carried out the population of -the borough was 148,840, and both the water-carriage and sanitary-pan -system were in vogue,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</span> although the latter was giving way to the former -method at the rate of about one thousand per year. As the conversion -system was carried into effect the quantity of sludge which the sewage -works were called upon to handle increased, the quantity pressed in -1911 being nearly 8,000 tons a year as compared with 4,000 tons in -1899. This did not include the several hundred tons which were dealt -with in lagoons without pressing. As the quantities of pressed sludge -increased so did the difficulty of disposing thereof.</p> - -<p>The outlook was somewhat disconcerting. The agricultural land in the -vicinity could only absorb a portion of the available volume. The -necessity to incur the expense of carrying the residue a considerable -distance to dispose of it, which solution would have proved somewhat -costly, appeared to be inevitable. Experiments innumerable were carried -out, but to no purpose. Agriculture, which is regarded as the obvious -outlet for such material, was adverse to the proposal to absorb the -accumulation for the land, because it carried approximately 15 per -cent. of grease. The only escape from the dilemma appeared to be -the installation of further presses with the attendant expense for -auxiliaries to yield a dry material, and then to pay for the cartage -of this residue to some convenient tipping ground or carriage of the -settled sludge to sea to be dumped. As a round 30,000 tons of sludge -would have been involved, the sea-dumping expedient would have been -extremely costly. Further consideration of the question established the -possibility of converting the material into a marketable manure, but -this would have required the utilization of a trade process and also -would have incurred expense.</p> - -<p>At this juncture the attention of the Corporation was attracted to <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> -Grossmann’s process. It was investigated and submitted to searching -experiments spread over a period of three years at the sewage works. -From the results obtained and the experience gathered, it gave promise -of being completely successful when conducted upon a large scale. So it -was adopted.</p> - -<p>The Grossmann process may be said to represent the most logical -exploitation of sewage yet attempted in accordance with the severe -hygienic conditions imposed to-day. Curiously enough, when the disposal -of sewage by water-carriage was first introduced, the critics of the -principle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</span> did not hesitate to point out that it represented the most -wasteful solution of the problem which had ever been accepted for -practice. But against these contentions the advocates of the idea urged -that the hygienic advantages to be gained were so overwhelming that the -question should not be considered from the commercial view-point at all.</p> - -<p>Other days, other manners. In this instance, however, not many years -passed before the issue attracted such widespread attention as to -demand searching investigation, the difficulty and cost attending -the disposal of the sludge being responsible for a pronounced outcry -against the method. The sludge problem was thoroughly probed by a Royal -Commission, by which the opinion was expressed that the value of this -waste, calculated upon the volume of dry substance contained therein, -was no more than 10s.—$2.50—per ton at the very outside. But as the -sludge is produced in a form showing a high percentage of water it -was hopeless to expect farmers to absorb it, owing to the transport -charges involved for such a comparatively low manurial return, unless -their land happened to be situate close to the centres of production. -To overcome the water difficulty attempts were made to dry the sludge, -in the effort to reduce its bulk, but it was discovered that drying did -not constitute a complete sterilization process, with the result that -the material was liable to carry infection. But the greatest objection -to drying is that this very process, while it achieves one end—the -transport difficulty—provokes another disability. The sewage is worth -less after drying than in the saturated form.</p> - -<p>The presence of fat in material quantities has always been responsible -for agricultural hostility towards this waste as a fertilizer. The fat -is due to soap used in the household, and which is thrown down the -drains, as well as the grease resulting from other domestic operations. -The great objection to grease is that it has the tendency to clog the -soil.</p> - -<p>In turn efforts were made to dispose of the nuisance as a fuel, the -heavy proportion of oil present in the dried cake being the attractive -feature prompting this application. This recommendation found scanty -favour. Another brilliant mind conceived the idea of consuming the -refuse in gas-producers, thus obtaining a low-grade gas for power -purposes. This attempt failed to meet approbation. A third<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</span> expedient -was its conversion into an illuminating gas, but this likewise failed -to overcome the obstacle. In so far as lighting is concerned, in many -places the practice is followed of allowing the gas thrown off by -the decomposing fæcal matter during its passage through the sewers, -to be led to the burners of adjacent street lamps to mix with the -ordinary town gas and thus be consumed. But this is merely a safety -precaution; it is not followed from economical motives. Now that -electricity is widely displacing gas for street illumination, even this -quasi-utilitarian system is meeting with defeat.</p> - -<p>Under the Grossmann system, as practised at Oldham, the sludge is -subjected to a complete scientific treatment. The process is continuous -and automatic throughout. Moreover, the plant is designed and built -upon the unit principle, which allows the standardization of parts and -ability to meet any desired demand by merely acquiring a sufficient -number of units to comply with the sewage resulting from a given -population. Each unit is capable of dealing with sludge arising from -the purely domestic sewage of 20,000 inhabitants. Thus a town of -100,000 inhabitants would require 5 units, a city of one million souls -50 units, and so on in arithmetical progression. Furthermore, any -number of units can be worked together, so that in those centres where -the population fluctuates according to season or other conditions, a -certain number of units can be shut down during the off period.</p> - -<p>The sludge passes to a special tank and is permitted to settle down -to approximately 20 per cent. solid matter. It is then scooped up by -bucket elevators to be lifted and discharged into another tank at the -top of the building. This acts as the storage tank or hopper, whence -it is moved automatically by means of screw conveyors and distributed -among six hoppers. Each of these hoppers feeds a drying machine. The -driers, set out in pairs with their brickwork casings and flues, occupy -the upper room. The machines themselves comprise iron cylinders set in -the brickwork and coal-fired furnaces. They are fitted with a specially -designed gearing and pulley mechanism which gradually moves the crude -wet sludge from the inlet towards the opposite end or outlet. Being -exposed to heat during this passage the sludge is naturally deprived of -the water it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</span> contains, this being evaporated to be led to the furnace -where any offensive gases and other matter associated therewith in -suspension are consumed before passing to the chimney to escape into -the outer air. By the time the sludge reaches the outlet it has been -completely dried.</p> - -<p>The arrangement of the feed from the hopper to the drier is such that -only a measured quantity of sludge can be passed through in a given -time, which ensures the condition of the sludge at the outlet being -uniform. The provision of a similar measuring system at the outlet of -the drier ensures only a measured quantity of sludge being discharged -at that point. It will be observed that these protective devices guard -against forcing the apparatus to the detriment of the delivered sludge -which emerges from the drier in the form of a dry powder.</p> - -<p>If desired this residue may be burned. Mixed with coke it forms an -excellent fuel, and can be employed towards raising the requisite steam -to conduct the treatment of further sewage. But, in view of the fact -that this powder contains about 15 per cent. of fat, its disposal as a -fuel would constitute about the most wasteful conceivable. Accordingly, -the next stage is the extraction of the fatty content. As it comes -from the drying apparatus the sludge is passed automatically into a -distilling retort which is bricked-in and heated. Above this retort -is a tank containing acid, a certain quantity of which is passed -into the retort to be automatically mixed with the powdered sludge. -Simultaneously superheated steam is driven through the mass in such a -manner as to permeate the whole. The interior of the retort is fitted -with gearing and pulleys similar to those provided to the drier and -for a similar purpose—the steady gradual movement of the sludge from -one end to the other. By the time it has reached the outlet from the -machine the sludge, completely deprived of fat, is automatically -discharged as a valuable manure and is ready for distribution upon the -land.</p> - -<p>The superheated steam charged with the grease is passed into a -condenser, where water from a feed tank condenses the water and throws -down the grease. The mixture of condensed steam and grease is passed -into a recovery tank. The grease settling out on the top is removed -for boiling up in a separate vessel, upon the completion of which -treatment<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</span> it is ready for packing and sale. The fatty matter consists -largely of stearine and palmitine, which to-day meet with a prompt sale -at lucrative prices.</p> - -<p>But it is the solid residue in the dry powdered form which attracts the -greatest measure of attention. Disposal of the grease from sewage has -never occasioned so much difficulty as the utilization of the ultimate -residue from reasons already explained. In this particular instance -the great problem has been solved. The manure is in the form of a fine -powder, containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, as well as -about 40 per cent. of organic material. It is very fine, brownish in -colour, odourless, and what is more to the point, absolutely innocuous, -having been completely sterilized. Consequently there is no risk of -infection being disseminated by its use.</p> - -<p>The circumstance that the process is absolutely automatic from the -time the sludge is charged into the hopper to the finished article -issuing from the distilling retort, is a distinct recommendation. Not -only does it conduce to extremely economical operation, but it reduces -the necessity to bring human labour into one of the most offensive of -industries, inasmuch as the atmosphere of such an establishment is -scarcely fragrant, as may well be imagined, although familiarity breeds -strange contempts. The only labour essential is that required for -heating up the drying machines and retorts.</p> - -<p>There is one overwhelming advantage incidental to this process which -cannot fail to arouse attention. Pressing in any form is eliminated. -This not only signifies a very pronounced saving in capital expenditure -in the first instance, but contributes to lower working charges, while -there is an enhanced recovery of grease and an absolutely grease-free -residue.