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diff --git a/old/68145-0.txt b/old/68145-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 73b13c3..0000000 --- a/old/68145-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1249 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Use of tobacco among North American -Indians, by Ralph Linton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Use of tobacco among North American Indians - -Author: Ralph Linton - -Release Date: May 21, 2022 [eBook #68145] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Steve Mattern, Robert Tonsing and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF TOBACCO AMONG NORTH -AMERICAN INDIANS *** - - - - - - USE OF TOBACCO - AMONG - NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS - - BY - RALPH LINTON - ~Assistant Curator of North American Ethnology~ - - [Illustration] - - ~Anthropology~ - ~Leaflet 15~ - - FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - CHICAGO - 1924 - -[Illustration: PLATE I. - -PAWNEE PRIESTS MAKING A SMOKE OFFERING.] - - - - - ~Field Museum of Natural History~ - DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY - ~Chicago, 1924~ - -─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - ~Leaflet~ ~Number 15~ -─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── - - Use of Tobacco among North American Indians - - -Tobacco has been one of the most important gifts from the New World -to the Old. In spite of the attempts of various authors to prove its -Old World origin there can be no doubt that it was introduced into -both Europe and Africa from America. Most species of _Nicotiana_ -are native to the New World, and there are only a few species which -are undoubtedly extra-American. The custom of smoking is also -characteristic of America. It was thoroughly established throughout -eastern North and South America at the time of the discovery; and -the early explorers, from Columbus on, speak of it as a strange and -novel practice which they often find it hard to describe. It played -an important part in many religious ceremonies, and the beliefs and -observances connected with it are in themselves proof of its antiquity. -Hundreds of pipes have been found in the pre-Columbian mounds and -village sites of the eastern United States and, although these remains -cannot be dated, some of them must be of considerable age. In the -southwestern United States the Basket Makers, an ancient people whose -remains are found below those of the prehistoric Cliff Dwellers, were -smoking pipes at a time which could not have been much later than the -beginning of our era. - -At the time of the discovery of America, tobacco was in use over the -greater part of the continent. It was not used in the sub-Arctic -regions of North America or in the extreme southern part of Southern -America. On the west coast of South America and in the Andean highlands -it was replaced by another narcotic, coca (_Erythroxylum coca_), from -which the modern drug cocaine is extracted. The coca leaves were dried -and chewed with powdered lime. Tobacco was smoked throughout most of -its range, but the tribes of the northwest coast of North America mixed -it with shell lime and made it into small pellets which were allowed -to dissolve in the mouth. The tribes of Washington, Oregon and a great -part of California used it in the same way, but also smoked it. Along -the eastern side of the Andean highlands in South America tobacco was -both smoked and chewed. The chewing tobacco was prepared like the -Andean coca, and the idea was probably borrowed from coca chewing. - -Although Europeans learned the custom of smoking from the Indians and -even copied the Indian smoking appliances rather closely, the modern -American custom of tobacco chewing may not be of Indian origin. None of -the North American Indians east of the Rocky Mountains chewed tobacco, -and the only point at which South American tobacco chewing reached the -Atlantic Coast was a small region in northern Colombia. Modern chewing -tobacco lacks the admixture of powdered lime, which was considered -necessary by all Indian tobacco chewers and seems to have been an -invention of the white frontiersmen. It is possible, however, that the -idea of tobacco chewing was carried to the English colonies by the -Spaniards, who may have learned it from the South American Indians. - -The North American Indians used at least nine species of _Nicotiana_, -most of which were cultivated. _Nicotiana tabacum_, the species to -which practically all the modern commercial tobaccos belong, was -grown throughout Mexico, the West Indies, and in northern and -eastern South America. It was unknown north of Mexico until its -introduction into Virginia by the English colonists. _Nicotiana -rustica_, a much hardier species with a yellow flower, was grown by -the Indians of the eastern United States and Canada as far west as -the great plains and as far north as agriculture was possible. It was -the first tobacco grown in Virginia for the European trade, but was -soon supplanted there by _N. tabacum_. Small patches of it are still -cultivated by some of the Central Algonquian tribes who use it in their -ceremonies. _N. attenuata_ was used over a larger area than any other -species. It is found in its natural state in the southwestern United -States and southern plains, and as a cultivated plant extends northward -into western Canada and British Columbia. It was also cultivated on -the lower Colorado, but the typical Pueblo tribes do not seem to have -raised it. _N. multivalvis_ was grown in Washington and Oregon, as well -as by the Crow, who lived on the western edge of the plains. A related -species (_N. quadrivalvis_) was grown by the settled tribes along the -Missouri river. Still another species (_N. biglovii_) was used by the -California tribes, and is known to have been cultivated by the Hupa. -The three last-named species are rather closely related; it seems -probable that _N. multivalvis_ and _N. quadrivalvis_ were brought into -the plains area from the west, displacing _N. attenuata_. - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - - AMERICAN INDIAN TOBACCO PIPES. - - 1. BOWL OF BASKETMAKER PIPE. 2. BOWLS OF SOUTHWESTERN TUBULAR PIPES. - 3. SOUTHWESTERN TUBULAR PIPE, SANDSTONE. 