diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-21 21:03:39 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-21 21:03:39 -0800 |
| commit | f17f5b7b4ee07264fda1133dfeecfc00bb3b3555 (patch) | |
| tree | 682468ea2f52de61f869702b260ea309ee0f2696 | |
| parent | 923e1fe38511732cb7eb27b030c4568304c639de (diff) | |
169 files changed, 17 insertions, 28759 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cbfcc93 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #68157 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/68157) diff --git a/old/68157-0.txt b/old/68157-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8ed977e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12320 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Manual of the apiary, by Albert John -Cook - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Manual of the apiary - -Author: Albert John Cook - -Release Date: May 23, 2022 [eBook #68157] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tom Cosmas compiled from materials made available at The - Internet Archive. - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF THE APIARY *** - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_ and =Bold=. - - - - - MANUAL - - OF - - THE APIARY, - - - BY - - A. J. COOK, - - _Professor of Entomology_ - - IN THE - - MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. - - - FOURTH EDITION, - - _REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED._ - - SIXTH THOUSAND. - - - CHICAGO, ILLS.: THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON - - 1879. - - - Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by - - THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, - - In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. - - - TO THE - - REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH, - - THE - - INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE, - - THE - - HUBER OF AMERICA, AND THE GREATEST MASTER OF - - PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO - - APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD; THIS MANUAL - - IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED - - BY - - THE AUTHOR. - - - - -PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. - - -THE APIARY. - -Why another treatise on this subject? Have we not Langstroth, and -Quinby, and King, and Bevan, and Hunter? Yes; all of these. Each of -which has done excellent service in promoting an important industry. -Each of which possesses peculiar and striking excellences. Yet none -of these combine all of the qualities desirable in a popular manual. -Hence, the excuse for another claimant for public favor. Every cultured -apiarist laments that there is no text-book which possesses all of -the following very desirable characters: Simple style, full in its -discussions, cheap, disinterested, up with the times. It is for the -bee-keeping public to decide whether this treatise meets any more fully -the demands made by the latest discoveries and improvements, by the -wants of those eager to learn, and by the superior intelligence which -is now enlisted in the interests of the Apiary. - -The following is, in substance, the same as the course of lectures -which I have given each year to the students of the Michigan -Agricultural College, and their desire, as expressed in repeated -requests, has led to this publication. - -It will be my desire to consider subjects of merely scientific interest -and value, as fully as scientific students can reasonably desire; and, -that such discussions may not confuse or perplex those who only read or -study with practical ends in view, a very full index is added, so that -the whereabouts of any topic, either of practical or scientific value, -can be easily ascertained. - -In considering the various subjects of interest to the bee-keeper, I -am greatly indebted to the authors mentioned above, and also to the -following journals, all worthy of high commendation: Gleanings in Bee -Culture, American Bee Journal, Bee-Keepers' Magazine, and Bee World. - -The illustrations for this manual were nearly all drawn by the author -from the natural object. - - Michigan Agricultural College, } - Lansing, May 1, 1876. } - - -PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. - - -I little thought when I sent out, less than two years ago, the first -edition--3,000 copies--of my little, unpretending, "Manual of the -Apiary," that more than 2,000 copies would be sold in less than one -year, and that in less than two years a second edition would be -demanded by the apiarists of our country. - -The very kindly reviews and flattering notices by apiarian, scientific, -and other journals, both American and foreign, and the approval, as -expressed by numerous friendly letters, of our most eminent apiarists, -as also the "unprecedented sale of this little work," have not only -been very gratifying, but also assure me that I was quite right in the -opinion that the time was ripe for some such treatise. - -At the urgent request of many apiarian friends, in response to the -oft-repeated desire of my many students, some of whom are becoming -leading apiculturists in our country, and at the suggestion of many -noted apiarists with whom I have no personal acquaintance, I now -send forth this second edition, greatly enlarged, mostly re-written, -even more fully illustrated, and containing the latest scientific -discoveries, and most recent improvements in methods of apiarian -management and bee-keeping apparatus. - -It is impossible for me to state how greatly I am indebted to our -excellent American bee periodicals, and enterprising and intelligent -apiarists, for many--yea, for most--of the valuable thoughts and -suggestions which may be found in the following pages. I am tempted -to mention names of those whose aid and favors have been especially -useful, but find the list so large that I must, perforce, forego the -privilege, and only refer to such persons in the text. - -With the hope that this second edition may reach even more who desire -instruction in this pleasing art, and that it may still further advance -the interests of scientific apiculture. I send it forth to all those -who wish to study more deeply into the mysteries of insect life, or -to gain further knowledge of one of the most fascinating as well as -profitable of arts. - -I make no apology for inserting so much of science in the following -pages. From the letters of inquiry which I am constantly receiving, -especially from apiarists, I am convinced that the people are mentally -hungry for just such food. To satisfy and stimulate just such -appetites is, I am sure, very desirable. - -I recommend nothing in this treatise that I have not proved valuable by -actual trial, unless I mention some eminent person as advising it; nor -do I announce any fact or scientific truth that I have not verified, -except as I give it on the authority of some competent person. - -For most of the figures of the second edition lam indebted to one of my -pupils, Mr. W. L. Holdsworth, whose skill as an artist needs no praise. - -_Appended to this volume is a very full index which will be a great aid -to the student._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - Who May Keep Bees 11 - Specialists 11 - Amateurs 11 - Who are Specially Interdicted 12 - Inducements to Bee-Keeping 12 - Recreation 12 - Profit 13 - Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit 15 - Adaptation to Women 15 - Improves the Mind and Observation 17 - Yields Delicious Food 17 - What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires 18 - Mental Effort 18 - Experience Necessary 18 - Learn from Others 18 - Aid from Conventions 19 - Aid from Bee Papers 19 - American Bee Journal 19 - Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 - Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 - Books for the Apiarist 21 - Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21 - Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-Keeping 22 - King's Text-Book 22 - A, B, C of Bee Culture 22 - Foreign Works 22 - Promptitude 23 - Enthusiasm 24 - - -PART I. - -Natural History of the Honey Bee. - -CHAPTER I. - - The Bee's Place in the Animal Kingdom 27 - The Branch of the Honey-Bee 27 - The Class of the Honey-Bee 28 - The Order of the Honey-Bee 30 - The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee 31 - The Family of the Honey-Bee 34 - The Genus of the Honey-Bee 38 - The Species of the Honey-Bee 41 - The Varieties of the Honey-Bee 41 - German, or Black Bee 41 - Italian, or Ligurian 41 - Fasciata, or Egyptian 42 - Other Varieties 43 - Bibliography 44 - Valuable Books on Entomology 47 - -CHAPTER II. - - Anatomy and Physiology 48 - Anatomy of Insects 48 - Organs of the Head 48 - Appendages of the Thorax 55 - Internal Anatomy 56 - Secretory Organs 61 - Sex Organs 62 - Transformations 66 - The Egg 67 - The Larva 68 - The Pupa 68 - The Imago Stage 70 - Incomplete Transformations 70 - Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey Bee 71 - Three Kinds of Bees in Each Colony 71 - The Queen 71 - The Drone 86 - The Neuters or Workers 90 - -CHAPTER III. - - Swarming, or Natural Method of increase 101 - -CHAPTER IV. - - Products of Bees, their Origin and Function 104 - Honey 104 - Wax 106 - Pollen, or Bee-Bread 111 - Propolis 112 - Bibliography 113 - - -Part II. - - The apiary, its Care and Management 115 - -INTRODUCTION. - - Preparation 117 - Read a Good Manual 117 - Visit some Apiarist 117 - Take a College Course 118 - Decide on a Plan 118 - How to Procure our Bees 118 - Kind of Bees to Purchase 119 - In What Kind of Hives 119 - When to Purchase 119 - How Much to Pay 120 - Where to Locate 120 - -CHAPTER V. - - Hives and Boxes 122 - Box Hives 122 - Movable Comb Hives 123 - The Langstroth Hive 123 - Character of the Hive 124 - The Bottom Board 127 - The Cover 129 - The Frames 132 - How to Construct the Frames 133 - A Block for making Frames 134 - Cover for Frames 136 - Division Board 137 - The Huber Hive 138 - Apparatus for Securing Comb Honey 141 - Boxes 142 - Small Frames or Sections 144 - Requisites of Good Sections 144 - Description 144 - How to Place Sections in Position 147 - Sections in Frames 147 - Sections in Racks 149 - -CHAPTER VI. - - Position and Arrangement of the Apiary 152 - Position 152 - Arrangement of Ground 152 - Preparation for each Colony 153 - -CHAPTER VII. - - To Transfer Bees 156 - -CHAPTER VIII. - - Feeding and Feeders 159 - How Much to Feed 159 - How to Feed 160 - -CHAPTER IX. - - Queen Rearing 163 - How to Rear Queens 163 - Nuclei 165 - Shall we Clip the Queen's Wing? 168 - -CHAPTER X. - - Increase of Colonies 171 - Swarming 171 - Hiving Swarms 173 - To Prevent Second Swarms 175 - To Prevent Swarming 176 - How Best to Increase 177 - Dividing 177 - How to Divide 177 - -CHAPTER XI. - - Italians and Italianizing 180 - All Should Keep Only Italians 183 - How to Italianize 183 - How to Introduce a Queen 183 - To Get Italian Queens 185 - Rearing and Shipping Queens 186 - To Ship Queens 186 - To Move Colonies 187 - -CHAPTER XII. - - Extracting and the Extractors 188 - Honey Extractor 188 - What Style to Buy 189 - Use of the Extractor 191 - When to use the Extractor 192 - How to Extract 194 - -CHAPTER XIII. - - Handling Bees 195 - The Best Bee Veil 196 - To Quiet Bees 197 - Bellows Smoker 198 - The Quinby Smoker 198 - The Bingham Smoker 199 - How to Smoke Bees 201 - To Cure Stings 201 - The Sweat Theory 201 - -CHAPTER XIV. - - Comb Foundation 203 - History 203 - American Foundation 204 - How Foundation is Made 206 - To Secure the Wax Sheets 206 - Use of Foundation 207 - To Fasten the Foundation 209 - Save the Wax 211 - Methods 211 - -CHAPTER XV. - - Marketing Honey 213 - How to Invigorate the Market 213 - Extracted Honey 214 - How to Tempt the Consumer 214 - Comb Honey 215 - Rules to be Observed 215 - -CHAPTER XVI. - - Honey Plants 218 - What are the Valuable Honey Plants? 220 - Description with Practical Remarks 222 - April Plants 223 - May Plants 225 - June Plants 228 - July Plants 237 - August and September Plants 242 - Books on Botany 244 - Practical Conclusions 244 - -CHAPTER XVII. - - Wintering Bees 246 - The Cause of Disastrous Wintering 246 - Requisite to Safe Wintering--Good Food 248 - Secure Late Breeding 249 - To Secure and Maintain Proper Temperature 249 - Box for Packing 250 - Chaff Hives 251 - Wintering in Cellar or House 252 - Burying Bees 254 - Spring Dwindling 254 - -CHAPTER XVIII. - - The House Apiary 255 - Description 255 - Are they Desirable 256 - The Case as it Now Stands 256 - -CHAPTER XIX. - - Evils that Confront the Apiarist 258 - Robbing 258 - Disease 259 - Foul Brood 259 - Remedies 260 - Enemies of Bees 262 - The Bee Moth 262 - History 266 - Remedies 266 - Bee Killer 267 - Bee Louse 268 - Important Suggestion 269 - Bee Hawk 269 - Tachina Fly 270 - Spiders 271 - Ants 271 - Wasps 271 - The King Bird 272 - Toads 272 - Mice 272 - -CHAPTER XX. - - Calendar and Axioms 274 - Work for Different Months 274 - January 274 - February 274 - March 274 - April 275 - May 275 - June 275 - July 275 - August 275 - September 276 - October 276 - November 276 - December 276 - Axioms 277 - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - 1. Trachea 28 - 2. Respiratory Apparatus of a Bee 29 - 3. Bee's Wings 38 - 4. Head of Drone 39 - 5. Head of Worker 39 - 6. Head of Bee 49 - 7. Thorax of Bee 55 - 8. Nervous System of Drone 58 - 9. Alimentary Canal 60 - 10. Male Organs of Bee 63 - 11. Queen Organs 64 - 12. Larva of Bee 68 - 13. Pupa of Bee 69 - 14. Queen Bee 72 - 15. Labium of Queen 73 - 16. Part of Queen's Leg 74 - 17. Drone 86 - 18. Part of Drone's Leg 87 - 19. Worker Bee 90 - 20. Tongue of Worker Bee 91 - 21. Jaw of Queen, Drone and Worker 92 - 22. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker--outside 93 - 23. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker--inside 94 - 24. Anterior Leg of Worker 94 - 25. Sting of Worker 95 - 26. Egg and Brood 97 - 27. Wax Scales 106 - 28. Honey-Comb 109 - 29. Langstroth Hive 124 - 30. Body of Hive 125 - 31. Bevel Gauge 126 - 32. Bottom-Board 128 - 33. Two-Story Hive 130 - 34. Cover to Hive 131 - 35. Frame 133 - 36. Frame, with Cross-Section of Top-Bar 134 - 37. Block for making Frames 135 - 38. Division-Board 137 - 39. Part of Quinby Hive 139 - 40. Part of Bingham Hive 140 - 41. Glass Honey Box 142 - 42. Isham Honey Box 143 - 43. Harbison Section Frame 143 - 44. Chisel 144 - 45. Block for Section Making 145 - 46. Hetherington Separator 146 - 47. Dove-tailed Section 146 - 48. Phelps Section 147 - 49. Section Frame 148 - 50. Sections in Frame 149 - 51. Southard's Section Back 150 - 52. Wheeler's Section Back 150 - 53. Hive in Shade of Ever-green 155 - 54. Feeder 160 - 55. Simplicity Feeder 161 - 56. Queen-cell Inserted in Comb 167 - 57. Shipping Queen Cage 187 - 58. Everett's Extractor 189 - 59. Comb Basket for Extractor 190 - 60. Knife for Uncapping 191 - 61. Knife with Curved Point 191 - 62. Bee-Veil 196 - 63. Quinby Smokers 199 - 64. Bingham Smoker 199 - 65. Comb Foundation 203 - 66. Comb Foundation Machine 205 - 67. Comb Foundation Cutter 206 - 68. Block for Fastening Foundation 210 - 69. Presser for Block 211 - 70. Wax Extractor 212 - 71. Prize Crate 216 - 72. Heddon Crate 217 - 73. Maple 222 - 74. Willow 223 - 75. Judas Tree 224 - 76. American Wistaria 225 - 77. Chinese Wistaria 226 - 78. Barberry 226 - 79. White Sage 227 - 80. White or Dutch Clover 228 - 81. Alsike Clover 229 - 82. Melilot Clover 230 - 83. Borage 230 - 84. Mignonette 231 - 85. Okra 231 - 86. Mint 232 - 87. Pollen of Milk-Weed 233 - 88. Black Mustard 233 - 89. Rape 234 - 90. Tulip 235 - 91. Teasel 236 - 92. Cotton 236 - 93. Basswood 237 - 94. Figwort 238 - 95. Button-Bush 240 - 96. Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 239 - 97. Boneset 241 - 98. Buckwheat 242 - 99. Golden Rod 243 - 100. Sun Flower 243 - 101. Packing-Box for Winter 250 - 102. Gallery of Moth Larva 262 - 103. Moth Larva in Comb 263 - 104. Moth Larvæ 264 - 105. Moth Cocoons 264 - 106. Moth with Wings Spread 264 - 107. Male and Female Moths 265 - 108. Bee-Killer 268 - 109. Bee Louse 268 - 110. Tachina Fly 270 - 111. Munn Hive 279 - 112. Munn's Triangular Hive 280 - 113. Lecanium Tulipiferas 288 - 114. Stem of Motherwort 289 - 115. Fruit and Leaf of Motherwort 290 - 116. Motherwort Bloom 291 - 117. Sour-Wood 292 - 118. Stinging-Bug--natural size 294 - 119. Magnified twice 294 - 120. Beak, magnified 294 - 121. Antenna, magnified 295 - 122. Anterior leg, exterior view 295 - 123. " " interior view 295 - 124. Claw, extended 296 - 125. Middle leg, magnified 296 - 126. Southern Bee-Killer 297 - 127. Wings extended 297 - 128. Head of 298 - 129. Wing of 299 - 131. Foot of 298 - 130. Wing of Asilus Missouriensis 300 - 132. Honey-Comb Coral 301 - 133. Wasp-stone Coral 302 - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - - -WHO MAY KEEP BEES. - - -SPECIALISTS. - -Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do whatever the -needs of his business require, with no thought of delay, may make -apiculture a specialty, with almost certain prospects of success. -He must also be willing to work with Spartan energy during the busy -season, and must persist, though sore discouragement, and even dire -misfortune, essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains. -As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in apiculture. -I make no mention of capital to begin with, or territory on which -to locate; for men of true metal--men whose energy of mind and body -bespeak success in advance--will solve these questions long before -their experience and knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of -large apiaries. - - -AMATEURS. - -Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended to those of -any business or profession, who possess the above named qualities, -and control a little space for their bees, a few rods from street and -neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives may securely rest (C. F. Muth, -of Cincinnati, keeps his bees very successfully on the top of his -store, in the very heart of a large city), and who are able to devote -a little time, when required, to care for their bees. The amount of -time will of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with -proper management this time may be granted at any period of the day or -week, and thus not interfere with the regular business. Thus residents -of country, village, or city, male or female, who may wish to be -associated with and study natural objects, and add to their income and -pleasure, will find here, an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies, -shut out from fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point -sadly to departing health, and vigor, and to men the nature of whose -business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too highly -recommended as an avocation. - - -WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED. - -There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially susceptible -to the poison intruded with the bee's sting. Sometimes such persons, if -even stung on the foot, will be so thoroughly poisoned that their eyes -will swell so they cannot see, and will suffer with fever for days, -and, very rarely, individuals are so sensitive to this poison that a -bee-sting proves fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should -never keep bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Kleine and -Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but spurred on by -their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon become so inoculated that they -experience no serious injury from the stings. It is a well-recognized -fact, that each successive sting is less powerful to work harm. Every -bee-keeper is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though with -the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion neither of fear -nor anxiety. - - -INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING. - -RECREATION. - -Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the pleasure -which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination about the -apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always presenting the most -pleasurable surprises to those on the alert to receive them. And among -the insect hosts, especially bees, the instincts and habits are so -inexplicable and marvelous, that the student of this department of -nature never ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less -with wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords most -wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look in upon the -book of nature, and study the marvelous pages she is ever waiting to -present. To such, the very fascination of their pursuit is of itself -a rich reward for the time and labor expended. I doubt if there is -any other class of manual laborers who engage in their business, and -dwell upon it, with the same fondness as do bee-keepers. Indeed, to -meet a scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough study -of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its very nature, go -hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I once asked an extensive -apiarist, who was also a farmer, why he kept bees. The answer was -characteristic: "Even if I could not make a good deal the most money -with my bees, I should still keep them for the real pleasure they -bring me." But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof. Daniels, -President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties are very -severe. Said he: "For the restful pleasure which I receive in their -management." I am very sure, that were there no other inducement -than that of pleasure, I should be slow to part with these models of -industry, whose marvelous instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever -ministering to my delight and astonishment. - -A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and College -classmate, O. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I took him to see our -apiary, and as we looked at the bees and their handiwork, just as the -nectar from golden-rod and asters was flooding the honey-cells; he -became enraptured, took my little "Manual of the Apiary" home with him, -and at once subscribed for the old _American Bee Journal_. He very soon -purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so much of pleasure -and recreation in the duties imposed by his new charge, that he has -written me several times, expressing gratitude that I had led him into -such a work of love and pleasure. - -PROFITS. - -The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pursuit. When -we consider the comparatively small amount of capital invested, the -relatively small amount of labor and expense attending its operations, -we are surprised at the abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its -intelligent practice. I do not wish to be understood here as claiming -that labor--yes, real hard, back-aching labor--is not required in the -apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colonies, will have, -at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous work. Yet this will be -both pleasant and Healthful, and will go hand-in-hand with thought, -so that brain and muscle will work together. Yet this time of hard, -physical labor will only continue for five or six months, and for the -balance of the year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure. -Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, indolent, -heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in any other -calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years of experience, where -accurate weight, measure, and counting of change has given no heed to -conjecture, that there is no manual labor pursuit, where the returns -are so large, when compared with the labor and expense. - -An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in Michigan, with -the absolute certainty of more than doubling his investment the first -season; while a net gain of 400 per cent, brings no surprise to the -experienced apiarists of our State. This of course applies only to a -limited number of colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States -as a location for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I -ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary, have -netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net return of $24.04, -while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above all expense, of over 400 -per cent, of their entire value in the spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who -graduated at our College one year since, purchased last spring seven -colonies of bees. The proceeds of these seven colonies have more than -paid all expenses, including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while -there are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count -the labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered -with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our State -who possess good apiaries and good improved farms, have told me that -their apiaries were more profitable than all the remainder of their -farms. Who will doubt the profits of apiculture in the face of friend -Doolittle's experience? He has realized $6,000, in five years, simply -from the honey taken from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of -all expenses except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks, -and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colonies, and -we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee-keeping made Adam -Grimm a wealthy man. It brought to Capt. Hetherington over $10,000 -as the cash receipts of a single year's honey-crop. It enabled Mr. -Harbison, so it is reported, to ship from his own apiary, eleven -car-loads of comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater -recommendation has any pursuit? Opportunity for money-making, even with -hardships and privations, is attractive and seldom disregarded; such -opportunity with labor that brings, in itself, constant delight, is -surely _worthy_ of attention. - -EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT. - -Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience, that serves -so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds to the poorly paid, -out-door air to the clerk and office-hand, healthful exercise to the -person of sedentary habits, and superb recreation to the student or -professional man, and especially to him whose life-work is of that -dull, hum-drum, routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The -labor, too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and -management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as not to -infringe upon the time demanded by the regular occupation. Indeed, I -have never been more heartily thanked, than by such parsons as named -above, and that, too, because I called them to consider--which usually -means to adopt--the pleasing duties of the apiary. - -ADAPTATION TO WOMEN. - -Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society has not been -over-ready to favor--our women. Widowed mothers, dependent girls, the -weak and the feeble, all may find a blessing in the easy, pleasant, and -profitable labors of the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and -health, can care for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient -strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when -loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper thought -and management, full colonies need never be lifted, nor work done in -the hot sunshine. Yet right here let me add, and emphasize the truth, -_that only those who will let energetic thought and skillful plan, and -above all promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weakness, -should enlist as apiarists._ Usually a stronger body, and improved -health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and exercise, will make -each successive day's labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding -growth in the size of the apiary for each successive season. One of the -most noted apiarists, not only in America but in the world, sought in -bee-keeping her lost health, and found not only health, but reputation -and influence. Some of the most successful apiarists in our country are -women. Of these, many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning -health, grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which -to vanquish the grim monster. Said "Cyula Linswik"--whose excellent and -beautifully written articles have so often charmed the readers of the -bee publications, and who has had five years of successful experience -as an apiarist--in a paper read before our Michigan Convention of -March, 1877: "I would gladly purchase exemption from in-door work, -on washing-day, by two days' labor among the bees, and I find two -hours' labor at the ironing-table more fatiguing than two hours of the -severest toil the apiary can exact. * * * I repeat, that apiculture -offers to many women not only pleasure but profit. * * * Though the -care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who experiments -in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find that it means, at some -seasons, genuine hard work. * * * There is risk in the business, -I would not have you ignore this fact, but an experience of five -years has led me to believe that the risk is less than is generally -supposed." Mrs. L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees -very successfully for four years, read an admirable paper before the -same Convention, in which she said: "But I can say, having tried both," -(keeping boarding-house and apiculture,) "I give bee-keeping the -preference, as more profitable, healthful, independent and enjoyable. * -* * I find the labors of the apiary more endurable than working over a -cook-stove in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * I -believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find renewed -vigor of body and mind in the labors and recreations of the apiary. * * -* By beginning in the early spring, when the weather was cool and the -work light, I became gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by -mid-summer found myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as -my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life. Previously, to -attend an open-air picnic was to return with a head-ache. * * * My own -experience in the apiary has been a source of interest and enjoyment -far exceeding my anticipations." Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but -two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over $100; -the second year but a few cents less than $300; and the third year -about $250. "The proof of the pudding is in the eating;" so, too, such -words as given above, show that apiculture offers special inducements -to our sisters to become either amateur or professional apiarists. - -IMPROVES THE MIND AND THE OBSERVATION. - -Successful apiculture demands close and accurate observation, and hard, -continuous thought and study, and this, too, in the wondrous realm of -nature. In all this, the apiarist receives manifold and substantial -advantages. In the cultivation of the habit of observation, a person -becomes constantly more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure, -results which also follow as surely on the habit of thought and -study. It is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is -so frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the hive, can -ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his hands. The mind -is occupied, and there is no chance for _ennui_. The whole tendency, -too, of such thought and study, where nature is the subject, is to -refine the taste, elevate the desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get -our youth, with their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome -study, and we shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies -of the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the -saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that even the -old philosophers would have coveted; furnishes the rarest food for the -observing faculties, and, best of all, by keeping its votaries face -to face with the matchless creations of the _All Father_, must draw -them toward Him "who went about doing good," and in "whom there was no -guile." - -YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD. - -A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of mention, is -the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea, our very lives, -demand that we should eat sweets. It is a truth that our sugars, and -especially our commercial syrups, are so adulterated as to be often -poisonous. The apiary, in lieu of these, gives us one of the most -delicious and wholesome of sweets, which has received merited praise, -as food fit for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present -day. To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the -equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is certainly a -blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and friends -with a most necessary and desirable food element, and this with no -cloud of fear from vile, poisonous adulterations. - - -WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES. - -MENTAL EFFORT. - -No one should commence this business who is not willing to read, think -and study. To be sure, the ignorant and unthinking may stumble on -success for a time, but sooner or later, failure will set her seal upon -their efforts. Those of our apiarists who have studied the hardest, -observed the closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the -late terrible winters with but slight loss. - -Of course the novice will ask. How and what shall I study? - -EXPERIENCE NECESSARY. - -Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence with a few -colonies, even one or two is best, and make the bees your companions -at every possible opportunity. Note every change, whether of the bees, -their development, or work, and then by earnest thought strive to -divine the cause. - -LEARN FROM OTHERS. - -Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists. Note their -methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by conversation to gain new and -valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt whatever is found, by comparison, -to be an improvement upon your own past system and practice. - -AID FROM CONVENTIONS. - -Attend conventions whenever distance and means render this possible. -Here you will not only be made better by social intercourse with those -whose occupation and study make them sympathetic and congenial, but you -will find a real conservatory of scientific truths, valuable hints, -and improved instruments and methods. And the apt attention--rendered -possible by your own experience--which you will give to essays, -discussions and private conversations, will so enrich your mind, that -you will return to your home encouraged, and able to do better work, -and to achieve higher success. I have attended nearly all the meetings -of the Michigan Convention, and never yet when I was not well paid for -all trouble and expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions -which I received. These I would carry home, and test as commanded by -the Apostle: "Prove all things and hold fast that which is good." - -AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS. - -Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of the three -excellent bee publications that are issued in our country. It has -been suggested that Francis Huber's blindness was an advantage to -him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs of eyes, his wife's -and servant's, instead of one. So, too, of the apiarist who reads the -bee publications. He has the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too, -of hundreds of intelligent and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that -squanders his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures? He who -"_cannot afford_" to take a bee-journal. - -It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any one of these -valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. Each has its peculiar -excellences, and all who can, may well secure all of them to aid and -direct their ways. - -AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL. - -This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its age, -but for the ability with which it has been managed, with scarce any -exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel Wagner, its founder -and long its editor, had few superiors in breadth of culture, strength -of judgment, and practical and historic knowledge of apiculture. -With what pleasure we remember the elegant, really classic, diction -of the editorials, the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities -which marked the old American Bee Journal as it made its monthly -visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel Wagner. -Some one has said that there is something in the very atmosphere of -a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all who approach him. I have -often thought, as memory reverted to the old American Bee Journal, or -as I have re-read the numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner's -superior learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his -noble character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding, -instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess the -early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to state that the -American Bee Journal is again in good hands, and that its old prestige -is fully restored. Mr. Newman is an experienced editor, a man of -excellent judgment and admirable balance, a man who demonstrates his -dislike of criminations and recriminations by avoiding them; who has -no special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost sure -to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers who lends his -aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so much to spread apiarian -knowledge. And when I add, that he brings to his editorial aid the -most able, experienced and educated apiarists of the world, I surely -have spoken high but _just_ praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose -enviable reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by -Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago. Price, $2.00 a year. - -GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE. - -This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five years, -by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from the first. -Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly experimenting; a -terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good nature and enthusiasm. -I am free to say, that in practical apiculture I am more indebted to -Mr. Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. I -also think that, with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent -advancement of practical apiculture than any other person in our -country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so inimical to -conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises that with which he -has had so brief an experience, and must consequently know so little. -This trait makes it imperative that the apiarist read discriminately, -and then decide for himself. In case of an innovation, wait for -Mr. Root's continued approval, else prove its value before general -adoption. This sprightly little journal is edited by A. I. Root, -Medina, Ohio. Price, $1.00 a year. - -BEE-KEEPER'S MAGAZINE. - -I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less of it than -of the others. It is well edited, and certainly has many very able -contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root deal largely in their own -wares, and, of course, give space to their advertisement, yet, in all -my dealings with them, and I have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have -ever found them prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J. -King, New York. Price, $1.50 a year. - -BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST. - -Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture, both -American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a course to others. -Each book has peculiar excellences, and each one may be read with -interest and profit. - -LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE. - -Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee-literature. -I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have received from the -study of its pages. It was a high, but deserved encomium, which J. -Hunter, of England, in his "Manual of Bee-Keeping," paid to this work: -"It is unquestionably the best bee-book in the English language." - -The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter so replete -with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, that it is a -desirable addition to any library, and no thoughtful, studious apiarist -can well be without it. It is especially happy in detailing the methods -of experimentation, and in showing with what caution the true scientist -establishes principles or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully -free from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture -remained stationary, there would have been little need of another -work; but as some of the most important improvements in apiculture are -not mentioned, the book alone would be a very unsatisfactory guide to -the apiarist of to-day. Price, $2.00. - -QUINBY'S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING. - -This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of America's most -successful bee-keepers. It proceeds, I think, on a wrong basis in -supposing that those who read bee-books will use the old box-hives, -especially as the author is constantly inferring that other hives are -better. It contains many valuable truths, and when first written was a -valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper. I understand that the work has -been revised by Mr. L. C. Root. Price, $1.50. - -KING'S TEXT-BOOK. - -This is a compilation of the above works, and has recently been -revised, so that it is abreast of the times. It is to be regretted that -the publisher did not take more pains with his work, as the typography -is very poor. The price is $1.00. - -A B C OF BEE-CULTURE. - -This work was issued in numbers, but is now complete. It is arranged -in the convenient form of our cyclopædias, is printed in fine style, -on beautiful paper, and is to be well illustrated. I need hardly say -that the style is pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter will, of -course, be fresh, embodying the most recent discoveries and inventions -pertaining to bee-keeping. That it may be kept abreast of apiarian -progress, the type is to be kept in position, so that each new -discovery may be added as soon as made. The price is $1.00. - -FOREIGN WORKS. - -Bevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and shows by its -able historical chapters, admirable scientific disquisitions, and -frequent quotations and references to practical and scientific writers -on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient and modern, that the writers were -men of extensive reading and great scientific ability. The book is of -no practical value to us, but to the student it will be read with great -interest. Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in -my library that treat of bees and bee-keeping, if I may except back -volumes of the bee-publications. - -"The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture," by Alfred Neighbour, -London, is a fresh, sprightly little work, and as the third edition has -just appeared, is, of course, up with the times. The book is in nice -dress, concise, and very readable, and I am glad to commend it. - -A less interesting work, though by no means without merit, is the -"Manual of Bee-Keeping," by John Hunter, London. This is also recent. -I think these works would be received with little favor among American -apiarists. They are exponents of English apiculture, which in method -would seem clumsy to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in -implements and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Germans -and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and hence their -text-books and journals compare illy with ours. I believe the many -intelligent foreign apiarists who have come to this country and are -now honored members of our own fraternity, will sustain this position. -_Foreign scientists_ are ahead of American, but we glean and utilize -their facts and discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is -discovered by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten times as -many American as foreign apiarists know of this and practice by the -knowledge. In practical fields, on the other hand, as also in skill and -delicacy of invention, we are, I think, in advance. So our apiarists -have little need to go abroad for either books or papers. - -PROMPTITUDE. - -Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping, is prompt -attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock on which many -bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often that they have wrecked -their success. I have no doubt that more colonies die from starvation, -than from all the bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is -this? Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by -absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must we blame? -Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of queen and -workers, just because room is denied them, is very great. Who is the -guilty party? Plainly, neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways, -indifference to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments, -greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be successful, -promptitude must be our motto. Each colony of bees requires but very -little care and attention. Our every interest demands that this be not -denied, nor even granted grudgingly. The very fact that this attention -is slight, renders it more liable to be neglected; but this neglect -always involves loss--often disaster. - -ENTHUSIASM. - -Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desirable, if not -an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To be sure, this is -a quality whose growth, with even slight opportunity, is almost sure. -It only demands perseverance. The beginner, without either experience -or knowledge, may meet with discouragements--unquestionably will. -Swarms will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist -will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with great -disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet reproof more sharp -than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCE, all these difficulties quickly -vanish. Every contingency will be foreseen and provided against, and -the myriad of little workers will become as manageable and may be -fondled as safely as a pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister -to their needs with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he -does to his gentlest cow or favorite horse. _Persistence in the face of -all those discouragements which are so sure to confront inexperience, -will surely triumph._ In-sooth, he who appreciates the beautiful and -marvelous, will soon grow to love his companions of the hive, and the -labor attendant upon their care and management. Nor will this love -abate till it has kindled into enthusiasm. - -True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled by no warmth -of feeling, whose superior intelligence, system and promptitude, stand -in lieu of and make amends for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe -such are rare, and certainly they work at great disadvantage. - - - - - PART FIRST. - - - - - NATURAL HISTORY - - OF - - THE HONEY BEE. - - - - - NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE BEE'S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. - - -It is estimated by Heer and other eminent naturalists, that there -are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It will be both -interesting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we -may know the position and relationship of the bee to all this mighty -concourse of life. - -BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon I., -grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one branch, -appropriately named Articulates, as this term indicates the jointed -or articulated structure which so obviously characterizes most of the -members of this group. - -The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a technical -meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of union of two -parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus, the parts of an -insect's legs, as well as the surfaces of union, are styled joints or -articulations. All apiarists who have examined carefully the structure -of a bee, will at once pronounce it an Articulate. Not only is its -body, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close -inspection we find the legs, the antennæ, and even the mouth-parts, -likewise, jointed. - -In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea--which includes the -rollicking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether he moves -forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the sow-bug, lively -and plump, even in its dark, damp home under old boards, etc., and the -barnacles, which fasten to the bottom of ships, so that vessels are -often freighted with life within and without. - -The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, as the leech, -the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which gives us food, is -related to the dreaded tape-worm with its hundred of joints, which, -mayhaps, robs us of the same food after we have eaten it, and the -terrible pork-worm or trichina, which may consume the very muscles we -have developed in caring for our pets of the apiary. - -The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in the bee and -lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms. This skeleton, unlike -that of Vertebrates or back-bone animals, to which we belong, is -outside, and thus serves to protect the inner, softer parts, as well -as to give them attachment, and to give strength and solidity to the -animal. - -This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden-banded -Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, animals of this -branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually bony skeleton; from -the less active Molluscan branch, with their soft, sack-like bodies, -familiar to us in the snail, the clam, the oyster, and the wonderful -cuttle-fish--the devil-fish of Victor Hugo--with its long, clammy arms, -strange ink-bag and often prodigious size; from the Radiate branch, -with its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral -animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents and from -the lowest, simplest. Protozoan branch, which includes animals so -minute that we owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, so -simple that they have been regarded as the apron-strings which tie -plants to animals. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. - -_A Trachea magnified._] - -THE CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly characterized -by breathing air usually through a very complicated system of -air-tubes. These tubes (Fig. 1), which are constantly branching, and -almost infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They -are formed of a spiral thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder -formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem, -so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the -wire unmoved. Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than this -labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee under the -microscope. I have frequently detected myself taking long pauses, in -making dissections of the honey-bee, as my attention would be fixed -in admiration of this beautiful breathing apparatus. In the bee these -tubes expand into large lung-like sacks (Fig. 2, _f_), one each side of -the body. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. - -_Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified.--After Duncan._] - -Doubtless some of my readers have associated the quick movements -and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their -well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we see the -relation between this intricate system of air-tubes--their lungs--and -the quick, busy life which has been proverbial of them since the -earliest time. The class Insecta also includes the spiders, scorpions, -with their caudal sting so venomous, and mites, which have in lieu -of the tubes, lung-like sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged -worms--those dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical -centipedes or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of being -poisonous and deadly. - -The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing Crustacea, with -their branchiæ or gills, nor the worms, which have 110 lungs or gills -but their skin, if we except some marine forms, which have simple -dermal appendages, which, answer to branchiæ. - -ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true Insects. The first -term is appropriate, as all have in the imago or last stage, six legs. -Nor is the second term less applicable, as the word insect comes from -the Latin and means to cut in, and in no other articulates does the -ring structure appear 80 marked upon merely a superficial examination. -More than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike -all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body (Fig. -2), namely: the head (Fig. 2, _a_), which contains the antennæ (Fig. -2, _d_), the horn-like appendages common to all insects; eyes (Fig. -2, _e_) and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig. 2, _b_), which bears the -legs (Fig. 2, _g_), and wings, when they are present; and lastly, the -abdomen (Fig. 2, _c_), which, though usually memberless, contains -the ovipositor, and when present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a -more striking metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched -they are worm-like and called larvæ (Fig. 12), which means masked; -afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would hardly be supposed -to be animals at all. They are then known as pupæ, or as in case of -bees as nymphs (Fig. 13). At last there comes forth the imago with -compound eyes, antennæ and wings. In some insects the transformations -are said to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ -little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We see in -our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of insects with -incomplete transformations. In such cases there is a marked resemblance -from the egg to the adult. - -As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which have only -two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no antennæ, eight -legs, and no transformations (if we except the partial transformations -of the mites), as also the myriapods, which have no marked divisions of -the body, and no compound eyes--which are always present in the mature -insect--many legs and no transformations, do not belong to the order -Insects. - -SUB-ORDER OF THE HONEY BEE. - -The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from two Greek -words meaning membrane and wings), which also includes the wasps, -ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This group contains insects which -possess a tongue by which they may suck (Fig. 20, _a_), and strong -jaws (Fig. 21) for biting. Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of -flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four -wings, and undergo complete transformations. - -There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of one sub-order -will show a marked likeness to those of another. This is known as -mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully striking between very distant -groups. Darwin and Wallace suppose it is a developed peculiarity, -not always possessed by the species, and comes through the laws of -variation, and natural selection to serve the purpose of protection. -Now, right here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the -other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and -the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and desired to know -whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or some other species. Now, this -insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had only two -wings, had no jaws, while its antennæ were closer together in front -and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the -sub-order Diptera, or two-wing flies. I have received several similar -insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are several families, -as the Œstridæ or bot-flies, the Syrphidæ--a very useful family, as -the larvæ or maggots live on plant-lice--whose members are often seen -sipping sweets from flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees--the -one referred to above belonged to this family--and the Bombyliidæ, -which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like wild and -domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on the larvæ of various of -our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must steal into the nests -of the latter to lay her eggs. So in these cases, there is seeming -evidence that the mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as -they steal in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs. -Possibly, too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen them -enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to do the same, -found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters each with a poisoned tip. - -Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the highest of -insects, others claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and moths a -first place, while others, and with the best of reasons, claim for -Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth is admired for the glory -of its coloring and elegance of its form, the beetle for the luster -and brilliancy of its elytra or wing-covers; but these insects only -revel in nature's wealth, and live and die without labor or purpose. -Hymenoptera usually less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive -in color, are yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with -a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be found -among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor the ants are still -better political economists, as they have a specially endowed class -in the community who are the soldiers, and thus are the defenders of -each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take their -inhabitants captive and reduce them to abject slavery--requiring them -to perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the -community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating -species have been observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as -some ascend trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain -below, and carry these branches through their tunnels to their -under-ground homes. - -The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay their eggs in -other insects, that their offspring may have fresh meat not only at -birth, but so long as they need food, as the insect fed upon generally -lives till the young parasite, which is working to disembowel it, -is full-grown. Thus this steak is ever fresh as life itself. These -parasitic insects show wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in -discovering this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies--a family of these -parasites--boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid beech -or maple wood, and upon examination I found the prospective victim -further on in direct line with the insect auger, which was to intrude -the fatal egg. I have also watched ichneumon-flies depositing eggs in -leaf-rolling caterpillars, so surrounded with tough hickory leaves -that the fly had to pierce several thicknesses to place the egg in its -snugly-ensconced victim. Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars -in a box, I reared, of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. And -is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number -of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to receive them, so -that there may be no danger of famine and starvation, for true it is -that while small caterpillars will receive but one egg, large ones may -receive several. How strange, too, the habits of the saw-fly, with its -wondrous instruments more perfect than any saws of human workmanship, -and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten their eggs to -the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the abnormal growth of food for -the still unhatched young. The providing and caring for their young, -which are at first helpless, is peculiar among insects, with slight -exception, to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered -a mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call -it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits--that -_must_ go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious of communities known -among animals, of whatever branch--all these, no less than the compact -structure, small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more -than warrant that grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and -Packard, in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects. As we -shall detail the structure and habits of the highest of the high--the -bees--in the following pages, I am sure no one will think to degrade -the rank of these wonders of the animal kingdom. - -FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidæ, of Leach, which includes not -only the hive bee, but all insects which feed their helpless young, or -larvæ, entirely on pollen, or honey and pollen. - -The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed antennæ (Fig. -2, _d_) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males, and only -twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 21) are -very strong, and often toothed; the tongue or ligula (Fig. 20, _a_), -as also the second jaws or maxillæ (Fig. 20, _c_), one each side the -tongue, are long, though in some cases much shorter than in others, -and frequently the tongue when not in use is folded back, once or -more, under the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff -spine on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or -the third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, except -the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior -legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior -legs. All of this family except one parasitic genus, have the first -joint or tarsus of the posterior foot, much widened, and this together -with the broad tibia (Fig. 2, _h_) is hollowed out (Fig. 22, _p_), -forming quite a basin or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the -species; and generally, this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff -hairs. These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course -on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A few of the -Apidæ--thieves by nature--cuckoo-like, steal unbidden into the nests of -others, usually bumble-bees, and here lay their eggs. As their young -are fed and fostered by another, they gather no pollen, and hence like -drone bees need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these -lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes, by -eating their food, and in some cases, it is said, being unable like -the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children from the nest, they -show an equal if not greater depravity by eating them, not waiting -for starvation to get them out of the way. These parasites illustrate -mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster mothers of -their own young, that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish -them. Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would refuse -ingress to these merciless vagrants. - -The larvæ (Fig. 12) of all insects of this family are -maggot-like--wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before -stated, feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, all -during their babyhood--the larvæ state--the time when all insects are -most ravenous, and the only time when many insects take food, the -time when all growth in size, except such enlargement as is required -by egg-development, occurs, these infant bees have to be fed by their -mothers or elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak -jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at -this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like many -maggots--such as the Hessian-fly larvæ--absorb much of their food -through the body walls. From the mouth leads the intestine, which has -no anal opening. So there are no excreta other than gas and vapor. What -commendation for their food, _all_ capable of nourishment, and thus all -assimilated. - -To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipona, of -Mexico and South America, which store honey not only in the hexagonal -brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. They, like the unkept -hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are exceedingly numerous in -each colony, and it has thus been thought that there were more than -one queen. They are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess -a prospective commercial importance in these days of artificial -comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus is -triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, to the -front wings. They are also smaller than our common bees, and have wings -that do not reach to the tip of their abdomens. - -Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have the wings -longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. These, unlike the -Melipona, are not confined to the New World, but are met in Africa, -India and Australasia. These build their combs in tall trees, fastening -them to the branches much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be -mentioned. - -Of course insects of the genus Bombus--our common bumble-bees--belong -to this family. Here the tongue is very long, the bee large, the -sting curved, with the barbs very short and few. Only the queen -survives the winter. In spring she forms her nest under some sod or -board, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass -of bee-bread--probably a mixture of honey and pollen--she deposits -several eggs in the mass. The larvæ so soon as hatched out, eat out -thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, and not -unlike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the bees issue -from these cells the same are strengthened by wax. Later in the season -these coarse wax cells become very numerous. Some may be made as cells -and not termed as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much -pollen, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. At -first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still later -males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two sizes of queen -bumble-bees, the large and the small. The small appear early in the -season, and the large late. A student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham, -who last year had a colony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season, -thinks this an error. He believes that the individuals of the Bombus -nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens, like those -of bees, are smaller before mating and active laying. May not this be -another case like that of the two kinds of worker-bees which deceived -even Huber, an error consequent upon lack of careful and prolonged -observation? - -In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble the bumble-bees, -we have a fine example of a boring insect. With its strong mandibles or -jaws it cuts long tunnels, often one or two feet long in the hardest -wood. These burrows are divided by chip partitions into cells, and in -each cell is left the bee-bread and an egg. - -The mason-bee--well named--constructs cells of earth and gravel, which -by aid of its spittle it has power to cement, so that they are harder -than brick. - -The tailor or leaf-cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, make wonderful -cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. These are always -mathematical in form, usually circular and oblong, and are cut--by the -insect's making scissors of its jaws--from various leaves, the rose -being a favorite. I have found these cells made almost wholly of the -petals or flower leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing -these leaf-sections in concentric layers, letting them over-lap. The -oblong sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular -pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot-guns, and -are used at the ends or for partitions where several cells are placed -together. When complete, the single cells are in form and size much -like a revolver cartridge. When several are placed together, which is -usually the case, they are arranged end to end, and in size and form -are quite like a small stick of candy, though not more than one-third -as long. These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the -earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in the -folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had chanced to -leave stationary for some days. These leaf-cutters have rows of hairs -underneath, with which they carry pollen. I have noticed them each -summer for some years swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called -woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a -single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the foliage -of the same vines quite badly. - -I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia, which are also -called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of blue and green possess a -luster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals themselves. These -rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds -and shrubs, and in burrows which they dig in the hard earth. In early -summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are frequently -seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or -digging holes, and will hardly escape identification by the observing -apiarist, as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They -are smaller; yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general form, -are very like those of the equally quick and active, yet more soberly -attired, workers of the apiary. - -Other bees--the numerous species of the genus Nomada, and of Apathus, -are the black sheep in the family Apidæ. These tramps, already referred -to, like the English cuckoo and our American cow-blackbird, steal in -upon the unwary, and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way -appropriating food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus these -insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers in these -violated homes. And these same foster-mothers show by their tender -care of these merciless intruders, that they are miserably fooled, for -they carefully guard and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn -practice this same nefarious trickery. - -I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful bee -family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis, of this State, -I was struck with the fine collection of wild bees which each had made. -Yet, unknowingly, they had incorporated many that were not bees. Of -course, many apiarists will wish to make such collections and also to -study our wild bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope, -too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the valuable -and intensely interesting study of these wonders of nature. I am glad, -too, to open to the reader a page from the book of nature so replete -with attractions as is the above. Nor do I think I have taken too much -space in revealing the strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully -varied habits, of this highest of insect families, at the head of -which. Stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. - - A.--_Anterior Wing of a Bee._ 1, 2, 3.--_Sub-costal or Cubital Cells._ - B.--_Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing._ -] - -THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs on the -posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal cells (1, 2, 3, -Fig. 3)--the second row from the costal or anterior edge--on the front -or primary wings. On the inner side of the posterior basal tarsus, -opposite the pollen baskets, in the neuters or workers, are rows of -hairs (Fig. 23) which are probably used in collecting pollen. In the -males, which do no work except to fertilize the queens, the large -compound eyes meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (Fig. -4), while in the workers (Fig. 5) and queens these simple eyes, called -ocelli (Fig. 5), are above, and the compound eyes (Fig. 5) wide apart. -The queens and drones have weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. -21, _b_), short tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the -broad tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 16, _p_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. - -_Head of Drone, magnified._ - -_Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. - -_Head of Worker, magnified._ - -_Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes._] - -There is some doubt as to the number of species of this genus, it is -certain that the Apis Ligustica of Spinola, or Italian bee, the Apis -fascial a of Latreille, or Egyptian bee, are only varieties of the Apis -mellifica, which also includes the German or black bee. - -Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata of India -and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands, Apis Indica of -India and China, and Apis florea of India, Ceylon, China and Borneo, -as distinct species. He thinks, also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis -nigrocincta are distinct, but thinks they may be varieties of Apis -Indica. Some regard Apis unicolor as a distinct species, but it is -probably a variety of Apis dorsata. As Apis mellifica has not been -found in India, and is a native of Europe, Western Asia and Africa, -it seems quite probable that several of the above may turn out to be -only varieties of Apis mellifica. If there are only color and size to -distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits, then we may suspect, -with good reason, the validity of the above arrangement. If there -is structural difference, as Mr. Wallace says there is, in the male -dorsata, then we may call them different species. The Italian certainly -has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to -separate them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the -East Indies are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large, suspends -its combs to the branches of trees--in rare cases our own bees have -been known to do the same--is said to be cross, to have a very long -tongue, to be larger than our common bee, and to make larger cells. - -Apis florea is small, only half as large as Apis mellifica, of -different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed. - -It would be very interesting, and perhaps profitable, to import these -various species, and see how marked is the difference between them -and ours. Such work can be best accomplished through our National -Association. Very likely, as we come to know these far-off bees as we -know the German and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size, -habits of comb-building, and lengthened organs, are only peculiarities -developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall sweep them -all into the one species. Apis mellifica, to be regarded as we now -regard the Italian and Egyptian, as only varieties. - -It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been native to -the American continent. Without doubt there were no bees of this genus -here till introduced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as -we find that all the continents and islands of the Eastern hemisphere -abound with representatives. It is one more illustration of the -strange, inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution -of animals. - -SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES. - -The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to the Apis -mellifica. The character of this species will appear in the next -chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and physiology. As before -stated, this species is native exclusively to the Eastern hemisphere, -though it has been introduced wherever civilized man has taken up his -abode. - - -VARIETIES or THE HONEY-BEE. - -GERMAN OR BLACK BEE. - -The German or black bee is the variety best known, as through all -the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name German refers -to locality, while the name black is a misnomer, as the bee is a -gray-black. The queen, and in a less degree the drones, are darker, -while the legs and under surface of the former are brown, or copper -color, and of the latter light-gray. The tongue of the black worker -I have found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by -myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian worker, -and generally less hairy. The black bees have been known no longer than -the Italians, as we find the latter were known both to Aristotle, the -fourth century B. C, and to Virgil, the great Roman poet, who sung of -the variegated golden bee, the first century B. C.; and we can only -account for the wider distribution of the German bee by considering -the more vigorous pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only -over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all -Christendom. - -LIGURIAN OR ITALIAN BEE. - -The Italian bee (see frontis-plate) is characterized as a variety, -not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but also by -possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as -distinct from the German race by Spinola, in 1805, who gave the name -Ligurian bee, which name prevails; in Europe. The name comes from a -province of Northern Italy, north of the Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of -Genoa. This region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and -thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and in warmer, -more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race, our beautiful -Italians. - -In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, which he -had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed as a military -captain in Italy. He published his experience in 1848, which was read -by Dzierzon, who became interested, and through him the Italian became -generally introduced into Germany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon's -first importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England by -Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already referred to. -The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported the Italians from -Dzierzon's apiary into America; and in 1860, Mr. S. P. Parsons brought -the first colonies that were imported direct from Italy. - -The Italian worker (see frontis-plate) is quickly distinguished by -the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdomen. If the colony is -pure, every bee will show three of these golden girdles. The two first -segments or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border, -and also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this -orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much -as in the German race. Underneath, the abdomen, except for a greater -or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while the same -color appears more or less strongly marked on the legs. The workers, -too, have longer ligulæ or tongues (Fig. 20) than do the German race, -and their tongues are also a little more hairy. They are also more -active, and less inclined to sting. The queen has the entire base of -her abdomen, and sometimes nearly the whole of it, orange yellow. The -variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking. -Sometimes very dark queens are imported right from the Ligurian hills, -yet all the workers will wear the badge of purity--the three golden -bands. - -The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the rings and patches -of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, quite indistinct. But -the underside of the body is always, so far as I have observed, mainly -yellow. - -THE FASCIATA OR EGYPTIAN RACE. - -The word fasciata means banded, as the Egyptian bee is very broadly -banded with yellow. I have never seen these bees, but from descriptions -by Latreille, Kirby, and Bevan, I understand that all the bees are -rather smaller, more slim, and much more yellow than the Italians. -Herr Vogel states that they gather no propolis, but that each colony -contains a number of small drone-laying queens. These bees were -probably the ones which, with the kine of the ancient goodly land of -promise, gave the rich pabulum, that gave the reputation: "flowing with -milk and honey." They are thus the oldest of domesticated bees. These, -too, are said to have been moved in rude boats or rafts up and down -the Nile, as the flower pasturage seemed to require. The bees are said -to be very active, to be proof against the cold, and have also been -reputed very cross. - -OTHER VARIETIES. - -There are several other doubtful varieties which are receiving some -attention from the German apiarists, and are honored with attention -at the great meetings of Austria and Germany, as we learn from the -bee-publications of those countries. The Cyprian bee, from the Isle of -Cyprus, as its name indicates, is yellow, and probably an offspring -from the Italian or Egyptian. So far as we can learn, it has no merits -which will make it preferred to the Italian. Some say it is more -beautiful, others that it is less amiable. Other varieties, which are -not probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath, the -Carniolan or Krainer and the Herzegovinian. They are not considered -superior to the German and Italian. - -A variety of our Italian which has rows of white hairs unusually -distinct, is being sold in the United States under the name of Albinos. -That they are a distinct race is not at all likely. In fact, I have -noticed among our Italian stocks every year, the so-called Albinos. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY. - -It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, to give in -this connection a complete history of entomology so far as it relates -to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take much space, and as there is -quite a full history in books that I shall recommend to those who are -eager to know more of this interesting department of natural history, I -will not go into details. - -Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. C. About -three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth Georgic, gave to the -world the views then extant on this subject, gathered largely from -the writings of Aristotle. The poetry will ever be remarkable for its -beauty and elegance--would that as much could be said for the subject -matter, which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A -little later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his -observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much -that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. Pliny, the Elder, -who wrote in the first century A. D., helped to continue the erroneous -opinions which previous authors had given, and not content with this, -he added opinions of his own, which were not only without foundation, -but were often the perfection of absurdity. - -After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no progress in -natural history; even for two centuries after the revival of learning, -we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch entomologist, in -the middle of the 17th century, wrote a general history of insects, -also, "The Natural History of Bees." He and his English cotemporary, -Ray, showed their ability as naturalists by founding their systems -on the insect transformations. They also revived the study and -practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by -Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. Ray -also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was much aided by -Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, so justly noted for his -discovery of the circulation of the blood, announced his celebrated -dictum, "Omnia ex ovo,"--all life from eggs--which was completely -established by the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the -middle of the 18th century, the great Linnæus--"the brilliant Star -of the North"--published his "System Naturæ," and threw a flood of -light on the whole subject of natural history. His division of insects -was founded upon presence, or absence, and characteristics, of wings. -This, like Swammerdam's basis, was too narrow, yet his conclusions were -remarkably correct. Linnæus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and -especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and -animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as, Apis mellifica. -He was also the first to introduce classes and orders, as we now -understand them. When we consider the amount and character of the work -of the great Swede we can but place him among the first, if not as the -first, of naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnæus (also written Linné) -was Geoffroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera. In the last -half of the century appeared the great work of a master in entomology, -DeGeer, who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings -and jaws, and thus discovered another of nature's keys to aid him -in unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says: "He united in himself -the highest merit of almost every department of entomology." As a -scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant historian -of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all praise. What a -spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and of public usefulness, is such -an ability to observe, as was possessed by the great DeGeer. - -Contemporary with Linnæus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of France, whose -experiments and researches are of special interest to apiarists. -Perhaps no entomologist has done more to reveal the natural history -of bees. Especially to be commended are his method of experimenting, -his patience in investigation, the elegance and felicity of his word -pictures, and, above all, _his devotion to truth_. We shall have -occasion to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the -great shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages. Bonnet, -of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also did valuable work, -in which the lover of bees has a special interest. Bonnet is specially -noted for his discovery and elucidation of parthenogenesis--that -anomalous mode of reproduction--as it occurs among the Aphides -or plant-lice, though he did not discover that our bees, in the -production of drones, illustrate the same doctrine. Though the author -of no system, he gave much aid to Réaumur in his systematic labors. - -At this same period systematic entomology received great aid from -Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected and explained the -development of a caterpillar. His descriptions and illustrations are -wonderful, and will proclaim his ability as long as entomology is -studied, and they, to quote Bonnet, "demonstrate the existence of God." - -We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius--a student of -Linnæus--who published his works from 1775 to 1798, and thus was -revolutionizing systematic entomology at the same time that we of -America were revolutionizing government. He made the mouth organs -the basis of his classification, and thus followed in the path which -DeGeer had marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter -while Fabricius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders are no -improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct, as were his old -master's. In his description of genera--where he pretended to follow -nature--he has rendered valuable service In leading scientists to study -parts, before little regarded, and thus to better establish affinities, -he did a most valuable work. His work is a standard, and should be -thoroughly studied by all entomologists. - -Just at the close of the last century, appeared the greatest "Roman -of them all," the great Latreille, of France, whose name we have so -frequently used in the classification of the honey-bee. His is called -the Elective System, as he used wings, mouth-parts, transformations, -in fact, all the organs--the entire structure. He gave us our Family -Apidæ, our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several -of the species of this genus. In our study of this great man's work, we -constantly marvel at his extensive researches and remarkable talents. -Lamark, of this time, except that he could see no God in nature, did -very admirable work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon's time, and the -learned Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of workers -in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise; yet -the work has been to rub up and garnish, rather than to create. So I -will close this brief history with a notice of authors who are very -serviceable to such as may desire to glean farther of the treasures -of systematic entomology; only remarking that at the end of the next -chapter I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable -in developing the anatomy and physiology of insects, especially of bees. - -VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. - -For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on Insects--two -volumes. In this the descriptions and illustrations are very full and -perfect, making it easy to study the families, and even genera, of all -the sub-orders. This work and the following are out of print, but can -be got with little trouble at second-hand book-stores. - -Kirby and Spence--Introduction to Entomology--is a very complete work. -It treats of the classification, structure, habits, general economy of -insects, and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work, -and a great acquisition to any library. - -Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable work, and -being American, is specially to be recommended. - -The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. C. V. Riley, -will also be found of great value and interest. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. - - -In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of insects; then -the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology of the honey-bee. - - -ANATOMY OF INSECTS. - -In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked portions -(Fig. 2): the head (Figs. 4 and 5), which contains the mouth-organs, -the eyes, both the compound and when present the simple, and the -antennæ; the thorax, which is composed of three rings, and gives -support to the one or two pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of -legs; and the abdomen, which is composed of a variable number of rings, -and gives support to the external sex-organs, and when present to the -sting. Within the thorax there are little more than muscles, as the -concentrated strength of insects, which enables them to fly with such -rapidity, dwells in this confined space. Within the abdomen, on the -other hand, are the sex-organs, by far the greater and more important -portions of the alimentary canal, and other important organs. - -ORGANS OF THE HEAD. - -Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 6) are most prominent. These consist -of an upper lip--labrum--and under lip--labium--and two pairs of jaws -which move sidewise; the stronger, horny jaws, called mandibles, and -the more membranous, but usually longer, maxillæ. The labrum (Fig. 6, -_l_) is well described in the name upper lip. It is attached, usually, -by a movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called clypeus -(Fig. 6, _c_), and this latter to the broad epicranium (Fig. 6, _o_), -which contains the antennæ, the compound, and, when present, the simple -eyes. - -The labium (Fig. 15) is not described by the name under lip, as its -base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the tongue. The base -is usually broad, and is called the mentum, and from this extends the -tongue (Fig. 15, _a_) or ligula. On either side, near the junction of -the ligula and mentum, arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called -the labial palpus (Fig. 6, _k k_), or, together, the labial palpi. -Just within the angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the -paraglossæ (Fig. 15, _d_), one on either side. These are often wanting. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. - -Head of Bee much magnified. - - _o_--Epicranium - _e e_--Compound eyes. - _a a_--Antennæ, - _c_--Clypeus. - _l_--Labrum. - _m_--Jaws. - _m x_--2d Jaws. - _k k_--Labial palpi, - _t_--Ligula. -] - -The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 6, _m, m_) arise one on either side just -below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. These work sidewise -instead of up and down as in higher animals, are frequently very hard -and sharp, and sometimes armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary -tooth (Fig. 21, _b_) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees. - -Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little farther back, are -the second jaws or maxillæ (Fig. 6, _m x_), less dense and firm than -the mandibles, but far more complex. They arise by a small joint, the -cardo, next this is a larger joint, the stipes, from this extends on -the inside the broad lacinia (Fig. 20, _c_) or blade, usually fringed -with hairs on its inner edge, towards the mouth; while on the outside -of the stipes are inserted the--from one to several jointed--maxillary -palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two joints, and in -some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in some of the beetles, -there is a third member running from the stipes between the palpus and -lacinia called the galea. The maxillæ also move sidewise, and probably -aid in holding and turning the food while it is crushed by the harder -jaws, though in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the food. - -These mouth parts are very variable in form in different insects. In -butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they are transformed -into a tube, which in the last two groups forms a hard, strong beak -or piercer, well exemplified in the mosquito and bed-bug. In all the -other insects we find them much as in the bees, with the separate -parts varying greatly in form, to agree with the habits and character -of their possessors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these -varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the insect, and -no wonder, too, that in their use they were so successful in forming a -natural classification. - -Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these parts and -studying their form and relations for himself. By getting his children -interested in the same, he will have conferred upon them one of the -rarest of blessings. - -To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully pin it -to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between the eyes. Now -separate the parts by two needle points, made by inserting a needle -for half its length into a pine stick the shape of a pipe-stem, leaving -the point projecting for an inch or more. With one of these in each -hand commence operations. The head may be either side up. Much may be -learned in dissecting large insects, even with no glass; but in all -cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will be of great -value. The best lens is one of Tolles', sold by Mr. Stoddard, of the -Boston optical works. These are very excellent and thus high priced, -costing $14.00. Gray's triplet hand-lenses are very good, are cheap, -and can be procured for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle should -have a hole through it to permit of mounting it above the object, so -that it will hold itself. Tolles' lenses are easily mounted, in a stand -which any one can contrive and make in twenty minutes. I value my -Tolles' lens even more highly than my large compound microscope, which -cost $150. Were I obliged to part with either, the latter would go. - -I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting, which they -enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would much rather that my -boy would become interested in such study, than to have him possessor -of infinite gold rings, or even a huge gold watch, with a tremendous -charm. Let such pleasing recreation gain the attention of our boys, -and they will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with -anxiety and fear. - -The antennæ (Fig. 6, _a, a_) are the horn-like jointed organs situated -between or below and in front of the large compound eyes of all -insects. They are sometimes short, as in the house-fly, and sometimes -very long, as in the grasshoppers. They are either straight, curved or -elbowed (Fig. 6). In form, too, they are very various, as thread-like, -tapering, toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. It is known -that a nerve passes into the antennæ, but their exact function is -little understood. That they serve as most delicate touch organs no -apiarist can doubt. That they serve as organs of smell or hearing is -not proved. That insects are conscious of sounds I think no observing -person can doubt. It is proved by the call of the katy-did, the cicada -and the cricket. What apiarist, too, has not noticed the effect of -various sounds made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive. How -contagious the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the -pleasant tone of a new swarm as they commence to enter their new home. -Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations, as we recognize -pitch, or whether they just distinguish the tremor, I think no one -knows. There is some reason to believe that their delicate touch-organs -may enable them to discriminate between vibrations, even more acutely, -than can we by use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a -colony of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If insects -can appreciate with great delicacy the different vibratory conditions -of the air by an excessive development of the sense of touch, then -undoubtedly the antennæ may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that -insects could only detect atmospheric vibrations. So, too, thought -Linnæus and Bonnet. Siebold thinks, as the antennæ receive but one -nerve, and are plainly touch-organs, they cannot be organs of hearing. -Kirby has noticed that some moths turn their antennæ towards the -direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that antennæ are -organs of hearing. Grote, for a similar reason, thinks that the densely -feathered antennæ of the males of various night moths, serve both for -smell and hearing. Prof. A. M. Mayer and Mr. C. Johnson (see American -Naturalist, vol. 8, p. 574) have by various ingenious experiments, -proved conclusively, that the delicate, beautifully feathered antennæ -of the male mosquito are organs of hearing. - -That insects have a very refined sense of smell is beyond question. How -quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass, the scavenger the filth, and -the bee the precious nectar. - -I have reared female moths in my study, and have been greatly -surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to find my room -swarming with males. These bridegrooms entered an open window in the -second-story of a brick building. How delicate must have been the sense -by which they were led to make the visit, and thus made to grace my -cabinet. Bees, too, have been known to dash against a shutter behind -which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of their perception -of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are carried by the air, -and must reach the insect through this medium. Is it not probable, that -the various breathing mouths of insects are also so many noses, and -that their delicate lining membranes abounding with, nerve filaments, -are the great odor sentinels? This view was maintained by both Lehman -and Cuvier, and explains this delicate perception of scents, as the -breathing mouths are large and numerous, and most so in insects like -bees and moths, which are most sensitive to odors. How quickly the -bees notice the scent of a strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor -of the venom. I have known a bee to sting a glove, and in a trice the -glove would be as a pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Sometimes -the bees will dart for many feet, guided by this odor. Yet the odor -is very pungent, as I have frequently smelt the poison before I felt -the sting. I have tried the experiments of Huber and Lubbock, and know -that such insects as bees and ants will take no note of food after the -loss of their antennæ. But we must remember that this is a capital -operation. With loss of antennæ, insects lose control of their motions, -and in many ways show great disturbance. Is it not probable then that -removing the antennæ destroys the desire for food, as does amputation -with ourselves? Kirby believes with Huber, that there is a scent organ. -Huber's experiments on which he based this opinion are, as usual, very -interesting. He presented a coarse hair dipped in oil of turpentine--a -substance very repugnant to bees--to various parts of a bee engrossed -in sipping honey. The bee made no objection, even though it touched the -ligula, until it approached the mouth above the mentum, when she became -much disturbed. He also filled a bee's mouth with paste, which soon -hardened, after which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near it. -This was not so conclusive, as the bee may have been so disturbed as -to lose its appetite. I have experimented a good deal, and am inclined -to the following opinion: The antennæ are very delicate touch-organs -or feelers, and are so important in their function and connection that -removal produces a severe shock, but further we know but little about -their function, if they have other, and from the very nature of the -problem we will find it very difficult of solution. - -The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are always present in -mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes, which may or may not -be present. When present there are usually three, which if we join by -lines, we will describe a triangle, in the vertices of whose angles -are the ocelli. Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely but -one. - -The simple eyes (Fig. 4, _f f f_) are circular, and possess a cornea, -lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight. - -From the experiments of Réaumur and Swammerdam, which consisted in -covering the eyes with varnish, they concluded that vision with -these simple eyes is very indistinct, though by them the insect can -distinguish light. Some have thought that these simple eyes were for -vision at slight distances. Larvæ, like spiders and myriapods, have -only simple eyes. - -The compound eyes (Fig. 2, _e_) are simply a cluster of simple eyes, -are situated one on either side of the head, and vary much in form and -size. Between or below these are inserted the antennæ. Sometimes these -last are inserted in a notch of the eyes, and in a few cases actually -divide each eye into two eyes. - -The eyes may meet above as in drones (Fig. 4), most two-wing flies -and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably separated, as in the -worker-bees (Fig. 5). The separate facets or simple eyes, of each -compound eye, are hexagonal, or six-sided, and in the microscope -look not unlike a section of honey-comb. The number of these is -prodigious--Leeuwenhoek actually counted 12,000 in the eye of a -dragon-fly--while some butterflies have, over 17,000. The compound -eyes are motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical shape, they -give quite a range of vision. It is not likely that they are capable -of adjustment to accord with different distances, and it has been -supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to their hives, and -the awkward work they make in finding a hive when moved only for a -short distance, that their eyes are best suited to long vision. - -Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments with -strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors. Honey was -placed on a blue strip, beside several others of various colors. In -the absence of the bees he changed the position of this strip, and -upon their return the bees went to the blue strip rather than to the -old position. Our practical apiarists have long been aware of this -fact, and have conformed their practice to the knowledge, in giving -a variety of colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted -that bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but, for slight -distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which would occur -if position alone was guide. - -APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX. - -The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of the thorax. -The wings are usually four, though the Diptera have but two, and some -insects--as the worker ants--have none. The front or primary wings -(Fig. 3, _A_) are usually larger than the secondary or hind wings -(Fig. 3, _B_), and thus the mesathoracic or middle ring of the thorax, -to which they are attached, is usually larger than the metathorax or -third ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of veins (Fig. 3), -covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs or veins are variable -in number, while towards the extremity of the wing are more or less -cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into more or less -cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and quite important in -classifying. Especially useful are the cells in the second row, from -the frontal or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-costal -cells. Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (Fig. 3, _A_, -1, 2, 3), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs or veins -consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one forming an air tube, the -outer one carrying blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings we -often find hooks, to attach it to the front wings (Fig. 3, _B_, _a_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. - -_Thorax of Bee magnified three times._ - -_a, a, a_--Muscles. _b, b_--Crust.] - -The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly located in the -thorax (Fig. 7, _a, a, a_), whose strength, as well as the rapidity of -the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid are really beyond -computation. Think of a tiny fly outstripping the fleetest horse in the -chase, and then marvel at this wondrous mechanism. - -The legs (Fig. 2, _g, g, g_) are six in number in all mature insects, -two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. These are long or -short, weak or strong, according to the habit of the insect. Each leg -consists of the following joints or parts: The coxæ (Fig. 24), which -move like a ball and socket joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities -of the body-rings. Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter, -the large, broad femur (Fig. 2, _g′_, 1), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 2, -_g′_, 2), frequently bearing strong spines at or near its end, called -tibial spurs, and followed by the from one to five-jointed tarsi (Fig. -2, _g′_, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3). All these parts move freely upon each other, -and will vary in form to agree with their use. At the end of the last -tarsal joint are two hooked claws (Fig. 2, _g′_, 4), between which are -the pulvilli, which are not air-pumps as usually described, but rather -glands, which secrete a sticky substance which enables insects to stick -to a smooth wall, even though it be above them. The legs, in fact the -whole crust, is more or less dense and hard, owing to the deposit -within the structure of a hard substance known as chitine. - -INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. - -The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I have noticed -quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the thorax. They vary in form -and position to accord with their use. The mechanism of contraction is -the same as in higher animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary -muscles, when highly magnified, show the striæ or cross-lines the same -as do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beautiful as -microscopic objects. The separate muscles are not bound together by -a membrane as in higher animals. In insects the muscles are widely -distributed, though, as we should expect, they are concentrated in -the thorax and head. In insects of swiftest flight, like the bee, the -thorax (Fig. 7, _a, a, a_) is almost entirely composed of muscles; the -œsophagus, which carries the food to the stomach, being very small. -At the base of the jaws, too, the muscles are large and firm. The -number of muscles is astounding. Lyonnet counted over 3,000 in a single -caterpillar, nearly eight times as many as are found in the human body. -The strength, too, of insects is prodigious. There must be quality -in muscles, for muscles as large as those of the elephant, and as -strong as those of the flea, would not need the fulcrum which the old -philosopher demanded, in order to move the world. Fleas have been made -to draw miniature cannon, chains, and even wagons many hundred times -heavier than themselves. - -The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known, except -in position. As in our bodies, some are knotted or have ganglia, and -some are not. - -The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral side of the -body (Fig. 8), separates near the head, and after passing around the -œsophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the ganglia, which serves as -a brain. The minute nerves extend everywhere, and in squeezing out the -viscera of an insect are easily visible. - -The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. The heart -is a long tube situated along the back, and receives the blood at -valvular openings along its sides which only permit the fluid to pass -in, when by contraction it is forced towards the head and emptied into -the general cavity. Thus the heart only serves to keep the blood in -motion. According to the best authorities, there are no special vessels -to carry the blood to various organs. Nor are they necessary, as this -nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary canal, and thus easily -receives nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis, everywhere surrounds -the tracheæ or air-tubes--the insect's lungs--and thus receives that -most needful of all food, oxygen, and gives the baneful carbonic acid, -everywhere touches the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital -operations of the animal require. - -The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or -corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher animals, and -which give our blood its red color. The function of these discs is to -carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried everywhere through the body by -the ubiquitous air-tubes of insects, we see the discs are not needed. -Except these semi-fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished as -are other organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely fluid, in -all normal conditions, and contains not the organs themselves or any -part of them, but only the elements, which are absorbed by the tissue -and converted into the organs, or, to be scientific, are assimilated. -As the blood of insects is nearly destitute of these discs, it is -almost wholly fluid, and is almost wholly made up of nutritious -substance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. - -_Nervous System of the Drone magnified four times._] - -The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already been -referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spiracles or breathing -mouths, which vary in number. These are armed with a complex valvular -arrangement which excludes dust or other noxious particles. These -spiracles are lined with a delicate membrane which abounds with nerves, -which were referred to in speaking of them as smelling organs. From -these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 2, _f, f′_), which -breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect organism. In -the more active insects--as in bees--the main tracheæ, one on each -side of the abdomen, are expanded into large air-sacks (Fig. 2, _f_). -Insects often show a respiratory motion, which in bees is often very -marked. Newport has shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration -gauges the heat in the hive, and thus we see why bees, in times of -severe cold, which they essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, -consume much food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and are liable -to disease. Newport found that in cases of severe cold there would be -quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer which he suspended in the -hive amidst the cluster. In the larva state, many insects breathe by -fringe-like gills. The larval mosquito has gills in form of hairy -tufts, while in the larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum, -or last part of the intestine. This insect, by a muscular effort, draws -the water slowly in at the anus, when it bathes these singularly-placed -branchiæ, and then makes it serve a further turn by forcibly expelling -it, when the insect is sent darting ahead. Thus this curious apparatus -not only furnishes oxygen, but also a mode of motion. In the pupa; of -insects there is little or no motion, yet important organic changes are -taking place--the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva, -is soon to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal -imago. So oxygen, the most essential--the _sine qua non_--of all animal -food, is still needed. The bees are too wise to seal the brood-cell -with impervious wax, but rather add the porous capping, made of wax and -pollen. The pupæ no less than the larvæ of some two-wing flies, which -live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the vivifying -air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupæ of the mosquito, -awaiting in its liquid home the glad time when it shall unfold its tiny -wings and pipe its war-note, has a similar arrangement to secure the -gaseous pabulum. - -The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, as in our -own class of animals, varies very much in length and complexity, as -the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As in mammals and birds, -the length, with some striking exceptions, varies with the food. -Carnivorous or flesh-eating insects have a short alimentary canal, -while in those that feed on vegetable food it is much longer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. - -_Alimentary Canal._ - - _o_--Honey stomach. _b_--True stomach. - _c_--Urinary tubes. _d_--Intestine. -] - -The mouth I have already described. Following this is the throat or -pharynx, then the œsophagus or gullet, which may expand, as in the -bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach (Fig. 9, _o_), may have an -attached crop like the chicken, or may run as a uniform tube as in -our bodies, to the true stomach (Fig. 9, _b_). Following this is the -intestine--separated by some into an ileum and a rectum--which ends -in a vent or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in larvæ -that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this is a -viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly into -the gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in building their -structures. With it and mud some wasps make mortar; with it and wood, -others their paper cells with it and wax, the bee fashions the ribbons -that are to form the beautiful comb. - -Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which secrete a -viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes the passage of food. - -The true stomach (Fig. 9, _b_) is very muscular, and often a gizzard, -as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with teeth. The -interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting the gastric juice -which is to liquify the food, that it may be absorbed, or pass through -the walls of the canal into the blood. Attached to the lower portion of -the stomach are numerous urinary tubes (Fig. 9, _c_) though Cuvier, and -even Kirby, call these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the mucous -glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas. - -The intestine when short, as in larvæ and most carnivora, is -straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen, while in -most plant eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its course. Strange -as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are beautiful in -form, and of others pleasant to the taste. In some caterpillars -they are barrel-shaped, artistically fluted, of brilliant hue, -and if fossilized, would be greatly admired, as have been the -coprolites--fossil feces of quadrupeds--if set as gems in jewelry. As -it is, they would form no mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as -the Aphides or plant-lice, the excrement, as well as the fluid that -escapes in some species from special tubes called the nectaries, is -very sweet, and in absence of floral nectar, will often be appropriated -by bees and conveyed to the hives. Imagination would make this a bitter -draught, so here, as elsewhere in life, the bitter and sweet are -mingled. In those insects that suck their food, as bees, butterflies, -moths, two-wing flies and bugs, the feces are watery or liquid, while -in case of solid food the excrement is solid. - -SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS. - -I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby gives as -distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though Newport gives -them as one and the same. . In many insects these seem absent. I have -also spoken of the mucous glands, the urinary tubules, etc. Besides -these, there are other secretions which serve for purposes of defense: -In the queen and workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison -intruded with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at -the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacks (Fig. 25, _c_), and -extruded through the sting, as occasion requires. I know of no insects -that poison while they bite, except it be mosquitoes, gnats, etc., and -in these cases no special secreting organ has been discovered. Perhaps -the beak itself secretes an irritating substance. A few exceedingly -beautiful caterpillars are covered with branching spines, which -sting about like a nettle. We have two such species. They are green, -and of rare attraction, so that to capture them is worth the slight -inconvenience arising from their irritating punctures. Some insects, -like bugs, secrete a disgusting fluid or gas which affords protection, -as by its stench it renders these filthy bugs so offensive that even a -hungry bird or half-famished insect passes them by on the other side. -Some insects secrete a gas which is stored in a sack at the posterior -end of the body, and shot forth with an explosion in case that danger -threatens thus by noise and smoke it startles its enemy, which beats a -retreat. I have heard the little bombardier beetle at such times, even -at considerable distances. The frightful reports about the terrible -horn of the tomato-worm larva are mere nonsense. A more harmless animal -does not exist. My little boy of four years, and girl of only two, used -to bring them to me last summer, and fondle them as admiringly as would -their father upon receiving them from the delighted children. - -If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that need be -feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage even they, are -seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon. - -SEX ORGANS OF INSECTS. - -The male organs consist first of the testes (Fig. 10, a) which are -double organs. There may be from one, as in the drone bee, to several, -as in some beetles, on each side the abdominal cavity. In these -vesicles grow the sperm cells or spermatozoa, which, when liberated, -pass through a long convoluted tube, the vas-deferens (Fig. 10, _b, -b_), into the seminal sack (Fig. 10, c, c), where, in connection with -mucous, they are stored. In most insects there are glandular sacks -(Fig. 10, d) joined to these seminal receptacles, which in the male -bee or drone are very large. The sperm cells mingled with these viscid -secretions, as they appear in the seminal receptacle, ready for use, -form the seminal fluid. Extending from these seminal receptacles is the -ejaculatory duct (Fig. 10, _e, f, g_), which in copulation carries the -male fluid to the penis (Fig. 10, _d_), through which it passes to the -spermatheca of the female. Beside this latter organ are the sheath, the -claspers when present, and in the male bee those large yellow sacks -(Fig. 10, _i_), which are often seen to dart forth as the drone is held -in the warm hand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. - -_Male Organs of Drone, much magnified._ - - _a_--Testes. _e_--Common duct. - _b, b_--Vasa deferentia. _f, g_--Ejaculatory sack. - _c, c_--Seminal sacks. _h_--Penis. - _d_--Glandular sacks. _i_--Yellow saccules. -] - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. - -_Queen Organs, greatly magnified._ - - _a, a_--Ovaries. _d_--Sting. - _b_--Oviducts. _e_--Spermatheca. - _c_--Oviduct. -] - -The female organs (Fig. 11) consist of the ovaries (Fig. 11, _a, a_), -which are situated one on either side of the abdominal cavity. From -these extend the two oviducts, (Fig. 11, _b_), which unite into -the common oviduct (Fig. 11, _c_) through which the eggs pass in -deposition. In many insects there is beside this oviduct, and connected -with it, a sack (Fig. 11, _e_) called the spermatheca, which receives -the male fluid in copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, -must ever after do the work of impregnation. - -This sack was discovered and its use suggested by Malpighi as early -as 1686, but its function was not fully demonstrated till 1792, when -the great anatomist, John Hunter, showed that in copulation this was -filled. The ovaries are multitubular organs. In some insects there are -but very few tubes--two or three; while in the queen bee there are -more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova or eggs _grow_, as do -the sperm cells in the vesicles of the testes. The number of eggs is -variable. Some insects, as the mud-wasps, produce very few, while the -queen white-ant extrudes millions. The end of the oviduct, called the -ovipositor, is wonderful in its variations. Sometimes it consists of -concentric rings, like a spy-glass which may be pushed out or drawn in; -sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or saws of wonderful finish, -to prepare for eggs; or again of a tube which may also serve as a sting. - -Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at least that -the female only meets the male but once. My pupil, Clement S. Strang, -who made a special study of the structure and habits of bugs during the -past season, noticed that the squash-bugs mated many times. It would be -interesting to know whether these females possessed the spermatheca. In -some cases, as we shall see in the sequel, the male is killed by the -copulatory act. I think this curious fatality is limited to few species. - -To study viscera, which of course requires very careful dissection, -we need more apparatus than has been yet described. Here a good -lens is indispensable. A small dissecting knife, a delicate pair of -forceps, and some small, sharp-pointed dissecting scissors--those of -the renowned Swammerdam were so fine at the point that it required -a lens to sharpen them--which may also serve to clip the wings of -queens--are requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in alcohol -will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out and the muscle -hardened. Placing them in hot water will do nearly as well, in which -case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the fat. This may be applied -with a camel's-hair brush. By dissecting under water the loose portions -will float off, and render effective work more easy. Swammerdam, who -had that most valuable requisite to a naturalist, unlimited patience, -not only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, fine -as a hair, he injected the various tubes as the alimentary canal and -air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in upon those wondrous -beauties and marvels of God's own handiwork--nature's grand exposition? -Father, why would not a set of dissecting instruments be a most -suitable gift to your son? You might thus sow the seed which would -germinate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth-stone. Messrs. -Editors, why do not you, among your apiarian supplies, keep boxes of -these instruments, and thus aid to light the torch of genius and hasten -apiarian research? - -TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. - -What in all the realm of nature is so worthy to awaken delight and -admiration as the astonishing changes which insects undergo? Just -think of the sluggish, repulsive caterpillar, dragging its heavy form -over clod or bush, or mining in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand -of nature's great magician, first into the motionless chrysalis, -decked with green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on -the finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous -butterfly; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out-rivals -even the birds among the life-jewels of nature, and is made fit to -revel in all her decorative wealth. The little fly, too, with wings -dyed in rainbow-hues, flitting like, a fairy from leaf to flower, was -but yesterday the repulsive maggot, reveling in the veriest filth of -decaying nature. The grub to-day drags its slimy shape through the -slums of earth, on which it fattens; to-morrow it will glitter as -the brilliant setting in the bracelets and ear-drops of the gay and -thoughtless belle. - -There are four separate stages in the development of insects: The egg -state, the larva, the pupa, and the imago. - -THE EGG. - -This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its yolk and -its surrounding white or albumen, like the eggs of all mammals, and -farther, the delicate shell, which is familiar in the eggs of birds and -reptiles. Eggs of insects are often beautiful in form and color, and -not infrequently ribbed and fluted as by a master-hand. The form of -eggs is very various--spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong, straight -and curved (Fig. 26, _b_). All insects seem to be guided by a wonderful -knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the placing of eggs on or -near the peculiar food of the larva. Even though in many cases such -food is no part of the aliment of the imago insect. The fly has the -refined habits of the epicure, from whose cup it daintily sips, yet its -eggs are placed in the horse-droppings of stable and pasture. - -Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and their consummation -is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar changes can be easily and most -profitably studied by breaking and examining a hen's egg each -successive day of incubation. As with the egg of our own species and -of all higher animals, so, too, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the -essential part--the white is only food, so to speak--soon segments or -divides into a great many cells, these soon unite into a membrane--the -blastoderm--and this is the initial animal. This blastoderm soon -forms a single sack, and not a double sack, one above the other, as -in our own vertebrate branch. This sack, looking like a miniature bag -of grain, grows, by absorption, becomes articulated, and by budding -out is soon provided with the various members. As in higher animals, -these changes are consequent upon heat, and usually, not always, upon -the incorporations within the eggs of the germ cells from the male, -which enter the eggs at openings called micropyles. The time it takes -the embryo inside the egg to develop is gauged by heat, and will, -therefore, vary with the season and temperature, though in different -species it varies from days to months. The number of eggs, too, which -an insect may produce, is subject to wide variation. Some insects -produce but one, two or three, while others, like the queen bee and -white ant, lay thousands, and in case of the ant, millions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12. - -_Larva of Bee._] - -THE LARVA OF INSECTS. - -From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot, caterpillar, -and very erroneously worm. These are worm-shaped (Fig. 12), usually -have strong jaws, simple eyes, and the body plainly marked into ring -divisions. Often as in case of some grubs, larval bees and maggots, -there are no legs. In most grubs there are six legs, two to each of -the three rings succeeding the head. Besides these, caterpillars have -usually ten prop-legs farther back on the body, though a few--the -loopers or measuring caterpillars--have only four or six, while the -larvæ of the saw-flies have from twelve to sixteen of the false or -prop-legs. The alimentary canal of larval insects is usually short, -direct and quite simple, while the sex-organs are slightly if at all -developed. The larvæ of insects are voracious eaters--indeed, their -only work seems to be to eat and grow fat. As the entire growth occurs -at this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more excusable. I -have often been astonished at the amount of food that the insects in -my breeding cases would consume. The length of time which insects -remain as larvæ is very variable. The maggot revels in decaying meat -but two or three days; the larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly -a week; the apple-tree borer gnaws away for three years; while the -seventeen-year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years, -groping in darkness, and feeding on roots, only to come forth for a few -days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely, here is patience -exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The name larva, meaning masked, was -given to this stage by Linnæus, as the mature form of the insect is -hidden, and cannot be even divined by the unlearned. - -THE PUPA OF INSECTS. - -In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting after -its long meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive days--the -joyous honey-moon--soon to come. In this stage the insect may look -like a seed; as in the coarctate pupa of diptera, so familiar in -the "flax-seed" state of the Hessian-fly, or in the pupa of the -cheese-maggot or the meat-fly. This same form, with more or less -modification, prevails in butterfly pupæ, called, because of their -golden spots, chrysalids, and in the pupæ of moths. Other pupæ, as in -case of bees (Fig. 13, _g_) and beetles, look not unlike the mature -insect with its antennæ, legs, and wings closely bound to the body by -a thin membrane, hence the name which Linné gave--referring to this -condition--as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling clothes, -the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it needed holding -together. Aristotle called pupæ nymphs--a name now given to this stage -in bees--which name was adopted by many entomologists of the seventeeth -and eighteenth centuries. Inside the pupa skin great changes are in -progress, for either by modifying the larval organs or developing -parts entirely new, by use of the accumulated material stored by the -larva during its prolonged banquet, the wonderful transformation -from the sluggish, worm-like larva to the active, bird-like imago is -accomplished. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. - -_Pupa or Nymph of Bee, slightly magnified._] - -Sometimes the pupa is surrounded by a silken cocoon, either thick, as -the cocoon of some moths, or thin, as are the cocoons of bees. These -cocoons are spun by the larvæ as their last toil before assuming -the restful pupa state. The length of time in the pupa-stage is -very various, lasting from a few days to as many months. Sometimes -insects which are two-brooded remain as pupa but a few days in summer, -while in winter they are months passing the quiescent period. Our -cabbage-butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the -Hessian-fly and codling-moth, remain through the long, cold months as -larvæ. How wonderful is this! The first brood of larvæ change to pupæ -at once, the last brood, though the weather be just as hot, wait over -inside the cocoon till the warm days of coming spring. - -THE IMAGO STAGE. - -This term refers to the last or winged form, and was given by Linné -because the image of the insect is now real and not masked as when in -the larva state. Now the insect has its full-formed legs and wings, its -compound eyes, complex mouth-parts, and the fully developed sex-organs. -In fact, the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to reproduce -itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in merry marriage mood -for a brief space, when the male flees this life to be quickly followed -by the female, she only waiting to place her eggs where the prospective -infants may find suitable food. Some insects not only place their eggs, -but feed and care for their young, as is true of ants, wasps and bees. -Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive females -perform all, or most of the labor in caring for the young. The life -of the imago also varies much as to duration. Some live but for a -day, others make merry for several days, while a few species live for -months. Very few imagos survive the whole year. - -INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATIONS. - -Some insects, like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers and locusts, are -quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg. The only -apparent difference is the smaller size and the absence or incomplete -development of the wings in the larvæ and pupæ. The habits and -structure from first to last seem to be much the same. Here, as before, -the full development of the sex-organs occurs only in the imago. - - -ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of the physiology -of insects in general, we shall now find it easy to learn the special -anatomy and physiology of the highest insects of the order. - -THREE KINDS OF BEES IN EACH FAMILY. - -As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the economy of -the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which is true of many -other bees, and also of ants and many wasps, is the presence in each -family of three distinct kinds, which differ in form, color, structure, -size, habits and function. Thus we have the queen, a number of drones, -and a far greater number of workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn and Kirby -also speak of a fourth kind blacker than the usual workers. These are -accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Von Berlepsch, ordinary -workers, more deeply colored by loss of hair, dampness, or some other -atmospheric condition. American apiarists are too familiar with these -black bees, for after our severe winters they prevail in the colony, -and, as remarked by the noted Baron, "_They quickly_ disappear." Munn -also tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarming -seasons. I am at a great loss to know what he refers to, unless it be -the pollen masses of the asclepias or milk-weed, which sometimes fasten -to our bees and become a severe burden. - -THE QUEEN BEE. - -The queen (Fig. 14), although referred to as the mother bee, was called -the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as late as the last century, -though in the ancient "Bee Master's Farewell," by John Hall, published -in London in 1796, I find an admirable description of the queen bee, -with her function correctly stated. Réaumur as quoted by "Wildman on -Bees," published in London in 1770, says "this third sort has a grave -and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is mother of all the -others." - -Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who, though blind, -through the aid of his devoted wife and intelligent servant, Frances -Burnens, developed so many interesting facts, demonstrated the fact of -the queen's maternity. This author's work, second edition, published in -Edinburgh, in 1808, gives a full history of his wonderful observations -and experiments, and must ever rank with Langstroth as a classic, -worthy of study by all. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. - -_Queen Bee, magnified._] - -The queen, then, is the mother bee, in other words, a fully developed -female. Her ovaries (Fig. 11, _a, a_) are very large, nearly filling -her long abdomen. The tubes already described as composing them are -very numerous, while the spermatheca (Fig. 11, _e_) is plainly visible. -This is muscular, receives abundant nerves, and thus, without doubt, -may or may not be compressed to force the sperm cells in contact -with the eggs as they pass by the duet. Leuckart estimates that the -spermatheca will hold more than 25,000,000 spermatozoa. - -The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs, is the chief -structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as these are the -characteristic marks of females among all animals. But she has other -peculiarities worthy of mention She is longer than either drones or -workers, being more than seven-eighths of an inch in length, and, -with her long tapering abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. -The queen's mouth organs, too, are developed to a less degree than -are those of the worker-bees. Her jaws (Fig. 21, _b_) or mandibles -are weaker, with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or ligula (Fig. -15, _a_), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 15, _b_) and maxillæ are -considerably shorter. Her eyes, like the same in the worker-bee (Fig. -5), are smaller than those of the drones, and do not meet above. So the -three ocelli are situated above and between. The queen's wings, too, -(Fig. 14) are relatively shorter than those either of the workers or -drones, for instead of attaining to the end of the body, they reach but -little beyond the third joint of the abdomen. The queen, though she has -the characteristic posterior tibia and basal tarsus (Fig. 16, _p_), in -respect to breadth, has not the cavity and surrounding hairs, which -form the pollen baskets of the workers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. - -_Labium of Queen._ - - _a_--Ligula. _b_--Labial palpi. - _d, d_--Paraglossæ. -] - -The queen possesses a sting (Fig. 11, _d_) which is longer than that of -the workers, and resembles that of the bumble-bees in being curved, and -that of bumble-bees and wasps in having few and short barbs--the little -projections which point back like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, -in case of the workers, prevent the withdrawing of the instrument, -when once fairly inserted. While there are seven quite prominent barbs -on each shaft of the worker's sting, there are only three on those of -the queen, and these are very short, and, as in a worker's sting, they -are successively shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. -Aristotle says that the queen will seldom use her sting, which I have -found true. I have often tried to provoke a queen's anger, but never -with any evidence of success. Neighbour (page 14, note) gives three -cases where queens used their stings, in one of which cases she was -disabled from farther egg-laying. She stings with slight effect. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. - -_Part of Leg of Queen, magnified._ - - _t_--Tibia. - _p_--Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. - _t s_--Tarsal joints. -] - -The queen, like the neuters, is developed from an impregnated egg, -which, of course, could only come from a queen that had previously -mated. These eggs are not placed in a horizontal cell, but in one -specially prepared for their reception (Fig. 26, _i_). These queen -cells are usually built on the edge of the comb, or around an opening -in it, which is necessitated from their size and form, as usually the -combs are too close together to permit their location elsewhere. These -cells extend either vertically or diagonally downward, are composed of -was mixed with pollen, and in size and form much resemble a pea-nut. -The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by the queen or workers. -Huber, who though blind had wondrous eyes, also witnessed the act. I -have frequently seen eggs in these cells, and without exception in -the exact position in which the queen always places her eggs in the -other cells. John Hall, in the old work already referred to, whose -descriptions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully accurate, and -indicate great care, candor, and conscientious truthfulness, asserts -that the queen is five times as long laying a royal egg as she is the -others. From the character of his work, and its early publication, -I can but think that he had witnessed this rare sight. Some candid -apiarists of our own time and country--E. Gallup among the rest--claim -to have witnessed the act. The eggs are so well glued, and are so -delicate, that, with Neighbour, I doubt the possibility of a removal. -The opponents to this view base their belief on a supposed discord -between the queen and neuters. This antagonism is inferred, and I -have but little faith in the inference, or the argument from it. I -know that when royal cells are to be torn down, and inchoate queens -destroyed, the workers aid the queen in this destruction. I have also -seen queens pass by unguarded queen-cells, and yet respect them. I have -also seen several young queens dwelling amicably together in the same -hive. Is it not probable that the bees are united in whatever is to -be accomplished, and that when queens are to be destroyed all spring -to the work, and when they are to live all regard them as sacred? It -is true that the actions of bees are controlled and influenced by -the surrounding conditions or circumstances, but I have yet to see -satisfactory proof of the old theory that these conditions impress -differently the queen and the workers. The conditions which lead to -the building of queen-cells and the peopling of the same are--loss of -queen, when a worker larva from one to four days old will be surrounded -by a cell inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her spermatheca -having become emptied; great number of worker-bees in the hive; -restricted quarters; the queen not having place to deposit eggs, or the -workers little or no room to store honey and lack of ventilation, so -that the hive becomes too close. These last three conditions are most -likely to occur at times of great honey secretion. - -A queen may be developed from an egg, or from a worker larva less -than three days old. Mr. Doolittle has known queens to be reared from -worker larvæ taken at four-and-a-half days from hatching. In this -latter case, the cells adjacent to the one containing the selected -larva are removed, and the larva surrounded by a royal cell. The -development of the queen larva is much like that of the worker, soon to -be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and is fed richer and more -plenteous food, called royal jelly. This peculiar food, as also its use -and abundance in the cell, was first described by Schirach, a Saxon -clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in 1771. According to Hunter, this -royal pabulum is richer in nitrogen than that of the common larvæ. It -is thick, like rich cream; slightly yellow, and so abundant that the -queen larva not only floats in it during all its period of growth, but -quite a large amount remains after her queenship vacates the cell. We -often find this royal jelly in incomplete queen-cells, without larvæ. -Mr. Quinby suggests that this is stored for future use. - -What a mysterious circumstance is this: These royal scions simply -receive a more abundant and sumptuous diet, and occupy a more ample -habitation--for I have more than once confirmed the statement of Mr. -Quinby, that the direction of the cell is immaterial--and yet what -a marvelous transformation. Not only are the ovaries developed and -filled with eggs, but the mouth-organs, the wing's, the legs, and -the sting, aye, and the size, form and habits are all wondrously -changed. That the development of parts should be accelerated, and the -size increased is not so surprising--as in breeding other insects -I have frequently found that kind and amount of food, would hasten -or retard growth, and might even cause a dwarfed imago--but that it -should so essentially modify the structure, is certainly a rare and -unique circumstance, hardly to be found except here and in related -animals. Bevan has suggested that fertile workers', while larvæ, -have received some of this royal jelly, from their position near a -developing queen. Langstroth supposes that they receive some royal -jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I had previously thought -this reasonable, and probably true. But these pests of the apiarist, -and especially of the breeder, almost always, so far as I have -observed, make their appearance in colonies long queenless, and I have -noticed a case similar to that given by Quinby, where these occurred -in a nucleus where no queen had been developed. May it not be true, -that a desire for eggs stimulates growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs -in the ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit. The common -high-holder, Colaptes auratus--a bird belonging to the woodpecker -family, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but let cruel hands rob -her of these promises of future loved ones--and wondrous to relate, -she continues to lay more than a score. One thus treated, here on -the College campus, actually laid more than thirty eggs. So we see -that animal desires may influence and move organs that are generally -independent of the will. - -The larval queen is longer and more rapid of development than the other -larvæ. When developed from the egg--as in case of normal swarming--the -larva feeds for five days, when the cell is capped by the workers. -The infant queen then spins her cocoon, which occupies about one day. -The end of the cocoon is left open. Some one has suggested that this -is an act of thoughtful generosity on the part of the queen larva, -thus to render her own destruction more easy, should the welfare of -the colony demand it, as now a sister queen may safely give the fatal -sting. The queen now spends nearly three days in absolute repose. Such -rest is common to all cocoon-spinning larvæ. The spinning, which is -done by a rapid motion to and fro of the head, always carrying the -delicate thread, much like the moving shuttle of the weaver, seems to -bring exhaustion and need of repose. She now assumes the nymph or pupa -state (Fig. 26, _i_). At the end of the sixteenth day she comes forth a -queen. Huber states that when a queen emerges, the bees are thrown into -a joyous excitement, so that he noted a rise in the temperature of the -hive from 92° F. to 104° F. I have never tested this matter accurately, -but I have failed to notice any marked demonstration on the natal day -of her lady-ship the queen, or extra respect paid her as a virgin. When -queens are started from worker larvæ, they will issue as images in ten -or twelve days from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle -writes me that he has known them to issue in eight and one-half days. - -As the queen's development is probably due to superior quality and -increased quantity of food, it would stand to reason that queens -started from eggs are preferable; the more so, as under normal -circumstances, I believe, they are almost always thus started. The best -experience sustains this position. As the proper food and temperature -could best be secured in a full colony--and here again the natural -economy of the hive adds to our argument--we should infer that the -best queens would be reared in strong colonies, or at least kept in -such colonies till the cells were capped. Experience also confirms -this view. As the quantity and quality of food, and the general -activity of the bees is directly connected with the full nourishment -of the queen-larva, and as these are only at the maximum in times of -active gathering--the time when queen-rearing is naturally started by -the bees--we should also conclude that queens reared at such seasons -are superior. My experience--and I have carefully observed in this -connection--most emphatically sustains this view. - -Five or six days after issuing from the cell--Neighbour says the third -day--if the day is pleasant, the queen goes forth on her "marriage -flight" otherwise she will improve the first pleasant day thereafter -for this purpose. Huber was the first to prove that impregnation -always takes place on the wing. Bonnet also proved that the same -is true of ants, though in this case millions of queens and drones -often swarm out at once. I have myself witnessed several of these -wholesale matrimonial excursions among ants. I have also frequently -taken bumble-bees in copulo while on the wing. I have also noticed -both ants and bumble-bees to fall while united probably borne down by -the expiring males. That butterflies! moths, dragon-flies, etc., mate -on the wing is a matter of common observation. That it is possible to -impregnate queens when confined, I think very doubtful. The queens will -caress the drones, but the latter seem not to heed their advances. That -this ever has been done I also question, though many think they have -positive proof that it has occurred. Yet, as there are so many chances -to be mistaken, and as experience and observation are so excessive -against the possibility, I think that these may be cases of hasty or -inaccurate judgment. Many, very many, with myself, have followed Huber -in clipping the queen's wing, only to produce a sterile or drone-laying -queen. Prof Leuckart believes that successful mating demands that the -large air-sacks (Fig. 2, _f_) of the drones shall be filled, which he -thinks is only possible during flight. The demeanor of the drones leads -me to think, that the excitement of flight, like the warmth of the -hand, is necessary to induce the sexual impulse. - -I presume, that in all the future, Huber's statement that the queen -must take wing to be impregnated, will remain unrefuted. Yet it will do -no harm to keep trying. Success may come. Mating, too, in green-houses -or rooms is also impracticable. I have given this thorough trial. The -drones are incorrigible cowards, and their inordinate fear seems even -to overcome the sexual desires. - -If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will go forth -again and again till she succeeds. Huber stated that after twenty-one -days the case is hopeless. Bevan states that if impregnated from the -fifteenth to the twenty-first she will be largely a drone-laying queen. -That such absolute dates can be fixed in either of the above cases is -very questionable. Yet, all experienced breeders know that queens kept -through the winter as virgins are sure to remain so. It is quite likely -that the long inactivity of the spermatheca wholly or in part paralyzes -it, so that queens that are late in mating cannot impregnate the eggs -as she desires. This would accord with what we know of muscular -organs. Berlepsch believed that a queen that commenced laying as a -virgin could never lay impregnated eggs, even though she afterwards -mated. Langstroth thought that he had observed to the contrary. - -If the queen be observed after a successful "wedding tour," she will -be seen to bear the marks of success in the pendant drone appendages, -consisting of the penis, the yellow cul-de-sacks, and the hanging -thread-like ducts. - -It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has met a drone, ever -leaves the hive again except that she leaves with a swarm. Some of the -observing apiarists think that an old queen may be again impregnated. -The fact that queens, with clipped wings, are as long fertile as -others, makes me think that cases which have led to such conclusions -are capable of other explanation. - -If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drones, or if for any reason -she fails to mate, her eggs will only produce male bees. This strange -anomaly--development of the eggs without impregnation--was discovered -and proved by Dzierzon, in 1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, as a student of -practical and scientific apiculture, must rank with the great Huber, is -a Roman Catholic priest of Carlesmarkt, Germany. This doctrine--called -parthenogenesis, which means produced from a virgin--is still doubted -by some quite able bee-keepers, though the proofs are irrefragable: -1st. Unmated queens will lay eggs that will develop, but drones always -result. 2d. Old queens often become drone-layers, but examination shows -that the spermatheca is void of seminal fluid. Such an examination -was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great German anatomist, in 1813, -and later by Leuckart and Leidy. I have myself made several such -examinations. The spermatheca can easily be seen by the unaided vision, -and by crushing it on a glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass -cover, the difference between the contained fluid in the virgin and -impregnated queen is very patent, even with a low power. In the latter -it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more distended. By use -of a high power, the active spermatozoa or germ-cells become visible. -3d. Eggs in drone-cells are found by the microscopist to be void of the -sperm-cells, which are always found in all other fresh-laid eggs. This -most convincing, and interesting observation, was first made by Von -Siebold, at the suggestion of Berlepsch. It is quite difficult to show -this. Leuckart tried before Von Siebold, at Berlepsch's apiary, but -failed. I have also tried to discover these germ-cells in worker-eggs, -but as yet have been unsuccessful. Siebold has noted the same facts in -eggs of wasps. 4th. Dr. Dönhoff, of Germany, in 1855, took an egg from -a drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation produced a worker-bee. -Such an operation, to be successful, must be performed as soon as the -egg is laid. - -Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been found -by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, and of some of the -lower moths, in the production of both males and females. While the -great Bonnet first discovered what may be noticed on any summer day, -all about us, even on the house-plants at our very windows, that -parthenogenesis is best illustrated by the aphides or plant lice. In -the fall males and females appear, which mate, when the female lays -eggs, which in the spring produce only females; these again produce -only females, and thus on, for several generations, till with the -cold of autumn come again the males and females. Bonnet observed -seven successive generations of productive virgins. Duval noted -nine generations in seven months, while Kyber observed production -exclusively by parthenogenesis in a heated room for four years. So, we -see, that this strange and almost incredible method of increase, is not -rare in the great insect world. - -About two days after she is impregnated, the queen, under normal -circumstances, commences to lay, usually worker-eggs, and as the -condition of the hive seldom impels to swarming the same summer, so -that no drones are required, she usually lays no others the first -season. - -It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays quite -a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe this in their -nuclei. This continues for only a few days. This does not seem strange. -The act of forcing the sperm-cells from the spermatheca is muscular and -voluntary, and that these muscles should not always act promptly at -first, is not strange, nor is it unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested -that the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells -the pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the spermatheca. Mr. -Quinby also favored this view. I greatly question this theory. All -observing apiarists have known eggs to be laid in worker-cells, ere the -cell was hardly commenced, when there could be no pressure. In case of -queen-cells, too, if the queen does lay the eggs--as I believe--these -would be unimpregnated, as the cell is very large. I know the queen -sometimes passes from drone to worker-cells very abruptly while laying, -as I have witnessed such a procedure--the same that so greatly rejoiced -the late Baron of Berlepsch, after weary hours of watching--but -that she can thus control at the instant this process of adding or -withholding the sperm-cells, certainly seems not so strange as that -the spermatheca, hardly bigger than a pin-head, could supply these -cells for months, yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly -dart against the horse's legs, and as surely leave the tiny yellow egg, -can doubt but that insects possess very sensitive oviducts, and can -extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. That a queen may force single -eggs, at will, past the mouth of the spermatheca, and at the same time -add or withhold the sperm-cells, is, I think, without question, true. -What gives added force to this view, is the fact that other bees, -wasps and ants exercise the same volition, and can have no aid from -cell-pressure, as all the eggs are laid in receptacles of the same -size. But the Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to be a friend of Dzierzon, -has fully decided the matter. He has shown that old drone cells are as -small as new worker-cells, and yet each harbors its own brood. Very -small queens, too, make no mistakes. With no drone-cells, the queen -will sometimes lay drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will -then be reared. And will, if she must, though with great reluctance, -lay worker-eggs in drone-cells. - -Before laying an egg, the queen takes a look into the cell, probably -to see if all is right. If the cell contains any honey, pollen, or -an egg, she usually passes it by, though when crowded, a queen will -sometimes, _especially if young_, insert two or three eggs in a cell, -and sometimes, in such cases, she drops them, when the bees show -their dislike of waste, and appreciation of good living, by making a -breakfast of them. If the queen finds the cell to her liking, she -turns about, inserts her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is -glued, in position (Fig. 26, _b_) to the bottom of the cell. - -The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees of the colony, -possesses a surprising longevity. It is not surprising for her to -attain the age of three years in the full possession of her powers, -while they have been known to do good work for five years. Queens, -often at the expiration of one, two, three or four years, depending on -their vigor and excellence, either cease to be fertile, or else become -impotent to lay impregnated eggs--the spermatheca having become emptied -of its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually supersede the -queen; that is they destroy the old queen, ere all the worker-eggs are -gone, and take of the few remaining ones to start queen-cells, and thus -rear young, fertile and vigorous queens. - -It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine-looking queen, with -full-formed ovaries, and large spermatheca, well-filled with male -fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the eggs will hatch. Readers -of the bee-publications know that I have frequently received such for -dissection. The first I ever got was a remarkably fine-looking Italian, -received from the late Dr. Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I -have examined seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high-power -objective. We can only say that the egg is at fault, as frequently -transpires with higher animals, even to the highest. These females are -barren; through some fault with the ovaries, the eggs grown therein -are sterile. To detect just what is the trouble with the egg is a very -difficult problem, if it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to -determine the ultimate cause, but without success. - -The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus keep the -colony populous; and this she does with an energy that is fairly -startling. A good queen in her best estate will lay two or three -thousand eggs a day. I have seen a queen in my observing hive, lay -for some time at the rate of four eggs per minute, and have proved by -actual computation of brood cells, that a queen may lay over three -thousand eggs in a day. Langstroth and Berlepsch both saw queens lay at -the rate of six eggs a minute. - -The latter had a queen that laid three thousand and twenty-one eggs -in 24 hours, by actual count, and in 20 days she laid fifty-seven -thousand. This queen continued prolific for five years, and must have -laid, says the Baron, at a low estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs. -Dzierzon says queens may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these authors -have not exaggerated. Yet, with even these figures as an advertisement, -the queen bee cannot boast of superlative fecundity, as the queen -white-ant--an insect closely related to the bees in habits, though -not in structure, as the white-ants are lace-wings and belong to the -sub-order Neuroptera, which includes our day-flies, dragon-flies, -etc.--is known to lay over 80,000 eggs daily. Yet this poor helpless -thing, whose abdomen is the size of a man's thumb, and composed almost -wholly of eggs, while the rest of her body is not larger than the -same in our common ants, has no other amusement; she cannot walk; she -cannot even feed herself or care for her eggs. What wonder then that -she should attempt big things in the way of egg-laying? She has nothing -else to do, or to feel proud of. - -Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different breeds of -fowls. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly demand hives of -India rubber to accommodate them, keeping their hives gushing with -bees and profitable activity while others are so inferior, that the -colonies make a poor, sickly effort to survive at all, and usually -succumb early, before those adverse circumstances which are ever -waiting to confront all life on the globe. The activity of the queen, -too, is governed largely by the activity of the workers. The queen will -either lay sparingly, or stop altogether, in the interims of storing -honey, while, on the other hand, she is stimulated to lay to her utmost -capacity, when all is life and activity in the hive. - -It would seem that the queen either reasons from conditions, is taught -by instinct, or else that without her volition the general activity -of the worker-bees stimulates the ovaries, how, we know not, to grow -more eggs. We know that such a stimulus is born of desire, in case of -the high-holder, already referred to. That the queen may have control -of the activity of her ovaries, either directly or indirectly, through -reflex nervous action induced by the general excitement of the bees, -which always follows active storing, is not only possible, but quite -likely. - -The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and admired -sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined by obsequious -courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of loving caresses, -and whose will is law in this bee-hive kingdom, controlling all the -activities inside the hive, and leading the colony whithersoever they -may go, is unquestionably mere fiction. In the hive, as in the world, -individuals are valued for what they are worth. The queen, as the most -important individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal -or loss noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is -threatened; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is despatched -with the same absence of emotion that characterizes the destruction of -the drones when they have become supernumeraries. It is very doubtful -if emotion or sentimentality are ever moving forces among the lower -animals. There are probably certain natural principles that govern -in the economy of the hive, and aught that conspires against, or -tends to intercept the action of these principles, becomes an enemy -to the bees. All are interested, and doubtless more united than is -generally believed, in a desire to promote the free action of these -principles. No doubt the principle of antagonism among the various bees -has been overrated. Even, the drones, when they are being killed off -in the autumn, make a sickly show of defense, as much as to say, the -welfare of the colony demands that such worthless vagrants should be -exterminated; "so mote it be;" go ahead. The statement, too, that there -is often serious antagonism between the queen and workers, as to the -destruction or preservation of inchoate queens, yet in the cell, is a -matter which may well be investigated. It is most probable that what -tends most for the prosperity of the colony is well understood by all, -and without doubt there is harmonious action among all the denizens of -the hive, to foster that which will advance the general welfare, or to -make war on whatever may tend to interfere with it. If the course of -any of the bees seems wavering and inconsistent, we may rest assured -that circumstances have changed, and that could we perceive the bearing -of all the surrounding conditions, all would appear consistent and -harmonious. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. - -_Drone Bee, magnified._] - -THE DRONES. - -These are the male bees, and are generally found in the hive only -from May to November: though they may remain all winter, and are not -infrequently absent during the summer. Their presence or absence -depends on the present and prospective condition of the colony. If they -are needed, or likely to be needed, then they are present. There are -in nature several hundred in each colony. The number may and should -be greatly reduced by the apiarist. These (Fig. 17) are shorter than -the queen, being less than three-fourths of an inch in length, are -more robust and bulky than either the queen or workers, and are easily -recognized when flying by their loud, startling hum. As in other -societies, the least useful make the most noise. This loud hum is -caused by the less rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Their -flight is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers. Their -ligula, labial palpi, and maxillæ--like the same in the queen bee--are -short, while their jaws (Fig. 21, _a_) possess the rudimentary tooth, -and are much the same in form as those of the queen, but are heavier, -though not so strong as those of the workers. Their eyes (Fig. 4) -are very prominent, meet above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown -forward. Their posterior legs are convex on the outside (Fig. 18), so, -like the queens, they have no pollen baskets. The drones are without -the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special sex-organs -(Fig. 10) are not unlike those of other insects, and have already been -sufficiently described. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. - -_Part of Leg of Drone, magnified._ - - _t_--Tibia. - _p_--Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. - _t s_--Joints of Tarsus, - _c_--Claws. -] - -It was discovered by Dzierzon, in 1845, that the drones hatch from -unimpregnated eggs. This strange phenomenon, seemingly so incredible, -is as has been shown in speaking of the queen, easily proved and beyond -question. These eggs may come from an unimpregnated queen, a fertile -worker--which will soon be further described--or from an impregnated -queen, which may voluntarily prevent impregnation. Such eggs may be -placed in the larger horizontal cells (Fig. 28, _a_), in manner already -described. As stated by Bevan, the drone feeds six and a half days as -a larva, before the cell is capped. The capping of the drone-cells is -very convex, and projects beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, -so that the drone brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from -the darker color--the wax being thicker and less pure--the capping of -both drone and worker brood-cells enable us easily to distinguish them -from honey-cells. In twenty-four days from the laying of the egg, the -drones come forth from the cells. Of course variation of temperature, -and other conditions, as variable amount of diet, may slightly retard -or advance the development of any brood, in the different stages. The -drones--in fact all bees--when they first emerge from the cells, are -gray, soft, and appear generally unsophisticated. - -Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to state. It -is probable, judging from analogy, that they live till accident, the -worker bees, or the performance of their natural function causes their -death. The worker-bees are liable to kill off the drones, which they -do by constantly biting and worrying them. They may also destroy the -drone-brood. It is not very rare to see workers carrying out immature -drones even in mid-summer. At the same time, too, they may destroy -inchoate queens. Such action is prompted by a sudden check in the -yield of honey, and with the drones is most common at the close of -the season. The bees seem very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs -of the times presage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to -the increase of colonies. On the other hand, unlimited honey, rapid -increase of brood, crowded quarters--whatever the age of the queen--is -sure to bring many of the male bees. While any circumstances that -indicate a future need of drones will prevent their destruction even in -late autumn. - -The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the queen, though -when present they may add animal heat. That their nutrition is active, -is suggested by the fact, that upon dissection, we always find their -capacious stomachs filled with honey. - -Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before stated, while -on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the heat of warm sunshiny -days. After mating, the drone organs adhere to the queen, and may be -seen hanging to her for some hours. The copulatory act is fatal to the -drones. By holding a drone in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs -is often produced, and always followed by immediate death. As the -queen only meets a single drone, and that only once, it might be asked -why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds of drones to an -apiary or colony, whereas a score would suffice as well. Nature takes -cognizance of the importance of the queen, and as she goes forth amidst -the myriad dangers of the outer world, it is safest and best that her -stay abroad be not protracted; that the experience be not repeated, -and especially, that her meeting a drone be _not delayed_. Hence the -superabundance of drones--especially under natural conditions, isolated -in forest homes, where ravenous birds are ever on the alert for insect -game--is most wise and provident. Nature is never "penny wise and pound -foolish." In our apiaries the need is wanting, and the condition, as it -exists in nature, is not enforced. - -The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production of the drones, -has led to the theory that from a pure queen, however mated, must ever -come a pure drone. My own experience and observation, which I believe -are those of all apiarists, has confirmed this theory. Yet, if the -impure mating of our cows, horses, and fowls, renders the females of -mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and taught by many who would -seem most competent to judge--though I must say I am somewhat skeptical -in the matter--then we must look closely as to our bees, for certainly, -if a mammal, and especially a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then -we may expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it -exists, must come simply from the presence in the female generative -organs of the germ-cells, or spermatozoa, and in mammals, too, there -is little more than this, for though they are viviparous, so that the -union and contact of the offspring and mother seems very intimate, -during fœtal development, yet there is no intermingling of the blood, -for a membrane ever separates that of the mother from that of the -fœtus, and only the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the -other. To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation, -is like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling the -breath of her progeny after birth. I can only say, that I believe this -whole matter is still involved in doubt, and still needs more careful, -scientific and prolonged observation. - -THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES. - -These, called "the bees," by Aristotle, and even by Wildman and Bevan, -are by far the most numerous individuals of the hive--there being from -15,000 to 40,000 in every good colony. It is possible for a colony to -be even much more populous than this. These are also the smallest bees -of the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an inch -in length (Fig. 19). - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. - -_Worker-Bee, magnified._] - -The workers--as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle. Jurine, of -Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, sought for and -found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive ovaries--are undeveloped -females. Rarely, and probably very rarely, except that a colony is long -or often queenless, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are -so far developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always -be drone eggs. Such workers--known as fertile--were first noticed by -Riem, while Huber actually saw one in the act of egg-laying. Except -in the power to produce eggs, they seem not unlike the other workers. -Huber supposed that these were reared in cells contiguous to royal -cells, and thus received royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by -Mr. Quinby, that these occur in colonies where queen-larvæ were never -reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch thought -that these bees, while larvæ, were fed, though too sparingly, with the -royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and hence the accelerated -development. Such may be the true explanation. Yet if, as some -apiarists aver, these appear where no brood has been fed, and so must -be common workers, changed after leaving the cell, as the result of a -felt need, then we must conclude that development and growth--as with -the high-holder--spring from desire. The generative organs are very -sensitive, and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, and we may yet -have much to learn as to the delicate forces which will move them to -growth and activity. Though these fertile workers are a poor substitute -for a queen, as they are incapable of producing any but drones, and are -surely the harbingers of death and extinction to the colony, yet they -seem to satisfy the workers, for they will not brook the presence of a -queen when a fertile worker is in the hive, nor will they suffer the -existence in the hive of a queen-cell, even though capped. They seem -to be satisfied, though they have very slight reason to be so. These -fertile workers lay indifferently in large or small cells--often place -several eggs in a single cell, and show their incapacity in various -ways. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. - -_Tongue of a Worker-Bee, much magnified._] - - _a_--Ligula. _c, c_--Maxillæ. - _b, b_--Labial palpi. _d_--Paraglossæ. - -[The average length of a black worker's tongue, as compared with this -from an Italian, would be from base to _a_.] - -The workers, as might be surmised by the importance and variety of -their functions, are structurally very peculiar Their tongues (Fig. 20, -_a_), labial palpi (Fig. 20, _b, b_), and maxillæ (Fig. 20, _c, c_), -are very much elongated, while the former is very hairy, and doubles -under the throat when not in use. The length of the ligula enables them -to reach into flowers with long tubes, and by aid of the hairs they lap -up the nectar. When the tongue is big with its adhering load of sweet, -it is doubled back, enclosed by the labial palpi and maxillæ, and then -extended, thus losing its load of nectar, which at the same time is -sucked into the large honey-stomach. The bees, at will, can force the -honey back from the honey-stomach, when it is stored in the honey-cells -or given to the other bees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21. - - _a_--Jaw of drone. - _b_--Jaw of queen. - _c_--Jaw of worker. -] - -The jaws (Fig. 21, _c_) are very strong, without the rudimentary tooth, -while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when the jaws are -closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these are well formed to cut -comb, knead wax, and perform their various functions. Their eyes (Fig. -5) are like those of the queen, while their wings, like those of the -drones, attain the end of the body. These organs (Fig. 3), as in all -insects with rapid flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or -less rapid vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes -their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high pitch of anger, -and the slow motion and mellow note of content and joy. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. - -_Part of Posterior Leg of Worker, outside, much magnified._ - - _t_--Tibia. - _b_--Rim of hairs. - _p_--Pollen basket. - _t s_--Joint of tarsi, - _c_--Claws. -] - -On the outside of the posterior tibia and basal tarsus is a cavity, -made more deep by its rim of hairs, known as the pollen basket (Fig. -22, _p_). In these pollen baskets is compacted the pollen, which is -gathered by the mouth organs, and carried back by the four anterior -legs. Opposite the pollen baskets are regular rows of golden hairs -(Fig. 23, _e_), which probably aid in storing and compacting the pollen -balls. - -On the anterior legs of the workers, between the femur and tibia, is a -curious notch (Fig. 24, _C_), covered by a spur (Fig. 24, _B_). For -several years this has caused speculation among my students, and has -attracted the attention of observing apiarists. Some have supposed that -it aided bees in reaching deeper down into tubular flowers, others that -it was used in scraping off pollen, and still others that it enabled -bees to hold on when clustering. The first two functions may belong to -this, though other honey and pollen-gathering bees do not possess it. -The latter function is performed by the claws at the end of the tarsi. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. - -_Part of Worker's Posterior Leg, inside, much magnified._ - - _e_--Rows of hairs. - _t_--Tibia. - _c_--Claws. -] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. - -_Anterior Leg of Worker, magnified._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 25. - -_Worker's Sting, magnified._ - - _a_--Tube. - _b b_--Barbed spears drawn out of tube and turned back, - _c_--Poison sack. - _d_--Muscles. -] - -The workers, too, possess an organ of defense (Fig. 25), which they -are quick to use if occasion requires. This is not curved as in the -queen, but straight. The gland which secretes the poison is double, -and the sack (Fig. 25, _c_), in which it is stored, is as large as -a flax-seed. The sting proper, is a triple organ, consisting of -three sharp spears, very smooth and of exquisite polish. The most -highly-wrought steel instruments, under a high magnifier, look rough -and unfinished, while the parts of the sting show no such inequalities. -One of these spears (Fig. 25, _a_) is canaliculate--that is, it forms -an imperfect tube--and in this canal work the other two (Fig. 25, _b, -b_), which fill the vacant space, and thus the three make a complete -tube, and through this tube, which connects with the poison sack, -passes the poison. The slender spears which work in the tube are -marvelously sharp, and project beyond it when used, and are worked -alternately by small but powerful muscles (Fig. 25, _d_), so they may -pass through buckskin, or even the thick scarf-skin of the hand. These -are also barbed at the end with teeth, seven of which are prominent, -which extend out and back like the barb of a fish-hook. Hence the -sting cannot be withdrawn, if it penetrates any firm substance, and -so when used, it is drawn from the bee, and carries with it a portion -of the alimentary canal, thus costing the poor bee its life. Darwin -suggests that bees and wasps were developed from the saw-flies, and -that the barbs on the sting are the old-time saws, transformed into the -spear-like barbs. He does not explain why these are so much shorter -and more obscure in the queen, and in other bees and wasps. The -honey-stomach or crop in the workers (Fig. 9, _o_) is well developed, -though no larger than those in the drones. Whether it is more complex -in structure, I do not know. - -The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can only come from a -queen that has met a drone, and is always laid in the small, horizontal -cell. These eggs are in no wise different, so far as we can see, from -those which are laid in the drone or queen-cells. All are cylindrical -and slightly curved (Fig. 26, _b, c_) and are fastened by one end to -the bottom of the cell, and a little to one side of the centre. As -already shown, these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen as she -extrudes them, preparatory to fastening them in the cells. These eggs, -though so small--one-sixteenth of an inch long--may be easily seen by -holding the comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With -experience, they are detected almost at once, but I have often found -it quite difficult to make the novice see them, though very plainly -visible to my experienced eye. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26. - -_Egg and Brood._ - - _b_ and _c_--Eggs. - _d, e, f_ and _g_--Various sizes of larvæ. - _h_--Pupa. - _i_--Pupa of queen, in queen-cell. - _k, k_--Caps. -] - -The egg hatches in three days. The larva (Fig. 26, _d, e, f, g_), -incorrectly called grub, maggot--and even caterpillar, by Hunter--is -white, footless, and lies coiled up in the cell till near maturity. It -is fed a whitish fluid, though this seems to be given grudgingly, as -it never seems to have more than it wishes to eat, so it is fed quite -frequently by the mature workers. It would seem that the workers fear -an excessive development, which, as we have seen, is most mischievous -and ruinous, and work to prevent the same, by a mean and meager diet. -The food is composed of pollen and honey. Certainly of pollen, for, -as I have repeatedly proved, without pollen, no brood will be reared. -Probably some honey is incorporated, as sugar is an essential in the -nutrition of all animals, and we could hardly account for the excessive -amount of honey consumed, while breeding, by the extra amount consumed -by the bees, consequent upon the added exercise required in caring -for the brood. M. Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say water is also an -element of this food. But bees often breed very rapidly when they do -not leave the hive at all, and so water, other than that contained in -the honey, etc., cannot be added. This makes it a question if water is -ever added. The time when bees seem to need water, and so repair to the -rill and the pond, is during the heat of summer, when they are most -busy. May this not be quaffed to slake their own thirst? - -In six days the cell is capped over by the worker-bees. This cap is -composed of pollen and wax, so it is darker, more porous, and more -easily broken than the caps of the honey-cells; it is also more convex -(Fig. 26, _k_). The larva, now full grown, having lapped up all the -food placed before it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so -excessively thin that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce -the size of the cells. These always remain in the cell, after the -bees, escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength. -Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen years, seem to -serve as well for brood as when first used. In three days the insect -assumes the pupa state (Fig. 26, _h_). In all insects the spinning of -the cocoon seems an exhaustive process, for so far as I have observed, -and that is quite at length, this act is succeeded by a variable period -of repose. The pupa is also called a nymph. By cutting open cells it is -easy to determine just the date of forming the cocoon, and of changing -to the pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature bee with all its -appendages bound close about it, though the color is still whitish: - -In twenty-one days the bee emerges from the cell. The old writers were -quite mistaken in thinking that the advent of these was an occasion -of joy and excitement among the bees. All apiarists have noticed how -utterly unmoved the bees are, as they push over and crowd by these -new-comers in the most heedless and discourteous manner imaginable. -Wildman tells of seeing the workers gathering pollen and honey the same -day that they came forth from the cells. This idea is quickly disproved -if we Italianize black-bees. We know that for some days these young -bees do not leave the hive at all, except in case of swarming, when -bees even too young to fly will essay to go with the crowd. These -young bees, like the young drones and queens, are much lighter for the -first few days. - -The worker-bees never attain a great age. Those reared in autumn may -live for eight or nine months, and if in queenless stocks, where little -labor is performed, even longer; while those reared in spring will wear -out in three, and when most busy, will often die in from thirty to -forty-five days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there -is a limit to the number which may exist in a colony. As a good queen -will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand eggs daily, and as -the workers live from one to three months, it might seem that forty -thousand was too small a figure for the number of workers. Without -doubt a greater number is possible. That it is rare is not surprising, -when we remember the numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever -attend the individuals of these populous communities. - -The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual labor of the -hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in small pellets (Fig. 27, -_a, a_) under the over-lapping rings under the abdomen. I have found -these wax-scales on both old and young. According to Fritz Müller, the -admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South America, the -bees of the genus melipona secrete the wax on the back. - -The young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larvæ and -cap the cells. The older bees--for, as readily seen in Italianizing, -the young bees do not go forth for the first one or two weeks--gather -the honey, collect the pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called, -bring in the propolis or bee glue, which is used to close openings, and -as a cement, supply the hive with water(?), defend the hive from all -improper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is past, -kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy inchoate -queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances demand it, and lead -forth a portion of the bees when the conditions impel them to swarm. - -When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as house-keepers -and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. The young bees, on the -other hand, will not go forth to glean, even though there be no old -bees to do this necessary part of bee-duties. An indirect function of -all the bees is to supply animal heat, as the very life of the bees -require that the temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate -considerably above freezing. In the chemical processes attendant upon -nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown by Newport, -may be considerably augmented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced -respiration. The bees, too, by a rapid vibration of their wings, have -the power to ventilate their hives, and thus reduce the temperature, -when the weather is hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and -temper the cold of winter. - -[Illustration: _Under Surface of Bee, showing Wax between Segments._] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SWARMING OR NATURAL METHOD OF INCREASE. - - -The natural method by which an increase of colonies among bees is -secured, is of great interest, and though it has been closely observed, -and assiduously studied for a long period, and has given rise to -theories as often absurd as sound, yet, even now, it is a fertile -field for investigation, and will repay any who may come with the true -spirit of inquiry, for there is much concerning it which is involved -in mystery. Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why is the swarming -spirit so excessive at times and so restrained at other seasons? These -and other questions we are too apt to refer to erratic tendencies of -the bees, when there is no question but that they follow naturally upon -certain conditions, perhaps intricate and obscure, which it is the -province of the investigator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold -the principles which govern these, as all other actions of the bees? - -In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become populous, and -storing very active, the queen, as if conscious that a home could -be overcrowded, and foreseeing such danger, commences to deposit -drone-eggs in drone-cells, which the worker-bees, perhaps moved by -like considerations, begin to construct, if they are not already in -existence. In fact, drone comb is almost sure of construction at such -times. No sooner is the drone brood well under way, than the large, -awkward, queen-cells are commenced, often to the number of ten or -fifteen, though there may be not more than three or four. In these, -eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, and soon, often before -the cells are even capped--and _very rarely_ before a cell is built, if -the bees are crowded, the hives unshaded, the ventilation insufficient, -or the honey-yield very bountiful--some bright day, usually about ten -o'clock, after an unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, -a large part of the worker-bees--being off duty for the day, and -having previously loaded their honey-sacks--rush forth from the hive -as if alarmed by the cry of fire, the queen among the number, though -she is by no means among the first, and frequently is quite late in -her exit. The bees, thus started on their quest for a new home, after -many uproarious gyrations about the old one, dart forth to alight upon -some bush, limb, or fence, though in one case I have known the first -swarm of bees to leave at once, for parts unknown, without even waiting -to cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one to three -hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and leave for their -new home, which they have probably already sought out. - -Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the hive, while -others claim that scouts are in search of one while the bees are -clustered. The fact that bees take a right-line to their new home, -and fly too rapidly to look as they go, would argue that a home is -preêmpted, at least, before the cluster is dissolved. The fact that -the cluster remains sometimes for hours--even over night--and at other -times for a brief period, would lead us to infer that the bees cluster, -in waiting for a new home to be found. Yet, why do bees sometimes -alight after flying a long distance, as did a first swarm the past -season, upon our College grounds? Was their journey long, so that they -must needs stop to rest, or were they flying at random, not knowing -whither they were going? - -If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees, and perhaps -rarely, when she is among them, they will, after having clustered, -return to their old home. The youngest bees will remain in the old -hive, to which those bees, if there are any such, which are abroad -in quest of stores will return. The presence of young bees on the -ground--those with flight too feeble to join the rovers--will always -mark the previous home of the emigrants. Soon, in seven or eight days, -perhaps rarely a little later, the first queen will come forth from her -cell, and in two or three days she will or may lead a new colony forth, -but before she does this, the peculiar note, known as the piping of the -queen, may be heard. This piping sounds like peep, peep, is shrill and -clear, and can be plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor -would it be mistaken. It is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made by -a queen still within the cell. - -Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen was that of -hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned was either of enmity or -fear. Never will an after-swarm leave, unless preceded by this peculiar -note. - -At successive periods of one or two days, one, two, or even three more -colonies may issue from the old home. These last swarms will all be -heralded by the piping of the queen. They will be less particular as -to the time of day when they issue, as they have been known to leave -before sun-rise, and even after sun-set. The well-known apiarist, Mr. -A. F. Moon, once knew a swarm to issue by moon-light. They will, too, -as a rule, cluster farther from the hive. The after swarms are preceded -by the queen, and in case swarming is delayed, may be attended by a -plurality of queens. Berlepsch and Langstroth both saw eight queens -issue with a swarm, while, others report even more. These virgin queens -fly very rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active and definite in -their course than will first swarms. - -The cutting short of swarming preparations before the second, third, or -even the first swarm issues, is by no means a rare occurrence. This is -effected by the bees' destroying the queen-cells, and sometimes by a -general extermination of the drones, and is generally to be explained -by a cessation of the honey yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily -recognized, as they are torn open from the side, and not cut back from -the end. - -Swarming out at other times, especially in late winter and spring, is -sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is due to famine, mice, or some -other disturbing circumstance, which makes the hive intolerable to the -bees. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND FUNCTION. - - -Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the useful -products which they give us; and next to the silk-moths in the -importance of these products. They seem the more remarkable and -important, in that so few insects yield articles of commercial value. -True, the cochineal insect, a species of bark-louse, gives us an -important coloring material; the lac insect, of the same family, gives -us the important element of our best glue--shellac; the blister-beetles -afford an article prized by the physician, while we are indebted to -one of the gall-flies for a valuable element of ink But the honey-bee -affords not only a delicious article of food, but also another article -of no mean commercial rank--namely, wax. We will proceed to examine the -various products which come from bees. - - -HONEY. - -Of course the first product of bees, not only to attract attention, but -also in importance, is honey. And what is honey? We can only say that -it is a sweet substance gathered from flowers and other sources, by the -bees. We cannot, therefore, give its chemical composition, which would -be as varied as the sources from which it comes. We cannot even call -it a sugar, for it may be, and always is composed of various sugars, -and thus it is easy to understand why honey varies so much in richness, -color, flavor, and effects on digestion. In fact, it is very doubtful -if honey is a manufactured article at all. It seems most likely -that the bees only collect it as it is distilled by myriad leaves -and flowers, and store it up, that it may minister to their and our -necessities. To be sure, some writers contend that it undergoes some -change while in the bee's stomach; but the rapidity with which they -store, and the seeming entire similarity between honey and sugar fed -to them, and the same immediately extracted from the comb, has led me -to believe that the transforming power of the stomach is very slight, -if, indeed, it exists at all. To be sure, I have fed sugar, giving bees -empty combs at night-fall, and found the flavor of honey early the -next morning. In this case, honey might have been already in the bees' -stomachs, or might have been carried from other portions of the hive. -The method of collecting the honey has already been described. The -principles of lapping and suction are both involved in the operation. - -When the stomach is full, the bee repairs to the hive, and regurgitates -its precious load, either giving it to the bees or storing it in the -cells. Mr. Doolittle claims that the bees that gather, give all their -honey to the other bees, which latter store it in the cells. This honey -remains for some time uncapped that it may ripen, by which process the -water is partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker. If the -honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, it will generally -granulate, if the temperature be reduced below 70°. This is probably -owing to the presence of the cane-sugar, and is a good indication, as -it denotes superior quality. Some honey, as that from the South, and -some from California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some kinds -of our own honey crystallize much more readily than others. But that -granulation is a test that honey is pure, is untrue; that it is a sign -of superior excellence, I think quite probable. - -When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no sweets, the -bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently essay to rob -other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider mills, or suck -up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark lice, thus adding, may -be, unwholesome food to their usually delicious and refined stores. -It is a curious fact that the queen never lays her maximum number of -eggs except when storing is going on. In fact, in the interims of -honey-gathering, egg-laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The -queen seems discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable -means of support. - -Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey, the storing is so -rapid that the hive becomes so filled that the queen is unable to -lay her full quota of eggs; in fact, I have seen the brood very much -reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly depleted the colony. -This might be called ruinous prosperity. The natural use of the honey -is to furnish the mature bees with food, and when mixed with pollen, to -form the diet of the young bees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27. - -_Under-side Abdomen, magnified._ - - _a, a, etc._--Wax pellets. - -_Wax-Scales in situ, magnified._ - - _w_--Wax-scale. -] - - -WAX. - -The product of the bees, second in importance, is wax. This is a solid, -unctious substance, and is, as shown by its chemical composition, a -fat-like material, though not as some authors assert, the fat of bees. -As already observed, this is a secretion formed in pellets, the shape -of an irregular pentagon (Fig. 27, _w_), underneath the abdomen. These -pellets are light-colored, very thin and fragile, and are secreted by -and molded upon the membrane towards the body from the wax-pockets. -Neighbour speaks of the wax oozing through pores from the stomach. This -is not the case, but, as with the synovial fluid about our own joints, -is formed by the secreting membrane, and does not pass through holes, -as water through a sieve. There are four of these wax-pockets on each -side, and thus there may be eight wax-scales on a bee at one time. This -wax can be secreted by the bees, when fed on pure sugar, as shown by -Huber, which experiment I have verified. I removed all honey and comb -from my observing-hive, left the bees for twenty-four hours to digest -all food which might be in their stomachs, then fed pure sugar, which -was better than honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that -not only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected right -from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The bees commenced -at once to build comb, and continued for several days, so long as I -kept them confined. This is, as we should suppose; sugar contains -hydrogen and oxygen in proportion to form water, while the third -element, carbon, is in the same or about the same proportion as the -oxygen. Now, the fats usually contain little oxygen, and a good deal -of carbon and hydrogen. Thus, the sugar by losing some of its oxygen -would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was found true in the -days of slavery in the South, that the negroes of Louisiana, during the -gathering of the cane, would become very fat. They ate much sugar; they -gained much fat. Now, wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the -animal fat of bees, as often asserted--in fact it contains much less -hydrogen, as will be seen by the following formula from Hess: - - Oxygen 7.50 - Carbon 79.30 - Hydrogen 13.20 - ---but it is a special secretion for a special purpose, and from its -composition, we should conclude that it might be secreted from a purely -saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the conclusion. It has been -found that bees require about twenty pounds of honey to secrete one of -wax. - -That nitrogenous food is necessary, as claimed by Langstroth and -Neighbour, is not true. Yet, in the active season, when muscular -exertion is great, nitrogenous food must be imperatively necessary to -supply the waste, and give tone to the body. Some may be desirable even -in the quiet of winter. Now, as secretion of wax demands a healthy -condition of the bee, it indirectly requires some nitrogenous food. - -It is asserted, that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in compact -clusters or festoons, in absolute repose. Such quiet would certainly -seem conducive to most active secretion. The same food could not go -to form wax, and at the same time supply the waste of tissue which -ever follows upon muscular activity. The cow, put to hard toil, could -not give so much milk. But I find, upon examination, that the bees, -even the most aged, while gathering in the honey season, yield up -the wax-scales, the same as those within the hive. During the active -storing of the past season, especially when comb-building was in -rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee taken from the flowers -contained the wax-scales of varying sizes in the wax-pockets. By the -activity of the bees, these are not infrequently loosed from their -position, and fall to the bottom of the hive. - -It is probable that wax secretion is not forced upon the bees, but -only takes place as required. So the bees, unless wax is demanded, may -perform other duties. Whether this secretion is a matter of the bee's -will, or whether it is excited by the surrounding conditions without -any thought, are questions yet to be settled. - -These wax-scales are loosened by the claws, and carried to the mouth -by the anterior legs, where they are mixed with saliva, and after the -proper kneading by the jaws, in which process it assumes a bright -yellow hue--but loses none of its translucency--it is formed into that -wonderful and exquisite structure, the comb. - -Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the wall of a new cell being only -about 1-180 of an inch in thickness, and so formed as to combine the -greatest strength with the least expense of material and room. It has -been a subject of admiration since the earliest time. That the form is -a matter of necessity, as some claim--the result of pressure--and not -of bee-skill, is not true. The hexagonal form is assumed at the very -start of the cells, when there can be no pressure. The wasp builds the -same form, though unaided. The assertion that the cells, even the drone -and worker-cells, are absolutely uniform and perfect, is also untrue, -as a little inspection will convince any one. The late Prof. Wyman -proved that an exact hexagonal cell does not exist. He showed that the -size varies; so that in a distance of ten worker-cells, there may be a -variation of one diameter. And this in natural, not distorted cells. -This variation of one-fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but a -variation of one-tenth of an inch is common. The sides, as also the -angles, are not constant. The rhombic faces forming the bases of the -cells also vary. - -The bees change from worker (Fig. 28, _c_) to drone-cells (Fig. 28, -_a_), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not by any system -(Fig. 28, _b_), but simply by enlarging or contracting. It usually -takes about four rows to complete the transformation, though the number -of deformed cells varies from two to eight. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28. - -_Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases, and Gross-sections of Cells illustrated._ - -_Honey-Comb._ - - _a_--Drone-cells, - _b_--Deformed cells. - _c_--Worker-cells. - _d d_--Queen-cells. -] - -The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of interest. -The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 28, _e_) whose three faces are -rhombs, and whose apex forms the very centre of the floor of the cell. -From the six free or non-adjacent edges of the three rhombs extend the -lateral walls or faces of the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is -a point where the contiguous faces of three cells on the opposite side -meet, and form the angles of the bases of three cells on the opposite -side of the comb. Thus, the base of each cell forms one-third of the -base of each of three opposite cells. One side thus braces the other, -and adds much to the strength of the comb. Each cell, then, is in form -of a hexagonal prism, terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid. - -The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry forward -several cells on each side of each comb, constantly adding to the -number, by additions to the edge. Huber first observed the process of -comb-building, noticing the bees abstract the wax-scales, carry them -to the mouth, add the frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the -yellow ribbons which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to -the comb already commenced. - -The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 28, _c_) averages little more -than one-fifth of an inch--Réaumur says two and three-fifths lines or -twelfths of an inch. While the drone-cells (Fig. 28, _a_) are a little -more than one-fourth of an inch, or, according to Réaumur, three and -one-third lines. But this distinguished author was quite wrong when he -said: "These are the invariable dimensions of all cells that ever were -or ever will be made." The depth of the worker-cells is a little less -than half an inch; the drone-cells are slightly extended so as to be -a little more than half an inch deep. These cells are often drawn out -so as to be an inch long, when used solely as honey receptacles. The -capping of the brood-cells is dark, porous, and convex, while that of -the honey is white and concave. - -The character of the cells, as to size, that is whether they are drone -or worker, seems to be determined by the relative abundance of bees -and honey. If the bees are abundant and honey needed, or if there is -no queen to lay eggs, drone-comb (Fig. 28, _a_) is invariably built, -while if there are few bees, and of course little honey needed, then -worker-comb (Fig. 28, _c_) is almost as invariably formed. - -All comb when first formed is clear and transparent. The fact that -it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been long used as -brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the innumerable thin cocoons -which line the cells. These may be separated by dissolving the wax; -which may be done by putting it in boiling alcohol. Such comb need -not be discarded, for if composed of worker-cells, it is still very -valuable for breeding purposes, and should not be destroyed till the -cells are too small for longer service, which, will not occur till -after many years of use. The function, then, of the wax, is to make -comb, and caps for the honey-cells, and, combined with pollen, to form -queen-cells (Fig. 28, _d_) and caps for the brood-cells. (See Appendix, -page 301). - - -POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD. - -An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees tied little -pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This fanciful conjecture -probably arose from seeing the pollen balls on the bees' legs. - -Even such scientists as Réaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam, and many apiarists -of the last century, thought they saw in these pollen-balls the source -of wax. But Huber, John Hunter, Duchet, Wildman, and others, noticed -the presence and function of the wax-pellets already described, and -were aware that the pollen served a different purpose. - -This substance, like honey, is not secreted, nor manufactured by the -bees, only collected. The bees usually obtain it from the stamens of -flowers. But if they gain access to flour when there is no bloom, they -will take this in lieu of pollen, in which case the former term used -above becomes a misnomer, though usually the bee-bread consists almost -wholly of pollen. - -As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen-baskets -(Fig. 22, _p_) of the posterior legs, to which it is conveyed by the -other legs, and compressed into little oval masses. The motions in this -conveyance are exceedingly rapid. The bees not infrequently come to the -hives, not only with replete pollen-baskets, but with their whole under -surface thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also show that the same bee -may have her sucking stomach distended with honey. Thus the bees make -the most of their opportunities. It is a curious fact, noticed even -by Aristotle, that the bees, during any trip, gather only a single -kind of pollen, or only gather from one species of bloom. Hence, while -different bees may have different colors of pollen, the pellets of -bee-bread on any single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is -possible that the material is more easily collected and compacted when -homogeneous. - -The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker cells, and is -unloaded by a scraping motion of the posterior legs, the pollen baskets -being first lowered into the cells. The bee thus freed, leaves the -wheat-like masses thus deposited to be packed by other bees. The cells, -which may or may not have the same color of pollen throughout, are -never filled quite to the top, and not infrequently the same cell may -contain both pollen and honey. Such a condition is easily ascertained -by holding the comb between the eye and the sun. If there is no -pollen it will be wholly translucent; otherwise there will be opaque -patches. A little experience will make this determination easy, even -if the comb is old. It is often stated that queenless colonies gather -no pollen, but this is not true, though very likely they gather less -than they otherwise would. It is probable that pollen, at least when -honey is added, contains all the essential elements of animal food. It -certainly contains the very important principle, which is not found in -honey--nitrogenous material. - -The function of bee-bread is to help furnish the brood with proper -food. In fact, brood-rearing would be impossible without it. And though -it is certainly not essential to the nourishment of the bees when in -repose, it still may be so, and unquestionably is, in time of active -labor. - - -PROPOLIS. - -This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the bees collect -pollen, and not made nor secreted. It is the product of various -resinous buds, and may be seen to glisten on the opening buds of the -hickory and horse-chestnut, where it frequently serves the entomologist -by capturing small insects. From such sources, from the oozing gum of -various trees, from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about -unused hives, that have previously seen service, do the bees secure -their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to collect -their glue from the varnish, led to the custom of rapping on the hives -to inform the bees, in case of a death in the family, that they might -join as mourners. This custom still prevails, as I understand, in some -parts of the South. This substance has great adhesive force, and -though soft and pliable when warm, becomes very hard and unyielding -when cold. - -The use of this substance is to cement the combs to their supports, -to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up all crevices -except the place of exit, which they often contract, and even to -cover any foreign substance that cannot be removed. Intruding snails -have thus been imprisoned inside the hive. Réaumur found a snail thus -encased; Maraldi, a slug similarly entombed; while I have myself -observed a bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of wings, hair, -etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also encased in this unique -style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by the bees. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY. - -For those who wish to pursue these interesting subjects more at length, -I would recommend the following authors as specially desirable: Kirby -and Spence, Introduction to Entomology; Duncan's Transformations of -Insects; Packard's Guide to the Study of Insects (American); F. Huber's -New Observations on the Natural History of Bees; Bevan on the Honey -Bee; Langstroth on the Honey Bee (American); Neighbour on The Apiary. - -I have often been asked to recommend such treatises, and I heartily -commend all of the above. The first and fourth are now out of print, -but can be had by leaving orders at second-hand book-stores. - - - - - PART SECOND. - - THE APIARY; - - Its Care and Management. - - _Motto:--"Keep all Colonies Strong!"_ - - - - - INTRODUCTION TO PART II. - - -STARTING AN APIARY. - -In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important to make a -good beginning. This demands preparation on the part of the apiarist, -procuring of bees, and location of his apiary. - - -PREPARATION. - -Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper should -inform himself in the art. - - -READ A GOOD MANUAL. - -To do this, he should procure some good manual, and thoroughly study, -especially the practical part of the business; and if accustomed to -read, think and study, should carefully read the whole work. Otherwise, -he will avoid confusion by only studying the methods of practice, -leaving the principles and science, to strengthen, and be strengthened -by, his experience. Unless a student, he had better not take a journal -till he begins the actual work, as so much unclassified information, -without any experience to correct, arrange, and select, will but -mystify. For the same reason, he may well be content with reading a -single work, till experience, and a thorough study of this one, makes -him more able to discriminate; and the same reasoning will preclude his -taking more than one bee-periodical, until he has had at least a year's -actual experience. - - -VISIT SOME APIARIST. - -In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in visiting -the nearest successful and intelligent apiarist. If successful, such an -one will have a reputation; if intelligent, he will take the journals, -and will show by his conversation that he knows of the methods and -views of his brother apiarists, and above all, he will not think he -knows it all, and that his is the only way to success. Learn all you -can of such, an one, but always let your own judgment and common sense -sit as umpire, that you make no plans or decisions that your judgment -does not fully sustain. - - -TAKE A COLLEGE COURSE. - -It will be _most wise_ to take a course in some College, if this is -practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly discussed. Here you will -not only get the best training as to your chosen business, as you will -study, see and handle, and thus will have the very best aids to decide -as to methods, system and apparatus, but will also receive that general -culture, which will greatly enhance life's pleasures and usefulness, -and which ever proves the best capital in any vocation. - - -DECIDE ON A PLAN. - -After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to decide -as to location, hives, style of honey to raise, and general system -of management. But here, as in all the arts, all our work should be -preceded by a well-digested plan of operations. As with the farmer and -gardener, only he who works to a plan can hope for the best success. -Of course, such plans will vary, as we grow in wisdom and experience. -A good maxim to govern all plans is, "go slow." A good rule, which -will insure the above, "Pay as you go." Make the apiary pay for all -improvements in advance. Demand that each year's credits exceed its -debits; and that you may surely accomplish this, keep an accurate -account of all your receipts and expenses. This will be a great aid in -arranging the plans for each successive year's operations. - -Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping changes. "Prove -all things, and hold fast that which is good." - - -HOW TO PROCURE OUR FIRST COLONIES. - -To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, it is always best -to get them near at hand. We thus avoid the shock of transportation, -can see the bees before we purchase, and in case there is any seeming -mistake, can easily gain a personal explanation, and secure a speedy -adjustment of any real wrong. - - -KIND OF BEES TO PURCHASE. - -At the same price always take Italians, as undoutedly they are best. If -black bees can be secured for three, or even for two dollars less per -colony, by all means take them, as they can be Italianized at a profit -for the difference in cost, and, in the operation, the young apiarist -will gain valuable experience. - -Our motto, too, will demand that we only purchase strong colonies. If, -as recommended, the purchaser sees the colonies before the bargain is -closed, it will be easy to know that the colonies are strong. If the -bees, as they come rushing out, remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or -bring to mind the gush and rush at the nozzle of the fireman's hose, -then buy. In the hives of such colonies, all combs will be covered with -bees, and in the honey season, brood will be abundant. - - -IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES. - -As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the style of -hive to be used. Now, if bees can be procured in such hives, they will -be worth just as much more than though in any other hive, as it costs -to make the hive and transfer the bees. This will be certainly as much -as three dollars. _No apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment, -two styles of hives in his apiary._ Therefore, unless you find bees -in such hives as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in box -hives and transfer (see Chapter VII.) to your own hives, as such bees -can always be bought at reduced rates. In case the person from whom -you purchase will take the hives back at a fair rate, after you have -transferred the bees to your own hives, then purchase in any style of -movable comb hive, as it is easier to transfer from a movable comb -hive, than from a box hive. - - -WHEN TO PURCHASE. - -It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April or May--of -course you only purchase strong stocks--if in the latitude of New York -or Chicago--it will be earlier further south--you can afford to pay -more, as you will secure the increase both of honey and bees. If you -desire to purchase in autumn, that you may gain by the experience of -wintering, either demand that the one of whom you purchase insure the -safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce the selling price, -at least one-third, from his rates the next April. Otherwise the novice -had better wait and purchase in spring. If you are to transfer at once, -it is almost imperative that you buy in spring, as it is vexatious, -especially for the novice, to transfer when the hives are crowded with -brood and honey. - - -HOW MUCH TO PAY. - -Of course the market, which will ever be governed by supply and demand, -must guide you. But to aid you, I will append what at present would be -a reasonable schedule of prices almost anywhere in the United States: -For box hives, crowded with black bees--Italians would rarely be found -in such hives--five dollars per colony is a fair price. For black bees -in hives such as you desire to use, eight dollars would be reasonable. -For pure Italians in such hives, ten dollars is not too much. - -If the person of whom you purchase, will take back the movable hives -after you transfer the bees, you can afford to pay five dollars for -black bees, and seven dollars for pure Italians. If you purchase in the -fall, require 33⅓ per cent, discount on these rates. - - -WHERE TO LOCATE. - -If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be fixed by your -principal business or profession. And here I may state, that if we may -judge from reports which come from nearly every section of the United -States, from Maine to Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly -go amiss anywhere in our goodly land. - -If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select first with -reference to society and climate, after which it will be well to secure -a succession of natural honey-plants (Chap. XVI.), by virtue of your -locality. It will also be well to look for reasonable prospects of a -good home market, as good home markets are, and must ever be, the most -desirable. It will be desirable, too, that your neighborhood is not -overstocked with bees. It is a well-established fact, that apiarists -with few colonies receive relatively larger profits than those with -large apiaries. While this may be owing in part to better care, much -doubtless depends on the fact that there is not an undue proportion of -bees to the number of honey-plants, and consequent secretion of nectar. -To have the undisputed monopoly of an area reaching at least four -miles in every direction from your apiary, is unquestionably a great -advantage. - -If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your dangers from -possible misfortune may be lessened, then a small farm--especially -a fruit farm--in some locality where fruit-raising is successfully -practiced, will be very desirable. You thus add others of the luxuries -of life to the products of your business, and at the same time may -create additional pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your -other business. In this case, your location becomes a more complex -matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention. Some of -Michigan's most successful apiarists are also noted as successful -pomologists. - -For position and arrangement of apiary see Chapter VI. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -HIVES AND BOXES - - -An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course demanded; -and here let me state with emphasis, _that none of the standard hives -are now covered by patents, so let no one buy rights_. Success by -the skillful apiarist with almost any hive is possible. Yet, without -question, some hives are far superior to others, and for certain uses, -and with certain persons, some hives are far preferable to others, -though all may be meritorious. As a change in hives, after one is once -engaged in apiculture, involves much time, labor and expense, this -becomes an important question, and one worthy earnest consideration by -the prospective apiarist. I shall give it a first place, and a thorough -consideration, in this discussion of practical apiculture. - - -BOX-HIVES. - -I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks, and studies--and -success in apiculture can be promised to no other--will ever be content -to use the old box-hives. In fact, thought and intelligence, which -imply an eagerness to investigate, are essential elements in the -apiarist's character. And to such an one a box-hive would be valued -just in proportion to the amount of kindling-wood it contained. A very -serious fault with one of our principal bee-books, which otherwise is -mainly excellent in subject matter and treatment, is the fact that it -presumes its readers to be box-hive men. As well make emperors, kings, -and chivalry the basis of good government, in an essay written for -American readers. I shall entirely ignore box-hives in the following -discussions, for I believe no sensible, intelligent apiarists, such -as read books, will tolerate them, and that, supposing they would, it -would be an expensive mistake, which I have no right to encourage, in -fact, am bound to discourage, not only for the benefit of individuals, -but also for the art itself. - -To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect the whole -interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able to exchange combs -from one hive to another, to regulate the movements of the 'bees: -by destroying queen-cells, by giving or withholding drone-comb, -by extracting the honey, by introducing queens, and by many other -manipulations to be explained, which are only practicable with a -movable-frame hive. - - -MOVABLE-COMB HIVES. - -There are, at present, two types of the movable-comb hive in use among -us, each of which is unquestionably valuable, as each has advocates -among our most intelligent, successful and extensive apiarists. Each, -too, has been superseded by the other, to the satisfaction of the -person making the change. The kind most used consists of a box, in -which hang the frames which hold the combs. The adjacent frames are so -far separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the proper -distance apart. In the other kind, the frames are wider than the comb, -and when in position are close together, and of themselves form two -sides of a box. When in use, these frames are surrounded by a second -box, without a bottom, which, with them, rests on a bottom board. Each -of these kinds is represented by various forms, sizes, etc., where the -details are varied to suit the apiarist's notion. Yet, I believe that -all hives in present use, worthy of recommendation, fall within one or -the other of the above named types. - - -THE LANGSTROTH HIVE. - -This (Fig. 29) is the hive most in use among Americans and Britons, -if not among all who practice improved apiculture. It is stated -that the late Major Munn was first to invent this style of hive. He -states (see Bevan, p. 37) that he first used it in 1834. But, as -suggested by Neighbour in his valuable hand-book, the invention was -of no avail to apiarists, as it was either unknown, or else ignored -by practical men. This invention also originated independently with -Rev. L. L. Langstroth, who brought it forth in 1851, so perfect, that -it needed scarce any improvement; and for this gift, as well as his -able researches in apiculture, as given in his invaluable book, "The -Honey-Bee," he has conferred a benefit upon our art which cannot be -over-estimated, and for which we, as apiarists, cannot be too grateful. -It was his book--one of my old teachers, for which I have no word of -chiding--that led me to some of the most delightful investigations of -my life. It was his invention--the Langstroth hive--that enabled me -to make those investigations. For one, I shall always revere the name -of Langstroth, as a great leader in scientific apiculture, both in -America and throughout the world. His name must ever stand beside that -of Dzierzon and the elder Huber. Surely this hive, which left the hands -of the great master in so perfect a form, that even the details remain -unchanged by many of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear his name. -Thus, though I prefer and use the size of frame first used, I believe, -by Mr. Gallup, still I use the Langstroth hive. (See Appendix, page -287). - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - - -CHARACTER OF THE HIVE. - -The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, which, would exclude -doors, drawers, and traps of all kinds. The body should be made of -good pine or white-wood lumber, one inch thick, thoroughly seasoned, -and planed on both sides. It should be simply a plain box (Fig. 30), -without top or bottom, and of a size and form to suit the apiarist. -The size will depend upon our purpose. If we desire no comb-honey, or -desire comb-honey in frames, the hive may contain 4,000 cubic inches. -If we desire honey in boxes, it should not contain over 2,000, and may -be even smaller. If the hive is to be a two-story one--that is, one -hive above a similar hive below (Fig. 29)--I prefer that it should -be eighteen inches long, twelve inches wide, and twelve inches deep, -inside measure. If simply small frames or boxes are to be used above, -I would have the hive at least two feet long. A three-fourths inch -rabbet should be cut from the top of the sides or ends as the apiarist -prefers, on the inside (Fig. 30, _c_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 30] - -The rabbet may equal a little more than one-half the thickness of -the board. Heavy tin strips (Fig. 33), three-fourths of an inch -wide, should be tacked to the side below the rabbet, so as to reach -one-fourth of an inch above the shoulder. These are to bear the frames, -and are convenient, as they prevent the frames from becoming glued to -the hive. We are thus able to loosen the frames without jarring the -bees. I would not have hives without such tin rabbets, though some -apiarists, among whom is Mr. James Heddon, of this State, whose rank -as a successful apiarist is very high, do not like them. The objection -to them is cost, and liability of the frames to move when the hive is -moved. But with their use we are not compelled to pry the frames loose, -and are not so likely to irritate the bees, while making an examination -of the contents of the hive, which arguments are conclusive with me. - -Any one who is not a skilled mechanic, especially if he has not a -buzz-saw, had better join the sides of his hives after the style of -making common dry-goods boxes (Fig. 30). In this case, the sides not -rabbeted should project by, else the corners will have to be stopped up -where they were rabbeted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31. - -_Bevel-Gauge._] - -The mechanic may prefer to bevel the ends of the boards, and unite -them by a miter-joint (Fig. 33). This looks a little better, otherwise -is not superior to the other method. It is difficult to form accurate -joints--_and as everything about the hive should be_ ACCURATE _and_ -UNIFORM--this style is not to be recommended to the general apiarist. -To miter with a hand-saw unless one is very skillful, requires a -perfect miter-box, and, even then, much care is required to secure -perfect joints. With a buzz-saw this is easier. We have only to make a -carrier as follows: Take two boards (Fig. 31. _a, b_), each one foot -in length, and dove-tail them together, as though with two others -you meant to make a square box. Be sure that they form a perfect -right-angle. Then bevel the ends opposite the angle, and unite these -with a third board (Fig. 31, c), firmly nailed to the others. We -thus have a triangular pyramid. Through one of the shorter faces make -longitudinal slits (Fig. 31, _d_), so that this can be bolted firmly -to the saw-table. In use, the longer face will reach the saw, and from -thence will slant up and back. Along the back edge of this a narrow -board (Fig. 31, _e_) should be nailed, which will project an inch above -it. This will keep the board to be beveled in line with the carrier, -and will retain the right angles. Of course the boards for the hive -must be perfect rectangles, and of just the right length and width, -before the bevels are cut. - -Such a carrier (Fig. 31) I ordered for my Barnes' saw, from a -cabinet-maker. It was made of hard wood, all three joints dove-tailed, -and nicely finished, at a cost of $1.50. - -In sawing the ends and sides of the hive, whether by hand or with a -buzz-saw, use should be made of a guide, so that _perfect uniformity_ -will be secured. - - -THE BOTTOM BOARD. - -For a bottom board or stand (Fig. 32), we should have a single one-inch -board (Fig. 32, _b_) just as wide as the hive, and four inches longer, -if the bees are to enter at the end of the hive, and as long, and four -inches wider, if the bees are to enter at the side. This is nailed -to two pieces of two by four, or two by two scantling (Fig. 32, _a, -a_). Thus the hive rests two or four inches from the ground. These -scantlings should extend at one end eight inches beyond the board, and -these projections be beveled from the edge of the board, to the lower -outer corner of the scantling. Upon these beveled edges nail a board -(Fig. 32, _d_), which shall reach from the edge of the bottom board to -the ground. We thus have the alighting-board, whose upper edge should -be beveled, so as to fit closely to the bottom board. If the hives are -to be carried into a cellar to winter, this alighting-board (Fig. 31, -_d_) had better be separate, otherwise it is more convenient to have it -attached. It may be made separate at first, or may be easily separated -by sawing off the beveled portion of the scantlings. - -Should the apiarist desire his bees to enter at the side of the hive, -the scantling (Fig. 32, _a, a_) should run the other way, and the -alighting-board (Fig. 32, _d_) should be longer, and changed to the -side. I have tried both, and see no difference, so the matter may be -controlled by the taste of the apiarist. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -For an opening to the hive (Fig. 32, _c_), I would bevel the middle of -the edge of the bottom board, next to the inclined board. At the edge, -this bevel should be three-quarters of an inch deep and four inches -wide. It may decrease in both width and depth as it runs back, till -at a distance of four inches, it is one-half an inch wide and five -thirty-seconds of an inch deep. This may terminate the opening, though -the shoulder at the end may be beveled off, if desired. - -With this bottom board the bees are near the ground, and with the -slanting board in front, even the most tired and heavily-laden will -not fail to gain the hive, as they come in with their load of stores. -In spring, too, many bees are saved, as they come in on windy days, -by low hives and an alighting-board. _No hive should be more than -four inches from the ground_, and no hive should be without the -slanting alighting-board. With this opening, too, the entrance can be -contracted in case of robbing, or entirely closed when desired, by -simply moving the hive back. - -Some apiarists cut an opening in the side of the hive, and regulate -the size by tin slides or triangular blocks (Fig. 29); others form an -opening by sliding the hive forward beyond the bottom board--which I -would do with the above in hot weather when storing was very rapid--but -for simplicity, cheapness and convenience, I have yet to see an opening -superior to the above. I think, too, I am a competent judge, as I have -at least a half-dozen styles in present use. - -I strongly urge, too, that only this one opening be used. Auger holes -about the hive, and entrances on two sides, are worse than useless. By -enlarging this opening, we secure ample ventilation, even in sultry -August, and when we contract the entrance, no bees are lost by finding -the usual door closed. - -Some of our best bee-keepers, as Messrs. Heddon, Baldridge, etc., -prefer that the bottom board be nailed to the hive (Fig. 39). I have -such hives; have had for years, but strongly object to them. They -will not permit a quick clearing of the bottom board, when we give -a cleansing flight in winter, or when we commence operations in -spring, which, especially if there is a quart or more of dead bees, -is very desirable. Nor with their use can we contract the opening -in cold weather, or to stop robbing, without the blocks (Fig. 29), -tins or other traps. _Simplicity should be the motto in hive-making._ -The arguments in favor of such fastening are: Convenience in moving -colonies, and in feeding, as we have not to fasten the bottoms when we -desire to ship our bees, and to feed we have only to pour our liquids -into the hives. - -Of course, such points are not essential--only matters of convenience. -Let each one decide for himself, which experience will enable him to do. - - -THE COVER OF THE HIVE. - -The cover (Fig. 33, _a_) should be about six inches high, and like the -lid of a trunk. The length and breadth may be the same as the body of -the hive, and fit on with beveled edges (Fig. 33), the body having -the outer edge beveled, and the cover the inner. If we thus join the -cover and hive with a mitered-joint, we must not be satisfied with -anything less than perfection, else in case of storms, the rain will -beat into our hives, which should never be permitted. Such covers can -be fastened to the hives with hinges, or by hooks and staples. But -unless the apiarist is skilled in the use of tools, or hires a mechanic -to make his hives, it will be more satisfactory to make the cover just -large enough (Fig. 29) to shut over and rest on shoulders formed either -by nailing inch strips around the body of the hive, one inch from the -top, or else inside the cover (Fig. 29). If it is preferred to have a -two-story hive, with the upper story (Fig. 33, _b_) just like the lower -(Fig. 33, _c_), this (Fig. 53) may join the lower by a miter-joint, -while a cover (Fig. 33, _a_) two inches high, may join this with a -similar joint. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -If the upper story shuts over the lower and rests on a shoulder (Fig. -29) it may still be made to take the same sized frame, by nailing -pieces one-half an inch square to the corners, whose length shall equal -the distance from the rabbet in the lower story to the bottom board. -Now nail to these upright pieces, parallel to the rabbeted faces below, -a three-eighths inch board as wide as the pieces are long. The top of -these thin boards will take the place of the rabbet in the lower story. -This style, which is adopted in the two-story hives as made by Mr. -Langstroth (Fig. 29), will permit in the upper story the same frames -as used in the lower story, while two more can be inserted. Upon this -upper story a shallow cover will rest. Such covers, if desired, may -be made roof-like (Fig. 34), by cutting end pieces, (Fig 34, b) in -form of the gable of a house. In this case there will be two slanting -boards (Fig. 34, _a, a_), instead of one that is horizontal, to carry -off the rain. The slanting boards should project at the ends (Fig. 34, -_d_), for convenience in handling. In such covers we need thin, narrow -ridge-boards (Fig. 34, _c_), to keep all perfectly dry. These covers -look neat, are not so apt to check, and will dry much quicker after a -rain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.] - -If we secure comb-honey in crates, and winter out-doors--in which case -we shall need to protect in the Northern States--it will be convenient -to have a box of the same general form as the main body of the hive, -from six to eight inches deep, just large enough to set over the body -of the hive and rest on shoulder-strips, and without top or bottom; -this to have such a cover as just described. Such is the arrangement -of Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, which, on the score of simplicity -and convenience, has much to recommend it. - -In the above I have said nothing about porticos (Fig. 29). If hives are -shaded as they should be, these are useless, and I believe that in no -case will they pay. To be sure, they are nice for spider-webs, and a -shady place in which bees may cluster; but such are inconvenient places -to study the wondrous fabrics of the spider, even were he a friend of -the bees, and the most successful apiarist will not force his bees to -hang in idle clusters about the hive. - - -THE FRAMES. - -The form and size of frames, though not quite as various as the persons -who use them, are still very different. Some prefer large frames. I -first used one ten by eighteen inches, and afterward a shallow frame -about seven by eighteen (Fig. 29). The advantage claimed for large -frames is that there are less to handle, and time is saved; yet may -not smaller frames be handled so much more dexterously, especially if -they are to be handled through all the long day, as to compensate, -in part at least, for the number? The advantage of the shallow frame -is, as claimed, that the bees will go into boxes more readily; yet -they are not considered so safe for out-door wintering. This is the -style recommended and used by Mr. Langstroth, which fact may account -for its popularity in the United States. Another frame in common use, -is one about one foot square. I use one eleven inches square. The -reasons that I prefer this form are, that the comb seldom breaks from -the frame, the frames are convenient for nuclei, and save the expense -of constructing extra nucleus hives, and that these frames permit the -most compact arrangement for winter and spring, and thus enable us to -economize heat. By use of a division board, we can, by using eight -of these frames, occupy just a cubic foot of space in spring, and by -repeated experiments I have found that a hive so constructed that the -bees always cover the combs during the early cold weather, always gives -the best results. As the honey season comes on more can be added, till -we have reached twelve, as many, I think, as will ever be needed for -brood. This was the size of frame preferred by Mr. Gallup, and is the -one used by Messrs. Davis and Doolittle, and many others of our most -successful apiarists. That this size is imperative is, of course, not -true; that it combines as many desirable points as any other, I think, -is true. For apiarists who are not very strong, especially for ladies, -it is beyond question superior to all others. - - -HOW TO CONSTRUCT THE FRAMES. - -In this description, I shall suppose that the frames desired are of the -form and size (Fig. 35) which I use. It will be easy, for any who may -desire, to change the form at pleasure. For the top-bar (Fig. 35, _a_) -of the frame, use a triangular strip twelve and three-quarter inches -long, with each face of the triangle one inch across. Seven-eighths -of an inch from each end of this, form a shoulder, by sawing from one -angle to within one-fourth of an inch of the opposite face, so that -when the piece is split out from the end, these projections shall be -just one-fourth of an inch thick throughout. For the side pieces (Fig. -35, _b, b_), take strips eleven inches long, seven-eighths of an inch -wide, and one-fourth of an inch thick. Tack with small brads the end of -two of these strips firmly to the shoulder of the top-bar, taking pains -that the end touches squarely against the projection. Now tack to the -opposite ends or bottoms, the ends of a similar strip (Fig. 35, _d_) -eleven and a half inches long. We shall thus have a square frame. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.] - -If comb-foundation is to be used, and certainly it will be by the -enterprising apiarist, then the top-bar (Fig. 36, _a_) should be -twelve and three-quarters inches by one-quarter by one inch, with a -rectangular, instead of a triangular, projection below (Fig. 36, _b_), -which should be one-fourth by one-eighth inch, the longest direction -up and down. This should be entirely to one side of the centre, so -that when the foundation (Fig. 36, _c_) is pressed against this piece -it will hang exactly from the centre of the top-bar. If preferred, the -bottom of the frame (Fig. 36, _e_) need not be more than half as wide -or thick as described above. - -The timber should be thoroughly seasoned, and of the best pine or -white-wood. Care should be taken that the frame be made so as to hang -vertically, when suspended on the rabbets of the hive. To secure this -very important point--true frames that will always hang true--they -should always be made around a guide. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. - -_Frame, also Cross-Section of Top-Bar._] - - -A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMES. - -This may be made as follows: Take a rectangular board (Fig. 37) eleven -and a quarter by thirteen and a half inches. On both ends of one face -of this, nail hard-wood pieces (Fig. 37, _e, e_) one inch square and -eleven inches long, so that one end (Fig. 37, _g, g_) shall lack -one-fourth inch of reaching the edge of the board. On the other face of -the board, nail a strip (Fig. 37, _c_) four inches wide and eleven and -a quarter inches long, at right-angles to it, and in such position that -the ends shall just reach to the edges of the board. Midway between the -one inch square pieces, screw on another hard-wood strip (Fig. 37, _d_) -one inch square and four inches long, parallel with and three-fourths -of an inch from the edge. To the bottom of this, screw a semi-oval -piece of hoop-steel (Fig. 37, _b, b_), which shall bend around and -press against the square strips. The ends of this should not reach -quite to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring, fasten, -by rivets, an inch strap (Fig. 37, _a_), which shall be straight when -thus riveted. These dimensions are for frames eleven inches square, -inside measure, and must be varied for other sizes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.] - -To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames between the -steel springs (Fig. 37, _b, b_) and the square strips (Fig. 37, _e, -e_); then lay on our top-bar and nail, after which we invert the block -and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the top-bar. Now press down on the -strap (Fig. 37, _a_), which will loosen the frame, when it may be -removed, all complete and true. Such a gauge not only insures perfect -frames, but demands that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy. -And some such arrangement should always be used in making the frames. - -The projecting ends of the top-bar will rest on the tins (Fig. 33), -and thus the frame can be easily loosened at any time without jarring -the bees, as the frames will not be glued fast, as they would in case -they rested on the wooden rabbets. The danger of killing bees is also -abolished by use of the tins. - -When the frames are in the hive there should be at least a -three-sixteenths inch space between the sides and bottom of the -frames, and the sides and bottom of the hive. Even doubling this would -do no harm; though a much wider space would very likely receive comb, -and be troublesome. Frames that fit close in the hive, or that reach to -the bottom, are very inconvenient and undesirable. To secure against -this, our lumber must be thoroughly seasoned, else when shrinkage takes -place our frames may touch the bottom-board. - -The distance between the frames may be one-fourth of an inch, though -a slight variation either way does no harm. Some men, of very precise -habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the side of the frames, at top -and bottom, which project just a quarter of an inch, so as to maintain -this unvarying distance; or staples in the bottom of the hive to secure -the same end. Mr. Langstroth so arranged his frames, and Mr. Palmer, -of Hart, Michigan, whose neatness is only surpassed by his success, -does the same thing. I have had hives with these extra attachments, but -found them no special advantage. I think we can regulate the distance -with the eye, so as to meet every practical demand, and thus save the -expense and trouble which the above attachments cost. - - -COVER FOR FRAMES. - -Nothing that I have ever tried is equal to a quilt for this purpose. -It is a good absorbent of moisture, preserves the heat in spring and -winter, and can be used in summer without jarring or crushing the bees. -This should be a real quilt, made of firm unbleached factory, duck, -or cambric--I have used the first with entire satisfaction for four -years--enclosing a thick layer of batting, and hemmed about the edges. -My wife quilts and hems them on a machine. The quilting is in squares, -and all is made in less than fifteen minutes. The quilt should be a -little larger than the top of the hive, so that after all possible -shrinkage, it will still cover closely. Thus, when this is put on, no -bees can ever get above it. When we use the feeder, it may be covered -by the quilt, and a flap cut in the latter, just above the hole in the -feeder, enables us to feed without disturbing the bees, though I place -the feeder at the end of the chamber, wherein are the bees, and have -only to double the quilt back when I feed. The only objection that I -know to the quilt is, that the bees will fasten propolis, and even -comb, between it and the frames, and this looks bad. A little care -'will make this a small objection. Mr. Langstroth used a board above -the frames, which Mr. Heddon uses even now. Perhaps Mr. Heddon never -used the quilts. Perhaps his love of order and neatness caused him to -discard them. Still, I feel to thank Mr. A. I. Root for calling my -attention to quilts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.] - - -DIVISION BOARD. - -A close-fitting division board (Fig. 38) for contracting the chamber, -is very important, and though unappreciated by many excellent -apiarists, still no hive is complete without it. I find it especially -valuable in winter and spring, and useful at all seasons. This is -made the same form as the frames, though all below the top-bar--which -consists of a strip thirteen inches long by one inch by three-eighths, -and is nailed firmly to the board below--is a solid inch board (Fig. -38, _b_), which is exactly one foot square, so that it fits closely to -the inside of the hive. If desired, the edges (Fig. 38, _e, e_) can be -beveled, as seen in the figure. When this is inserted in the hive it -entirely separates the chamber into two chambers, so that an insect -much smaller than a bee could not pass from the one to the other. Mr. -A. I. Root makes one of cloth, chaff, etc. Yet, I think few apiarists -would bother with so much machinery. Mr. W. L. Porter, Secretary of the -Michigan Association, makes the board a little loose, and then inserts -a rubber strip in a groove sawed in the edges. This keeps the board -snug, and makes its insertion easy, even though heat may shrink or damp -may swell either the board or hive. I have not tried this, but like the -suggestion. - -The use of the division board is to contract the chamber in winter, _to -vary it so as to keep combs covered in spring_, to convert the hive -into a nucleus hive, and to contract the chamber in the upper-story of -a two-story hive, when first adding frames to secure surplus comb-honey. - - -THE HUBER HIVE. - -The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged several of his -leaf or unicomb hives together, so that the frames would open like the -leaves of a book; though it has been stated that the Grecians had, in -early times, something similar. - -In 1866, Mr. T. F. Bingham, then of New York, improved upon the Huber -hive, securing a patent on his triangular frame hive. This, so far as I -can judge, was the Huber hive made practical. - -In 1868, Mr. M. S. Snow, then of New York, now of Minnesota, procured -a patent on his hive, which was essentially the same as the hives now -known as the Quinby and Bingham hives. - -Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive, which is -essentially the same as the above, only differing in details. No patent -was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great heart and boundless generosity -endeared him to all acquaintances. Those who knew him best, never -tire of praising the unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we -except Mr. Langstroth, no man has probably done so much to promote -the interest and growth of improved apiculture in the United States. -His hive, his book, his views of wintering, his introduction of the -bellows-smoker--a gift to apiarists--all speak his praise as a man and -an apiarist. - -The fact that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great favorite with -those who have used it, and is pronounced by so capable a judge as Mr. -Heddon, to be the best movable-comb hive in existence, that Mr. Quinby -preferred this style or type of hive, that the Quinby form is used -by the Hetherington brothers. Captain J. E., the prince of American -apiarists, and O. J., whose neatness, precision, and mechanical skill -are enough to awaken envy; that the Russell hive is but a modification -of the same type, are surely enough to awaken curiosity and bespeak a -description. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39. - -_Frame, Bottom-Board and Frame-Support of Quinby Hive._] - -The Quinby hive (Fig. 39), as used by the Hetherington brothers, -consists of a series of rectangular frames (Fig. 39) twelve by -seventeen inches, outside measure. The ends of these frames are one -and a half inches wide and half an inch thick. The top and bottom one -inch wide and half an inch thick. The outer half of the ends projects -one-fourth of an inch beyond the top and bottom. This projection is -lined with sheet iron, which is inserted in a groove which runs one -inch into each end of the end-pieces and are tacked by the same nails -that fasten the end-bars to the top and bottom-bars. This iron at the -end of the bar bends in at right-angles (Fig. 39, _a, a_), and extends -one-fourth of an inch parallel with the top and bottom-bars. Thus, when -these frames stand side by side, the ends are close, while half-inch -openings extend between the top and bottom-bars of adjacent frames. -The bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from the bottom-board. -Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with the position of the back -end-bars of the frames is an inch strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 39, _b, -b_) sixteen inches in length. One-third of this strip, from the front -edge back, is bent over so it lies not quite in contact with the second -third, while the posterior third receives the tacks which hold it to -the bottom-board. Now, when in use this iron flange receives the hooks -on the corners of the frames, so that the frames are held firmly, and -can only be moved back and sidewise. In looking at the bees we can -separate the combs at once, at any place. The chamber can be enlarged -or diminished simply by adding or withdrawing frames. As the hooks are -on all four corners of the frames, the frames can be either end back, -or either side up. Boards with the iron hooks close the sides of the -brood cavity, while a quilt covers the frames. - -The entrance (Fig. 39, _e_) is cut in the bottom-board as already -explained, except that the lateral edges are kept parallel. A strip of -sheet-iron (Fig. 39, _d_) is tacked across this, on which rest the ends -of the front end-bars of the frames which stand above, and underneath -which pass the bees as they come to and go from the hive. A box, -without bottom and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from -four to six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames. -This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side and top -storing in sections or boxes in summer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40. - -_Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive._] - -The Bingham hive (Fig. 40) is not only remarkably simple, but is as -remarkable for its shallow depth; the frames being only five inches -high. These have no bottom-bar. The end-bars are one and a half inches -wide, and the top-bar square. The nails that hold the end-bars pass -into the end of the top-bar, which is usually placed diagonally, so -that an edge, not a face, is below; though some are made with a face -below (Fig. 40, _f_), to be used when comb is transferred. The frames -are held together by two wires, one at each end. Each wire (Fig. 40, -_a_) is a little longer than twice the width of the hive when the -maximum number of frames are used. The ends of each wire are united -and placed about nails (Fig. 40, _b, b_) in the ends of the boards -(Fig. 40, _c, c_) which form the sides of the brood-chamber. A small -stick (Fig. 40, _a_) spreads these wires, and brings the frames close -together. A box without bottom and with movable cover, is placed about -the frames. This is large enough and high enough to permit of chaff -packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be made like the -one already described. Mr. Bingham does not bevel the bottom-board, -but places lath under three sides of the brood-chamber, the lath being -nailed to the bottom-board--and then uses the blocks to contract the -entrance (Fig. 40, _g_). - -The advantages of this hive are, simplicity, great space above for -surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed one hive above -another to any height desired, while the frames may be reversed, end -for end, or bottom for top, or the whole brood-chamber turned up-side -down. Thus, by doubling, we may have a depth of ten inches for winter. - -The objection which I have found in the similar Russell hive, is danger -of killing bees in rapid handling. In the Russell hive the side-bars -are halved together, and held in place by ingeniously contrived wire -hooks. There are no bottom-bars. I have used none of these except -the Russell. They can be manipulated with rapidity, if we care not -how many bees we crush. It hurts me to kill a bee, and so I find the -Langstroth style more quickly manipulated. Mr. Snow, too, who was the -first to make the above style of hive, has discarded it in favor of the -Langstroth. His objection to the above, is the fact that the various -combs are not sure to be so built as to be interchangeable. Yet that -such apiarists as those above named prefer these Huber hives, after -long use of the other style, is certainly not without significance. - - * * * * * - -APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB-HONEY. - -Although I feel sure that extracted-honey will grow more and more into -favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful comb, which, from its -exquisite flavor and attractive appearance, has always been, and always -will be, admired and desired. So, no hive is complete without its -arrangement of boxes, section-frames, and crates, all constructed with -the view of securing this delectable comb-honey in the form that will -be most irresistible. - - -BOXES. - -These are for surplus comb-honey in the most salable form. They may be -of any size that best suits the taste of the apiarist, and the pulse of -the market. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.] - -It is well that the sides of these be of glass. Such (Fig. 41) may be -made as follows: For top and bottom procure soft-wood boards one-fourth -of an inch thick and of the size desired, one for the bottom and the -other for the top of the box. Take four pieces half an inch square -and as long as the desired height of the honey-box. In two adjacent -sides of these saw grooves in which may slip common glass. These -are for corner pieces. Now tack with small brads the corners of the -bottom-board to the ends of these pieces, then slide in the glass, -and in similar way tack the top-board to the other ends. Through the -bottom-board holes may be bored so that the bees may enter. A similar -box is made by A. H. Russell, of Adrian, Mich., except that tin forms -the corners. These may be made to take from one to three combs, and are -certainly very attractive. If made small and set in a crate so that all -could be removed at once, they would leave little to be desired. The -Isham box (Fig. 42) is essentially like the Russell; only the tin at -the corners is fastened differently. Surely, all great minds do run in -the same channel. Another form (Fig. 43) which I find very desirable, -and which I used in California (where they were introduced by Mr. -Harbison) more than ten years ago, is made as follows: Dress off common -lath so that they are smooth, cut off two lengths the desired height of -the box, and one the desired width; tack this last piece to the ends of -the other two, and to the other end tack a similar strip only half as -wide. We now have a square frame. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - -Place such frames side by side till a box is made of the desired -length. To hold these together, we have now only to tack on either -side one or two pieces of tin, putting a tack into each section, thus -forming a compact box without ends. The end frames should have a whole -piece of lath for the bottom, and grooves should be cut in the bottom -and top laths, so that a glass may be put in the ends. Of course there -is ample chance for the bees to enter from below. Now, by placing -small pieces of comb, or artificial comb foundation, which ranks as a -discovery with the movable-frame hive and honey-extractor, on the top -of each frame (Fig. 43), the bees will be led to construct a separate -comb in each frame, and each frame may be sold by the retail dealer -separately, by simply drawing the tacks from the tins. Barker and -Dicer, of Marshall, Michigan, make a very neat sectional honey-box, -which is quite like the above, except that paper pasted over the frames -takes the place of the tins. These, too, have wood separators as used -and sold by the gentlemen named. The honey-boxes may be placed directly -on the frames, or in case the queen makes trouble by entering them to -deposit eggs--a trouble which I have seldom met, perhaps because I -give her enough to do below--we can plaice strips one-fourth of an inch -square between the frames and boxes. In case we work extensively for -box honey, we should have a rack or crate so made that we can remove -all the boxes at once; in which case to examine the bees we would not -have to remove all the boxes separately. - - -SMALL FRAMES OR SECTIONS. - -Honey in boxes, unless they consist of sections as just described, -cannot compete with honey in small frames, in our present markets, and -without doubt they will fall more and more into disfavor. In fact, -there is no apparatus for securing comb-honey that promises so well as -these sections. That they are just the thing to enable us to tickle the -market is shown by their rapid growth in popular favor. Three years -ago I predicted, at one of our State Conventions, that they would soon -replace boxes, and was laughed at. Nearly all who then laughed, now -use these sections. They are cheap, and with their use we can get more -honey, and in a form that will make it irresistible. - - -REQUISITES OF GOOD SECTIONS - -The wood should be _white_, the size small, from four to six inches -square, the sections capable of being glassed, at least on the faces, -not too much cut off from brood-chamber, cheap, easily made, and so -arranged as to be put on or taken off the hive _en masse_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.] - - -DESCRIPTION. - -The style of section which I think will soon replace all others, is -easily made, as follows: For a section four inches square take a strip -of _clean, white_ veneer--cut from basswood, poplar or white-wood--such -as is used to make berry-boxes, two inches wide and twenty inches long; -for larger sections make it proportionally longer. Make a shallow cut -every four inches at right-angles to the sides--though they will do -this, if asked to, at the factory. Now with a chisel (Fig. 44) four -inches long, with one-eighth inch projections at right-angles to -the main blade, cut out sections on the opposite edges of the main -strip--which will leave openings one-eighth inch by four inches, -between the first and second shallow cut and the third and fourth. We -now bend this around a square block (Fig. 45) which will just fill -it, letting the ends over-lap, and drive through these over-lapping -sections one or two small wrought brads on to an iron, (Fig. 45, _b_) -set into the block, by which they will be clinched. Or, by using glue, -we may dispense with the block. Now, if your market requires glassed -sections, or if you wish to insert dividers, either tin or wood, glue -posts one-fourth of an inch square, four in each section along the -uncut sides one-eighth inch from the edges. The ends of these will just -come flush with the gouged edges above and below. Now, by use of tins -such as are used to fasten window-glass, these can be glassed, or if -desired, each one can receive a tin or wooden separator. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.] - -If this gluing in of the pieces is thought too troublesome, we may -still achieve the same end by using tin separators in our crates, and -then glass our sections by cutting a square glass, just the size of the -section, outside measure, and with heavy white paper paste two of these -glass to the sections. This makes each section perfectly close, and -is the method devised by Southard and Ranney for practice the coming -season. A paste made of dextrine, tragacanth, or even flour, will -answer to fasten the strips of paper, which need not be more than one -inch wide. A little carbolic acid, or salicylic acid in solution, will -keep the paste from souring. - -Every apiarist can make these sections for himself, and thus save -freight and profits of making. They are neat, very cheap--costing but -two mills each--and are made strong by use of the glued posts. They -are also light. Very soon our customers will object to buying wood -and glass, if our unglassed sections of comb-honey are kept in close -glassed crates. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.] - -The Hetherington brothers make a very neat section, as follows: The top -and bottom are each two inches wide, of one-quarter inch white pine. -These receive a groove one-eighth inch from the ends, which receives -the sides, one inch wide and one-eighth inch thick, which is pressed -through to a central position and glued. This section is five and a -half inches square. They use wooden dividers (Fig. 46, _a_) one-eighth -of an inch thick, as long as the section, but one inch less in height, -so that below and above is a half-inch space, which permits the bees to -pass readily from one section to another. These are held by a half-inch -strip of tin (Fig. 46, _b, b_), which passes through a groove (Fig. 46, -_c_) in the ends of the dividers, and reaches half an inch farther; -then turns at right-angles and ends in a point (Fig. 46, _b_), which, -when in use, sticks into the top or bottom pieces; and so the four -points hold the dividers in place. When ready to sell, they insert -half-inch glass in the grooves each side the narrow side-pieces, and -with tins fasten glass on the faces, and have a very handsome section. -I think this preferable to the Russell or Isham box or section, as the -one-inch strip of wood covers the part of the comb where it is fastened -to the sides, which is never attractive, while the rest is all glassed. -Such sections were praised in New York and Cincinnati last season as -very fine and neat; equal, if not superior, to all others. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.] - -A. I. Root prefers sections made as are children's toy-blocks, the -sides fastened by a sort of mortise and tennon arrangement (Fig. 47). I -have received from Mr. James Heddon a similar section, but neater and -more finished, which is made in Vermont. These are too complex to be -made without machinery, are no better for their fancy corners--in fact, -they are not as strong as is desirable--and, as we cannot afford to -purchase our apparatus when we can as well make it ourselves, I cannot -recommend them for general use. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.] - -The Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger sections (Fig. 48) are essentially the -same. The top and bottom are a little more narrow than the sides, and -are nailed to them. The Wheeler sections-invented and patented by Mr. -Geo. T. Wheeler, Mexico, New York, in 1870--are remarkable for being -the first (Fig. 52, _K_) to be used with tin separators (Fig. 52, _M_). -Instead of making the bottoms one-quarter of an inch narrower for a -passage, Mr. Wheeler made an opening in the bottom, as does Mr. Russell. - - -HOW TO PLACE SECTIONS IN POSITION. - -There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and has, as it well -may, earnest advocates--one by use of crates, the other by frames. - - -SECTIONS IN FRAMES. - -I prefer this method, perhaps because I have used it most. These frames -(Fig. 49) are made the same size as the frames in the brood-chamber, -except that they are made of strips two inches wide, and one-fourth of -an inch thick, though the bottom-bar is a quarter of an inch narrower, -so that when two frames are side by side, there is one-fourth of an -inch space between the bottom bars, though the top and side pieces are -close together. The sections are of such a size (Fig. 50, _K_) that -four, or six, or nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames. -Nailed to one side of each large frame are two tin strips (Fig. 50, -_t, t′_) as long as the frame, and as wide into one inch as are the -sections. These are tacked half an inch from the top and the bottom of -the large frames, and so are opposite the sections, thus permitting the -bees to pass readily from one tier of sections to another, as do the -narrower top and bottom-bars of the sections, from those below to those -above. I learned of such an arrangement of sections from A. I. Root. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.] - -Captain Hetherington tells me that Mr. Quinby used them years ago. The -tin arrangement, though unlike Mr. Wheeler's (Fig. 52, _M_), would -be readily suggested by it. It is more trouble to make these frames -if we have the tins set in so as just to come flush with the edge -of the end-bars of the frames, but then the frames would hang close -together, and would not be so stuck together with propolis. These may -be hung in the second story of a two-story hive, and just so many as -to fill the same--my hives will take nine--or they can be put below, -beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in case he hangs these below, -inserts a perforated division-board, so that the queen will not enter -the sections and lay eggs. I used them very successfully last summer -without division-boards, and neither brood nor pollen were placed in -a single cell. Perhaps wider tins would prevent this should it occur. -In long hives--the "New Idea"--which I find very satisfactory, after -several years' trial, especially for extracted honey--I have used these -frames of sections, and with the best success. The Italians entered -them at once, and filled them even more quickly than other bees filled -the sections in the upper story. In fact, one great advantage of these -sections in the frames is the Obvious and ample passage-ways, inviting -the bees to enter them. But in our desire to make ample and inviting -openings, caution is required that we do not over-do the matter, and -invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we have Charybdis and -Scylla, and must, by study, learn to so steer between, as to avoid both -dangers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.] - - -SECTIONS IN RACKS. - -These are to use in lieu of large frames, to hold sections, and are -very convenient when we wish to set the sections only one deep above -the brood-chamber. Though, if desired, we can place one rack above -another, and so have sections two, and even three deep. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.] - -Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, use a very neat rack (Fig. 51), in -which they use the thin veneer sections which we recommend as superior -to all others for the general apiarist. They have used these with -excellent success, but without separators, which they wish to insert. -Perhaps by taking out the board partitions (Fig. 51, _B, B_), and -putting tin separators the other way across, they would accomplish -their object. In this case, the ends of the adjacent sections would not -be separated, and the width of the rack would just accommodate two, -three, or four sections, to be governed by size of hive and sections. -The sheet-iron rests (Fig. 51, _H, H, H_) which, with their bent edges, -just raise the rack one-fourth of an inch from the brood frames, would -then run the other way, and give the requisite strength. Thus, the -tins would not be liable to bend, as they would if run the shorter way -of the rack. The end-board, too (Fig. 51. _A_), would be a side-board, -and the strips (Fig. 51, _G, G_), with the intervening glass, would be -at the ends. - -The Wheeler rack (Fig. 52) simply holds the sections, while each -section is glassed separately. - -Captain Hetherington sets a rack of sections above the frames, and -stands sections one above the other on the side for side storing. -Mr. Doolittle makes a rack by placing frames, such as I have -described--except they are only half as high, and hold but two -sections--side by side, where they are held by tacking a stick on top -across each end of the row. He also places two tiers, two deep, at each -end of the brood-chamber, if he desires to give so much room. - -All apiarists who desire to work for comb honey which will sell, will -certainly use the sections, and either adjust them by use of frames or -crates. - - -FOOT-POWER SAW. - -Every apiarist who keeps upwards of fifty colonies of bees, and makes -apiculture a specialty, will find a foot power saw a very valuable -apparatus. - -I have now used the admirable combined foot-power saw of W. F. & John -Barnes for a year, and find that it grows in value each month. It -permits rapid work, insures uniformity, and enables the apiarist to -give a finish to his work that would rival that of the cabinet-maker. - -Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and set the saws, -and should never run the machine when not in perfect order. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY. - - -As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to give the -best results, and as this costs some money and more labor, it should -be done once for all. As plan and execution in this direction must -needs precede even the purchase of bees, this subject deserves an early -consideration. Hence, we will proceed to consider position, arrangement -of grounds, and preparation for each individual colony. - - -POSITION. - -Of course, it is of first importance that the apiary be near at hand. -In city or village this is imperative. In the country or at suburban -homes, we have more choice, but close proximity to the house is of -much importance. In a city, it may be necessary to follow friend -Muth's example, and locate on the house-tops, where, despite the -inconvenience, we may achieve success. The lay of the ground is not -important, though if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope -in any direction, but better any way than toward the north. - - -ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS. - -Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove offers inviting -shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp. Such a grove could soon -be formed of basswood and tulip trees, which, as we shall see, are -very desirable, as their bloom offers plenteous and most delicious -honey. Even Virgil urges shade of palm and olive, also that we screen -the bees from winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on -the windward side. Such a screen may be formed of a tall board fence, -which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to protect against -thieves. Yet these are gloomy and forbidding, and will be eschewed by -the apiarist who has an eye to æsthetics. Ever-green screens, either -of Norway spruce, Austrian or other pine, or arbor vitæ, each or all, -are not only very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and -add greatly to the beauty of the grounds. If the apiary is large, a -small, neat, inexpensive house, in the centre of the apiary grounds, is -indispensable. This will serve in winter as a shop for making hives, -frames, etc., and as a store-house for honey, while in summer it will -be used for extracting, transferring, storing, bottling, etc. In -building this, it will be well to construct a frost-proof, _thoroughly -drained_, dark, and well-ventilated cellar. To secure the thorough -ventilation, pass a tube, which may be made of tile, from near the -bottom, through the earth to the surface; and another, from near the -bottom, to the chimney or stove-pipe above. - - -PREPARATION FOR EACH COLONY. - -Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony. Bees are forced -to cluster outside the hive, where the hives are subjected to the full -force of the sun's rays. By the intense heat, the temperature inside -becomes like that of an oven, and the wonder is that they do not desert -entirely. I have known hives, thus unprotected, to be covered by bees, -idling outside, when by simply shading the hives, all would go merrily -to work. The combs, too, and foundation especially, are liable, in -unshaded hives, to melt and fall down, which is very damaging to the -bees, and very vexatious to the apiarist. The remedy for all this is to -always have the hives so situated that they will be entirely shaded all -through the heat of the day. This might be done by constructing a shed -or house, but these are expensive and inconvenient, and, therefore, to -be discarded. Perhaps the Coe house-apiary (Chap. XVIII) may prove an -exception; but, as yet, we have no reliable assurance of the fact. - -If the apiarist has a convenient grove, this may be trimmed high, so -as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement. So arrange the -hives that while they are shaded through all the heat of the day, they -will receive the sun's rays early and late, and thus the bees will -work more hours. I always face my hives to the east. If no grove is at -command, the hives maybe placed on the north of a Concord grape-vine, -or other vigorous variety, as the apiarist may prefer. This should be -trained to a trellis, which may be made by setting two posts, either -of cedar or oak. Let these extend four or five feet above the ground, -and be three or four feet apart. Connect them at intervals of eighteen -inches with three galvanized wires, the last one being at the top of -the posts. Thus we can have shade and grapes, and can see for ourselves -that bees do not injure grapes. If preferred, we may use ever-greens -for this purpose, which can be kept low, and trimmed square and close -on the north. These can be got at once, and are superior in that they -furnish ample shade at all seasons. Norway spruce is the best. These -should be at least six feet apart. A. I. Root's idea of having the -vines of each succeeding row divide the spaces of the previous row, -in quincunx order, is very good; though I should prefer the rows in -this case to be four, instead of three feet apart, especially with -ever-greens. Until protecting shade can be thus permanently secured, -boards should be arranged for temporary protection. Many apiarists -economize by using fruit trees for this purpose, which, from their -spreading tops, answer very well. - -Mr. A. I. Root's idea of having sawdust under and about the hives is, -I think, a good one. The hives of the Michigan Agricultural College -(Fig. 53) are protected by ever-greens, trimmed close on the north -side. A space four feet by six, north of the shrubs, was then dug out -to a depth of four inches, and filled with sawdust (Fig. 53, _f_), -underlying which were old bricks, so that nothing would grow up through -the sawdust. The sawdust thus extends one foot back, or west of the -hive, three feet north, and the same distance to the east or front side -of the hive. This makes it neat about the hive, and largely removes -the danger of losing the queen in handling the bees; as should she -fall outside the hive, the sharp-sighted apiarist would be very likely -indeed to see her. - -Mr. J. H. Nellis, the able Secretary of the North-Eastern Bee-Keepers' -Association, objects to sawdust, as he thinks it rots too quickly, and -blows about badly. He would use sand or gravel instead. I have tried -both gravel and sawdust, and prefer the latter, as explained above. -By having the sawdust a little below the general surface, and adding -a little once in four or five years, it keeps all nice and agreeable. -After the ever-greens are well started, all the space between the -sawdust areas should be in grass, and kept neatly mown. This takes but -a little time, and makes the apiary always pleasant and inviting. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -TO TRANSFER BEES. - - -As you may have purchased your bees in box hives, and so, of course, -will desire to transfer them immediately into movable-frame hives, or, -as already suggested, you may wish to transfer from one movable-frame -to another, I will now proceed to describe the process. - -The best time to transfer is early in the season, when there is but -little honey in the hives, though it may be done at any time, if -sufficient caution is used: still it should never be done except on -warm days, when the bees are actively engaged in storing. After the -bees are busy at work, approach the old hive, blow a little smoke into -the entrance to quiet the bees, then carry the hive off a few feet, -and turn it bottom up. Place a box over the hive--it will make no -difference whether it fits it close or not, if the bees are so smoked -as to be thoroughly alarmed--and with a stick rap on the lower hive for -about twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey and go with the -queen into the upper hive and cluster. If towards the last we carefully -set the box off once or twice, and vigorously shake the hive, and then -replace the box, we will hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it -more complete. I got this suggestion from Mr. Baldridge. A few young -bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do no harm. Now -put the box on the old stand, leaving the edge raised so that the bees -which were out may enter, and so all the bees can get air. If other -bees do not trouble, as they usually will not if busily gathering, we -can proceed in the open air. If they do we must go into some room. -I have frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen, and often in -a barn. Now knock the old hive apart, cut the combs from the sides, -and get the combs out of the old hive with just as little breakage as -possible. Mr. Baldridge, if transferring in spring, saws the combs -and cross-sticks loose from the sides, turns the hive into the natural -position, then strikes against the top of the hive with a hammer till -the fastenings are broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the combs -are all free and in convenient shape for rapid work. - -We now need a barrel, set on end, on which we place a board fifteen to -twenty inches square, covered with several thicknesses of cloth. Some -apiarists think the cloth useless, but it serves, I think, to prevent -injury to comb, brood or honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and -a frame on the comb, and cut out the comb the size of the inside of the -frame, taking pains to save all the brood. Now crowd the frame over -the comb, so that the latter will be in the same position that it was -when in the old hive; that is, so the honey will be above--the position -is not very important--then fasten the comb in the frame, by winding -about all one or two small wires or pieces of wrapping twine. To raise -the frame and comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till the -frame is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and proceed with -the others in the same way till we have all the worker-comb--that with -small cells--fastened in. To secure the pieces, which we shall find -abundant at the end, take thin pieces of wood, one-half inch wide and a -trifle longer than the frame is deep, place these in pairs either side -the comb, extending up and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure -till the bees shall fasten them, and secure the strips by winding with -small wire, just above and below the frame, or else tack them to the -frame with small tacks. - -Captain Hetherington has invented and practices a very neat method of -fastening comb into frames. In constructing his frames, he bores small -holes through the top, side, and bottom-bars of his frames, about two -inches apart; these holes are just large enough to permit the passage -of the long spines of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has -but to stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it securely. -He can also use all the pieces, and still make a neat and secure frame -of comb. He finds this arrangement convenient, too, in strengthening -insecure combs. In answer to my inquiry, this gentleman said it paid -well to bore such holes in all his frames, which are eleven by sixteen -inches, inside measure. I discarded such frames because of the -liability of the comb to fall out. - -Mr. Baldridge makes wads of comb, or comb-cappings, which he finds -good, and by pressing these against the edges of the comb he wishes to -fasten, he fastens them to the frames, quickly and securely. - -Having fastened all the worker-comb that we can into the frames--of -course all the other, and all bright drone-comb, will be preserved for -use as guide-comb--and placed the frames in the new hive--these should -be put together if they contain brood, especially if the colony is not -very strong, and the empty frames to one side--we then place our hive -on the stand, pushing it forward so that the bees can enter anywhere -along the alighting-board, and then shake all the bees from the box, -and any young bees that may have clustered on any part of the old hive, -or on the floor or ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately -in front. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all the busier -for having passed "from the old house into the new." In two or three -days, remove the wires or strings and sticks, when we shall find the -combs all fastened and smoothed off, and the bees as busily engaged as -though their present home had always been the seat of their labors. -In case we practice the methods of either Captain Hetherington or Mr. -Baldridge, there will be nothing to remove, and we need only go and -congratulate the bees in view of their new and improved home. - -Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the matter is -much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly smoking the bees, we -have but to lift the frames, and shake or brush the bees into the new -hive. For a brush, a chicken or turkey wing, or a large wing or tail -feather from a turkey, goose or peacock, serves admirably. Now, cut out -the comb in the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten -as already suggested. After the combs are all transferred, shake all -remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has already been placed -on the stand previously occupied by the old hive. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -FEEDING AND FEEDERS. - - -As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are storing that -the queen deposits to the full extent of her capability, and that -brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when storing ceases, general -indolence characterizes the hive. Hence, if we would achieve the -best success, we must keep the workers active, even before gathering -commences, as also in the interims of honey secretion by the flowers; -and to do this we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloom in -the spring, and whenever the neuters are forced to idleness during any -part of the season, by the absence of honey-producing flowers. For a -number of years, I have tried experiments in this direction by feeding -a portion of my colonies early in the season, and in the intervals -of honey-gathering, and always with marked results in favor of the -practice. - -Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will receive ample reward -by practicing stimulative feeding early in the season; then his hive -at the dawn of the white clover era will be redundant with bees, well -filled with brood, and in just the trim to receive a bountiful harvest -of this most delicious nectar. - -Feeding, too, is often necessary to secure sufficient stores for -winter--for no apiarist, worthy the name, will suffer his faithful, -willing subjects to starve, when so little care and expense will -prevent it. - - -HOW MUCH TO FEED. - -If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be great. A -half pound a day, or even less, will be all that is necessary to -encourage the bees to active preparation for the good time coming. For -information in regard to supplying stores for winter see Chapter XVII. - - -WHAT TO FEED. - -For this purpose I would feed coffee A sugar, reduced to the -consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over from the -previous year. The price of the latter will decide which is the -most profitable. Honey, too, that has been drained or forced out of -cappings, etc., is good, and only good to feed. Many advise feeding the -poorer grades of sugar in spring. My own experience makes me question -the policy of ever using such feed for bees. The policy, too, of -feeding glucose I much question. In all feeding, unless extracted honey -is what we are using, we cannot exercise too great care that such feed -is not carried to the surplus boxes. Only let our customers once taste -sugar in their comb-honey, and not only is our own reputation gone, but -the whole fraternity is injured. In case we wish to have our combs in -the sections filled or capped, we must feed extracted honey, which may -often be done with great advantage. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54. - -_Division-Board Feeder._ - -Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, etc.] - - -HOW TO FEED. - -The requisites of a good feeder are: Cheapness, a form to admit quick -feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so arranged that we can feed -without in any way disturbing the bees. The feeder (Fig. 54) which I -have used with the best satisfaction, is a modified division-board, -the top-bar of which (Fig. 54, _b_) is two inches wide. From the upper -central portion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece, the size of -an oyster-can, is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig 54, _g_), after the -top of the latter has been removed. A vertical piece of wood (Fig. 54, -_d_) is fitted into the can so as to separate a space about one inch -square, on one side from the balance of the chamber. This piece does -not reach quite to the bottom of the can, there being a one-eighth -inch space beneath. In the top-bar there is an opening (Fig. 54, _e_) -just above the smaller space below. In the larger space is a wooden -float (Fig. 54, _f_) full of holes. On one side, opposite the larger -chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (Fig. 54, _c_) is cut -off, so that the bees can pass between the can and top-bar on to the -float, where they can sip the feed. The feed is turned into the hole -in the top-bar (Fig. 54, _e_), and without touching a bee, passes down -under the vertical strip (Fig. 54, _d_) and raises the float (Fig. 54, -_f_). The can may be tacked to the board at the ends near the top. -Two or three tacks through the can into the vertical piece (Fig. 54, -_d_) will hold the latter firmly in place; or the top-bar may press on -the vertical piece so that it cannot move. Crowding a narrow piece of -woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing a similar strip -around the beveled edge of the division-board makes all snug. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55. - -_Shuck's Boss Bee-Feeder._ - -_Simplicity Bee-Feeder._] - -One of our students suggests the name "Perfection" for this feeder. -The feeder is placed at the end of the brood-chamber (page 137), and -the top-bar covered by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold the -quilt over, when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the hole in the -top-bar. If a honey-board is used, there must be a hole in this just -above the hole in the division-board feeder. In either case, no bees -can escape, the heat is confined, and our division-board feeder is but -little more expensive than a division-board alone. - -Some apiarists prefer a quart tin can with finely perforated cover. -This is filled with liquid, the cover put on, and the whole quickly -inverted and set above a hole in the quilt. Owing to the pressure of -the air, the liquid will not descend so rapidly that the bees cannot -sip it up. - -Many other styles of feeders are in use, as the "Simplicity" and -"Boss," but I have yet to see one that in all respects equals the one -figured and described above. - -The best time to feed is just at night-fall. In this case the feed will -be carried away before the next day, and the danger to weak colonies -from robbing is not so great. - -In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be close above -the bees to economize the heat. In all feeding, care is requisite that -we may not spill the feed about the apiary, as this may, and very -generally will, induce robbing. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -QUEEN REARING. - - -Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and that the full -number of bees is forty thousand, or even more--though the bees are -liable to so many accidents, and as the queen does not always lay to -her full capacity, it is quite probable that this is about an average -number--it will be seen that each day that a colony is without a queen -there is a loss equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of -the colony, and this is a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of -any day is its special loss, augmented by the several losses of the -previous days. Now, as queens are liable to die, to become impotent, -and as the act of increasing colonies demands the absence of queens, -unless the apiarist has extra ones at his command, it is imperative, -would we secure the best results, to ever have at hand extra queens. So -the young apiarist must early learn - - -HOW TO REAR QUEENS. - -As queens may be needed by the last of May, preparations looking -to the early rearing of queens must commence early. When preparing -the colonies for winter the previous autumn, be sure to place some -drone-comb somewhere near the centre of the colony that has given the -best results the previous season. In March, and certainly by the first -of April, see that all colonies have plenty of bee-bread. If necessary, -place unbolted flour, that of rye or oats is best, in shallow troughs -near the hives. It may be well to give the whole apiary the benefit of -such feeding before the flowers yield pollen. Yet, I have found that -here in Central Michigan, bees can usually gather pollen by the first -week of April, which I think is as early as they should be allowed to -fly, and, in fact, as early as they will fly with sufficient regularity -to make it pay to feed the meal. I much question, after some years of -experiment, if it ever pays to give the bees a substitute for pollen. - -The colony under consideration, should be given frames containing -bee-bread which was stored the previous year. At the same time, March -or April, commence stimulative feeding. If you have another colony -equally good with the first, also give that the pollen, and commence -giving it honey or syrup, but only worker-comb should be in the -brood-chamber. This will prevent the close in-breeding which would -of necessity occur if both queens and drones were reared in the same -colony; and which, though regarded as deleterious in the breeding of -all animals, should be practiced in case one single queen is of decided -superiority to all others of the apiary. - -Very likely in April, drone-eggs will be laid in drone-comb. I have had -drones flying on the first of May. As soon as the drones commence to -hatch out, remove the queen and all eggs and uncapped brood from some -good, strong colony, and replace it with eggs or brood just hatched -from the colony that is being fed, or if two equally good colonies have -been stimulated, from the one in which no drone-comb was placed. The -queen which has been removed may be used in making a new colony, in -manner soon to be described under "dividing or increasing the number -of colonies." This queenless colony will immediately commence forming -queen-cells (Fig. 56). Sometimes these are formed to the number of -fifteen or twenty, and they are started, too, in a full, vigorous -colony, in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off -edges of the comb, or cutting holes in the same where there are eggs -or larvæ; just hatched, will almost always insure the starting of -queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed, too, that our queens -are started from eggs or from larvæ but just hatched, as we have given -the bees no other, and so are fed the royal pabulum from the first. -Thus, we have met every possible requisite to secure the most superior -queens. By removal of the queen we also secure a large number of cells, -while if we waited for the bees to start the cells preparatory to -natural swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable conditions -named above, we shall probably fail to secure so many cells, and may -have to wait longer than we can afford. - -Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no others, or -who has only pure Italians, will still find that it pays to practice -this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier, or the breeder of -our larger domestic animals, so, too, the apiarist is ever observing -some individuals of marked superiority, and he who carefully selects -such queens to breed from, will be the one whose profits will make him -rejoice, and whose apiary will be worthy of all commendation. As will -be patent to all, by the above process we exercise a care in breeding -which is not surpassed by the best breeders of horses and cattle, and -which no wise apiarist will ever neglect. - -After we have removed all the queen-cells, in manner soon to be -described, we can again supply eggs, or newly-hatched larvæ--always -from those queens which close observation has shown to be the most -vigorous and prolific in the apiary--and thus keep the same queenless -colony or colonies, engaged in starting queen-cells till we have all we -desire. Yet we must not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition -of capped brood, which we may take from any hive as most convenient. -I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should not be started -after the first of September, as I have observed that late queens are -not only less prolific, but shorter lived. In nature, late queens are -rarely produced, and if it is true that they are inferior, it might -be explained in the fact, that the ovaries remain so long inactive. -As queens that are long unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, mated -queens long inactive are enfeebled. - -In a week the cells are capped, and the apiarist is ready to form his - - -NUCLEI. - -A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees--a hive and colony on -a small scale, for the purpose of rearing and keeping queens. We want -the queens, but can afford to each nucleus only a few bees. The nucleus -hive, if we use frames not more than one foot square, need be nothing -more than an ordinary hive, with chamber confined by a division-board -to the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large, then it may -be thought best to construct special nucleus hives. These are small -hives, need not be more than six inches each way, that is, in length, -breadth, and thickness, and made to contain from four to six frames -of corresponding size. These frames are filled with comb. I have for -the last two or three years used the first named style of nucleus hive, -and have found it advantageous to have a few long hives made, each to -contain five chambers, while each chamber is entirely separate from -the one next to it, is five inches wide, and is covered by a separate, -close-fitting board, and the whole by a common cover. The entrance for -the two end chambers is at the ends near the same side of the hive. -The middle chamber has its entrance at the middle of the side near -which are the end entrances, while the other two chambers open on -the opposite side, as far apart as is possible. The outside might be -painted different colors to correspond with the divisions, if thought -necessary, especially on the side with two openings. Yet I have never -taken this precaution, nor have I been troubled much by losing queens. -They have almost invariably entered their own apartments when returning -from their wedding tour. These hives I use to keep queens during the -summer. Except the apiarist engages in queen-rearing extensively as -a business, I doubt the propriety of building such special nucleus -hives. The usual hives are good property to have in the apiary, will -soon be needed, and may be economically used for all nuclei. In spring -I make use of my hives which are prepared for prospective summer use, -for my nuclei. Now go to different hives of the apiary, and take out -three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has brood, and -so on, till there are as many nuclei prepared as you have queen-cells -to dispose of The bees should be left adhering to the frames of comb, -only _we must be certain that the queen is not among them_, as this -would take the queen from where she is most needed, and would lead to -the sure destruction of one queen-cell. To be sure of this, never take -such frames till _you have seen the queen_, that you may be sure she is -left behind. I usually shake off into the nucleus the bees from one or -two more frames, so that, even after the old bees have returned, there -will still be a sufficient number of young bees left in the nucleus to -keep the temperature at a proper height. If any desire the nuclei with -smaller frames, these frames must of course be filled with comb, and -then we can shake bees immediately into the nuclei, as given above, -till they shall have sufficient to preserve a proper temperature. In -this case the queen-cell should be inserted just before the bees are -added; in the other case, either before or after. Such special articles -about the apiary are costly and inconvenient. I believe that I should -use hives even with the largest frames for nuclei. In this case we -should need to give more bees. To insert the queen-cell--for we are -now to give one to each nucleus, so we can never form more nuclei than -we have capped queen-cells--we first cut them out, commencing to cut -on either side the base of the cell, at least one-half inch distant, -_we must not in the least compress the cell_, then cutting up and out -for two inches, then across opposite the cell. This leaves the cell -attached to a wedge-shaped piece of comb (Fig. 56), whose apes is next -the cell. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.] - -A similar cut in the middle frame of the nucleus, which in case of the -regular frames is the one containing brood, will furnish an opening -to receive the wedge containing the cell. The comb should also be cut -away beneath (Fig. 56), so that the cell cannot be compressed. After -all the nuclei have received their cells and bees, they have only -to be set in a shady place and watched to see that sufficient bees -remain. Should too many leave, give them more by removing the cover -and shaking a frame loaded with bees over the nucleus; keep the opening -nearly closed, and cover the bees with a quilt. The main caution in -all this _is to be sure not to get any old queen in a nucleus_. In -two or three days the queens will hatch, and in a week longer will -have become fertilized, and that, too, in case of the first queens, -by selected drones, for as yet there are no other in the apiary, and -the apiarist will possess from ten to thirty-five queens, which will -prove his best stock in trade. I cannot over-estimate the advantage of -ever having extra queens. To secure pure mating later, we must cut all -drone-comb from inferior colonies, so that they shall rear no drones. -If drone larvæ are in uncapped cells, they may be killed by sprinkling -the comb with cold water. By giving the jet of water some force they -may be washed out, or we may throw them out with the extractor, then -use the comb for starters in our sections. By keeping empty frames, and -empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept active; yet with so few -bees, one cannot expect very much from the nuclei. After cutting all -the queen-cells from our old hive, we can again insert eggs, as above -suggested, and obtain another lot of cells, or, if we have a sufficient -number, we can leave a single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be -the happy possessor of a queen, and just as flourishing as if the even -tenor of its ways had not been disturbed. - - -SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN'S WING? - -In the above operation, as in many other manipulations of the hive, -we shall often gain sight of the queen, and can, if we desire, clip -her wing, if she has met the drone, that in no case she shall lead the -colony away to parts unknown. This does not injure the queen, as some -have claimed. General Adair once stated that such treatment injured the -queen, as it cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by -so excellent a naturalist as Dr. Packard. Yet we are sure that this is -all a mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as we have seen, go to -the wings to carry nourishment to these members. With the wing goes the -necessity of nourishment and the need of the tubes. As well say that -the amputation of the human leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution, -as it would cut off the supply of blood. - -Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of the queen's -wings for years. Yet, these queens show no diminution of vigor: we -should suppose they would be even more vigorous, as useless organs -are always nourished at the expense of the organism, and if entirely -useless, are seldom long continued by nature. The ants set us an -example in this matter, as they bite the wings off their queens, after -mating has transpired. They mean that the queen ant shall remain -at home _nolens volens_, and why shall not we require the same of -the queen bee? Were it not for the necessity of swarming in nature, -we should doubtless have been anticipated in this matter by nature -herself. Still, if the queen essays to go with a swarm, and if the -apiarist is not at hand, she will very likely be lost, never regaining -the hive; but in this case the bees will be saved, as _they will_ -return without fail. I always mean to be so watchful, keeping my hives -shaded, giving ample room, and dividing or increasing, as to prevent -natural swarming. But in lieu of such caution I see no objection to -clipping the queen's wing, and would advise it. - -Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year, the secondary the -second year, the other primary the third, and if age of the queen -permits, the remaining wing the fourth year. Yet, such data, with other -matters of interest and importance, better be kept on a slate or card, -and firmly attached to the hive, or else kept in a record, opposite the -number of the hive. The time required to find the queen is sufficient -argument against the "queen-wing record.". It is not an argument -against the once clipping of the queen's wings, for, in the nucleus -hives, queens are readily found, and even in full colonies this is not -very difficult, especially if we heed the dictates of interest and keep -Italians. It will be best, even though we have to look up black queens, -in full colonies. The loss of one good colony, or the vexatious trouble -of separating two or three swarms which had clustered together, would -soon vanquish this argument of time. - -To clip the queen's wing, take hold of her wings with the left thumb -and index finger--never grasp her body, _especially her abdomen_, as -this will be very apt to injure her--raise her off the comb, then -turn from the bees, place her gently on a board or any convenient -object--even the knee will do--she will thus stand on her feet, and -not trouble by constantly passing her legs up by her wings, where they, -too, would be in danger of being cut off. Now, take a small pair of -scissors, and with the right hand open them, carefully pass one blade -under one of the front wings, shut the blades, and all is over. Some -apiarists complain that queens thus handled often receive a foreign -scent, and are destroyed by the bees. I have clipped hundreds, and -never lost one. I believe that the above method will not be open to -this objection. Should the experience of any one prove to the contrary, -the drawing on of a kid glove, or even the fingers of one, might remove -the difficulty. - - -FERTILE WORKERS. - -We have already referred to (pp. 77 and 90) and described fertile -workers. As these can only produce unimpregnated eggs, they are, of -course, valueless, and unless superseded by a queen, will soon cause -the destruction of the colony. As their presence often prevents the -acceptance of cells or a queen, by the common workers, they are a -serious pest. - -The absence of worker brood, and the abundant and careless deposition -of eggs--some cells being skipped, while others have received several -eggs--are pretty sure indications of their presence. - -To rid a colony of these, unite it with some colony with a good queen, -after which the colony may be divided if very strong. Simply exchanging -places of a colony with a fertile worker, and a good strong colony, -will often cause the destruction of the wrong-doer. In this case, -brood should be given to the colony which had the fertile worker, -that they may rear a queen; or better, a queen-cell or queen should -be given them. Caging a queen in a hive, with a fertile worker, for -thirty-six hours, will often cause the bees to accept her. Shaking the -bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will often rid them of the -counterfeit queen, after which they will receive a queen-cell or a -queen. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -INCREASE OF COLONIES. - - -No subject will be of more interest to the beginner, than that of -increasing stocks. He has one or two, he desires as many score, or, if -very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a Hetherington or a Harbison, as -many thousand. This is a subject, too, that may well engage the thought -and study of men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many -veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining an increase -of stocks. - -Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail methods, let me state -and enforce, that it is always safest, and generally wisest, especially -for the beginner, to be content with doubling, and certainly, with -tripling, his number of colonies each season. Especially let all -remember the motto, "Keep all colonies strong." - -There are two ways to increase: The natural, known as swarming, already -described under natural history of the bee; and artificial, improperly -styled artificial swarming. This is also called, and very properly, -too, "dividing." - - -SWARMING. - -To prevent anxiety and constant watching, and to secure a more equable -division of bees, and, as I know, more honey, it is better to provide -against swarming entirely by use of means which will appear in the -sequel. But as this requires some experience, and, as often, through -neglect, either necessary or culpable, swarms may issue, every apiarist -should be ever ready with both means and knowledge for immediate -action. Of course, the hives were all made the previous winter, _and -will never be wanting_. Neglect to provide hives before the swarming -season, is convincing proof that the wrong pursuit has been chosen. - -If, as we have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the matter -becomes very simple, in fact, so much simplified that were there no -other argument, this would be sufficient to recommend the practice of -cutting the queen's wing. Now, if several swarms cluster together, we -have not to separate them, they will separate of themselves and return -to their old home. To migrate without the queen means death, and life -is sweet even to bees, and is not to be willingly given up except for -home and kindred. Neither has the apiarist to climb trees, to secure -his bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice-work or pickets of -his fence, from the very top of a tall, slender, fragile fruit tree, -or other most inconvenient places. Nor will he even be tempted to pay -his money for patent hivers. He knows his bees will return to their -old quarters, so he is not perturbed by the fear of loss, or plans -to capture the unapproachable. It requires no effort "to possess his -soul in patience." If he wishes no increase, he steps out, takes the -queen by the remaining wings, as she emerges from the hive, soon after -the bees commence their hilarious leave-taking, puts her in a cage, -opens the hive, destroys, or, if he wishes to use them, cuts out the -queen cells as already described (page 167), gives more room--either -by adding boxes or taking out some of the frames of brood, as they may -well be spared, places the cage enclosing the queen under the quilt, -and leaves the bees to return at their pleasure. At night-fall the -queen is liberated, and very likely the swarming fever subdued for the -season. - -If it is desired to hive the absconding swarm with a nucleus colony, -exchange the places of the old hive containing the caged queen, and the -nucleus, to which the swarm will then come. Remove queen-cells from the -old hives as before, give some of the combs of brood to the nucleus, -which is now a full colony, and empty frames, with comb or foundation -starters, or, if you have them, empty combs to both, liberate the -queen at night and all is well, and the apiarist rejoices in a new -colony. If the apiarist has neglected to form nuclei, and so has no -extra queens--_and this is a neglect_--and wishes to hive his swarm -separately, he places his caged queen in an empty hive, with which he -replaces the old hive till the bees return, then this new hive, with -queen and bees, and, still better, with a frame or two of brood, -honey, etc., in the middle, which were taken from the old hive, is -set on a new stand. The old hive, with all the queen-cells except the -largest and finest one removed, is set back, so that the apiarist has -forestalled the issue of after-swarms, except that other queen-cells -are afterward started, which is not likely to happen. The old queen -is liberated as before, and we are in the way of soon having two good -colonies. Some apiarists cage the queen and let the bees return, then -divide the colony as soon to be described. - -Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase of colonies, -cage the old queen, destroy cells, and exchange this hive--after -taking out three or four frames of brood to strengthen nuclei--with -one that recently swarmed. Thus a colony that recently sent out a -swarm, but retained their queen, has probably, from the decrease of -bees, loss of brood and removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming -fever, and if we give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will -accept the bees from a new swarm, and spend their future energies in -storing honey. Southard and Ranney have been very successful in the -practice of this method. If building of drone-comb in the empty frames -which replaced the brood-frames removed, should vex the apiarist--Dr. -Southard says they had no such trouble--it could be prevented by giving -worker-foundation. If the swarming fever is not broken up, we shall -only have to repeat the operation again in a few days. - - -HIVING SWARMS. - -But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or from taste, or -other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire to "deform her royal -highness." Then the apiarist must possess the means to save the -would-be rovers. The means are good hives in readiness, some kind of -a brush--a turkey-wing will do--and a bag or basket, with ever open -top, which should be at least eighteen inches in diameter, and this -receptacle so made that it may be attached to the end of a pole, and -two such poles, one very long and the other of medium length. - -Now, let us attend to the method: As soon as the cluster commences to -form, place the hive on the ground near by, leaving the entrance widely -open, which with our bottom-board only requires that we draw the hive -forward an inch Or more over the alighting-board. As soon as the bees -are fully clustered, we must manage as best we can to empty the whole -cluster in front of the hive. As the bees are full of honey we need -have little fear of stings. Should the bees be on a twig that could be -sacrificed, this might be easily out off with either a knife or saw, -and so carefully as hardly to disturb the bees; then carry and shake -the bees in front of the hive, when with joyful hum they will at once -proceed to enter. If the twig must not be cut, shake them all into the -basket, and empty before the hive. Should they be on a tree trunk, or -a fence, then brush them with the wing into the basket, and proceed as -before. If they are high up on a tree, take the pole and basket, and -perhaps a ladder will also be necessary. - -Always let ingenuity have its perfect work, not forgetting that the -object to be gained is to get just as many of the bees as is possible -on the alighting-board in front of the hive. Carelessness as to the -quantity might involve the loss of the queen, which would be serious. -The bees to ill not remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should a -cluster form where it is impossible to brush or shake them off, they -can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it above them and -blowing smoke among them. As soon as they are nearly all in--a few -may be flying around, but if the queen is in the new hive, they will -go back to their old home, or find the new one--which Mr. Betsinger -says they will always do, if it is not far removed--remove the hive to -its permanent stand. All washes are more than useless. It is better -that the hive be clean and pure. With such, if they are shaded, bees -will generally be satisfied. But assurance will be made doubly sure by -giving them a frame of brood, in all stages of growth, from the old -hive. This may be inserted before the work of hiving is commenced. Mr. -Betsinger thinks this will cause them to leave; but I think he will -not be sustained by the experience of other apiarists. He certainly -is not by mine. I never knew but one colony to leave uncapped brood; -I have often known them to swarm out of an empty hive once or twice, -and to be returned, after brood had been placed in the hive, when they -accepted the changed conditions, and went at once to work. This seems -reasonable, too, in view of the attachment of bees for their nest of -brood, as also from analogy. How eager the ant to convey her larvæ and -pupæ--the so-called eggs--to a place of safety, when the nest has been -invaded and danger threatens. Bees doubtless have the same desire to -protect their young, and as they cannot carry them away to a new home, -they remain to care for them in one that may not be quite to their -taste. - -If it is not desired to increase, the bees may be given to a colony -which has previously swarmed, after removing from the latter all -queen-cells, and adding to the room by giving boxes and removing some -frames of brood to strengthen nuclei. This plan is practiced by Dr. -Southard. We may even return the bees to their old home by taking the -same precautionary measures, with a good hope that storing and not -swarming will engage their attention in future; and if we exchange -their position with that of a nucleus, we shall be still more likely -to succeed in overcoming the desire to swarm; though some seasons, -usually when honey is being gathered each day for long intervals, but -not in large quantities, the desire and determination of some colonies -to swarm is implacable. Room, ventilation, changed position of hive, -each and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify the -propensity, by giving the swarm a new home, and make an effort - - -TO PREVENT SECOND SWARMS. - -As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on hand extra -queens. Now, if he does not desire to form nuclei (as already -explained), and thus use these queen cells, he will at once cut them -_all_ out, and destroy them, and give the old colony a fertile queen. -The method of introduction will be given hereafter, though in such -cases there is very little danger incurred by giving them a queen at -once. And by thoroughly smoking the bees, and sprinkling with sweetened -water, and daubing the new queen with honey, we may be almost sure of -success. If desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming nuclei, -in manner before described. In this way we save our colony from being -without a fertile queen for at least thirteen, days, and that, too, -in the very height of the honey season, when time is money. If extra -queens are wanting, we have only to look carefully through the old hive -and remove all but one of the queen-cells. A little care will certainly -make sure work, as, after swarming, the old hive is so thinned of bees, -that only carelessness will overlook queen-cells in such a quest. - - -TO PREVENT SWARMING. - -As yet we can only partly avert swarming. Mr. Quinby offered a large -reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and never had to make the -payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it, and partially succeeded, by granting -much space to the bees, so that they should not be impelled to vacate -for lack of room.' The Quinby hive already described, by the large -capability of the brood-chamber, and ample opportunity for top and -side-storing, looks to the same end. But we may safely say that a -perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the bee-keeping -public. The best aids toward non-swarming are shade, ventilation, -and roomy hives. But as we shall see in the sequel, much room in the -brood-chamber, unless we work for extracted honey--by which means we -may greatly repress the swarming fever--prevents our obtaining honey -in a desirable style. If we add sections, unless the connection is -quite free--in which case the queen is apt to enter them and greatly -vex us--we must crowd some to send the bees into the sections. Such -crowding is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by abrading the -combs of capped honey in the brood-chamber, as suggested to me by Mr. -M. M. Baldridge--causing the honey to run down from the combs--sent the -bees crowding to the sections, and thus deferred or prevented swarming. - -It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is very rapid, -and then by rapidly feeding the extracted honey in the interims of -honey secretion, we might prevent swarming, secure very rapid breeding, -and still get our honey in sections. Too few experiments, to be at all -decisive, have led me to look favorably in this direction. - -The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure honey without -increase, as practiced and advised by some even of our distinguished -apiarists, seems to me a _very questionable practice_, to which I -cannot even lend my approval by so much as detailing the method. I -would rather advise: keeping a, queen, and the workers all at work _in -every_ hive, if possible, all the time. - - -HOW TO MULTIPLY COLONIES WITH THE BEST RESULTS. - -We have already seen the evils of natural swarming, for, even though no -stock is too much reduced in numbers, no colony lost by not receiving -prompt attention, no Sunday quiet disturbed, and no time wasted in -anxious watching, yet, at best, the old colony is queenless for about -two weeks, _a state of things which no apiarist can or should afford_. -The true policy then is to practice artificial swarming, as just -described, where we save time by cutting the queen's-wing, and save -loss by permitting no colony to remain queenless, or still better to - - -DIVIDE. - -This method will secure uniform colonies, will increase our number -of colonies just to our liking, will save time, and that, too, when -time is most valuable, and is in every respect safer and preferable to -swarming. I have practiced dividing ever since I have kept bees, and -_never without the best results_. - - -HOW TO DIVIDE. - -By the process already described, we have secured a goodly number of -fine queens, which will be in readiness at the needed time. Now, as -soon as the white clover harvest is well commenced, early in June, we -may commence operations. If we have but one colony to divide, it is -well to wait till they become pretty populous, but not till they swarm. -Take one of our waiting hives, which now holds a nucleus with fertile -queen, and remove the same close along side the colony we wish to -divide. This must only be done on warm days when the bees are active, -and better be done, while the bees are busy, in the middle of the -day. Remove the division-board of the new hive, and then remove five -combs, well loaded with brood, and of course containing some honey, -from the old colony, bees and all, to the new hive. Also take the -remaining frames and shake the bees into the new hive. _Only be sure -that the queen still remains in the old hive._ Fill both the hives -with empty frames--if the frames are filled with empty comb it will be -still better, if not it will pay to give starters or full frames of -foundation--and return the new hive to its former position. The old -bees will return to the old colony, while the young ones will remain -peaceably with the new queen. The old colony will now contain at least -seven frames of brood, honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, -so that they will work on as though naught had transpired, though -perhaps moved to a little harder effort by the added space and five -empty frames. The empty frames may be all placed at one end, or placed -between the others, though not so as to divide brood. - -The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc., three from -the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young fertile queen, plenty -of bees, those of the previous nucleus and the young bees from the old -colony, and will work with a surprising vigor, often even eclipsing the -old colony. - -If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make the new -colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take one frame of -brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two from each of three, -and carry them, bees and all, and place with the nucleus. _Only, be -sure that no queen is removed._ Fill all the hives with empty combs, -or foundation instead of frames, as before. In this way we increase -without in the least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a -colony every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size -of our apiary, and can thus always, so my experience says, prevent -swarming. - -By taking only brood that is all capped, we can safely add one or two -frames to each nucleus every week, without adding any bees, as there -would be no danger of loss by chilling the brood. In this way, as we -remove no bees, we have to spend no time in looking for the queen, and -may build up our nuclei into full stocks, and keep back the swarming -impulse with great facility. - -These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and so I will not -complicate the subject by detailing others. The only objection that -can be urged against them, and even this does not apply to the last, -is that we must seek out the queen in each hive, or at least be sure -that we do not remove her, though this is by no means so tedious if we -have Italians, as of course we all will. I might give other methods -which would render unnecessary this caution, but they are to my mind -inferior, and not to be recommended. If we proceed as above described, -the bees will seldom prepare to swarm at all, and if they do they will -be discovered in the act, by such frequent examinations, and the work -may be cut short by at once dividing such colonies as first explained, -and destroying their queen-cells, or, if desired, using them for -forming new nuclei. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING. - - -The history and description of Italians (see Frontis-plate) have -already been considered (p. 41), so it only remains to discuss the -subject in a practical light. - -The superiority of the Italians seems at present a mooted question. -A few among the able apiarists in our country take the ground that a -thorough balancing of qualities will make as favorable a showing for -the German, as for the Italian bees. I think, too, that the late Baron -of Berlepsch held to the same view. - -I think I am capable of acting as judge on this subject. I have never -sold a half-dozen queens in my life, and so have not been unconsciously -influenced by self-interest. In fact, I have never had, if I except -two years, any direct interest in bees at all, and all my work and -experiments had only the promotion and spread of truth as the ultimatum. - -Again, I have kept both blacks and Italians side by side, and carefully -observed and noted results during eight years of my experience. I have -carefully collected data as to increase of brood, rapidity of storing, -early and late habits in the day and season, kinds of flowers visited, -amiability, etc., and I believe that to say that they are not superior -to black bees, is like saying that a Duchess among short-horns is in no -wise superior to the lean, bony kine of Texas; or that our Essex and -Berkshire swine are no whit better than the cadaverous lank breeds, -with infinite noses, that, happily, are now so rare among us. The -Italians are _far_ superior to the German bees in many respects, and -more--though I am acquainted with all the works on apiculture printed -in our language, and have an extensive acquaintance with the leading -apiarists of our country from Maine to California, yet I know of -scarcely a baker's dozen that have had opportunity to form a correct -judgment, that do not give strong preference to the Italians. That -these men are honest, is beyond question; that those who disagree -with us are equally so, there is no doubt. The black bees are in some -respects superior to the Italians, and if a bee-keeper's methods cause -him to give these points undue importance, in forming his judgments, -then his conclusions may be wrong. Faulty management, too, may lead to -wrong conclusions. - -The Italians certainly possess the following points of superiority: - -First. They possess longer tongues (Fig. 20), and so can gather from -flowers which are useless to the black bee. This point has already -been sufficiently considered (p. 42). How much value hangs upon this -structural peculiarity, I am unable to state. I have frequently -seen Italians working on red clover. I never saw a black bee thus -employed. It is easy to see that this might be, at certain times and -certain seasons, a very material aid. How much of the superior storing -qualities of the Italians is due to this lengthened ligula, I am unable -to say. - -Second. They are more active, and with the same opportunities will -collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter of observation, which -I have tested over and over again. Yet I will give the figures of -another: Mr. Doolittle secured from two colonies, 309 lbs. and 301 -lbs., respectively, of _box honey_, during the past season. These -surprising figures, the best he could give, were from his best Italian -stocks. Similar testimony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the sea, -and from hosts of our own apiarists. - -Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only true of the day, -but of the season. On cool days in spring, I have seen the dandelions -swarming with Italians, while not a black bee was to be seen. On May -7th, 1877, I walked less than one-half a mile, and counted sixty-eight -bees gathering from dandelions, yet only two were black bees. This -might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to spring -dwindling. Yet, with the proper management, to be described while -considering the subject of wintering, we think this no objection, but a -great advantage. - -Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against robbers. -Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their hard-earned stores -soon find that they have "dared to beard the lion in his den." This is -so patent, that even the advocates of black bees are ready to concede -it. - -Fifth. They are almost proof against the ravages of the bee-moth's -larvæ. This is also universally conceded. - -Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is probably in part -due to the greater and more constant activity of the neuters. This -is observable at all seasons, but very striking when building up in -spring. No one who will take the pains to note the increase of brood -will long remain in doubt on this point. - -Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is desirable to -have the bees very quiet. - -Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which is a great advantage. -In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is frequently desirable -to find the queen. In full colonies I would rather find three Italian -queens than one black one. Where time is money, this becomes a matter -of much importance. - -Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb while being -handled, which some might regard a doubtful compliment, though I -consider it a desirable quality. - -Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other bees. They -will find honey when the blacks gather none, and the time for robbing -is when there is no gathering. This may explain the above peculiarity. - -Eleventh. And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for preference, -did it stand alone, the Italian bees are _far more amiable_. Years ago -I got rid of my black bees, because they were so cross. Two years ago I -got two or three colonies, that my students might see the difference, -but to my regret; for, as we removed the honey in the autumn, they -seemed perfectly furious, like demons, seeking whom they might devour, -and this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous Italians -were safely handled, even without smoke. The experiment at least -satisfied a large class of students as to superiority. Mr. Quinby -speaks in his book of their being cross, and Captain Hetherington tells -me, that if not much handled, they are more cross than the blacks. -From my own experience, I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even -more cross than are the pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly as -desirable as the pure Italians. - -I have kept these two races side by side for years, I have studied them -most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the above eleven points of -excellence is too strongly stated. - -The black bees will go into close boxes more readily than Italians, but -if we use the sectional frames, and on other grounds we can afford to -use no other, we shall find, with the more ample connection between the -brood-chamber and sections, that even here, as Mr. Doolittle and many -others have shown, the Italians still give the best returns. - -I have some reasons to think that the blacks are more hardy, and have -found many apiarists who agree with me. Yet, others of wide experience, -think that there is no difference, while still others think the -Italians more hardy. - -The Italian bees are said to dwindle worse in spring, which, as they -are more active, is quite probable. As I have never had a case of -serious spring dwindling, I cannot speak from experience. If the -bee-keeper prevents early spring flying, which is very detrimental to -either black or Italian bees, this point will have no weight, even if -well taken. - - -ALL SHOULD KEEP ONLY ITALIANS. - -The advantages of the Italians, which have been considered thus fully, -are more than sufficient to warrant the exclusion of all other bees -from the apiary. Truly, no one need to be urged to a course, that adds -to the ease, profit, and agreeableness of his vocation. - - -HOW TO ITALIANIZE. - -From what has been already explained regarding the natural history of -bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to change our bees, is -to change our queens. Hence, to Italianize a colony, we have only to -procure and introduce an Italian queen. - - -HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN. - -In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony composed -wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to introduce a queen in the -manner explained in the section on artificial swarming. To introduce a -queen to a colony composed of old bees more care is required. First, -we should seek out the old queen and destroy her, then cage our -Italian queen in a wire cage, which may be made by winding a strip of -wire-cloth, three and one-half inches wide, and containing fifteen -to twenty meshes to the inch, about the finger. Let it lap each way -one-half inch, then cut it off. Ravel out the half inch on each side, -and weave in the ends of the wires, forming a tube the size of the -finger. We now have only to put the queen in the tube, and pinch the -ends together, and the queen is caged. The cage containing the queen -should be inserted between two adjacent combs containing honey, each of -which will touch it. The queen can thus sip honey as she needs it. If -we fear the queen may not be able to sip the honey through the meshes -of the wire, we may dip a piece of clean sponge in honey and insert it -in the upper end of the cage before we compress this end. This will -furnish the queen with the needed food. In forty-eight hours we again -open the hive, after a thorough smoking, also the cage, which is easily -done by pressing the upper end, at right-angles to the direction of the -pressure when we closed it. In doing this do not remove the cage. Now -keep watch, and if, as the bees enter the cage or as the queen emerges, -the bees attack her, secure her immediately and re-cage her for another -forty-eight hours. I usually let some honey drip on the queen as soon -as the cage is opened. Some think this renders the bees more amiable. I -have introduced many queens in this manner, and have very rarely been -unsuccessful. - -Mr. Dadant stops the cage with a plug of wood, and when he goes to -liberate the queen replaces the wooden stop with one of comb, and -leaves the bees to liberate the queen by eating out the comb. I have -tried this, but with no better success than I have had with the above -method, while with this plan the queen is surely lost if the bees do -not receive her kindly. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at one -end, which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of the cage -reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the queen is thus held -by cage and comb till the bees liberate her. I have never tried this -plan. When bees are not storing, especially if robbers are abundant, -it is more difficult to succeed, and at such time the utmost caution -will occasionally fail of success if the bees are old. - -A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can almost always be safely -given at once to the colony, after destroying the old queen. - -A queen cell is usually received with favor. If we adopt this course we -must be careful to destroy all other queen-cells that may be formed; -and if the one we supply is destroyed, wait seven days, then destroy -all their queen-cells, and they are sure to accept a cell. But to save -time I should always introduce a queen. - -If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very great value, -we might make a new colony, all of young bees, as already described. -Smoke them well, sprinkle with sweetened water, daub the queen with -honey, and introduce immediately. This method would involve really no -risk. If the apiarist was still afraid, he could make assurance still -more sure by taking combs of brood where the young bees were rapidly -escaping from the cells; there would soon be enough young bees to -cluster about the queen, and soon enough bees for a good colony. This -plan would not be advisable except in warm weather, and care is also -required to protect from robbers. The colony might be set in the cellar -for a few days, in which case it would be safe even in early spring. - -By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may commence the -next spring, and, as described in the section explaining the formation -of artificial swarms, we may control our rearing of drones, queens, and -all, and ere another autumn have only the beautiful, pure, amiable, -and active Italians. I have done this several times, and with the most -perfect satisfaction. I think by making this change in blood, we add -certainly two dollars to the value of each colony, and I know of no -other way to make money so easily and pleasantly. - - -TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEEN. - -Send to some reliable breeder, and ask for a queen worth at least five -dollars. It is the mania now to rear and sell cheap queens. These are -reared--must be reared--without care, and will, I fear, prove very -cheap. It is a question, if any more sure way could be devised to -injure our stocks than the dollar queen business, which is now so -popular. It is quite probable that much of the superiority of Italian -bees is owing to the care and careful selection in breeding. Such -careful selection in-breeding, either with black or Italian bees, is -what will augment the value of our apiaries. - -The tendency of the dollar queen business is to disseminate the -inferior queens, many of which will appear in every apiary. These -should be killed, not sold. Yet, many an apiarist will think even the -poorest queens are worth a dollar. My friend, Mrs. Baker, bought a -dollar "Albino" queen last season which was not worth a cent. Yet it -cost only a dollar, and, of course, no satisfaction could be secured or -even asked for. I think it behooves apiarists to think of this matter, -and see if dollar queens are not very dear. I have thrown away three -dollars on them, and have concluded to pay more and buy cheaper in -future. - -I believe our breeders should be encouraged to give us the best; to -study the art of breeding, and never send out an inferior queen. In -this way we may hope to keep up the character of our apiaries, and the -reputation of Italians. Else we are safer under the old system where -"natural selection" retained the best, by the "survival of the fittest." - - -REARING AND SHIPPING QUEENS. - -I have already explained the matter of queen-rearing. After many -inquiries, and some experience, I much doubt if any apiarist can afford -to rear queens, such as apiarists wish to buy, for less than four or -five dollars. Only the best should be sold, and no pains should be -spared by the breeder to secure such queens. - - -TO SHIP QUEENS. - -This is a very simple matter. We have only to secure a square block -two inches each way, and one and a half inches deep--a hole bored -into a two-inch plank to within a quarter of an inch of the bottom -serves admirably. In this should be inserted a piece of capped -honey, which has been _entirely_ cleaned by bees. Bees will speedily -perform this work, if the comb containing the honey is placed on the -alighting-board. This must be fastened into the shipping-box, which -is easily done, by pinning it with a slender wooden pin, which passes -through holes previously bored in the box. We now cover the open -chamber with fine wire-cloth, put in our queen and fifteen or twenty -bees, and she is ready to ship. _Any uncapped honey to daub the queen -is almost sure to prove fatal._ - -Mr. A. I. Root furnishes a cage already provisioned with sugar -(Fig. 57), which is very neat and safe. I have received queens from -Tennessee, which were fed exclusively on candy, and came in excellent -condition. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.] - - -TO MOVE COLONIES. - -Should we desire to purchase Italian or other colonies, the only -requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover for ventilation, -secure fastening of the frames so they cannot possibly move, and combs -old enough so that they shall not break down and fall out. I would -never advise moving bees in winter, though it has often been done with -entire safety. I should wish the bees to have a flight very soon after -such disturbance. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -EXTRACTING, AND THE EXTRACTOR. - - -The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the queen has no -room to lay her eggs, especially if there is any neglect to give other -room for storing. Honey, too, in brood-combs is unsalable, because the -combs are dark, and the size undesirable. Comb, too, is very valuable, -and should never be taken from the bees, except when desired to render -the honey more marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very efficient -auxiliary in the - - -HONEY EXTRACTOR. - -No doubt some have expected and claimed too much for this machine. It -is equally true, that some have blundered quite as seriously in an -opposite direction. For, since Mr. Langstroth gave the movable frame -to the world, the apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any -inventor as to him who gave us the Mell Extractor, Herr von Hruschka, -of Germany. Even if there was no sale for extracted honey--aye, more, -even if it must be thrown away, which will never be necessary, as it -may always be fed to the bees with profit, even then I would pronounce -the extractor an invaluable aid to every bee-keeper. - -The principle which makes this machine effective is that of centrifugal -force, and it was suggested to Major von Hruschka, by noticing that -a piece of comb which was twirled by his boy at the end of a string, -was emptied of its honey. Herr von Hruschka's machine was essentially -like those now so common, though in lightness and convenience there has -been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a wooden tub, with -a vertical axle in the centre, which revolved in a socket fastened to -the bottom of the vessel, while from the top of the tub, fastenings -extended to the axle, which projected for a distance above. The axle -was thus held exactly in the centre of the tub. Attached to the axle -was a frame or rack to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against -a wire-cloth. The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the -uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwinding a string, -which had been previously wound about the top of the axle, after the -style of top-spinning. Replace the wooden tub with one of tin, and the -string with gearing, and it will be seen that we have essentially the -neat extractor of to-day. As the machine is of foreign invention, it -is not covered by a patent, and may be made by any one without let or -hindrance. A good machine may be bought for eight dollars. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.] - - -WHAT STYLE TO BUY. - -The machine should be as light as is consistent with strength. It is -best that the can be stationary, and that only a light frame be made to -revolve with the comb. It is desirable that the machine should run with -gearing, not only for ease, but also to insure or allow an even motion, -so that we need not throw even drone larvæ from the brood-cells. The -arrangement for exit of the honey should permit a speedy and perfect -shut-off. A molasses gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I should -also prefer that the can hold considerable honey--thirty or forty -pounds--before it would be necessary to let the honey flow from it. - -In case of small frames, like the ones I have described as most -desirable to my mind, I should prefer that the rack might hold four -frames. Mr. O. J. Hetherington has found that winding the rack with -fine wire, serves better than wire-cloth to resist the combs, while -permitting the honey to pass. The rack should set so low in the can -that no honey would ever be thrown over the top to daub the person -using the machine. I think that a wire basket, with a tin bottom, and -made to hook on to the comb-rack (Fig. 58, _a, a_) which will hold -pieces of comb not in frames, a desirable improvement to an extractor. -Such baskets are appended to the admirable extractor (Fig. 58) made by -Mr. B. O. Everett, of Toledo, Ohio, which, though essentially like the -extractor of Mr. A. I. Root, has substantial improvements, and is the -cheapest, and I think the best extractor, that I have used or seen. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.] - -I have tried machines where the sides of the rack (Fig. 59) inclined -down and in, for the purpose of holding pieces of comb, but found them -unsatisfactory. The combs would not be sustained. Yet, if the frames -were long and narrow, so that the end of the frame would have to rest -on the bottom of the rack, instead of hanging as it does in the hive, -such an incline might be of use to prevent the top of the frame from -falling in, before we commence to turn the machine. - -The inside, if metal, which is lighter and to be preferred to wood, -as it does not sour or absorb the honey, should be either of tin or -galvanized iron, so as not to rust. A cover to protect the honey from -dust, when not in use, is very desirable. The cloth cover, gathered -around the edge by a rubber, as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent -for this purpose. As no capped honey could be extracted, it is -necessary to uncap it, which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To -do this, nothing is better than the new Bingham & Hetherington honey -knife (Fig. 60). After a thorough trial of this knife, here at the -College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any other that we have -used, though we have several of the principal knives made in the United -States. It is, perhaps, sometimes desirable to have a curved point -(Fig. 61), though this is not at all essential. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.] - - -USE OF THE EXTRACTOR. - -Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, it is -nevertheless a fact, that the queen often remains idle, or extrudes -her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are no empty cells. The -honey yield is so great that the workers occupy every available space, -and sometimes even they become unwilling idlers, simply because of -necessity. Seldom a year has passed but that I have noticed some of my -most prolific queens thus checked in duty. It is probable that just the -proper arrangement and best management of frames for surplus would make -such occasions rare; yet, I have seen the brood-chamber in two-story -hives, with common frames above--the very best arrangement to promote -storing above the brood-chamber--so crowded as to force the queen -either to idleness or to egg-laying in the upper frames. This fact, -as also the redundant brood, and excessive storing that follows upon -extracting from the brood-chamber, make me emphatic upon this point, -notwithstanding the fact that some men of wide experience and great -intelligence, think me wrong. - -The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey-extracted -honey--in poor seasons, when he could get very little, if any, in -sections or boxes. - -By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the apiarist can secure -nearly if not quite double the amount of honey, that he could get in -combs. - -The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the fall, which, -if left in the hive, may cause disease and death. - -By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from our surplus -brood-combs in the fall, and thus have a salable article, and have the -empty combs, which are invaluable for use the next spring. We now have -in our apiary one hundred and fifty such empty combs. - -If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket attachment, -at the bottom as I have suggested, the uncapped sections can be -emptied in the fall, if desired, and pieces of drone-comb cut from the -brood-chamber, which are so admirable for starters in the sections, can -be emptied of their honey at any season. - -By use of the extractor, we can furnish at one-half the price we ask -for comb-honey, an article which is equal, if not superior, to the best -comb-honey, and which, were it not for appearance alone, would soon -drive the latter from the market. - - -WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR. - -If extracted honey can be sold for fifteen, or even twelve cents, the -extractor may be used profitably the summer through; otherwise use it -sufficiently often that there may always be empty worker-cells in the -brood-chamber. - -It is often required with us during the three great honey harvests--the -white clover, basswood, and that of fall flowers. I have always -extracted the honey so frequently as to avoid much uncapping. If the -honey was thin, I would keep it in a dry warm room, or apply a mild -heat, that it might thicken, and escape danger from fermentation. Yet, -so many have sustained a loss by extracting prematurely, that I urge -all never to extract till after the bees have sealed the cells. The -labor of uncapping, with the excellent honey knives now at our command, -is so light, that we can afford to run no risk that the honey produced -at our apiaries shall sour and become worthless. - -If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to the fluid state with no -injury, by healing, though the temperature should never rise above 200° -F. This can best be done by placing the vessel containing the honey -in another containing water, though if the second vessel be set on a -stove, a tin basin or pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel -from touching the bottom, else the honey would burn. As before stated, -the best honey is always sure to crystallize, but it may be prevented -by keeping it in a temperature which is constantly above 80° F. If -canned honey is set on top a furnace in which a fire is kept burning, -it will remain liquid indefinitely. - -To render the honey free from small pieces of comb, or other -impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth or wire sieve--I -purposely refrain from the use of the word strainer, as we should -neither use the word strained, nor allow it to be used, in connection -with extracted honey--or else draw it off into a barrel, with a faucet -or molasses gate near the lower end, and after all particles of solid -matter have risen to the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom. -In case of very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory as the -first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is thinner, and will -of course pass more readily through common toweling or fine wire-cloth. - -Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want of empty cells. -Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and the honey from all the -brood-combs not needed for winter. The honey, too, should be thrown -from pieces of drone-comb which are cut from the brood-frames, and from -the uncapped comb in sections at the close of the season. - - -HOW TO EXTRACT. - -The apiarist should possess one or two light boxes, of sufficient size -to hold all the frames from a single hive. These should have convenient -handles, and a close-fitting cover, which will slide easily either -way. These will be more easily used if they rest on legs, which will -raise their tops say three feet from the ground. Now, go to two or -three colonies, take enough combs, and of the right kind for a colony. -The bees may be shaken off or brushed off with a large feather. If the -bees are troublesome, close the box as soon as each comb is placed -inside. Extract the honey from these, using care not to turn so hard -as to throw out the brood. If necessary, with a thin knife pare off -the caps, and after throwing the honey from one side, turn the comb -around, and extract it from the other. If combs are of very different -weights, it will be better for the extractor to use those of nearly -equal weights on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. Now -take these combs to another colony, whose combs shall be replaced by -them. Then close the hive, extract this second set of combs, and thus -proceed till the honey has all been extracted. At the close, the one or -two colonies from which the first combs were taken shall receive pay -from the last set extracted, and thus, with much saving of time, little -disturbance of bees, and the least invitation to robbing, in case there -is no gathering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary. - - -TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY. - -Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be run into them -from the extractor. The honey should be thick, and the vessels may be -sealed or corked, and boxed at once. - -If large quantities of honey are extracted, it may be most conveniently -kept in barrels. These should be first-class, and ought to be waxed -before using them, to make assurance doubly sure against any leakage. -To wax the barrels, we may use beeswax, but paraffine is cheaper, -and just as efficient. Three or four quarts of the hot paraffine or -wax should be turned into the barrel, the bung driven in tight, the -barrel twirled in every position, after which the bung is loosened by -a blow with the hammer, and the residue of the wax turned out. Economy -requires that the barrels be warm when waxed, so that only a thin coat -will be appropriated. - -Large tin cans, waxed and soldered at the openings after being filled, -are cheap, and may be the most desirable receptacles for extracted -honey. - -Extracted honey should always be kept in dry apartments. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -HANDLING BEES. - - -But some one asks the question, shall we not receive those merciless -stings, or be introduced to what "Josh" calls the "business end of the -bee?" Perhaps there is no more causeless, or more common dread, in -existence, than this of bees' stings. When bees are gathering, they -will never sting unless provoked. When at the hives--especially if -Italians--they will rarely make an attack. The common belief, too, that -some persons are more liable to attack than others, is, I think, put -too strong. With the best opportunity to judge, with our hundreds of -students, I think I may safely say that one is almost always as liable -to attack as another, except that he is more quiet, or does not greet -the usually amiable passer-by, with those terrific thrusts, which would -vanquish even a practiced pugilist. Occasionally a person _may_ have -a peculiar odor about his person that angers bees and invites their -darting tilts, with drawn swords, venom-tipped, yet, though I take my -large classes each season, at frequent intervals, to see and handle -the bees, each for himself, I still await the first proof of the fact, -that one person is more liable to be stung than another, providing each -carries himself with that composed and dignified bearing, that is so -pleasing to the bees. True, some people, filled with dread, and the -belief that bees regard them with special hate and malice, are so ready -for the battle, that they commence the strife with nervous head-shakes -and beating of the air, and thus force the bees to battle, _nolens -volens_. I believe that only such are regarded with special aversion by -the bees. Hence, I believe that no one need be stung. - -Bees should never be jarred, nor irritated by quick motions. Those with -nervous temperaments--and I plead very guilty on this point--need not -give up, but at first better protect their faces, and perhaps even -their hands, till time and experience show them that fear is vain; then -they will divest themselves of all such useless encumbrances. Bees -are more cross when they are gathering no honey, and at such times, -black bees and hybrids, especially, are so irritable that even the -experienced apiarist will wish a veil. - - -THE BEST BEE-VEIL. - -This should be made of black tarlatan, sewed up like a bag, a half -yard long, without top or bottom, and with a diameter of the rim of a -common straw-hat. Gather the top with braid, so that it will just slip -over the crown of the hat--else, sew it to the edge of the rim of some -cheap, cool hat, in fact, I prefer this style--and gather the bottom -with rubber cord or rubber tape, so that it may be drawn over the hat -rim, and then over the head, as we adjust the hat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.] - -Some prefer to dispense with the rubber cord at the bottom (Fig. 62), -and have the veil long so as to be gathered in by the coat or dress. If -the black tarlatan troubles by coloring the shirt or collar, the lower -part may be made of white netting. When in use, the rubber cord draws -the lower part close about the neck, or the lower part tucks within the -coat or vest (Fig. 62), and we are safe. This kind of a veil is cool, -does not impede vision at all, and can be made by any woman at a cost -of less than twenty cents. Common buckskin or sheep-skin gloves can be -used, as it will scarcely pay to get special gloves for the purpose, -for the most timid person--I speak from experience--will soon consider -gloves an unnecessary nuisance. - -Special rubber gloves are sold by those who keep on hand apiarian -supplies. - -Some apiarists think that dark clothing is specially obnoxious to bees. - -For ladies, my friend, Mrs. Baker, recommends a dress which, by use -of the rubber skirt-lift or other device, can be instantly raised or -lowered. This will be convenient in the apiary, and tidy anywhere. The -Gabrielle style is preferred, and of a length just to reach the floor. -It should be belted at the waist, and cut down from the neck in front, -one-third the length of the waist, to permit the tucking in of the -veil. The under-waist should fasten close about the neck. The sleeves -should be quite long to allow free use of the arms, and gathered in -with a rubber cord at the wrist, which will hug the rubber gauntlets -or arm, and prevent bees from crawling up the sleeves. The pantalets -should be straight and full, and should also have the rubber cord in -the hem to draw them close about the top of the shoes. - -Mrs. Baker also places great stress on the wet "head-cap," which she -believes the men even would find a great comfort. This is a simple, -close-fitting cap, made of two thicknesses of coarse toweling. The head -is wet with cold water, and the cap wet in the same, wrung out, and -placed on the head. - -Mrs. Baker would have the dress neat and clean, and so trimmed that -the lady apiarist would ever be ready to greet her brother or sister -apiarists. In such a dress there is no danger of stings, and with it -there is that show of neatness and taste, without which no pursuit -could attract the attention, or at least the patronage, of our refined -women. - - -TO QUIET BEES. - -In harvest seasons, the bees, especially if Italians, can almost always -be handled without their showing resentment. But at other times, and -whenever they object to necessary familiarity, we have only to cause -them to fill with honey to render them harmless, unless we pinch them. -This can be done by closing the hive so that the bees cannot get out, -and then rapping on the hive for four or five minutes. Those within -will fill with honey, those without will be tamed by surprise, and -all will be quiet. Sprinkling the bees with sweetened water will also -tend to render them amiable, and will make them more ready to unite, -to receive a queen, and less apt to sting. Still another method, more -convenient, is to smoke the bees. A little smoke blown among the bees -will scarcely ever fail to quiet them, though I have known black bees -in autumn, to be very slow to yield. Dry cotton cloth, closely wound -and sewed or tied, or better, pieces of dry, rotten wood, are excellent -for the purpose of smoking. These are easily handled, and will burn for -a long time. But best of all is a - - -BELLOWS-SMOKER. - -This is a tin tube attached to a bellows. Cloth or rotten wood can be -burned in the tube, and will remain burning a long time. The smoke can -be directed at pleasure, the bellows easily worked, and the smoker used -without any disagreeable effects or danger from fire. It can be got -from any dealer in bee apparatus, and only costs from $1.25 to $2.00. I -most heartily recommend it to all. - -There are two smokers in use, which I have found very valuable, and -both of which are worthy of recommendation. - - -THE QUINBY SMOKER. - -This smoker (Fig. 63, _a_) was a gift to bee-keepers by the late Mr. -Quinby, and not patented; though I supposed it was, and so stated -in a former edition of this work. Though a similar device had been -previously used in Europe, without doubt Mr. Quinby was not aware -of the fact, and as he was the person to bring it to the notice of -bee-keepers, and to make it so perfect as to challenge the attention -and win the favor of apiarists _instanter_, he is certainly worthy of -great praise, and deserving of hearty gratitude. This smoker, until a -better one appeared, was a very valuable and desirable instrument. Its -faults were, lack of strength, too small a fire-tube, too little draft -when not in use, so that the fire would go out, and too great liability -to fall over on the side, when the fire was sure to be extinguished. -Many of these defects, however, have been corrected, and other -improvements made in a new smoker, called the Improved Quinby (Fig. 63, -_b_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.] - - -THE BINGHAM SMOKER. - -This smoker (Fig. 64) not only meets all the requirements, which are -wanting in the old Quinby smoker, but shows by its whole construction, -that it has not only as a whole, but in every part, been subject to the -severest test, and the closest, thought and study. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.] - -At first sight this seems an improved copy of Mr. Quinby's smoker, and -so I first thought, though I only saw it in Mr. Bingham's hand at a -Convention. I have since used it, examined it in every part, and have -to say that it is not a Quinby smoker. The bellows, the valve, the -cut-off, and even the form, are all peculiar. The special point to be -commended, and, I suppose, the only one patentable, is the cut-off -between the bellows and fire-tube, so that the fire seldom goes out, -while even hard-wood, as suggested by the inventor, forms an excellent -and ever-ready fuel. The valve for the entrance of air to the bellows, -permits rapid work, the spring is of the best clock-spring material, -the leather perfect, not split sheep-skin, while the whole construction -of the bellows, and the plan of the fire-screen and cut-off draft, show -much thought and ingenuity. I am thus full in this description, that I -may not only benefit my readers, all of whom will want a smoker, but -also out of gratitude to Mr. Bingham, who has conferred such a favor -on American apiarists. There are three sizes, which may be bought for -$1.00, $1.50 and $1.75, respectively, including postage. - -Mr. Bingham, to protect himself, and preserve the quality of his -invention, has procured a patent. This, provided he has only patented -his own invention, is certainly his right, which I think honesty -requires us all to respect. Like Mr. Langstroth, he has given us a -valuable instrument; let us see that he is not defrauded out of the -justly earned reward for his invention. - -Brother apiarists, let us cease this unjust clamor against patents -and patentees. If a man procures a patent on a worthless thing, let -him alone, and where is the damage? If a man procures a patent on a -valuable and desirable invention, then buy it, or pay for the right to -make it, and thus keep the Eighth and Tenth Commandments (Exodus, 20th -chap., 8th and 10th verses). Let us never buy an article unless we know -it is valuable and desirable for us, no matter how stoutly importuned; -but for honesty's sake, and that we may encourage more inventions, let -us respect a man's patent as we would any other property. If we are -in doubt as to the correctness of some person's claim, let us not be -forced to pay a bonus, but first write to some candid editor or other -authority, and if we find a man has a right to the article, then pay -as we would any other debt. I should be very suspicious of any man's -honesty who was not willing to respect such rights. - - -TO SMOKE BEES. - -Approach the hive, blow a little smoke in at the entrance, then open -from above, and blow in smoke as required. If at any time the bees seem -irritable, a few puffs from the smoker will subdue them. Thus, any -person may handle his bees with perfect freedom and safety. If at any -time the fire-chamber and escape-pipe become filled with soot, they can -easily be cleaned by revolving an iron or hard-wood stick inside of -them. - - -TO CURE STINGS. - -In case a person is stung, he should step back a little for a moment, -as the pungent odor of the venom is likely to anger the bees and induce -further stinging. The sting should be withdrawn, and if the pain is -such as to prove troublesome, apply a little ammonia. The venom is an -acid, and is neutralized by the alkali. Pressing over the sting with -the barrel of a watch-key is also said to be of some use in staying the -progress of the poison in the circulation of the blood. In case horses -are badly stung, as sometimes happens, they should be taken as speedily -as possible into a barn (a man, too, may escape angry bees by entering -a building), where the bees will seldom follow, then wash the horses in -soda water, and cover with blankets wet in cold water. - - -THE SWEAT THEORY. - -It is often stated that sweaty horses and people are obnoxious to the -bees, and hence, almost sure targets for their barbed arrows. In warm -weather I perspire most profusely, yet am scarcely ever stung, since -I have learned to control my nerves. I once kept my bees in the front -yard--they looked beautiful on the green lawn--within two rods of a -main thoroughfare, and not infrequently let my horse, covered with -sweat upon my return from a drive, crop the grass, while cooling off, -right in the same yard. Of course, there was some danger, but I never -knew my horse to get stung. Why, then, the theory? May not the more -frequent stings be consequent upon the warm, nervous condition of the -individual? The man is more ready to strike and jerk, the horse to -stamp and switch. The switching of the horse's tail, like the whisker -trap of a full beard, will anger even a good-natured bee. I should -dread the motions more than the sweat, though it may be true that there -is a peculiarity in the odor from either the sensible or insensible -perspiration of some persons, that angers the bees and provokes the use -of their terrible weapons. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -COMB FOUNDATION. - - -Every apiarist of experience knows that empty combs in frames, -comb-guides in the sections, to tempt the bees and to insure the proper -position of the full combs, in fact, combs of almost any kind or shape, -are of great importance. So every skillful apiarist is very careful -to save all drone-comb that is cut out of the brood-chamber--where it -is worse than useless, as it brings with it myriads of those useless -gormands, the drones--to kill the eggs, remove the brood, or extract -the honey, and to transfer it to the sections. He is equally careful -to keep all his worker-comb, so long as the cells are of proper size -to domicile full-sized larvæ, and never to sell any comb, or even -comb-honey, unless a much greater price makes it desirable. - -No wonder, then, if comb is so desirable, that German thought and -Yankee ingenuity have devised means of giving the bees at least a start -in this important, yet expensive work of comb-building, and hence the -origin of another great aid to the apiarist--comb foundation (Fig. 65). - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.] - - -HISTORY. - -For more than twenty years the Germans have used impressed sheets of -wax as a foundation for comb, as it was first made by Herr Mehring, in -1857. These sheets are four or five times as thick as the partition at -the centre of natural comb, which is very thin, only 1-180 of an inch -thick. This is pressed between metal plates so accurately formed that -the wax receives rhomboidal impressions which are a _fac simile_ of the -basal wall or partition between the opposite cells of natural comb. The -thickness of this sheet is no objection, as it is found that the bees -almost always thin it down to the natural thickness, and probably use -the shavings to form the walls. - - -AMERICAN FOUNDATION. - -Mr. Wagner secured a patent on foundation in 1861, but as the article -was already in use in Germany, the patent was, as we understand, of no -legal value, and certainly, as it did nothing to bring this desirable -article into use, it had no virtual value. Mr. Wagner was also the -first to suggest the idea of rollers. In Langstroth's work, edition -of 1859, p. 373, occurs the following, in reference to printing or -stamping combs: "Mr. Wagner suggests forming these outlines with a -simple instrument somewhat like a wheel cake cutter. When a large -number are to be made, a machine might easily be constructed which -would stamp them with great rapidity." In 1866, the King Brothers, of -New York, in accordance with the above suggestion, invented the first -machine with rollers, the _product_ of which they tried but failed to -get patented. These stamped rollers were less than two inches long. -This machine was useless, and failed to bring foundation into general -use. - -In 1874, Mr. Frederick Weiss, a poor German, invented the machine which -brought the foundation into general use. His machine had lengthened -rollers--they being six inches long--and shallow grooves between the -pyramidal projections, so that there was a very shallow cell raised -from the basal impression as left by the German plates. This was the -machine on which was made the beautiful and practical foundation sent -out by "John Long," in 1874 and 1875, and which proved to the American -apiarists that foundation machines, and foundation, too, were to be a -success. I used some of this early foundation, and have been no more -successful with that made by the machines of to-day. To Frederick -Weiss, then, are Americans and the world indebted for this invaluable -aid to the apiarist. Yet, the poor old man has, I fear, received very -meager profits from this great invention, while some writers ignore -his services entirely, not granting him the poor meed of the honor. -Since that time many machines have been made, without even a thank you, -as I believe, to this old man, Weiss. Does not this show that patents, -or something--a higher morality, if you please--is necessary, that -men may secure justice? True, faulty foundation, and faulty machines -were already in use, but it was the inventive skill of Mr. Weiss that -made foundation cheap and excellent, and thus popularized it with the -American apiarists. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.] - -These Weiss machines turn out the comb-foundation not only of -exquisite mold, but with such rapidity that it can be made cheap -and practicable. Heretofore these machines have been sold at an -enormous profit. Last November, 1877, I expostulated with one of the -manufacturers of American machines, because of the high price, saying, -as I looked at one of the machines: These ought to be sold for thirty -or forty dollars, instead of one hundred dollars. He replied that such -machines--with rollers, not plates--that gave the foundation the exact -figure of natural comb, were only made, he thought, by the person who -made his machines, and thus convinced me that said person should be -rewarded, _amply rewarded_, for his invention. But as I have since -learned that this is only the Weiss machine, and does no more perfect -work, I now think Mr. Weiss should receive the super-extra profits. -Even with machines at one hundred dollars, foundation was profitable, -as I with many others have found. But with the present price--forty -dollars, which I think, judging from the simplicity of the machine, -advertised at that price (Fig. 66), must be reduced still lower--we can -hardly conceive what an immense business this is soon to become. - - -HOW FOUNDATION IS MADE. - -The process of making the foundation is very simple. Thin sheets of -wax, as thin as is consistent with strength, are simply passed between -the rollers, which are so made as to stamp worker or drone foundation, -as may be desired. The rollers are well covered with starch-water to -secure against adhesion. Two men can roll out about four hundred pounds -per day. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.] - - -TO SECURE THE WAX SHEETS. - -To make the thin sheets of wax, Mr. A. I. Root takes sheets or plates -of galvanized iron with a wooden handle. These are cooled by dipping in -ice-water, and then are dipped two, or three times if the wax is very -hot, in the melted wax, which is maintained at the proper temperature -by keeping it in a double-walled vessel, with hot water in the outer -chamber. Such a boiler, too, prevents burning of the wax, which would -ruin it, while it is being melted. After dipping the plates in the wax, -they are again dipped, when dripping has ceased, into the cold water, -after which the sheets of wax are cleaved off, the plates brushed, -wiped, cooled, and dipped again. The boiler used in melting the wax -has the gate with a fine wire sieve attached near the top, so that -the wax as it is drawn off into the second boiler, will be thoroughly -cleansed. Mr. Root states that two men and a boy will thus make four -hundred pounds of wax sheets in a day. - -Others use wooden plates on which to mold the sheets, while the -Hetherington brothers prefer, and are very successful with a wooden -cylinder, which is made to revolve in the melted wax, and is so hinged, -that it can be speedily raised above or lowered into the liquid. - -For cutting foundation, nothing is so admirable as the Carlin cutter -(Fig. 67, _a_), which is like the wheel glass-cutters sold in the -shops, except that a larger wheel of tin takes the place of the one of -hardened steel. Mr. A. I. Root has suggested a grooved board (Fig. 67, -_b_) to go with the above, the distance between the grooves being equal -to the desired width of the strips of comb foundation to be cut. - - -USE OF FOUNDATION. - -I have used foundation, as have many other more extensive apiarists, -with perfect success in the section-boxes. The bees have so thinned it -that even epicures could not tell comb-honey with such foundation, from -that wholly made by the bees. Yet, I forbear recommending it for such -use. When such men as Hetherington, Moore, Ellwood, and L. C. Root, -protest against a course, it is well to pause before we adopt it; so, -while I have used foundation, I think with some small advantage in -sections and boxes for three years, I shall still pronounce against it. - -It will not be well to have the word artificial hitched on to our -comb-honey. I think it exceedingly wise to maintain inviolate in the -public mind the idea that comb-honey is _par excellence_, a natural -product. And as Captain Hetherington aptly suggests, this argument is -all the more weighty, in view of the filthy condition of much of our -commercial beeswax. - -Again, our bees may not always thin the foundation, and we risk our -reputation in selling it in comb-honey, and an unquestioned reputation -is too valuable to be endangered in this way, especially as in these -days of adulteration, we may not know how much paraffine, etc., there -is in our foundation, unless we make it ourselves. - -Lastly, there is no great advantage in its use in the sections, as -drone-comb is better, and with caution and care this can be secured -in ample quantities to furnish very generous starters for all our -sections. This will readily adhere, if the edge be dipped into melted -beeswax, and applied to the sections. - -If any one should still be disposed to make such use of foundation, -they should only purchase of very reliable parties, that they may -be sure to use only such wax as is genuine, _yellow_, clean, and -_certainly unmixed with paraffine_, or any of the commercial products -which were first used to adulterate the wax. _Only pure, clean, -unbleached wax should be used in making foundation._ We should be _very -careful_ not to put on the market any comb-honey where the foundation -had not been properly thinned by the bees. Perhaps a very fine needle -would enable one to determine this point without injury to the honey. - -But the most promising use of foundation, to which there can be no -objection, is in the brood-chamber. It is astonishing to see how -rapidly the bees will extend the cells, and how readily the queen will -stock them with eggs if of the right size, five cells to the inch. -_The foundation should always be the right size either for worker -or drone-comb._ Of course the latter size would never be used in -the brood-chamber. The advantage of foundation is, first, to insure -worker-comb, and thus worker-brood, and second, to furnish wax, so that -the bees may be free to gather honey. We proved in our apiary the past -two seasons, that by use of foundation, and a little care in pruning -out the drone-comb, we could limit or even exclude drones from our -hives, and we have but to examine the capacious and constantly crowded -stomachs of these idlers, to appreciate the advantage of such a course. -Bees may occasionally tear down worker-cells and build drone-cells in -their place; but such action, I believe, is not sufficiently extensive -to ever cause anxiety. I am also certain that bees that have to -secrete wax to form comb, do much less gathering. Wax secretion seems -voluntary, and when rapid seems to require quiet and great consumption -of food. If we make two artificial colonies equally strong, supply the -one with combs, and withhold them from the other, we will find that -this last sends much fewer bees to the fields, while all the bees are -more or less engaged in wax secretion. Thus the other colony gains -much more rapidly in honey, first, because more bees are storing; -second, because less food is consumed. This is undoubtedly the reason -why extracted-honey can be secured in far greater abundance than can -comb-honey. - -The foundation if used the full depth of the frame, stretches so that -many cells are so enlarged as to be used for drone-brood. This demands, -if we use the sheets unstrengthened, that they only be used as guides, -not reaching more than one-third of the depth of the frame. Strips not -less than four inches wide will not sag to do any harm. The foundation, -too, should not quite reach the sides of the frame, as by expansion it -is liable to warp and bend. Captain J. E. Hetherington has invented a -cure for this stretching and warping, by strengthening the foundation. -To do this, he runs several fine copper wires into the foundation as it -passes through the machine. - -I understand, too, that Mr. M. Metcalf, of this State, has a similar -device now being patented. - -This is a valuable suggestion, as it permits full-sized sheets of -foundation to be inserted in the frames. I presume that very soon all -worker-foundation will contain such wires. - - -TO FASTEN THE FOUNDATION. - -In the thin sections, the foundation can best be fastened by use of -the melted wax. To accomplish this, I have used a block made thus: Saw -a fifteen-sixteenths inch board so that it will just exactly fill a -section. Screw this to a second board, which is one-half inch broader -each way, so that the larger under board will project one-quarter of -an inch each side the top board. Now set the section over the top -board, place the foundation, cut a trifle shorter than the inside of -the section, within, close to the top and one side of the section, and -cause it to adhere by running on a little of the melted wax, which, by -use of a kerosene lamp or stove, may be kept melted. If the basin is -double-walled, with water in the outer chamber and wax in the inner, it -is much safer, as then the wax will never burn. - -If the tops of the sections are thick, they may be grooved, and by -crowding the foundation into the groove, and, if necessary, pressing it -with a thin wedge, it will be securely held. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.] - -This last method will work nicely in case of fastening into the -brood-frames. But I have found that I could fasten them rapidly -and very securely by simply pressing them against the rectangular -projection from the top-bar already described (page 134). In this case -a block (Fig, 68, _a_) should reach up into the frame from the side -which is nearest to the rectangular projection--it will be remembered -that the projection (Fig. 36) is a little to one side of the centre -of the top-bar, so that the foundation shall hang exactly in the -centre--so far that its upper surface would be exactly level with the -upper surface of the rectangular projection. This block, like the one -described above, has shoulders (Fig. 68, _f_), so that it will always -reach just the proper distance into the frame. It is also rabbeted at -the edge where the projection of the top-bar of the frame will rest, -(Fig. 68, _b_), so that the projection has a solid support, and will -not split off with pressure. We now set our frame on this block, lay -on our foundation, cut the size we desire, which, unless strengthened, -will be as long as the frame, and about four inches wide. The -foundation will rest firmly on the projection and block, and touch the -top-bar, at every point. We now take a board as thick as the projection -is deep, and as wide (Fig. 69, _d_) as the frame is long, which may -be trimmed off, so as to have a convenient handle (Fig. 69, _e_), -and by wetting the edge of this (Fig. 69, _d_) either in water, or, -better, starch-water, and pressing with it on the foundation above the -projection, the foundation will be made to adhere firmly to the latter, -when the frame may be raised with the block, taken off, and another -fastened as before. I have practiced this plan for two years, and have -had admirable success. I have very rarely known the foundation to drop, -though it must be remembered that our hives are shaded, and our frames -small. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.] - -The above methods are successful, but probably will receive valuable -modifications at the hands of the ingenius apiarists of our land. Study -in this direction will unquestionably pay, as the use of this material -is going to be very extensive, and any improvements will be hailed with -joy by the bee-keeping fraternity. - - -SAVE THE WAX. - -As foundation is becoming so popular, and is destined to come into -general use, it behooves us all to be very careful that no old comb -goes to waste. Soiled drone-comb, old, worthless worker-comb, and all -fragments that cannot be used in the hives, together with cappings, -after the honey is drained out through a coarse bag or colander--which -process may be hastened by a moderate heat, not sufficient to melt the -wax, and frequent stirring--should be melted, cleansed, and molded -into cakes of wax, soon to be again stamped, not by the bees, but by -wondrous art. - - -METHODS. - -A slow and wasteful method is to melt in a vessel of heated water, -and to purify by turning off the top, or allowing to cool, when the -impurities at the bottom are scraped off, and the process repeated till -all impurities are eliminated. - -A better method to separate the wax is to put it into a strong, rather -coarse bag, then sink this in water and boil. At intervals the comb in -the bag should be pressed and stirred. The wax will collect on top of -the water. - -To prevent the bag from burning, it should be kept from touching the -bottom of the vessel by inverting a basin in the bottom of the latter, -or else by using a double-walled vessel. The process should be repeated -till the wax is perfectly cleansed. - -But, as wax is to become so important, and as the above methods are -slow, wasteful, and apt to give a poor quality of wax, specialists, -and even amateurs who keep as many as ten or twenty colonies of -bees, may well procure a wax extractor (Fig. 70). This is also a -foreign invention, the first being made by Prof. Gerster, of Berne, -Switzerland. These cost from five to seven dollars, are made of tin, -are very convenient and admirable, and can be procured of any dealer in -apiarian supplies. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.] - -By this invention, all the wax, even of the oldest combs, can be -secured, in beautiful condition, and as it is perfectly neat, there -is no danger of provoking the "best woman in the world," as we are in -danger of doing by use of either of the above methods--for what is more -untidy and perplexing than to have wax boil over on the stove, and -perhaps get on to the floor, and be generally scattered about. - -All pieces of comb should be put into a close box, and if any larvæ are -in it, the comb should be melted so frequently that it would not smell -badly. By taking pains, both in collecting and melting, the apiarist -will be surprised at the close of the season, as he views his numerous -and beautiful cakes of comb, and rejoice as bethinks how little trouble -it has all cost. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -MARKETING HONEY. - - -No subject merits more attention by the apiarist than that of marketing -honey. There is no question but that the supply is going to continually -increase, hence, to sustain the price we must stimulate the demand, and -by doing this we shall not only supply the people with a food element -which is necessary to health, but we shall also supersede in part the -commercial syrups, which are so adulterated as not only to be crowded -with filth the most revolting, but are often even teeming with poison. -(Report of Michigan Board of Health for 1874, pp. 75-79.) To bring, -then, to our neighbor's table the pure, wholesome, delicious nectar, -right from the hive, is philanthropy, whether he realizes it or not. - -Nor is it difficult to stimulate the demand. I have given special -attention to this topic for the last few years, and am free to say, -that not a tithe of the honey is consumed in our country that might and -should be. - - -HOW TO INVIGORATE THE MARKETS. - -First. See that no honey goes to market from your apiary that is not -in the most inviting form possible. Grade _all the honey thoroughly_, -and expect prices to correspond with the grade. See that every package -and vessel is not only attractive, but so arranged as not to make the -dealer any trouble or cause him any vexation. One leaky can or crate -may do great injury. - -Second. See that every grocer in your vicinity has honey constantly on -hand. Do all you can to build up a home market. The advice to sell to -only one or two dealers is wrong and pernicious. Whether we are to buy -or sell, we shall find almost always that it will be most satisfactory -to deal with men whom we know, and who are close at hand. Only when -you outgrow your home market should you ship to distant places. This -course will limit the supply in the large cities, and thus raise the -prices in the great marts, whose prices fix those in the country. Be -sure to keep honey constantly in the markets. - -Third. Insist that each grocer makes the honey _very_ conspicuous. If -necessary, supply large, fine labels, with your own name almost as -prominent as is that of the article. - -Fourth. Deliver the honey in small lots, so that it will be sure to -be kept in inviting form, and, if possible, attend to the delivery -yourself, that you may know that all is done "decently and in order." - -Fifth. Instruct your grocers that they may make the honey show to the -best effect, and thus captivate the purchaser through the sight alone. - -Sixth. _Call local conventions_, that all in the community may know and -practice the best methods, so that the markets may not be demoralized -by poor, unsalable honey. - -Of course, the method of preparation will depend largely, and vary -greatly, upon the style of honey to be sold, so we will consider these -kinds separately. - - -EXTRACTED HONEY. - -As before intimated, extracted honey has all the flavor, and is in -every way equal, if not superior--comb itself is innutritious, and very -indigestible--to comb-honey. When people once know its excellence--know -that it is not "strained"--let us, as apiarists, strive in every way -to kill that word--then the demand for this article will be vastly -increased, to the advantage both of the consumer and the apiarist. - -Explain to each grocer what we mean by the word extracted, and ask -him to spread wide the name and character of the honey. Leave cups -of the honey with the editors and men of influence, and get them to -discuss its origin and merits. I speak from experience, when I say that -in these ways the reputation and demand for extracted honey can be -increased to a surprising degree, and with astonishing rapidity. - - -HOW TO TEMPT THE CONSUMER. - -First. Have it chiefly in small cups--jelly cups are best. Many -persons will pay twenty-five cents for an article, when if it cost -fifty cents they would not think of purchasing. - -Second. Only put it in such vessels as jelly cups or glass fruit jars, -etc., that will be useful in every household when the honey is gone, -that the buyer may feel that the vessel is clear gain. - -Third. Explain to the grocer that if kept above the temperature of -70° or 80° F., it will not granulate, that granulation is a pledge -of purity and superiority, and show him how easy it is to reduce the -crystals, and ask him to explain this to his customers. If necessary, -liquify some of the granulated honey in his presence. - -Lastly. If you do not deliver the honey yourself, be sure that the -vessels will not leak in transit. It is best, in case jelly cups are -used, that they be filled at the grocery. And don't forget the large -label, which gives the kind of honey, grade, and producer's name. - - -COMB-HONEY. - -This, from its wondrous beauty, especially when light-colored and -immaculate, will always be a coveted article for the table, and will -ever, with proper care, bring the highest price paid for honey. So it -will always be best to work for this, even though we may not be able to -procure it in such ample profusion as we may the extracted. He who has -all kinds, will be able to satisfy every demand, and will most surely -meet with success. - - -RULES TO BE OBSERVED. - -This, too, should be chiefly in small sections (Fig. 50), for, as -before stated, such are the packages that surely sell. Sections from -four to six inches square will just fill a plate nicely, and look very -tempting to the proud house-wife, especially if some epicurean friends -are to be entertained. - -The sections should surely be in place at the dawn of the white clover -season, so that the apiarist may secure the most of this irresistible -nectar, chaste as if capped by the very snow itself. They should be -taken away as soon as capped, as delay makes them highways of travel -for the bees, which always mar their beauty. - -When removed, if demanded, glass the sections, but before this, we -should place them in hives one upon another, or special boxes made -tight, with a close cover, in which to store either brood-frames in -winter or sections at any season, and sulphur them. This is quickly and -easily done by use of the smoker. Get the fire in the smoker well to -burning, add the sulphur, then place this in the top hive, or top of -the special box. The sulphurous fumes will descend and deal out death -to all moth larvæ. _This should always be done_ before shipping the -honey, if we regard our reputations as precious. It is well to do this -immediately upon removal, and also two weeks after, so as to destroy -the moth larvæ not hatched when the sections are removed. - -If separators have been used, these sections are in good condition to -be glassed, and are also in nice shape to ship even without glass, as -they may stand side by side and not mar the comb. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.] - -The shipping-crate (Fig. 71) should be strong, neat and cheap, with -handles as seen in Fig. 71--such handles are also convenient in -the ends of the hives, and can be cut in an instant by having the -circular-saw set to wabble. With handles the crate is more convenient, -and is more sure to be set on its bottom. The crate should also be -glassed, as the sight of the comb will say: "Handle with care." - -Mr. Heddon also makes a larger crate (Fig. 72), which is neat and -cheap. Muth's crate is like Heddon's, only smaller. - -It is well, too, to wrap the sections in paper, as thus breakage of one -will not mean general ruin. However, this would be unnecessary in case -the sections were of veneer and glassed, as before described. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.] - -In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it will pay him -to furnish his own boxes. These should be made of white-wood, very -neat, and glassed in front to show the honey, and the cover so fixed -that unglassed sections--and these, probably, will soon become the most -popular--cannot be punched or fingered. Be sure, too, that the label, -with kind of honey, grade, and name of apiarist, be so plain that "he -who runs may read." - -Comb-honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of autumn, or the -cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms, or the comb will break -from the section when handled. By keeping it quite warm for some days -previous to shipment, it may be sent to market even in winter, but must -be handled very carefully, and must make a quick transit. - -Above all, _let "taste and neatness" ever be your motto_. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -HONEY PLANTS. - - -As bees do not make honey, but only gather it, and as honey is mainly -derived from certain flowers, it of course follows that the apiarist's -success will depend largely upon the abundance of honey-secreting -plants in the vicinity of his apiary. True it is that certain bark -and plant lice secrete a kind of liquid sweet--honey of doubtful -reputation--which, in the dearth of anything better, the bees seem -glad to appropriate. I have thus seen the bees thick about a large -bark-louse which attacks the tulip tree, and thus often destroys one -of our best honey trees. This is an undescribed species of the genus -_Lecanium_. I have also seen them thick about three species of plant -lice. One, the _Pemphigus imbricator_, Fitch, works on the beech -tree. Its abdomen is thickly covered with long wool, and it makes a -comical show as it wags this up and down upon the least disturbance. -The leaves of trees attacked by this louse, as also those beneath the -trees, are fairly gummed with a sweetish substance. I have found that -the bees avoid this substance, except at times of extreme drouth and -long protracted absence of honeyed bloom. It was the source of no -inconsiderable stores during the terribly parched autumn of Chicago's -great disaster. (See Appendix, page 286). - -Another species of _Pemphigus_ gives rise to certain solitary plum-like -galls, which appear on the upper surface of the red elm. These galls -are hollow, with a thin skin, and within the hollows are the lice, -which secrete an abundant sweet that often attracts the bees to a feast -of fat things, as the gall is torn apart, or cracks open, so that the -sweet exudes. This sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be -unwholesome to the bees. - -Another aphis, of a black hue, works on the branches of our willows, -which they often entirely cover, and thus greatly damage another tree -valuable for both honey and pollen. Were it not that they seldom are -so numerous two years in succession, they would certainly banish from -among us one of our most ornamental and valuable honey-producing -trees. These are fairly thronged in September and October, and not -unfrequently in spring and summer if the lice are abundant, by bees, -wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager to lap, up the -oozing sweets. This louse is doubtless the _Lachnus dentatus_, of Le -Baron, and the _Aphis salicti_, of Harris. - -Bees also get, in some regions, a sort of honey-dew, which enables them -to add to their stores with surprising rapidity. I remember one morning -while riding on horse-back along the Sacramento river, in California, I -broke off a willow twig beside the road when, to my surprise, I found -it was fairly decked with drops of honey. Upon further examination I -found the willow foliage was abundantly sprinkled by these delicious -drops. These shrubs were undisturbed by insects, nor were they under -trees. Here then was a real case of honey-dew, which must have been -distilled through the night by the leaves. I never saw any such -phenomenon in Michigan, yet others have. Dr. A. H. Atkins, an accurate -and conscientious observer, has noted this honey-dew more than once -here in Central Michigan. - -Bees also get some honey from oozing sap, some of questionable repute -from about cider mills, some from grapes and other fruit which have -been crushed, or eaten and torn by wasps and other insects. That bees -ever tear the grapes is a question of which I have failed to receive -any personal proof, though for years I have been carefully seeking -it. I have lived among the vineyards of California, and have often -watched bees about vines in Michigan, but never saw bees tear open -the grapes. I have laid crushed grapes in the apiary, when the bees -were not gathering, and were ravenous for stores, which, when covered -with sipping bees, were replaced with sound grape-clusters, which in -no instance were mutilated. I have thus been led to doubt if bees -ever attack sound grapes, though quick to improve the opportunities -which the oriole's beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer them. -Still, Prof. Riley feels sure that bees are sometimes thus guilty, -and Mr. Bidwell tells me he has frequently seen bees rend sound -grapes, which they did with their feet. Yet, if this is the case, it -is certainly of rare occurrence, and is more than compensated by the -great aid which the bees afford the fruit-grower in the great work of -cross-fertilization, which is imperatively necessary to his success, as -has been so well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin. It is true -that cross-fertilization of the flowers, which can only be accomplished -by insects, and early in the season by the honey-bee, is often, if -not always, necessary to a full yield of fruit and vegetables. I am -informed by Prof W. W. Tracy, that the gardeners in the vicinity of -Boston keep bees that they may perform this duty. Even then, if Mr. -Bidwell and Prof. Riley are right, and the bee does, rarely--for surely -this is very rare, if ever--destroy grapes, still they are, beyond any -possible question, invaluable aids to the pomologist. - -But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers. - - -WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY PLANTS? - -In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance for May is -the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In June white clover -yields largely of the most attractive honey, both as to appearance and -flavor. In July the incomparable basswood makes both bees and apiarist -jubilant. In August buckwheat offers a tribute, which we welcome, -though it be dark and pungent in flavor, while with us in Michigan, -August and September give us a profusion of bloom which yields to no -other in the richness of its capacity to secrete honey, and is not -cut-off till the autumn frosts--usually about September 15. - -Thousands of acres of golden rod, boneset, asters, and other autumn -flowers of our new northern counties, as yet have blushed unseen, -with fragrance wasted. This unoccupied territory, unsurpassed in its -capability for fruit production, covered with grand forests of maple -and basswood, and spread with the richest of autumn bloom, offers -opportunities to the practical apiarist rarely equaled except in -the Pacific States, and not even there, when other privileges are -considered. In these localities, two or three hundred pounds to the -colony is no surprise to the apiarist, while even four or five hundred -are not isolated cases. - -In the following table will be found a list of valuable honey-plants. -Those in the first column are annual, biennial or perennial; the -annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus: (); the biennial enclosed -in brackets thus: []; while those in the second column are shrubs or -trees; the names of shrubs being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of -commencement of bloom is, of course, not invariable. The one appended, -in case of plants which grow in our State, is about average for Central -Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in small capitals yield very -superior honey. Those with (_a_) are useful for other purposes than -honey secretion. All but those with a * are native or very common in -Michigan. Those written in the plural refer to more than one species. -Those followed by a † are very numerous in species. Of course I have -not named all, as that would include some hundreds which have been -observed at the college, taking nearly all of the two great orders -Compositæ and Rosaceæ. I have only aimed to give the most important, -omitting many foreign plants of notoriety, as I have had no personal -knowledge of them: - - ======================================== - DATE. | Annuals or Perennials. - ======================================== - April |Dandelion. - April and May |Strawberry. (_a_) - May and June |*White Sage, California - May and June |*Sumac, California. - May and June |*Coffee Berry, California - June to July |WHITE CLOVER. (_a_) - June to July |ALSIKE CLOVER. (_a_) - June to July |*[SWEET CLOVER.] - June to July |*Horehound. [Weed.] - June to July |Ox-eyed Daisy--Bad - June to July |Bush Honeysuckle. - June to August |*Sage. - June to August |Motherwort. - June to frost |*(Borage.) - June to frost |*(Cotton.) (_a_) - June to frost |Silk or Milk Weeds. - June to frost |(Mustard)† - June to frost |*(Rape.) (_a_) - June to frost |St. John's Wort. - June to frost |(MIGNONETTE.) (_a_) - July |(Corn.) (_a_) - July |*(Teasel.) (_a_) - July to August |*Catnip. (_a_) - July to August |Asparagus. (_a_) - July to August |*(Rocky M't. Bee Plant) - July to frost |Boneset. - July to frost |Bergamot. - July to frost |Figwort. - August |(Buckwheat.) (_a_) - August |(Snap-dragon.) - August to frost|(GOLDEN ROD.)† - August to frost|Asters.† - August to frost|Marsh Sun-Flowers. - August to frost|Tick-Seed. - August to frost|Beggar-Ticks. - August to frost|Spanish Needles. - - ======================================== - DATE. | Shrubs or Trees. - ======================================== - March and Ap'l |Red or Soft Maple.(_a_) - March and Ap'l |Poplar or Aspen. - March and Ap'l |Silver Maple. - March and Ap'l |*Judas Tree. - May |(Shad-bush.) - May |(Alder.) - May |Maples-Sugar Maple (_a_) - May |Crab Apple. - May |(Hawthorns.) - |{ Fruit Trees--Apple, - May. |{ Plum, Cherry, Pear, - |{ etc. (_a_) - May |Currant and Gooseberry. (_a_) - May |*(Wistaria Vine-South) - |{ (Chinese Wistaria - May |{ Vine--South.) - May and June |(Barberry.) - May and June |(Grape-vine.) (__a) - May and June |Tulip-tree. - May and June |(Sumac.) - June |Wild-Plum. - June |(Black Raspberry.) (_a_) - June |Locusts. - June |(RED RASPBERRY.) (_a_) - June |(Blackberry.) - June to July |*Sour-wood--South. - July |(Button Bush.) - July |BASSWOOD. (_a_) - July |(Virginia Creeper.) (_a_) - July to August |*Pepper-tree, Cal'a. - July to Sept |*(St. John's Worts.) - August |(Late Sumac.) - August to Sept.|*Red Gum, California. - - -DESCRIPTION WITH PRACTICAL REMARKS. - -As this subject of bee pasturage is of such prime importance, and as -the interest in the subject is so great and wide-spread, I feel that -details with illustrations will be more than warranted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.--_Maple._] - -We have abundant experience to show that forty or fifty colonies of -bees, take the seasons as they average, are all that a single place -will sustain to the greatest advantage. Then, how significant the -fact, that when the season is the best, full three times that number -of colonies will find ample resources to keep all employed. So this -subject of artificial pasturage becomes one well worthy close study and -observation. The subject, too, is a very important one in reference to -the location of the apiary. - -It is well to remember in this connection, that two or three miles -should be regarded as the limit of profitable gathering. That is, -apiaries of from fifty to one hundred or more colonies, should not be -nearer than four or five miles of each other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.-_Willow._] - - -APRIL PLANTS. - -As we have already seen, the apiarist does not secure the best results, -even in the early spring, except the bees are encouraged by the -increase of their stores of pollen and honey; hence, in case we do -not practice stimulative feeding--and many will not--it becomes very -desirable to have some early bloom. Happily, in all sections of the -United States our desires are not in vain. - -Early in spring there are many scattering wild flowers, as the -blood-root (_Sanguinaria canadensis_), liver-leaf (_Hepatica -acutiloba_), and various others of the crowfoot family, as also many -species of cress, which belong to the mustard family, etc., all of -which are valuable and important. - -The maples (Fig. 73), which are all valuable honey plants, also -contribute to the early stores. Especially valuable are the silver -maples (_Acer dasycarpum_), and the red or soft maples (_Acer rubrum_), -as they bloom so very early, long before the leaves appear. The bees -work on these, here in Michigan, the first week of April, and often -in March. They are also magnificent shade trees, especially those -that have the weeping habit. Their early bloom is very pleasing, -their summer form and foliage beautiful, while their flaming tints -in autumn are indescribable. The foreign maples, sycamore, _Acer -pseudo-platanus_, and Norway, _Acer platanoides_, are also very -beautiful. Whether superior to ours as honey plants, I am unable to say. - -The willows, too (Fig. 74), rival the maples in the early period of -bloom. Some are very early, blossoming in March, while others, like the -white willow (_Salix alba_) (Fig. 74), bloom in May. The flowers on one -tree or bush of the willow are all pistillate, that is, have pistils, -but no stamens, while on others they are all staminate, having no -pistils. On the former, they can gather only honey, on the latter only -pollen. That the willow furnishes both honey and pollen is attested -by the fact that I saw both kinds of trees, the pistillate and the -staminate, thronged with bees the past season. The willow, too, from -its elegant form and silvery foliage, is one of our finest shade trees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--_Judas Tree_] - -In the south of Michigan, and thence southward to Kentucky, and even -beyond, the Judas tree, or red-bud, _Cercis canadensis_ (Fig. 75), -is not only worthy of cultivation as a honey plant, but is also -very attractive, and well deserving of attention for its ornamental -qualities alone. This blooms from March to May, according to the -latitude. - -The poplars--not the tulip--also bloom in April, and are freely visited -by the bees. The wood is immaculate, and i& used for toothpicks. Why -not use it for honey-boxes? - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.--_American Wistaria._] - - -MAY PLANTS. - -In May we have the grand sugar maple, _Acer saccharinum_ (Fig. 73), -incomparable for beauty, also all our various fruit trees, peach, -cherry, plum, apple, etc., in fact all the Rosaceæ family. Our -beautiful American Wistaria, _Wistaria frutescens_ (Fig. 76), the -very ornamental climber, or the still more lovely Chinese Wistaria, -_Wistaria sinensis_ (Fig. 77), which has longer racemes than the -native, and often blossoms twice in the season. These are the woody -twiners for the apiarist. The barberry, too, _Berberis vulgaris_ (Fig. -78), comes after fruit blossoms, and is thronged with bees in search -of nectar in spring, as with children in winter, in quest of the -beautiful scarlet berries, so pleasingly tart. - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.--_Chinese Wistaria._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.--_Barberry._] - -In California, the sumac, the coffee berry, and the famous white sage -(Fig. 79), keep the bees full of activity. - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.--_White Sage._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.--_White or Dutch Clover._] - - -JUNE PLANTS. - -With June comes the incomparable white or Dutch clover, _Trifolium -repens_ (Fig. 80), whose chaste and modest bloom betokens the -beautiful, luscious, and unrivalled sweets which are hidden in its -corolla tube. Also its sister, Alsike or Swedish, _Trifolium hybrida_ -(Fig. 81), which seems to resemble both the white and red clover. It is -a stronger grower than the white, and has a whitish blossom tinged with -pink. This forms excellent pasture and hay for cattle, sheep, etc., -and may well be sown by the apiarist. It will often pay apiarists to -furnish neighbor farmers with seed as an inducement to grow this par -excellent honey plant. Like white clover, it blooms all through June -into July. Both of these should be sown early in spring with timothy, -five or six pounds of seed to the acre, in the same manner that red -clover seed is sown. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81.--_Alsike Clover._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.--_Melilot Clover._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 83.--_Borage._] - -Sweet clover, yellow and white, _Melilotus officinalis_ (Fig. 82), and -_Melilotus alba_, are well named. They bloom from the middle of June to -the middle of July. Their perfume scents the air for long distances, -and the hum of bees that throng their flowers is like music to the -apiarist's ear. The honey, too, is just exquisite. These clovers are -biennial, not blooming the first season, and dying after they bloom the -second season. Another disagreeable fact, they have no value except for -honey. They are said to become pernicious weeds if allowed to spread. - -The other clovers--lucerne, yellow trefoil, scarlet trefoil, and -alfalfa--have not proved of any value with us, perhaps owing to -locality. - -Borage, _Borago officinalis_ (Fig. 83), an excellent bee plant, blooms -from June till frost, and is visited by bees even in very rainy -weather. It seems not to be a favorite, but is eagerly visited when all -others fail to yield nectar. - -[Illustration: Fig. 84.--_Mignonette._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 85.--_Okra._] - -Mignonette, _Reseda odorata_ (Fig. 84), blooms from the middle of June -till frost, is unparalleled for its sweet odor, furnishes nectar in -profusion, and is well worthy cultivation. It does not secrete well in -wet weather, but in favorable weather it is hardly equalled. - -Okra or gumbo, _Hibiscus esculentus_, (Fig. 85), also blooms in June. -It is as much sought after by the bees in quest of honey, as by the -cook in search of a savory vegetable, or one to give tone to soup. - -Sage, _Salvia officinalis_, horehound, _Marrubium vulgare_, motherwort, -_Leonurus cardiaca_, and catnip, _Nepeta cataria_, which latter does -not commence to bloom till July, all furnish nice white honey, remain -in bloom a long time, and are very desirable, as they are in bloom in -the honey dearth of July and August. They, like many others of the mint -family (Fig. 86), are thronged with bees during the season of bloom. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86.--_Mint._] - -The first and last are of commercial importance, and all may well be -introduced by apiarists, wherever there is any space or waste ground. - -The silk or milk-weed furnishes abundant nectar from June to frost, as -there are several species of the genus Asclepias, which is wide-spread -in our country. This is the plant which has large pollen masses which -often adhere to the legs of bees (Fig. 87), and sometimes so entrap -them as to cause their death. Prof. Riley once very graciously advised -planting them to kill bees. I say graciously, as I have watched these -very closely, and am sure they do little harm, and are rich in nectar. -Seldom a bee gets caught so as to hold it long, and when these awkward -masses are carried away with the bee, they are usually left at the door -of the hive, where I have often seen them in considerable numbers. The -river bank hard by our apiary is lined with these sweet-smelling herbs, -and we would like even more. - -[Illustration: Fig. 87.--_Pollen of Milk-weed._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 88.--_Black Mustard._] - -Black mustard, _Sinapis nigra_ (Fig. 88) white mustard, _Sinapis -alba_, and rape, _Brassica campestris_ (Fig. 89), all look much alike, -and are all admirable bee plants, as they furnish much and beautiful -honey. The first, if self-sown, blooms July 1st, the others June 1st; -the first about eight weeks after sowing, the others about four. The -mustards bloom for four weeks, rape for three. These are all specially -commendable, as they may be made to bloom during the honey dearth of -July and August, and are valuable plants to raise for the seed. Rape -seems to be very attractive to insects, as the flea beetles and the -blister beetles are often quite too much for it, though they do not -usually destroy the plants till after they have blossomed. I have -several times purchased what purported to be Chinese mustard, dwarf and -tall, but Prof. Beal, than whom there is no better authority, tells -me they are only the white and black, and certainly, they are no whit -better as bee plants. These plants, with buckwheat, the mints, borage -and mignonette, are specially interesting, as they cover, or may be -made to cover, the honey dearth from about July 20th to August 20th. - -[Illustration: Fig. 89.--_Rape._] - -The mustards and rape may be planted in drills about eight inches -apart, any time from May 1st to July 15th. Four quarts will sow an -acre. - -[Illustration: Fig. 90.--_Tulip_] - -In this month blooms the tulip tree, _Liriodendron tulipifera_ -(Fig. 90)--often called poplar in the South--which is not only an -excellent honey producer, but is one of our most stately and admirable -shade-trees. Now, too, bloom the sumacs, though one species blooms in -May, the wild plum, the raspberries, whose nectar is unsurpassed in -color and flavor, and the blackberry. Corn, too, is said by many to -yield largely of honey as well as pollen, and the teasel, _Dipsacus -fullonum_ (Fig. 91), is said, not only by Mr. Doolittle, but by English -and German apiarists, to yield richly of beautiful honey. This last, -too, has commercial importance. The blackberry opens its petals in -June, and also the fragrant locust, which, from its rapid growth, -beautiful form and handsome foliage, would rank among our first shade -trees, except that it is so tardy in spreading its canopy of green, and -so liable to ruinous attack by the borers, which last peculiarity it -shares with the incomparable maples. Washing the trunks of the trees in -June and July with soft soap, will in great part remove this trouble. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91.--_Teasel._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 92.--_Cotton._] - -Now, too, our brothers of the South reap a rich harvest from the -great staple, cotton (Fig. 92), which commences to bloom early in -June, and remains in blossom even to October. This belongs to the -same family--Mallow--as the hollyhock, and like it, blooms and fruits -through the season. - - -JULY PLANTS. - -Early in this month opens the far-famed basswood or linden, _Tilia -Americana_ (Fig. 93), which, for the profusion and quality of its honey -has no superior. The tree, too, from its great spreading top and fine -foliage, is magnificent for shade. Five of these trees are within two -rods of my study window, and their grateful fragrance, and beautiful -form and shade, have often been the subject of remark by visitors. - -[Illustration: Fig. 93.--_Basswood._] - -Figwort, _Scrophularia nodosa_ (Fig. 94), often called rattle-weed, as -the seeds will rattle in the pod, and carpenter's square, as it has -a square stalk, is an insignificant looking weed, with inconspicuous -flowers, that afford abundant nectar from the middle of July till -frost. I have received almost as many for identification as I have of -the asters and golden-rods. Prof. Beal remarked to me a year or two -since, that it hardly seemed possible that it could be so valuable. -We cannot always rightly estimate by appearances alone. It is a very -valuable plant to be scattered in waste places. - -[Illustration: Fig. 94.--_Figwort._] - -That beautiful and valuable honey plant, from Minnesota, Colorado, and -the Rocky Mountains, cleome, or the Rocky Mountain bee-plant, _Cleome -integrifolia_ (Fig. 96), if self-sown, or sown early in spring, blooms -by the middle of July, and lasts for long weeks. Nor can anything be -more gay than these brilliant flowers, alive with bees all through the -long fall. This should be planted in fall or spring, in drills two feet -apart, the plants six inches apart in the drills. The seeds, which grow -in pods, are very numerous, and are said to be valuable for chickens. -Now, too, commence to bloom the numerous eupatoriums, or bonesets, or -thoroughworts (Fig. 97), which fill the marshes of our country, and -the hives as well, with their rich golden nectar--precursors of that -profusion of bloom of this composite order, whose many species are -even now budding in preparation for the sea of flowers which will deck -the marsh-lands of August and September. Wild bergamot, too, _Monarda -fistulosa_, which, like the thistles, is of importance to the apiarist, -blooms in July. - -[Illustration: Fig. 95.--_Button Bush._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 96.--_Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant._] - -The little shrub of our marshes, appropriately named button-bush, -_Cephalanthus occidentalis_, (Fig. 95), also shares the attention -of the bees with the linden; while apiarists of the South find the -sour-wood, or sorrel tree, _Oxydendrum arboreum_, a valuable honey -tree. This belongs to the Heath family, which includes the far-famed -heather bloom of England. It also includes our whortleberry, cranberry, -blueberry, and one plant which has no enviable reputation, as -furnishing honey, which is very poisonous, even fatal to those who eat, -the mountain laurel, _Kalmia latifolia_. Yet, a near relative of the -South _Andromeda nitida_, is said to furnish beautiful and wholesome -honey in great quantities. The Virginia creeper also blooms in July. -I wish I could say that this beautiful vine, transplendent in autumn, -is a favorite with the honey-bee. Though it often, nay always, swarms -with wild bees when in blossom, yet I never saw a honey-bee visit the -ample bloom amidst its rich, green, vigorous foliage. Now, too, the -St. John's wort, _Hypericum_, with its many species, both shrubby and -herbaceous, offers bountiful contributions to the delicious stores of -the honey-bee. The catnip, too, _Nepeta cataria_, and our cultivated -asparagus--which if uncut in spring will bloom in June--so delectable -for the table, and so elegant for trimming table meats and for banquets -in autumn, come now to offer their nectarian gifts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 97.--_Boneset._] - - -AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER PLANTS. - -The cultivated buckwheat, _Fagopyrum esculentum_, (Fig. 98), usually -blooms in August, as it is sown the first of July--three pecks per -acre is the amount to sow--but by sowing the first of June, it may be -made to bloom the middle of July, when there is generally, in most -localities, an absence of nectar-secreting flowers. The honey is -inferior in color and flavor, though some people prefer this to all -other honey. The silver-leaf buckwheat blooms longer, has more numerous -flowers, and thus yields more grain than the common variety. - -Now, too, come the numerous golden-rods. The species of this genus, -_Solidago_ (Fig. 99), in the Eastern United States, number nearly -two-score, and occupy all kinds of soils, and are at home on upland, -prairie and morass. They yield abundantly of rich, golden honey, with -flavor that is unsurpassed by any other. Fortunate the apiarist who can -boast of a thicket of Solidagoes in his locality. - -[Illustration: Fig. 98.--_Buckwheat._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 99.--_Golden-Rod._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 100.--_Aster._] - -The many plants usually styled sun-flowers, because of their -resemblance to our cultivated plants of that name, which deck the -hill-side, meadow and marsh-land, now unfurl their showy involucres, -and open their modest corollas, to invite the myriad insects to sip -the precious nectar which each of the clustered flowers secretes. Our -cultivated sun-flowers, I think, are indifferent honey plants, though -some think them big with beauty, and their seeds are relished by -poultry. But the asters (Fig. 100), so wide-spread, the beggar-ticks, -_Bidens_, and Spanish-needles of our marshes, the tick-seed, -_Coreopsis_, also, of the low, marshy places, with hundreds more of -the great family Compositæ, are replete with precious nectar, and with -favorable seasons make the apiarist who dwells in their midst jubilant, -as he watches the bees, which fairly flood the hives with their rich -and delicious honey. In all of this great family, the flowers are small -and inconspicuous, clustered in compact heads, and when the plants are -showy with bloom, like the sun-flowers, the brilliancy is due to the -involucre, or bracts which serve as a frill to decorate the more modest -flowers. - -I have thus mentioned the most valuable honey plants of our country. -Of course there are many omissions. Let all apiarists, by constant -observation, help to fill up the list. - - -BOOK ON BOTANY. - -I am often asked what books are best to make apiarists botanists. I am -glad to answer this question, as the study of botany will not only be -valuable discipline, but will also furnish abundant pleasure, and more, -give important practical information. Gray's Lessons, and Manual of -Botany, in one volume, published by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., -New York, is the most desirable treatise on this subject. - - -PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS. - -It will pay well for the apiarist to decorate his grounds with soft and -silver maples, for their beauty and early bloom. If his soil is rich, -sugar maples and lindens may well serve a similar purpose. The Judas -tree, too, and tulip trees, both North and South, may well be made to -ornament the apiarist's home. For vines, obtain the wistarias. - -Sow and encourage the sowing of Alsike clover and silver-leaf buckwheat -in your neighborhood. Be sure that your wife, children and bees, can -often repair to a large bed of the new giant or grandiflora mignonette, -and remember that it, with cleome and borage, blooms till frost. -Study the bee plants of your region, and then study the above table, -and provide for a succession, remembering that the mustards, rape -and buckwheat may be made to bloom almost at pleasure, by sowing -at the proper time. Don't forget that borage and the mustards seem -comparatively indifferent to wet weather. Be sure that all waste places -are stocked with motherwort, catnip, asters, etc. (See Appendix, page -289). - -The above dates are only true for the most part in Michigan and -Northern Ohio, and for more Southern latitudes must be varied, which by -comparison of a few, as the fruit trees, becomes no difficult matter. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -WINTERING BEES. - - -This is a subject, of course, of paramount importance to the apiarist, -as this is the rock on which some of even the most successful have -recently split. Yet I come fearlessly to consider this question, -as from all the multitude of disasters I see no occasion for -discouragement. If the problem of successful wintering has not been -solved already, it surely will be, and that speedily. So important -an interest was never yet vanquished by misfortune, and there is -no reason to think that history is now going to be reversed. Even -the worst aspect of the case--in favor of which I think, though in -opposition to such excellent apiarists as Marvin, Heddon, etc., that -there is no proof, and but few suggestions even--that these calamities -are the effects of an epidemic, would be all powerless to dishearten -men trained to reason from effect to cause. Even an epidemic--which -would by no means skip by the largest, finest apiaries, owned and -controlled by the wisest, most careful, and most thoughtful, as has -been the case in the late "winters of our discontent," nor only choose -winters of excessive cold, or following great drouth and absence of -honey secretion in which to work its havoc--would surely yield to man's -invention. - - -THE CAUSE OF DISASTROUS WINTERING. - -Epidemic, then, being set aside as no factor in the solution, to what -shall we ascribe such wide-spread disasters? I fully believe, and -to no branch of this subject have I given more thought, study, and -observation, that all the losses may be traced either to unwholesome -food, failure in late breeding of the previous year, extremes of -temperature, or to protracted cold with excessive dampness. I know from -actual and wide-spread observation, that the severe loss of 1870 and -1871 was attended in this part of Michigan with unsuitable honey in the -hive. The previous autumn was unprecedentedly dry. Flowers were rare, -and storing was largely from insect secretion, and consequently the -stores were unwholesome. I tasted of honey from many hives only to find -it most nauseating. I fully believe that had the honey been thoroughly -extracted the previous autumn, and the bees fed good honey or sugar, no -loss would have been experienced. At least it is significant that all -who did so, escaped, even where their neighbors all failed. Nor less -so the fact that when I discovered eight of my twelve colonies dead, -and four more just alive, I cleaned the remaining ones all out, and to -one no worse nor better than the others I gave good capped honey stored -early the previous summer, while the others were left with their old -stores, that one lived and gave the best record I have ever known, the -succeeding season, while all the others died. - -Again, suppose that after the basswood season in July, there is no -storing of honey, either from want of space, or from lack of bloom. In -this case brood-rearing ceases. Yet if the weather is dry and warm, -as of course it will be in August and September, the bees continue to -wander about, death comes apace, and by autumn the bees are reduced -in numbers, old in days, and illy prepared to brave the winter and -perform the duties of spring. I fully believe that if all the colonies -of our State and country had been kept breeding by proper use of the -extractor, and feeding, even till into October, we should have had a -different record, especially as to spring dwindling, and consequent -death. In the autumn of 1872 I kept my bees breeding till the first of -October. The following winter I had no loss, while my neighbors lost -all of their bees. - -Extremes of heat and cold are also detrimental to the bees. If the -temperature of the hive becomes too high the bees become restless, fat -more than they ought, and if confined to their hives are distended with -their fœces, become diseased, besmear their comb and hives, and die. If -when they become thus disturbed, they could have a purifying flight, -all would be well. - -Again, if the temperature becomes extremely low, the bees to keep up -the animal heat must take more food; they are uneasy, exhale much -moisture, which may settle and freeze on the outer combs about the -cluster, preventing the bees from getting the needed food, and thus in -this case both dysentery and starvation confront the bees. That able -and far-seeing apiarist the lamented M. Quinby, was one of the first to -discover this fact; and here as elsewhere gave advice that if heeded, -would have saved great loss and sore disappointment. - -I have little doubt, in fact I know from actual investigation, that in -the past severe winters, those bees which under confinement have been -subject to severe extremes, are the ones that have invariably perished. -Had the bees been kept in a uniform temperature ranging from 35° to 45° -F., the record would have been materially changed. - -Excessive moisture, too, especially in cases of protracted cold, is -always to be avoided. Bees, like all other animals, are constantly -giving off moisture, which of course will be accelerated if the bees -become disturbed, and are thus led to consume more food. This moisture -not only acts as explained above, but also induces fungous growths. The -mouldy comb is not wholesome, though it may never cause death. Hence -another necessity of sufficient warmth to drive this moisture from -the hive and some means to absorb it without opening the hive above -and permitting a current, which will disturb the bees, and cause the -greater consumption of honey. - - -THE REQUISITE TO SAFE WINTERING--GOOD FOOD. - -To winter safely, then, demands that the bees have thirty pounds -by weight not guess--I have known three cases when guessing meant -starvation--of good capped honey (coffee A sugar is just as good). If -desired this may be fed as previously explained, which should be done -so early that all will be capped during the warm days of October. Let -us be wary how we trust even crystallized glucose. It might be safe -during a warm winter, when the bees would have frequent flights, yet -prove disastrous in a cold winter. Let us use it cautiously till its -merits are assured. I prefer, too, that some of the comb in the centre -of the hive has empty cells, to give a better chance to cluster, and -that all the combs have a small hole through the centre, that the bees -may pass freely through. This hole may simply be cut with a knife, or -a tin tube the size of one's finger may be driven through the comb, -and left in if desired, in which case the comb should be pushed out -of the tube, and the tube be no longer than the comb is thick. This -perforatory work I always do early in October, when I extract all -uncapped honey, take out all frames after I have given them the 30 -lbs., _by weight_, of honey, confine the space with a division-board, -cover with the quilt and chaff, and then leave undisturbed till the -cold of November calls for further care. - - -SECURE LATE BREEDING. - -Keep the bees breeding till the first of October. Except in years of -excessive drouth, this will occur in many parts of Michigan without -extra care. Failure may result from the presence of worthless queens. -Any queens which seem not to be prolific should be superseded whenever -the fact becomes evident. _I regard this as most important._ Few know -how much is lost by tolerating feeble, impotent queens in the apiary, -whose ability can only keep the colonies alive. Never keep such queens -about. Here, then, is another reason for always keeping extra queens -on hand. Even with excellent queens, a failure in the honey yield -may cause breeding to cease. In such cases, we have only to feed as -directed under the head of feeding. - - -TO SECURE AND MAINTAIN THE PROPER TEMPERATURE. - -We ought also to provide against extremes of temperature. It is -desirable to keep the temperature between 35° and 50° F. through the -entire winter, from November to April. If no cellar or house is at -hand, this maybe accomplished as follows: Some pleasant dry day in late -October or early November, raise the stand and place straw beneath; -then surround the hive with a box a foot outside the hive, with movable -top and open on the east; or else have a long wooden tube, opposite -the entrance, to permit flight. This tube should be six or eight -inches square, to permit easy examination in winter. The same end may -be gained by driving stakes and putting boards around. When we crowd -between the box and the hive either straw, chaff, or shavings. After -placing a good thickness of straw above the hive, lay on the cover -of the box, or cover with boards. This preserves against changes of -temperature during the winter, and also permits the bees to fly if it -becomes necessary from a protracted period of warm winter weather. I -have thus kept all my bees safely during two of the disastrous winters. - -As there is at present no plan of wintering, which promises to serve -so well for all our apiarists, in view of its cheapness, ease, -convenience, and universal efficiency, I will describe in detail the -box now in use at the College, which costs only one dollar per hive, -and which is convenient to store away in summer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 101.] - - -BOX FOR PACKING. - -The sides of this (Fig. 101, _a, a_), facing east and west are three -and a half feet long, two feet high on the south end, and two and a -half feet on the north. They are in one piece, which is secured by -nailing the boards which form them to cleats, which are one inch from -the ends. The north end (Fig. 101, _b_) is three feet by two and a -half feet, the south (Fig. 101, _b_), three feet by two, and made the -same as are the sides. The slanting top of the sides (Fig. 101, _a, -a_) is made by using for the upper board, the strip formed by sawing -diagonally from corner to corner a board six inches wide and three -feet long. The cover (Fig. 101, _g_), which is removed in the figure, -is large enough to cover the top and project one inch at both ends. It -should be battened, and held in one piece by cleats (Fig. 101, _h_) -four inches wide, nailed on to the ends. These will drop over the ends -of the box, and thus hold the cover in place, and prevent rain and snow -from driving in. When in place this slanting cover permits the rain -to run off easily, and will dry quickly after a storm. By a single -nail at each corner the four sides may be tacked together about the -hives, when they can be packed in with straw (Fig. 101), which should -be carefully done if the day is cold, so as not to disquiet the bees. -At the centre and bottom of the east side (Fig. 101, _c_), cut out a -square eight inches each way, and between this and the hive place a -bottomless tube (the top of this tube is represented as removed in -figure to show entrance to hive), before putting around the straw and -adding the cover. This box should be put in place before the bleak -cold days of November, and retained in position till the stormy winds -of April are passed by. This permits the bees to fly when very warm -weather comes in winter or spring, and requires no attention from the -apiarist. By placing two or three hives close together in autumn--_yet -never move the colonies more than three or four feet_ at any one time, -as such removals involve the loss of many bees--one box may be made to -cover all, and at less expense. Late in April these may be removed and -packed away, and the straw carried away, or removed a short distance -and burned. - - -CHAFF HIVES. - -Messrs. Townley, Butler, Root, and others, prefer chaff hives, which -are simply double-walled hives, with the four or five inch chambers -filled with chaff. The objection to these I take to be: First, Danger -that so limited a space would not answer in severe seasons; Second, -That such cumbrous hives would be inconvenient to handle in summer; -and, Third, A matter of expense. That they would in part supply the -place of shade, is, perhaps, in their favor, while Mr. A. I. Root -thinks they are not expensive. - - -WINTERING IN CELLAR OR HOUSE. - -With large apiaries the above method is expensive, and specialists -may prefer a cellar or special depository, which I think are quite as -safe, though they demand attention and perhaps labor in winter. After -my experience in the winter of 1874 and 1875, losing all my bees by -keeping them in a house with double walls filled in with sawdust, in -which the thermometer indicated a temperature below zero for several -weeks, in which time my strongest colonies literally starved to death -in the manner already described, I hesitate to recommend a house above -ground for Michigan, though with very numerous colonies it might -do. Such a house must, if it answer the purpose, keep an equable -temperature, at least 3° and not more than 10° above freezing, be -perfectly dark, and ventilated with tubes above and below, so arranged -as to be closed or opened at pleasure, and not admit a ray of light. - -A cellar in which we are sure of our ability to control the -temperature, needs to be also dry, dark, and quiet, and ventilated as -described above. As already stated, the ventilator to bring air may -well be made of tile, and pass through the earth for some feet and then -open at the bottom of the cellar. If possible, the ventilator that -carries the foul air off should be connected with a stove pipe in a -room above, with its lower end reaching to the bottom of the cellar. -The College apiary cellar is grouted throughout, which makes it more -dry and neat. Of course it should be thoroughly drained. - -The colonies should be put into the depository when the hives are dry, -_before cold weather_, and should remain till April; though in January -and March, if there are days that are warm, they should be taken out -and the bees permitted to fly, though not unless they seem uneasy and -soil the entrance to their hives. _Always_ when taken out they should -be placed on their old stands, so that no bees may be lost. Towards -night, when all are quiet, return them to the cellar. I would not -remove bees till towards night, as it is better that they have a good -flight, and then become quiet. When moved out it is _very_ desirable -to brush away all dead bees which is an argument in favor of a movable -bottom-board. In moving the hives, great care should be exercised not -to jar them. It were better if the bees should not know that they were -being moved at all. - -That the moisture may be absorbed, I cover the bees with a quilt, made -of coarse factory cloth, enclosing a layer of cotton batting. Above -this I fill in with straw which is packed in so closely that the cover -may be removed without the straw falling out. If desirable the straw -may be cut--or chaff may be used--and may be confined in a bag made of -factory, so that it resembles a pillow. I now use these and like them. -This is not only an excellent absorbent, but preserves the heat, and -may well remain, till the following June. - -I have found it advantageous, when preparing my bees for winter, in -October, to contract the chamber by use of a division board. This is -very desirable if wintered out doors, and with frames a foot square is -very easily accomplished. By use of eight frames the space (one cubic -foot) is very compact, and serves to economize the heat, not only in -winter, but in spring. By thus using a division board with only three -frames, I have been very successful in wintering nuclei. We have only -to guard against low temperature. - -Perhaps I ought to say that all colonies should be strong in autumn; -but I have said before, never have weak colonies. Yet for fear some -have been negligent. I remark that weak colonies should be united in -preparing for winter. To do this, approximate the colonies each day -four or five feet till they are side by side. Now remove the poorest -queen, then smoke thoroughly, sprinkle both colonies with sweetened -water scented with essence of peppermint, putting a sufficient number -of the best frames and all the bees into one of the hives, and then set -this midway between the position of the hives at the commencement of -the uniting. The bees will unite peaceably, and make a strong colony. -Uniting colonies may pay at other seasons. It may seem rash to some, -yet I fully believe that if the above suggestions are carried out in -full, I may guarantee successful wintering. But if we do lose our -bees--with all our hives, combs and honey, we can buy colonies in the -spring, with a perfect certainty of making 200 or 300 per cent, on -our investment. Even with the worst condition of things, we are still -ahead, in way of profit, of most other vocations. - - -BURYING BEES. - -Another way to winter safely and very economically, is to bury the -bees. If this is practiced the ground should either be sandy or _well -drained_. If we can choose a side-hill it should be done. Beneath the -hives and around them, straw should be placed. I should advise leaving -the entrance well open, yet secure against mice. _The hives should all -be placed beneath the surface_ level of the earth, then form a mound -above them sufficient to preserve against extreme warmth or cold. A -trench about the mound to carry the water off quickly is desirable. In -this arrangement the ground acts as a moderator. Five colonies thus -treated the past winter, (1877-8) lost all told less than one-half gill -of bees. As this method has not been so long tried, as the others, I -would suggest caution. Try it with a few colonies, till you are assured -as to the best arrangement, and of its efficacy. I am inclined to think -that it is next to a good snow-bank, as a winter repository. - - -SPRING DWINDLING. - -As already suggested, this is not to be feared if we keep our bees -breeding till late autumn. It may be further prevented by forbidding -late autumn flights, frequent flights in winter, when the weather is -warm, and too early flying in spring. These may all be curtailed or -prevented by the packing system as described above, as thus prepared -the bees will not feel the warmth, and so will remain quiet in the -hive. Nine colonies which I have packed have been remarkably quiet, -and are in excellent condition this, February 25th, while two others -unpacked have flown day after day, much, I fear, to their injury. I -would leave bees in the packing till near May, and in the cellar or -ground, till early flowers bloom, that we may secure against too rapid -demise of bees in spring. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -THE HOUSE APIARY. - - -DESCRIPTION. - -This is a double-walled house, which may be rectangular or octagonal in -form. The outer wall should be of brick, and made as thin as possible. -Inside of this there should be wooden strips two-inches thick, which -should receive a layer of paper-sheeting inside, which may be held by -nailing strips two-inches wide immediately inside the first mentioned -strips. These last strips should receive lath, after which all should -be plastered. This may cost more than a purely wooden structure, but -it will be more nearly frost-proof than any other kind of wall, and in -the end will be the cheapest. There will be two dead air-chambers, each -two inches deep, one between the paper and brick, the other between the -paper and the plaster. The entire wall will be at least eight inches -thick. If desired, it may be made less thick by using one-inch strips, -though for our very severe winters the above is none too thick. The -doors and windows should be double and should all shut closely against -rubber. The outer ones should consist of glass, and should be so hung -as to swing out, and in hot weather should be replaced with door, and -window-screens, of coarse, painted, wire gauze. A small window just -above each colony of bees is quite desirable. - -Somewhere in the walls there should be a ventilating tube--a brick flue -would be very good--which should open into the room just above the -floor. Above it might open into the attic, which should be well aired. -Ventilators such as are so common on barns might be used. - -The pipe for admitting air, should, as in the cellar before described, -pass through the ground and enter the floor from below. A good cellar, -well ventilated and thoroughly dry will be convenient, and should not -be neglected. I would have the building but one story, with joists -in ceiling above eight inches thick. Above these I would sheet with -building paper, fastened by nailing strips two inches deep on top, -above which I would ceil with matched boards. I should lath and plaster -below the joists. The hives, which are to be kept constantly in this -house, may rest on two rows of shelves, one at the floor, the other -three feet high, and should be arranged for both top and side storing -in the small section frames. Indeed, the hive need only consist of -the two rabbeted side-boards (Fig. 30, _c_), and a division-board -with quilt. The entrances of course pass through the wall. An -alighting-board, so hinged as to be let down in summer, but tightly -closed over the entrance during very severe winter weather, I should -think would be very desirable. Between the double windows, which it -will be remembered shut closely against rubber, sacks of chaff may be -placed in winter, if found necessary to keep the proper temperature. -With few colonies this might be very necessary. The adjacent entrances -should vary in color, so that young queens would not go astray, when -they returned from their "Marriage flight." - - -ARE THEY DESIRABLE? - -As yet, I think this question cannot be answered. Some who have tried -them, among whom are Messrs. Russell and Heddon, of this State, -pronounce against them. Perhaps they have faulty houses, perhaps they -have had too brief an experience to judge correctly. Others, among whom -are Messrs. A. I. Root, Burch, and Nellis, have tried them, and are -loud in their favor. I think these first trials are hardly conclusive, -as perfection seldom comes in any system with the first experience. -That the early use of these houses has met with so much favor, seems -to argue that with more experience, and greater perfection, they may -become popular. Yet I would urge people to be slow to adopt these -costly houses, as enough will do so to thoroughly test the matter; -when, if they prove a desideratum, all can build; whereas, if they -prove worthless, we shall not have to regret money squandered, in the -adoption of what was of doubtful value. - - -THE CASE AS IT NOW STANDS. - -The desirable points as they now appear, are: First. The bees are in -condition to winter with no trouble or anxiety. Second. The bees -are handled in the house, and as they fly at once to the windows, -where they can be suffered to escape, they are very easily and safely -handled, even with little or no protection. Third. As we can extract, -manipulate honey boxes, etc., right in the same house, it is desirable -on the score of convenience. Fourth. As the bees are protected from -the sudden rise of the out-door temperature, they will be kept from -frequent flights during the cold, forbidding days of fall, winter and -spring, and will thus be more secure against spring dwindling. Fifth. -As the bees are so independent of out-door heat, because of the thick -walls, with intervening-air-spaces, they are found less inclined to -swarm. Sixth. We can lock our house, and know that thieves cannot steal -our hard-earned property. - -The objections to them are: First. The bees leave the hives while being -handled, crawl about the house, from which it is difficult to dislodge -them, especially the young bees. This objection may disappear with -improved houses and practice. Second. In very severe winters, like that -of 1874 and 1875, they may not offer sufficient protection, yet they -would be much safer than chaff hives, as there would be many colonies -all mutually helping each other to maintain the requisite temperature, -and the walls might be even thicker than specified above, without -any serious inconvenience. Third. Some think it pleasanter and more -desirable to handle bees out-doors, where all is unconfined. Fourth. -The cost of the house; yet this is only for once in a life-time, and -saves providing shade, sawdust, packing-boxes, complex hives, etc. - -So, we see the question is too complex to be settled except by careful -experiment, and this, too, for a series of years. There are so many now -in use in the various States, that the question must soon be settled. I -predict that these structures will grow more and more into favor. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST. - - -There are various dangers that are likely to vex the apiarist, and even -to stand in the way of successful apiculture.--Yet, with knowledge, -most, if not all of these evils may be wholly vanquished. Among these -are: Robbing among the bees, disease, and depredations from other -animals. - - -ROBBING. - -This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inexperienced. -Bees only rob at such times as the general scarcity of nectar forbids -honest gains. When the question comes: Famine or theft, like many -another, they are not slow to choose the latter. It is often induced by -working with the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered -about or left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be feared in -spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both honey and bees, and -thus are unable to protect their own meager stores. The remedies for -this evil are not far to seek: - -First. Strong colonies are _very rarely_ molested, and are almost sure -to defend themselves against marauders; hence, it is only the weaklings -of the apiarist's flock that are in danger. Therefore, regard for our -motto, "Keep all colonies strong," will secure against harm from this -cause. - -Second. Italians, as before stated, are fully able, and quite as ready, -to protect their rights against neighboring tramps. Woe be to the -thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred rights of the home of -our beautiful Italians. For such temerity is almost sure to cost the -intruder its life. - -But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and those too of black bees, are -still easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing of the entrance so -that but a single bee can pass through, is all sufficient. With the -hive we have recommended, this is easily accomplished by simply moving -the hive back. - -Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to move them -into the cellar for a few days. This is a further advantage, as less -food is eaten, and the strength of the individual bees is conserved by -the quiet, and as there is no nectar in the fields no loss is suffered. - -In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey gathering, we cannot -be too careful to keep all honey from the bees unless placed in the -hives. The hives, too, should not be kept open long at a time. Neat, -quick work should be the watch-word. During times when robbers are -essaying to practice their nefarious designs, the bees are likely to be -more than usually irritable, and likely to resent intrusion; hence the -importance of more than usual caution, if it is desired to introduce a -queen. - - -DISEASE. - -The common dysentery--indicated by the bees soiling their hives, as -they void their feces within instead of without--which has been so -free, of late, to work havoc in our apiaries, is, without doubt, I -think, consequent upon wrong management on the part of the apiarist, as -already suggested in Chapter XVII. As the methods to prevent this have -already been sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible - - -FOUL BROOD. - -This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle--though this is -doubtful, as a stench attends common dysentery--though it has occurred -in our State as well as in States about us, is not familiar to me, I -having never seen but one case, and that on Kelly's Island, in the -summer of 1875, where I found it had reduced the colonies on that -Island to two. No bee malady can compare with this in malignancy. By -it Dzierzon once lost his whole apiary of 500 colonies.--Mr. E. Rood, -first President of the Michigan Association, has lost his bees two or -three times by this same terrible plague. - -The symptoms are as follows: Decline in the prosperity of the colony, -because of failure to rear brood. The brood seems to putrefy, becomes -"brown and salvy," and gives off a stench, which is by no means -agreeable, while later, the caps are concave instead of convex, and -have a little hole through them. - -There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fearful plague. -Like the fell "Pebrine," which came so near exterminating the "silk -worm," and a most lucrative and extensive industry in Europe, it, as -conclusively shown by Drs. Preusz and Shönfeld, of Germany, is the -result of fungous or vegetable growth. Shönfeld not only infected -healthy bee larvæ, but those of other insects, both by means of the -putrescent foul brood, and by taking the spores. - -Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so infinitesimally -small as often to elude the sharp detection of the expert microscopist. -Most of the terrible, contagious diseases that human flesh is heir to, -like typhus, diphtheria, cholera, small pox, &c., &c., are now thought -to be due to microscopic germs, and hence to be spread from home to -home, and from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary that the spores, -the minute seeds, either by contact or by some sustaining air current, -be brought to new soil of flesh blood or other tissue--their garden -spot--when they at once spring into growth, and thus lick up the very -vitality of their victims. The huge mushroom will grow in a night. So -too, these other plants--the disease germs--will develop with marvelous -rapidity; and hence the horrors of yellow fever, scarlatina, and -cholera. - -To cure such diseases, the fungi must be killed. To prevent their -spread, the spores must be destroyed, or else confined. But as these -are so small, so light, and so invisible--easily borne and wafted by -the slightest zephyr of summer, this is often a matter of the utmost -difficulty. - -In "Foul Brood" these germs feed on the larvæ of the bees, and thus -convert life and vigor into death and decay. If we can kill this -miniature forest of the hive, and destroy the spores, we shall -extirpate the terrible plague. - - -REMEDIES. - -If we can find a substance that will prove fatal to the fungi, -and yet not injure the bees, the problem is solved. Our German -scientists--those masters in scientific research and discovery, have -found this valuable fungicide in salicylic acid, an extract from the -same willows that give us pollen and nectar. This cheap white powder is -easily soluble in alcohol, and when mixed with borax in water. - -Mr. Hilbert, one of the most thoughtful of German bee-keepers, was -the first to effect a radical cure of foul brood in his apiary by -the use of this substance. He dissolved fifty grains of the acid in -five hundred grains of pure spirits. One drop of this in a grain of -distilled water is the mixture he applied. Mr. C. F. Muth, from whom -the above facts as to Herr Hilbert are gathered, suggests a variation -in the mixture. - -Mr. Muth suggests an improvement, which takes advantage of the fact -that the acid, which alone is very insoluble in water, is, when -mixed with borax, soluble. His recipe is as follows: One hundred and -twenty-eight grains of salicylic acid, one hundred and twenty-eight -grains of soda borax, and sixteen ounces distilled water. There is no -reason why water without distillation should not do as well. - -This remedy is applied as follows: First uncap all the brood, then -throw the fluid over the comb in a fine spray. This will not injure the -bees, but will prove fatal to the fungi. - -If the bees are removed to an empty hive, and given no comb for three -or four days, till they have digested all the honey in their stomachs, -and then prevented visiting the affected hive, they are said to be -out of danger. It would seem that the spores are in the honey, and -by taking that, the contagion is administered to the young bees. The -honey may be purified from these noxious germs, by subjecting it to -the boiling temperature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to -the spores of fungoid life. By immersing the combs in a salicylic acid -solution, or sprinkling them with the same, they would be rendered -sterile, and could be used without much fear of spreading contagion. -The disease is probably spread by robber bees visiting affected hives, -and carrying with them in the honey the fatal germs. - -I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and water is very -superior, and I much prefer it for either general or special use to -gum Arabic. Yet it soon sours--which means that it is nourishing these -fungoid plants--and thus becomes disagreeable. I have found that a -very little salicylic acid will render it sterile, and thus preserve it -indefinitely. - - -ENEMIES OF BEES. - -Swift was no mean entomologist, as shown in the following stanza: - - "The little fleas that do us tease, - Have lesser fleas to bite them, - And these again have lesser fleas, - And so ad infinitum." - -Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave the attacks of -reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they are beset with perils -at home, and perils abroad, perils by night and perils by day. - -[Illustration: Fig. 102.] - - -THE BEE MOTH--_Galleria Cereana_, Fabr. - -This insect belongs to the family of snout moths, Pyralidæ. This snout -is not the tongue, but the palpi, which fact was not known by Mr. -Langstroth, who is usually so accurate, as he essayed to correct Dr. -Harris, who stated correctly, that the tongue, the ligula, was "very -short and hardly visible." This family includes the destructive hop -moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its members are very -readily recognized by their unusually long palpi, the so-called snouts. - -[Illustration: Fig, 103.] - -The eggs of the bee moth are white, globular and very small. These -are usually pushed into crevices by the female moth as she extrudes -them, which she can easily do by aid of her spy-glass-like ovipositor. -They may be laid in the hive, in the crevice underneath it or about -the entrance.--Soon these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty looking -caterpillars, with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed. To -better protect themselves from the bees, they wrap themselves in a -silken tube (Fig. 102) which they have power to spin. They remain in -this tunnel of silk during all their growth, enlarging it as they eat. -By looking closely, the presence of these larvæ may be known by this -robe of glistening silk, as it extends in branching outlines (Fig. 103) -along the surface of the comb. A more speedy detection, even, than the -defaced comb, comes from the particles of comb, intermingled with the -powder-like droppings of the caterpillars, which will always be seen on -the bottom-board in case the moth-larvæ are at work. Soon, in three or -four weeks, the larvæ are full grown (Fig, 104). Now the six jointed, -and the ten prop-legs--making sixteen in all, the usual number of -caterpillars--are plainly visible. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 105.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 106.] - -These larvæ are about an inch long, and show, by their plump -appearance, that they at least, can digest comb. They now spin their -cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very numerous, -singly (Fig. 105, _a_) or in clusters (Fig. 105, _b_) on the comb, or -even in the drone-cells (Fig. 105, _c_) in which they become pupæ, and -in two weeks, even less, sometimes, during the extreme heat of summer, -the moths again appear. In winter, they may remain as pupæ for months. -The moths or millers--sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers--are -of an obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards, that they -are very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are about -three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (Fig. 106) nearly one and -one-fourth inches. The females (Fig. 107) are darker than the males -(Fig. 107), possess a longer snout, and are usually a little larger. -The wings, when the moths are quiet (Fig. 107) are flat on the back for -a narrow space, then slope very abruptly. They rest by day, yet, when -disturbed, will dart forth with great swiftness, so Réaumur styled them -"nimble-footed." They are active by night, when they essay to enter the -hive and deposit their one or two hundred eggs. If the females are held -in the hand they will often extrude their eggs; in fact, they have been -known to do this even after the head and thorax were severed from the -abdomen, and still more strange, while the latter was being dissected. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107.] - -It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first moths -occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I have seen these moths -in every month from May to September, and as I have proved by actual -observation that they may pass from egg to moth in less than six weeks, -I think under favorable conditions there may be even three broods a -year. It is true that the varied conditions of temperature--as the moth -larvæ may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few bees, or one crowded -with bee life--will have much to do with the rapidity of development. -Circumstances may so retard growth and development that there may not -be more than two, and possibly, in extreme cases, more than one brood -in a season. - -It is stated by Mr Quinby that a freezing temperature will kill these -insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks that a deserted hive -is safe, neither of which assertions are correct. I have seen hives, -whose bees were killed by the severe winter, crowded with moth pupæ or -chrysalids the succeeding summer. I have subjected both larvæ and pupæ -to the freezing temperature without injuring them. I believe, in very -mild winters, the moth and the chrysalids might be so protected as to -escape unharmed, even outside the hive. It is probable too, that the -insects may pass the winter in any one of the various stages. - - -HISTORY. - -These moths were known to writers of antiquity, as even Aristotle tells -of their injuries. They are wholly of oriental origin, and are often -referred to by European writers as a terrible pest. Dr. Kirtland, the -able scientist, the first President of our American Bee Convention, -whose decease we have just had to mourn, once said in a letter to Mr. -Langstroth, that the moth was first introduced into America in 1805, -though bees had been introduced long before. They first seemed to be -very destructive. It is quite probable, as has been suggested, that the -bees had to learn to fear and repel them; for, unquestionably, bees do -grow in wisdom.--In fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited -knowledge, which once had to be acquired by the animal. Surely bees -and other animals learn to battle new enemies, and vary their habits -with changed conditions, and they also transmit this knowledge and -their acquired habits to their offspring, as illustrated by setter -and pointer dogs. In time, may not this account for all those varied -actions, usually ascribed to instinct? At least, I believe the bee to -be a creature of no small intelligence. - - -REMEDIES. - -In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth. Once -a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even disquiet the -intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call it a blessed evil, as -it will destroy the bees of the heedless, and thus prevent injury to -the markets by their unsalable honey, while to the attentive bee-keeper -it will work no injury at all. Neglect and ignorance are the moth -breeders. - -As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured by moths, and strong -colonies never. As the enterprising apiarist will only possess these, -it is clear that he is free from danger. The intelligent apiarist will -also provide, not only against weak, but queenless colonies as well, -which from their abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth -invasion. Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not to court -death, to make no effort to delay it. - -In working with bees, an occasional web will be seen glistening -in the comb, which should be picked out with a knife till the -manufacturer--the ruthless larva--is found, when it should be crushed. -Any larva seen about the bottom board, seeking a place to spin its -cocoon, or any pupæ, either on comb or in crack, should also be killed. -If, through carelessness, a colony has become hopelessly victimized -by these filthy, stinking, wax devourers, then the bees and any combs -not attacked should be transferred to another hive, after which the -old hive should be sulphured by use of the smoker, as before described -(page 216), then by giving one or two each of the remaining combs to -strong colonies, after killing any pupæ that may be on them, they will -be cleaned and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony brood, if it -has any vigor remaining, and if necessary a good queen, it will soon be -rejoicing in strength and prosperity. - -We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and frames of comb -(page 216), and so need not speak further of them. - -BEE KILLER--_Asilus Missouriensis_, Riley. - -This is a two-winged fly, of the predacious family Asilidæ, which -attacks, and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon its fluids. It -is confined to the southern part of our country. - -The fly (Fig. 108) has a long, pointed abdomen, strong wings, and is -very powerful. I have seen an allied species attack and overcome the -powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I took them both with my net, and now -have them pinned, as they were captured, in our College cabinet. These -flies delight in the warm sunshine, are very quick on the wing, and are -thus not easily captured. It is to be hoped that they will not become -very numerous. If they should, I hardly know how they could be kept -from their evil work. Frightening them, or catching with a net might -be tried, yet these methods would irritate the bees, and need to be -tried before they are recommended. I have received specimens of this -fly from nearly every Southern State. There are very similar flies -North, belonging to the same genus, but as yet we have no account of -their attacking bees, though such a habit might easily be acquired, and -attacks here would not be surprising. - -[Illustration: Fig. 108.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 109. - -_Imago._ _Larva._] - - -BEE-LOUSE--_Branla Cœca_, Nitsch. - -This louse (Fig. 109) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of the uniques -among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite, and serves as -a very good connecting link between insects and spiders, or, still -better, between the Diptera, where it belongs, and the Hemiptera, which -contains the bugs and most of the lice. It assumes the semi-pupa -state almost as soon as hatched, and strangest of all, is, considering -the size of the bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its -nourishment, enormously large. Two or three, and sometimes even more, -(the new Encyclopedia Britannica says 50 or 100), are often found on -a single bee. When we consider their great size we cannot wonder that -they very soon devitalize the bees. - -These, as yet, have done little damage, except in the south of -Continental Europe. The fact that they have not become naturalized -in the northern part of the Continent, England or America, would go -to show that there is something inimical to their welfare in our -climate, especially as they are constantly being introduced, coming as -hangers-on to our imported bees. Within a year I have received them -from no less than three sources--twice from New York and once from -Pennsylvania--each time taken from bees just received from Italy. The -only way that I could suggest to rid bees of them would be to make the -entrance to the hive small, so that as the bees enter, they would be -scraped off. - - -IMPORTANT SUGGESTION. - -In view of the serious nature of this pest and the difficulty in the -way of its extinction, I would urge importers, and people receiving -imported queens, to be very careful to see that these lice, which, -from their size, are so easily discovered, are surely removed before -any queen harboring them is introduced. This advice is especially -important, in view of the similarity in climate of our own beautiful -South, to the sunny slopes of France and Italy. Very likely the lice -could not flourish in our Southern States, but there would be great -cause to fear the results of its introduction into our Eldorado, the -genial States of the West. In California, they might be even worse than -the drouth, as they might come as a permanent, not a temporary evil. - - -BEE HAWK--_Libellula_. - -This large, fine lace wing is a neuropterous insect. It works in the -Southern States and is called Mosquito-hawk.--Insects of the same -genus are called dragon flies, devil's, darning-needles, &c. These are -exceedingly predacious. In fact, the whole sub-order is insectivorous. -From its four netted, veined wings, we can tell it at once from -the asilus before mentioned, which has but two wings. The Bee or -Mosquito-hawk is resplendent with metallic green, while the Bee Killer -is of sober gray. The Mosquito Hawk is not inaptly named, as it not -only preys on other insects, swooping down upon them with the dexterity -of a hawk, but its graceful gyrations, as it sports in the warm -sunshine at noonday, are not unlike those of our graceful hawks and -falcons. These insects are found most abundant near water, as they lay -their eggs in water, where the larvæ live and feed upon other animals. -The larvæ are peculiar in breathing by gills in their rectum. The same -water that bathes these organs and furnishes oxygen, is sent out in a -jet, and thus sends the insect darting along. The larvæ also possess -enormous jaws, which formidable weapons are masked till it is desired -to use them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped or unhinged and the -terrible jaws open and close upon the unsuspecting victim, which has -but a brief time to bewail its temerity. - -A writer from Georgia, in _Gleanings_, volume 6, page 35, states that -these destroyers are easily scared away, or brought down by boys with -whips, who soon become as expert in capturing the insects, as are the -latter in seizing the bees. The insects are very wild and wary, and I -should suppose this method would be very efficient. - -[Illustration: Fig. 110.] - - -TACHINA FLY. - -From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain that there is a -two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina (Fig. 110), that works -on bees. I have never seen these, though I have repeatedly requested -those who have, to send them to me. My friend, Mr. J. L. Davis, put -some sick looking bees into a cage, and hatched the flies which he -told me looked not unlike a small house fly. It is the habit of these -flies, which belong to the same family as our house flies, which they -much resemble, to lay their eggs on other insects. Their young, upon -hatching, burrow into the insect that is being victimized, and grow -by eating it. It would be difficult to cope with this evil, should it -become of great magnitude. We may well hope that this habit of eating -bees is an exceptional one with it. - - -SPIDERS. - -These sometimes spread their nets so as to capture bees. If -porticos--which are, I think, worse than a useless expense--are -omitted, there will very seldom be any cause for complaints against the -spiders, which on the whole are friends. As the bee-keeper who would -permit spiders to worry his bees would not read books, I will discuss -this subject no further. - - -ANTS. - -These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and seldom, if -ever, I think, do any harm. Should the apiarist feel nervous, he can -very readily brush them away, or destroy them by use of any of the -fly poisons which are kept in the markets. As these poisons are made -attractive by adding sweets, we must be careful to preclude the bees -from gaining access to them. As we should use them in spring, and as we -then need to keep the quilt or honey-board close above the bees, and -as the ants cluster above the brood chamber, it is not difficult to -practice poisoning. One year I tried Paris green with perfect success. - - -WASPS. - -I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South, as in Europe, we -hear of such depredations. I have received wasps, sent by our southern -brothers, which were caught destroying bees. The wasps are very -predacious, and do immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect -pests. I have seen wasps carry off "currant-worms" with a celerity that -was most refreshing. - -As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much damage--even if -they ever do any--any great damage which may occur would doubtless come -from the social paper-makers. In this case, we have only to find the -nests and apply the torch, or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun to the nest -and shoot. This should be done at night-fall when the wasps have all -gathered home. Let us not forget that the wasps do much good, and so -not practice wholesale slaughter unless we have strong evidence against -them. - -THE KING BIRD--_Tyrannus Carolinensis_. - -This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly-catchers, a -very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly insectivorous, and -do immense good by destroying our insect pests. The king bird is the -only one of them in the United States that deserves censure. Another, -the chimney swallow of Europe, has the same evil habit. Our chimney -swallow has no evil ways. I am sure, from personal observation, that -these birds capture and eat the workers, as well as drones; and I dare -say, they would pay no more respect to the finest Italian Queen. Yet, -in view of the good that these birds do, unless they are far more -numerous and troublesome than I have ever observed them to be, I should -certainly be slow to recommend the death warrant. - - -THE TOADS. - -The same may be said of the toads, which may often be seen sitting -demurely at the entrance of the hives, and lapping up the full-laden -bees with the lightning-like movement of their tongues, in a manner -which can but be regarded with interest, even by him who suffers loss. -Mr. Moon, the well known apiarist, made this an objection to low hives; -yet, the advantage of such hives far more than compensates, and with a -bottom-board, such as described in the chapter on hives, we shall find -that the toads do very little damage. - - -MICE. - -These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the apiary. They -enter the hives in winter, mutilate the comb, irritate, perhaps -destroy, the bees, and create a very offensive stench. They often -greatly injure comb which is outside the hive, destroy smokers, by -eating the leather off the bellows, and if they get at the seeds of -honey plants, they never retreat till they make a complete work of -destruction. - -In the house and cellar, these plagues should be, by use of eat or -trap, completely exterminated. If we winter on the summer stands, the -entrance should be so contracted that mice cannot enter the hive. In -case of packing as I have recommended, I should prefer a more ample -opening, which may be safely secured by taking a piece of wire cloth -or perforated tin, and tacking it over the entrance, letting it come -within one-fourth of an inch of the bottom-board. This will give more -air, and still preclude the entrance of these miserable vermin. (See -Appendix, page 293). - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -CALENDAR AND AXIOMS. - - -WORK FOR DIFFERENT MONTHS.[1] - -[Footnote 1: These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where -the fruit trees blossom about the first of May. By noting these -flowers, the dates can be easily changed to suit any locality] - -Though every live apiarist will take one, at least, of the three -excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our country, in -which the necessary work of each month will be detailed, yet it may be -well to give some brief hints in this place. - - -JANUARY. - -During this month the bees will need little attention.--Should the -bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy, which will not happen -if the requisite precautions are taken, and there come a warm day, it -were well to set them on their summer stands, that they may enjoy a -purifying flight. At night when all are again quiet return them to the -cellar.--While out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if there -are many dead bees. This is the time, too, to read, visit, study and -plan for the ensuing season's work. - - -FEBRUARY. - -No advice is necessary further than that given for January, though if -the bees have a good fly in January, they will scarcely need attention -in this month. The presence of snow on the ground need not deter the -apiarist from giving his bees a flight, providing the day is warm and -still. It is better to let them alone if they are quiet. - - -MARCH. - -Bees should still be kept housed, and those outside still retain about -them the packing of straw, shavings, &c. Frequent flights do no good, -and wear out the bees. Colonies that are uneasy, and besmear their -hives should be set out, and allowed a good flight and then returned. - -The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens and drones -should now be fed, to stimulate breeding. By careful pruning, too, -we may and should prevent the rearing of drones in any but the best -colonies. If from lack of care the previous autumn, any of our stocks -are short of stores, now is when it will be felt. In such cases feed -either honey, sugar, syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath -the quilt. - - -APRIL. - -Early in this month the bees may all be set out. It will be best to -feed all, and give all access to flour, when they will work at it, -though usually they can get pollen as soon as they can fly out to -advantage. Keep the brood chamber contracted so that the frames will -all be covered, and cover well above the bees to economize heat. - - -MAY. - -Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till bloom -appears. Give room for storing. Extract if necessary, and keep close -watch, that you may anticipate and forestall any attempt to swarm. Now, -too, is the best time to transfer. - - -JUNE. - -Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens. Divide the -colonies, as may be desired, especially enough to prevent attempts at -swarming. Extract if necessary or best; adjust frames or sections, if -comb honey is desired, and be sure to keep all the white clover honey, -in whatever form taken, separate from all other. Now is the best time -to Italianize. - - -JULY. - -The work this month is about the same as that of June.--Supersede all -poor and feeble queens. Keep the basswood honey by itself, and remove -boxes or frames as soon as full. Be sure that queens and workers have -plenty of room to do their best, and suffer not the hot sun to strike -the hives. - - -AUGUST. - -Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between basswood and fall -bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give plenty of room for queen and -workers as fall storing commences. - - -SEPTEMBER. - -Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing ceases, which -usually occurs about the middle of this month; feed sparingly till the -first of October. If robbing occurs, contract the entrance of the hive -robbed. If it is desired to feed honey or sugar for winter, it should -be done the last of this month. - - -OCTOBER. - -Prepare colonies for winter. See that all have at least thirty pounds, -by weight, of good, capped honey, and that all are strong in bees. -Contract the chamber, by using division board, and cover well with the -quilt. Be sure that one or two central frames of comb contain many -empty cells, and that all have a central hole through which the bees -can pass. - - -NOVEMBER. - -Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar or depository, -or pack about those left out on the summer stands. - - -DECEMBER. - -Now is the time to make hives, honey-boxes, &c., for the coming year. -Also labels for hives. These may just contain the name of the colony, -in which case the full record will be kept in a book; or the label may -be made to contain a full register as to time of formation, age of -queen, &c., &c. Slates are also used for the same purpose. - -I know from experience that any who heed all of the above may succeed -in bee-keeping,--may win a double success:--Receive pleasure and make -money. I feel sure that many experienced apiarists will find advice -that it may pay to follow. It is probable that errors abound, and -certain that much remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that -what they do not know is greatly in excess of what they do know. - - -AXIOMS. - -The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just as true to-day -as they were when written by that noted author: - -There are a few _first principles_ in bee-keeping which ought to be as -familiar to the Apiarist as the letters of the alphabet. - -First. Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack. - -Second. Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing them to accept of -liquid sweets. - -Third. Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming on their hives, -fill themselves with honey and lose all disposition to sting, unless -they are hurt. - -Fourth. Bees dislike any _quick_ movements about their hives, -especially any motion which _jars_ their combs. - -Fifth. In districts where forage is abundant only for a short period, -the largest yield of honey will be secured by a _very_ moderate -increase of stocks. - -Sixth. A moderate increase of colonies in any one season, will, in -the long run, prove to be the easiest, safest, and cheapest mode of -managing bees. - -Seventh. Queenless colonies, unless supplied with a queen, will -inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee-moth, or by -robber-bees. - -Eighth. The formation of new colonies should ordinarily be confined -to the season when bees are accumulating honey; and if this, or any -other operation, must be performed when forage is scarce, the greatest -precautions should be used to prevent robbing. - -The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in Oettl's -Golden Rule: KEEP YOUR STOCKS STRONG. If you cannot succeed in doing -this, the more money you invest in bees, the heavier will be your -losses; while, if your stocks are strong, you will show that you are -a _bee-master_, as well as & bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on -generous returns from your industrious subjects. - -_"Keep all colonies strong."_ - - - - -APPENDIX. - - -HISTORY OF MOVABLE FRAMES. - -Movable frames have revolutionized bee-keeping, and so out-rank the -reaper and mower, and equal the cotton-gin. Few inventions have exerted -so powerful an influence upon the art which they serve. Their history -will ever be a subject of exceeding interest to bee-keepers, and their -inventor worthy the highest regard as the greatest benefactor of our -art. In writing their history, I have no personal interest or bias, and -am only impelled by a love of truth and justice. I am the more eager -to write this history, as some of our apiarists, and they among the -best informed and most influential (_American Bee Journal_, vol. 14, -p. 380), are misinformed in the premises. In obtaining the data for -this account, I am under many obligations to our great American master -in apiculture. Rev. L. L. Langstroth, whose thorough knowledge and -extensive library have been wholly at my command. - -We are informed by George Wheeler, in his "Journey into Greece," -published in 1682, page 411, that the Greeks had partial control of -the combs. "The tops" of the willow hives "are covered with broad flat -sticks. Along each of these sticks the bees fasten their combs; so that -a comb may be taken out whole." - -Swammerdam had no control of the comb, nor had Réaumur. The latter used -narrow hives, which contained but two combs; but these were stationary. -Huber was the first to construct a hive which gave him control of the -combs and access to the interior of the hive. In August, 1879, Huber -wrote to Bonnet as follows: "I took several small fir boxes, a foot -square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them together by hinges, so -that they could be opened and shut like the leaves of a book. When -using a hive of this description, we took care to fix a comb in each -frame, and then introduced all the bees."--(Edinburgh edition of Huber, -p. 4). Although Morlot and others attempted to improve this hive, it -never gained favor with practical apiarists. - -[Illustration: Fig. 111.] - -The first person to adjust frames in a case appears to have been Mr. W. -Augustus Munn, of England. I have in my possession a letter from Mr. -Munn, dated November 9th, 1863, in which he states that the hive "had -been in use since 1834." The first printed description of any of his -hives appeared in the "Gardener's Chronicle" for 1843. This article -was written by a lady, and signed "E. M. W." Its premature publication -made it impossible for Mr. Munn to secure a patent in Great Britain. -In 1843 he secured a patent in France. The hive patented is fully -described in his "Description of the Bar and Frame Hive," published in -London, in 1844. There is also a figure (Fig. 111). I copy from the -work which is before me, pp. 7 and 8: "An oblong box is formed, about -thirty inches long, sixteen inches high, and twelve inches broad. One -of the long sides is constructed to open with hinges, and to hang on -a level with the bottom. As many grooves half an inch broad, half an -inch deep, and about 9½ inches long, are formed 1⅛ inches apart on -the inside of the bottom of the box, as its length will admit. At the -top are corresponding grooves to those made in the bottom of the box. -The bee-frames are made of half inch mahogany, being 12 inches high, -9 inches long, and not more than half an inch broad, sliding into the -fifteen grooves formed on the bottom, and kept securely in their places -by the upper grooves," and by propolis, the author might well have -added. American apiarists need not be told that such a hive would be -wholly impracticable. Without bees in it, the changes of weather would -make the sliding of the frames very difficult; with the bees inside, -the removal of the frames would be practically impossible. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112.] - -In 1851 Mr. Munn issued a second edition of his book, in the preface of -which I find the following: "Having materially simplified the bar-frame -hive, by forming the 'oblong bar-frames' into 'triangular frames,' and -making them lift out of the top, instead of the back of the bee-box, -I have republished the pamphlet." The triangular hive (Fig. 112) is -described and figured, and is the same as found illustrated in Munn's -"Bevan on the Honey Bee." This hive, although a possible improvement on -the other, is costly, intricate, and still very impracticable. In the -price-list of J. Pettitt, Dover, England, 1864, I find this hive priced -at £3 3s., or about $15.00. From the figure we learn that there were -some wide spaces about the frames. These would of course be filled with -comb, and render the hives entirely unsuitable for common use. That -this hive lacked the essential requisites to success is evident from -words penned by the inventor in 1863: "The hive matters little if the -pasturage is good." And it is easy to see from the complex arrangement -of the frames, and the wide spaces about them, that as Mr. Munn said, -referring to his hive, "When left to themselves the bees shut up the -shop." Had invention stopped with Major Munn's hive, we should to-day -be using the old box hive, and sighing in vain for a better. Neighbour -well says (3d edition, p. 129): "Probably the reason of the invention's -failure was the expensiveness of the Major's fittings, which make the -hive appear more like some astronomical instrument, than a box for -bees. Be this as it may, there was no such thing as a frame hive in use -in England till 1860." - -It would seem strange, that after going so far Major Munn should have -failed to give bee-keepers a hive of value. Yet with his view that -smoke injured the bees and brood (2d edition, p. 21), we can readily -see, that with his hive and black bees, a man would need the skin -of a rhinoceros, and nerves of brass, to do much by way of actual -manipulation for practical purposes. It has been truly said that "The -Huber hive can be used with far greater ease and safety, by a novice, -than can Munn's." - -It will be seen by reference to "Bee Culture with Movable Frames," -published by Pastor George Kleine, Hanover, Germany, in 1853, p. 5, -that a druggist by the name of Schmidt, in a work which he published -in Freiburg, in 1851, entitled, "The New Bee Homes," describes a hive -with the Huber leaves having prolonged tops which hung on rabbets, much -as do our frames. These Huber leaves were close-fitting, and so not -practical. Kleine regarded this as inferior to the Huber hive, in that -the combs must be taken out from above. With a side opening he thinks -it would be a material improvement. It is evident from Kleine's work, -that he knew nothing either of Munn or his hive. - -In 1847, Jacob Shaw, Jr., then of Hinckley, Ohio, published in the -_Scientific American_, March 5th, 1847, p. 187, the description of a -hive devised by him. A person who has seen the hive tells me that as -described and first used, this hive had close-fitting frames, which -rested in a double-walled tin box. By turning hot water into the -chamber, the frames would be loosened. We do not wonder that, as Mr. -Shaw deposed, he only made one hive, and that he could only persuade -one colony of the several which he tried, to accept the situation, and -that this one soon perished. He got no surplus, and wisely set the hive -aside. - -In 1847, the well known agricultural writer, Solon Robinson, suggested -in an article published in the _Albany Cultivator_; a tin hive made -up of unicomb apartments which should set close side by side, and be -connected by inter-communicating holes. Of course, such a hive would -only succeed in the imagination. - -M. Debeauvoys published, in 1847, the 2d edition of "Guide de -l'Apiculteur," at Angers, France, in which he described a movable comb -hive, to meet the practical wants of French bee-keepers. This hive -was not only no improvement on that of Huber, but even less easy of -manipulation. The top-bar and uprights of the frames were close-fitting -to the top and sides of the hive. Says M. Hamet, editor of the French -bee paper, in his work, "Cours Pratique D'Apiculture," 1859 edition: -"The removal of the frames is more difficult than from the Huber -hive, and it has never been accepted by the practical bee-keepers of -France." Mr. Chas. Dadant describes this hive, which he once made -and used, in the _American Bee Journal_, vol. 7, p. 197. He says of -it: "The hive worked well when new and empty; but after the bees had -glued the frames, it was difficult to remove them without breaking -the combs. It would have been entirely impossible to remove them at -all, without separating the ends of the hive from the frames with a -chisel. This hive, which had gained 2,500 proselytes in France, was -very soon abandoned by all, and the disciples of Debeauvoys returned -to the old-fashioned straw hive." He adds, further, that these hives -were disastrous to French bee culture. Once misled by movable frames, -they ever afterwards refused them even for trial. Of course Mr. S. -S. Fisher, once commissioner of patents, and an expert, could see -nothing in this hive, or any of the inventor's modifications of it, to -invalidate the Langstroth patent. How grateful all American apiarists -should be, that Mr. Langstroth's invention was of a different type. - -As already stated, bars were used centuries ago in Greece. Della Rocca, -in a work published in 1790, also describes bars as used by him. -Schirach used slats across the top of a box with rear-opening doors, as -early as 1771. In Key's work, "Ancient Bee Master's Farewell," London, -1796, p. 42, such hives are described, and beautifully illustrated, -plate 1, figs. 2 and 3. Bevan, London, 1838, describes on p. 82 a -similar hive, with the bars set in rabbets, which is figured on p. 83. - -In 1835, Dzierzon, who has been to Germany what Langstroth has to -America, commenced bee-culture. Three years later he adopted the bar -hive, and although these bar hives were previously of little value -to practical apiculture, in his hands they became a most valuable -instrument. To remove the combs, the great German master had to cut -them loose from the sides of the hives. Yet from his great skill in -handling them, his studious habits, and invaluable researches, which -gave to the world the knowledge of parthenogenesis among bees, his hive -and system marked a new era in German apiculture. - -In 1851, our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of what foreign -apiarian inventors had done, save what he could find in Huber, and -edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive now in common use among the -advanced apiarists of America. It is this hive, the greatest apiarian -invention ever made, that has placed American apiculture in advance -of that of all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America -could say with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, that the improved hives -were without value except to the amateur, and inferior for practical -purposes? Our apiarists not native to our shores, like the late Adam -Grimm and Mr. Chas. Dadant, always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was -the inventor of this hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness. -Well did the late Mr. S. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly -and truth-loving editor of the early volumes of the _American Bee -Journal_, himself of German origin, say: "When Mr. Langstroth took -up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done, and saw wherein -he had failed--failing, possibly, only because he aimed at nothing -more than constructing an observing hive, suitable for his purposes. -Mr. Langstroth's object was other and _higher_. He aimed at making -frames movable, interchangeable, and _practically_ serviceable in bee -culture." And how true what follows: "_Nobody_ before Mr. Langstroth -ever succeeded in devising a mode of making and using a movable frame -that was of any practical value in bee culture." No man in the world, -beside Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant with this whole subject as -was Mr. Wagner. His extensive library and thorough knowledge made him -a competent judge. Now that the invention is public property, men will -cease to falsify and even perjure themselves, to rob an old man, whose -words, writings, and whole life, shine with untarnished ingenuousness. -And very soon all will unite with the great majority of intelligent -American apiarists of to-day, in rendering to this benefactor of -our art, the credit; though he has been hopelessly deprived of the -pecuniary benefits of his great invention. - -Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention of frames -contained in a case, when he made his invention, in 1851, does not -profess to have been the first to have invented them. Every page of his -book shows his transparent honesty, and desire to give all due credit -to other writers and inventors. He does claim, and very justly, to -have invented the first practical frame hive, the one described in his -patent, applied for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his -book. - -While the name of the late Baron Von Berlepsch will always stand in the -front rank of apiarists, he never gave the world any description of a -movable frame hive, until Mr. Langstroth had applied for a patent, and -not until the Langstroth hive was largely in use. - -It has been claimed that Mr. Andrew Harbison invented and used in his -father's apiary, previous to 1851, the Langstroth hive. In the _Dollar -Newspaper_ for January 21, 1857, a brother, Mr. W. C. Harbison, who -also lived with his father at the time the invention is said to have -been made, says: "I will venture the prediction that both Quinby's -hive and mine will ere long be cast aside, to give place to a hive -constructed in such a manner that the apiarian can have access to -every part of the hive at pleasure, without injury to the colony. -In this particular both Mr. Quinby and myself have _singly failed_. -The invention of such a hive was reserved for Mr. Langstroth." It is -significant that J. S. Harbison, another brother, who was also with his -father at the time, in his "Bee Culture," San Francisco, 1861, speaks -of the Langstroth hive, p. 149, but not of that of his brother. It -has also been claimed that W. A. Flanders, Martin Metcalf, and Edward -Townley, each invented this hive prior to Mr! Langstroth's invention. -Yet, each of these gentlemen wrote a book, in which no mention is -made of such an invention. Well might Mr. Langstroth say, "I can well -understand what Job meant when he said, 'O! that my enemy had written -a book.'" It is also stated that Mr. A. F. Moon was a prior inventor -of this hive. Mr. Moon's own testimony, that he not only abandoned his -invention, being unable to secure straight combs, but _even forgot all -about it_, till it was discovered in an old rubbish pile, shows that he -did nothing that would, in court, overthrow Mr. Langstroth's claims, or -that in the least conferred any benefit upon bee-keepers. Mr. Maxwell, -of Mansfield, Ohio, was another who is said to have anticipated Mr. -Langstroth. Yet Mr. Maxwell's own son swears that he helped his father -make all his hives, and that his father never used a movable frame -till after 1851. Solon Robinson thought his brother. Dr. Robinson, of -Jamaica Plains, near Boston, made and used movable frame hives prior -to 1852. The wife of Dr. Robinson testified that her husband bought a -right to use the Langstroth hive, and with it made his first movable -frames. - -Every claim, both at home and abroad, to the invention of a practical -movable frame hive, prior to that of Mr. Langstroth, when examined, -is found to have no substantial foundation. All previous hives were -plainly inferior to the improved Huber hive as described in Bevan, p. -106. It is a sad blot upon American apiculture, that he who raised -it to the proud height which it occupies to-day, should have been -shamefully defrauded of the just reward for his great invention. But -it gives me the greatest pleasure to state, that by no possible word -could I gather that Mr. Langstroth feels any bitterness towards those -who seem wilfully to have stolen his invention, while with a mantle -of charity, great as is his noble heart, he covers the thousands who -either thought he had no valid claim, or else that the purchase of a -right from others, entitled them to his invention. As an inventor and -writer on apiculture, Mr. Langstroth will ever be held in grateful -memory. How earnestly will American apiarists desire that he may be -spared to us until he completes his autobiography, that we may learn -how he arrived at his great discovery, and may study the methods by -which he gleaned so many rich and valuable truths. - - * * * * * - - -LECANIUM TULIPIFERÆ--Cook. - -In the summer of 1870, this louse, which, so far as I know, has never -yet been described, and for which I propose the above very appropriate -name, tulipiferæ--the Lecanium of the tulip tree--was very common on -the tulip trees about the College lawns. So destructive were they that -some of the trees were killed outright, others were much injured, and -had not the lice for some unknown reason ceased to thrive, we should -soon have missed from our grounds one of our most attractive trees. - -Since the date above given, I have received these insects, through the -several editors of our excellent bee papers, from many of the States, -especially those bordering the Ohio River. In Tennessee they seem very -common, as they are often noticed in abundance on the fine stately -tulip trees of that goodly State--in the South this tulip tree is -called the poplar, which is very incorrect, as it is in no way related -to the latter. The poplar belongs to the willow family; the tulip to -the magnolia, which families are wide apart. In Pennsylvania the louse -has been noticed on the cucumber tree--Magnolia acuminata. - -Wherever the tulip-tree lice have been observed sucking the sap and -vitality from the trees, there the bees have also been seen, lapping -up a sweet juicy exudation, which is secreted by the lice. In 1870 I -observed that our tulip trees were alive with bees and wasps, even -as late as August, though the trees are in blossom only in June. -Examination showed that the exuding sweets from these lice were what -attracted the bees. This was observed with some anxiety, as the -secretion gives off a very nauseating odor. - -The oozing secretions from this and other lice, not only of the -bark-louse family (Coccidæ), but of the plant-louse family (Aphidæ), -are often referred to as honey-dew. Would it not be better to speak of -these as insect secretions, and reserve the name honey-dew for sweet -secretions from plants, other than those which come from the flowers? - - -NATURAL HISTORY OF THE LECANIUM TULIPIFERÆ. - -The fully developed insect, like all bark lice, is in the form of a -scale (Fig. 113, 1), closely applied to the limb or twig on which it -works. This insect, like most of its genus, is brown, very convex -above, (Fig. 113, 1), and concave beneath, (Fig. 113, 2). On the under -side is a cotton-like secretion, which serves to enfold the eggs. -Underneath the species in question are two transverse parallel lines of -this white down, (Fig. 113, 2). One of them, probably the anterior, is -nearly marginal, and is interrupted in the middle; while the other is -nearly central, and in place of the interruption at the middle, it has -a V-shaped projection back or away from the other line. The form of the -scale is quadrangular, and not unlike that of a turtle, (Fig. 113, 1). -When fully developed it is a little more than 3-16 of an inch long, and -a little more than ⅔ as wide. - -Here at Lansing, the small, yellow, oval eggs appear late in August. -In Tennessee they would be found under the scales in their cotton -wrappings many days earlier. The eggs are 1-40 of an inch long, and -1-65 of an inch wide. These eggs, which are very numerous, hatch in -the locality of their development, and the young or larval lice, quite -in contrast with their dried, inert, motionless parents, are spry -and active. They are oval, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), yellow; and 1-23 of -an inch long, and 1-40 of an inch wide. The eyes, antenna (Fig. 113, -5), and legs, (Fig. 113, 6), are plainly visible when magnified 30 -or 40 diameters. The 9-jointed abdomen is deeply emarginate, or cut -into posteriorly, (Fig. 113, 3), and on each side of this slit is a -projecting stylet or hair, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), while from between the -eyes, on the under side of the head, extends the long recurved beak, -(Fig. 113, 4). The larvæ soon leave the scales, crawl about the tree, -and finally fasten by inserting their long slender beaks, when they so -pump up the sap that they grow with surprising rapidity. In a few weeks -their legs and antennæ seem to disappear as they become relatively so -small, and the scale-like form is assumed. In the following summer the -scale is full-formed and the eggs are developed. Soon the scale, which -is but the carcass of the once active louse, drops from the tree, and -the work of destruction is left to the young lice, a responsibility -which they seem quite ready to assume. - -[Illustration: Fig. 113.] - -In my observations I have detected no males. Judging from others of the -bark-lice, these must possess wings, and will never assume the scale -form, though Prof. P. K Uhler writes me that the males of some bark -lice are apterous. - - -REMEDIES. - -If valued shade or honey trees are attacked by these insatiate -destroyers, they could probably be saved by discreet pruning--cutting -off the affected branches before serious injury was done, or by -syringing the trees with a solution of whale oil, soap--or even common -soft soap would do--just as the young lice are leaving the scales. It -would be still better to have the solution hot. Whitman's Fountain Pump -is admirable for making such applications. - -Fig. 1 is slightly magnified; the others are largely magnified. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Fig. 114.] - - -MOTHERWORT AS A HONEY PLANT. - -(_Leonurus cardiaca L._) - -Perhaps none of our common herbs promises better, as a honey plant, -than the one in question. It is a very hardy perennial, and once -introduced in waste places, it is sure to hold its own, until it -becomes desirable to extirpate it, when, at man's bidding, it quickly -lets go its hold, so that it is not a dangerous plant to introduce. -The blossoms appear at this place about June 25th, and persist for a -full month, and during the entire time are crowded with bees, whatever -may be the character of the weather, whether wet or dry, warm or cool, -whether the plant is in the midst of honey plants or isolated. We are -thus assured that the plant is constantly secreting nectar, and is also -a favorite with bees. Rape, mustards and borage seem indifferent to the -weather, but are not favorites with the bees. Motherwort, then, has -three admirable qualities: It is long in bloom, the flowers afford fine -honey at all times, and it is a favorite with the bees. If it could be -made to bloom about three weeks later, coming in just after basswood, -it would have nearly all the desired qualities. I think that we might -bring this about by mowing the plants in May. I am led to this opinion -from the fact that some plants which we set back by transplanting in -May, are still in bloom this August 10th, and are now alive with, bees, -dividing their attention with the beautiful cleome, which, is now in -full bloom, and fairly noisy with bees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115.] - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. - -The stalk is square (Fig. 114), branching, and when cultivated, attains -a height of some four feet; though, as it grows in waste places, it -is seldom more than three feet. The branches, and also the leaves, -are opposite (Figs. 114 and 115), and in the axiles of the latter are -whorls of blossoms (Figs. 115 and 116), which succeed each other from -below to the top of the branching stems. The corolla is like that of -all the mints, while the calyx has five teeth, which are sharp and -spine-like in the nutlets as they appear at the base of the leaves -(Fig. 115). As they near the top, the whorls of blossoms and succeeding -seeds are successively nearer together, and finally become very crowded -at the apex (Fig. 116). The leaves are long and palmately lobed (Fig. -115). The small blossom is purple. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116.] - - -THE SOUR-WOOD TREE. - -The sorrel tree (_Oxydendrum arboreum_) (Fig. 117), so called because -of the acidity of the leaves, is a native of the South, but has -been grown even as far north as New York. It often attains no mean -dimensions in its native home along the Alleghanies, often reaching -upward more than fifty feet, and acquiring a diameter of twelve or -fifteen inches. - -[Illustration: Fig. 117.] - -The flowers are arranged in racemes, are more drooping than represented -in the figure, are white, and with the beautiful foliage make an -ornamental tree of high rank. The bark is rough, and the wood so soft -as to be worthless, either as fuel or for use in the arts. As a honey -tree, it is very highly esteemed; in fact, it is the linden of the -South. - - -THE JAPAN MEDLAR. - -I have received from J. M. Putnam, of New Orleans, La., flowers of the -_Mespilus Japonica_, or Japan plum. He states that it bears a most -delicious fruit, blooms from August till January, unless cut off by a -severe frost, and is proof against ordinary frosts. He states that it -furnishes abundance of delicious honey, and that, too, when his bees -were gathering from no other source. - -The _Mespilus Germanica_ grows in England, and is much praised for its -fruit. From Mr. Putnam's account, the _M. Japonica_ is unprecedented -in its length of bloom. We think two months a long time. We pay high -tribute to mignonette, cleome and borage, when we tell of four months -of bloom; but this is mild praise when compared with this Japan plum, -which flowers from August first till January. - -The flowers are in a dense panicle, and were still fragrant after their -long journey. The leaf is lanceolate, and very thick, some like the wax -plant. I should say it was an evergreen. The apiarists of the South are -to be congratulated on this valuable acquisition to their bee forage. I -hope it will thrive North as well as South. - - * * * * * - - -THE STINGING-BUG.--_Phymata Erosa_, Fabr. - -This insect is very widely distributed throughout the United States. -I have received it from Maryland to Missouri on the South, and from -Michigan to Minnesota on the North. The insect will lie concealed among -the flowers, and upon occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm's -length, and suck out its blood and life. - -This is a Hemipteran, or true bug, and belongs to the family _Phymatidæ -Uhr_. It is the _Phymata Erosa_, Fabr., the specific name erosa -referring to its jagged appearance. It is also called the "stinging -bug," in reference to its habit of repelling intrusion by a painful -thrust with its sharp, strong; beak. - -[Illustration: Fig. 118.--_Side view, natural size._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 119.--_Magnified twice._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 120.--_Beak, much magnified._] - -The "stinging bug" (Fig. 118) is somewhat jagged in appearance, about -three-eighths of an inch long, and generally of a yellow color; though -this latter seems quite variable. Frequently there is a distinct -greenish hue. Beneath the abdomen, and on the back of the head, thorax -and abdomen, it is more or less specked with brown; while across the -dorsal aspect of the broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of brown -(Fig. 119 _d, d_). Sometimes this stripe is almost wanting, sometimes -a mere patch, while rarely the whole abdomen, is very slightly marked, -and as often we find it almost wholly brown above and below. The legs -(Fig. 119, 6), beak and antennæ (Fig. 119, _a_) are greenish yellow. -The beak (Fig. 120) has three joints (Fig. 120, _a, b, c_) and a sharp -point (Fig. 120, _d_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 121.--_Antenna, much magnified._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 122.--_Anterior Leg, magnified--exterior view._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 123.--_Interior view._] - -This beak is not only the great weapon of offense, but also the organ -through which the food is sucked. By the use of this, the insect has -gained the soubriquet of stinging bug. This compact jointed beak is -peculiar to all true bugs, and by observing it alone, we are able to -distinguish all the very varied forms of this group. The antenna (Fig. -121) is; four-jointed. The first joint (Fig. 121, _a_) is short, the -second and third (Fig. 121, _b_ and _c_) are long and slim, while the -terminal one (Fig. 121, _d_) is much enlarged. This enlarged joint -is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as described -by Latreille. But the most curious structural peculiarity of this -insect, and the chief character of the genus Phymata, is the enlarged -anterior legs (Figs. 122, 123 and 124). These, were they only to aid -in locomotion, would seem like awkward, clumsy organs, but when we -learn that they are used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but -appreciate and admire their modified form. The femur (Fig. 122, _b_) -and the tarsus (Fig. 122, _a_) are toothed, while the latter is greatly -enlarged. From the interior lower aspect of the femur (Fig. 123) is the -small tibia, while on the lower edge of the tarsus (Fig. 123, d) is a -cavity in which rests the single claw. The other four legs (Fig. 125) -are much as usual. - -[Illustration: Fig. 124.--_Claw, extended._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 125.--_Middle Leg, much magnified._] - -This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous, lying in wait, -often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to capture and destroy -unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, butterflies, moths, and -even bees and wasps. We have already noticed how well prepared it is -for this work by its jaw-like anterior legs, and its sharp, strong, -sword-like beak. - -It is often caught on the golden rod. This plant, from its very -color, tends to conceal the hug, and from the very character of the -plant--being attractive as a honey plant to bees--the slow bug is -enabled to catch the spry and active honey-bee. - -As Prof. Uhler well says of the "stinging-bug": "It is very useful in -destroying caterpillars and other vegetable-feeding insects, but is not -very discriminating in its tastes, and would as soon seize the useful -honey-bee as the pernicious saw-fly." And he might have added that it -is equally indifferent to the virtues of our friendly insects like the -parasitic and predaceous species. - -We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its destruction -would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely scattered as are the -flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest its case, at least until -its destructiveness becomes more serious than at present. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Fig. 126.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 127.] - - -THE SOUTHERN BEE-KILLERS. - -_Mallophora orcina and Mallophora bomboides._ - -I have received from several of our enterprising bee-keepers of the -South--Tennessee, Georgia and Florida--the above insects, with the -information that they dart forth from some convenient perch, and with -swift and sure aim, grasp a bee, bear it to some bush, when they -leisurely suck out all but the mere crust, and cast away the remains. -The bee which is thus victimized, is readily known by the small hole -in the back, through which the juices were pumped out. - -The insects plainly belong to the family Asilidæ, the same that -includes the Missouri bee-killer, _Asilus Missouriensis_, the Nebraska -bee-killer, _Promachus bastardi_, and other predatory insects, several -of which, I regret to say, have the same evil habit of killing and -devouring our friends of the hive. - -The characters of this family, as given by Loew, one of the greatest -authorities on Diptera, or two-winged flies, are prolonged basal cells -of the wings, third longitudinal vein bifurcate, third joint of antenna -simple, under lip forming a horny sheath, empodium, a projection below -and beneath the claws (Fig. 131, _c_), a horny bristle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 128.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 131.] - -The insects in question belong to Loew's third group, Asilina, as the -antennæ end in a bristle (Fig. 128), while the second longitudinal vein -of the wing (Fig. 129, _b_) runs into the first (Fig. 129, _a_). - -The genus is _Mallophora_. The venation of the wings much resembles -that of the genus _Promachus_, the same that contains the Nebraska -bee-killer, though the form of these insects is very different. The -Nebraska bee-killer is long and slim like the _Asilus Missouriensis_ -(see Fig. 108), while the one in question is much like the neuter -bumble-bee in form. - -In _Mallophora_ and _Promachus_, the venation is as represented in Fig. -129, where, as will be seen, the second vein (Fig. 129, _b_) forks, -while in the genus Asilus (Fig. 130) the third vein is forked, -though in all three genera the third joint of the antennæ (Fig. 128) -ends in a prolonged bristle. - -One of the most common of these pests, which I am informed by Dr. -Hagen, is _Mallophora orcina_, Wied, (Fig. 126) is one inch long, and -expands one and three-fourths inches (Fig. 127). The head (Fig. 128) -is broad, the eyes black and prominent, the antennæ three-jointed, the -last joint terminating in a bristle, while the beak is very large, -strong, and like the eyes and antennæ, coal black. This is mostly -concealed by the light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick about the -mouth and between the eyes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 129,] - -The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow hairs. The -abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with yellow hairs except the -tip, which is black. Beneath, the insect is clear black, though there -are scattering hairs of a grayish yellow color on the black legs. The -pulvilli, or feet pads (Fig. 131, _b_) are two in number, bright yellow -in color, surmounted by strong black claws (Fig. 131, _a_), while below -and between is the sharp spine (Fig, 131, _c_), technically known as -the empodium. - -I cannot give the distinctions which mark the sexes, nor can I throw -any light upon the larval condition of the insect. - -The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking. Their -flight is like the wind, and perched near the hive, they rush upon the -unwary bee returning to the hive with its full load of nectar, and -grasping it with their hard strong legs, they bear it to some perch -near by, when they pierce the crust, suck out the juices, and drop the -carcass, and are then ready to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee -shows the cause of its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not -always killed at once by this rude onslaught, but often can crawl some -distance away from where it falls, before it expires. - -Another insect nearly as common is the _Mallophora bomboides_, Wied. -This fly might be called a larger edition of the one just described, -as in form, habits and appearance, it closely resembles the other. -It belongs to the same genus, possessing all the generic characters -already pointed out. It is very difficult to capture them, as they are -so quick and active. - -[Illustration: Fig. 130.] - -This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and expands two and a -half inches. The head and thorax are much as in the other species. The -wings are very long and strong, and, as in the other species, are of a -smoky brown color. The abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to -side on the tinder surface, while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant -on the legs and whole under portion of the body. The color is a lighter -yellow than in the other species. These insects are powerfully built, -and if they become numerous, must prove a formidable enemy to the bees. - -Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia, though it -closely resembles the two just described, is of a different genus. It -is the _Laphria thoracica_ of Fabricius. In this genus the third vein -is forked, and the third joint of the antenna is without the bristle, -though it is elongated and tapering. The insect is black, with yellow -hair covering the upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly -black both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on the -femurs and tibia. This insect belongs to the same family as the others, -and has the same habits. It is found North as well as South. - - -HONEY-COMB CORAL. - -A very common fossil found in many parts of the Eastern and Northern -United States, is, from its appearance, often called petrified -honey-comb. We have many such specimens in our museum. In some cases -the cells are hardly larger than a pin-head; in others a quarter of an -inch in diameter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 132.] - -These (Fig. 132) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led to believe, -though the resemblance is so striking that no wonder that the public -generally are deceived. These specimens are fossil coral, which the -paleontologist places in the genus Favosites; favosus being a common -species in our State. They are very abundant in the lime rock in -northern Michigan, and are very properly denominated honey-stone coral. -The animals of which these were once the skeletons, so to speak, are -not insects at all, though often called so by men of considerable -information. It would be no greater blunder to call an oyster or a clam -an insect. - -The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the Upper -Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and disappeared in the -early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till the Devonian age, and -no Hymenoptera--bees, wasps, etc.--till after the Carboniferous. So -the old-time Favosites reared its limestone columns and helped to -build islands and continents untold ages--millions upon millions of -years--before any flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious -nectar. In some specimens of this honey-stone coral (Fig. 133), there -are to be seen banks of cells, much resembling the paper cells of some -of our wasps. This might be called wasp-stone coral, except that both -styles were wrought by the self-same animals. - -[Illustration: Fig. 133.] - - - - -GENERAL INDEX. - - - PAGE - - A B C of Bee Culture 22 - Abdomen of Insects 48 - Air Tubes 28 - Albino Bees 43 - Alighting-Board 127 - separate from bottom-board 127 - Alsike Clover--see clover 228 - American Bee Journal 19 - Amateurs 11 - Anatomy and Physiology 48 - of bees 71 - of insects 48 - internal 56 - Antenna 51 - Ants 271 - remedies for 271 - function 51 - Apiary, - where to locate 120 - grounds 152 - house--see house apiary 255 - position of 152 - Apiary Grounds 152 - arrangement of 152 - improvement of 153 - screens for 152 - shade for 153 - Apiculture, - adaptation to women 15 - as an avocation 15 - fascination of 12 - for amateurs 11, 15 - for specialists 11 - inducements to 12 - adaptation to women 15 - excellence for amateurs 15 - improves the mind 17 - recreation 12 - yields delicious food 17 - profits of 13 - requisites to 18 - conventions 19 - enthusiasm 24 - experience 18 - mental effort 18 - persistence 24 - prompt attention 23 - publications 19 - study and thought 18 - visits to other apiarists 18 - work 11 - unsuited to whom 12 - Apidæ Family 34 - animals of 35 - instincts of 34 - Apis Genus 38 - animals of 40 - characters of 38 - Apis Mellifica 41 - Aristotle 44 - Articulate Branch 27 - animals of 27 - Artificial Colonies 177 - advantages of 177 - how made 177 - one from one 177 - one from several 178 - Axioms 277 - - Barberry 225 - figure 226 - Barnes' Saw 151 - Basswood 237 - figure of 237 - Bees, - as fertilizers 220 - burying 254 - how to procure 118 - injuring fruit 220 - kind to purchase 119 - kinds in each colony 71 - place in the animal kingdom 27 - quieted 197 - by jarring 198 - by smoking 198 - value of 120 - when to purchase 119 - who may keep 11 - why keep 12 - Bee-Bread--see pollen 111 - Bee Dress for Ladies 197 - Bee Enemies 262 - ants 271 - bee-hawk 269 - bee-killer 267 - bee-louse 268 - bee-moth 262 - king-bird 272 - mice 272 - spiders 271 - tachina fly 270 - toads 272 - wasps 271 - Bee Gloves 197 - Bee Glue--see propolis 112 - Bee Hawk 269 - remedy for 270 - Bee-Keepers' Axioms 277 - Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 - Bee-Killer 267 - figure of 268 - remedies for 268 - Bee-Louse 268 - figure of 268 - remedy for 269 - Bee-Moth 262 - cocoons of 264 - figure of 264 - eggs of 263 - figure of 264, 265 - larva of 263 - figure of 264 - remedies 266 - silk tube of 263 - figure of 262, 263 - Bee Plants--see plants 220 - necessary to success 218 - list of 221 - Bee Veil 196 - figure of 196 - Bees Angered 195, 201 - by quick movements 195, 201 - by sweat 201 - Bees Subdued 197 - Beeswax 106 - from what 106 - how separated 211 - Beggar-Ticks 244 - Bergamot 238 - Bevan on the Honey-Bee 22 - Bevel-Gauge 126 - figure of 126 - Bevel Joints 126 - Bibliography 44, 113 - Bingham Hive 140 - figure of 140 - Bingham Smoker 199 - figure of 199 - Black Bees--see German bees 41 - Blackberries 236 - Blood of Insects 57 - Body of Insects 48 - parts of 48 - Bombus 35 - Boneset 288 - figure of 241 - Bonnet 45 - Books for the Apiarist 21 - A B C of Bee Culture 22 - Bevan's Honey-Bee 22, 113 - foreign 22 - Gray's Botany 244 - Huber 113 - Hunter's Manual 23 - King's Text-Book 52 - Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21 - Neighbour's Apiary 23, 118 - Quinby's Mysteries 22 - Books for the Entomologist 47, 113 - Duncan's Transformations of Insects 113 - Kirby & Spence 47 - Packard 47, 113 - Westwood 47 - Reports 47 - Fitch 47 - Harris 47 - Riley 47 - Borage 231 - figure of 230 - Bottom-board 127 - figure of 128 - immovable 129 - Box Hives 122 - Boxes 142 - Barker & Dicer 143 - crate for 144 - figure of 142, 143 - Harbison 142 - figure of 143 - Isham 142 - figure of 143 - position of 144 - Russell 142 - special support for 142 - use 142 - Box Honey 142 - when to secure 215 - where to keep 216 - Branch 27 - articulata 27 - of the honey-bee 27 - Breathing of Insects 59 - Breathing-mouths 59 - Buckwheat 242 - figure of 242 - Button-ball 238 - figure of 240 - - Cages - for introducing queen 184 - for shipping queen 186 - figure of 187 - Calendar 274 - Carpenter Bees 36 - Catnip 232, 240 - Chaff Hives 251 - Chrysalids 69 - Circulatory System 57 - Class 28 - insecta 28 - of the honey-bee 28 - Cleome--see Rocky M't'n bee plant 238 - Clover 228 - Alsike 228 - figure of 229 - sweet 228 - figure of 230 - white 228 - figure of 228 - Clustering Outside the Hive 153 - cause of 153 - how prevented 153 - adding room 176 - extracting 188 - shading 153 - Cocoons 69 - of bees 98 - College Course 118 - Colonies, - always strong 119 - how moved 187 - Columella 44 - Comb 108 - cells in 110 - worker 110 - drone 110 - figure of 109 - for guide 208 - how fastened 157, 158 - how made 108, 110 - transparency of 110 - use of 110 - what determines kind 110 - Comb Foundation 203 - American 204 - figure of 203 - history of 203 - how cut 207 - how fastened 209 - how made 206 - use of 207 - Comb Foundation Machine 205 - figure of 205 - inventor of 205 - Comb Honey 215 - apparatus to secure 141 - care of 216 - in boxes 142 - in frames 144 - in what form 144, 215 - marketing 215 - when to secure 215 - Conventions 19 - Corn 235 - Cotton 236 - figure of 236 - Cover for Frames 129 - Cover for Hives 129 - figure of 130, 131 - Crates, - section 149 - market 216 - Cyprian Bee 43 - - De Geer 45 - Digestive Organs 60 - Diseases 259 - dysentery 247, 259 - foul brood 259 - Dissection 50, 65 - Dissecting Instruments 51, 65 - lenses 51, 65 - needle points 51 - dividers--see separators 146 - Dividing Colonies--see artificial - colonies 171, 177 - Division-board 137 - figure of 137 - use of 138 - Dollar Queens 186 - Dorsata Bee 40 - Dress for Ladies 197 - Drones 86 - development of 87 - eggs of 87 - eyes of 86 - function of 83 - influence of, on drone progeny 89 - jaws of 86 - figure of 92 - leg of 86 - figure of 87 - longevity of 88 - number of 86 - tongue of 86 - when in hive 86, 88 - why so numerous 89 - Dysentery 247, 259 - - Egg 67 - of insects 67 - of bee 96 - Egyptian Bee 43 - Empty Cells 188 - importance of 188 - how to secure 188 - Entrance to Hive 128 - Epicranium 48 - Extractor, - of honey 188 - figure of 189 - Everett's 190 - history of 188 - how to use 194 - knives for 191 - figure of 191 - rack for 189 - figure of 190 - use of 191 - when to use 192 - wire comb baskets for 189 - figure of 189 - of wax 212 - figure of 213 - Extracted Honey 214 - market for 214 - Extracting Honey 191 - how done 194 - why done 191 - when done 192 - Eyes of Insects 53 - compound 54 - simple 54 - - Fabricius 46 - Family 34 - apidæ 34 - of the honey-bee 34 - Feeder 160 - figure of 160, 161 - Feeding 159 - amount to feed 159 - use of 159 - what to feed 160 - honey 160 - sugar 160 - flour 163 - Female Organs 64 - Fertile Workers 77 - Fertilization of Flowers by Bees 220 - Figwort 238 - figure of 238 - Fitch's Report 47 - Foot-power Saw 151 - Foul Brood 259 - cause 260 - cure for 200 - symptoms of 259 - Foundation 203 - figure of 203 - history of 203 - use of 203, 207 - how cut 207 - how fastened 209 - how made 206 - Frames 132 - arrangement for surplus 147 - block for making 134 - figure of 135 - cover for 136 - figure of 133, 134 - form of 132 - Gallup 133 - gauge for construction 135 - figure of 135 - inventor of 123 - Langstroth 132 - number of 132 - section 148 - small--see sections 144 - space about 136 - space between 136 - Fruit trees 225 - - Gallup Frame 133 - Geoffroy 45 - Genus, - apis 38 - of the honey-bee 38 - German or Black Bee 31 - Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 - Gloves 197 - Golden-rod 242 - figure of 243 - Grapes Injured by Bees 220 - Grape Vines for Shade 153 - Gunther 12 - - Handling Bees 195 - Harris' Injurious Insects 47 - Harvey 44 - Head of Insects 48 - organs of 43 - Heart of Insects 57 - Hexapods--see Insects 30 - Hives 122 - alighting-board of 127 - Bingham 140 - figure of 140 - bottom-board of 127 - figure of 128 - box not good 122 - chaff 251 - cover of 129 - division-board for 137 - entrance to 128 - figure of 124, 130, 155 - frames for 132 - Huber 138 - joints of 126 - square 126 - figure of 125 - bevel 126 - figure of 130 - Langstroth 123 - figure of 124 - lumber for 124 - movable comb 123 - movable frame 122 - near the ground 128 - nucleus 165 - position of 154 - figure of 115 - Quinby 139 - figure of 139 - rabbet of 125 - size of 124 - Honey 104 - collected, not secreted 104 - defined 104 - extracted 193 - for food 17 - granulated, how dissolved 193 - how collected 105 - how deposited 105 - how transported 105 - marketing of 213 - natural use of 106 - source of 105 - bark lice 105, 218 - honey-dew 105, 219 - plants 105, 210 - plant lice 105, 218 - other sources 105, 219 - Honey-Comb--see comb 108 - Honey Extractor--see extractor 188 - figure of 189 - importance of 188 - requisites of 189 - use of 191 - when to use 192 - Honey Knives 191 - figure of 191 - Honey Plants--see plants 218 - for April 223 - for May 225 - for July 237 - for June 228 - for August 242 - importance of 218 - list of 221 - House Apiary 255 - advantages of 256 - are they desirable? 