</p> - -<p>Before the Corporation of Oldham decided to install this system upon a -practical scale searching experiments were conducted with the resultant -manure, to determine its plant-feeding value. It was the promise of -being able to find such a ready market for the ultimate residue which -constituted one of the attractions of the process. Experiments were -conducted at several farms with various produce, and these proved that -the manure gives remarkably good results and is more effective than any -other plant-feeder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</span> containing the same proportion of nitrogen, potash, -and phosphates. Finally it contains an ingredient which is absolutely -missing from every chemical fertilizer. The latter is certainly a -plant food, but it is imperative that the ground should be treated -with a certain quantity of organic matter to assure the physical and -mechanical working of the soil. Decaying organic matter fulfils this -end admirably, as one would suppose, being a natural process, but -during the past five years the bestowal of sufficient quantities of -necessary humus has been impossible, owing to the shortage in supplies -of farmyard manure.</p> - -<p>For this reason every farmer regards a grease-free manure carrying -substance of a humus-like nature for the improvement of his soil with -a particularly friendly eye, and he is prepared to pay a good price -for such an article. The sewage sludge fertilizer prepared under the -Grossmann process offers the agriculturist just what he desires in this -connection, inasmuch as it carries about 30 per cent. of the humus-like -substance. Then, again, the active manurial ingredients are distributed -over the mass in such a fine state of division as cannot possibly be -attained by resort to mechanical grinding. Finally, it is excellently -balanced, and the farmer keenly appreciates a well-balanced fertilizer. -Here he gets it because the essential operation has been conducted -by Nature, whose process cannot be rivalled. Applied to gardens this -manure is found to prevent the growth of yellow leaves, while the green -of the foliage is particularly rich and dark. In some quarters there -has been a certain degree of hesitation to utilize the fertilizer -merely because it is derived from sewage, owing to the prevalence of -many fallacious notions. Its origin is regarded with revulsion, and -its utilization with a certain degree of dread, but there need be no -apprehensions whatever concerning its use. The fact that in the course -of the treatment the material is raised to a temperature approaching -600 degrees Fahrenheit—where the superheated steam comes into contact -with the waste to expel the fat—effectively disposes of all germ life -inimical to the health of both animals and human beings, while it is -also clean to handle and odourless, it being impossible, from mere -cursory examination of the fertilizer, for the lay mind to determine -its origin. Finally, it may be stored for any length of time without -creating a nuisance, or deteriorating.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</span></p> - -<p>The whole of the output from the Oldham sewage works, which, owing -to the process of concentration, is really limited, notwithstanding -the volume of crude sewage handled, is readily absorbed by farmers. -Disposal was entrusted to a firm to act as the selling agents for the -Corporation. Owing to the number of repeat orders received, year after -year, this house declares that it could easily place 20,000 tons of the -fertilizer, were it forthcoming, without increasing its present staff -of travellers.</p> - -<p>While the outbreak of hostilities militated against the expansion of -the process, although many other Corporations have expressed their -readiness to introduce the process into their respective sewage works, -the past five years have not been allowed to represent dead time. -Improvement upon improvement has been incorporated with the object -of securing still higher efficiency. In this direction the inventor -has made many distinct progressive strides. The one objection levied -against the process was the heavy expense incurred in regard to fuel -charges for drying the sludge, and these costs naturally have become -accentuated by the 200 to 300 per cent. rise in the price of coal. But -in this direction it is now possible to record noticeable reductions.</p> - -<p>As a result of experiment the inventor has evolved a new method for -settling the sludge. He found that, by adding a very slight amount of -sulphuric acid—about 1 part to 1,000—to the sludge coming from the -settling tanks, the usual settling process is completely reversed. -Instead of the sludge settling to the bottom, the addition of the acid -causes it to rise to the surface, and in a much more concentrated form. -The water settles to the bottom in a clearer condition and can be drawn -off. By further settling and draining this top layer—virtually a -thick scum—a sludge can be obtained carrying about 30 per cent. solid -matter, and therefore as a less volume of water needs to be evaporated -a considerable saving in the consumption of fuel and cost of drying is -achieved.</p> - -<p>Moreover, it is suggested that in laying down new installations, it -will be possible and profitable to install a destructor upon the sewage -works. In such cases it would be feasible to draw upon the waste -heat from the destructor to conduct the drying and other operations -demanding the application<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</span> of heat. In combining the destructor -with the sewage plant the question of transport of the refuse from -the collecting ground to the destructor would demand very careful -consideration when horse haulage is employed, but with mechanical -traction the question of an extra mile or two in distance hauled is -not of such moment, especially as it would be off-set by the saving -of fuel which would attend the diversion of the waste heat to this -useful application. In fact, in cases where new lay-outs are being -contemplated it is a matter for serious reflection as to whether it -would not be found profitable to centralize destructor, electric -generating station and Grossmann sewage treatment plant in one -centralized spot, interlocking them together, and taking full advantage -of such inter-connection. The destructor would furnish the necessary -steam from the combustion of cinders and other refuse which it does not -pay at present to exploit, or preferably other low-grade fuel to drive -the electric plant, the waste steam being carried to the sewage works -for the drying and other machines together with the desired proportion -of live steam, while the electric station would furnish the requisite -power for operating the automatic mechanical appliances.</p> - -<p>The grease recovered from the sewage, which is of a domestic character, -is essentially that from soap, cooking and washing operations. It -is totally free from all objectionable smell. It can be purified -very easily and is of distinct value. In its crude condition the fat -contains about 70 per cent. of stearic acid.</p> - -<p>During the past few years the dry powdered residue has not only -been utilized in a direct form, but has also been exploited in the -production of compounded fertilizers. Mixed with phosphates, sulphate -of ammonia, and other nitrogenous products it has yielded a manure -which has given most excellent results in farming. Considerable -improvements with regard to greater efficiency and cheaper production -have been made in the manufacture of compounded fertilizers from this -residue, and there is every indication that still greater developments -are possible in this direction.</p> - -<p>Were all the sewage of this country treated along these lines British -agriculture would derive distinct benefit, while industry would -also be presented with a new source of supply<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</span> of essential raw -material. It would go a long way to enable us to use our greases over -and over again, because the drain is the most popular avenue for -the escape of this material. Sewage represents the greatest waste -incidental to this country. <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Grossmann estimates its value at -approximately £22,000,000—$110,000,000—per annum, of which but only -an infinitesimal fraction is at present recovered. The value of the -fat alone thrown down our drains, and reclaimed in a marketable form -would realize from £500,000 to £1,000,000—$2,500,000 to $5,000,000—a -year. The value of the manurial product, of which at least 1,000,000 -tons are recoverable during the twelve months, may be set down at least -at £2,000,000—$10,000,000—the contents thereof being equivalent to -50,000 tons of phosphates, 50,000 tons of potash salts, with nitrogen -equal to that forthcoming from 100,000 tons of sulphate of ammonia. -This manure would suffice for the fertilization of at least 3,000,000 -acres of land from which we might safely anticipate gathering, at a -modest estimate, additional crops worth £5,000,000—$25,000,000.</p> - -<p>There is one other fact which deserves mention. Sewage is eminently -adapted to the feeding of sandy soils and other land which, at the -moment, is considered too poor for agricultural purposes. If this -manure were reserved for such land many thousand additional acres -might be brought under cultivation in these islands. At the present -moment these acres are being allowed to run to seed, constituting what -we erroneously term waste land, but only waste because we are not -sufficiently enterprising and energetic to reclaim it.</p> - -<p>From the point of view of the towns and cities called upon to handle -the sewage, the Grossmann process holds out many inducements. It -complies with the demands of sanitation because it precipitates -no nuisance. It is the most hygienic process yet evolved for the -disposal of sewage sludge. The revenue derived from the sale of the -by-products—manure and grease—is such as to render the operation -of the plant not only self-supporting but money-making. As a rule -the sewage works of the average town represent a sink in more senses -than one, more especially when it becomes incumbent to resort to the -tipping, dumping or other disposal of the enormous accumulations of -the sludge. But signs of awakening are apparent. The Oldham<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</span> plant has -been investigated by Corporations and other authorities, not only of -this country but from other parts of the world, who have been satisfied -as to its commercial practicability. With the restoration of normal -trading conditions it is anticipated that the process will become more -extensively adopted, especially as during the past five years ceaseless -effort has been devoted to the perfection of details to assure the -establishment of the process upon a firm commercial basis.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX<br />HOUSE-BUILDING WITH WASTES</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>Of the many problems of the day demanding prompt settlement, none, -perhaps, is so vital to the welfare of the community as the provision -of increased housing accommodation. The issue is by no means confined -to Great Britain; it is incidental more or less to every country. Such -a state of affairs is not surprising, seeing that building operations, -at least in the domestic sense, have been reduced to a condition of -comparative stagnation for five years. Even those countries which were -not drawn into the actual fighting arena have been unable to carry out -housing schemes to meet the needs of their growing populations owing, -primarily, to the dearth of the necessary materials and the enhanced -labour charges.</p> - -<p>So far as Britain is concerned the outlook is decidedly disquieting. -It is estimated that at least 1,000,000 houses are required to meet -the needs of the population. As a first instalment it is proposed to -complete forthwith 300,000 houses, but, here again, experience is -proving it to be far easier to adumbrate such comprehensive schemes on -paper than to carry them into expeditious effect. Questions of cost -have arisen. This constitutes the vital factor, because obviously it is -folly to build houses for people who cannot afford to live in them. And -the limit in the upward tendency has by no means been attained.