4. CALIFORNIA CLAY PIPE. 5. - CALIFORNIA STEATITE PIPE. 6. PIPE WITH STEATITE BOWL AND WOODEN STEM, - AND PIPE CASE, CALIFORNIA.] - -There is very little information available on the aboriginal methods of -tobacco culture in the eastern United States. Early writers say that it -was not grown with other crops, as it was believed to be injurious to -them, and was usually cultivated by men. Mr. Milford Chandler informs -me that the Cayuga, in New York State, had permanent tobacco beds in -which the plant was grown year after year. These beds were lightly -manured from time to time, but were not cultivated, and the plants -were left to propagate themselves. The leaves were gathered, but the -stems, with the seed pods, were left standing in the patch. The Seneca, -another tribe of the Iroquois confederacy, simply scattered the seeds -on the ground and had a religious prohibition against cultivating the -plant. Mr. Alanson Skinner informs me that the Kickapoo and Potawatomi -made large brush piles fifty or more feet long and ten or twelve feet -wide which they fired about the middle of June. When the ashes were -cold, the ground was hoed up, mixed with the ashes, and planted with -tobacco and pumpkins. The tobacco gardens were made in the woods, -remote from the villages, and were surrounded by brush fences. The -Sauk also planted their tobacco in the ashes of brush-fires, but -did not break the ground or cultivate the crop. In some cases they -simply threw a handful of seeds on the ground near the lodge. The -Kickapoo, Potawatomi and Sauk all gathered the leaves of the plant in -late August. They spread them on hides or blankets, and when they had -wilted, rolled them like tea-leaves. When dry, the leaves were crushed. -The reason assigned for the rolling was that leaves treated in this way -did not crush to fine powder like those that had been dried flat. Most -of the eastern tribes grew only enough tobacco for their own needs, -but one, the Tionontati, raised large quantities of it for export and, -on this account, were called Tobacco People (Nation de Petun) by the -French. - -The best published account of aboriginal tobacco-culture is that given -to G. L. Wilson by Buffalobird-woman, an old member of the Hidatsa -tribe. The Hidatsa raised a different species of tobacco from the -eastern Indians (_N. quadrivalvis_), and their methods were somewhat -different. She says, “The old men of the tribe who smoked each had a -tobacco garden planted not very far away from our corn-fields, but -never in the same plot with one. Tobacco gardens were planted apart, -because the tobacco plants have a strong smell which affects the corn; -if tobacco is planted near the corn, the growing corn-stalks turn -yellow, and the corn is not so good. Tobacco seed was planted at the -same time sunflower seed was planted (as early in April as the soil -could be worked). The owner took a hoe and made soft every foot of the -tobacco garden; and with a rake he made the loosened soil level and -smooth. He marked the ground with a stick into rows about eighteen -inches apart, and sowed the seed very thickly in the row. He covered -the newly sowed soil very lightly with earth which he raked with his -hand. When rain came and warmth, the seed sprouted. The plants came up -thickly so that they had to be thinned out. The owner of the garden -would weed out the weak plants, leaving only the stronger standing. The -earth about each plant was hilled up with a buffalo rib into a little -hill like a corn hill. A very old man, I remember, used a big buffalo -rib, sharpened on the edge, to work the soil and cultivate his tobacco. -He caught the rib by both ends with the edge downward; and stooping -over, he scraped the soil toward him, now and then raising the rib -up and loosening the earth with the point at one end. He knelt as he -worked. - -“Tobacco plants began to blossom about the middle of June; and picking -then began. Tobacco was gathered in two harvests. The first harvest -was these blossoms, which we reckoned the best part of the plant -for smoking. Blossoms were picked regularly every fourth day. If we -neglected to pick them until the fifth day, the blossoms would begin -to seed. Only the green part of the blossom was kept. When we fetched -the blossoms home to the lodge, my father would spread a dry hide on -the floor in front of his sacred objects and spread the blossoms on the -hide to dry. The smoke hole of the lodge, being rather large, would -let through quite a strong sunbeam, and the drying blossoms were kept -directly in the beam. - -“When the blossoms had quite dried, my father fetched them over near -the fireplace and took a piece of buffalo fat, thrust it on the end of -a stick and roasted it slowly over the coals. He touched it lightly -here and there to the piled up blossoms, so as to oil them slightly, -but not too much. Now and then he would gently stir the pile of -blossoms with a little stick, so that the whole mass might be oiled -equally. When my father wanted to smoke these dried blossoms, he -chopped them fine with a knife, a pipeful at a time. The blossoms were -always dried in the lodge: If dried without, the sun and air took away -their strength. - -“About harvest time, just before frost came, the rest of the plants -were gathered. He dried the plants in the lodge. For this he took -sticks, about fifteen inches long, and thrust them over the beam -between two of the exterior supporting posts, so that the sticks -pointed a little upwards. On each of these sticks he hung two or three -tobacco plants by thrusting the plants, root up, upon the stick, but -without tying them. When the tobacco plants were quite dry, the leaves -readily fell off. It was the stems that furnished most of the smoking. -They were treated like the blossoms, with buffalo fat. We did not treat -tobacco with buffalo fat except as needed for use, and to be put into -the tobacco pouch ready for smoking. - -“Before putting the tobacco away in the cache pit, my father was -careful to put aside seed for the next year’s planting. He gathered the -black seeds into a small bundle about as big as a baby’s fist, wrapping -them in a piece of soft skin which he tied with a string. He made two -or three of these bundles and tied them to the top of his bed, or to a -post nearby, where there was no danger of their being disturbed.” - -[Illustration: PLATE III. - - AMERICAN INDIAN TOBACCO PIPES. - - 1. PIPE OF ANTELOPE BONE, CHEYENNE. 2–3. STEATITE PIPES, JOHNSON - COUNTY, ILLINOIS. 