256 - objections to 257 - Huber 71 - Huber Hive 138 - kinds of 133 - Hunter's Manual 23 - Hymenopterous Insects 31 - the highest 32 - parasitic 32 - - Imago 70 - Insecta 28 - animals of 30 - class 28 - Insects, or Hexapods 30 - abdomen of 30 - head of 30 - imago of 30 - larva of 30 - pupa of 30 - thorax of 30 - transformations of 66 - transformations, complete 66 - transformations, incomplete 70 - Introduction of Cell 185 - figure of 167 - Introduction of Queen 183 - Intestines 61 - Italian Bees 41, 180 - description of 42, 181 - figure of Frontispiece - history of 41 - superiority of 181 - - Jaws 50 - figure of 92 - Judas Tree 225 - figure of 224 - - King Bird 27? - King's Text-Book 22 - Kirby & Spence's Entomology 47, 113 - - Labium 48 - Labrum 48 - Ladies' Bee Dress 197 - Langstroth, Rev. L. L. 123 - Langstroth Frame 132 - figure of 124 - Langstroth Hive 123 - figure of 124 - Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21 - Larva 68 - Latreille 45 - Leaf-Cutting Bee 36 - Legs of Insects 90 - Linnæus 45 - Ligula 49 - figure of 91 - Location of Apiary 120 - Locust Trees 236 - Lyonnet 46 - - Male Organs 62 - figure of 63 - Mandibles 50 - figure of 92 - Maple 224, 225 - figure of 222 - Market--for honey 213 - crate for 216 - figures of 216, 217 - for comb 215 - for extracted 214 - how to stimulate 213 - rules for 215 - Mason Bees 36, 37 - Maxillæ 50 - Megachile 36 - Melipona 35 - Mice 272 - remedy for 272 - Mignonette 231 - figure of 231 - Milk-Weed 232 - pollen masses of 233 - figure of 233 - Mimicry 31 - Mouth Parts 48 - figure of 49 - variation of 50 - Movable-Comb Hives 123 - two types 123 - Moving Colonies 187 - Multiplying Colonies 171 - Muscles of Insects 56 - Mustard 233 - figure of 233 - - Natural History of the Honey-Bee 27 - Natural Method of Increase 171 - Natural Swarms 171 - means to save 173 - implements required 173 - not desirable 171 - second swarms prevented 175 - Neighbour, The Apiary 23 - Nerves of Insects 57 - figure of 58 - Neuters 90 - cocoon of 98 - development of 96 - eggs of 96 - eyes of 92 - figure of 90 - function of 99 - old workers 99 - young workers 99 - honey stomach of 92 - figure of 60 - jaws of 92 - figure of 92 - larva of 97 - figure of 97 - longevity of 99 - number of 90 - pollen baskets of 93 - figure of 93 - pupa of 98 - figure of 97 - size of 90 - sting of 95 - figure of 95 - tarsi of 93 - figure of 93, 94 - tibia of 93 - tongue of 92 - figure of 91 - wings of 92 - figure of 38 - Nymphs 69 - - Order 30 - of insects 30 - of the honey-bee 30 - Osmia 37 - Ovaries 64 - figure of 64 - - Packard's Entomology 47 - Palpi 49 - Papers 19 - American Bee Journal 19 - Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 - Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 - Paraglossæ 49 - Parasitic Insects 32 - Parasitic Bees 37 - Parthenogenesis 80 - in bees 80 - in other insects 81 - Plants 220 - asters 243 - figure of 243 - April 223 - August 242 - barberry 225 - figure of 226 - basswood 237 - figure of 237 - beggar-ticks 244 - bergamot 238 - blackberry 236 - boneset 238 - figure of 241 - buckwheat 243 - figure of 243 - button-ball 238 - figure of 240 - catnip 232, 240 - clover 228 - Alsike 228 - figure of 229 - sweet 228 - figure of 230 - white 228 - figure of 228 - coffee berry 226 - corn 235 - cotton 236 - figure of 236 - figwort 238 - figure of 238 - fruit trees 225 - golden-rod 242 - figure of 243 - Judas tree 225 - figure of 224 - July 237 - June 228 - list of 221 - locust 236 - maples 221, 225 - figure of 222 - milk-weed 232 - pollen-masses 232 - figure of 233 - mints 232 - figure of 232 - mignonette 231 - figure of 231 - mustard 233 - figure of 233 - okra 232 - figure of 231 - poplar 225 - rape 234 - figure of 234 - Rocky Mountain bee 238 - figure of 239 - sage 232 - white 226 - figure of 227 - sour-wood 240 - Spanish needles 244 - St. John's wort 240 - sumac 226 - teasel 235 - figure of 236 - tick-seed 244 - tulip tree 234 - figure of 235 - willow 224 - figure of 223 - wistaria 225 - American 225 - figure of 225 - Chinese 225 - figure of 226 - Pliny 44 - Poison from Sting 12 - innoculation of 12 - Poison Sack 95 - Pollen 111 - function of 112 - how carried 111 - nature of 111 - source of 111 - where deposited 112 - Preparation for Apiculture 117 - college course 118 - plan 118 - read 117 - visit 117 - Products of Bees 104 - comb 108 - figure of 109 - honey 104 - pollen or bee-bread 111 - propolis or bee-glue 112 - wax 106 - Products of Insects 104 - Propolis or Bee-Glue 112 - function of 113 - nature of 112 - source of 112 - Publications 19 - American Bee Journal 19 - Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 - Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 - Pupa 68 - figure of 69 - - Queen 71 - brood from eggs 78, 164 - cages 184 - cell 75 - figure of 109, 167 - introduction of 167 - figure of 167 - when started 164 - where built 164 - figure of 109 - clipping wing of 168 - how done 169 - not injurious 168 - why done 169 - cocoon of 77 - development of 75 - eggs of 80, 81 - how impregnated 81 - Wagner's theory 81 - fecundity of 83, 84 - figure of 72 - food of larvæ 76 - function of 83 - how procured 185 - importance of 163 - impregnation of 78 - only on the wing 79 - introduction of 183 - laying of 82 - longevity of 83 - must have empty cells 188 - never to be wanting 163, 176 - never to be poor 186 - no sovereign 85 - ovaries of 72 - figure of 64 - oviduct of 64 - piping of 102 - rearing of 78, 163, 186 - sex of 71 - shipping 186 - size of 72 - spermatheca of 72 - sterility of 83 - sting of 71 - tongue of 73 - figure of 73 - wings of 73 - Queen Cells 75 - figure of 109, 167 - how secured 164 - introduction of 167 - figure of 167 - Queen Rearing 163, 186 - Queen Shipping 186 - cage for 186 - figure of 187 - Queen White Ant 84 - fecundity of 84 - Quilt 136 - Quinby, M. 138 - Quinby Hive 139 - figure of 139 - Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-keeping 22 - Quinby Smoker 198 - figure of 199 - - Rabbets for Hive 125 - of tin 125 - Races of the Honey-Bee 41 - Egyptian 43 - German or black 41 - Italian or Ligurian 41 - history of 41 - characters of 42 - superiority of 181 - other 43 - Ray 44 - Réaumur 45 - Respiration 59 - Riley's Reports 47 - Robbing 258 - how checked 258 - how prevented 259 - when to fear 258 - Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 238 - figure of 239 - Royal Jelly 76 - Russell Hive 141 - - Salicylic Acid 261 - use of 261 - Sage 232 - white 226 - figure of 227 - Sawdust 154 - Saws 151 - Barnes' 151 - foot-power 151 - Second Swarms 102 - Secretion 62 - Secretory Organs 61 - Sections 147 - dove-tail 147 - figure of 146 - Hetherington 146 - glassing 146 - Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger 147 - figure of 147 - veneer 144 - glassing 145 - Section Block 145 - figure of 145 - Section Frame 147 - figure of 148 - where placed 148 - Section Rack 149 - Doolittle 151 - figure of 150, 151 - Southard & Ranney's 150 - use of 149 - Wheeler 151 - Senses of Insects 51 - hearing 51 - seeing 54 - smelling 52 - feeling 51 - Separators 146, 150 - figure of 146 - tin 148 - figure of 149, 150 - wooden 146 - figure of 146 - Shade for Hives 153 - ever-greens 154 - grape-vines 153 - houses 153 - use of 153 - prevents idleness 153 - prevents melting of comb 153 - Smokers 198 - bellows 198 - how used 201 - Bingham 199 - figure of 199 - Quinby 193 - figure of 199 - Sour-wood 240 - Spanish Needles 244 - Specialists 11 - Species of the Honey-Bee 41 - Spermatheca 65 - Spiders 271 - Spiracles 59 - Spring Dwindling 254 - Starting an Apiary 117 - Sting 95 - figure of 95 - Stingless Bees 35 - Stings 201 - cure of 201 - St. John's Wort 240 - Stomach 60 - sucking 60 - true 60 - Sub-Order 31 - Hymenoptera 31 - of the honey-bee 31 - Sumac 226 - Sun-Flower 243 - Swammerdam 44 - Swarming 101, 171 - after-swarms 103 - clustering 103 - drone-brood started 101 - old colony--how known 102 - preparation for 101 - drone-brood 101 - queen cells 101 - prevented 176 - when to expect 176 - Swarms 172 - hiving 173 - easy method 172 - second 172 - how prevented 172 - - Tachina Fly 270 - figure of 270 - Tailor-Bee 36 - Teasel 235 - figure of 236 - Thorax of Insects 48 - appendages of 55 - Tick-Seed 244 - Toads 272 - Tongue 49 - Trachea 28, 59 - figure of 28 - Transferring 156 - method of 160 - when easiest 156 - Transformations of Insects 66 - incomplete 70 - Trigona 35 - Tulip Tree 234 - figure of 235 - - Uniting 253 - when advisable 253 - - Varieties of the Honey-Bee--see races 41 - Veil 196 - figure of 196 - Virgil 44 - - Wagner 19 - Wagner's Theory 81 - Wasps 271 - remedies for 272 - Water for Bees 98 - Wax 106 - composition of 107 - function of 108 - how secured 211 - importance of 211 - source of 106 - Wax Extractor 212 - figure of 212 - Wax Pockets 106 - figure of 106 - Weiss' Foundation Machine 204 - figure of 205 - Westwood on Insects 47 - Willow 224 - figure of 223 - Wings 65 - clipping 168 - figure of 38 - of drone 86 - of queen 73 - of worker 92 - figure of 38 - Wintering 246 - requisites to safe 248 - absorbents above bees 253 - chaff hives 261 - chamber contracted 253 - colonies prepared 248 - depositories for 252 - cellar 232 - house 252 - house apiary 255 - good food 248 - late breeding 249 - packing-box 250 - figure of 250 - protected if left out 250 - why disastrous 246 - excessive moisture 248 - extremes of temperature 247 - spring dwindling 254 - too early cessation of storing 247 - unwholesome food 247 - Women as Bee-Keepers 15 - Workers--see Neuters 90 - fertile 77, 90 - Wistaria 225 - American 225 - figure of 225 - Chinese 225 - figure of 226 - - Xylocopa 36 - - -INDEX TO APPENDIX. - - - Bark Louse 286 - of Tulip Tree 286 - Bee Enemies 286, 293 - Berlepsch 284 - - Debeauvoys' Hive 282 - Della Rocca 283 - Dzierzon 283 - Dzierzon Hive 283 - - Fossil Honey Comb 301 - figures of 301, 302 - - Grecian Hives 278 - - Harbison Hive 284 - History of Movable Frames 278 - Hives 278 - Berlepsch 284 - Debeauvoys 282 - Della Rocca 283 - Dzierzon 283 - Harbison 284 - Huber 278 - Langstroth 283 - Munn 279 - figures of 279, 280 - Schirach 283 - Schmidt 281 - Shaw 282 - - Insects 286, 293 - Laphria thoracica 300 - Lecanium tulipiferæ 286 - Mallophora bomboides 297 - Mallophora orcina 297 - Phymata erosa 293 - - Japan Medlar 293 - - Kleine 281 - - Langstroth Hive 283 - Laphria thoracica 300 - Lecanium tulipiferæ 286 - figure of 288 - - Mallophora bomboides 297 - " orcina 297 - Motherwort 289 - figures of 289, 290, 291 - Munn Hive 279 - figures of 279, 280 - - Phymata erosa 293 - figures of 294, 295, 296 - Plants 289 - Japan medlar 293 - Motherwort 289 - Sour-wood 293 - - Réaumur 278 - - Schmidt's Hive 281 - Schirach's hive 283 - Shaw's Hive 282 - Sourwood 292 - figure of 292 - Southern Bee-killers 297 - figures of 297, 298 - Stinging Bug 293 - figures of 294, 295, 296 - Swammerdam 278 - - Triangular Hive 280 - figure of 280 - - - =COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.= - - =NOTICES BY THE PRESS.= - -Needs no recommendation--recommends itself.--_Western Rural_, Chicago. - -This work is exceedingly valuable--indeed indispensable to -apiarists.--_Voice of Masonry._ - -Treating the art in all its different branches in a clear, concise and -interesting manner.--_The Canadian Entomologist._ - -It is the fullest, most practical, and most satisfactory treatise on -the subject now before the public.--_Country Gentleman._ - -It contains the latest developments of science connected with -bee-culture and honey production.--_Chicago Evening Journal._ - -It contains the latest scientific discoveries in apiarian management -and bee-keeping apparatus.--_Prairie Farmer, Chicago._ - -The latest, fullest, most practical and satisfactory treatise on the -subject, now before the public.--_Lambton_, (Canada) _Advocate_. - -Every point connected with the subject is handled in a clear, -exhaustive, yet pithy and practical manner.--_Rural New Yorker._ - -It is both a practical and scientific discussion, and nothing that -could interest the bee-raiser is left unsaid.--_Chicago Inter-Ocean._ - -The most thorough work on the apiary ever published, and the only one -illustrating the various bee plants.--_Lansing_ (Mich.) _Republican_. - -Prof. Cook is an entomologist, a botanist, a ready writer, a passionate -lover of the honey-bee, and his new work savors of all these -qualities.--_Standard_, New Bedford, Mass. - -I feel like thanking God that we have such a man as Prof. Cook to take -hold of the subject of bee-culture in the masterly way in which he has -done it.--_Gleanings in Bee Culture._ - -It is a book which does credit to our calling; one that every -bee-keeper may welcome as a fit exponent of the science which gives -pleasure to all who are engaged in it.--_American Bee Journal._ - -The honey-bee comes with the perfume of summer flowers, and one of -its best friends, A. J. Cook, has written its history and habits in a -handsomely illustrated volume.--_American Poultry Journal._ - -It is just what might have been expected from the distinguished -author--a work acceptable to the ordinary bee-man, and a delight to the -student of scientific apiculture.--_Bee Keepers' Magazine._ - -Cook's new "Manual of the Apiary," comes with high encomiums from -America; and certainly it appears to have cut the ground from under -future book makers, for some time to come.--_British Bee Journal._ - -It is the most complete and practical treatise on bee-culture in Europe -or America. The arrangement is successive, and every topic is lucidly -treated in the Professor's blithesome, light-hearted, pithy, suggestive -style.--_Post and Tribune_, Detroit, Mich. - -The typography and general execution of the work is handsome and neat, -and altogether we have a work that may be safely recommended as the -Manual of the Apiarist--the book, par excellence, to which all may -revert with both pleasure and profit, for instruction in the management -of the apiary.--_Michigan Farmer._ - -It must rank with Henderson's manuals, and share with them the praise -of being an indispensable adjunct to every specialist's library. It is -a scientific, practical book, a book of "how to do" and "why to do," -tersely written, yet fully expressed; a book to the credit of American -literature.--_Scientific Farmer_, Boston. - -[Finger] It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper -and superbly illustrated. Price, bound in cloth, =$1.25;= in paper, -=$1.00,= postpaid. Per dozen: cloth, $12.00; paper, $9.50. - - =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,= - - =972 and 974 West Madison Street, CHICAGO.= - - - [Illustration] - - =THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL,= - - =Is an elegant fifty-two paged Illustrated Monthly,= - - DEVOTED EXCLUSIVELY TO BEE-CULTURE, - -=At $1.50 per annum, in advance; Sample Copy. 10c.= - - _Capt. J. E. Hetherington Cherry Valley, N. Y., says: The readers of - the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL and its Present management are, I think, fit - Subjects for congratulation. You certainly give us a good paper, and - none of us hesitate to recommend it to the extent of saying that no - bee-keeper, great or small, can afford to do without it._ - -I find the Bee Journal an excellent companion and adviser.--L. M. -Wainwright, Noblesville, Ind. - -The Bee Journal is the largest and best bee paper published.--D. L. -Franklin, Boone Co., N. Y. - -It has saved me $56.25 in hives alone, to say nothing of the other -information.--R. Matthews, Pontiac, Ill. - -You have worked up the American Bee Journal almost to -perfection.--Orion Siggins, West Hickory, Pa. - -I would not do without the American Bee Journal for three times its -price.--J. E. Kearns, Waterloo, Pa. - -I have learned more from it, of how to handle bees, than from all other -sources.--R. Corbett, Malden, Ill. - -I consider the Bee Journal the _best_ bee publication--having read them -all.--J. E. Hunter, Jones Co., Iowa. - -The Journal grows better every month. No bee man should be without -it.--John Barfoot, New Canton, Ill. - -I do not see how any one can do with out it. I have had bees for 40 -years.--A. M. Burnett, Valley Mills, Texas. - -The Bee Journal comes loaded with good things. I can not see how it -is possible to make it so much better every month.--T. J. Ward, St. -Mary's, Ind. - -If you keep on improving the Bee Journal as you have within the past -year, it must soon become the _ne plus ultra_ of bee literature the -World over.--O. W. Speer, Easton, Pa. - -I am among the many who are glad that the American Bee Journal fell -into the hands of those who have no hobbies to ride nor axes to grind. -I only express the views of many others.--F. A. Snell, Milledgeville, -Ill. - - _PUBLISHED ON THE FIRST DAY OF EVERY MONTH, BY_ - - =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, 972 & 974 W. Madison St., Chicago.= - - - =THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL= - - =APPRECIATIVE NOTICES.= - -It is the most valuable publication on bee-culture in America.--_Sun_, -Anoka, Minn. - -It is authority in all matters pertaining to -bee-culture.--_Republican_, Mason City, Iowa. - -It stands at the head of American publications devoted to -bee-culture.--_Patriot_, Springfield, Mo. - -It is a complete guide to those interested in -bee-culture.--_Everybody's Ledger_, Lewiston, Pa. - -It is most valuable, and will always find a hearty welcome in every -apiary.--_Herald_, Los Angeles, Cal. - -The American Bee Journal; is a publication of great value to all honey -producers.--_Daily News_, Danville, Va. - -We recommend the American Bee Journal, as the ablest bee paper in the -United States.--_Farmers' Home Journal._ - -It is progressive, interesting and valuable to every one who keeps -bees, and is ably edited.--_Agriculturist_, Quincy, Ill. - -It is full of useful suggestions and instructive articles to every one -interested in honey producing.--_Democrat_, Allegan, Mich. - -It is full to overflowing with matters pertaining to the successful -management of the little honey producers--a thoroughly live -periodical.--_Standard_, New Bedford, Mass. - -The Journal surpasses itself; each issue improves upon the last, in -the bright, cheerful appearance and instructive influence of its whole -composition.--W. Williamson, Lexington, Ky. - -The American Bee Journal is increasing in influence with each number. -It is a valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper, and should be taken and -read by all interested in bee-culture.--_Standard_, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. - -I hail the coming of the Bee Journal with joy. It is the greatest light -we have on bee-culture, bringing ideas, not only from the editor, but -from all the other experienced bee men of the land.--L. A. Taber, -Holyoke, Mass. - -In its department of journalism, the American Bee Journal stands -without a rival. Devoted exclusively to bee-culture and the production -of pure honey, its columns are filled with such matter as a keeper of -bees can read and profit by. Its table of contents is as full as it is -interesting.--_Gazette_, Lewiston, Pa. - -The American Bee Journal ought to be taken by all bee-keepers; it is -neatly printed and replete in useful information about bees and honey. -It fully describes the habits of those busy extractors of sweets from -flowers and herbs, whose products, with the yield from our cows, makes -our land literally flow with "milk and honey."--_Maryland Farmer._ - -The Bee Journal is pre-eminently above all its competitors. It is -full of fire, enterprise and vim; it discusses the various questions -pertaining to bee-culture with spirit and energetic thought; it is -an honor to its Editor and to the interest which sustains it. It has -no individual axe to grind, but is the fearless champion of all that -is useful and good; steadfast, unwavering, honest; never vacillating -or swerving; but true, as the needle to the pole, to the interest of -bee-keepers. It should be supported by every one interested in bees or -honey.--American Grocer. - - - =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,= - - =972 and 974 West Madison St., CHICAGO.= - - - =Ha! Ha! Ha! Just What I Want!= - -[Illustration] - -The Michigan Bee-Keepers' Association, having all the Smokers before -it, "pronounced Bingham's Patent Smoker the best." - -J P Moore, of Binghamton, New York, after using one some time, said: -"My Smoker troubles are all over, and the bee-keepers owe you a debt of -gratitude." - -Professor Cook, of Michigan Agricultural College, says: "It is the best -in the market." - -R. M. Argo, Lowell, Kentucky, says: "It is all that any bee-keeper -could desire." - -Paul L. Viallon, Bayou Goula, Louisiana, writes, April 6th, 1878: "Your -Smokers are far superior to any ever invented; and we bee-keepers owe -you a vote of thanks for your Ingenious invention. Many may try to -improve on yours, but I am positive none will make a better one." - -This is the first and only bellows Smoker ever made which would burn -stove-wood. It burns anything combustible, and needs no care except -to be refilled once in one or two hours. Works easy, and will throw a -stream of smoke ten feet. It will not go out or wear out. It will save -time, stings and money, and perhaps a valuable horse. - -The inventor is the only party having a right to manufacture said -Smoker, and it is safe to buy of him. - - Large size, 2½ inch, by mail =$1.75= - Standard size, 2 inch, by mail =$1.50= - Small size, 1¾ inch, " =$1.00= - -Address, =T. F. BINGHAM, Otsego, Allegan Co., Mich.= - - * * * * * - -=BINGHAM & HETHERINGTON'S HONEY KNIFE.= - -[Illustration] - -These knives are peculiarly constructed, and of the best steel, finish -and temper. To secure the credit of our invention and enable us to -furnish them cheaply, and of standard excellence to bee-keepers, we -have had them patented. - -In use, if the combs are held upright the caps are carried away from -the combs so they never touch them after being cut off. If the combs -are laid on a table to uncap, the movable cap-catcher gathers the wide -sheet of caps in a roll, and easily carries all that the largest combs -contain without dropping one upon the comb after being cut off. The -blade is two inches wide; but as only the edge rests on the combs, they -uncap the most delicate combs without tearing, and work as easily as if -only one-fourth inch wide. - - Sent singly, per express, for =$1.00,= - With Movable Cap-catcher, =$1.25.= - -As knives are not carried in the mail, we make 10 per cent, reduction -from _regular retail rates_ to clubs and others who send the money for -three or more, to be sent in one package. [Finger] Send for circular. -Address, - -=BINGHAM & HETHERINGTON'S, Otsego, Mich.= - - * * * * * - -Lansing, Mich., Feb. 11, 1879.--After a thorough trial of your honey -knife here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any -other that we have used, though we have several of the principal knives -made in the United States. - - A. J. Cook. - -Middlefield, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1879.--I have been using your two-inch -uncapping knife the past season. For rapidity and ease in operating, -they far excel any knife I have ever used. Its shape and beveled edges -make it perfect for uncapping uneven and crooked combs. It works -equally well with either right or left stroke. We uncapped hundreds of -combs in piece boxes, and both my associates and myself have come to -the conclusion that they facilitate the labor fully one-half, and are -perfection itself, leaving nothing to be desired. - - A. G. Murphy. - -Cherry Valley, N. Y., Jan. 5, 1879.--I received the knives all right, -and on account of their superiority I feel that you, and bee-keepers as -well, are entitled to a report on them. For my own use I much prefer -them to any knife I have ever uncapped with, for the reason that I -can uncap much more honey. A better test is in the hands of three or -four of my men who used them for several consecutive days, and without -exception pronounced them the best knives I owned. One even went so -far as to insist that he could uncap one-third; faster than with any -other knife I had, and when uncapping prize boxes he satisfactorily -demonstrated it. You may send me half a dozen for my own apiaries. - - J. E. Hetherington. - -The Michigan Bee-Keepers' Association especially recommends the Bingham -& Hetherington Honey Knife and the Bingham Smoker. - - -=Muth's All-Metal Honey Extractor.= - -Patented Sept. 24th, 1878. - -[Illustration] - -Every bee-keeper is aware of the advantages afforded by a judicious -use of the Honey Extractor. The inventions of the movable comb frames -by Rev. L. L. Langstroth, and that of the Honey Extractor by Major v. -Hruschka, are the greatest achievements in the apiary. They have made -it possible to multiply our practical results tenfold, and to put a -system to bee-culture. - -Quite a number of different styles of extractors have been made since -their first invention, about 10 or 12 years ago. Mine differs from -others by the slanting sides of the comb basket, arranged above a -receptacle for honey in the same tin can, and with a substantial -gearing which requires not more than the strength of a child to work -the machine all day with ease; frames of different sizes, but smaller -than the comb-basket, and pieces of comb without a frame, are placed -against the slanting sides, and without being fastened, emptied of -their contents completely, and, to the uninitiated, in an incredulous -short time. - -The cells having a downward tendency, empty more readily, both in -top and bottom of frames, than when in a vertical position, as every -practical test will show, and the flying of honey, in the shape of a -fine spray, over the top of the can is prevented. - -There is a receptacle for 60 lbs. or more of honey in the extractor, -according to the depth of the comb-basket, which can be made of any -size desired--for instance, for Langstroth's and Quinby's frames, the -comb-basket is 18½ inches deep, and the receiver holds about 65 lbs. -of honey. If the American frame is the largest to be extracted, the -comb-basket is only 12 inches deep, while the extractor holds about 140 -lbs. of honey before it touches the revolving basket and needs to be -drawn off by the iron faucet at the bottom. - -My standard size of comb-basket is 12¼ × 18½ inches, and admits the -Langstroth, Quinby and American frames. When ordering, please state the -largest size of frames used. - -When, after the honey season, a number of small frames are unfinished, -six of them can be piled against each side of the comb-basket for -extraction; or, short comb-holders, which are sent with each Extractor, -may be hung on each side, and only four sections emptied at one time. - -Extracting two large frames at one time is much the handiest -arrangement, and generally satisfies the most ambitious; but the -Extractor can be made large enough to hold four frames, at an -additional cost of $2.50. A close-fitting cover keeps dust, flies and -bees out when extracting is over. I was obliged to cover my improvement -with a patent, merely to protect my interest. - -My Extractor is second to none for all practical purposes, and one of -the cheapest in the market in consideration of material and workmanship. - -=Muth's Uncapping Knife,= - -[Illustration: IS THIN-BLADED, OF THE BEST STEEL, HANDY FOR THE -PURPOSES INTENDED AND CHEAP.] - - =PRICE FOR EXTRACTOR AND KNIFE, $12.00.= - - For further particulars, address - - =C. F. MUTH, Cincinnati, O.= - - - =BARNES' PATENT= - - =FOOT-POWER MACHINERY.= - - _Fifteen Different Machines,_ - -With which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon Makers, and Jobbers in -Miscellaneous work, can compete as to _Quality_ and _Price_ with -steam-power machinery. - -WILL SEND MACHINES ON TRIAL IF DESIRED. - -_Every Bee-Keeper should have an outfit from these Machines for -hive-making._ - -[Illustration] - -We give the following letter from Mr. W. P. Hogarty, of Wyandotte, -Kans., to show their usefulness. He says: "If any criticise your -circular saw, you can tell them I use it, and with one hand, made all -my bee hives for ninety-five stands of bees, including frames and -section brace, and I feel perfectly able to do the work for one hundred -and fifty stands." * * * "In order that you may know the amount of -work on each of my hives, will say, they are two feet long, by two -feet high, by about two feet wide. They are double walled and double -bottomed, with two inch intervening; and in addition to the nine -frames, there are fifteen cases, each case containing two honey boxes -and two division boards, and three boxes to contain chaff for winter -protection. You will see there is an immense amount of sawing to be -done, but I have found your saw equal to the task required of it." - -We will send our illustrated catalogue FREE on application. Say where -you read this, and address - - W. F. & JOHN BARNES, - - _Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill._ - - - - - NEW LANGSTROTH BEE HIVE, - - WITH MANIPULATING SIDE. - -This Improvement in the old Langstroth Hive Is exceedingly valuable, -as it allows the closest watching of a colony with the greatest ease -and comfort. By turning the thumb-screw (L) and opening the movable -side (which takes but an instant), frames can be examined, by removing -the loose side-board (M), the bottom-board may be cleaned--giving the -advantages claimed for a loose bottom-board, without its disadvantages. - -This Hive is a combination the Langstroth Hive and North Star Hive--as -pated June 5, 1877--and, no doubt, will gain universal approbation as -soon as its advantages are known. - -The New Langstroth hive is peculiarly adapted for the production of -comb honey--its Honey Rack is the best in use, and is adapted to the -use of the Prize Boxes. It holds 18 Prize Boxes, with the separators -between them, marked B B in the cut. The wedge (A) holds all with a -vise-like grasp. The outer boxes are glassed as they stand on the hive -(C C C). By removing the wedge (A) any box may be instantly removed, -examined, returned, or replaced by an empty one--the spaces between the -rows readily admitting the fingers for that purpose. - -=SAMPLE NEW LANGSTROTH HIVE=--Nailed, Not Painted. - - No. 1.--Brood Chamber, 10 frames, portico, 7½-inch cap--no - surplus arrangement $2 00 - - No. 2.--Same as No. 1, with Comb-Honey Back, complete, same as - shown by the above cuts 3 00 - - No. 3.--Same as No. 1, but having 20 frames, and Comb-Honey - Back--a complete 3-story hive 3 75 - - No. 4.--Brood Chamber, 10 frames, and 7-inch story, with 7 - cases containing Prize Boxes and tin Separators, for - surplus Honey, with 2-inch cap 3 00 - - No. 5.--Same as No. 4--but having 10 extra frames--a complete - 3-story hive 3 75 - - No. 6.--Brood Chamber, with 10 extra frames, for extracting, - and 2-inch cap, 3 00 - -[Finger] _If painted, add $1.00 each._ [Finger2] - -=MATERIAL FOR NEW LANGSTROTH HIVES.= - -CUT, READY TO NAIL-(14⅛ × 18⅜ inches inside). - - In lots of 5 No. 1--(one-story), $1 25 - " 10 " " 1 20 - " 25 " " 1 10 - " 50 " " 1 05 - " 100 " " 1 00 - - In lots of 5 No. 6--(two-story), $1 80 - " 10 " " 1 70 - " 25 " " 1 60 - " 50 " " 1 53 - " 100 " " 1 50 - -=MATERIAL FOR LANGSTROTH FRAMES.= - -CUT, READY TO NAIL--(9⅛ × 17⅝ inches outside). - - 100 frames $1 50 - 1,000 frames $14 00 - 6,000 frames, per 1,000 $12 00 - -[Finger] For sale at wholesale and retail. Address - -=SPERRY & CHANDLER, 974 W. Madison St., CHICAGO,= - -_Or at the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL OFFICE._ - - -[Illustration] - -PRICES TO SUIT THE TIMES. LANGSTROTH AND MODEST HIVES FOR THE MILLION! - - HONEY BOXES AND SECTIONS, - - Plain and dove-tailed, are large specialties. - -=COMB FOUNDATION,= - -We are producing in large quantities, and of superior quality. Our -facilities are such that we can supply in any quantity desired on short -notice, and all favoring us with their orders shall have prompt and -satisfactory attention. - -=WAX TO BE MADE INTO FOUNDATION.= - -Lots of 100 lbs. and upwards sent us, with 12½c. per lb., freight -prepaid, will be made up and cut to any size, and delivered on board -cars here. - -=ITALIAN QUEENS!= - -The superiority of the Queens reared in our apiaries is so well -established, we shall not here detail their merits; but to those -wishing honey-producing stock, combined with prolificness, we will say -they are not beaten. - - Dowagiac, Michigan, November 20, 1878. - -In regard to your bees, if you were my enemy, and I had anything to -say about your stock, I should say the truth, that I count yours worth -more than twice that or any of the numerous strains that I have tested. -They converted me to yellow bees,, notwithstanding that they are not -near as yellow as those I had formerly. I advise you not to buy, or -take as a gift, any other blood; but just stand right where you are, -and perfect the strain by carefully breeding out any imperfections -that may show themselves, and breeding in all the good qualities your -bees now possess. I shall do the same, purchasing of none but you. I -have hybrids crossed by your stock, that are quiet, good-natured, and -splendid comb-builders and storers. - - Yours truly. JAMES HEDDON. - -_Extractors, Smokers, Bee Veils,_ - -and everything needed in the apiary, supplied at the lowest living -rates. Order your goods early, remembering that large yields of honey -are only obtained by having everything ready for securing it. - -=J. OATMAN & SONS, Dundee, Ill.= - - - =THE BEST IS THE CHEAPEST!= - - COFFINBERRY'S - - =EXCELSIOR HONEY EXTRACTOR!= - - From Eight to Fourteen Dollars. - -Having made several improvements in the EXCELSIOR EXTRACTOR for 1879, -it is now offered to the Bee-Keepers of America as the MOST PERFECT -MACHINE IN THE MARKET. The universal favor with which the EXCELSIOR -EXTRACTOR was received in 1878, has induced other manufacturers to -adopt several of its improvements. My experience and experiments of -last season, with the assistance and suggestions of skillful workmen, -have enabled me to perfect an Extractor that =cannot be excelled, and -can only be equaled by being closely imitated=. - -The Excelsior is made entirely of metal, and is consequently very -light, strong and durable, with lugs at the bottom for firmly attaching -to the floor if desired. - -The strong over-motion gearing, so necessary to ease in running and -speedy operating, was designed and is manufactured expressly for the -Excelsior. A child ten years of age can operate the machine as rapidly -as it can be supplied with combs. - -The top or cross-band, to which is attached the gearing, is wrought -iron, three inches broad, with the ends turned down in such manner as -to thoroughly brace and strengthen the can, and holding the basket -firmly in an upright position. - -The Comb Basket having vertical sides, insures the extracting power -alike for top and bottom of frames. The sides of the basket being -movable and interchangeable, greatly facilitate the operation of -dusting before and thoroughly cleaning after use if desired. - -The basket can be taken from or replaced in the can in a moment, there -being no rusty screws to take out or nuts to remove. - -At the bottom of the can, and below the basket, is a cone or metal -standard, in the top of which revolves the bottom pivot of the basket, -thereby giving room for sixty or seventy pounds of honey without -touching the basket or pivot below. - -Nos. 3, 4 and 5 have strainers covering the canal leading to the -faucet, which obviate the delay of several hours in waiting for the -honey to settle, and the tedious and wasteful process of skimming. The -faucet being below the bottom level of the honey, renders unnecessary -the usual tipping and wrenching incident to drawing off the honey. -These also have close-fitting metal covers, which entirely exclude -dust, dirt, flies and bees when not in use. - -The baskets of Nos. 4 and 5 have no center rod running from top to -bottom, which will be found very convenient by those who uncap both -sides of the comb before putting in the basket, as they can be turned -without removal. - -The strong iron handles placed at the sides, a little above the center, -are completely side-braced, and add much to convenience in handling. - -The wire baskets are very neat specimens of skillful workmanship, -thoroughly braced at every point where experience has proven it to be -most requisite, and nothing has been omitted that could add to its -efficiency. - -The No. 4, for =three= frames, has a triangular basket, movable sides, -no center rod, runs smoothly regardless of number of frames, and is -fast superseding the demand for four-sided baskets. - -=A LOWER PRICED MACHINE.= - -A cheaper machine being called for by those having but few colonies, -and not making a specialty of bee-keeping, I have made a special size -to take the Langstroth frame, and one for the American, to sell at -=$8.00= each. These have no covers or strainer, and are smaller than -the $12.00 and $14.00 sizes, but for the frames named are equal to the -others for effective work, and are the =best cheap Extractors made=. - -=Sizes and Prices:= - - No. 1.--For 2 Langstroth frames, 10 × 18 inches $8 00 - " 2.--For 2 American frames, 13 × 13 inches 8 00 - " 3.--For 2 frames, 13 × 20 inches, or less - (which embraces all standard sizes) 12 00 - " 4.--For 3 " " " " 12 00 - " 5.--For 4 " " " " 14 00 - -[Finger] A liberal discount to dealers in Bee-Keepers' supplies and to -parties ordering in quantity. Address, =C. C. COFFINBERRY, Chicago, -Ill.,= - -Or =American Bee Journal, Chicago, Ill.=, where samples can be seen. - - - REV. A. SALISBURY. JOHN M. HAYES. - - =SALISBURY & HAYES,= - - [Illustration] - - Propagators of - - FINE QUEENS AND BEES, - - From Imported and Home-bred Mothers. - - =Manufacturers of Comb Foundation,= - - HIVES, - - =Surplus Honey Boxes,= - - _QUEEN SHIPPING CAGES, &c._ - - =Dealers in ALL NECESSARY APIARY SUPPLIES.= - - All work executed in good style, and prices to suit the times. - - [Finger] Send for Circular. - - =SALISBURY & HAYES,= - - _Camargo, Douglas County, Ill._ - - * * * * * - - FRIENDS! If you are in any way interested in - - Bees or Honey! - - We will with pleasure send you a sample copy of our - - MONTHLY GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE, - - With a Descriptive Price-List of the latest improvements in - - HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS, ARTIFICIAL COMB, - - =SECTION HONEY BOXES,= - - All books and journals, and everything pertaining to bee culture. - - * * * * * - - NOTHING PATENTED - - * * * * * - - Simply send your address on a postal card, written plainly, to - - =A. I. ROOT, Medina, Ohio.= - - - [Illustration] - - HALLOCK & CHANDLER - - DESIGNERS AND ENGRAVER - - ON WOOD - - 89 Madison Street, - - Corner of Dearborn, Chicago. - -[Finger] Mr. Chandler, of the above firm, being a practical bee-keeper, -will personally supervise the execution of all designs and engravings -for bee-keepers and dealers in apiarian supplies. - -[Finger] _Prices Moderate and Satisfaction Guaranteed._ [Finger2] - - * * * * * - - =Italian Bees and Queens,= - - COMB FOUNDATION, - - =HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS,= - - _SURPLUS HONEY BOXES OF EVERY STYLE,_ - - =FOOT-POWER SAWS,= - - BEE SMOKERS, SEEDS FOR HONEY PLANTS, CASES AND RACKS FOR HIVES, - SHIPPING CRATES. HONEY KNIVES, QUEEN CAGES, - - =AND EVERYTHING USEFUL IN AN APIARY.= - - [Finger] Our Illustrated Catalogue of Implements for the Apiary, - SENT FREE. - - Address, =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,= =972 and 974 West Madison St., - Chicago.= - - - =PUBLICATIONS FOR THE APIARY,= - - FOR SALE AT THE OFFICE OF - - _The American Bee Journal,_ - - =974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill.= - - * * * * * - -=COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.= - -This is a new edition of Prof. Cook's Manual of the Apiary, entirely -re-written, greatly enlarged and superbly illustrated. - -Being new, it is fully up with the times on every conceivable subject -that interests the apiarist. It is not only instructive, but intensely -interesting. - -It comprises a full delineation of the anatomy and physiology of the -Honey-Bee, illustrated with costly wood engravings, full descriptions -of honey-producing plants, trees and shrubs, &c., splendidly -illustrated--and last, though not least, detailed instructions for the -successful accomplishment of all the various manipulations necessary in -the apiary. - -This work is a masterly production, and one that no bee-keeper, however -limited his means, can afford to do without. - -It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper, -and superbly illustrated throughout. Price, bound in cloth, $1.25, -postpaid; in paper binding, $1.00, postpaid. - - -=THE HIVE AND HONEY-BEE, by L. L. Langstroth.= - -This is a standard volume, well illustrated and nicely printed. Price, -$2.00. - - -=MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING, by M. Quinby.= - -The author has treated the subject of Bee-Keeping in a manner that -cannot fail to interest all who read this work. Price, $1.50. - - -=THE DZIERZON THEORY; being a full elucidation of Scientific -Bee-Keeping.= - -This "theory" presents in the form of distinct propositions, the -fundamental principles of bee-culture, and in this work the late Baron -of Berlepsch furnishes a condensed statement of the facts and arguments -by which these propositions are demonstrated. It is of untold value to -beginners and all others who desire to study the subject of apiculture. -It is just what thousands want. - -It contains 60 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, -postpaid, 20 cents, or three copies for 50 cents. - - -=HONEY, AS FOOD AND MEDICINE, by the Editor of the American Bee -Journal.= - -This is a pamphlet of 24 pages, discoursing upon the Ancient History -of Bees and Honey; the nature, quality, sources, and preparation of -Honey for the Market; Honey, as an article of Food, giving recipes for -making Honey Cakes, Cookies, Puddings, Foam, Wines, &c.; and Honey -as Medicine, followed by many useful Recipes. It is intended for -consumers, and should be scattered by thousands all over the country, -and thus assist in creating a demand for honey.--Prices: Single copies, -10 cents postpaid; 15 copies for $1.00 by mail, postpaid; 100 copies, -with name and address of honey-producer printed on them, $5.00 by mail, -postpaid; 250 copies, by express, at 4 cents each; 500 or more copies, -by express, at 3 cents each. It is published in German also at the same -prices. - - -=WINTERING BEES; How to do it Successfully.= - -This contains all the Prize Essays on this important subject that were -read before the Centennial Bee-Keepers' Association. The prize ($25 in -gold) was awarded to Prof. Cook's Essay, which is reported in full in -this pamphlet. - -It contains 30 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, 15 -cents, or five copies for 50 cents. - - -=SPECIAL EDITION of the Journal.= - -Containing the Official Report of the Proceedings of the National -Convention, hold in New York, Oct., 16-18, 1877, with all the Essays -and Discussions,--together with a description of the implements for the -Apiary, on exhibition at the American Institute Fair.--Price 10 cents. - -[Finger] _Send by Postal Money Order, Draft or Registered Letter at our -risk._ - - =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,= - - _974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill,_ - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Minor typos corrected. Discrepancies between the table of Contents' -section titles and that displayed in the Chapter were corrected. The -Illustrations list ended at number 110 but the volume has 133 numbered -illustrations. So, a copy of the list for numbers 111 to 133 was -appended from the Seventh Edition. - - - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF THE APIARY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/68157-0.zip b/old/68157-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c34c0b7..0000000 --- a/old/68157-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h.zip b/old/68157-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1c52505..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/68157-h.htm b/old/68157-h/68157-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index fd88318..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/68157-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16439 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - Manual of the Apiary, by A. J. Cook—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover_epub.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - text-indent: 1.5em; -} - -.p0 {text-indent: 0;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-left: 2.5%; margin-right: 2.5%;} - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} -hr.r65 {width: 65%; margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - border-collapse: collapse; - border-spacing: 0; -} -td { -padding:0px; -} -td img { -display:block; -} -.tblcont {width: 70%;} -.tblcont tr:hover {background-color: #f5f5f5;} -td .hanging {text-indent:-2em; margin-left:2em; text-align: left;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} /* page numbers */ - -.linenum { - position: absolute; - top: auto; - left: 4%; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} /* poetry number */ - - -.sidenote { - width: 20%; - padding-bottom: .5em; - padding-top: .5em; - padding-left: .5em; - padding-right: .5em; - margin-left: 1em; - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-top: 1em; - font-size: smaller; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: 1px dashed; -} - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; } -li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } -li.indx { margin-top: .5em; } -li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} -li.isub2 {text-indent: 2em;} -li.isub3 {text-indent: 3em;} - -.bdb {border-bottom: 1px solid;} -.bdb2 {border-bottom: 4px double;} -.bdl {border-left: 1px solid;} -.bdl1 {border-left: 1px solid; padding-left: 0.5em;} -.bdt {border-top: 1px solid;} -.bdt2 {border-top: 4px double;} -.bdr {border-right: 1px solid;} -.bbox {border: 2px solid; padding: 4em;} - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} -.u {text-decoration: underline;} - -.gesperrt {letter-spacing: 0.2em; margin-right: -0.2em;} - -h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, .caption1, .caption2, .caption3, .caption4, .caption5 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -h1 {font-size:2.00em; margin-top: 1.5em;} -h2 {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -h3 {font-size:1.25em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -h4 {font-size:1.125em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -h5 {font-size:1.1em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption1 {font-size:2.00em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption2 {font-size:1.50em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption3 {font-size:1.25em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption4 {font-size:1.125em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption5 {font-size:1.1em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption2nb {font-size:1.50em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption3nb {font-size:1.25em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption4nb {font-size:1.125em; text-align: center; text-indent:0; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.pmt1 {margin-top: 1em;} -.pmb1 {margin-bottom: 1em;} -.pmt2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.pmb2 {margin-bottom: 2em;} -.pmt4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.pmb4 {margin-bottom: 4em;} -.vsmall {font-size: 0.5em;} -.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} -.larger {font-size: 1.5em;} -.larger2 {font-size: 1.125em;} -.blockquot p {margin-left: 4em; margin-right: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: justify;} -.vtop {vertical-align: top;} -.vbot {vertical-align: bottom;} -.ttl2 {font-size: .75em;} -.ttl3 {font-size: .5em;} -.wsp {white-space: pre;} -.wsnw {white-space: nowrap; word-break: keep-all;} -.lnhgt {line-height: 24px;} - -sub, sup {font-size: 0.75em;} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} - -.figcaption { - font-size: 1.25em; -} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - padding-top: 12px; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -.figleft { - float: left; - clear: left; - margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} -/* comment out next line and uncomment the following one for floating figleft on ebookmaker output */ -.x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: none; text-align: center; margin-right: 0;} -/* .x-ebookmaker .figleft {float: left;} */ - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} -/* comment out next line and uncomment the following one for floating figright on ebookmaker output */ -.x-ebookmaker .figright {float: none; text-align: center; margin-left: 0;} -/* .x-ebookmaker .figright {float: right;} */ - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry-container {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry in browsers */ -.poetry {display: inline-block;} /* */ -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} -.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -@media print { .poetry {display: block;} } -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - - -.antiqua {font-family: "Lucida Calligraphy", "Perpetua", "Times New Roman", - Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 1.25em;} - -td {border: #000 solid 0px;} /* for testing show borders */ - -/* Poetry indents */ -.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;} -.poetry .indent1 {text-indent: -2.5em;} -.poetry .indent3 {text-indent: -1.5em;} - - - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Manual of the apiary, by Albert John Cook</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Manual of the apiary</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Albert John Cook</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 23, 2022 [eBook #68157]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Tom Cosmas compiled from materials made available at The Internet Archive.</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF THE APIARY ***</div> - - - - -<div class="figcenter" id="cover" style="width: 328px;"> - <img src="images/cover.png" width="328" height="557" alt="Manual of the Apiary, by A. J. Cook" /> -</div> - - - -<h1><span class="smaller">MANUAL</span><br /> - -<span class="vsmall">OF</span><br /> - -THE APIARY,</h1> - - -<p class="tdc vsmall">BY</p> - -<h2>A. J. COOK,<br /> - -<span class="vsmall"><i>Professor of Entomology</i></span><br /> - -<span class="vsmall">IN THE</span><br /> - -<span class="smaller">MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.</span></h2> - - -<p class="caption3nb">FOURTH EDITION,<br /> - -<span class="smaller"><i>REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND<br /> -BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED.</i></span></p> - -<hr class="r25" /> - -<p class="caption3nb">SIXTH THOUSAND.</p> - -<hr class="r25" /> - - -<p class="pmb4 caption4nb">CHICAGO, ILLS.:<br /> -THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON<br /> -1879.</p> - - -<p class="pmt4 pmb4 tdc lnhgt">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by<br /> - -THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,<br /> - -In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.</p> - - -<p class="pmt4 pmb4 tdc lnhgt">TO THE<br /> - -<span class="larger">REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH,</span><br /> - -THE<br /> - -INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE,<br /> - -THE<br /> - -HUBER OF AMERICA, AND THE GREATEST MASTER OF<br /> - -PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO<br /> - -APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD; THIS MANUAL<br /> - -IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED<br /> - -BY<br /> - -<span class="larger">THE AUTHOR.</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE_TO_FIRST_EDITION">PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.</h2> -</div> - - -<h3>THE APIARY.</h3> - -<p>Why another treatise on this subject? Have we not -Langstroth, and Quinby, and King, and Bevan, and Hunter? -Yes; all of these. Each of which has done excellent service -in promoting an important industry. Each of which possesses -peculiar and striking excellences. Yet none of these -combine all of the qualities desirable in a popular manual. -Hence, the excuse for another claimant for public favor. -Every cultured apiarist laments that there is no text-book -which possesses all of the following very desirable characters: -Simple style, full in its discussions, cheap, disinterested, up -with the times. It is for the bee-keeping public to decide -whether this treatise meets any more fully the demands -made by the latest discoveries and improvements, by the -wants of those eager to learn, and by the superior intelligence -which is now enlisted in the interests of the Apiary.</p> - -<p>The following is, in substance, the same as the course of -lectures which I have given each year to the students of the -Michigan Agricultural College, and their desire, as expressed -in repeated requests, has led to this publication.</p> - -<p>It will be my desire to consider subjects of merely scientific -interest and value, as fully as scientific students can reasonably -desire; and, that such discussions may not confuse or -perplex those who only read or study with practical ends in -view, a very full index is added, so that the whereabouts of -any topic, either of practical or scientific value, can be easily -ascertained.</p> - -<p>In considering the various subjects of interest to the bee-keeper, -I am greatly indebted to the authors mentioned -above, and also to the following journals, all worthy of high -commendation: Gleanings in Bee Culture, American Bee -Journal, Bee-Keepers' Magazine, and Bee World.</p> - -<p>The illustrations for this manual were nearly all drawn by -the author from the natural object.</p> - -<table style="float: left;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td> <span class="smcap">Michigan Agricultural College</span>,<br /> - <span class="smcap">Lansing</span>, May 1, 1876. </td> - <td class="tdl"><img src="images/bracer_32.png" width="11" height="32" alt="}" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<h2 style="clear: both; padding-top: 16px;">PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.</h2> - - -<p>I little thought when I sent out, less than two years ago, -the first edition—3,000 copies—of my little, unpretending, -"Manual of the Apiary," that more than 2,000 copies would -be sold in less than one year, and that in less than two years -a second edition would be demanded by the apiarists of our -country.</p> - -<p>The very kindly reviews and flattering notices by apiarian, -scientific, and other journals, both American and foreign, -and the approval, as expressed by numerous friendly letters, -of our most eminent apiarists, as also the "unprecedented -sale of this little work," have not only been very gratifying, -but also assure me that I was quite right in the opinion that -the time was ripe for some such treatise.</p> - -<p>At the urgent request of many apiarian friends, in response -to the oft-repeated desire of my many students, some of -whom are becoming leading apiculturists in our country, and -at the suggestion of many noted apiarists with whom I have -no personal acquaintance, I now send forth this second edition, -greatly enlarged, mostly re-written, even more fully -illustrated, and containing the latest scientific discoveries, -and most recent improvements in methods of apiarian management -and bee-keeping apparatus.</p> - -<p>It is impossible for me to state how greatly I am indebted -to our excellent American bee periodicals, and enterprising -and intelligent apiarists, for many—yea, for most—of the -valuable thoughts and suggestions which may be found in -the following pages. I am tempted to mention names of -those whose aid and favors have been especially useful, but -find the list so large that I must, perforce, forego the privilege, -and only refer to such persons in the text.</p> - -<p>With the hope that this second edition may reach even -more who desire instruction in this pleasing art, and that it -may still further advance the interests of scientific apiculture. -I send it forth to all those who wish to study more -deeply into the mysteries of insect life, or to gain further -knowledge of one of the most fascinating as well as profitable -of arts.</p> - -<p>I make no apology for inserting so much of science in the -following pages. From the letters of inquiry which I am -constantly receiving, especially from apiarists, I am convinced -that the people are mentally hungry for just such -food. To satisfy and stimulate just such appetites is, I am -sure, very desirable.</p> - -<p>I recommend nothing in this treatise that I have not -proved valuable by actual trial, unless I mention some eminent -person as advising it; nor do I announce any fact or -scientific truth that I have not verified, except as I give it on -the authority of some competent person.</p> - -<p>For most of the figures of the second edition lam indebted -to one of my pupils, Mr. W. L. Holdsworth, whose skill as -an artist needs no praise.</p> - -<p><i>Appended to this volume is a very full index which will be a -great aid to the student.</i></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">- i -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption3nb">INTRODUCTION.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Who May Keep Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Specialists</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#specialists">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Amateurs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#amateurs">11</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Who are Specially Interdicted</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#interdicted">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Inducements to Bee-Keeping</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#inducements">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Recreation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#recreation">12</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Profit</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#profits">13</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#excellence">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Adaptation to Women</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#adaption">15</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Improves the Mind and Observation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#improves">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Yields Delicious Food</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#yeilds">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#requires">18</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Mental Effort</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#mental_effort">18</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Experience Necessary</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#experience">18</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Learn from Others</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#learn">18</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Aid from Conventions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#aid_conventions">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Aid from Bee Papers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#aid_publications">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> American Bee Journal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#am_bee_jour">19</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Gleanings in Bee Culture</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#gleanings">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Bee-Keepers' Magazine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bk_mag">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Books for the Apiarist</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#books4apiarist">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Langstroth on the Honey-Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#king_tb">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-Keeping</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#quinby_mysteries">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> King's Text-Book</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#king_tb">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> A, B, C of Bee Culture</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#abc_beecult">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Foreign Works</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#foreign_works">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Promptitude</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#promtitude">23</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Enthusiasm</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#enthusiasm">24</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="caption3">PART I.</p> - -<p class="caption3nb"><span class="smcap">Natural History of the Honey Bee.</span></p> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER I.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Bee's Place in the Animal Kingdom</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">27</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Branch of the Honey-Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#branch">27</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Class of the Honey-Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#class_hbee">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Order of the Honey-Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#order_hbee">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sorder_hbee">31</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Family of the Honey-Bee<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">- ii -</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fam_hbee">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Genus of the Honey-Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#genus_hbee">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Species of the Honey-Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#species_hbee">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Varieties of the Honey-Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#var_hbee">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> German, or Black Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ger_bee">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Italian, or Ligurian</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#lig_bee">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Fasciata, or Egyptian</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fasciata">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Other Varieties</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#other_var">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Bibliography</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bibl">44</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Valuable Books on Entomology</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#val_bks">47</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER II.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Anatomy and Physiology</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">48</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Anatomy of Insects</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#anatomy">48</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Organs of the Head</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#organs">48</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Appendages of the Thorax</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#append">55</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Internal Anatomy</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#int_anat">56</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Secretory Organs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#secretory">61</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Sex Organs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sex_org">62</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Transformations</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#transf">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Egg</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#egg">67</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Larva</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#larva">68</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Pupa</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#pupa">68</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Imago Stage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#imago">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Incomplete Transformations</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#inc_tr">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#anat_phys">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Three Kinds of Bees in Each Colony</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#three_kinds">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Queen</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#queen">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Drone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#drone">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Neuters or Workers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#worker">90</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER III.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Swarming, or Natural Method of increase</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">101</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER IV.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Products of Bees, their Origin and Function</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#prods">104</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Honey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#honey">104</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Wax</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#wax">106</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Pollen, or Bee-Bread</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#pollen">111</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Propolis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#propolis">112</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Bibliography</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bibl2">113</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="caption3">Part II.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The apiary, its Care and Management</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="caption3nb">INTRODUCTION.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Preparation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#prep">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Read a Good Manual</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#gd_manual">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Visit some Apiarist</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#visit_ap">117</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Take a College Course<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">- iii -</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#college">118</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Decide on a Plan</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#plan">118</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How to Procure our Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#procure">118</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Kind of Bees to Purchase</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bee_kind">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">In What Kind of Hives</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hive_kind">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">When to Purchase</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#when">119</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How Much to Pay</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#how_much">120</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Where to Locate</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#locate">120</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER V.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hives and Boxes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">122</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Box Hives</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#box">122</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Movable Comb Hives</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#mv_comb">123</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Langstroth Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#lang_hive">123</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Character of the Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#char">124</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Bottom Board</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bot_bd">127</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Cover</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hv_cover">129</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Frames</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#frames">132</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Construct the Frames</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#const">133</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> A Block for making Frames</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#block">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Cover for Frames</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fr_cvr">136</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Division Board</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#div_bd">137</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Huber Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#huber_hive">138</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Apparatus for Securing Comb Honey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#appar">141</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Boxes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#boxes">142</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Small Frames or Sections</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#combs">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Requisites of Good Sections</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#gd_sect">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Description</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#decr">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Place Sections in Position</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#placing">147</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Sections in Frames</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sect_frames">147</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Sections in Racks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_racks">149</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER VI.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Position and Arrangement of the Apiary</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Position</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#position">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Arrangement of Ground</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#arrangement">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Preparation for each Colony</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#prep_colony">153</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER VII.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">To Transfer Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">156</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER VIII.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Feeding and Feeders</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">159</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How Much to Feed</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#how_much2fd">159</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Feed</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#how2fd">160</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER IX.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Queen Rearing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">163</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Rear Queens</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#rear_queens">163</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Nuclei</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#nuclei">165</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Shall we Clip the Queen's Wing?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#clip">168</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">- iv -</span></p> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER X.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Increase of Colonies</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">171</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Swarming</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#swarming">171</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Hiving Swarms</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hiving_sw">173</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Prevent Second Swarms</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#prev2nd">175</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Prevent Swarming</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#prevsw">176</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How Best to Increase</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#increase">177</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Dividing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#divide">177</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Divide</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#how2div">177</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XI.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Italians and Italianizing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">180</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> All Should Keep Only Italians</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#only_ital">183</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Italianize</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#how2it">183</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Introduce a Queen</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#intro_qn">183</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Get Italian Queens</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#get_qn">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Rearing and Shipping Queens</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#rearing">186</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Ship Queens</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ship_qn">186</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Move Colonies</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#move">187</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XII.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Extracting and the Extractors</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Honey Extractor</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#extractor">188</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> What Style to Buy</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#wh_style">189</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Use of the Extractor</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#use_extr">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> When to use the Extractor</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#when_ext">192</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Extract</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#how2ext">194</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XIII.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Handling Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">195</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Best Bee Veil</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#veil">196</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Quiet Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#quiet_bees">197</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Bellows Smoker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bellows">198</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Quinby Smoker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#quinby_sm">198</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Bingham Smoker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bingham_sm">199</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Smoke Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#smoke">201</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Cure Stings</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#cure_stings">201</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> he Sweat Theory</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sweat">201</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XIV.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Comb Foundation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> History</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#history">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> American Foundation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#am_found">204</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How Foundation is Made</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#how_fnd_md">206</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Secure the Wax Sheets</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_wax">206</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Use of Foundation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#use_fnd">207</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Fasten the Foundation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fasten_fnd">209</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Save the Wax</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#save_wax">211</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Methods</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#methods">211</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">- v -</span></p> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XV.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Marketing Honey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">213</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Invigorate the Market</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#inv_market">213</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Extracted Honey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#extr_honey">214</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> How to Tempt the Consumer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#tempt_cons">214</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Comb Honey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#comb-honey">215</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Rules to be Observed</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#rules">215</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XVI.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Honey Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">218</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> What are the Valuable Honey Plants?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#val_hny_plnts">220</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Description with Practical Remarks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#desc_w_rem">222</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> April Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#apr_pl">223</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> May Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#may_pl">225</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> June Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#jun_pl">228</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> July Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#jul_pl">237</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> August and September Plants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#aug_pl">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Books on Botany</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#botany">244</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Practical Conclusions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#pract_con">244</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XVII.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Wintering Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Cause of Disastrous Wintering</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#dis_wint">246</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Requisite to Safe Wintering—Good Food</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#safe_wint">248</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Secure Late Breeding</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_late_breeding">249</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> To Secure and Maintain Proper Temperature</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sec_maint_temp">249</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Box for Packing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bx4pack">250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Chaff Hives</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#chaff_hives">251</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Wintering in Cellar or House</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#wint_in_cellar">252</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Burying Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bury_hives">254</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Spring Dwindling</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#spr_dwindling">254</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XVIII.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The House Apiary</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">255</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Description</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#desc">255</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Are they Desirable</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#deirable">256</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Case as it Now Stands</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#the_case">256</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XIX.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Evils that Confront the Apiarist</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">258</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Robbing</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#robbing">258</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Disease</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#disease">259</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Foul Brood</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#foul_brood">259</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Remedies</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#remedies">260</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Enemies of Bees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#enemies">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The Bee Moth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bee_moth">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> History</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bm_history">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Remedies</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bm_remedies">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Bee Killer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#bm_remedies">267</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Bee Louse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">- vi -</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#louse">268</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Important Suggestion</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#suggestion">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Bee Hawk</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hawk">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Tachina Fly</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#tachina">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Spiders</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#spiders">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Ants</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#ants">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Wasps</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#wasps">271</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> The King Bird</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#king_bird">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Toads</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#toads">272</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Mice</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#mice">272</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption3nb">CHAPTER XX.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Calendar and Axioms</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">274</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Work for Different Months</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#work4mths">274</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> January</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#jan">274</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> February</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#feb">274</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> March</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#mar">274</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> April</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#apr">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> May</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#may">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> June</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#jun">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> July</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#jul">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> August</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#aug">275</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> September</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#sep">276</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> October</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#oct">276</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> November</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#nov">276</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> December</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#dec">276</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl"> Axioms</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#axioms">277</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - - - -<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="illustrations"> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">1.</td> - <td class="tdl">Trachea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig1">28</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">2.</td> - <td class="tdl">Respiratory Apparatus of a Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig2">29</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">3.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bee's Wings</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig3">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">4.</td> - <td class="tdl">Head of Drone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig4">39</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">5.</td> - <td class="tdl">Head of Worker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig5">39</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">6.</td> - <td class="tdl">Head of Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig6">49</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">7.</td> - <td class="tdl">Thorax of Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig7">55</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">8.</td> - <td class="tdl">Nervous System of Drone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig8">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">9.</td> - <td class="tdl">Alimentary Canal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig9">60</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">10.</td> - <td class="tdl">Male Organs of Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig10">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">11.</td> - <td class="tdl">Queen Organs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig11">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">12.</td> - <td class="tdl">Larva of Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig12">68</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">13.</td> - <td class="tdl">Pupa of Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig13">69</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">14.</td> - <td class="tdl">Queen Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig14">72</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">15.</td> - <td class="tdl">Labium of Queen</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig15">73</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">16.</td> - <td class="tdl">Part of Queen's Leg</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig16">74</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">17.</td> - <td class="tdl">Drone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">- vii -</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig17">86</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">18.</td> - <td class="tdl">Part of Drone's Leg</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig18">87</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">19.</td> - <td class="tdl">Worker Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig19">90</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">20.</td> - <td class="tdl">Tongue of Worker Bee</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig20">91</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">21.</td> - <td class="tdl">Jaw of Queen, Drone and Worker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig21">92</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">22.</td> - <td class="tdl">Part of Posterior Leg of Worker—outside</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig22">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">23.</td> - <td class="tdl">Part of Posterior Leg of Worker—inside</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig23">94</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">24.</td> - <td class="tdl">Anterior Leg of Worker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig24">94</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">25.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sting of Worker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig25">95</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">26.</td> - <td class="tdl">Egg and Brood</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig26">97</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">27.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wax Scales</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig27">106</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">28.</td> - <td class="tdl">Honey-Comb</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig28">109</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">29.</td> - <td class="tdl">Langstroth Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig29">124</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">30.</td> - <td class="tdl">Body of Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig30">125</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">31.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bevel Gauge</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig31">126</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">32.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bottom-Board</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig32">128</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">33.</td> - <td class="tdl">Two-Story Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig33">130</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">34.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cover to Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig34">131</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">35.</td> - <td class="tdl">Frame</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig35">133</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">36.</td> - <td class="tdl">Frame, with Cross-Section of Top-Bar</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig36">134</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">37.</td> - <td class="tdl">Block for making Frames</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig37">135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">38.</td> - <td class="tdl">Division-Board</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig38">137</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">39.</td> - <td class="tdl">Part of Quinby Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig39">139</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">40.</td> - <td class="tdl">Part of Bingham Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig40">140</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">41.</td> - <td class="tdl">Glass Honey Box</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig41">142</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">42.</td> - <td class="tdl">Isham Honey Box</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig42">143</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">43.</td> - <td class="tdl">Harbison Section Frame</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig43">143</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">44.</td> - <td class="tdl">Chisel</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig44">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">45.</td> - <td class="tdl">Block for Section Making</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig45">145</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">46.</td> - <td class="tdl">Hetherington Separator</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig46">146</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">47.</td> - <td class="tdl">Dove-tailed Section</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig47">146</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">48.</td> - <td class="tdl">Phelps Section</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig48">147</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">49.</td> - <td class="tdl">Section Frame</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig49">148</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">50.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sections in Frame</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig50">149</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">51.</td> - <td class="tdl">Southard's Section Back</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig51">150</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">52.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wheeler's Section Back</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig52">150</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">53.</td> - <td class="tdl">Hive in Shade of Ever-green</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig53">155</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">54.</td> - <td class="tdl">Feeder</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig54">160</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">55.</td> - <td class="tdl">Simplicity Feeder</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig55">161</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">56.</td> - <td class="tdl">Queen-cell Inserted in Comb</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig56">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">57.</td> - <td class="tdl">Shipping Queen Cage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig57">187</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">58.</td> - <td class="tdl">Everett's Extractor</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig58">189</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">59.</td> - <td class="tdl">Comb Basket for Extractor</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig59">190</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">60.</td> - <td class="tdl">Knife for Uncapping</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig60">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">61.</td> - <td class="tdl">Knife with Curved Point</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig61">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">62.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bee-Veil</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig62">196</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">63.</td> - <td class="tdl">Quinby Smokers</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig63">199</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">64.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bingham Smoker</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig64">199</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">65.</td> - <td class="tdl">Comb Foundation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig65">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">66.</td> - <td class="tdl">Comb Foundation Machine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig66">205</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">67.</td> - <td class="tdl">Comb Foundation Cutter - <span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">- viii -</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig67">206</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">68.</td> - <td class="tdl">Block for Fastening Foundation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig68">210</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">69.</td> - <td class="tdl">Presser for Block</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig69">211</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">70.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wax Extractor</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig70">212</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">71.</td> - <td class="tdl">Prize Crate</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig71">216</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">72.</td> - <td class="tdl">Heddon Crate</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig72">217</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">73.</td> - <td class="tdl">Maple</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig73">222</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">74.</td> - <td class="tdl">Willow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig74">223</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">75.</td> - <td class="tdl">Judas Tree</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig75">224</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">76.</td> - <td class="tdl">American Wistaria</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig76">225</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">77.</td> - <td class="tdl">Chinese Wistaria</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig77">226</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">78.</td> - <td class="tdl">Barberry</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig78">226</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">79.</td> - <td class="tdl">White Sage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig79">227</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">80.</td> - <td class="tdl">White or Dutch Clover</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig80">228</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">81.</td> - <td class="tdl">Alsike Clover</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig81">229</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">82.</td> - <td class="tdl">Melilot Clover</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig82">230</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">83.</td> - <td class="tdl">Borage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig83">230</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">84.</td> - <td class="tdl">Mignonette</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig84">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">85.</td> - <td class="tdl">Okra</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig85">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">86.</td> - <td class="tdl">Mint</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig86">232</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">87.</td> - <td class="tdl">Pollen of Milk-Weed</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig87">233</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">88.</td> - <td class="tdl">Black Mustard</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig88">233</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">89.</td> - <td class="tdl">Rape</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig89">234</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">90.</td> - <td class="tdl">Tulip</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig90">235</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">91.</td> - <td class="tdl">Teasel</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig91">236</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">92.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cotton</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig92">236</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">93.</td> - <td class="tdl">Basswood</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig93">237</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">94.</td> - <td class="tdl">Figwort</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig94">238</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">95.</td> - <td class="tdl">Button-Bush</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig95">240</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">96.</td> - <td class="tdl">Rocky Mountain Bee Plant</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig96">239</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">97.</td> - <td class="tdl">Boneset</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig97">241</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">98.</td> - <td class="tdl">Buckwheat</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig98">242</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">99.</td> - <td class="tdl">Golden Rod</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig99">243</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">100.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sun Flower</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig100">243</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">101.</td> - <td class="tdl">Packing-Box for Winter</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig101">250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">102.</td> - <td class="tdl">Gallery of Moth Larva</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig102">262</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">103.</td> - <td class="tdl">Moth Larva in Comb</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig103">263</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">104.</td> - <td class="tdl">Moth Larvæ</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig104">264</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">105.</td> - <td class="tdl">Moth Cocoons</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig105">264</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">106.</td> - <td class="tdl">Moth with Wings Spread</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig106">264</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">107.</td> - <td class="tdl">Male and Female Moths</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig107">265</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">108.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bee-Killer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig108">268</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">109.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bee Louse</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig109">268</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">110.</td> - <td class="tdl">Tachina Fly</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig110">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">111.</td> - <td class="tdl">Munn's Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig111">270</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">112.</td> - <td class="tdl">Munn's Triangular Hive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig112">280</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">113.</td> - <td class="tdl">Lecanium Tulipiferas</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig113">288</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">114.</td> - <td class="tdl">Stem of Motherwort</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig114">289</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">115.</td> - <td class="tdl">Fruit and Leaf of Motherwort</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig115">290</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">116.</td> - <td class="tdl">Motherwort Bloom</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig116">291</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">117.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sour-Wood</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig117">292</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">118.</td> - <td class="tdl">Stinging-Bug--natural size</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig118">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">119.</td> - <td class="tdl">Magnified twice</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig119">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">120.</td> - <td class="tdl">Beak, magnified</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig120">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">121.</td> - <td class="tdl">Antenna, magnified</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig121">295</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">122.</td> - <td class="tdl">Anterior leg, exterior view</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig122">295</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">123.</td> - <td class="tdl"> " " interior view</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig123">295</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">124.</td> - <td class="tdl">Claw, extended</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig124">296</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">125.</td> - <td class="tdl">Middle leg, magnified</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig125">296</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">126.</td> - <td class="tdl">Southern Bee-Killer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig126">297</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">127.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wings extended</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig127">297</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">128.</td> - <td class="tdl">Head of</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig128">298</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">131.</td> - <td class="tdl">Foot of</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig131">298</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">129.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wing of</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig129">299</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">130.