</p> - -<p>The critical situation has been surveyed from every ostensible angle -without any practical solution being found. But have we not been -circumscribed in our attacks upon the problem? Have we not become so -deeply rutted in our ideas concerning everything pertaining to housing -as to be unable to regard the aspect from a totally new point<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</span> of view? -Similar crises have developed in, and are constantly assailing, other -industries. Upon their occurrence they appear to be equally impossible -of successful adjustment, but, finally, as a result of attacking a -difficulty from quite a new angle and in a new way, it has been not -only subjugated satisfactorily, but a distinct improvement upon the -old method brought into operation at one and the same time. A new -line of thought and development, possessing greater and more economic -possibilities, has been opened up to the advantage of one and all. As -a rule one need never hesitate to abandon the existing for something -new, because the former is generally associated with some form of waste -which has become so heavy as to act as a drag. Directly this retarding -force is eliminated, or turned to account, a new era commences.</p> - -<p>The contemporary situation in the building trade recalls the state -of affairs which arose in American agricultural circles as a result -of the outbreak of the Civil War. The drainage of man-power from the -land precipitated an extremely depressing outlook. Farmers protested -that the soil must run to seed from lack of labour to wield the tools. -But thinking men held a contrary opinion. Farming had been conducted -along lines which had been followed slavishly for centuries. Manual -labour had attained undisputed sway and to decisive disadvantage. -Why not dispense with hand labour and use machines? The suggestion -that mechanism could displace brawn upon the land provoked a good -deal of hostile criticism and humour. But the imaginative were not to -be dismayed by conservatism, prejudice, or ridicule. They continued -perseveringly along their particular lines of reasoning.</p> - -<p>What was the result? McCormick introduced the self-binder which -revolutionized harvesting methods, while other brilliant minds -conceived equally striking time- and labour-saving appliances for other -agricultural duties. They not only solved the immediate crisis but -imparted quite a new prospect to agriculture the whole world over. It -is safe to assert that, but for the introduction of the self-binder, -one-half of the United States would still have remained as barren as -the wilderness from sheer lack of labour to cultivate it.</p> - -<p>If such a complete revolution proved possible of attainment in such an -ancient, rutted, and indispensable industry<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</span> as agriculture, surely -it is not hopeless to anticipate the fulfilment of a similar complete -transformation in the craft of house-building? So far as farming is -concerned there is every excuse for hesitating to depart from the -proved and trusty. A false step may wreak untold harm, but so far as -house-building is concerned no such calamity need be apprehended. A -mistake can speedily be rectified. It is safe to assert that there is -no other line of activity, especially in Great Britain, so closely -identified with the effete and wasteful as house-building. In so far as -constructional methods are concerned we have scarcely changed our ways -since bricks were first brought into use.</p> - -<p>We must ruthlessly scrap the old, which has obtained for so long, in -favour of the new. Science is forcing the pace, and she will no more be -arrested by obsolete theories and arguments than the tides will be held -up by a child’s spade. Already she is asserting her power. Contemporary -methods are wickedly extravagant, and it is this absurd wastage which -is primarily responsible for enhanced costs. The ways of science are -inscrutable, but they are sure none the less: the first indications of -chafing at delay always assert themselves in the traditional becoming -too expensive to maintain. The pocket is the positive road to reform; -assail its contents, and the world commences to bestir itself. As the -farmer, raised in the old school, had to give way to the engineer, -so must our conceptions and ideas pertaining to providing houses for -the community undergo a complete change. The architect, his numerous -satellites, and the cumbrous rules and regulations which have been -framed to protect their vested interests must be jettisoned without a -thought of regret. The day has dawned when the engineer must assume the -responsibility for providing the people with residential accommodation, -and he will be assisted by a new force, including the chemist, which -will play a far more prominent part in this problem than many may be -disposed to imagine.</p> - -<p>This is a utilitarian age. People desire houses to live in—not -to look at, although every one will readily agree that a certain -regard must be paid to external æsthetic considerations. The average -house-owner troubles his head very little over the outside appearance -of his domicile or the materials of which it is built, so long as the -interior offers him all he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</span> desires in regard to comfort and health. -Too long have we clung tenaciously to specific theories which are no -more adapted to this age than is the slave-oared galley to mercantile -traffic. They are destructive rather than constructive. For a time such -clock-arresting dogma and precepts hold sway, but sooner or later the -pendulum of progress gives such a vicious kick as to break down the -whole of the obstructions disputing advance, to assume rhythmic running -in a new channel to the advantage of one and all.</p> - -<p>Science has the solution to the housing problem ready for immediate -application, but she must be allowed to pursue her progressive way -untrammelled. From what one might be able to assume, brick and stone -represent the only building materials at our command. But are they? In -other fields, where restraining forces are not allowed to secure the -upper hand, huge forward strides are being made and with a material we, -as a supposed commercial nation, have scarcely noticed.</p> - -<p>I refer to concrete. We have only to turn to the engineering world -to see what has been achieved with this material in the construction -of bridges, tunnels, piers, harbours, breakwaters, warehouses, -lighthouses, and even ships. If we turn to the United States and -Germany we are able to see how we have lagged. In both those countries -enormous strides have been made and incidentally, in the prosecution of -this task, other magnificent conquests in the world of science and of -the industrial employment of waste are recorded. To-day the manufacture -of cement constitutes one of the twelve most important industries in -the United States, and the greater part of this material is made from -what a few years ago was accepted as sheer waste—residue from the -iron-works which, having no further ostensible use, was dumped in huge -piles to the disfigurement of the landscape. To-day this waste is being -turned into building material, having usurped the product originally -selected for this duty.</p> - -<p>The reason why there should be such a deep-rooted antipathy to concrete -for house-building purposes in these islands is somewhat inscrutable. -Probably it is due to the experiments which were made many years -ago, and which owing to our limited knowledge were construed by the -quidnuncs into a failure. But because Brunel’s <i>Great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</span> Eastern</i> -did not succeed we do not laugh at the mammoth steamship of to-day. -Brunel’s conception suffered merely from being premature. So were the -first attempts to use concrete in the house-building industry. During -the past few years we have acquired further knowledge which should -enable us to steer clear of the blunders of the past, but instead of -grappling with the problem along the lines which science is vividly -blazing we prefer to waste time in the idle discussion of quaint -theories and fantastic notions.</p> - -<p>Many are the reasons why concrete should be employed. In the first -place it is difficult to excel for simplicity. It comprises essentially -two materials—cement, sand and rubble, the two last-named being -generically described as the aggregate. The term is wide in its -meaning, comprising virtually any and every inorganic material capable -of being crushed to a pre-determined size, and the character of which -may be as varied as the number of days in the year or more, while -recent investigation has indicated that even the conventional sand may -be eliminated, provided a sharp and gritty substitute in a similar -powdered form be forthcoming.</p> - -<p>Think what this means and the many possibilities it opens up! In -the first place it enables material on site—waste—to be turned to -economic account, and the term waste in this instance is extremely -elastic. There is no need to disfigure the countryside with yawning -craters in the form of pits for the excavation of the special clay -suited to the making of bricks. Again we must not forget that by the -employment of the conventional building materials a demand is made upon -transport, which to-day is as acute as the scarcity of houses. With -concrete the only constituent calling for transport from a producing -point is cement, and this only involves the movement of one-seventh of -the load which would otherwise be involved were bricks to be used. In -other words, if seven tons of bricks were required to build a house it -would only be requisite to move one ton of cement to yield a similar -house in concrete—the other six tons of essential materials could be -acquired on the site. The avoidance of superfluous expenditure as well -as the economy in time and labour is obvious.</p> - -<p>Our towns and cities are daily shedding tons of a specific form -of waste—ashes and clinker from electric generating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</span> stations, -water-works, gas-works, and refuse destructors. The contribution -naturally varies according to the population, but a small town burning -40 tons of refuse in its destructor may safely anticipate accumulating -clinker at the rate of 8 to 10 tons a day. The disposal of this residue -presents a problem in itself. A certain quantity can be absorbed in -connection with the sewage beds, road-making and other incidental -tasks, but, for the most part, it has to be dumped, merely because -it possesses no ostensible application. When one reflects upon the -activities of the factories in a manufacturing town and the daily -output of clinker and ash from these sources alone, it will be seen -that the civic clinker disposal problem is likely to assume enormous -dimensions, and to prove a costly issue in itself. Thousands of tons -are dispatched by road, rail and water from our towns and cities to be -jettisoned at suitable points where unsightliness does not count. The -authorities of New York City used to ship hundreds of tons daily 60 -miles out to sea, while at Liverpool it had to be barged for 24 miles -to be thrown overboard into the Irish Sea at a cost of 2s. 6d.—60 -cents—a ton! Many borough authorities will readily give away the -material to those who care to fetch it, so keen are they to be relieved -of this incubus. Yet, in every instance, the equivalent of sovereigns -are being shot upon the land, dumped into the sea, or given away as the -case may be.</p> - -<p>Cannot a more economic use for this and kindred refuse be found? This -is the obvious question in this utilitarian age. Yet it is almost -superfluous to launch the inquiry. It can be turned into concrete: -could, and should, if we were sufficiently enterprising and astute, -as well as frugal in our habits, be turned into houses. Certain -attempts have been made towards the conversion of this residue into -constructional material such as kerb-stones for lining our pavements, -slabs to take the place of York flagstones and bricks for paving -purposes, the building of sheds and other insignificant structures, but -none represents a grim attempt to wrestle with the issue along bold and -comprehensive lines.