4–5. LARGE STEATITE PIPES, SOUTHEASTERN UNITED - STATES.] - -The Blackfoot and Crow, nomadic tribes of the western Plains who raised -no food crops, cultivated small patches of tobacco for ceremonial use. -The ground was cleared of weeds and grass, and the seed planted in -holes about two inches deep, made with a pointed stick. The gardens -were weeded from time to time, but do not seem to have been regularly -cultivated. In both tribes tobacco culture was attended by elaborate -ceremonies. Among the Crow it was in the hands of a society which -also played an important part in the social life of the tribe. The -right to plant tobacco was considered a special privilege which could -be obtained only through a revelation from some supernatural being -or through adoption by a person who had received such a revelation. -The adopted person could, in turn, adopt others. Any person might -receive such a revelation, and the society was composed of a number -of divisions or chapters which derived their right to plant from -different revelations and differed in their songs and in details of -their ceremonies. Within the chapter there were certain rights, such -as that of mixing seed before planting, which could only be acquired -by purchase. Both men and women were eligible to membership, and the -society held assemblages for dancing throughout the year. - -Some of the tribes west of the Rocky Mountains also cultivated tobacco, -although there is little information on their methods. On the Columbia -River and in northern California a stump or fallen log was burned, and -the tobacco seed scattered in the ashes. - -Most of the North American Indians mixed their tobacco with other herbs -before smoking it. Among the more northern tribes, especially those who -did not raise tobacco themselves, this was done partly through motives -of economy, but the mixture was also designed to improve the flavor, -as in our own commercial blends. The favorite smoke of the tribes of -the eastern United States and Canada was called kinnikinnick, from an -Algonquian word meaning “that which is mixed.” Each tribe had its own -formula for this mixture, but it usually consisted of tobacco, sumac -leaves, and the inner bark of a species of dogwood. The bark and leaves -of a number of other plants were sometimes added or substituted. A -little oil was usually added to the mixture to bind the dust, which -would otherwise irritate the smoker’s throat and clog the pipe. -Kinnikinnick was milder than pure tobacco, and was preferred by most -Indians and by many white hunters and settlers. The Pueblo Indians of -the Southwest smoked various mixtures of tobacco and herbs in their -religious ceremonies. The greatest care was used in compounding these -ceremonial mixtures, and the plants were valued largely according to -the distance from which they came. The California Indians diluted their -tobacco with manzanita leaves or mixed it with Jamestown weed, itself a -powerful narcotic. The choicest smoking mixture of the ancient Mexicans -was made from tobacco and the gum of the liquidambar tree. - -Three main methods of smoking were used by the American aborigines. -The natives of northern and central South America and the West -Indies were cigar smokers. The Central Americans and Mexicans were -predominantly cigarette smokers, although some of the ancient Mexicans -also used pipes. The North American Indians, with the exception of the -Pueblo tribes of the Southwest, were exclusively pipe-smokers. The -distribution of these three methods in America has strongly influenced -European smoking customs. The Mediterranean nations, who learned the -use of tobacco from cigar and cigarette using Indians, still prefer -to smoke it in these forms. The English, who came in contact with -the pipe-smoking Indians of the eastern United States are still -predominantly pipe-smokers. The custom of cigarette-smoking did not -become general in northern Europe and the United States until quite -recent times, and the vigorous opposition which it has met here seems -to be due quite as much to its novelty as to any proved injurious -effects. - -Aboriginal cigars were practically identical with those now in use and -were smoked in the same way. - -The aboriginal cigarette was made with a corn-husk wrapper and -contained much less tobacco than the modern commercial variety. -It is still in use throughout most of Mexico and Central America -and among the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States. -Archæological finds prove that the southwestern tribes smoked pipes -or reed cigarettes in ancient times, and the corn-husk cigarette may -have been introduced from Mexico during the early historic period. -In recent times the spread of the Peyote cult, which originated in -the southwestern Plains, has carried the corn-husk cigarette to many -northern tribes who were unfamiliar with it even a generation ago. The -Mexicans and Pueblo Indians also smoked reed cigarettes in ancient -times, and the Hopi form may be taken as typical. It consisted of a -small reed, not over two and a half inches long, packed with powdered -tobacco. A band of some fabric was usually bound around the reed, -leaving a flap hanging down by which it was held. Hundreds of the -charred butts of such cigarettes have been found in the prehistoric -ruins of the Southwest, but they are lacking in the lower archæological -levels, and the earliest inhabitants of the region were probably pipe -and not cigarette smokers. - -The Dakota say that they did not use pipes in ancient times, but smoked -their tobacco in a hole in the ground. A similar method was used by -the Cree as a makeshift. Hind says, “I asked the Indian what he -would do for a smoke until he had finished the new pipe. He arose and -walking to the edge of the swamp cut four reeds, and joined some pieces -together. After he had made a hole through the joints, he gently pushed -one extremity in a slanting direction into the earth, which he had -previously made firm by pressure with his foot. He then cut out a small -hole in the clay, above the extremity of the reed, and molding it with -his fingers, laughingly said: ‘Now give me tobacco, and I will show you -how to smoke it.’ He then filled the hole with a mixture of tobacco and -bearberry, placed a live coal on the top, and stretching himself at -full length on the ground, with his chin supported by both hands, he -took the reed between his lips and enjoyed a long smoke.” - -Indian pipes were of two main types,—straight pipes, in which the -tobacco cavity and stem were in the same plane, as in a modern cigar -holder, and elbow pipes, in which the bowl was inclined upward. The -straight pipe was known throughout practically the whole of America -north of Mexico, but was rare in the eastern United States. It was -used to the practical exclusion of all other forms in the southwestern -United States and on the Pacific coast. The elaborately decorated -smoking tubes of the Mexicans, mentioned by early Spanish writers, -may have been straight pipes, but many of them were probably cane -cigarettes. The elbow pipe was the dominant form in the eastern United -States and Great Plains, and also in eastern and southern South -America. It was used to a limited extent by the prehistoric Mexicans -and in southern California, and was not unknown in the Southwest. In -historic times it has come into use in British Columbia and Alaska, -regions in which tobacco was not originally smoked. - -The earliest pipes which can be even approximately dated are those of -the Basket Makers, a people who lived in the southwestern United States -in ancient times. Their remains are found below those of the Cliff -Dwellers, and evidence along several lines indicates that they were -living in the region by the beginning of the Christian era and had been -absorbed or driven out by ~A.D.~ 1000. A number of their pipes have -been found. They are of the straight type and are usually quite small, -short, and heavy, with separate stems about two inches long (Pl. II, -No. 1). The bowls are made of stone, unbaked clay, or, rarely, wood; -and the stems of wood or bird-bone. The stems are attached with pitch. -Many of these pipes are heavily caked, and they were probably used -for personal as well as ceremonial smoking. It is impossible to tell -whether the Basket Makers used tobacco in these pipes and analyses of -the cake have yielded only negative results. If they did use tobacco, -it was probably the wild native species (_Nicotiana attenuata_). - -The Cliff Dwellers and ancient Pueblo tribes who succeeded the Basket -Makers used straight pipes of a somewhat different type. They were -usually longer and more slender than the Basket Maker pipes with -somewhat thinner walls. The smaller examples, which were probably -intended for personal use, seem to have had separate stems (Plate II, -No. 2). Large tubular pipes, shaped like half a cigar, are also found, -but were probably used only in ceremonial smoking. They are made of -clay or soft stone and often show beautiful workmanship (Pl. II, No. -3). Roughly made clay pipes of this sort, popularly known as “cloud -blowers,” are still used by the Hopi in their ceremonies. - -The California Indians, with the exception of the Diegueño, also used -the straight pipe, and the form is probably as ancient there as in -the Southwest. There were various tribal and regional differences in -the shape and material. Wooden pipes without separate stems were of -nearly universal occurrence, and were probably the earliest form. In -some regions they were carved and inlaid with abalone shell. Pipes -of unbaked clay with wooden stems were used in a few localities (Pl. -II, No. 4), but the finest California pipes were made of steatite -or soapstone (Pl. II, No. 5). They were usually provided with short -mouthpieces of wood or bone. The Hupa of northern California used a -pipe with a small steatite bowl accurately fitted into a cavity in the -end of a long tapering wooden stem (Pl. II, No. 6). - -Several of the tribes of the Great Plains used straight pipes in -ancient times. These pipes were made from the leg bone of an antelope -wrapped with sinew at the bowl end (Pl. III, No. 1). In some cases the -whole pipe was covered with rawhide or membrane. The Arapaho say that -they used this form exclusively in early times, and the sacred pipe of -the tribe is straight with a black stone bowl and a long tubular wooden -stem. A pipe of the same form, but with a red stone bowl, was used by -the Cheyenne in their Sun Dance, and the Crow have made straight stone -pipe bowls until quite recent times (Pl. V, No. 3). - -A number of straight pipes of stone and clay have been found in the -eastern United States, but there seems to be no record of their use -by the historic tribes. The examples shown (Pl. III, Nos. 2–3) are -from Johnson County, Illinois. They are made from close-grained -greenish brown steatite, a material soft enough to be easily worked -with flint tools, but capable of taking a fine polish. The large size -and excellent finish of these pipes indicates that they were intended -for ceremonial rather than personal use. The bird pipe is eight and -a quarter inches long, with an internal bowl diameter of one and -a quarter inches, and is an unusually good example of aboriginal -sculpture. The eye sockets are roughly finished, and were probably -inlaid with some other material. - -Straight pipes are easier to make than elbow pipes, but have certain -disadvantages. They have to be directed upward in smoking to keep the -tobacco from falling out of the bowl, and the tobacco dust and juices -are drawn down into the stem with results familiar to all smokers. To -prevent this, many tribes are said to have put a pebble or pellet of -clay in the bottom of the bowl before filling it. Even a slight angle -between the bowl and stem is a great convenience to the smoker, and -this improvement once hit upon, perhaps through faulty workmanship, the -development of the elbow pipe was easy. Pipes from different parts of -North America show all degrees of bowl inclination from the straight -tube to a right angle, and there can be little doubt that the main -evolution of the elbow pipe was along this line. In the Mississippi -Valley and Great Plains there are, however, certain types of elbow pipe -which could hardly have been developed in this way. In these the bowl -rests upon a base which extends out for some distance in front of it. -From various archæological finds it seems probable that these types -were developed from pipes which had a corn-cob bowl pierced through the -base with a reed stem. - -North American elbow pipes have never been satisfactorily classified, -but about twenty types are distinguishable. Only the more important -of these can be mentioned here. Most of the types show a more or -less continuous geographical distribution, but there was no tribe or -region in which all the pipes were of the same type. The Chippewa -distinguished four types of pipe which were in simultaneous use among -them. These were—(1) Women’s pipes, which were small, with short -stems and little decoration. (2) Men’s