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wing of Asilus Missouriensis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig130">300</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">132.</td> - <td class="tdl">Honey-Comb Coral</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig132">301</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">133.</td> - <td class="tdl">Wasp-stone Coral</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig133">302</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">- 11 -</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">WHO MAY KEEP BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - - - -<h4 id="specialists">SPECIALISTS.</h4> - -<p>Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do -whatever the needs of his business require, with no thought -of delay, may make apiculture a specialty, with almost certain -prospects of success. He must also be willing to work -with Spartan energy during the busy season, and must persist, -though sore discouragement, and even dire misfortune, -essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains. -As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in -apiculture. I make no mention of capital to begin with, or -territory on which to locate; for men of true metal—men -whose energy of mind and body bespeak success in advance—will -solve these questions long before their experience and -knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of large apiaries.</p> - - -<h4 id="amateurs">AMATEURS.</h4> - -<p>Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended -to those of any business or profession, who possess the above -named qualities, and control a little space for their bees, a few -rods from street and neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives -may securely rest (C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, keeps his bees -very successfully on the top of his store, in the very heart of -a large city), and who are able to devote a little time, when -required, to care for their bees. The amount of time will -of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with -proper management this time may be granted at any period of -the day or week, and thus not interfere with the regular business. -Thus residents of country, village, or city, male or -female, who may wish to be associated with and study natural -objects, and add to their income and pleasure, will find here, -an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies, shut out from -fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point sadly to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">- 12 -</span> -departing health, and vigor, and to men the nature of whose -business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too -highly recommended as an avocation.</p> - - -<h3 id="interdicted">WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED.</h3> - -<p>There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially -susceptible to the poison intruded with the bee's sting. -Sometimes such persons, if even stung on the foot, will be so -thoroughly poisoned that their eyes will swell so they cannot -see, and will suffer with fever for days, and, very rarely, individuals -are so sensitive to this poison that a bee-sting proves -fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should never keep -bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Kleine and -Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but -spurred on by their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon become -so inoculated that they experience no serious injury -from the stings. It is a well-recognized fact, that each successive -sting is less powerful to work harm. Every bee-keeper -is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though -with the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion -neither of fear nor anxiety.</p> - - -<h3 id="inducements">INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING.</h3> - -<h4 id="recreation">RECREATION.</h4> - -<p>Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the -pleasure which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination -about the apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always -presenting the most pleasurable surprises to those on the alert -to receive them. And among the insect hosts, especially -bees, the instincts and habits are so inexplicable and marvelous, -that the student of this department of nature never -ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less with -wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords -most wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look -in upon the book of nature, and study the marvelous pages -she is ever waiting to present. To such, the very fascination -of their pursuit is of itself a rich reward for the time and -labor expended. I doubt if there is any other class of manual -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">- 13 -</span> -laborers who engage in their business, and dwell upon it, with -the same fondness as do bee-keepers. Indeed, to meet a -scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough -study of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its -very nature, go hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I -once asked an extensive apiarist, who was also a farmer, why -he kept bees. The answer was characteristic: "Even if I -could not make a good deal the most money with my bees, I -should still keep them for the real pleasure they bring me." -But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof. Daniels, -President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties -are very severe. Said he: "For the restful pleasure which -I receive in their management." I am very sure, that were -there no other inducement than that of pleasure, I should be -slow to part with these models of industry, whose marvelous -instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever ministering to my -delight and astonishment.</p> - -<p>A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and College -classmate, O. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I -took him to see our apiary, and as we looked at the bees and -their handiwork, just as the nectar from golden-rod and asters -was flooding the honey-cells; he became enraptured, took my -little "Manual of the Apiary" home with him, and at once -subscribed for the old <i>American Bee Journal</i>. He very -soon purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so -much of pleasure and recreation in the duties imposed by his -new charge, that he has written me several times, expressing -gratitude that I had led him into such a work of love and -pleasure.</p> - -<h4 id="profits">PROFITS.</h4> - -<p>The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pursuit. -When we consider the comparatively small amount of -capital invested, the relatively small amount of labor and expense -attending its operations, we are surprised at the -abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its intelligent -practice. I do not wish to be understood here as claiming -that labor—yes, real hard, back-aching labor—is not required -in the apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colonies, -will have, at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">- 14 -</span> -work. Yet this will be both pleasant and Healthful, and will -go hand-in-hand with thought, so that brain and muscle will -work together. Yet this time of hard, physical labor will -only continue for five or six months, and for the balance of -the year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure. -Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, indolent, -heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in -any other calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years -of experience, where accurate weight, measure, and counting -of change has given no heed to conjecture, that there is no -manual labor pursuit, where the returns are so large, when -compared with the labor and expense.</p> - -<p>An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in -Michigan, with the absolute certainty of more than doubling -his investment the first season; while a net gain of 400 per -cent, brings no surprise to the experienced apiarists of our -State. This of course applies only to a limited number of -colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States as a location -for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I -ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary, -have netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net -return of $24.04, while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above -all expense, of over 400 per cent, of their entire value in the -spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who graduated at our College one -year since, purchased last spring seven colonies of bees. The -proceeds of these seven colonies have more than paid all expenses, -including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while there -are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count the -labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered -with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our -State who possess good apiaries and good improved farms, -have told me that their apiaries were more profitable than all -the remainder of their farms. Who will doubt the profits of -apiculture in the face of friend Doolittle's experience? He -has realized $6,000, in five years, simply from the honey taken -from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of all expenses -except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks, -and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colonies, -and we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee-keeping -made Adam Grimm a wealthy man. It brought to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">- 15 -</span> -Capt. Hetherington over $10,000 as the cash receipts of a -single year's honey-crop. It enabled Mr. Harbison, so it is -reported, to ship from his own apiary, eleven car-loads of -comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater -recommendation has any pursuit? Opportunity for money-making, -even with hardships and privations, is attractive -and seldom disregarded; such opportunity with labor that -brings, in itself, constant delight, is surely <i>worthy</i> of -attention.</p> - -<h4 id="excellence">EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT.</h4> - -<p>Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience, -that serves so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds -to the poorly paid, out-door air to the clerk and office-hand, -healthful exercise to the person of sedentary habits, and superb -recreation to the student or professional man, and -especially to him whose life-work is of that dull, hum-drum, -routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The labor, -too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and -management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as -not to infringe upon the time demanded by the regular occupation. -Indeed, I have never been more heartily thanked, -than by such parsons as named above, and that, too, because -I called them to consider—which usually means to adopt—the -pleasing duties of the apiary.</p> - -<h4 id="adaption">ADAPTATION TO WOMEN.</h4> - -<p>Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society -has not been over-ready to favor—our women. Widowed -mothers, dependent girls, the weak and the feeble, all may -find a blessing in the easy, pleasant, and profitable labors of -the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and health, -can care for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient -strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb -when loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. With -the proper thought and management, full colonies need never -be lifted, nor work done in the hot sunshine. Yet right here -let me add, and emphasize the truth, <i>that only those who -will let energetic thought and skillful plan, and above all -promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weakness, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">- 16 -</span> -should enlist as apiarists.</i> Usually a stronger body, -and improved health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and -exercise, will make each successive day's labor more easy, and -will permit a corresponding growth in the size of the apiary -for each successive season. One of the most noted apiarists, -not only in America but in the world, sought in bee-keeping -her lost health, and found not only health, but reputation and -influence. Some of the most successful apiarists in our -country are women. Of these, many were led to adopt the -pursuit because of waning health, grasping at this as the last -and successful weapon with which to vanquish the grim monster. -Said "Cyula Linswik"—whose excellent and beautifully -written articles have so often charmed the readers of the bee -publications, and who has had five years of successful experience -as an apiarist—in a paper read before our Michigan Convention -of March, 1877: "I would gladly purchase exemption -from in-door work, on washing-day, by two days' labor among -the bees, and I find two hours' labor at the ironing-table more -fatiguing than two hours of the severest toil the apiary can -exact. * * * I repeat, that apiculture offers to many -women not only pleasure but profit. * * * Though the -care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who -experiments in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find -that it means, at some seasons, genuine hard work. * * * -There is risk in the business, I would not have you ignore -this fact, but an experience of five years has led me to believe -that the risk is less than is generally supposed." Mrs. -L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees very -successfully for four years, read an admirable paper before -the same Convention, in which she said: "But I can say, -having tried both," (keeping boarding-house and apiculture,) -"I give bee-keeping the preference, as more profitable, healthful, -independent and enjoyable. * * * I find the labors -of the apiary more endurable than working over a cook-stove -in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * -I believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would -find renewed vigor of body and mind in the labors and recreations -of the apiary. * * * By beginning in the early -spring, when the weather was cool and the work light, I became -gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by mid-summer -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">- 17 -</span> -found myself as well able to endure the heat of the -sun as my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life. -Previously, to attend an open-air picnic was to return with a -head-ache. * * * My own experience in the apiary has -been a source of interest and enjoyment far exceeding my -anticipations." Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but -two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over -$100; the second year but a few cents less than $300; and -the third year about $250. "The proof of the pudding is -in the eating;" so, too, such words as given above, show that -apiculture offers special inducements to our sisters to become -either amateur or professional apiarists.</p> - -<h4 id="improves">IMPROVES THE MIND AND THE OBSERVATION.</h4> - -<p>Successful apiculture demands close and accurate observation, -and hard, continuous thought and study, and this, too, -in the wondrous realm of nature. In all this, the apiarist -receives manifold and substantial advantages. In the cultivation -of the habit of observation, a person becomes constantly -more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure, results which -also follow as surely on the habit of thought and study. It -is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is so -frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the -hive, can ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his -hands. The mind is occupied, and there is no chance for -<i>ennui</i>. The whole tendency, too, of such thought and study, -where nature is the subject, is to refine the taste, elevate the -desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get our youth, with -their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome study, -and we shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies of -the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the -saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that -even the old philosophers would have coveted; furnishes the -rarest food for the observing faculties, and, best of all, by -keeping its votaries face to face with the matchless creations -of the <i>All Father</i>, must draw them toward Him "who went -about doing good," and in "whom there was no guile."</p> - -<h4 id="yeilds">YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD.</h4> - -<p>A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of -mention, is the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">- 18 -</span> -our very lives, demand that we should eat sweets. It is a -truth that our sugars, and especially our commercial syrups, -are so adulterated as to be often poisonous. The apiary, in -lieu of these, gives us one of the most delicious and wholesome -of sweets, which has received merited praise, as food fit -for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present day. -To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, -or the equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is -certainly a blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply -our families and friends with a most necessary and desirable -food element, and this with no cloud of fear from vile, poisonous -adulterations.</p> - - -<h3 id="requires">WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES.</h3> - -<h4 id="mental_effort">MENTAL EFFORT.</h4> - -<p>No one should commence this business who is not willing -to read, think and study. To be sure, the ignorant and unthinking -may stumble on success for a time, but sooner or -later, failure will set her seal upon their efforts. Those of -our apiarists who have studied the hardest, observed the -closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the late -terrible winters with but slight loss.</p> - -<p>Of course the novice will ask. How and what shall I -study?</p> - -<h4 id="experience">EXPERIENCE NECESSARY.</h4> - -<p>Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence -with a few colonies, even one or two is best, and make the -bees your companions at every possible opportunity. Note -every change, whether of the bees, their development, or -work, and then by earnest thought strive to divine the cause.</p> - -<h4 id="learn">LEARN FROM OTHERS.</h4> - -<p>Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists. -Note their methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by conversation -to gain new and valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt -whatever is found, by comparison, to be an improvement upon -your own past system and practice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">- 19 -</span></p> - -<h4 id="aid_conventions">AID FROM CONVENTIONS.</h4> - -<p>Attend conventions whenever distance and means render -this possible. Here you will not only be made better by social -intercourse with those whose occupation and study make them -sympathetic and congenial, but you will find a real conservatory -of scientific truths, valuable hints, and improved instruments -and methods. And the apt attention—rendered -possible by your own experience—which you will give to -essays, discussions and private conversations, will so enrich -your mind, that you will return to your home encouraged, and -able to do better work, and to achieve higher success. I have -attended nearly all the meetings of the Michigan Convention, -and never yet when I was not well paid for all trouble and -expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions which -I received. These I would carry home, and test as commanded -by the Apostle: "Prove all things and hold fast that -which is good."</p> - -<h4 id="aid_publications">AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS.</h4> - -<p>Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of the -three excellent bee publications that are issued in our country. -It has been suggested that Francis Huber's blindness -was an advantage to him, as he thus had the assistance of two -pairs of eyes, his wife's and servant's, instead of one. So, -too, of the apiarist who reads the bee publications. He has -the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too, of hundreds of intelligent -and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that squanders -his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures? He -who "<i>cannot afford</i>" to take a bee-journal.</p> - -<p>It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any -one of these valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. -Each has its peculiar excellences, and all who can, may well -secure all of them to aid and direct their ways.</p> - -<h5 id="am_bee_jour">AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL.</h5> - -<p>This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its -age, but for the ability with which it has been managed, with -scarce any exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel -Wagner, its founder and long its editor, had few superiors in -breadth of culture, strength of judgment, and practical and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">- 20 -</span> -historic knowledge of apiculture. With what pleasure we -remember the elegant, really classic, diction of the editorials, -the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities which -marked the old American Bee Journal as it made its monthly -visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel -Wagner. Some one has said that there is something in the -very atmosphere of a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all -who approach him. I have often thought, as memory reverted -to the old American Bee Journal, or as I have re-read the -numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner's superior -learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his noble -character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding, -instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess -the early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to -state that the American Bee Journal is again in good hands, -and that its old prestige is fully restored. Mr. Newman is -an experienced editor, a man of excellent judgment and admirable -balance, a man who demonstrates his dislike of criminations -and recriminations by avoiding them; who has no -special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost -sure to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers -who lends his aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so -much to spread apiarian knowledge. And when I add, that -he brings to his editorial aid the most able, experienced and -educated apiarists of the world, I surely have spoken high -but <i>just</i> praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose enviable -reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by -Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago. Price, $2.00 a year.</p> - -<h5 id="gleanings">GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE.</h5> - -<p>This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five -years, by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from -the first. Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly -experimenting; a terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good -nature and enthusiasm. I am free to say, that in practical -apiculture I am more indebted to Mr. Root than to any other -one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. I also think that, -with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent advancement -of practical apiculture than any other person in our -country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">- 21 -</span> -inimical to conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises -that with which he has had so brief an experience, and must -consequently know so little. This trait makes it imperative -that the apiarist read discriminately, and then decide for himself. -In case of an innovation, wait for Mr. Root's continued -approval, else prove its value before general adoption. This -sprightly little journal is edited by A. I. Root, Medina, Ohio. -Price, $1.00 a year.</p> - -<h5 id="bk_mag">BEE-KEEPER'S MAGAZINE.</h5> - -<p>I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less -of it than of the others. It is well edited, and certainly has -many very able contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root -deal largely in their own wares, and, of course, give space to -their advertisement, yet, in all my dealings with them, and I -have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have ever found them -prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J. King, -New York. Price, $1.50 a year.</p> - -<h4 id="books4apiarist">BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST.</h4> - -<p>Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture, -both American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a -course to others. Each book has peculiar excellences, and -each one may be read with interest and profit.</p> - -<h5 id="langstroth_on">LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE.</h5> - -<p>Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee-literature. -I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have -received from the study of its pages. It was a high, but deserved -encomium, which J. Hunter, of England, in his -"Manual of Bee-Keeping," paid to this work: "It is unquestionably -the best bee-book in the English language."</p> - -<p>The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter -so replete with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, -that it is a desirable addition to any library, and no thoughtful, -studious apiarist can well be without it. It is especially -happy in detailing the methods of experimentation, and in -showing with what caution the true scientist establishes principles -or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully free -from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture -remained stationary, there would have been little need of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">- 22 -</span> -another work; but as some of the most important improvements -in apiculture are not mentioned, the book alone would -be a very unsatisfactory guide to the apiarist of to-day. -Price, $2.00.</p> - -<h5 id="quinby_mysteries">QUINBY'S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING.</h5> - -<p>This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of America's -most successful bee-keepers. It proceeds, I think, on a -wrong basis in supposing that those who read bee-books will -use the old box-hives, especially as the author is constantly -inferring that other hives are better. It contains many valuable -truths, and when first written was a valuable auxiliary -to the bee-keeper. I understand that the work has been -revised by Mr. L. C. Root. Price, $1.50.</p> - -<h5 id="king_tb">KING'S TEXT-BOOK.</h5> - -<p>This is a compilation of the above works, and has recently -been revised, so that it is abreast of the times. It is to be -regretted that the publisher did not take more pains with his -work, as the typography is very poor. The price is $1.00.</p> - -<h5 id="abc_beecult">A B C OF BEE-CULTURE.</h5> - -<p>This work was issued in numbers, but is now complete. It is -arranged in the convenient form of our cyclopædias, is printed -in fine style, on beautiful paper, and is to be well illustrated. -I need hardly say that the style is pleasing and vigorous. -The subject matter will, of course, be fresh, embodying the -most recent discoveries and inventions pertaining to bee-keeping. -That it may be kept abreast of apiarian progress, -the type is to be kept in position, so that each new discovery -may be added as soon as made. The price is $1.00.</p> - -<h5 id="foreign_works">FOREIGN WORKS.</h5> - -<p>Bevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and -shows by its able historical chapters, admirable scientific disquisitions, -and frequent quotations and references to practical -and scientific writers on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient -and modern, that the writers were men of extensive reading -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">- 23 -</span> -and great scientific ability. The book is of no practical value -to us, but to the student it will be read with great interest. -Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in -my library that treat of bees and bee-keeping, if I may except -back volumes of the bee-publications.</p> - -<p>"The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture," by -Alfred Neighbour, London, is a fresh, sprightly little work, -and as the third edition has just appeared, is, of course, up -with the times. The book is in nice dress, concise, and very -readable, and I am glad to commend it.</p> - -<p>A less interesting work, though by no means without merit, -is the "Manual of Bee-Keeping," by John Hunter, London. -This is also recent. I think these works would be received with -little favor among American apiarists. They are exponents -of English apiculture, which in method would seem clumsy -to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in implements -and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Germans -and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and -hence their text-books and journals compare illy with ours. -I believe the many intelligent foreign apiarists who have come -to this country and are now honored members of our own -fraternity, will sustain this position. <i>Foreign scientists</i> are -ahead of American, but we glean and utilize their facts and -discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is discovered -by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten -times as many American as foreign apiarists know of this -and practice by the knowledge. In practical fields, on the -other hand, as also in skill and delicacy of invention, we are, -I think, in advance. So our apiarists have little need to go -abroad for either books or papers.</p> - -<h4 id="promtitude">PROMPTITUDE.</h4> - -<p>Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping, -is prompt attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the -rock on which many bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too -often that they have wrecked their success. I have no doubt -that more colonies die from starvation, than from all the -bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is this? -Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season -by absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">- 24 -</span> -we blame? Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced -idleness of queen and workers, just because room is denied -them, is very great. Who is the guilty party? Plainly, -neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways, indifference -to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments, -greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be successful, -promptitude must be our motto. Each colony of bees -requires but very little care and attention. Our every interest -demands that this be not denied, nor even granted grudgingly. -The very fact that this attention is slight, renders it -more liable to be neglected; but this neglect always involves -loss—often disaster.</p> - -<h4 id="enthusiasm">ENTHUSIASM.</h4> - -<p>Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desirable, -if not an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To -be sure, this is a quality whose growth, with even slight opportunity, -is almost sure. It only demands perseverance. -The beginner, without either experience or knowledge, may -meet with discouragements—unquestionably will. Swarms -will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist -will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees -with great disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet reproof -more sharp than pleasant. Yet, with <span class="smcap">persistence</span>, all -these difficulties quickly vanish. Every contingency will be -foreseen and provided against, and the myriad of little workers -will become as manageable and may be fondled as safely as a -pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister to their needs -with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he does to -his gentlest cow or favorite horse. <i>Persistence in the face -of all those discouragements which are so sure to confront -inexperience, will surely triumph.</i> In-sooth, he who appreciates -the beautiful and marvelous, will soon grow to love -his companions of the hive, and the labor attendant upon their -care and management. Nor will this love abate till it has -kindled into enthusiasm.</p> - -<p>True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled -by no warmth of feeling, whose superior intelligence, system -and promptitude, stand in lieu of and make amends -for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe such are rare, and -certainly they work at great disadvantage.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">- 25 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_FIRST">PART FIRST.</h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="bar_part1" style="width: 113px;"> - <img src="images/bar_part1.png" width="113" height="27" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">NATURAL HISTORY<br /> - -<span class="msmaller">OF</span><br /> - -<span class="smaller">THE HONEY BEE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">- 27 -</span></p> - -<p class="caption1 nobreak">NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">THE BEE'S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>It is estimated by Heer and other eminent naturalists, that -there are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It -will be both interesting and profitable to look in upon this -vast host, that we may know the position and relationship of -the bee to all this mighty concourse of life.</p> - -<h3 id="branch">BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE.</h3> - -<p>The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon -I., grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one -branch, appropriately named Articulates, as this term indicates -the jointed or articulated structure which so obviously -characterizes most of the members of this group.</p> - -<p>The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a technical -meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of -union of two parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus, -the parts of an insect's legs, as well as the surfaces of union, -are styled joints or articulations. All apiarists who have -examined carefully the structure of a bee, will at once pronounce -it an Articulate. Not only is its body, even from -head to sting, composed of joints, but by close inspection we -find the legs, the antennæ, and even the mouth-parts, likewise, -jointed.</p> - -<p>In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea—which includes -the rollicking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether -he moves forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the -sow-bug, lively and plump, even in its dark, damp home under -old boards, etc., and the barnacles, which fasten to the bottom -of ships, so that vessels are often freighted with life -within and without.</p> - -<p>The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, -as the leech, the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, -which gives us food, is related to the dreaded tape-worm with -its hundred of joints, which, mayhaps, robs us of the same -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">- 28 -</span> -food after we have eaten it, and the terrible pork-worm or -trichina, which may consume the very muscles we have developed -in caring for our pets of the apiary.</p> - -<p>The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in -the bee and lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms. -This skeleton, unlike that of Vertebrates or back-bone animals, -to which we belong, is outside, and thus serves to protect -the inner, softer parts, as well as to give them attachment, -and to give strength and solidity to the animal.</p> - -<p>This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden-banded -Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, -animals of this branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually -bony skeleton; from the less active Molluscan branch, with -their soft, sack-like bodies, familiar to us in the snail, the -clam, the oyster, and the wonderful cuttle-fish—the devil-fish -of Victor Hugo—with its long, clammy arms, strange ink-bag -and often prodigious size; from the Radiate branch, with -its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral -animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents -and from the lowest, simplest. Protozoan branch, which includes -animals so minute that we owe our very knowledge of -them to the microscope, so simple that they have been -regarded as the apron-strings which tie plants to animals.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig1" style="width: 349px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig1.png" width="349" height="139" alt="" /> - <i>A Trachea magnified.</i> -</div> - -<h3 id="class_hbee">THE CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE.</h3> - -<p>Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly -characterized by breathing air usually through a very complicated -system of air-tubes. These tubes (<a href="#fig1">Fig, 1</a>), which are constantly -branching, and almost infinite in number, are very -peculiar in their structure. They are formed of a spiral -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">- 29 -</span> -thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder formed by closely -winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem, so as to cover -it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the wire unmoved. -Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than -this labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee -under the microscope. I have frequently detected myself -taking long pauses, in making dissections of the honey-bee, as -my attention would be fixed in admiration of this beautiful -breathing apparatus. In the bee these tubes expand into large -lung-like sacks (<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2, <i>f</i></a>), one each side of the body.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig2" style="width: 388px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig2.png" width="388" height="471" alt="" /> - <i>Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified.—After Duncan.</i> -</div> - -<p>Doubtless some of my readers have associated the quick movements and -surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">- 30 -</span> -well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we -see the relation between this intricate system of air-tubes—their -lungs—and the quick, busy life which has been proverbial -of them since the earliest time. The class Insecta also -includes the spiders, scorpions, with their caudal sting so -venomous, and mites, which have in lieu of the tubes, lung-like -sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged worms—those -dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical -centipedes or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of -being poisonous and deadly.</p> - -<p>The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing -Crustacea, with their branchiæ or gills, nor the worms, which -have 110 lungs or gills but their skin, if we except some marine -forms, which have simple dermal appendages, which, -answer to branchiæ.</p> - -<h3 id="order_hbee">ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE.</h3> - -<p>The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true Insects. -The first term is appropriate, as all have in the imago -or last stage, six legs. Nor is the second term less applicable, -as the word insect comes from the Latin and means to -cut in, and in no other articulates does the ring structure appear -80 marked upon merely a superficial examination. More -than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike -all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body -(<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2</a>), namely: the head (<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2, <i>a</i></a>), which contains the -antennæ (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>d</i></a>), the horn-like appendages common to all -insects; eyes (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>e</i></a>) and mouth organs; the thorax -(<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>b</i></a>), which bears the legs (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>g</i></a>), and wings, when they -are present; and lastly, the abdomen (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>c</i></a>), which, -though usually memberless, contains the ovipositor, and when -present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a more striking -metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched -they are worm-like and called larvæ (<a href="#fig12">Fig, 12</a>), which means -masked; afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would -hardly be supposed to be animals at all. They are then -known as pupæ, or as in case of bees as nymphs (<a href="#fig13">Fig, 13</a>). -At last there comes forth the imago with compound eyes, antennæ -and wings. In some insects the transformations are -said to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">- 31 -</span> -little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We -see in our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of -insects with incomplete transformations. In such cases there -is a marked resemblance from the egg to the adult.</p> - -<p>As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which -have only two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no -antennæ, eight legs, and no transformations (if we except the -partial transformations of the mites), as also the myriapods, -which have no marked divisions of the body, and no compound -eyes—which are always present in the mature insect—many -legs and no transformations, do not belong to the order -Insects.</p> - -<h3 id="sorder_hbee">SUB-ORDER OF THE HONEY BEE.</h3> - -<p>The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from -two Greek words meaning membrane and wings), which also -includes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This -group contains insects which possess a tongue by which they -may suck (<a href="#fig20">Fig, 20, <i>a</i></a>), and strong jaws (<a href="#fig21">Fig, 21</a>) for biting. -Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of flowers, and also -gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four wings, -and undergo complete transformations.</p> - -<p>There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of -one sub-order will show a marked likeness to those of another. -This is known as mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully -striking between very distant groups. Darwin and Wallace -suppose it is a developed peculiarity, not always possessed by -the species, and comes through the laws of variation, and natural -selection to serve the purpose of protection. Now, right -here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the -other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which -he and the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and -desired to know whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or -some other species. Now, this insect, though looking in a -general way much like a bee, had only two wings, had no -jaws, while its antennæ were closer together in front and -mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the -sub-order Diptera, or two-wing flies. I have received several -similar insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are -several families, as the Œstridæ or bot-flies, the Syrphidæ—a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">- 32 -</span> -very useful family, as the larvæ or maggots live on plant-lice—whose -members are often seen sipping sweets from -flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees—the one referred -to above belonged to this family—and the Bombyliidæ, -which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like -wild and domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on -the larvæ of various of our wild bees, and of course the -mother fly must steal into the nests of the latter to lay her -eggs. So in these cases, there is seeming evidence that the -mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as they steal -in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs. Possibly, -too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen -them enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to -do the same, found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters -each with a poisoned tip.</p> - -<p>Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the highest -of insects, others claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and -moths a first place, while others, and with the best of reasons, -claim for Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth is -admired for the glory of its coloring and elegance of its form, -the beetle for the luster and brilliancy of its elytra or wing-covers; -but these insects only revel in nature's wealth, and -live and die without labor or purpose. Hymenoptera usually -less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive in color, are -yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with -a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be -found among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor -the ants are still better political economists, as they have a -specially endowed class in the community who are the soldiers, -and thus are the defenders of each ant-kingdom. Ants -also conquer other communities, take their inhabitants captive -and reduce them to abject slavery—requiring them to -perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the -community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some -leaf-eating species have been observed to show no mean order -of intelligence, as some ascend trees to cut off the leafy -twigs, while others remain below, and carry these branches -through their tunnels to their under-ground homes.</p> - -<p>The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay -their eggs in other insects, that their offspring may have -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">- 33 -</span> -fresh meat not only at birth, but so long as they need food, as -the insect fed upon generally lives till the young parasite, -which is working to disembowel it, is full-grown. Thus this -steak is ever fresh as life itself. These parasitic insects show -wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in discovering -this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies—a family of these -parasites—boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid -beech or maple wood, and upon examination I found the prospective -victim further on in direct line with the insect auger, -which was to intrude the fatal egg. I have also watched ichneumon-flies -depositing eggs in leaf-rolling caterpillars, so surrounded -with tough hickory leaves that the fly had to pierce -several thicknesses to place the egg in its snugly-ensconced -victim. Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars in a box, -I reared, of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. And -is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the -number of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to receive -them, so that there may be no danger of famine and -starvation, for true it is that while small caterpillars will receive -but one egg, large ones may receive several. How -strange, too, the habits of the saw-fly, with its wondrous instruments -more perfect than any saws of human workmanship, -and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten -their eggs to the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the abnormal -growth of food for the still unhatched young. The -providing and caring for their young, which are at first helpless, -is peculiar among insects, with slight exception, to the -Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered a mark -of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call -it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits—that -<i>must</i> go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious of -communities known among animals, of whatever branch—all -these, no less than the compact structure, small size and -specialized organs of nicest finish, more than warrant that -grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and Packard, -in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects. -As we shall detail the structure and habits of the highest of -the high—the bees—in the following pages, I am sure no one -will think to degrade the rank of these wonders of the animal -kingdom.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">- 34 -</span></p> - -<h3 id="fam_hbee">FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE.</h3> - -<p>The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidæ, of Leach, -which includes not only the hive bee, but all insects which -feed their helpless young, or larvæ, entirely on pollen, or honey -and pollen.</p> - -<p>The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed antennæ -(<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2, <i>d</i></a>) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males, -and only twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandibles -(<a href="#fig21">Fig, 21</a>) are very strong, and often toothed; the tongue -or ligula (<a href="#fig20">Fig, 20, <i>a</i></a>), as also the second jaws or maxillæ -(<a href="#fig20">Fig. 20, <i>c</i></a>), one each side the tongue, are long, though in -some cases much shorter than in others, and frequently the -tongue when not in use is folded back, once or more, under -the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff spine -on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or the -third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, except -the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which -the posterior legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs -on the posterior legs. All of this family except one parasitic -genus, have the first joint or tarsus of the posterior foot, -much widened, and this together with the broad tibia -(<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2, <i>h</i></a>) is hollowed out (<a href="#fig22">Fig, 22, <i>p</i></a>), forming quite a basin -or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the species; and generally, -this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff hairs. -These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course -on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A -few of the Apidæ—thieves by nature—cuckoo-like, steal unbidden -into the nests of others, usually bumble-bees, and -here lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by -another, they gather no pollen, and hence like drone bees -need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these -lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes, -by eating their food, and in some cases, it is said, being unable -like the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children -from the nest, they show an equal if not greater depravity by -eating them, not waiting for starvation to get them out of the -way. These parasites illustrate mimicry, already described, -as they look so like the foster mothers of their own young, -that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish them. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">- 35 -</span> -Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would refuse -ingress to these merciless vagrants.</p> - -<p>The larvæ (<a href="#fig12">Fig, 12</a>) of all insects of this family are maggot-like—wrinkled, -footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before stated, -feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, -all during their babyhood—the larvæ state—the time when -all insects are most ravenous, and the only time when many -insects take food, the time when all growth in size, except -such enlargement as is required by egg-development, occurs, -these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or elder -sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak jaws, -yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at -this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like -many maggots—such as the Hessian-fly larvæ—absorb much -of their food through the body walls. From the mouth leads -the intestine, which has no anal opening. So there are no excreta -other than gas and vapor. What commendation for -their food, <i>all</i> capable of nourishment, and thus all assimilated.</p> - -<p>To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipona, -of Mexico and South America, which store honey not -only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. -They, like the unkept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They -are exceedingly numerous in each colony, and it has thus -been thought that there were more than one queen. They -are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a prospective -commercial importance in these days of artificial -comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus -is triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, -to the front wings. They are also smaller than our common -bees, and have wings that do not reach to the tip of their -abdomens.</p> - -<p>Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have -the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. -These, unlike the Melipona, are not confined to the New -World, but are met in Africa, India and Australasia. These -build their combs in tall trees, fastening them to the branches -much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be mentioned.</p> - -<p>Of course insects of the genus Bombus—our common -bumble-bees—belong to this family. Here the tongue is very -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">- 36 -</span> -long, the bee large, the sting curved, with the barbs very -short and few. Only the queen survives the winter. In -spring she forms her nest under some sod or board, hollowing -out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass of bee-bread—probably -a mixture of honey and pollen—she deposits -several eggs in the mass. The larvæ so soon as hatched out, eat -out thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, -and not unlike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. -When the bees issue from these cells the same are strengthened -by wax. Later in the season these coarse wax cells become -very numerous. Some may be made as cells and not termed -as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much pollen, -as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. -At first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still -later males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two -sizes of queen bumble-bees, the large and the small. The -small appear early in the season, and the large late. A -student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham, who last year had -a colony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season, thinks -this an error. He believes that the individuals of the Bombus -nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens, -like those of bees, are smaller before mating and active -laying. May not this be another case like that of the two -kinds of worker-bees which deceived even Huber, an error -consequent upon lack of careful and prolonged observation?</p> - -<p>In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble -the bumble-bees, we have a fine example of a boring insect. -With its strong mandibles or jaws it cuts long tunnels, often -one or two feet long in the hardest wood. These burrows are -divided by chip partitions into cells, and in each cell is left -the bee-bread and an egg.</p> - -<p>The mason-bee—well named—constructs cells of earth and -gravel, which by aid of its spittle it has power to cement, so -that they are harder than brick.</p> - -<p>The tailor or leaf-cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, -make wonderful cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. -These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and -oblong, and are cut—by the insect's making scissors of its -jaws—from various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have -found these cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">- 37 -</span> -leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing these leaf-sections -in concentric layers, letting them over-lap. The oblong -sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular -pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot-guns, -and are used at the ends or for partitions where several -cells are placed together. When complete, the single cells -are in form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When -several are placed together, which is usually the case, they -are arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a -small stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long. -These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the -earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built -in the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife -had chanced to leave stationary for some days. These leaf-cutters -have rows of hairs underneath, with which they carry -pollen. I have noticed them each summer for some years -swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called woodbine, -while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a -single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the -foliage of the same vines quite badly.</p> - -<p>I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia, -which are also called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of -blue and green possess a luster and reflection unsurpassed -even by the metals themselves. These rear their young in -cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds and shrubs, -and in burrows which they dig in the hard earth. In early -summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are -frequently seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth -for mortar, or digging holes, and will hardly escape identification -by the observing apiarist, as their form is so much like -that of our honey-bees. They are smaller; yet their broad -head, prominent eyes, and general form, are very like those of -the equally quick and active, yet more soberly attired, workers -of the apiary.</p> - -<p>Other bees—the numerous species of the genus Nomada, -and of Apathus, are the black sheep in the family Apidæ. -These tramps, already referred to, like the English cuckoo -and our American cow-blackbird, steal in upon the unwary, -and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way appropriating -food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">- 38 -</span> -these insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers -in these violated homes. And these same foster-mothers -show by their tender care of these merciless intruders, -that they are miserably fooled, for they carefully guard -and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn practice this -same nefarious trickery.</p> - -<p>I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful -bee family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis, -of this State, I was struck with the fine collection of wild -bees which each had made. Yet, unknowingly, they had incorporated -many that were not bees. Of course, many apiarists -will wish to make such collections and also to study our wild -bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope, too, -that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the valuable -and intensely interesting study of these wonders of nature. -I am glad, too, to open to the reader a page from the -book of nature so replete with attractions as is the above. -Nor do I think I have taken too much space in revealing the -strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully varied habits, -of this highest of insect families, at the head of which. -Stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig3" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig3.png" width="293" height="126" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="smaller">A.—<i>Anterior Wing of a Bee.</i> 1, 2, 3.—<i>Sub-costal or Cubital Cells.</i><br /> - B.—<i>Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing.</i></span> -</div> - - -<h3 id="genus_hbee">THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE.</h3> - -<p>The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs -on the posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal -cells (1, 2, 3, <a href="#fig3">Fig, 3</a>)—the second row from the costal or anterior -edge—on the front or primary wings. On the inner side of the -posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen baskets, in the neuters -or workers, are rows of hairs (<a href="#fig23">Fig, 23</a>) which are probably -used in collecting pollen. In the males, which do no -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">- 39 -</span> -work except to fertilize the queens, the large compound eyes -meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (<a href="#fig4">Fig, 4</a>), -while in the workers (<a href="#fig5">Fig, 5</a>) and queens these simple -eyes, called ocelli (<a href="#fig5">Fig, 5</a>), are above, and the compound -eyes (<a href="#fig5">Fig, 5</a>) wide apart. The queens and drones have -weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (<a href="#fig21">Fig, 21, <i>b</i></a>), short -tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the broad -tibia and wide basal tarsus (<a href="#fig16">Fig, 16, <i>p</i></a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig4" style="width: 302px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig4.png" width="302" height="200" alt="" /> - <i>Head of Drone, magnified.</i><br /> - <i>Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes.</i> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig5" style="width: 309px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig5.png" width="309" height="226" alt="" /> - <i>Head of Worker, magnified.</i><br /> - <i>Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes.</i> -</div> - -<p>There is some doubt as to the number of species of this -genus, it is certain that the Apis Ligustica of Spinola, or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">- 40 -</span> -Italian bee, the Apis fascial a of Latreille, or Egyptian bee, -are only varieties of the Apis mellifica, which also includes -the German or black bee.</p> - -<p>Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata -of India and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands, -Apis Indica of India and China, and Apis florea of India, -Ceylon, China and Borneo, as distinct species. He thinks, -also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis nigrocincta are distinct, but -thinks they may be varieties of Apis Indica. Some regard -Apis unicolor as a distinct species, but it is probably a variety -of Apis dorsata. As Apis mellifica has not been found in -India, and is a native of Europe, Western Asia and Africa, it -seems quite probable that several of the above may turn out -to be only varieties of Apis mellifica. If there are only color -and size to distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits, -then we may suspect, with good reason, the validity of the -above arrangement. If there is structural difference, as Mr. -Wallace says there is, in the male dorsata, then we may call -them different species. The Italian certainly has a longer -tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to separate -them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the -East Indies are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large, -suspends its combs to the branches of trees—in rare cases our -own bees have been known to do the same—is said to be cross, -to have a very long tongue, to be larger than our common bee, -and to make larger cells.</p> - -<p>Apis florea is small, only half as large as Apis mellifica, of -different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed.</p> - -<p>It would be very interesting, and perhaps profitable, to import -these various species, and see how marked is the difference -between them and ours. Such work can be best accomplished -through our National Association. Very likely, as -we come to know these far-off bees as we know the German -and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size, habits of -comb-building, and lengthened organs, are only peculiarities -developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall -sweep them all into the one species. Apis mellifica, to be regarded -as we now regard the Italian and Egyptian, as only -varieties.</p> - -<p>It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">- 41 -</span> -native to the American continent. Without doubt there were -no bees of this genus here till introduced by the Caucasian -race. It seems more strange, as we find that all the continents -and islands of the Eastern hemisphere abound with -representatives. It is one more illustration of the strange, -inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution -of animals.</p> - -<h3 id="species_hbee">SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES.</h3> - -<p>The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to -the Apis mellifica. The character of this species will appear -in the next chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and -physiology. As before stated, this species is native exclusively -to the Eastern hemisphere, though it has been introduced -wherever civilized man has taken up his abode.</p> - - -<h3 id="var_hbee">VARIETIES or THE HONEY-BEE.</h3> - -<h4 id="ger_bee">GERMAN OR BLACK BEE.</h4> - -<p>The German or black bee is the variety best known, as -through all the ages it has been most widely distributed. -The name German refers to locality, while the name black is -a misnomer, as the bee is a gray-black. The queen, and in a -less degree the drones, are darker, while the legs and under -surface of the former are brown, or copper color, and of the -latter light-gray. The tongue of the black worker I have -found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by -myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian -worker, and generally less hairy. The black bees have been -known no longer than the Italians, as we find the latter were -known both to Aristotle, the fourth century B. C, and to Virgil, -the great Roman poet, who sung of the variegated golden bee, -the first century B. C.; and we can only account for the wider -distribution of the German bee by considering the more vigorous -pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only -over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have -vitalized all Christendom.</p> - -<h4 id="lig_bee">LIGURIAN OR ITALIAN BEE.</h4> - -<p>The Italian bee (see frontis-plate) is characterized as a -variety, not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but -also by possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were -first described as distinct from the German race by Spinola, in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">- 42 -</span> -1805, who gave the name Ligurian bee, which name prevails; -in Europe. The name comes from a province of Northern -Italy, north of the Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This -region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and -thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and -in warmer, more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race, -our beautiful Italians.</p> - -<p>In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, -which he had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed -as a military captain in Italy. He published his experience -in 1848, which was read by Dzierzon, who became interested, -and through him the Italian became generally introduced -into Germany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon's first -importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England -by Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already referred -to. The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported -the Italians from Dzierzon's apiary into America; and in -1860, Mr. S. P. Parsons brought the first colonies that were -imported direct from Italy.</p> - -<p>The Italian worker (see frontis-plate) is quickly distinguished -by the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdomen. -If the colony is pure, every bee will show three of -these golden girdles. The two first segments or rings of the -abdomen, except at their posterior border, and also the base -or anterior border of the third, will be of this orange-yellow -hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much as -in the German race. Underneath, the abdomen, except for a -greater or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while -the same color appears more or less strongly marked on the -legs. The workers, too, have longer ligulæ or tongues (<a href="#fig20">Fig, 20</a>) -than do the German race, and their tongues are also a -little more hairy. They are also more active, and less inclined -to sting. The queen has the entire base of her abdomen, -and sometimes nearly the whole of it, orange yellow. The -variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking. -Sometimes very dark queens are imported right from the -Ligurian hills, yet all the workers will wear the badge of -purity—the three golden bands.</p> - -<p>The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the rings -and patches of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">- 43 -</span> -quite indistinct. But the underside of the body is always, -so far as I have observed, mainly yellow.</p> - -<h3 id="fasciata">THE FASCIATA OR EGYPTIAN RACE.</h3> - -<p>The word fasciata means banded, as the Egyptian bee is -very broadly banded with yellow. I have never seen these -bees, but from descriptions by Latreille, Kirby, and Bevan, I -understand that all the bees are rather smaller, more slim, -and much more yellow than the Italians. Herr Vogel states -that they gather no propolis, but that each colony contains a -number of small drone-laying queens. These bees were -probably the ones which, with the kine of the ancient goodly -land of promise, gave the rich pabulum, that gave the reputation: -"flowing with milk and honey." They are thus the -oldest of domesticated bees. These, too, are said to have -been moved in rude boats or rafts up and down the Nile, as -the flower pasturage seemed to require. The bees are said to -be very active, to be proof against the cold, and have also been -reputed very cross.</p> - -<h3 id="other_var">OTHER VARIETIES.</h3> - -<p>There are several other doubtful varieties which are receiving -some attention from the German apiarists, and are honored -with attention at the great meetings of Austria and Germany, -as we learn from the bee-publications of those countries. The -Cyprian bee, from the Isle of Cyprus, as its name indicates, -is yellow, and probably an offspring from the Italian or Egyptian. -So far as we can learn, it has no merits which will -make it preferred to the Italian. Some say it is more beautiful, -others that it is less amiable. Other varieties, which -are not probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the -Heath, the Carniolan or Krainer and the Herzegovinian. -They are not considered superior to the German and Italian.</p> - -<p>A variety of our Italian which has rows of white hairs -unusually distinct, is being sold in the United States under -the name of Albinos. That they are a distinct race is not at -all likely. In fact, I have noticed among our Italian stocks -every year, the so-called Albinos.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">- 44 -</span></p> - - -<h3 id="bibl">BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h3> - -<p>It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, -to give in this connection a complete history of entomology -so far as it relates to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take -much space, and as there is quite a full history in books that -I shall recommend to those who are eager to know more of -this interesting department of natural history, I will not go -into details.</p> - -<p>Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. -C. About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth -Georgic, gave to the world the views then extant on this subject, -gathered largely from the writings of Aristotle. The -poetry will ever be remarkable for its beauty and elegance—would -that as much could be said for the subject matter, -which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A little -later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his -observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though -much that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. -Pliny, the Elder, who wrote in the first century A. D., helped -to continue the erroneous opinions which previous authors had -given, and not content with this, he added opinions of his -own, which were not only without foundation, but were often -the perfection of absurdity.</p> - -<p>After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no progress -in natural history; even for two centuries after the revival -of learning, we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, -a Dutch entomologist, in the middle of the 17th century, -wrote a general history of insects, also, "The Natural History -of Bees." He and his English cotemporary, Ray, showed -their ability as naturalists by founding their systems on the -insect transformations. They also revived the study and -practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction -by Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological -progress. Ray also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, -and was much aided by Willoughby and Lister. At this time -Harvey, so justly noted for his discovery of the circulation of -the blood, announced his celebrated dictum, "Omnia ex ovo,"—all -life from eggs—which was completely established by -the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the middle -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">- 45 -</span> -of the 18th century, the great Linnæus—"the brilliant Star -of the North"—published his "System Naturæ," and threw a -flood of light on the whole subject of natural history. His -division of insects was founded upon presence, or absence, -and characteristics, of wings. This, like Swammerdam's basis, -was too narrow, yet his conclusions were remarkably -correct. Linnæus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and -especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming -plants and animals, giving in the name the genus and species, -as, Apis mellifica. He was also the first to introduce classes -and orders, as we now understand them. When we consider -the amount and character of the work of the great Swede -we can but place him among the first, if not as the first, of -naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnæus (also written Linné) -was Geoffroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera. -In the last half of the century appeared the great work of a -master in entomology, DeGeer, who based his arrangement of -insects on the character of wings and jaws, and thus discovered -another of nature's keys to aid him in unlocking her mysteries. -Kirby well says: "He united in himself the highest -merit of almost every department of entomology." As a -scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant historian -of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all -praise. What a spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and -of public usefulness, is such an ability to observe, as was possessed -by the great DeGeer.</p> - -<p>Contemporary with Linnæus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of -France, whose experiments and researches are of special interest -to apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done more -to reveal the natural history of bees. Especially to be commended -are his method of experimenting, his patience in investigation, -the elegance and felicity of his word pictures, -and, above all, <i>his devotion to truth</i>. We shall have occasion -to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the -great shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages. -Bonnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also -did valuable work, in which the lover of bees has a special -interest. Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and -elucidation of parthenogenesis—that anomalous mode of reproduction—as -it occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">- 46 -</span> -though he did not discover that our bees, in the production -of drones, illustrate the same doctrine. Though the author -of no system, he gave much aid to Réaumur in his systematic -labors.</p> - -<p>At this same period systematic entomology received great -aid from Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected -and explained the development of a caterpillar. His descriptions -and illustrations are wonderful, and will proclaim his -ability as long as entomology is studied, and they, to quote -Bonnet, "demonstrate the existence of God."</p> - -<p>We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius—a -student of Linnæus—who published his works from 1775 to -1798, and thus was revolutionizing systematic entomology at -the same time that we of America were revolutionizing government. -He made the mouth organs the basis of his classification, -and thus followed in the path which DeGeer had -marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter -while Fabricius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders -are no improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct, -as were his old master's. In his description of genera—where -he pretended to follow nature—he has rendered valuable -service In leading scientists to study parts, before little regarded, -and thus to better establish affinities, he did a most -valuable work. His work is a standard, and should be thoroughly -studied by all entomologists.</p> - -<p>Just at the close of the last century, appeared the greatest -"Roman of them all," the great Latreille, of France, -whose name we have so frequently used in the classification -of the honey-bee. His is called the Elective System, as he -used wings, mouth-parts, transformations, in fact, all the -organs—the entire structure. He gave us our Family Apidæ, -our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described -several of the species of this genus. In our study of this -great man's work, we constantly marvel at his extensive -researches and remarkable talents. Lamark, of this time, except -that he could see no God in nature, did very admirable -work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon's time, and the learned -Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of -workers in this field, and many worthy of not only mention -but praise; yet the work has been to rub up and garnish, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">- 47 -</span> -rather than to create. So I will close this brief history with -a notice of authors who are very serviceable to such as may -desire to glean farther of the treasures of systematic entomology; -only remarking that at the end of the next chapter -I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable -in developing the anatomy and physiology of insects, especially -of bees.</p> - -<h3 id="val_bks">VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.</h3> - -<p>For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on -Insects—two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustrations -are very full and perfect, making it easy to study the -families, and even genera, of all the sub-orders. This work -and the following are out of print, but can be got with little -trouble at second-hand book-stores.</p> - -<p>Kirby and Spence—Introduction to Entomology—is a very -complete work. It treats of the classification, structure, -habits, general economy of insects, and gives a history of the -subject. It is an invaluable work, and a great acquisition to -any library.</p> - -<p>Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable -work, and being American, is specially to be recommended.</p> - -<p>The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. -C. V. Riley, will also be found of great value and interest.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">- 48 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of -insects; then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology -of the honey-bee.</p> - - -<h3 id="anatomy">ANATOMY OF INSECTS.</h3> - -<p>In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked -portions (<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2</a>): the head (Figs. <a href="#fig4">4</a> and <a href="#fig5">5</a>), which contains -the mouth-organs, the eyes, both the compound and when -present the simple, and the antennæ; the thorax, which is -composed of three rings, and gives support to the one or two -pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of legs; and the abdomen, -which is composed of a variable number of rings, and -gives support to the external sex-organs, and when present to -the sting. Within the thorax there are little more than -muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which enables -them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined -space. Within the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex-organs, -by far the greater and more important portions of the -alimentary canal, and other important organs.</p> - -<h4 id="organs">ORGANS OF THE HEAD.</h4> - -<p>Of these the mouth organs (<a href="#fig6">Fig, 6</a>) are most prominent. -These consist of an upper lip—labrum—and under lip—labium—and -two pairs of jaws which move sidewise; the stronger, -horny jaws, called mandibles, and the more membranous, but -usually longer, maxillæ. The labrum (<a href="#fig6">Fig. 6, <i>l</i></a>) is well described -in the name upper lip. It is attached, usually, by a -movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called clypeus -(<a href="#fig6">Fig. 6, <i>c</i></a>), and this latter to the broad epicranium (<a href="#fig6">Fig. -6, <i>o</i></a>), which contains the antennæ, the compound, and, when -present, the simple eyes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">- 49 -</span></p> - -<p>The labium (<a href="#fig15">Fig, 15</a>) is not described by the name under -lip, as its base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the -tongue. The base is usually broad, and is called the mentum, -and from this extends the tongue (<a href="#fig15">Fig. 15, <i>a</i></a>) or ligula. -On either side, near the junction of the ligula and mentum, -arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called the labial palpus -(<a href="#fig6">Fig. 6, <i>k k</i></a>), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the -angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the paraglossæ -(<a href="#fig15">Fig. 15, <i>d</i></a>), one on either side. These are often -wanting.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig6" style="width: 289px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig6.png" width="289" height="460" alt="" /> - Head of Bee much magnified.<br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>o</i>—Epicranium<br /> - <i>e e</i>—Compound eyes.<br /> - <i>a a</i>—Antennæ,<br /> - <i>c</i>—Clypeus.<br /> - <i>l</i>—Labrum.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl vtop"><i>m</i>—Jaws.<br /> - <i>m x</i>—2d Jaws.<br /> - <i>k k</i>—Labial palpi,<br /> - <i>t</i>—Ligula.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">- 50 -</span></p> - -<p>The jaws or mandibles (<a href="#fig6">Fig, 6, <i>m, m</i></a>) arise one on either -side just below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. -These work sidewise instead of up and down as in higher animals, -are frequently very hard and sharp, and sometimes -armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary tooth (<a href="#fig21">Fig, 21, <i>b</i></a>) -is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees.</p> - -<p>Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little farther -back, are the second jaws or maxillæ (<a href="#fig6">Fig. 6, <i>m x</i></a>), less -dense and firm than the mandibles, but far more complex. -They arise by a small joint, the cardo, next this is a larger -joint, the stipes, from this extends on the inside the broad -lacinia (<a href="#fig20">Fig, 20, <i>c</i></a>) or blade, usually fringed with hairs on its -inner edge, towards the mouth; while on the outside of the -stipes are inserted the—from one to several jointed—maxillary -palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two -joints, and in some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, -as in some of the beetles, there is a third member running -from the stipes between the palpus and lacinia called the -galea. The maxillæ also move sidewise, and probably aid in -holding and turning the food while it is crushed by the harder -jaws, though in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the -food.</p> - -<p>These mouth parts are very variable in form in different insects. -In butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they -are transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups -forms a hard, strong beak or piercer, well exemplified in the -mosquito and bed-bug. In all the other insects we find them -much as in the bees, with the separate parts varying greatly -in form, to agree with the habits and character of their possessors. -No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these -varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the insect, -and no wonder, too, that in their use they were so successful -in forming a natural classification.</p> - -<p>Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these -parts and studying their form and relations for himself. By -getting his children interested in the same, he will have conferred -upon them one of the rarest of blessings.</p> - -<p>To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully -pin it to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between -the eyes. Now separate the parts by two needle points, made -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">- 51 -</span> -by inserting a needle for half its length into a pine stick the -shape of a pipe-stem, leaving the point projecting for an inch -or more. With one of these in each hand commence operations. -The head may be either side up. Much may be -learned in dissecting large insects, even with no glass; but -in all cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will -be of great value. The best lens is one of Tolles', sold by -Mr. Stoddard, of the Boston optical works. These are very -excellent and thus high priced, costing $14.00. Gray's triplet -hand-lenses are very good, are cheap, and can be procured -for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle should have a -hole through it to permit of mounting it above the object, so -that it will hold itself. Tolles' lenses are easily mounted, in -a stand which any one can contrive and make in twenty minutes. -I value my Tolles' lens even more highly than my -large compound microscope, which cost $150. Were I -obliged to part with either, the latter would go.</p> - -<p>I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting, -which they enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would -much rather that my boy would become interested in such -study, than to have him possessor of infinite gold rings, or -even a huge gold watch, with a tremendous charm. Let such -pleasing recreation gain the attention of our boys, and they -will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with -anxiety and fear.</p> - -<p>The antennæ (<a href="#fig6">Fig, 6, <i>a, a</i></a>) are the horn-like jointed organs -situated between or below and in front of the large compound -eyes of all insects. They are sometimes short, as in the -house-fly, and sometimes very long, as in the grasshoppers. -They are either straight, curved or elbowed (<a href="#fig6">Fig, 6</a>). In -form, too, they are very various, as thread-like, tapering, -toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. It is known that a -nerve passes into the antennæ, but their exact function is little -understood. That they serve as most delicate touch organs -no apiarist can doubt. That they serve as organs of smell -or hearing is not proved. That insects are conscious of sounds -I think no observing person can doubt. It is proved by the -call of the katy-did, the cicada and the cricket. What apiarist, -too, has not noticed the effect of various sounds made -by the bees upon their comrades of the hive. How contagious -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">- 52 -</span> -the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the pleasant -tone of a new swarm as they commence to enter their new -home. Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations, -as we recognize pitch, or whether they just distinguish the -tremor, I think no one knows. There is some reason to believe -that their delicate touch-organs may enable them to discriminate -between vibrations, even more acutely, than can we -by use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a colony -of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If insects -can appreciate with great delicacy the different vibratory -conditions of the air by an excessive development of the -sense of touch, then undoubtedly the antennæ may be great -aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could only detect atmospheric -vibrations. So, too, thought Linnæus and Bonnet. -Siebold thinks, as the antennæ receive but one nerve, and are -plainly touch-organs, they cannot be organs of hearing. Kirby -has noticed that some moths turn their antennæ towards the -direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that antennæ -are organs of hearing. Grote, for a similar reason, -thinks that the densely feathered antennæ of the males of -various night moths, serve both for smell and hearing. Prof. -A. M. Mayer and Mr. C. Johnson (see American Naturalist, -vol. 8, p. 574) have by various ingenious experiments, proved -conclusively, that the delicate, beautifully feathered antennæ -of the male mosquito are organs of hearing.</p> - -<p>That insects have a very refined sense of smell is beyond -question. How quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass, the -scavenger the filth, and the bee the precious nectar.</p> - -<p>I have reared female moths in my study, and have been -greatly surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to -find my room swarming with males. These bridegrooms entered -an open window in the second-story of a brick building. -How delicate must have been the sense by which they were -led to make the visit, and thus made to grace my cabinet. -Bees, too, have been known to dash against a shutter behind -which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of their perception -of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are -carried by the air, and must reach the insect through this medium. -Is it not probable, that the various breathing mouths -of insects are also so many noses, and that their delicate -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">- 53 -</span> -lining membranes abounding with, nerve filaments, are the -great odor sentinels? This view was maintained by both -Lehman and Cuvier, and explains this delicate perception of -scents, as the breathing mouths are large and numerous, and -most so in insects like bees and moths, which are most sensitive -to odors. How quickly the bees notice the scent of a -strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor of the venom. I -have known a bee to sting a glove, and in a trice the glove -would be as a pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Sometimes -the bees will dart for many feet, guided by this odor. -Yet the odor is very pungent, as I have frequently smelt the -poison before I felt the sting. I have tried the experiments -of Huber and Lubbock, and know that such insects as -bees and ants will take no note of food after the loss of their -antennæ. But we must remember that this is a capital operation. -With loss of antennæ, insects lose control of their -motions, and in many ways show great disturbance. Is it not -probable then that removing the antennæ destroys the desire -for food, as does amputation with ourselves? Kirby believes -with Huber, that there is a scent organ. Huber's experiments -on which he based this opinion are, as usual, very interesting. -He presented a coarse hair dipped in oil of turpentine—a -substance very repugnant to bees—to various parts -of a bee engrossed in sipping honey. The bee made no objection, -even though it touched the ligula, until it approached -the mouth above the mentum, when she became much disturbed. -He also filled a bee's mouth with paste, which soon hardened, -after which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near -it. This was not so conclusive, as the bee may have been so -disturbed as to lose its appetite. I have experimented a good -deal, and am inclined to the following opinion: The antennæ -are very delicate touch-organs or feelers, and are so important -in their function and connection that removal produces a severe -shock, but further we know but little about their function, -if they have other, and from the very nature of the problem -we will find it very difficult of solution.</p> - -<p>The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are always -present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes, -which may or may not be present. When present there are -usually three, which if we join by lines, we will describe a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">- 54 -</span> -triangle, in the vertices of whose angles are the ocelli. -Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely but one.</p> - -<p>The simple eyes (<a href="#fig4">Fig, 4, <i>f f f</i></a>) are circular, and possess a -cornea, lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight.</p> - -<p>From the experiments of Réaumur and Swammerdam, -which consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they concluded -that vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct, -though by them the insect can distinguish light. Some have -thought that these simple eyes were for vision at slight distances. -Larvæ, like spiders and myriapods, have only simple -eyes.</p> - -<p>The compound eyes (<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2, <i>e</i></a>) are simply a cluster of simple -eyes, are situated one on either side of the head, and vary -much in form and size. Between or below these are inserted -the antennæ. Sometimes these last are inserted in a notch -of the eyes, and in a few cases actually divide each eye into -two eyes.</p> - -<p>The eyes may meet above as in drones (<a href="#fig4">Fig, 4</a>), most two-wing -flies and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably separated, -as in the worker-bees (<a href="#fig5">Fig, 5</a>). The separate facets or -simple eyes, of each compound eye, are hexagonal, or six-sided, -and in the microscope look not unlike a section of -honey-comb. The number of these is prodigious—Leeuwenhoek -actually counted 12,000 in the eye of a dragon-fly—while -some butterflies have, over 17,000. The compound eyes are -motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical shape, they -give quite a range of vision. It is not likely that they are -capable of adjustment to accord with different distances, and -it has been supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to -their hives, and the awkward work they make in finding a -hive when moved only for a short distance, that their eyes are -best suited to long vision.</p> - -<p>Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments -with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors. -Honey was placed on a blue strip, beside several others of -various colors. In the absence of the bees he changed the -position of this strip, and upon their return the bees went to -the blue strip rather than to the old position. Our practical -apiarists have long been aware of this fact, and have conformed -their practice to the knowledge, in giving a variety of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">- 55 -</span> -colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that -bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but, for slight -distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which -would occur if position alone was guide.</p> - -<h4 id="append">APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX.</h4> - -<p>The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of -the thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera -have but two, and some insects—as the worker ants—have -none. The front or primary wings (<a href="#fig3">Fig, 3, <i>A</i></a>) are usually -larger than the secondary or hind wings (<a href="#fig3">Fig. 3, <i>B</i></a>), and thus -the mesathoracic or middle ring of the thorax, to which they -are attached, is usually larger than the metathorax or third -ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of veins -(<a href="#fig3">Fig, 3</a>), covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs -or veins are variable in number, while towards the extremity -of the wing are more or less cross-veins, dividing this portion -of the wings into more or less cells. In the higher groups -these cells are few, and quite important in classifying. Especially -useful are the cells in the second row, from the frontal -or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-costal cells. -Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (<a href="#fig3">Fig, 3, <i>A</i>, -1, 2, 3</a>), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs -or veins consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one -forming an air tube, the outer one carrying blood. On the -costal edge of the secondary wings we often find hooks, to -attach it to the front wings (<a href="#fig3">Fig. 3, <i>B</i>, <i>a</i></a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig7" style="width: 300px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig7.png" width="105" height="109" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Thorax of Bee magnified three times.</i><br /> - <span class="smaller"><i>a, a, a</i>—Muscles. <i>b, b</i>—Crust.</span> -</div> - -<p>The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly located -in the thorax (<a href="#fig7">Fig, 7, <i>a, a, a</i></a>), whose strength, as well as the -rapidity of the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">- 56 -</span> -are really beyond computation. Think of a tiny fly outstripping -the fleetest horse in the chase, and then marvel at this -wondrous mechanism.</p> - -<p>The legs (<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2, <i>g, g, g</i></a>) are six in number in all mature insects, -two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. -These are long or short, weak or strong, according to the habit -of the insect. Each leg consists of the following joints or -parts: The coxæ (Fig. 24), which move like a ball and socket -joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities of the body-rings. -Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter, the large, -broad femur (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>g′</i>, 1</a>), the long, slim tibia (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>g′</i>, 2</a>), -frequently bearing strong spines at or near its end, called -tibial spurs, and followed by the from one to five-jointed -tarsi (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>g′</i>, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3</a>). All these parts move freely -upon each other, and will vary in form to agree with their -use. At the end of the last tarsal joint are two hooked -claws (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>g′</i>, 4</a>), between which are the pulvilli, which -are not air-pumps as usually described, but rather glands, -which secrete a sticky substance which enables insects to -stick to a smooth wall, even though it be above them. The -legs, in fact the whole crust, is more or less dense and hard, -owing to the deposit within the structure of a hard substance -known as chitine.</p> - -<h4 id="int_anat">INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.</h4> - -<p>The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I -have noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the -thorax. They vary in form and position to accord with their -use. The mechanism of contraction is the same as in higher -animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary muscles, when -highly magnified, show the striæ or cross-lines the same as -do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beautiful -as microscopic objects. The separate muscles are not -bound together by a membrane as in higher animals. In insects -the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should -expect, they are concentrated in the thorax and head. In insects -of swiftest flight, like the bee, the thorax (<a href="#fig7">Fig, 7, <i>a, a, a</i></a>) -is almost entirely composed of muscles; the œsophagus, -which carries the food to the stomach, being very small. At -the base of the jaws, too, the muscles are large and firm. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">- 57 -</span> -The number of muscles is astounding. Lyonnet counted -over 3,000 in a single caterpillar, nearly eight times as many -as are found in the human body. The strength, too, of insects -is prodigious. There must be quality in muscles, for -muscles as large as those of the elephant, and as strong as -those of the flea, would not need the fulcrum which the old -philosopher demanded, in order to move the world. Fleas -have been made to draw miniature cannon, chains, and even -wagons many hundred times heavier than themselves.</p> - -<p>The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known, -except in position. As in our bodies, some are knotted or -have ganglia, and some are not.</p> - -<p>The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral -side of the body (<a href="#fig8">Fig, 8</a>), separates near the head, and after -passing around the œsophagus, enlarges to form the largest of -the ganglia, which serves as a brain. The minute nerves extend -everywhere, and in squeezing out the viscera of an insect -are easily visible.</p> - -<p>The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. -The heart is a long tube situated along the back, and -receives the blood at valvular openings along its sides which -only permit the fluid to pass in, when by contraction it is -forced towards the head and emptied into the general cavity. -Thus the heart only serves to keep the blood in motion. According -to the best authorities, there are no special vessels to -carry the blood to various organs. Nor are they necessary, -as this nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary canal, -and thus easily receives nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis, -everywhere surrounds the tracheæ or air-tubes—the insect's -lungs—and thus receives that most needful of all food, oxygen, -and gives the baneful carbonic acid, everywhere touches -the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital operations -of the animal require.</p> - -<p>The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or -corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher animals, -and which give our blood its red color. The function -of these discs is to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried -everywhere through the body by the ubiquitous air-tubes of -insects, we see the discs are not needed. Except these semi-fluid -discs, which are real organs, and nourished as are other -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">- 58 -</span> -organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely fluid, in all -normal conditions, and contains not the organs themselves or -any part of them, but only the elements, which are absorbed -by the tissue and converted into the organs, or, to be scientific, -are assimilated. As the blood of insects is nearly destitute -of these discs, it is almost wholly fluid, and is almost -wholly made up of nutritious substance.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig8" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig8.png" width="350" height="573" alt="" /> - <i>Nervous System of the Drone magnified four times.</i> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">- 59 -</span></p> - -<p>The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already -been referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spiracles -or breathing mouths, which vary in number. These are -armed with a complex valvular arrangement which excludes -dust or other noxious particles. These spiracles are lined -with a delicate membrane which abounds with nerves, which -were referred to in speaking of them as smelling organs. -From these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2, <i>f, f′</i></a>), -which breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect -organism. In the more active insects—as in bees—the main -tracheæ, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into -large air-sacks (<a href="#fig2">Fig. 2, <i>f</i></a>). Insects often show a respiratory -motion, which in bees is often very marked. Newport has -shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration gauges the -heat in the hive, and thus we see why bees, in times of severe -cold, which they essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, -consume much food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and -are liable to disease. Newport found that in cases of severe -cold there would be quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer -which he suspended in the hive amidst the cluster. In the -larva state, many insects breathe by fringe-like gills. The -larval mosquito has gills in form of hairy tufts, while in the -larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum, or last part -of the intestine. This insect, by a muscular effort, draws the -water slowly in at the anus, when it bathes these singularly-placed -branchiæ, and then makes it serve a further turn by -forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent darting ahead. -Thus this curious apparatus not only furnishes oxygen, but -also a mode of motion. In the pupa; of insects there is little -or no motion, yet important organic changes are taking place—the -worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva, is soon -to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal imago. -So oxygen, the most essential—the <i>sine qua non</i>—of -all animal food, is still needed. The bees are too wise -to seal the brood-cell with impervious wax, but rather -add the porous capping, made of wax and pollen. The -pupæ no less than the larvæ of some two-wing flies, which -live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">- 60 -</span> -vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupæ -of the mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time -when it shall unfold its tiny wings and pipe its war-note, -has a similar arrangement to secure the gaseous pabulum.