</p> - -<p>Some years ago, the city engineer of Liverpool, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> John A. Brodie, -M.Inst.C.E., one of our most enterprising city engineers, essayed a -bigger step forward. He was faced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</span> with the disposal of 50,000 tons -of clinker from the city destructors during the year. He made a bold -effort to turn it to economic account in the obvious directions—paving -and kerbing operations—but these channels absorbed only a round 20,000 -tons, leaving some 30,000 tons to be shipped to sea to be dumped at a -total annual cost of nearly £4,000—$20,000. The city authorities had -resolved to carry out a tenement building scheme, and the city engineer -decided to provide them in concrete and to use the refuse from the -destructors as the aggregate, exacting tests having convinced him of -its suitability for this purpose.</p> - -<p>The building, covering an area of 3,717 square feet, of which total -1,611 square feet are open space, is of three floors with four -tenements on each floor, finished off with a flat roof, surrounded by a -parapet for washing, drying, or playground purposes.</p> - -<p>The construction of the building was carried out upon the section or -slab system. That is to say the walls, floors, ceilings, and other -parts, with all necessary openings, were moulded at the destructor -works, and set aside for a time to mature. Some of these slabs were of -imposing dimensions, ranging up to 16 feet in length by 13 feet wide, -14 inches thick and weighing 11 tons. Upon arrival at the site they -were slung into position and dovetailed into place, thus forming a -rigid structure.</p> - -<p>As an indication of how modern thought may be hampered severely by -prevailing notions it may be stated that, as a result of his deductions -and experiments, the engineer decided that a thickness of 7 inches -for the walls would be adequate. But his decision was over-ruled. The -existing regulations insisted that brick walls should be 14 inches -thick and the concrete had to comply with these rules. The result -of this indefensible policy, for which misconception and lack of -knowledge were responsible, was to double the weight of the structure -and to inflate the cost of the buildings to an unnecessary degree. The -engineer computed that if construction were carried out upon the lines -he advocated the building could be completed, including the provision -of all necessary plant, for £1,230—$6,150. Enforced compliance with -obsolete rules inflated the cost to £4,072—$20,360. In other words the -ratepayers of Liverpool were compelled to spend £2,842—$14,210—more -than they need<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</span> have done—a flagrant waste of money, material, time, -labour, and knowledge.</p> - -<p>One objection which has been levelled against the concrete house is the -concrete floor. But to surmount this objection the Liverpool engineer -embedded wooden scantlings in the concrete, covered the surface of the -latter with a layer of pitch mixture applied hot, and then nailed down -¹⁄₄-inch floor-boards in the usual manner. In this way the so-called -defects of the concrete floor were completely overcome. The walls -were subjected to several experiments to determine the most suitable -internal finish, some being papered, others plastered, while in further -instances a simple coating of sanitary wash or lime was applied. It -was found, however, that for such buildings, distemper was the most -efficient finishing medium.</p> - -<p>This experiment conclusively substantiated the claims advanced by the -engineer. It demonstrated the fact that concrete lends itself to rapid -construction, the Liverpool building, despite its size, being erected -and roofed within three months, notwithstanding frequent cessations -owing to inclement weather, and was ready for occupation within another -eleven weeks—say six months in all. It is safe to assume that had -brick been employed it could never have been finished in the time.</p> - -<p>The advantages of concrete for such domiciles are obvious. The -structure is as near being fire-proof as it is possible to contrive. -It complies with every requirement of hygiene. It is substantial, -weather-proof, and sound-proof, while it improves with age. Concrete, -unlike the common grade of brick, does not deteriorate under the -influences of time and weather. The walls offer no refuge for vermin, -unless papered, and should a room become infected as a result of -contagious disease among the inmates, it can be promptly sterilized by -turning on a hose of boiling disinfectant and being scoured from top -to bottom. Rats and mice cannot secure a refuge, because the extreme -hardness of concrete taxes their gnawing powers to the superlative -degree.</p> - -<p>The experience of Liverpool was adequate to drive home the fact that -concrete dwellings are not only able to provide the poorer classes -with a substantial home, complying in every respect with modern -requirements, but also indicated a profitable use for an otherwise -useless waste product. Were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</span> comprehensive schemes carried out upon -these lines the cost factor might be reduced to the absolute minimum -by recourse to standardization in the preparation of the slabs. As -a result of this initial experiment—the first of its character -in Great Britain—the Liverpool city engineer estimated that he -could erect future buildings of this type, in blocks of five, at -£1,700—$8,500—each, and that this would show a saving of 25 per cent. -over the cost which would be incurred if brick were used. But, and this -was an important factor, to achieve this end it would be incumbent to -allow the engineer to pursue his way unfettered by obsolete ideas, -fallacious notions, and antiquated rules and regulations.</p> - -<p>Some years ago Edison precipitated a mild wave of excitement by the -perfection of a process for moulding houses complete in a solid block, -much along the lines followed by the housewife in the preparation of -jellies and other similar table dainties. He suggested the erection of -a mould to the design of the desired house, including both internal and -external artistic embellishments, and then to run the concrete into -the metal shell in liquid form and to allow it to set and harden. Then -the mould was to be demolished, leaving a solid monolithic-structure -from foundation to roof, and without a crack or a joint. The mould, -naturally, was built up in sections, which could be standardized and -interchanged, so that once a set of moulds had been acquired a house of -any desired dimensions might be erected. Of course, this demanded an -imposing array of moulds, entailing heavy initial capital expenditure. -Edison frankly admitted this to be the weak point in his scheme, -because the mould bill for the construction of a “poured” house, as it -was called, costing £240—$1,200—would be at least £5,000—$25,000. -Consequently the suggestion was impracticable, unless the builder were -given an imposing house-building scheme to complete, to enable him to -distribute his mould charges in such a manner over the houses as to -increase the actual building cost of each only by a trifling amount.</p> - -<p>Edison’s conception aroused extreme interest in America and provoked -widespread ridicule in these islands. The “poured” house was regarded -in the same light as was the telephone upon its first appearance in -London. As the latter was declared to be merely a “scientific toy,” -so was the poured house described as nothing but a wild dream.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</span> -But, be it noted, antagonism and objection have been levelled from -the fickle standpoint of theory; we have no practical experiment to -guide us in our assault upon Edison’s idea. Instead of setting to -work to prove, or disprove, the practicability of the poured house -we wasted time in academic discussions concerning “sweating walls,” -condensation, coldness in winter, and to embark upon high-falutin -diatribes concerning the imperative necessity for such abstract demands -as “breathing bricks,” and other fantastic ideas which possibly are -of interest but do not advance the realization of the cheap house, -contribute to the solution of the housing question, or proffer a single -step towards the utilization of waste.</p> - -<p>The Americans are more enlightened. A new idea is subjected to -practical test and discussed afterwards, not destructively, but in -the hope of being able to solve the defects which have manifested -themselves in the experiment with a view to establishing the commercial -success of the idea. While our house-building quidnuncs are leaving -no stone unturned to prevent poured houses becoming an established -practice, our engineers are setting to work in the American fashion, -and as a result we are building poured concrete ships and other -articles of utilitarian value. Possibly they are not poured in the -strict interpretation of the Edisonian term, but modified according to -experience which has been gathered.</p> - -<p>In 1909 the International Congress on Tuberculosis assembled at -Washington D.C. To stimulate interest in a house built along such lines -as to comply with the searching requirements of perfect sanitation -and which would be particularly adapted for occupation by persons -suffering from tuberculosis, a reward was offered for the best model -of a germ-proof house. A young Washington architect-engineer attacked -the problem, submitted his conception for such a house, of the “poured” -type, and because it triumphed over all competitors, which clung to the -rutted line of thought, in the provision of light, air, and sanitation -features, carried off the prize.</p> - -<p>In this design the cellar which, if damp, forms an ideal -breeding-ground for germs and disease, was eliminated. Floors, walls, -ceilings, cornices, bath—all were of cement poured into moulds. In -each room the floor was given a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</span> slightly sloping depression at one -corner and provided with a suitable outlet and trap. The idea was -obvious. The housewife on cleaning day did not raise impenetrable -clouds of dust to pollute the room. She simply removed her furniture, -together with all hangings, to be beaten in the open air. Then she -turned on a hose and flushed floor, walls, and ceilings, the water -escaping through the trap. No dust whatever was raised, and the -room was left dry, sweet, and clean. There were many other features -contributing to the general attractiveness of the scheme. The model -aroused more interest than any other at the Congress exhibition, but, -while one and all declared the house to possess every attractive -feature, it was regarded as merely a fantastic conception.</p> - -<p>But, within the past eight years, more than one little “poured cement” -garden city has come into being in the United States. The first -commercialization of the germ-proof house was made near Washington. It -was run up and occupied within 30 days, and was conceded to be one of -the prettiest and most comfortable homes in the countryside, although -it cost only about £400—$2,000. To-day it is surrounded by many others.