pipes for ordinary smoking, -which were somewhat larger and better made than the women’s pipes, but -were also small. (3) Personal pipes of famous warriors, which were -larger than the ordinary pipes, with heavy decorated stems sometimes -as much as five feet long. (4) Chief’s pipes and ceremonial pipes, -which were large, with long stems like the warrior’s pipes, and were -elaborately decorated. Even the pipes for ordinary smoking were highly -valued and would often be carved and decorated in the owner’s spare -time. Stone for pipe-making, and even finished pipes, seem to have been -bartered from tribe to tribe in ancient times. - -The Indians made their pipes from many materials. Most of the -prehistoric pipes are of stone or clay, but early records prove that -wood, horn, and bone were also used by the tribes of the Atlantic Coast -at the time of their first contact with Europeans. Almost all the -pipes made of these perishable materials have been destroyed, but they -were probably of the same types as the stone and clay pipes from this -region. Clay pipes were in at least occasional use throughout the whole -of North America east of the Great Plains, but the finest examples -are found in the old Iroquois territory in New York State and Canada, -and in the southeastern United States. Stone pipes are found from the -Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains and seem to have been preferred -by all those tribes among whom pottery making was poorly developed. - -Large numbers of Iroquoian clay pipes have been found in old cemeteries -and village sites, and their form makes them easily distinguishable in -collections. They are made of fine hard-burned clay and have a graceful -trumpet shape, with rather long slender bowls and short stems (Pl. IV, -No. 3). The upper part of the bowl is often encircled by a band of -incised designs or modeled into a human face or bird’s head. They -were not provided with separate stems. - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - - AMERICAN INDIAN TOBACCO PIPES. - - 1. MONITOR PIPE, HOPEWELL MOUNDS, OHIO. 2. BIRD AND FISH PIPE, - HOPEWELL MOUNDS, OHIO. 3. IROQUOIS CLAY PIPE. 4. CATAWBA CLAY PIPES - (MODERN). 5. MEXICAN CLAY PIPES (TOLTEC?).] - -Archæological finds on the Atlantic coast prove that the Indians of -that region also used small clay pipes, although the early visitors -only mention large pipes with excessively long stems. It seems probable -that the larger forms were semi-ceremonial, like the warrior’s and -chief’s pipes of the Chippewa, while the small pipes were used for -individual smoking. Many of these small pipes resemble rather closely -the early European trade pipes, and modern clay pipes and straight -briers, but the type is unquestionably pre-European. It was probably -the prototype from which modern European pipes were developed. Some of -the ancient pipes were made in one piece, while others were evidently -provided with separate stems, probably reeds. Identical forms were made -in stone in this region. - -In the southeastern United States short clay pipes with reed or -wooden stems seem to have been in common use. They were often rather -elaborately decorated, with modeled figures of birds, clay pellets, or -incised designs. This form of pipe is still in use among the Catawba, -although many of their pipes show the influence of European models (Pl. -IV, No. 4). - -Pottery pipes with flaring bowls and slender stems, sometimes as much -as eighteen inches long, are found in prehistoric Caddoan sites in -Arkansas. The stems are excessively fragile, and as these pipes are -usually found in the corners of graves, it seems probable that they -were made for mortuary use rather than actual smoking. They are clearly -imitations of a type which had a corn-cob bowl impaled on a reed stem. - -Stone pipes occur over a wider territory than pottery pipes and show -a greater diversity of form. There are some regions in which the same -shapes occur in both stone and pottery, but there are several types of -pipe which appear never to have been made of clay. Most of the stones -used in pipe-making were quite soft, but a few pipes of quartzite and -other hard rocks have been found. The material was carefully selected, -and was usually obtained from regular quarries. In the eastern United -States steatite, serpentine and slate were the stones most used. In the -upper Mississippi valley and Great Plains the favorite material was -catlinite, a fine-grained claystone soft enough to be easily worked -with stone tools, but firm enough to take a high polish. Deposits of -this material have been found in several states, and a local variety -was used by the Ohio Mound Builders. The most famous catlinite quarries -are in southeastern Minnesota and yield the highly prized red stone -from which so many Plains Indian pipes are made. Here the catlinite -occurs as a narrow layer, nowhere more than twenty inches thick, -between strata of compact quartzite five to eight feet thick. To reach -the catlinite it was necessary to break away the quartzite with stone -mauls or shatter it by building large fires upon it and then dashing -water on the heated stone. The old Indian workings extend for more than -a mile along the face of the deposit, and the quarry must have been in -use for several centuries. According to Indian traditions, the place -was visited by many different tribes, who considered it common property -and abstained from hostilities there. In historic times the Dakota -considered it exclusively their property, and part of it was set aside -for their use when they ceded their other lands in the vicinity. They -still visit it occasionally to obtain stone for their pipes. White men -have also worked the quarry, and in 1865 and 1866 over two thousand -pipes of this material were made by the Northwestern Fur Company for -their trade with the Indians. - -The finest aboriginal pipes are unquestionably the so-called monitor -pipes found in the Ohio mounds. Many of these show such excellence -of design and execution that early investigators doubted whether -they could be the work of American Indians. They are made of soft -stone or of fire clay, which was carved like stone, but never of -pottery. The type is characterized by a long, broad, and very thin -base from the center of which the bowl rises vertically. The base may -be either flat or convex. The bowl is often made in the form of an -animal or bird, and some of these effigies show artistic ability of -a high order. Even when the style is impressionistic, the species is -usually unmistakable. The significance of these carvings can only be -conjectured, but so many species are shown that it seems probable that -they represent the personal guardians of the pipes’ owners. None of the -historic tribes used pipes of this type, and the finest examples are -unquestionably pre-Columbian. One of the pipes illustrated (Pl. IV, No. -1) is of typical monitor form, but has the bowl incised with designs -representing bird’s heads. In the other (Pl. IV, No. 2) the shape has -been modified to suit the subject, a roseate spoonbill resting on -the back of some large water animal, probably a mud puppy (_Necturus -maculosus_). - -A number of large stone pipes have been found in the southeastern -United States (Pl. III, Nos. 4–5). Some of these pipes weigh several -pounds and, as they are everywhere associated with smaller forms of -stone or clay, they were probably made for ceremonial use. They seem -to have been provided with long, thick wooden stems. These heavy pipes -are of several types, and are usually well made, but are inferior to -the monitor pipes in design and execution. In Georgia, Alabama, and -the lower Mississippi valley there is a very massive short type in -which the bowl and stem holes are conical and of nearly equal size -and depth. These biconical pipes are often made in the form of human -effigies or of highly conventionalized animals or birds. - -Early visitors to the north Atlantic Coast say that the Indians of -that region used heavy carved pipes with stems three to six feet long. -Large stone pipes are hardly ever found in this region, and even small -carved pipes are extremely rare. It seems probable that these early -forms either had quite small, plain bowls with heavy carved stems, or -were made of wood or other perishable material. Holm says that the -Pennsylvania Indians made their pipe bowls of horn, and several of the -Algonquian tribes have made a considerable use of carved wooden pipes -in historic times. Among many tribes the stems of ceremonial pipes were -elaborately decorated, and were considered more important than the -bowls. - -Plains Indian pipes are commoner in collections than those from any -other region. The Blackfoot preferred pipes of black stone, with -acorn-shaped bowls reminiscent of those in use among the Micmac and -other northeastern Algonquian tribes (Pl. V, No. 4), but throughout -most of the Plains the favorite pipe was made of Minnesota catlinite, -and was of Sioux type (Pl. V, Nos. 6–8). This type is common in museums -and private collections. It has a tubular bowl set vertically on a long -base which projects beyond the bowl as a pointed spur. This projecting -base is also found in the monitor pipes, and the two types may be -remotely related. Pipes of the Sioux type have been made in great -numbers by both whites and Indians, and many of those in collections -were probably manufactured by whites. Either early white traders, or -the tribes on the eastern edge of the Plains originated the practice of -inlaying the bowls and bases with lead. The pipe was cut to nearly its -final form, and a clay mold made. Deep grooves were then cut in the -stone to receive the lead, and the pipe was returned to the mold, and -the metal poured. The metal and stone were then rubbed down to a smooth -surface. Valuable pipes which had been broken were sometimes repaired -in this way. - -[Illustration: PLATE V. - - AMERICAN INDIAN TOBACCO PIPES. - - 1–2. PAWNEE SACRED PIPES. 3. CHEYENNE SUN-DANCE PIPE. 4. BLACKFOOT - PIPE. 5–7. CHEYENNE PIPES. 6–8. SIOUX PIPES. 9. PIPE TAMPER, SIOUX. - 10. PIPE BAG, SIOUX.] - -All Plains Indian pipes, with the exception of the straight bone pipes -previously noted, were provided with long, heavy, wooden stems. Some -tribes preferred tubular, others flat stems. In ancient times most of -the long pipe stems were probably split lengthwise, the smoke passage -excavated, and the two halves glued together. Some of the northern -and western tribes used a solid tubular stem which they pierced by an -ingenious method. They selected a young ash shoot which had a small -pith cavity in the center and caught a wood-boring grub. They made a -hole in one end of the shoot and inserted the grub, closing the opening -behind it. The shoot was then hung over a fire, and the grub, following -the pith as the line of least resistance, drilled a hole through the -shaft from end to end. When it emerged, it was captured and returned -to the place where it had been found with appropriate thanks. Split -tubular stems are rather unsatisfactory, as the halves are liable to -warp and separate. The broad, flat pipe-stem was probably invented to -give a wider surface for the glue and hence a firmer joint. It reached -its highest development among the Dakota, and they seem to have been -the inventors of the “puzzle stem,” a broad, flat stem pierced with -designs so that the smoke passage had to make several turns between -the pipe-bowl and mouth-piece. Pipe stems were often decorated with -elaborate wrappings which helped to hold the halves together. - -A peculiar form of pipe, which may be a variant of the Sioux type, is -found in a limited area in the upper Mississippi valley. These pipes -usually have bases with long projecting spurs, but the bowl is smaller -than the stem hole and very low. It is surrounded by a broad, thin disk -sometimes as much as three and a half inches across. Some of these -“disk pipes” suggest the shallow-bowled pipes of the Asiatics, but the -form is certainly prehistoric. Pipes of this type are rare, and were -probably made for ceremonial use. One of the sacred pipes of the Omaha -is of this sort. - -Although all the Mexican Indians were predominantly cigarette-smokers, -ancient clay pipes of elbow type have been found in the valley of -Mexico (Pl. IV, No. 5). They are not mentioned by any of the early -Spanish writers, but the specimens found are unquestionably of native -workmanship, and are probably prehistoric. The commonest form has a -bulb-shaped bowl and a rather thick stem flattened on the bottom, so -that the pipe will stand upright. The occurrence of elbow pipes in a -limited area, far from any other in which they were known, is difficult -to account for. Some of these pipes resemble forms in use in the -southeastern United States and lower Mississippi valley. - -Elbow pipes were also used on the Northwest Coast and in Alaska, but -they were introduced into these regions after the discovery of America. -The Alaskan Eskimo apparently learned the practice of smoking from the -natives of Siberia, and their pipes are of Asiatic type, with very -small bowls (Pl. VI, No. 1). Their best pipes are made from walrus -tusks, and are often elaborately etched. The tusk is usually split -lengthwise and the halves joined in such a way that they can be taken -apart to obtain the juice distilled in smoking. The juice was mixed -with fungus ashes for chewing or with the smoking tobacco. Poorly made -pipes of Eskimo form were used by the Athapascan tribes of interior -Alaska, who were taught to smoke by the Eskimo. - -The Indians of the Northwest Coast chewed tobacco in ancient times, but -did not smoke it. The more northern tribes may have adopted smoking -from Asia by way of the Eskimo, but their pipes show little resemblance -to the Asiatic forms, and they probably learned the practice from white -visitors. The natives of this region are expert carvers, and nearly all -their pipes are decorated with figures of men or totemic animals. Wood -is the favorite material (Pl. VI, No. 2), but bone and antler are also -used and some of the tribes make very elaborate pipes of black slate -(Pl. VI, No. 3). The slate pipes are much sought after by collectors, -and many of them seem to have been made for sale rather than use. - -Pipes are mentioned among the goods given to the Indians in some of -the earliest English land-purchases, and they were regularly carried -by the white traders with the Indians. An English pipe-maker, Robert -Cotton, came to Virginia in 1608. The earliest trade pipes were made -of clay and seem to have been patterned after the small pipes used -for personal smoking by the coast tribes. Those made in the various -European countries showed minor differences, but were all of nearly the -same form. The later trade pipes show an increasing diversity in shape -and decoration, but the whites apparently did not attempt to make the -larger ceremonial forms. The most important contribution on the part -of the whites to the Indian tobacco complex was the tomahawk pipe. -This implement had a pipe-bowl above and a blade below, and could be -used either as a pipe or as a weapon. We do not know when or where it -originated, but it apparently did not come into general use in the -English Colonies before 1750. All the European nations equipped their -Indian allies with tomahawk pipes, and a number of types are recognized -by collectors. The pipe-bowl was nearly always of acorn shape, like -the pipe used by the northeastern Algonquians, but the blade varied -considerably. In general, the English and early American tomahawks had -straight-edged hatchet-blades, and the French ones had diamond-shaped -blades, like spear-heads. Spanish tomahawks had flaring blades with -curved edges, like mediæval battle-axes. There were a number of white -tomahawk-makers whose work differed in minor details; and fine inlaid, -chased, or inscribed tomahawks were sometimes made for presentation to -important chiefs. - -An Indian warrior was rarely without his pipe and tobacco, and special -tobacco-bags were used by all the tribes east of the Rocky Mountains. -In early times, these bags were usually made from the skins of small -animals taken off whole. The Eastern Woodland tribes used a rather -small bag which was tied to the belt. The Plains tribes used a larger -bag, often made from a fawn skin, in which they carried both the pipe -and tobacco. In historic times the northern Plains Indians have used -long, flat rectangular bags decorated with beads or porcupine quills, -but this type apparently is not an ancient one (Pl. V, No. 10). Several -of the Plains tribes also had special boards on which the tobacco was -cut up and elaborate pipe tampers (Pl. V, No. 9). These accessories -were used mainly in ceremonial smoking. In Pawnee ceremonies the -pipe was always tamped with an arrow captured from the enemy. It was -forbidden to pack it with the fingers, as the gods might think that the -man who did so offered himself with the tobacco and take his life. The -tribes of the Northwest Coast crushed their tobacco in mortars. These -were usually made from whale vertebrae, and were often elaborately -carved. - -Even if documentary evidence of the New World origin of tobacco were -lacking, its importance in the religious and ceremonial life of the -Indians would leave little doubt of the antiquity of its use among -them. Among all the tribes east of the Rocky Mountains tobacco was the -favorite offering to the supernatural powers, and among the Central -Algonquians no ceremony could take place without it. As a sacrifice -it might be burned as incense, cast into the air or on the ground, or -buried. There were sacred places at which every visitor left a tobacco -offering, and during storms it was thrown into lakes and rivers to -appease the under-water powers. Smoking was indulged in on all solemn -occasions, such as councils, and was a necessary part of most religious -ceremonies. In such ceremonial smoking the methods of picking up, -filling, and lighting the pipe were usually rigidly prescribed, and -the first smoke was offered to the spirits. The methods of passing and -holding the pipe were also prescribed and differed with the ceremony -and even with the personal taboos of the smokers. In the religious -ceremonies of the Hopi, the head chief was attended by an assistant -of nearly equal rank, who ceremonially lighted the pipe, and with -certain formalities and set words handed it to the chief, who blew the -smoke to the world quarters and over the altar as a preliminary to his -invocation. - -The so-called medicine-bundles, collections of sacred objects around -which the religious life of many of the Central Algonquians and -Plains Tribes centered, often contained pipes which were smoked in -the ceremonies attending the opening of the bundle (Pl. V, Nos. 1–2). -In some cases the pipe itself seems to have been the most important -object, and the palladium of the Arapaho tribe is a straight pipe of -black stone. Among some of the eastern Siouan tribes each clan had its -sacred pipe which was used at namings and other clan ceremonies. The -stems of these pipes were covered with elaborate wrappings and other -ornaments which symbolized the various supernatural powers invoked in -the ceremonies, and the sanctity of the pipe lay in its stem rather -than its bowl. - -The calumet, so often mentioned in early