</p> - -<p>The scheme has triumphed because the Washington architect-engineer, -instead of deriding Edison and dwelling upon the defects of the idea, -set out to overcome the problems involved, especially that identified -with the moulds. He has succeeded. Instead of demanding an initial -expenditure of £5,000—$25,000—upon this preliminary he has reduced -the mould expense down to £100—$500. This brings the idea within -the reach of commerce. He does not advocate a mould for the complete -house, but pursues what may be described as sectional-stage moulding. -Plates of steel are pressed into flanged sections 24 inches square. -These are clipped and wedged together to form a trough to hold the -liquid cement until it hardens. Above this row of plates is disposed a -second similar row, forming another trough upon the top of that which -has already been filled, and which is setting. When the lower trough -contents have hardened the lower array of plates is rolled over to form -another trough above the one in which the cement has been run, this -overlapping process, as the wall hardens, being continued until the top -has been reached. These plates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</span> also serve as forms for the moulding -of the floors and roof, and are additionally attractive because they -readily admit of the introduction of any desired artistic finish. It is -a system which lends itself to cheap and rapid construction, as events -have amply proved. That the “poured” germ-proof house, built in one -solid block, possesses distinct advantages over the building carried -out along orthodox lines is evident from the alacrity with which such -homes are purchased or occupied, a tendency which is just as pronounced -in this country as in the United States. This tends to demonstrate that -while the man-in-the-street knows nothing concerning the pros and cons -of building materials, he certainly does appreciate the overwhelming -advantages of concrete, which, be it noted, is the logical antidote to -jerry-building.</p> - -<p>That the poured, one-piece house is not merely attractive because -of its relative cheapness is evidenced by the number of stately -homes which have been built in accordance with this principle upon -the other side of the Atlantic. Seeing that these homes have been -built to the order of, and are occupied by, those to whom cost is a -trifling consideration, it would certainly seem as if the so-called -defects of the poured house were more imaginary than real. I have seen -magnificent homes, ranging in cost from £5,000 to £25,000—$25,000 to -$125,000—built from foundation to roof upon the Edisonian idea. They -certainly would have been promptly demolished and rebuilt in other -material if the monolithic house possessed even the slightest sign of -any one of the many ills to which it is academically said to be exposed.</p> - -<p>Industrial corporations in the United States, as in Britain, are faced -with problems concerning the housing of their employees. And they are -just as perplexing to solve. The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western -Railroad Company was concerned with the provision of homes for its -wage-earners in the vicinity of one of its mines. The question was -surveyed from every possible angle, and finally it was decided that the -only really attractive solution was the provision of a little garden -city of concrete houses, built upon the poured system. The authorities -concluded that in this way only would it be possible to provide -model sanitary homes, possessing every inducement, at an attractive -price, and the project was handed over to the architect-engineer -whose germ-proof house had aroused the interest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</span> of the International -Tuberculosis Congress two years previously.</p> - -<p>The houses are built in pairs, thus being semi-detached. Each is of -two floors with flat roof, the accommodation comprising on the ground -floor living- and dining-rooms measuring 11 feet and 11 feet 6 inches by -12 feet 4 inches, respectively, large kitchen, pantry, and commodious -lobby with the projecting porch incidental to American homes. Upon -the first floor are two bedrooms measuring 11 feet 3 inches and 11 -feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, a smaller room, and a porch which -may be used as an open-air sleeping chamber, if desired, or lounge, -with the usual offices. The houses are set out after the manner now -being followed in these islands, that is around the four sides of a -rectangle, facing a commodious green and flanked on the opposite side -by a deep green lawn. The roads skirt the village on all sides, the -highway approaches to the inner square being diagonally from each of -the four corners.</p> - -<p>In carrying out the scheme the designer decided to utilize to the full -the available materials upon the spot. This was waste from the adjacent -mines, in the form of cinders, with hydrate of lime to give density and -weather-proofness. Speed in construction being a vital factor, a novel -system was introduced. A railway track was laid around the entire group -of 40 houses. The mixing plant was mounted upon one flat car which -was also equipped with an efficient apparatus to hoist the concrete. -Behind this was a second car carrying the cement, sand, and cinder. The -ingredients were shovelled into the mixer, work being continuous. The -train pulled up before the first pair of houses, the moulds forming -the trough of which were in position. The concrete was hoisted and -discharged into an elevated hopper on the vehicle from which a feed -pipe and spout was extended to the mould trough of the house-wall. The -concrete was run into the trough until it was filled, when the stream -was shut off, the feed pipe lifted, and the train moved on to the next -house, where the cycle of operations was repeated. By the time the -train had completed its circuit and had again reached the first house -the concrete previously poured had hardened sufficiently to permit the -moulds to be raised to form the succeeding trough, and so was ready to -receive another pouring of cement. It will be seen that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</span> construction -throughout the 40 houses was not only continuous but each supply of -concrete increased the height of the wall by about 24 inches, or -completed the flooring as the case might be. The building process was -not only exceedingly simple, being free from all complicated mechanism, -but involved the employment of the minimum of labour, which conduced -to extremely cheap erection. The re-setting of the moulds occasions in -this system no difficulty, inasmuch as being hinged they are merely -swung up and automatically fall into position to form the mould. The -work was commenced late in the year 1911 and was completed in the -spring of 1912, having to be suspended during the winter months, when, -of course, all building operations, irrespective of materials used, is -brought to a standstill.</p> - -<p>The houses provided in this manner are not only attractive, but are -provided at a price bringing them readily within the reach of the -wage-earner. True, one objection might be levelled against such -standardization as it were, and that is the stereotyped design, but in -this instance this is possible of decided relief by resort to tree, -shrub, and flower embellishment in which individuality is given free -rein, and which effectively breaks up all tendency towards monotony. -But apart from extraneous treatment, the village cannot be described -as being more monotonous than our terrace system of providing homes -for the workers so common to our industrial centres, while even our -much-vaunted garden cities are freely criticized from the general -atmosphere of similarity.</p> - -<p>However, it is cost of construction which constitutes the all-important -factor, and the poured house has demonstrated what can be done in -this instance. A similar cement city is under way for residential -purposes upon the outskirts of Chicago. The bungalow type of house is -being favoured here. In this instance cellar walls and first-story -walls, measuring some 30 by 40 feet, have been poured in four days. -The cost of construction has been exceptionally low, even for America -where higher wages and charges prevail, the cost of building a 6-inch -wall which in poured concrete is ample for either one-or two-story -buildings, having been brought down to 4d.—8 cents—per foot, which is -well below the cost of frame houses, admittedly the cheapest form of -construction in the United States.</p> - -<p>The poured house or any other system of monolithic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</span> structure wrought -in concrete is freely assailed in these islands for being damp, -intolerably cold in winter, hot in summer, and the walls liable -to condensation. These are the popular objections raised against -the idea. But the experience of those who live in such homes in -America completely refutes such statements. The houses are declared -emphatically to be bone-dry, exceptionally warm in winter with a -freedom from draughts, cool in summer, and free from condensation. The -latter defect, it is pointed out, even if it should become manifest, -is not irremediable. The chemist can solve it quickly and cheaply. But -the great feature which makes irresistible appeal to those who dwell in -such homes is that they are always sweet and clean. Washing down walls, -ceilings and floors of a room at one and the same time with a garden -hose is something beyond the comprehension of British householders, -but they will scarcely deny its virtues, and, probably, wish heartily -that they were in a similar happy position, because nothing detracts -so seriously from the pleasures and comfort of the home as dust and -dinginess.</p> - -<p>While we display an inexplicable hesitation to build a single house -upon the poured system to discover the character of the objections -which are said to obtain, thereby ignoring the precept that an ounce of -solid fact is worth a ton of theory, we are steadily moving towards the -concrete home, although the pioneers are being called upon to battle -fiercely against the organized forces of prejudice, conservatism, -and vested interests. In order to comply with national and other -traditions, so far as practicable, the brick system is being followed. -Machines have been devised whereby bricks, but wrought in concrete, are -speedily and cheaply produced.</p> - -<p>The outstanding characteristic of the most approved of these appliances -is the ability to fashion brick-like masses of concrete of varying -sizes and dimensions. One of the most handy machines of this character -is the “Winget,” wherewith a wide variety of concrete formations may be -fashioned cheaply and expeditiously, and adapted to every conceivable -building requirement. This machine is noteworthy from the simplicity of -its design and operation, compactness, and high speed of working, as -well as imposing the minimum demand upon skilled labour. The concrete -is not run, but is shovelled into the mould and tamped down.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</span> When -charged the depression of a lever lifts the block, and in such a manner -as to permit its ready removal by two men armed with a carrying bar -fitted with forks which grip the under edges of the mass.</p> - -<p>This machine has been extensively utilized in this country, and it -has proved highly efficient in working. It is excellently adapted -for the preparation of blocks or slabs from waste materials, such -as the clinker refuse from electric light generating stations, -dust-destructors, and other industrial establishments in general, as -well as such other residues as coke breeze, chalk, and rubble. High -speed of working, combined with the size of the block which may be -turned out therewith, enables it to consume such material at relatively -high speed. In a Midland town where aggregate of a waste character -was required for the fashioning of such blocks, the whole of the -daily accumulation of residue from the local electric light station, -averaging seven tons, had to be supplemented by supplies of similar -waste from private industrial establishments to keep the machine -working steadily throughout the day.