American records, was not a -pipe, but an elaborately decorated shaft, pierced like a pipe stem, -to which a pipe bowl was not necessarily attached. The name itself -is not of Indian origin, but is a Norman-French word meaning a reed -or tube. J. N. B. Hewitt says, “From the meager descriptions of the -calumet and its uses it would seem that it has a ceremonially symbolic -history independent of that of the pipe; and that when the pipe became -an altar, by its employment for burning sacrificial tobacco to the -gods, convenience and convention united the already highly symbolic -calumet shafts and the sacrificial tobacco altar, the pipe bowl; -hence it became one of the most profoundly sacred objects known to -the Indians of northern America. As the colors and other adornments -of the shaft represent symbolically various dominant gods of the -Indian pantheon, it follows that the symbolism of the calumet and -pipe represented a veritable executive council of the gods. Moreover, -in some of the elaborate ceremonies in which it was necessary to -portray this symbolism the employment of two shafts became necessary, -because the one with its colors and accessory adornments represented -the procreative male power and his aid, and was denominated the male, -the fatherhood of nature; and the other with its colors and necessary -adornments represented the reproductive female power and her aid, and -was denominated the female, the motherhood of nature. - -“The calumet was employed by ambassadors and travelers as a passport; -it was used in ceremonies designed to conciliate foreign and hostile -nations and to conclude lasting peace; to ratify the alliance of -friendly tribes; to secure favorable weather for journeys; to bring -needed rain; and to attest contracts and treaties which could not -be violated without incurring the wrath of the gods. The use of the -calumet was inculcated by religious precept and example. A chant and a -dance have become known as the chant and dance of the calumet; together -they were employed as an invocation to one or more of the gods. By -naming in the chant the souls of those against whom war must be waged, -such persons were doomed to die at the hands of the person so naming -them. The dance and chant were rather in honor of the calumet than with -the calumet. - -“The Omaha and cognate names for this dance and chant signify ‘to make -a sacred kinship,’ but not ‘to dance.’ This is a key to the esoteric -significance of the use of the calumet. The one for whom the dance -for the calumet was performed became thereby the adopted son of the -performer. One might ask another to dance the Calumet dance for him, or -one might offer to perform this dance for another, but in either case -the offer or invitation could be declined. - -“Charlevoix (1721) says that if the calumet is offered and accepted it -is the custom to smoke in the calumet, and the engagements contracted -are held sacred and inviolable, in just so far as such human things -are inviolable. The Indians profess that the violation of such an -engagement never escapes just punishment. In the heat of battle, if -an adversary offer the calumet to his opponent and he accept it, the -weapons on both sides are at once laid down; but to accept or to -refuse the offer of the calumet is optional. There are calumets for -various kinds of public engagements, and when such bargains are made an -exchange of calumets is usual, in this manner rendering the contract or -bargain sacred. - -“By smoking together in the calumet the contracting parties intend -to invoke the sun and the other gods as witnesses of the mutual -obligations assumed by the parties, and as a guaranty the one to the -other that they shall be fulfilled. This is accomplished by blowing the -smoke toward the sky, the four world quarters, and the earth, with a -suitable invocation. - -“There were calumets for commerce and trade and for other social and -political purposes; but the most important were those designed for war -and those for peace and brotherhood. It was vitally necessary, however, -that they should be distinguishable at once, lest through ignorance -and inattention one should become the victim of treachery. The Indians -in general chose not or dared not to violate openly the faith attested -by the calumet, and sought to deceive an intended victim by the use -of a false calumet of peace in an endeavor to make the victim in some -measure responsible for the consequences. On one occasion a band of -Sioux, seeking to destroy some Indians and their protectors, a French -officer and his men, presented, in the guise of friendship, twelve -calumets, apparently of peace; but the officer, who was versed in -such matters and whose suspicion was aroused by the number offered, -consulted an astute Indian attached to his force, who caused him to see -that among the twelve one of the calumet shafts was not matted with -hair like the others, and that on the shaft was graven the figure of a -viper, coiled around it. The officer was made to understand that this -was the sign of covert treachery, thus frustrating the intended Sioux -plot.” - -The use of the calumet was almost universal in the Mississippi valley -and among the Plains tribes, but in the Ohio and St. Lawrence valleys -and southward its use is not so definitely shown. The symbolism and -ritual of the calumet reached its highest development among the Pawnee -and neighboring Siouan tribes and the concept probably originated in -this region. - - ~R. Linton.~ - - - - - ────────── - BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES - - -Handbook of American Indians, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin - 30. See headings:—Calumet, Pipes, Smoking, Tobacco. - -~Hind~—The Canadian Red River, London, 1860. - -~Lowie, R. H.~—The Tobacco Society of the Crow Indians. - Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. - Vol. XXI, Pt. 2. - -~Setchell, W. A.~—Aboriginal Tobaccos, American Anthropologist, Vol. - XXIII, No. 4, 1921. - -~Wilson, G. L.~—Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians. University of - Minnesota, Studies in Social Science, No. 9. - -[Illustration: PLATE VI. - - 1. PIPE MADE FROM WALRUS TUSK, ESKIMO. 2. WOODEN PIPE, HAIDA. 3. PIPE - OF BLACK SLATE, HAIDA.] - - - PRINTED BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USE OF TOBACCO AMONG NORTH -AMERICAN INDIANS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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