</p> - -<p>With such a machine practically any form of inorganic residue can -be put to useful constructional account. Its perfection is enabling -private authorities to exploit profitably dumps of refuse which have -long been eyesores in the locality for material to satisfy their own -building needs. One gas company, which formerly contracted in the usual -way for extensions to its buildings, generally in brick or stone, now -completes all such work with its own labour and with its own waste, its -one expenditure for material being the requisite cement. It encountered -pronounced difficulty in disposing of the coke breeze or dust; it -was virtually unmarketable. Conspicuous piles accumulated because it -was disdained as fuel. The company acquired a “Winget” machine, and -by mixing the breeze with cement converted the useless refuse into -substantial building blocks. Those which it does not require for its -own building operations find a ready market. The outstanding fact, -however, is that all recent building extensions are carried out with -concrete blocks prepared upon the spot from material which the company -produces during the conduct of its business and which has always been -considered waste having no commercial value whatever.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</span></p> - -<p>To the municipality, faced with residue accumulating from the refuse -destructor, gas, and electric lighting installations, such a machine -is virtually indispensable. It offers a complete economic solution to -a perplexing problem. A certain amount of official building is always -necessary, and concrete blocks with clinker forming the aggregate -constitutes an ideal and inexpensive material. One great objection -often raised against the utilization of cinder and other similar -residue for this purpose is the dingy tone of the resultant block. But -this need not constitute a handicap. If used for the external walls of -cottages the concrete can be finished off in rough-cast, or may even -be plastered and painted. In many instances excellent reproductions of -half-timbered styles have been carried out in this material, and are -far more substantial than those wrought in the conventional brick.</p> - -<p>But the chemist must be harnessed to the development, that is if the -most satisfactory results are to be obtained. It is the tendency -to ignore the chemist which has been responsible for much concrete -failure for homes in the past. It is imperative that clinker refuse be -analysed. If it be associated with fused glass it is useless for the -purpose, for the simple reason that the smooth surface of the glass -fails to afford the requisite gripping surface to the cement. Unless -care be displayed in this connection disintegration of the block will -set in, in which event the concrete will be condemned as a failure -when, as a matter of fact, it is the ignorance of the individual and -the presence of the glass which are responsible for collapse. Similarly -it is essential that the aggregate should be free from organic -material. This may be intensely dry when the mixing of the concrete -is taken in hand. But the organic material will absorb the moisture -after the manner of a sponge, continuing to do so until completely -saturated. As a result of this action the material necessarily expands, -and so will bring about the breakdown of the concrete. Therefore, if -full advantage be taken of the chemist specializing in constructional -material in the scientific preparation of concrete, as is done in -Germany and the United States, failures will be few and far between.</p> - -<p>The authorities of our towns and cities are called upon to handle -5,300,000 tons of dust and rubble collected in the dust-bins of the -population during the year. In addition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</span> millions of tons of similar -refuse accumulate from the consumption of coal and coke by the -thousands of industrial establishments scattered over the country. How -much of this huge yield of waste is turned to industrial account? But -an insignificant fraction, as is proved by its commanding no market -value. Certain enterprising authorities, such as the City Fathers of -Glasgow, by taking a little trouble, are able to dispose of the whole -of their output of this residue and at a profitable figure. Surely what -can be done by one authority is capable of being achieved by others up -and down the country.</p> - -<p>But clinker waste is not the only refuse adapted to building -operations. Concrete is something like paper—can be made virtually -from anything. There are few building sites which are not capable -of yielding something in this respect. This was demonstrated very -conclusively in the course of the development of an estate in Ireland. -The work was most comprehensive, involving the provision of factories, -workshops, farm buildings, and private residences. To prepare the -site it was necessary to remove a substantial hill. Instead of -excavating the obstacle, dumping and levelling the soil in the usual -manner, it was turned into a “Winget” machine to be converted into -concrete blocks, which were then utilized as the wherewithal for the -construction of the buildings. The result was conspicuously successful, -and it is doubtful whether the development scheme could have been -carried out so economically and inexpensively in any other way.</p> - -<p>There are welcome signs of revived interest in the possibilities -of concrete for the building of our homes. In many parts of the -country there are enormous hillocks which at the moment are nothing -but eyesores. The pottery district may be cited as a case in point. -These disfiguring piles have hitherto been ignored, although the -localities are clamouring wildly for increased housing accommodation -to satisfy the demands of their citizens. Yet these heaps are really -potential mines of wealth. Associated with cement and deftly fashioned -they can be converted into concrete bricks, the waste constituting -ideal material for the aggregate, while, should we be sufficiently -enterprising to acknowledge the possibilities of the poured cement -house, their value is equally established. No city, town, or village -in these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</span> islands should suffer from a shortage of houses for its -peoples, and none need tarry for bricks. They have ample constructional -material at their very doors to build as many houses as they can -possibly desire. To turn these potential resources to account it is -only necessary to abandon our moth-eaten shibboleths, revise our laws -and regulations governing building operations, forget a good deal of -what we are supposed to have learned in the past, and turn to science -and engineering with a more enlightened spirit. By combining the artist -with the engineer and the chemist, and by admitting the utilitarian -possibilities of waste, all the difficulties assailing this country -at the present moment in regard to one of its greatest sociological -problems might be overcome, and the inhabitants of the British Isles -provided with drier, more comfortable, and more durable and artistic -homes than have ever been brought within their reach during the -centuries which have passed, and at a fraction of the cost which is now -held to be inevitable if brick is to be employed.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX<br />THE FUTURE OF THE WASTE PROBLEM: POSSIBILITIES FOR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>What is to be the future of the Waste Problem? This is the question -agitating all circles to-day. The observance and practice of economic -methods are being forced upon us owing to the high prices which are -obtaining for every description of raw material, whether intended for -the table or the factory.</p> - -<p>To a certain degree the action is automatic, from the simple -circumstance that supplies are strictly limited. Money does not -constitute such a determining factor to-day as was the case five years -ago, although of course it still exercises a far-reaching influence. -But the mere fact that an adequacy of raw materials cannot be procured -merely because one may be disposed to pay fictitious prices, is -stimulating interest in the waste issue to a degree which, under -conventional conditions, would never have obtained. In times of plenty -one does not pause to consider for a moment as to whether it is worth -while to devote any time and energy to the exploitation of a certain -refuse.</p> - -<p>But the great question is one not so much concerning what we can derive -from wastes, but whether we have really digested the lessons which -the enemy has taught us. On every side we see startling evidences of -what he was able to do by scientifically turning over and using the -rubbish-heap, and the great wealth he was able to acquire by following -such practices. We found ourselves hit at every turn and, in the hope -of solving the critical situations which arose, were forced to follow -the enemy’s example and become a nation of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">chiffonniers</i>. We have -acquired wealth in the process, have discovered the value of the mine -which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</span> junk pile represents, and realize that more wealth still -remains to be extracted from such untapped resources.</p> - -<p>We have also become intimately conversant with what may be described as -the most perplexing phases of the problem, the greatest of which is the -segregation and collection of the residues. It is upon this rock that -all future effort regarding the scientific exploitation of waste, in -these islands at all events, is in danger of being wrecked.</p> - -<p>The mere description of what we ourselves cannot use in the course -of our operations, as waste, or rubbish, invests the project with a -dangerously false atmosphere. Being regarded as worthless there is a -tendency towards the opinion that its collection and segregation should -be conducted along honorary lines. This is a precarious policy, because -it repudiates the fundamental law of the labourer being worthy of his -hire, whether it be in ploughing, the smelting of steel, shipbuilding, -or the collection of waste.</p> - -<p>Simultaneously another immutable law is being flouted. All matter, -irrespective of its character, which is capable of being considered as -a raw material, must command a market value. It may be high, or it may -be low, but the fact remains unchallenged that it possesses a certain -intrinsic worth. Refuse, which can be worked into something useful, -is just as much raw material as a shipload of ore, or a consignment -of gold. It is its mere classification as waste which imperils its -commercial significance. This is demonstrated by the sudden importance -and value it instantly commands when it becomes labelled, not “waste,” -but a by-product.</p> - -<p>In these circumstances, therefore, it would represent a decided -progressive step if a recognized market could be established in waste -products. By so doing all residues could be given accepted commercial -values with which one and all might become acquainted by perusing -quotations, in precisely the same way as the movement in the prices -of raw materials may be followed by reference to the daily or weekly -market lists. Until such time as wastes become so recognized the -uncertainty of supply must obtain, because it is the very ignorance -of the subject which contributes to the loss of such material through -fire and other equally destructive measures with its appalling loss of -wealth.</p> - -<p>The establishment of a market price for all and every<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</span> description -of waste would act as the direct incentive to preserve anything and -everything for further possible use. This was proved very conclusively -during the war, when bones and paper were in such urgent request, the -one for the reclamation of the fat, and the other for re-pulping. Under -normal conditions both wastes had received indifferent consideration, -and immense quantities of the two materials suffered complete useless -destruction by fire. The premium placed upon the price of bones was -only ½<abbr title="pence">d.</abbr>, or 1 cent, a pound, the butcher being regarded as the -collecting medium. That is to say the bones would be paid for at the -above rate upon surrender to the butcher. The reward was not high, but -it proved to be sufficient to induce people to husband their bones -and to dispose of them in the recognized market. It was the same -with paper. The average housewife devoted but little attention to -the harvesting of this waste until she learned that the authorities -were ready to pay 1d.—2 cents—at least per pound therefor through -its accredited agents. Instantly she commenced to display thrift, and -was somewhat surprised by the money which could be picked up in this -manner. Yet it is safe to assert that had no financial value been -placed upon these wastes barely 50 per cent. of what was actually -secured would have been forthcoming.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately there is a large class of waste exploiters which is -disposed to trade upon the ignorance or indifference of the community. -In the knowledge that the average house, office and factory has no -conception of the value of its refuse, or is ready to part with it -for nothing because it is regarded as a nuisance, the waste merchant -is disposed to become discriminatory and autocratic. He is perfectly -ready to acquire what he knows full well possesses a distinct value so -long as he can get it for nothing. The moment the owner sets a value -upon the flotsam and jetsam the waste merchant will have nothing to do -with it. He assumes an indifferent if not a dictatorial and impossible -attitude to which the second party to the projected bargain takes -immediate exception. The upshot is that sooner than part with the -material for nothing, and in the knowledge that the acquirer is certain -to sell out in turn at a profit, the material is withdrawn completely -from possible circulation, and so suffers irretrievable loss. To -barter is human, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</span> this applies as forcibly to waste as to houses, -commodities and produce in general.</p> - -<p>The waste market must be set upon a firm and solid basis. Those who -have specialized in this field of trading during the past few years, -and, as a result, have become acquainted with its possibilities, and -the true value of such material as is to be obtained through the -devious channels, are in the position to effect such a reform. The -price of waste is naturally subsidiary to the fluctuations in the -market quotations of the materials whence it is drawn, as well as -of those normally employed in the industries to which waste may be -applied. The general conditions are decidedly more complex than those -prevailing in the handling of straight materials, for the simple reason -that then only the one market needs to be watched.</p> - -<p>Factors of cost also require to be closely followed. In the true -economic and scientific exploitation of all waste products the question -of cost is vital. It may easily jeopardize such utilization. Naturally -a margin of profit must be available from the working-up of the -material, not only to ensure its use, but also to safeguard the sources -of supply. This margin must be determined, not on the top of the market -as is the case at the present moment when conditions are abnormal, -but when prices for raw materials are at their minimum. If, then, the -exploitation of waste can be conducted in such a way as to compete -successfully with ostensible raw materials, recovery must hold its own -to become more and more profitable as the market rises. By-products can -be exploited only so long as the cost of preparing them for commerce -proves profitable. If it should become cheaper to treat raw materials -for a similar article then waste reclamation must suffer abandonment, -except in those rare instances where every contributory source of -supply must be pressed into service. Such conditions rarely obtain -on a low market, because the latter is directly attributable to the -circumstance that supply is in advance of demand. It is the inversion -of this law which forces high prices.</p> - -<p>Efforts have been made to stimulate the preservation and surrender -of waste along voluntary lines. But such measures cannot hope to be -commercially successful, except under peculiar circumstances, as for -instance when patriotism may act as the incentive. The voluntary -handling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</span> of waste must of necessity prove wanting because it is -deficient in discipline, method, and organization such as science -demands to fulfil the conquests she indicates. Compulsory measures -are absolutely imperative, otherwise all the mickle which makes the -muckle must slip through the meshes of the net, no matter how well it -may be cast. The Germans were enabled to bid defiance to the world, -notwithstanding the stringency of the blockade, by the elaboration of -rigid laws ensuring the collection of all waste. Such measures were in -force more or less during the halcyon pre-war days, but were severely -tightened up when national existence was seriously threatened. Similar -compulsory methods will need to be introduced into this country to -ensure the full recovery of valuable materials for industry, that is -if we are to reduce our purchases from abroad. The desired end can -be achieved indirectly by prohibiting the acquisition of the obvious -raw materials from foreign sources, because instantly the refuse and -residues capable of taking the place of the raw materials will commence -to appreciate in value and accordingly will be preserved and utilized.</p> - -<p>But the citizens of Britain are opposed to compulsion in any and every -form. To impose such conditions is to interfere with the liberty of the -subject, although absolute and unfettered freedom, as experience has -adequately testified, reacts against the welfare of the individual and -the community in general. Failing uncompromising compulsory measures -is it possible to achieve comparative success by spontaneous private -enterprise?</p> - -<p>To obtain an indication of what can be achieved in this direction it -is necessary to go to the French capital. There an enterprising and -energetic Frenchman, Monsieur Verdier-Dufour, undoubtedly built up one -of the largest businesses in the world—founded upon dust-bin waste. -The organization was somewhat intricate and full of inner workings -although highly effective in the production of results, because the -guiding spirit knew that everything has its specific use.</p> - -<p>The operation commences in the gutter at the bin in which the -householder has dumped his refuse and which he has moved to the -kerbstone for collection. Now the Frenchman is a cute bargainer, as -the whole world knows, and the concierge, after the passing of the -ordinance compelling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</span> the householder to bin his refuse, promptly saw -a means to improve his pocket. The bin was a lucky dip and accordingly -was well worth exploiting as a concession. He promptly drove a bargain -with one class of the vast army of Paris waste-gatherers which entitled -the individual to rummage the bin before the collector came along, the -only requirement being that the “miner” should be up early and on the -spot before the refuse carts commenced operations. The <i>placier</i>, -as this individual is called, did his work well—the bin contained -little of material value after he had sorted its contents. But other -less luckless members of the garbage-rummaging fraternity did not spurn -to submit the tailings from the first process to another treatment and -reap a harvest in the process.</p> - -<p>The odds and ends gathered in this manner, and which were of a most -diversified nature, for the most part found their way to Monsieur -Verdier-Dufour’s establishment, where the precise value of each -article, and the grade of each range of substances, became known to -the uttermost centime. Nothing was too small to be examined and each -article had its individual bin. The man at the helm knew the exact -application for each article, while he was a master-mind in following -the markets. When quotations were abnormally low he could hold on for -the return of better times. His waste commanded the admiration of the -firms with which he dealt because he maintained the standard of his -products which were exactly as described. Manufacturers merely had to -dump the waste into their machines, thus treating it as if it were -raw material. There was no interference with the rigid routine of -their business, nor were they called upon to expend a further penny in -rendering the waste suitable for their intentions. So the master-mind -built up a large and highly lucrative business and thus there was very -little household waste which escaped reclamation.</p> - -<p>Co-operative societies among the rag-pickers supplemented individual -effort in this field. In this instance the process is simpler because -it is conducted along broader lines. Sorting is not conducted to -such a fine degree as under the individual system above described. -Consequently it suffers because lower prices are paid. Waste commands a -price according to the time and labour which will have to be expended -by the purchaser before such material can be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</span> safely turned into the -precise channels of the huge manufacturing machine for which it has -been acquired.</p> - -<p>The objection to both co-operative and individual methods, such as I -have described, is that they can only be conducted upon the requisite -scale in the very largest cities where the volume of material to -be handled is relatively heavy. Waste must be forthcoming in a -steady stream of uniform volume to justify its exploitation, and the -fashioning and maintenance of these streams is the supreme difficulty.</p> - -<p>Ostensibly, in this country we have the very finest machinery in -existence for the reclamation of waste of every description—the -municipal and civic authorities. But, as results have conclusively -demonstrated, they are the least efficient institutions in this -respect. The few cities which are able to point to great achievements -in this field are the very exceptions which serve to prove the rule. -They do so in the most convincing manner, and incidentally bring home -to us very vividly the enormous wealth which we are deliberately -throwing away through lack of enterprise and adequate organization.</p> - -<p>The system is responsible for this deplorable state of affairs. The -average municipal engineer, even if anxious to excel in this province, -finds himself hampered at every turn. He is not vested with sufficient -authority or freedom to carry any carefully prepared scheme into -operation without the sanction of this, or that, Committee which, -as a rule, is notorious for its lack of practical knowledge, more -particularly in all matters pertaining to the value of waste. Then -the multiplicity of officials and their salaries reacts against every -possibility of a scheme being turned into a financial success.</p> - -<p>It is a matter for serious discussion as to whether our whole system -of waste recovery, in so far as it affects municipalities, should -not be overhauled from top to bottom—even superseded. It should be -entrusted to private enterprise acting under licence. Were such a force -encouraged we might safely anticipate the provision of well-equipped -comprehensive plants, similar to those which I have described, for the -treatment of waste of every description incurred within the district -in which it operates. To this centre should be borne refuse of every -description for segregation and preparation for the mills of industry. -Private enterprise,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</span> from its close contact with the markets, would be -able to set prices at which it would be prepared to purchase waste of -every description from a dog-mauled bone to a worn-out scrubbing-brush; -a discarded daily paper to an abandoned straw hat or pair of tattered -boots.</p> - -<p>By fixing prices for all and every description of residue preservation -and segregation at the source would be encouraged. The housewife, -caretaker of the office, and manager of the factory would see that -all waste was carefully husbanded, and that nothing possessing the -slightest value would be thrown away. The dust-collectors could be -encouraged to participate in the general round-up of waste by being -given a commission upon all useful material brought in. It might be -an over-riding commission to ensure complete and frequent collection. -It is only necessary to apply sufficient stimulus in the form of hard -cash to ensure that nothing is wasted. Private enterprise could carry -out such a scheme whereas municipal authorities are precluded from -following such a course.</p> - -<p>Under private auspices it would also become possible to exploit the -waste accruing in our rural districts. Residences by the wayside, -hamlets and country homes from their isolation have escaped the -tentacles of previous recovery systems. No recognized specialist in -residues, with the exception perhaps of the wardrobe dealer, ever -passes their way to pay a call. But, with modern motor transport -facilities it would be possible to call at these possible scattered -sources of supply for anything and everything, and at regular -intervals, so that the owners might be induced to preserve their useful -materials. It is maintained that such collection would never prove -profitable. Possibly not when considered upon its own footing, but when -contemplated in a general scheme it would not only be lucrative, but -contribute to the higher efficiency of the plant employed from being -able to raise the working output to one more closely approaching the -maximum capacity.</p> - -<p>Such a method of recovering the waste would stimulate competition -which, in turn, would tend to the hardening of prices to the advantage -of those who have waste for disposal. The plant would only need to -study local conditions in so far as the disposal of readily decomposing -refuse was concerned, such as that from householders, fish, meat and -other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</span> organic matter. The municipal authorities, by virtue of their -powers, would be able to ensure that this class of refuse was collected -and treated promptly in the interests of the health of the community. -Such waste as is not susceptible to deterioration could be sent or -drawn from distant points, according to the advantage of price offered, -as is actually the case to-day in regard to certain materials.</p> - -<p>Private enterprise would also exercise another far-reaching beneficial -influence. It would not lag behind the clock of progress. Science -is ever advancing and the exploitation of waste lies in its true -scientific utilization. Under the present conditions inventive effort -in this province is not able to exercise the influence or reap the -benefits which it really deserves. The tendency to be satisfied with -what is already installed, no matter how inefficient it may be, is too -deeply implanted. On the other hand, competition is the lever which -impels private enterprise. To turn a blind eye to invention is to court -disaster.</p> - -<p>Although we have made vast strides during the past few years in the -processes of reclamation and utilization of waste we are still far from -having penetrated the threshold of the new world of industry, science, -and invention which it embraces. The unknown lies before us. For -aught contemporary knowledge can say, other triumphs and vast fields -of conquest, comparable with those associated with the gas and oil -industries, are waiting to be discovered, and this fact is adequate to -foster experiment, research, and investigation.</p> - -<p>We talk glibly of exploiting waste, but how many products entering -intimately into our everyday life are being passed through the mill of -reclamation? A little reflection will speedily exhaust the list. If we -look around we can satisfy ourselves how much and what a variety of -substances are still being permitted to run to utter loss. We have not -yet found a use for spent matches, or a means of retipping those which -have been scarcely lighted, despite the fact that this indispensable -attribute to modern civilization has increased from 300 to 800 per -cent. in price. How many typewriter ribbons are used by the tens of -thousands of offices in the country during the year, and what is done -with them when withdrawn from the machines as being unfit for further -service? What is done with the stones and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</span> kernels from the millions -of pounds of stone-fruits consumed during the year? The inventor is -still confronted with the prize which will result from the discovery -of an economic use for the 370,000,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of spent tea-leaves and -100,000,000 <abbr title="pounds">lb.</abbr> of coffee-grounds left in our pots, cups, and urns -during the twelve months.</p> - -<p>The lists of wastes awaiting profitable disposal are extremely -lengthy. Some appear to be as impossible of successful solution as the -discovery of the non-refillable bottle. But effort is not confined to -the perfection of processes for the treatment of untouched wastes, -because the real solution of this problem lies in the full scientific -utilization of the product reclaimed. The fact that a waste is being -exploited does not imply that such utilization is the most profitable. -Investigation may indicate another and totally different, as well as -more lucrative application for a certain material. So the inventor is -not confined to a narrow field; his opportunities are illimitable.</p> - -<p>There is one outstanding factor governing waste reclamation which often -escapes observation. It is the only means whereby the cost of living -may be reduced. Obviously, if a specific substance, whether it be a -foodstuff or raw material for manufacture, be applied exclusively to -one individual purpose, and without the residues resulting from its -preparation, a certain quantity of which must necessarily be incurred, -being turned to any economic account, the one application must bear -the whole of the cost involved. It is by turning the residues to some -profitable account that the cost of the primary product can be reduced -to an attractive level, and the wider the margin of profit on the -by-products and the more numerous the latter, the greater the reduction -possible upon the quotation for the staple.</p> - -<p>For instance, were coal still to be distilled exclusively for its gas, -the price of the latter to-day would be so high as to be prohibitive -to all but the wealthy. It is the ability to exploit from two to three -hundred, or more, by-products arising in the distillation process, -which enables the gas itself to be sold at a figure bringing it within -the reach of all. What would be the cost of our clothes were it not -possible for the mills to take the discarded woollen garments, shred -them, combine the reconstructed fleece with new wool, and thus produce -a new cloth? It is shoddy, or mungo,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</span> which has solved the problem of -good clothing at a relatively low price for all, because, to-day, there -are very few of us who could afford to buy suits made of 100 per cent. -new wool.</p> - -<p>There are few spheres of activity offering such attractions, or holding -out such tremendous prizes to the persevering and brilliant of thought -as that identified with the exploitation of wastes. The field is so -vast as to be open to the endeavours of the layman as much as to the -master of knowledge. While many of the questions to be answered are of -severe technical significance, there are many which are equally capable -of solution by the man, or woman, who has had no technical training. -There are many “crown cork” problems awaiting solution, while there -is equal scope and opportunity for those possessed of the powers of -organization.</p> - -<p>The opinion prevails in certain quarters that the present wave of -interest in the scientific reclamation of waste is merely ephemeral. -Doubtless this feeling prevails because of the extreme length to which -the fetish of cheapness and extravagance had carried us and which -shortcomings appeared to be so firmly ingrained as to form part of -the British character. To a certain degree prevailing high prices -are certain to persuade us to pay closer regard to this issue than -has heretofore been the case. Nevertheless, the longer such abnormal -conditions obtain the more impressed shall we become of the wealth -to be won from waste. They will compel us to strive to extract the -utmost from the raw material placed in our hands. They will induce us -to become more and more reluctant to discard a material after we have -secured all apparent worth which it appears to be capable of yielding, -from the fear that the ultimate residue may still contain something of -potential value which we have not succeeded in discovering.</p> - -<p>While, doubtless, the gradual relapse of conditions to the normal -will exercise the effect of causing us to pay decreasing regard to -the value of the wastes, it is to be hoped that, by the time such a -stage has been reached, we shall have become so powerfully impressed -with the potentialities of residues as to continue to exploit them -instinctively. If such be the case we shall find ourselves in the -position of being better armed for the coming commercial struggle -with Germany, to whom waste has brought extraordinary wealth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</span> in the -past. Thus equipped we should be able to meet a remorseless and clever -commercial antagonist on more than level terms.</p> - -<p>Of one thing we may rest assured. Germany, past-master in the art -of exploiting wastes, will exert herself far more strenuously in -this field in the future than she has ever done before. Economic -considerations will compel her to keep her foreign purchases of raw -materials down to the irreducible minimum and to force her sales abroad -to the absolute maximum in order to secure the rehabilitation of her -trade balance. To consummate this end she will leave no stone unturned -to exploit her refuse of every description to the full. No one knows -more than Germany what can be done with the so-called rubbish-heap, -and no other country is more cognizant of the fact that the industrial -exploitation of waste creates wealth. So it behoves us to keep a tight -hand upon our residues from household, office, and factory, and to -exploit them ourselves to our own financial and economic advantage.</p> - - -<p class="center p4"><span class="smcap">The End</span></p> - - -<p class="center p4 small"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Printed in Great Britain by</i></span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON</span><br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - - -<p>Obvious errors in punctuation have been fixed.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_12">Page 12</a>: “preparation of magarine” changed to “preparation of margarine”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_38">Page 38</a>: “aggreeable surprise” changed to “agreeable surprise”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_44">Page 44</a>: “authorities succintly” changed to “authorities succinctly”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_121">Page 121</a>: “in these circumstance” changed to “in these circumstances”</p> -<p><a href="#Page_126">Page 136</a>: “rather then decreasing” changed to “rather than decreasing”</p> -<p><a href="#Page_141">Page 141</a>: “while thay have achieved” changed to “while they have -achieved”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_149">Page 149</a>: “a specialy designed” changed to “a specially designed”</p> -<p><a href="#Page_162">Page 162</a>: “peculiarly situate” changed to “peculiarly situated”</p> -<p><a href="#Page_272">Page 272</a>: “enchanced recovery” changed to “enhanced recovery”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_300">Page 300</a>: “naturally subsidary” changed to “naturally subsidiary”</p> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MILLIONS FROM WASTE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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