</p> - -<p>The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, -as in our own class of animals, varies very much in length and -complexity, as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As -in mammals and birds, the length, with some striking exceptions, -varies with the food. Carnivorous or flesh-eating insects -have a short alimentary canal, while in those that feed -on vegetable food it is much longer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig9" style="width: 511px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig9.png" width="511" height="271" alt="" /> - <i>Alimentary Canal.</i><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>o</i>—Honey stomach.<br /> - <i>c</i>—Urinary tubes.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl"><i>b</i>—True stomach.<br /> - <i>d</i>—Intestine.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p>The mouth I have already described. Following this is the -throat or pharynx, then the œsophagus or gullet, which may -expand, as in the bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach -(<a href="#fig9">Fig, 9, <i>o</i></a>), may have an attached crop like the chicken, or -may run as a uniform tube as in our bodies, to the true stomach -(<a href="#fig9">Fig. 9, <i>b</i></a>). Following this is the intestine—separated -by some into an ileum and a rectum—which ends in a vent -or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in larvæ -that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this -is a viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">- 61 -</span> -into the gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in -building their structures. With it and mud some wasps -make mortar; with it and wood, others their paper cells -with it and wax, the bee fashions the ribbons that are to form -the beautiful comb.</p> - -<p>Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which -secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes -the passage of food.</p> - -<p>The true stomach (<a href="#fig9">Fig. 9, <i>b</i></a>) is very muscular, and often a -gizzard, as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with -teeth. The interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting -the gastric juice which is to liquify the food, that it may be -absorbed, or pass through the walls of the canal into the -blood. Attached to the lower portion of the stomach are -numerous urinary tubes (<a href="#fig9">Fig. 9, <i>c</i></a>) though Cuvier, and even -Kirby, call these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the -mucous glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas.</p> - -<p>The intestine when short, as in larvæ and most carnivora, -is straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen, -while in most plant eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its -course. Strange as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some -insects are beautiful in form, and of others pleasant to the -taste. In some caterpillars they are barrel-shaped, artistically -fluted, of brilliant hue, and if fossilized, would be greatly -admired, as have been the coprolites—fossil feces of quadrupeds—if -set as gems in jewelry. As it is, they would form -no mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as the Aphides -or plant-lice, the excrement, as well as the fluid that escapes -in some species from special tubes called the nectaries, is very -sweet, and in absence of floral nectar, will often be appropriated -by bees and conveyed to the hives. Imagination would -make this a bitter draught, so here, as elsewhere in life, the -bitter and sweet are mingled. In those insects that suck -their food, as bees, butterflies, moths, two-wing flies and bugs, -the feces are watery or liquid, while in case of solid food the -excrement is solid.</p> - -<h4 id="secretory">SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS.</h4> - -<p>I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby -gives as distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">- 62 -</span> -Newport gives them as one and the same. . In many insects -these seem absent. I have also spoken of the mucous glands, -the urinary tubules, etc. Besides these, there are other secretions -which serve for purposes of defense: In the queen and -workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison intruded -with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at -the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacks (<a href="#fig25">Fig, 25, <i>c</i></a>), and -extruded through the sting, as occasion requires. I know of -no insects that poison while they bite, except it be mosquitoes, -gnats, etc., and in these cases no special secreting organ has -been discovered. Perhaps the beak itself secretes an irritating -substance. A few exceedingly beautiful caterpillars are -covered with branching spines, which sting about like a nettle. -We have two such species. They are green, and of rare -attraction, so that to capture them is worth the slight inconvenience -arising from their irritating punctures. Some -insects, like bugs, secrete a disgusting fluid or gas which -affords protection, as by its stench it renders these filthy bugs -so offensive that even a hungry bird or half-famished insect -passes them by on the other side. Some insects secrete a gas -which is stored in a sack at the posterior end of the body, -and shot forth with an explosion in case that danger threatens -thus by noise and smoke it startles its enemy, which beats a -retreat. I have heard the little bombardier beetle at such -times, even at considerable distances. The frightful reports -about the terrible horn of the tomato-worm larva are mere -nonsense. A more harmless animal does not exist. My -little boy of four years, and girl of only two, used to bring -them to me last summer, and fondle them as admiringly -as would their father upon receiving them from the delighted -children.</p> - -<p>If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that -need be feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage -even they, are seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon.</p> - -<h4 id="sex_org">SEX ORGANS OF INSECTS.</h4> - -<p>The male organs consist first of the testes (<a href="#fig10">Fig, 10, a</a>) -which are double organs. There may be from one, as in the -drone bee, to several, as in some beetles, on each side the -abdominal cavity. In these vesicles grow the sperm cells or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">- 63 -</span> -spermatozoa, which, when liberated, pass through a long convoluted -tube, the vas-deferens (<a href="#fig10">Fig. 10, <i>b, b</i></a>), into the seminal -sack (<a href="#fig10">Fig. 10, c, c</a>), where, in connection with mucous, they -are stored. In most insects there are glandular sacks (<a href="#fig10">Fig. -10, d</a>) joined to these seminal receptacles, which in the male -bee or drone are very large. The sperm cells mingled with -these viscid secretions, as they appear in the seminal receptacle, -ready for use, form the seminal fluid. Extending from these -seminal receptacles is the ejaculatory duct (<a href="#fig10">Fig. 10, <i>e, f, g</i></a>), -which in copulation carries the male fluid to the penis (<a href="#fig10">Fig. 10, <i>d</i></a>), -through which it passes to the spermatheca of the -female. Beside this latter organ are the sheath, the claspers -when present, and in the male bee those large yellow sacks -(<a href="#fig10">Fig. 10, <i>i</i></a>), which are often seen to dart forth as the drone -is held in the warm hand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig10" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig10.png" width="189" height="421" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Male Organs of Drone, much magnified.</i><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>—Testes.<br /> - <i>b, b</i>—Vasa deferentia.<br /> - <i>c, c</i>—Seminal sacks.<br /> - <i>d</i>—Glandular sacks.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl"><i>e</i>—Common duct.<br /> - <i>f, g</i>—Ejaculatory sack.<br /> - <i>h</i>—Penis.<br /> - <i>i</i>—Yellow saccules.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">- 64 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig11" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig11.png" width="296" height="509" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Queen Organs, greatly magnified.</i><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>a, a</i>—Ovaries.<br /> - <i>b</i>—Oviducts.<br /> - <i>c</i>—Oviduct.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl vtop"><i>d</i>—Sting.<br /> - <i>e</i>—Spermatheca.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p>The female organs (<a href="#fig11">Fig, 11</a>) consist of the ovaries (<a href="#fig11">Fig, 11, <i>a, a</i></a>), -which are situated one on either side of the abdominal -cavity. From these extend the two oviducts, (<a href="#fig11">Fig. 11, <i>b</i></a>), -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">- 65 -</span> -which unite into the common oviduct (<a href="#fig11">Fig. 11, <i>c</i></a>) through -which the eggs pass in deposition. In many insects there is -beside this oviduct, and connected with it, a sack (<a href="#fig11">Fig. 11, <i>e</i></a>) -called the spermatheca, which receives the male fluid in -copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, must ever -after do the work of impregnation.</p> - -<p>This sack was discovered and its use suggested by -Malpighi as early as 1686, but its function was not fully -demonstrated till 1792, when the great anatomist, John -Hunter, showed that in copulation this was filled. The ovaries -are multitubular organs. In some insects there are but very -few tubes—two or three; while in the queen bee there are -more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova or eggs -<i>grow</i>, as do the sperm cells in the vesicles of the testes. -The number of eggs is variable. Some insects, as the mud-wasps, -produce very few, while the queen white-ant extrudes -millions. The end of the oviduct, called the ovipositor, is -wonderful in its variations. Sometimes it consists of concentric -rings, like a spy-glass which may be pushed out or -drawn in; sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or -saws of wonderful finish, to prepare for eggs; or again of a -tube which may also serve as a sting.</p> - -<p>Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at -least that the female only meets the male but once. My -pupil, Clement S. Strang, who made a special study of the -structure and habits of bugs during the past season, noticed -that the squash-bugs mated many times. It would be interesting -to know whether these females possessed the spermatheca. -In some cases, as we shall see in the sequel, the male -is killed by the copulatory act. I think this curious fatality -is limited to few species.</p> - -<p>To study viscera, which of course requires very careful dissection, -we need more apparatus than has been yet described. -Here a good lens is indispensable. A small dissecting knife, -a delicate pair of forceps, and some small, sharp-pointed -dissecting scissors—those of the renowned Swammerdam were -so fine at the point that it required a lens to sharpen them—which -may also serve to clip the wings of queens—are -requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in alcohol -will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out and the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">- 66 -</span> -muscle hardened. Placing them in hot water will do nearly -as well, in which case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the -fat. This may be applied with a camel's-hair brush. By -dissecting under water the loose portions will float off, and -render effective work more easy. Swammerdam, who had -that most valuable requisite to a naturalist, unlimited patience, -not only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, -fine as a hair, he injected the various tubes as the alimentary -canal and air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in -upon those wondrous beauties and marvels of God's own -handiwork—nature's grand exposition? Father, why would -not a set of dissecting instruments be a most suitable gift to -your son? You might thus sow the seed which would -germinate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth-stone. -Messrs. Editors, why do not you, among your apiarian -supplies, keep boxes of these instruments, and thus aid to -light the torch of genius and hasten apiarian research?</p> - -<h4 id="transf">TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS.</h4> - -<p>What in all the realm of nature is so worthy to awaken -delight and admiration as the astonishing changes which -insects undergo? Just think of the sluggish, repulsive -caterpillar, dragging its heavy form over clod or bush, or -mining in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand of nature's -great magician, first into the motionless chrysalis, decked with -green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on the -finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous -butterfly; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out-rivals -even the birds among the life-jewels of nature, and is -made fit to revel in all her decorative wealth. The little fly, too, -with wings dyed in rainbow-hues, flitting like, a fairy from -leaf to flower, was but yesterday the repulsive maggot, reveling -in the veriest filth of decaying nature. The grub to-day -drags its slimy shape through the slums of earth, on which it -fattens; to-morrow it will glitter as the brilliant setting in the -bracelets and ear-drops of the gay and thoughtless belle.</p> - -<p>There are four separate stages in the development of -insects: The egg state, the larva, the pupa, and the imago.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">- 67 -</span></p> - -<h5 id="egg">THE EGG.</h5> - -<p>This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its -yolk and its surrounding white or albumen, like the eggs of -all mammals, and farther, the delicate shell, which is familiar -in the eggs of birds and reptiles. Eggs of insects are often -beautiful in form and color, and not infrequently ribbed and -fluted as by a master-hand. The form of eggs is very various—spherical, -oval, cylindrical, oblong, straight and curved (<a href="#fig26">Fig, 26, <i>b</i></a>). -All insects seem to be guided by a wonderful -knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the placing of eggs -on or near the peculiar food of the larva. Even though in -many cases such food is no part of the aliment of the imago -insect. The fly has the refined habits of the epicure, from -whose cup it daintily sips, yet its eggs are placed in the -horse-droppings of stable and pasture.</p> - -<p>Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and their -consummation is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar changes can -be easily and most profitably studied by breaking and examining -a hen's egg each successive day of incubation. As -with the egg of our own species and of all higher animals, -so, too, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the essential part—the -white is only food, so to speak—soon segments or divides -into a great many cells, these soon unite into a membrane—the -blastoderm—and this is the initial animal. This blastoderm -soon forms a single sack, and not a double sack, one -above the other, as in our own vertebrate branch. This sack, -looking like a miniature bag of grain, grows, by absorption, -becomes articulated, and by budding out is soon provided with -the various members. As in higher animals, these changes -are consequent upon heat, and usually, not always, upon the -incorporations within the eggs of the germ cells from the male, -which enter the eggs at openings called micropyles. The -time it takes the embryo inside the egg to develop is -gauged by heat, and will, therefore, vary with the season and -temperature, though in different species it varies from days to -months. The number of eggs, too, which an insect may produce, -is subject to wide variation. Some insects produce but -one, two or three, while others, like the queen bee and white -ant, lay thousands, and in case of the ant, millions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">- 68 -</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig12" style="width: 150px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig12.png" width="62" height="78" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Larva of Bee.</i> -</div> - -<h5 id="larva">THE LARVA OF INSECTS.</h5> - -<p>From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot, -caterpillar, and very erroneously worm. These are worm-shaped -(<a href="#fig12">Fig, 12</a>), usually have strong jaws, simple eyes, and -the body plainly marked into ring divisions. Often as in case -of some grubs, larval bees and maggots, there are no legs. In -most grubs there are six legs, two to each of the three rings -succeeding the head. Besides these, caterpillars have usually -ten prop-legs farther back on the body, though a few—the -loopers or measuring caterpillars—have only four or six, -while the larvæ of the saw-flies have from twelve to sixteen -of the false or prop-legs. The alimentary canal of larval -insects is usually short, direct and quite simple, while the -sex-organs are slightly if at all developed. The larvæ of -insects are voracious eaters—indeed, their only work seems -to be to eat and grow fat. As the entire growth occurs at -this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more excusable. -I have often been astonished at the amount of food that the -insects in my breeding cases would consume. The length of -time which insects remain as larvæ is very variable. The -maggot revels in decaying meat but two or three days; the -larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly a week; the apple-tree -borer gnaws away for three years; while the seventeen-year -cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years, -groping in darkness, and feeding on roots, only to come forth -for a few days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely, -here is patience exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The -name larva, meaning masked, was given to this stage by -Linnæus, as the mature form of the insect is hidden, and -cannot be even divined by the unlearned.</p> - -<h5 id="pupa">THE PUPA OF INSECTS.</h5> - -<p>In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting -after its long meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">- 69 -</span> -days—the joyous honey-moon—soon to come. In this stage -the insect may look like a seed; as in the coarctate pupa of -diptera, so familiar in the "flax-seed" state of the Hessian-fly, -or in the pupa of the cheese-maggot or the meat-fly. This -same form, with more or less modification, prevails in butterfly -pupæ, called, because of their golden spots, chrysalids, and -in the pupæ of moths. Other pupæ, as in case of bees (<a href="#fig13">Fig, 13, <i>g</i></a>) -and beetles, look not unlike the mature insect with its -antennæ, legs, and wings closely bound to the body by a thin -membrane, hence the name which Linné gave—referring to -this condition—as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling -clothes, the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it -needed holding together. Aristotle called pupæ nymphs—a -name now given to this stage in bees—which name was -adopted by many entomologists of the seventeeth and -eighteenth centuries. Inside the pupa skin great changes are -in progress, for either by modifying the larval organs or -developing parts entirely new, by use of the accumulated -material stored by the larva during its prolonged banquet, -the wonderful transformation from the sluggish, worm-like -larva to the active, bird-like imago is accomplished.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig13" style="width: 340px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig13.png" width="340" height="232" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Pupa or Nymph of Bee, slightly magnified.</i> -</div> - -<p>Sometimes the pupa is surrounded by a silken cocoon, either thick, -as the cocoon of some moths, or thin, as are the cocoons of -bees. These cocoons are spun by the larvæ as their last toil -before assuming the restful pupa state. The length of time -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">- 70 -</span> -in the pupa-stage is very various, lasting from a few days to -as many months. Sometimes insects which are two-brooded -remain as pupa but a few days in summer, while in winter -they are months passing the quiescent period. Our cabbage-butterfly -illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the -Hessian-fly and codling-moth, remain through the long, cold -months as larvæ. How wonderful is this! The first brood -of larvæ change to pupæ at once, the last brood, though the -weather be just as hot, wait over inside the cocoon till the -warm days of coming spring.</p> - -<h5 id="imago">THE IMAGO STAGE.</h5> - -<p>This term refers to the last or winged form, and was given -by Linné because the image of the insect is now real and not -masked as when in the larva state. Now the insect has its -full-formed legs and wings, its compound eyes, complex -mouth-parts, and the fully developed sex-organs. In fact, -the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to reproduce -itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in merry -marriage mood for a brief space, when the male flees this life -to be quickly followed by the female, she only waiting to -place her eggs where the prospective infants may find suitable -food. Some insects not only place their eggs, but feed and -care for their young, as is true of ants, wasps and bees. -Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive -females perform all, or most of the labor in caring for the young. -The life of the imago also varies much as to duration. Some -live but for a day, others make merry for several days, while -a few species live for months. Very few imagos survive the -whole year.</p> - -<h4 id="inc_tr">INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATIONS.</h4> - -<p>Some insects, like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers and locusts, -are quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg. -The only apparent difference is the smaller size and the -absence or incomplete development of the wings in the larvæ -and pupæ. The habits and structure from first to last seem -to be much the same. Here, as before, the full development -of the sex-organs occurs only in the imago.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">- 71 -</span></p> - - -<h3 id="anat_phys">ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE.</h3> - -<p>With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of -the physiology of insects in general, we shall now find it easy -to learn the special anatomy and physiology of the highest -insects of the order.</p> - -<h4 id="three_kinds">THREE KINDS OF BEES IN EACH FAMILY.</h4> - -<p>As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the -economy of the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which -is true of many other bees, and also of ants and many wasps, -is the presence in each family of three distinct kinds, which -differ in form, color, structure, size, habits and function. -Thus we have the queen, a number of drones, and a far -greater number of workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn and Kirby -also speak of a fourth kind blacker than the usual workers. -These are accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Von -Berlepsch, ordinary workers, more deeply colored by loss of -hair, dampness, or some other atmospheric condition. American -apiarists are too familiar with these black bees, for after -our severe winters they prevail in the colony, and, as remarked -by the noted Baron, "<i>They quickly</i> disappear." Munn also -tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarming -seasons. I am at a great loss to know what he refers to, -unless it be the pollen masses of the asclepias or milk-weed, -which sometimes fasten to our bees and become a severe -burden.</p> - -<h5 id="queen">THE QUEEN BEE.</h5> - -<p>The queen (<a href="#fig14">Fig, 14</a>), although referred to as the mother -bee, was called the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as -late as the last century, though in the ancient "Bee Master's -Farewell," by John Hall, published in London in 1796, I -find an admirable description of the queen bee, with her -function correctly stated. Réaumur as quoted by "Wildman -on Bees," published in London in 1770, says "this third sort -has a grave and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is -mother of all the others."</p> - -<p>Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who, -though blind, through the aid of his devoted wife and intelligent -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">- 72 -</span> -servant, Frances Burnens, developed so many interesting -facts, demonstrated the fact of the queen's maternity. This -author's work, second edition, published in Edinburgh, in 1808, -gives a full history of his wonderful observations and experiments, -and must ever rank with Langstroth as a classic, -worthy of study by all.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig14" style="width: 201px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig14.png" width="201" height="237" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Queen Bee, magnified.</i> -</div> - -<p>The queen, then, is the mother bee, in other words, a fully -developed female. Her ovaries (<a href="#fig11">Fig, 11, <i>a, a</i></a>) are very large, -nearly filling her long abdomen. The tubes already described -as composing them are very numerous, while the spermatheca -(<a href="#fig11">Fig. 11, <i>e</i></a>) is plainly visible. This is muscular, receives -abundant nerves, and thus, without doubt, may or may not -be compressed to force the sperm cells in contact with the -eggs as they pass by the duet. Leuckart estimates that the -spermatheca will hold more than 25,000,000 spermatozoa.</p> - -<p>The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs, is -the chief structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as -these are the characteristic marks of females among all animals. -But she has other peculiarities worthy of mention -She is longer than either drones or workers, being more than -seven-eighths of an inch in length, and, with her long tapering -abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. The queen's -mouth organs, too, are developed to a less degree than are -those of the worker-bees. Her jaws (<a href="#fig21">Fig, 21, <i>b</i></a>) or mandibles -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">- 73 -</span> -are weaker, with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or -ligula (<a href="#fig15">Fig, 15, <i>a</i></a>), as also the labial palpi (<a href="#fig15">Fig, 15, <i>b</i></a>) -and maxillæ are considerably shorter. Her eyes, like the -same in the worker-bee (<a href="#fig5">Fig, 5</a>), are smaller than those of the -drones, and do not meet above. So the three ocelli are situated -above and between. The queen's wings, too, (<a href="#fig14">Fig, 14</a>) are -relatively shorter than those either of the workers or drones, for -instead of attaining to the end of the body, they reach but little -beyond the third joint of the abdomen. The queen, though -she has the characteristic posterior tibia and basal tarsus -(<a href="#fig16">Fig, 16, <i>p</i></a>), in respect to breadth, has not the cavity and -surrounding hairs, which form the pollen baskets of the -workers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig15" style="width: 408px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig15.png" width="408" height="469" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Labium of Queen.</i><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>—Ligula.<br /> - <i>d, d</i>—Paraglossæ.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl"><i>b</i>—Labial palpi.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">- 74 -</span></p> - -<p>The queen possesses a sting (<a href="#fig11">Fig, 11, d</a>) which -is longer than that of the workers, and resembles that of -the bumble-bees in being curved, and that of bumble-bees -and wasps in having few and short barbs—the little projections -which point back like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, in -case of the workers, prevent the withdrawing of the instrument, -when once fairly inserted. While there are seven -quite prominent barbs on each shaft of the worker's sting, -there are only three on those of the queen, and these are -very short, and, as in a worker's sting, they are successively -shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. Aristotle -says that the queen will seldom use her sting, which I have -found true. I have often tried to provoke a queen's anger, -but never with any evidence of success. Neighbour (<a href="#Page_14">page 14, note</a>) -gives three cases where queens used their stings, in one -of which cases she was disabled from farther egg-laying. She -stings with slight effect.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig16" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig16.png" width="102" height="368" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Part of Leg of Queen, magnified.</i><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>t</i>—Tibia.<br /> - <i>p</i>—Broadened tibia and basal tarsus.<br /> - <i>t s</i>—Tarsal joints.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">- 75 -</span></p> - -<p>The queen, like the neuters, is developed from an impregnated -egg, which, of course, could only come from a queen -that had previously mated. These eggs are not placed in a -horizontal cell, but in one specially prepared for their reception -(<a href="#fig26">Fig, 26, <i>i</i></a>). These queen cells are usually built on the -edge of the comb, or around an opening in it, which is necessitated -from their size and form, as usually the combs are too -close together to permit their location elsewhere. These cells -extend either vertically or diagonally downward, are composed -of was mixed with pollen, and in size and form much resemble -a pea-nut. The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by -the queen or workers. Huber, who though blind had -wondrous eyes, also witnessed the act. I have frequently -seen eggs in these cells, and without exception in the exact -position in which the queen always places her eggs in the -other cells. John Hall, in the old work already referred to, -whose descriptions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully -accurate, and indicate great care, candor, and conscientious -truthfulness, asserts that the queen is five times as long laying -a royal egg as she is the others. From the character of his -work, and its early publication, I can but think that he had -witnessed this rare sight. Some candid apiarists of our own -time and country—E. Gallup among the rest—claim to have -witnessed the act. The eggs are so well glued, and are so -delicate, that, with Neighbour, I doubt the possibility of a -removal. The opponents to this view base their belief on a -supposed discord between the queen and neuters. This -antagonism is inferred, and I have but little faith in the -inference, or the argument from it. I know that when royal -cells are to be torn down, and inchoate queens destroyed, the -workers aid the queen in this destruction. I have also seen -queens pass by unguarded queen-cells, and yet respect them. -I have also seen several young queens dwelling amicably -together in the same hive. Is it not probable that the bees are -united in whatever is to be accomplished, and that when -queens are to be destroyed all spring to the work, and when -they are to live all regard them as sacred? It is true that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">- 76 -</span> -the actions of bees are controlled and influenced by the surrounding -conditions or circumstances, but I have yet to see -satisfactory proof of the old theory that these conditions -impress differently the queen and the workers. The conditions -which lead to the building of queen-cells and the -peopling of the same are—loss of queen, when a worker -larva from one to four days old will be surrounded by a cell -inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her spermatheca -having become emptied; great number of worker-bees in the -hive; restricted quarters; the queen not having place to -deposit eggs, or the workers little or no room to store honey -and lack of ventilation, so that the hive becomes too close. -These last three conditions are most likely to occur at times -of great honey secretion.</p> - -<p>A queen may be developed from an egg, or from a worker -larva less than three days old. Mr. Doolittle has known -queens to be reared from worker larvæ taken at four-and-a-half -days from hatching. In this latter case, the cells -adjacent to the one containing the selected larva are removed, -and the larva surrounded by a royal cell. The development -of the queen larva is much like that of the worker, soon to -be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and is fed richer and -more plenteous food, called royal jelly. This peculiar food, -as also its use and abundance in the cell, was first described -by Schirach, a Saxon clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in -1771. According to Hunter, this royal pabulum is richer in -nitrogen than that of the common larvæ. It is thick, like rich -cream; slightly yellow, and so abundant that the queen larva -not only floats in it during all its period of growth, but quite -a large amount remains after her queenship vacates the cell. -We often find this royal jelly in incomplete queen-cells, without -larvæ. Mr. Quinby suggests that this is stored for future -use.</p> - -<p>What a mysterious circumstance is this: These royal scions -simply receive a more abundant and sumptuous diet, and -occupy a more ample habitation—for I have more than once -confirmed the statement of Mr. Quinby, that the direction of -the cell is immaterial—and yet what a marvelous transformation. -Not only are the ovaries developed and filled with eggs, -but the mouth-organs, the wing's, the legs, and the sting, aye, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">- 77 -</span> -and the size, form and habits are all wondrously changed. -That the development of parts should be accelerated, and the -size increased is not so surprising—as in breeding other -insects I have frequently found that kind and amount of food, -would hasten or retard growth, and might even cause a -dwarfed imago—but that it should so essentially modify the -structure, is certainly a rare and unique circumstance, hardly -to be found except here and in related animals. Bevan has -suggested that fertile workers', while larvæ, have received -some of this royal jelly, from their position near a developing -queen. Langstroth supposes that they receive some royal -jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I had previously -thought this reasonable, and probably true. But these pests -of the apiarist, and especially of the breeder, almost always, -so far as I have observed, make their appearance in colonies -long queenless, and I have noticed a case similar to that given -by Quinby, where these occurred in a nucleus where no queen -had been developed. May it not be true, that a desire for -eggs stimulates growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs in the -ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit. The common -high-holder, Colaptes auratus—a bird belonging to the woodpecker -family, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but let -cruel hands rob her of these promises of future loved ones—and -wondrous to relate, she continues to lay more than a -score. One thus treated, here on the College campus, actually -laid more than thirty eggs. So we see that animal desires -may influence and move organs that are generally independent -of the will.</p> - -<p>The larval queen is longer and more rapid of development -than the other larvæ. When developed from the egg—as in -case of normal swarming—the larva feeds for five days, when -the cell is capped by the workers. The infant queen -then spins her cocoon, which occupies about one day. The -end of the cocoon is left open. Some one has suggested that -this is an act of thoughtful generosity on the part of the -queen larva, thus to render her own destruction more easy, -should the welfare of the colony demand it, as now a sister -queen may safely give the fatal sting. The queen now spends -nearly three days in absolute repose. Such rest is common -to all cocoon-spinning larvæ. The spinning, which is done by -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">- 78 -</span> -a rapid motion to and fro of the head, always carrying the -delicate thread, much like the moving shuttle of the weaver, -seems to bring exhaustion and need of repose. She now -assumes the nymph or pupa state (<a href="#fig26">Fig, 26, <i>i</i></a>). At the end -of the sixteenth day she comes forth a queen. Huber states that -when a queen emerges, the bees are thrown into a joyous excitement, -so that he noted a rise in the temperature of the hive -from 92° F. to 104° F. I have never tested this matter -accurately, but I have failed to notice any marked demonstration -on the natal day of her lady-ship the queen, or extra -respect paid her as a virgin. When queens are started from -worker larvæ, they will issue as images in ten or twelve days -from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle writes -me that he has known them to issue in eight and one-half -days.</p> - -<p>As the queen's development is probably due to superior -quality and increased quantity of food, it would stand to -reason that queens started from eggs are preferable; the more -so, as under normal circumstances, I believe, they are almost -always thus started. The best experience sustains this -position. As the proper food and temperature could best be -secured in a full colony—and here again the natural economy -of the hive adds to our argument—we should infer that the -best queens would be reared in strong colonies, or at least kept -in such colonies till the cells were capped. Experience also -confirms this view. As the quantity and quality of food, -and the general activity of the bees is directly connected with -the full nourishment of the queen-larva, and as these are -only at the maximum in times of active gathering—the time -when queen-rearing is naturally started by the bees—we -should also conclude that queens reared at such seasons are -superior. My experience—and I have carefully observed in -this connection—most emphatically sustains this view.</p> - -<p>Five or six days after issuing from the cell—Neighbour -says the third day—if the day is pleasant, the queen goes -forth on her "marriage flight" otherwise she will improve -the first pleasant day thereafter for this purpose. Huber was -the first to prove that impregnation always takes place on the -wing. Bonnet also proved that the same is true of ants, -though in this case millions of queens and drones often swarm -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">- 79 -</span> -out at once. I have myself witnessed several of these wholesale -matrimonial excursions among ants. I have also frequently -taken bumble-bees in copulo while on the wing. I have -also noticed both ants and bumble-bees to fall while united -probably borne down by the expiring males. That butterflies! -moths, dragon-flies, etc., mate on the wing is a matter of -common observation. That it is possible to impregnate -queens when confined, I think very doubtful. The queens -will caress the drones, but the latter seem not to heed their -advances. That this ever has been done I also question, though -many think they have positive proof that it has occurred. -Yet, as there are so many chances to be mistaken, and as -experience and observation are so excessive against the possibility, -I think that these may be cases of hasty or inaccurate -judgment. Many, very many, with myself, have followed -Huber in clipping the queen's wing, only to produce a sterile -or drone-laying queen. Prof Leuckart believes that successful -mating demands that the large air-sacks (<a href="#fig2">Fig, 2, <i>f</i></a>) of the drones -shall be filled, which he thinks is only possible during flight. -The demeanor of the drones leads me to think, that the -excitement of flight, like the warmth of the hand, is necessary -to induce the sexual impulse.</p> - -<p>I presume, that in all the future, Huber's statement that the -queen must take wing to be impregnated, will remain unrefuted. -Yet it will do no harm to keep trying. Success may come. -Mating, too, in green-houses or rooms is also impracticable. -I have given this thorough trial. The drones are incorrigible -cowards, and their inordinate fear seems even to overcome the -sexual desires.</p> - -<p>If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will -go forth again and again till she succeeds. Huber stated -that after twenty-one days the case is hopeless. Bevan states -that if impregnated from the fifteenth to the twenty-first she -will be largely a drone-laying queen. That such absolute -dates can be fixed in either of the above cases is very questionable. -Yet, all experienced breeders know that queens -kept through the winter as virgins are sure to remain so. It -is quite likely that the long inactivity of the spermatheca -wholly or in part paralyzes it, so that queens that are late in -mating cannot impregnate the eggs as she desires. This -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">- 80 -</span> -would accord with what we know of muscular organs. -Berlepsch believed that a queen that commenced laying as a -virgin could never lay impregnated eggs, even though she -afterwards mated. Langstroth thought that he had observed -to the contrary.</p> - -<p>If the queen be observed after a successful "wedding tour," -she will be seen to bear the marks of success in the pendant -drone appendages, consisting of the penis, the yellow cul-de-sacks, -and the hanging thread-like ducts.</p> - -<p>It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has met a -drone, ever leaves the hive again except that she leaves with -a swarm. Some of the observing apiarists think that an old -queen may be again impregnated. The fact that queens, -with clipped wings, are as long fertile as others, makes me -think that cases which have led to such conclusions are capable -of other explanation.</p> - -<p>If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drones, or if for -any reason she fails to mate, her eggs will only produce male -bees. This strange anomaly—development of the eggs without -impregnation—was discovered and proved by Dzierzon, in -1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, as a student of practical and scientific -apiculture, must rank with the great Huber, is a Roman -Catholic priest of Carlesmarkt, Germany. This doctrine—called -parthenogenesis, which means produced from a virgin—is -still doubted by some quite able bee-keepers, though the -proofs are irrefragable: 1st. Unmated queens will lay eggs -that will develop, but drones always result. 2d. Old queens -often become drone-layers, but examination shows that the -spermatheca is void of seminal fluid. Such an examination -was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great German anatomist, -in 1813, and later by Leuckart and Leidy. I have -myself made several such examinations. The spermatheca -can easily be seen by the unaided vision, and by crushing it -on a glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass cover, the -difference between the contained fluid in the virgin and impregnated -queen is very patent, even with a low power. In -the latter it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more -distended. By use of a high power, the active spermatozoa -or germ-cells become visible. 3d. Eggs in drone-cells are -found by the microscopist to be void of the sperm-cells, which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">- 81 -</span> -are always found in all other fresh-laid eggs. This most convincing, -and interesting observation, was first made by Von -Siebold, at the suggestion of Berlepsch. It is quite difficult -to show this. Leuckart tried before Von Siebold, at Berlepsch's -apiary, but failed. I have also tried to discover -these germ-cells in worker-eggs, but as yet have been unsuccessful. -Siebold has noted the same facts in eggs of wasps. -4th. Dr. Dönhoff, of Germany, in 1855, took an egg from a -drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation produced a worker-bee. -Such an operation, to be successful, must be performed -as soon as the egg is laid.</p> - -<p>Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been -found by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, -and of some of the lower moths, in the production of both -males and females. While the great Bonnet first discovered -what may be noticed on any summer day, all about us, even -on the house-plants at our very windows, that parthenogenesis -is best illustrated by the aphides or plant lice. In the fall -males and females appear, which mate, when the female lays -eggs, which in the spring produce only females; these again -produce only females, and thus on, for several generations, -till with the cold of autumn come again the males and -females. Bonnet observed seven successive generations of -productive virgins. Duval noted nine generations in seven -months, while Kyber observed production exclusively by -parthenogenesis in a heated room for four years. So, we see, -that this strange and almost incredible method of increase, is -not rare in the great insect world.</p> - -<p>About two days after she is impregnated, the queen, under -normal circumstances, commences to lay, usually worker-eggs, -and as the condition of the hive seldom impels to swarming -the same summer, so that no drones are required, she usually -lays no others the first season.</p> - -<p>It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays -quite a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe -this in their nuclei. This continues for only a few days. -This does not seem strange. The act of forcing the sperm-cells -from the spermatheca is muscular and voluntary, and that -these muscles should not always act promptly at first, is not -strange, nor is it unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">- 82 -</span> -the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells -the pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the spermatheca. -Mr. Quinby also favored this view. I greatly question -this theory. All observing apiarists have known eggs to -be laid in worker-cells, ere the cell was hardly commenced, -when there could be no pressure. In case of queen-cells, too, -if the queen does lay the eggs—as I believe—these would be -unimpregnated, as the cell is very large. I know the queen -sometimes passes from drone to worker-cells very abruptly -while laying, as I have witnessed such a procedure—the same -that so greatly rejoiced the late Baron of Berlepsch, after -weary hours of watching—but that she can thus control at -the instant this process of adding or withholding the sperm-cells, -certainly seems not so strange as that the spermatheca, -hardly bigger than a pin-head, could supply these cells for -months, yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly -dart against the horse's legs, and as surely leave the tiny -yellow egg, can doubt but that insects possess very sensitive -oviducts, and can extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. -That a queen may force single eggs, at will, past the mouth -of the spermatheca, and at the same time add or withhold the -sperm-cells, is, I think, without question, true. What gives -added force to this view, is the fact that other bees, wasps -and ants exercise the same volition, and can have no aid from -cell-pressure, as all the eggs are laid in receptacles of the -same size. But the Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to be a -friend of Dzierzon, has fully decided the matter. He has -shown that old drone cells are as small as new worker-cells, -and yet each harbors its own brood. Very small queens, too, -make no mistakes. With no drone-cells, the queen will sometimes -lay drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will then -be reared. And will, if she must, though with great -reluctance, lay worker-eggs in drone-cells.</p> - -<p>Before laying an egg, the queen takes a look into the cell, -probably to see if all is right. If the cell contains any -honey, pollen, or an egg, she usually passes it by, though -when crowded, a queen will sometimes, <i>especially if young</i>, -insert two or three eggs in a cell, and sometimes, in such -cases, she drops them, when the bees show their dislike of -waste, and appreciation of good living, by making a breakfast -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">- 83 -</span> -of them. If the queen finds the cell to her liking, she turns -about, inserts her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is -glued, in position (<a href="#fig26">Fig, 26, <i>b</i></a>) to the bottom of the cell.</p> - -<p>The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees -of the colony, possesses a surprising longevity. It is not -surprising for her to attain the age of three years in the full -possession of her powers, while they have been known to do -good work for five years. Queens, often at the expiration of -one, two, three or four years, depending on their vigor and -excellence, either cease to be fertile, or else become impotent -to lay impregnated eggs—the spermatheca having become -emptied of its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually -supersede the queen; that is they destroy the old queen, ere -all the worker-eggs are gone, and take of the few remaining -ones to start queen-cells, and thus rear young, fertile and -vigorous queens.</p> - -<p>It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine-looking -queen, with full-formed ovaries, and large spermatheca, well-filled -with male fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the eggs -will hatch. Readers of the bee-publications know that I -have frequently received such for dissection. The first I ever -got was a remarkably fine-looking Italian, received from the -late Dr. Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I have -examined seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high-power -objective. We can only say that the egg is at fault, -as frequently transpires with higher animals, even to the -highest. These females are barren; through some fault with -the ovaries, the eggs grown therein are sterile. To detect -just what is the trouble with the egg is a very difficult problem, -if it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to determine -the ultimate cause, but without success.</p> - -<p>The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus -keep the colony populous; and this she does with an energy -that is fairly startling. A good queen in her best estate will -lay two or three thousand eggs a day. I have seen a queen -in my observing hive, lay for some time at the rate of four -eggs per minute, and have proved by actual computation of -brood cells, that a queen may lay over three thousand eggs in -a day. Langstroth and Berlepsch both saw queens lay at the -rate of six eggs a minute.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">- 84 -</span></p> - -<p>The latter had a queen that laid three thousand and twenty-one -eggs in 24 hours, by actual count, and in 20 days she -laid fifty-seven thousand. This queen continued prolific for -five years, and must have laid, says the Baron, at a low -estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs. Dzierzon says queens -may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these authors have not -exaggerated. Yet, with even these figures as an advertisement, -the queen bee cannot boast of superlative fecundity, -as the queen white-ant—an insect closely related to the bees -in habits, though not in structure, as the white-ants are lace-wings -and belong to the sub-order Neuroptera, which includes -our day-flies, dragon-flies, etc.—is known to lay over 80,000 -eggs daily. Yet this poor helpless thing, whose abdomen is -the size of a man's thumb, and composed almost wholly of -eggs, while the rest of her body is not larger than the same -in our common ants, has no other amusement; she cannot -walk; she cannot even feed herself or care for her eggs. -What wonder then that she should attempt big things in the -way of egg-laying? She has nothing else to do, or to feel -proud of.</p> - -<p>Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different -breeds of fowls. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly -demand hives of India rubber to accommodate them, keeping -their hives gushing with bees and profitable activity -while others are so inferior, that the colonies make a poor, -sickly effort to survive at all, and usually succumb early, -before those adverse circumstances which are ever waiting to -confront all life on the globe. The activity of the queen, too, -is governed largely by the activity of the workers. The -queen will either lay sparingly, or stop altogether, in the -interims of storing honey, while, on the other hand, she is -stimulated to lay to her utmost capacity, when all is life and -activity in the hive.</p> - -<p>It would seem that the queen either reasons from conditions, -is taught by instinct, or else that without her volition the -general activity of the worker-bees stimulates the ovaries, how, -we know not, to grow more eggs. We know that such a -stimulus is born of desire, in case of the high-holder, already -referred to. That the queen may have control of the activity -of her ovaries, either directly or indirectly, through reflex -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">- 85 -</span> -nervous action induced by the general excitement of the bees, -which always follows active storing, is not only possible, but -quite likely.</p> - -<p>The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and -admired sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined -by obsequious courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of -loving caresses, and whose will is law in this bee-hive kingdom, -controlling all the activities inside the hive, and leading -the colony whithersoever they may go, is unquestionably mere -fiction. In the hive, as in the world, individuals are valued -for what they are worth. The queen, as the most important -individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal or loss -noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is -threatened; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is -despatched with the same absence of emotion that characterizes -the destruction of the drones when they have become -supernumeraries. It is very doubtful if emotion or sentimentality -are ever moving forces among the lower animals. -There are probably certain natural principles that govern in -the economy of the hive, and aught that conspires against, or -tends to intercept the action of these principles, becomes an -enemy to the bees. All are interested, and doubtless more -united than is generally believed, in a desire to promote the free -action of these principles. No doubt the principle of antagonism -among the various bees has been overrated. Even, the -drones, when they are being killed off in the autumn, make a -sickly show of defense, as much as to say, the welfare of the -colony demands that such worthless vagrants should be exterminated; -"so mote it be;" go ahead. The statement, too, -that there is often serious antagonism between the queen and -workers, as to the destruction or preservation of inchoate -queens, yet in the cell, is a matter which may well be investigated. -It is most probable that what tends most for the -prosperity of the colony is well understood by all, and without -doubt there is harmonious action among all the denizens -of the hive, to foster that which will advance the general -welfare, or to make war on whatever may tend to interfere -with it. If the course of any of the bees seems wavering -and inconsistent, we may rest assured that circumstances have -changed, and that could we perceive the bearing of all the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">- 86 -</span> -surrounding conditions, all would appear consistent and harmonious.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig17" style="width: 250px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig17.png" width="145" height="195" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Drone Bee, magnified.</i> -</div> - -<h5 id="drone">THE DRONES.</h5> - -<p>These are the male bees, and are generally found in the -hive only from May to November: though they may remain -all winter, and are not infrequently absent during the summer. -Their presence or absence depends on the present and prospective -condition of the colony. If they are needed, or -likely to be needed, then they are present. There are in -nature several hundred in each colony. The number -may and should be greatly reduced by the apiarist. These -(<a href="#fig17">Fig, 17</a>) are shorter than the queen, being less than three-fourths -of an inch in length, are more robust and bulky than either -the queen or workers, and are easily recognized when flying -by their loud, startling hum. As in other societies, the least -useful make the most noise. This loud hum is caused by the -less rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Their flight -is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers. Their -ligula, labial palpi, and maxillæ—like the same in the queen -bee—are short, while their jaws (<a href="#fig21">Fig, 21, <i>a</i></a>) possess the rudimentary -tooth, and are much the same in form as those of -the queen, but are heavier, though not so strong as those of -the workers. Their eyes (<a href="#fig4">Fig, 4</a>) are very prominent, meet -above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown forward. Their -posterior legs are convex on the outside (<a href="#fig18">Fig, 18</a>), so, like the -queens, they have no pollen baskets. The drones are without -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">- 87 -</span> -the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special sex-organs -(<a href="#fig10">Fig, 10</a>) are not unlike those of other insects, and have -already been sufficiently described.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig18" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig18.png" width="118" height="391" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Part of Leg of Drone, magnified.</i><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>t</i>—Tibia.<br /> - <i>p</i>—Broadened tibia and basal tarsus.<br /> - <i>t s</i>—Joints of Tarsus,<br /> - <i>c</i>—Claws.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p>It was discovered by Dzierzon, in 1845, that the drones -hatch from unimpregnated eggs. This strange phenomenon, -seemingly so incredible, is as has been shown in speaking of -the queen, easily proved and beyond question. These eggs -may come from an unimpregnated queen, a fertile worker—which -will soon be further described—or from an impregnated -queen, which may voluntarily prevent impregnation. Such -eggs may be placed in the larger horizontal cells (<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>a</i></a>), -in manner already described. As stated by Bevan, the drone -feeds six and a half days as a larva, before the cell is capped. -The capping of the drone-cells is very convex, and projects -beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, so that the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">- 88 -</span> -drone brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from the -darker color—the wax being thicker and less pure—the capping -of both drone and worker brood-cells enable us easily to -distinguish them from honey-cells. In twenty-four days from -the laying of the egg, the drones come forth from the cells. -Of course variation of temperature, and other conditions, as -variable amount of diet, may slightly retard or advance the -development of any brood, in the different stages. The -drones—in fact all bees—when they first emerge from the -cells, are gray, soft, and appear generally unsophisticated.</p> - -<p>Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to -state. It is probable, judging from analogy, that they live -till accident, the worker bees, or the performance of their -natural function causes their death. The worker-bees are -liable to kill off the drones, which they do by constantly biting -and worrying them. They may also destroy the drone-brood. -It is not very rare to see workers carrying out immature -drones even in mid-summer. At the same time, too, they -may destroy inchoate queens. Such action is prompted by a -sudden check in the yield of honey, and with the drones is -most common at the close of the season. The bees seem -very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs of the times -presage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to the -increase of colonies. On the other hand, unlimited honey, -rapid increase of brood, crowded quarters—whatever the age -of the queen—is sure to bring many of the male bees. While -any circumstances that indicate a future need of drones will -prevent their destruction even in late autumn.</p> - -<p>The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the -queen, though when present they may add animal heat. -That their nutrition is active, is suggested by the fact, that -upon dissection, we always find their capacious stomachs filled -with honey.</p> - -<p>Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before -stated, while on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the -heat of warm sunshiny days. After mating, the drone organs -adhere to the queen, and may be seen hanging to her for some -hours. The copulatory act is fatal to the drones. By holding -a drone in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs is often -produced, and always followed by immediate death. As the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">- 89 -</span> -queen only meets a single drone, and that only once, it might -be asked why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds -of drones to an apiary or colony, whereas a score would -suffice as well. Nature takes cognizance of the importance -of the queen, and as she goes forth amidst the myriad dangers -of the outer world, it is safest and best that her stay abroad -be not protracted; that the experience be not repeated, and -especially, that her meeting a drone be <i>not delayed</i>. Hence -the superabundance of drones—especially under natural conditions, -isolated in forest homes, where ravenous birds are -ever on the alert for insect game—is most wise and provident. -Nature is never "penny wise and pound foolish." In our -apiaries the need is wanting, and the condition, as it exists in -nature, is not enforced.</p> - -<p>The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production of -the drones, has led to the theory that from a pure queen, -however mated, must ever come a pure drone. My own experience -and observation, which I believe are those of all -apiarists, has confirmed this theory. Yet, if the impure -mating of our cows, horses, and fowls, renders the females of -mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and taught by many -who would seem most competent to judge—though I must -say I am somewhat skeptical in the matter—then we must -look closely as to our bees, for certainly, if a mammal, and -especially a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then we may -expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it -exists, must come simply from the presence in the female -generative organs of the germ-cells, or spermatozoa, and in -mammals, too, there is little more than this, for though they -are viviparous, so that the union and contact of the offspring -and mother seems very intimate, during fœtal development, -yet there is no intermingling of the blood, for a membrane ever -separates that of the mother from that of the fœtus, and only -the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the other. -To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation, -is like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling -the breath of her progeny after birth. I can only say, that I -believe this whole matter is still involved in doubt, and still -needs more careful, scientific and prolonged observation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">- 90 -</span></p> - -<h5 id="worker">THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES.</h5> - -<p>These, called "the bees," by Aristotle, and even by Wildman -and Bevan, are by far the most numerous individuals of -the hive—there being from 15,000 to 40,000 in every good -colony. It is possible for a colony to be even much more -populous than this. These are also the smallest bees of the -colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an -inch in length (<a href="#fig19">Fig, 19</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig19" style="width: 120px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig19.png" width="120" height="129" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Worker-Bee, magnified.</i> -</div> - -<p>The workers—as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle. -Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, -sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive -ovaries—are undeveloped females. Rarely, and probably -very rarely, except that a colony is long or often queenless, -as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far -developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always -be drone eggs. Such workers—known as fertile—were first -noticed by Riem, while Huber actually saw one in the act of -egg-laying. Except in the power to produce eggs, they seem -not unlike the other workers. Huber supposed that these -were reared in cells contiguous to royal cells, and thus received -royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby, -that these occur in colonies where queen-larvæ were never -reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch -thought that these bees, while larvæ, were fed, though too sparingly, -with the royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and -hence the accelerated development. Such may be the true -explanation. Yet if, as some apiarists aver, these appear -where no brood has been fed, and so must be common workers, -changed after leaving the cell, as the result of a felt need, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">- 91 -</span> -then we must conclude that development and growth—as with -the high-holder—spring from desire. The generative organs -are very sensitive, and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, -and we may yet have much to learn as to the delicate forces -which will move them to growth and activity. Though these -fertile workers are a poor substitute for a queen, as they are -incapable of producing any but drones, and are surely the -harbingers of death and extinction to the colony, yet they -seem to satisfy the workers, for they will not brook the presence -of a queen when a fertile worker is in the hive, nor will -they suffer the existence in the hive of a queen-cell, even -though capped. They seem to be satisfied, though they have -very slight reason to be so. These fertile workers lay indifferently -in large or small cells—often place several eggs in a -single cell, and show their incapacity in various ways.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig20" style="width: 441px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig20.png" width="441" height="542" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Tongue of a Worker-Bee, much magnified.</i> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>—Ligula.<br /> - <i>b, b</i>—Labial palpi.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl"><i>c, c</i>—Maxillæ.<br /> - <i>d</i>—Paraglossæ.</td> - </tr> - </table> - <span class="smaller">[The average length of a black worker's tongue, as compared<br /> - with this from an Italian, would be from base to <i>a</i>.]</span> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">- 92 -</span></p> - -<p>The workers, as might be surmised by the importance and -variety of their functions, are structurally very peculiar -Their tongues (<a href="#fig20">Fig, 20, <i>a</i></a>), labial palpi (<a href="#fig20">Fig. 20, <i>b, b</i></a>), and -maxillæ (<a href="#fig20">Fig. 20, <i>c, c</i></a>), are very much elongated, while the -former is very hairy, and doubles under the throat when not -in use. The length of the ligula enables them to reach into -flowers with long tubes, and by aid of the hairs they lap up -the nectar. When the tongue is big with its adhering load -of sweet, it is doubled back, enclosed by the labial palpi and -maxillæ, and then extended, thus losing its load of nectar, -which at the same time is sucked into the large honey-stomach. -The bees, at will, can force the honey back from -the honey-stomach, when it is stored in the honey-cells or -given to the other bees.</p> - -<p class="tdc figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span></p> - -<table class="smaller" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td id="fig21"><img src="images/fig21_a.png" width="125" height="143" alt="" /><br /> - <i>a</i>—Jaw of drone.</td> - <td><img src="images/fig21_b.png" width="131" height="144" alt="" /><br /> - <i>b</i>—Jaw of queen.</td> - <td><img src="images/fig21_c.png" width="108" height="144" alt="" /><br /> - <i>c</i>—Jaw of worker.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>The jaws (<a href="#fig21">Fig, 21, <i>c</i></a>) are very strong, without the rudimentary -tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that -when the jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus -these are well formed to cut comb, knead wax, and perform -their various functions. Their eyes (<a href="#fig5">Fig, 5</a>) are like those of -the queen, while their wings, like those of the drones, attain -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">- 93 -</span> -the end of the body. These organs (<a href="#fig3">Fig, 3</a>), as in all insects -with rapid flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or -less rapid vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes -their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and -high pitch of anger, and the slow motion and mellow note of -content and joy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig22" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig22.png" width="127" height="382" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Part of Posterior Leg of Worker, outside,<br /> - much magnified.</i></span><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>t</i>—Tibia.<br /> - <i>b</i>—Rim of hairs.<br /> - <i>p</i>—Pollen basket.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl vtop"><i>t s</i>—Joint of tarsi,<br /> - <i>c</i>—Claws.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p>On the outside of the posterior tibia and basal tarsus is a -cavity, made more deep by its rim of hairs, known as the pollen -basket (<a href="#fig22">Fig, 22, <i>p</i></a>). In these pollen baskets is compacted the -pollen, which is gathered by the mouth organs, and carried -back by the four anterior legs. Opposite the pollen baskets -are regular rows of golden hairs (<a href="#fig23">Fig. 23, <i>e</i></a>), which probably -aid in storing and compacting the pollen balls.</p> - -<p>On the anterior legs of the workers, between the femur and -tibia, is a curious notch (<a href="#fig24">Fig. 24, <i>C</i></a>), covered by a spur (<a href="#fig24">Fig. 24, <i>B</i></a>). -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">- 94 -</span> -For several years this has caused speculation among my -students, and has attracted the attention of observing apiarists. -Some have supposed that it aided bees in reaching deeper -down into tubular flowers, others that it was used in scraping -off pollen, and still others that it enabled bees to hold on -when clustering. The first two functions may belong to this, -though other honey and pollen-gathering bees do not possess -it. The latter function is performed by the claws at the end -of the tarsi.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig23" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig23.png" width="107" height="368" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Part of Worker's Posterior Leg, inside,<br /> - much magnified.</i></span><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>e</i>—Rows of hairs.<br /> - <i>t</i>—Tibia.<br /> - <i>c</i>—Claws.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig24" style="width: 213px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig24.png" width="213" height="96" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Anterior Leg of Worker, magnified.</i></span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">- 95 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig25" style="width: 547px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig25.png" width="547" height="430" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Worker's Sting, magnified.</i></span><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>—Tube.<br /> - <i>b b</i>—Barbed spears drawn out of tube and turned back,<br /> - <i>c</i>—Poison sack.<br /> - <i>d</i>—Muscles.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p>The workers, too, possess an organ of defense (<a href="#fig25">Fig, 25</a>), -which they are quick to use if occasion requires. This -is not curved as in the queen, but straight. The gland -which secretes the poison is double, and the sack (<a href="#fig25">Fig, 25, <i>c</i></a>), -in which it is stored, is as large as a flax-seed. The sting -proper, is a triple organ, consisting of three sharp spears, very -smooth and of exquisite polish. The most highly-wrought -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">- 96 -</span> -steel instruments, under a high magnifier, look rough and -unfinished, while the parts of the sting show no such inequalities. -One of these spears (<a href="#fig25">Fig, 25, <i>a</i></a>) is canaliculate—that -is, it forms an imperfect tube—and in this canal work the -other two (<a href="#fig25">Fig. 25, <i>b, b</i></a>), which fill the vacant space, and -thus the three make a complete tube, and through this -tube, which connects with the poison sack, passes the poison. -The slender spears which work in the tube are marvelously -sharp, and project beyond it when used, and are worked -alternately by small but powerful muscles (<a href="#fig25">Fig. 25, <i>d</i></a>), so they -may pass through buckskin, or even the thick scarf-skin of -the hand. These are also barbed at the end with teeth, seven -of which are prominent, which extend out and back like the -barb of a fish-hook. Hence the sting cannot be withdrawn, if it -penetrates any firm substance, and so when used, it is drawn -from the bee, and carries with it a portion of the alimentary -canal, thus costing the poor bee its life. Darwin suggests -that bees and wasps were developed from the saw-flies, and -that the barbs on the sting are the old-time saws, transformed -into the spear-like barbs. He does not explain why these are -so much shorter and more obscure in the queen, and in other -bees and wasps. The honey-stomach or crop in the workers -(<a href="#fig9">Fig, 9, <i>o</i></a>) is well developed, though no larger than those in -the drones. Whether it is more complex in structure, I do -not know.</p> - -<p>The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can -only come from a queen that has met a drone, and is always -laid in the small, horizontal cell. These eggs are in no wise -different, so far as we can see, from those which are laid in the -drone or queen-cells. All are cylindrical and slightly curved -(<a href="#fig26">Fig, 26, <i>b, c</i></a>) and are fastened by one end to the bottom of -the cell, and a little to one side of the centre. As already -shown, these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen as she extrudes -them, preparatory to fastening them in the cells. These -eggs, though so small—one-sixteenth of an inch long—may be -easily seen by holding the comb so that the light will shine -into the cells. With experience, they are detected almost at -once, but I have often found it quite difficult to make the -novice see them, though very plainly visible to my experienced -eye.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">- 97 -</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig26" style="width: 224px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig26.png" width="224" height="333" alt="" /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Egg and Brood.</i></span><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>b</i> and <i>c</i>—Eggs.<br /> - <i>d, e, f</i> and <i>g</i>—Various sizes of larvæ.<br /> - <i>h</i>—Pupa.<br /> - <i>i</i>—Pupa of queen, in queen-cell.<br /> - <i>k, k</i>—Caps.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p>The egg hatches in three days. The larva (<a href="#fig26">Fig, 26, <i>d, e, f, g</i></a>), -incorrectly called grub, maggot—and even caterpillar, by -Hunter—is white, footless, and lies coiled up in the cell till -near maturity. It is fed a whitish fluid, though this seems to -be given grudgingly, as it never seems to have more than it -wishes to eat, so it is fed quite frequently by the mature workers. -It would seem that the workers fear an excessive development, -which, as we have seen, is most mischievous and -ruinous, and work to prevent the same, by a mean and meager -diet. The food is composed of pollen and honey. Certainly -of pollen, for, as I have repeatedly proved, without pollen, no -brood will be reared. Probably some honey is incorporated, -as sugar is an essential in the nutrition of all animals, and -we could hardly account for the excessive amount of honey -consumed, while breeding, by the extra amount consumed -by the bees, consequent upon the added exercise required in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">- 98 -</span> -caring for the brood. M. Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say -water is also an element of this food. But bees often breed -very rapidly when they do not leave the hive at all, and so -water, other than that contained in the honey, etc., cannot be -added. This makes it a question if water is ever added. -The time when bees seem to need water, and so repair -to the rill and the pond, is during the heat of summer, when -they are most busy. May this not be quaffed to slake their -own thirst?</p> - -<p>In six days the cell is capped over by the worker-bees. This -cap is composed of pollen and wax, so it is darker, more -porous, and more easily broken than the caps of the honey-cells; -it is also more convex (<a href="#fig26">Fig, 26, <i>k</i></a>). The larva, -now full grown, having lapped up all the food placed before -it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so excessively thin -that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce the size -of the cells. These always remain in the cell, after the bees, -escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength. -Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen years, -seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. In three -days the insect assumes the pupa state (<a href="#fig26">Fig, 26, <i>h</i></a>). In all -insects the spinning of the cocoon seems an exhaustive process, -for so far as I have observed, and that is quite at length, -this act is succeeded by a variable period of repose. The -pupa is also called a nymph. By cutting open cells it is easy -to determine just the date of forming the cocoon, and of -changing to the pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature -bee with all its appendages bound close about it, though the -color is still whitish:</p> - -<p>In twenty-one days the bee emerges from the cell. The -old writers were quite mistaken in thinking that the advent of -these was an occasion of joy and excitement among the bees. -All apiarists have noticed how utterly unmoved the bees are, -as they push over and crowd by these new-comers in the most -heedless and discourteous manner imaginable. Wildman tells -of seeing the workers gathering pollen and honey the same -day that they came forth from the cells. This idea is quickly -disproved if we Italianize black-bees. We know that for -some days these young bees do not leave the hive at all, -except in case of swarming, when bees even too young to fly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">- 99 -</span> -will essay to go with the crowd. These young bees, like the -young drones and queens, are much lighter for the first few -days.</p> - -<p>The worker-bees never attain a great age. Those reared in -autumn may live for eight or nine months, and if in queenless -stocks, where little labor is performed, even longer; while -those reared in spring will wear out in three, and when most -busy, will often die in from thirty to forty-five days. None -of these bees survive the year through, so there is a limit to -the number which may exist in a colony. As a good queen -will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand eggs daily, -and as the workers live from one to three months, it might -seem that forty thousand was too small a figure for the number -of workers. Without doubt a greater number is possible. -That it is rare is not surprising, when we remember the -numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever attend -the individuals of these populous communities.</p> - -<p>The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual -labor of the hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in -small pellets (<a href="#fig27">Fig, 27, <i>a, a</i></a>) under the over-lapping rings under -the abdomen. I have found these wax-scales on both old and -young. According to Fritz Müller, the admirable German -observer, so long a traveler in South America, the bees of the -genus melipona secrete the wax on the back.</p> - -<p>The young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive, -feed the larvæ and cap the cells. The older bees—for, as -readily seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not go forth -for the first one or two weeks—gather the honey, collect the -pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called, bring in the -propolis or bee glue, which is used to close openings, and as a -cement, supply the hive with water(?), defend the hive from all -improper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is -past, kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy -inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances -demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the conditions -impel them to swarm.</p> - -<p>When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as house-keepers -and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. The -young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean, -even though there be no old bees to do this necessary part of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">- 100 -</span> -bee-duties. An indirect function of all the bees is to supply -animal heat, as the very life of the bees require that the -temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate considerably -above freezing. In the chemical processes attendant -upon nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown -by Newport, may be considerably augmented at the pleasure -of the bees, by forced respiration. The bees, too, by a rapid -vibration of their wings, have the power to ventilate their -hives, and thus reduce the temperature, when the weather is -hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and temper -the cold of winter.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig26b" style="width: 281px;"> - <img src="images/fig26b.png" width="281" height="230" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smaller"><i>Under Surface of Bee, showing Wax between Segments.</i></span></div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">- 101 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">SWARMING OR NATURAL METHOD OF INCREASE.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>The natural method by which an increase of colonies -among bees is secured, is of great interest, and though it has -been closely observed, and assiduously studied for a long -period, and has given rise to theories as often absurd as -sound, yet, even now, it is a fertile field for investigation, -and will repay any who may come with the true spirit -of inquiry, for there is much concerning it which is involved -in mystery. Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why -is the swarming spirit so excessive at times and so restrained -at other seasons? These and other questions we are too apt -to refer to erratic tendencies of the bees, when there is no -question but that they follow naturally upon certain conditions, -perhaps intricate and obscure, which it is the province -of the investigator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold -the principles which govern these, as all other actions of the -bees?</p> - -<p>In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become -populous, and storing very active, the queen, as if conscious -that a home could be overcrowded, and foreseeing such danger, -commences to deposit drone-eggs in drone-cells, which -the worker-bees, perhaps moved by like considerations, begin -to construct, if they are not already in existence. In fact, -drone comb is almost sure of construction at such times. No -sooner is the drone brood well under way, than the large, -awkward, queen-cells are commenced, often to the number of -ten or fifteen, though there may be not more than three or -four. In these, eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, -and soon, often before the cells are even capped—and <i>very -rarely</i> before a cell is built, if the bees are crowded, the -hives unshaded, the ventilation insufficient, or the honey-yield -very bountiful—some bright day, usually about ten o'clock, -after an unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">- 102 -</span> -large part of the worker-bees—being off duty for the day, and -having previously loaded their honey-sacks—rush forth from -the hive as if alarmed by the cry of fire, the queen among -the number, though she is by no means among the first, and -frequently is quite late in her exit. The bees, thus started on -their quest for a new home, after many uproarious gyrations -about the old one, dart forth to alight upon some bush, limb, -or fence, though in one case I have known the first swarm of -bees to leave at once, for parts unknown, without even waiting -to cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one -to three hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and -leave for their new home, which they have probably already -sought out.</p> - -<p>Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the -hive, while others claim that scouts are in search of one -while the bees are clustered. The fact that bees take a right-line -to their new home, and fly too rapidly to look as they go, -would argue that a home is preêmpted, at least, before the -cluster is dissolved. The fact that the cluster remains sometimes -for hours—even over night—and at other times for a -brief period, would lead us to infer that the bees cluster, in -waiting for a new home to be found. Yet, why do bees sometimes -alight after flying a long distance, as did a first swarm -the past season, upon our College grounds? Was their -journey long, so that they must needs stop to rest, or were -they flying at random, not knowing whither they were going?</p> - -<p>If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees, -and perhaps rarely, when she is among them, they will, after -having clustered, return to their old home. The youngest -bees will remain in the old hive, to which those bees, if there -are any such, which are abroad in quest of stores will return. -The presence of young bees on the ground—those with flight -too feeble to join the rovers—will always mark the previous -home of the emigrants. Soon, in seven or eight days, perhaps -rarely a little later, the first queen will come forth from her -cell, and in two or three days she will or may lead a new -colony forth, but before she does this, the peculiar note, known -as the piping of the queen, may be heard. This piping -sounds like peep, peep, is shrill and clear, and can be -plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor would it be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">- 103 -</span> -mistaken. It is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made by -a queen still within the cell.</p> - -<p>Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen -was that of hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned -was either of enmity or fear. Never will an after-swarm -leave, unless preceded by this peculiar note.</p> - -<p>At successive periods of one or two days, one, two, or even -three more colonies may issue from the old home. These last -swarms will all be heralded by the piping of the queen. -They will be less particular as to the time of day when they -issue, as they have been known to leave before sun-rise, and -even after sun-set. The well-known apiarist, Mr. A. F. -Moon, once knew a swarm to issue by moon-light. They will, -too, as a rule, cluster farther from the hive. The after -swarms are preceded by the queen, and in case swarming is -delayed, may be attended by a plurality of queens. Berlepsch -and Langstroth both saw eight queens issue with a swarm, -while, others report even more. These virgin queens fly very -rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active and definite in -their course than will first swarms.</p> - -<p>The cutting short of swarming preparations before the -second, third, or even the first swarm issues, is by no means -a rare occurrence. This is effected by the bees' destroying the -queen-cells, and sometimes by a general extermination of the -drones, and is generally to be explained by a cessation of the -honey yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily recognized, as -they are torn open from the side, and not cut back from the -end.</p> - -<p>Swarming out at other times, especially in late winter and -spring, is sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is due to -famine, mice, or some other disturbing circumstance, which -makes the hive intolerable to the bees.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">- 104 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2> -</div> - - -<h3 id="prods">PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND FUNCTION.</h3> - - -<p>Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the -useful products which they give us; and next to the silk-moths -in the importance of these products. They seem -the more remarkable and important, in that so few insects -yield articles of commercial value. True, the cochineal -insect, a species of bark-louse, gives us an important -coloring material; the lac insect, of the same family, gives -us the important element of our best glue—shellac; the -blister-beetles afford an article prized by the physician, while -we are indebted to one of the gall-flies for a valuable element -of ink But the honey-bee affords not only a delicious article -of food, but also another article of no mean commercial rank—namely, -wax. We will proceed to examine the various products -which come from bees.</p> - - -<h4 id="honey">HONEY.</h4> - -<p>Of course the first product of bees, not only to attract -attention, but also in importance, is honey. And what is -honey? We can only say that it is a sweet substance -gathered from flowers and other sources, by the bees. We -cannot, therefore, give its chemical composition, which would -be as varied as the sources from which it comes. We cannot -even call it a sugar, for it may be, and always is composed of -various sugars, and thus it is easy to understand why honey -varies so much in richness, color, flavor, and effects on digestion. -In fact, it is very doubtful if honey is a manufactured -article at all. It seems most likely that the bees only collect -it as it is distilled by myriad leaves and flowers, and store it -up, that it may minister to their and our necessities. To be -sure, some writers contend that it undergoes some change -while in the bee's stomach; but the rapidity with which they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">- 105 -</span> -store, and the seeming entire similarity between honey and -sugar fed to them, and the same immediately extracted from -the comb, has led me to believe that the transforming power -of the stomach is very slight, if, indeed, it exists at all. To -be sure, I have fed sugar, giving bees empty combs at night-fall, -and found the flavor of honey early the next morning. -In this case, honey might have been already in the bees' -stomachs, or might have been carried from other portions of -the hive. The method of collecting the honey has already -been described. The principles of lapping and suction are -both involved in the operation.</p> - -<p>When the stomach is full, the bee repairs to the hive, and -regurgitates its precious load, either giving it to the bees or -storing it in the cells. Mr. Doolittle claims that the bees -that gather, give all their honey to the other bees, which -latter store it in the cells. This honey remains for some -time uncapped that it may ripen, by which process the -water is partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker. -If the honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, -it will generally granulate, if the temperature be reduced -below 70°. This is probably owing to the presence of the -cane-sugar, and is a good indication, as it denotes superior -quality. Some honey, as that from the South, and some -from California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some -kinds of our own honey crystallize much more readily than -others. But that granulation is a test that honey is pure, is -untrue; that it is a sign of superior excellence, I think quite -probable.</p> - -<p>When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no -sweets, the bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently -essay to rob other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider -mills, or suck up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark -lice, thus adding, may be, unwholesome food to their usually -delicious and refined stores. It is a curious fact that the -queen never lays her maximum number of eggs except when -storing is going on. In fact, in the interims of honey-gathering, -egg-laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The queen -seems discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable -means of support.</p> - -<p>Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey, the storing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">- 106 -</span> -is so rapid that the hive becomes so filled that the queen is -unable to lay her full quota of eggs; in fact, I have seen the -brood very much reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly -depleted the colony. This might be called ruinous prosperity. -The natural use of the honey is to furnish the mature bees -with food, and when mixed with pollen, to form the diet of -the young bees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig27" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span></div> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td style="width:125px;" class="tdc"><img src="images/fig27a.png" width="114" height="191" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Under-side Abdomen, magnified.</i><br /> - <i>a, a, etc.</i>—Wax pellets.</td> - <td> </td> - <td style="width:125px;" class="tdc"><img src="images/fig27b.png" width="131" height="150" alt="" /><br /> - <i>Wax-Scales in situ, magnified.</i><br /> - <i>w</i>—Wax-scale.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - - -<h4 id="wax">WAX.</h4> - -<p>The product of the bees, second in importance, is wax. -This is a solid, unctious substance, and is, as shown by its -chemical composition, a fat-like material, though not as some -authors assert, the fat of bees. As already observed, this is -a secretion formed in pellets, the shape of an irregular pentagon -(<a href="#fig27">Fig, 27, <i>w</i></a>, underneath the abdomen. These pellets are light-colored, -very thin and fragile, and are secreted by and molded -upon the membrane towards the body from the wax-pockets. -Neighbour speaks of the wax oozing through pores from the -stomach. This is not the case, but, as with the synovial fluid -about our own joints, is formed by the secreting membrane, -and does not pass through holes, as water through a sieve. -There are four of these wax-pockets on each side, and thus -there may be eight wax-scales on a bee at one time. This -wax can be secreted by the bees, when fed on pure sugar, as -shown by Huber, which experiment I have verified. I -removed all honey and comb from my observing-hive, left the -bees for twenty-four hours to digest all food which might be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">- 107 -</span> -in their stomachs, then fed pure sugar, which was better than -honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that not -only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected -right from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The -bees commenced at once to build comb, and continued for several -days, so long as I kept them confined. This is, as we should -suppose; sugar contains hydrogen and oxygen in proportion to -form water, while the third element, carbon, is in the same or -about the same proportion as the oxygen. Now, the fats -usually contain little oxygen, and a good deal of carbon and -hydrogen. Thus, the sugar by losing some of its oxygen -would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was found -true in the days of slavery in the South, that the negroes of -Louisiana, during the gathering of the cane, would become -very fat. They ate much sugar; they gained much fat. Now, -wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the animal fat of -bees, as often asserted—in fact it contains much less hydrogen, -as will be seen by the following formula from Hess:</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Oxygen</td> - <td class="tdr" style="width:4em;">7.50</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Carbon</td> - <td class="tdr">79.30</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Hydrogen</td> - <td class="tdr">13.20</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>—but it is a special secretion for a special purpose, and from -its composition, we should conclude that it might be secreted -from a purely saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the -conclusion. It has been found that bees require about twenty -pounds of honey to secrete one of wax.</p> - -<p>That nitrogenous food is necessary, as claimed by Langstroth -and Neighbour, is not true. Yet, in the active season, -when muscular exertion is great, nitrogenous food must be -imperatively necessary to supply the waste, and give tone to -the body. Some may be desirable even in the quiet of winter. -Now, as secretion of wax demands a healthy condition -of the bee, it indirectly requires some nitrogenous food.</p> - -<p>It is asserted, that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in -compact clusters or festoons, in absolute repose. Such quiet -would certainly seem conducive to most active secretion. The -same food could not go to form wax, and at the same time -supply the waste of tissue which ever follows upon muscular -activity. The cow, put to hard toil, could not give so much -milk. But I find, upon examination, that the bees, even the -most aged, while gathering in the honey season, yield up the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">- 108 -</span> -wax-scales, the same as those within the hive. During the -active storing of the past season, especially when comb-building -was in rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee -taken from the flowers contained the wax-scales of varying -sizes in the wax-pockets. By the activity of the bees, these -are not infrequently loosed from their position, and fall to the -bottom of the hive.</p> - -<p>It is probable that wax secretion is not forced upon the -bees, but only takes place as required. So the bees, unless -wax is demanded, may perform other duties. Whether this -secretion is a matter of the bee's will, or whether it is excited -by the surrounding conditions without any thought, are questions -yet to be settled.</p> - -<p>These wax-scales are loosened by the claws, and carried to -the mouth by the anterior legs, where they are mixed with -saliva, and after the proper kneading by the jaws, in which -process it assumes a bright yellow hue—but loses none of its -translucency—it is formed into that wonderful and exquisite -structure, the comb.</p> - -<p>Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the wall of a new cell -being only about 1-180 of an inch in thickness, and so formed -as to combine the greatest strength with the least expense of -material and room. It has been a subject of admiration since -the earliest time. That the form is a matter of necessity, as -some claim—the result of pressure—and not of bee-skill, is -not true. The hexagonal form is assumed at the very start -of the cells, when there can be no pressure. The wasp builds -the same form, though unaided. The assertion that the cells, -even the drone and worker-cells, are absolutely uniform and -perfect, is also untrue, as a little inspection will convince any -one. The late Prof. Wyman proved that an exact hexagonal -cell does not exist. He showed that the size varies; so that -in a distance of ten worker-cells, there may be a variation of -one diameter. And this in natural, not distorted cells. This -variation of one-fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but -a variation of one-tenth of an inch is common. The sides, -as also the angles, are not constant. The rhombic faces -forming the bases of the cells also vary.</p> - -<p>The bees change from worker (<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>c</i></a>) to drone-cells -(<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>a</i></a>), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">- 109 -</span> -by any system (<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>b</i></a>), but simply by enlarging or contracting. -It usually takes about four rows to complete the -transformation, though the number of deformed cells varies -from two to eight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig28" style="width: 500px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span></div> - <table summary="data"> - <tr> - <td><img src="images/fig28a.png" width="158" height="283" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases,<br /> - and Gross-sections of Cells<br /> - illustrated.</i></span></td> - <td> </td> - <td><img src="images/fig28b.png" width="329" height="450" alt="" /></td> - </tr> - </table> - <span class="small"><i>Honey-Comb.</i></span><br /> - <table class="smaller" summary="data"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i>a</i>—Drone-cells,<br /> - <i>b</i>—Deformed cells.</td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl"><i>c</i>—Worker-cells.<br /> - <i>d d</i>—Queen-cells.</td> - </tr> - </table> -</div> - - -<p>The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of -interest. The base is a triangular pyramid (<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>e</i></a>) whose -three faces are rhombs, and whose apex forms the very centre -of the floor of the cell. From the six free or non-adjacent -edges of the three rhombs extend the lateral walls or faces of -the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is a point where -the contiguous faces of three cells on the opposite side meet, -and form the angles of the bases of three cells on the opposite -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">- 110 -</span> -side of the comb. Thus, the base of each cell forms -one-third of the base of each of three opposite cells. One -side thus braces the other, and adds much to the strength of -the comb. Each cell, then, is in form of a hexagonal prism, -terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid.</p> - -<p>The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry -forward several cells on each side of each comb, constantly -adding to the number, by additions to the edge. Huber first -observed the process of comb-building, noticing the bees -abstract the wax-scales, carry them to the mouth, add the -frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the yellow ribbons -which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to the -comb already commenced.</p> - -<p>The diameter of the worker-cells (<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>c</i></a>) averages little -more than one-fifth of an inch—Réaumur says two and -three-fifths lines or twelfths of an inch. While the drone-cells -(<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>a</i></a>) are a little more than one-fourth of an inch, -or, according to Réaumur, three and one-third lines. But -this distinguished author was quite wrong when he said: -"These are the invariable dimensions of all cells that ever -were or ever will be made." The depth of the worker-cells -is a little less than half an inch; the drone-cells are slightly -extended so as to be a little more than half an inch deep. -These cells are often drawn out so as to be an inch long, when -used solely as honey receptacles. The capping of the brood-cells -is dark, porous, and convex, while that of the honey is -white and concave.</p> - -<p>The character of the cells, as to size, that is whether they -are drone or worker, seems to be determined by the relative -abundance of bees and honey. If the bees are abundant -and honey needed, or if there is no queen to lay eggs, drone-comb -(<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>a</i></a>) is invariably built, while if there are few -bees, and of course little honey needed, then worker-comb -(<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>c</i></a>) is almost as invariably formed.</p> - -<p>All comb when first formed is clear and transparent. The -fact that it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been -long used as brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the -innumerable thin cocoons which line the cells. These may -be separated by dissolving the wax; which may be done by -putting it in boiling alcohol. Such comb need not be discarded, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">- 111 -</span> -for if composed of worker-cells, it is still very valuable -for breeding purposes, and should not be destroyed till the -cells are too small for longer service, which, will not occur till -after many years of use. The function, then, of the wax, is -to make comb, and caps for the honey-cells, and, combined -with pollen, to form queen-cells (<a href="#fig28">Fig, 28, <i>d</i></a>) and caps for the -brood-cells. (See <a href="#Page_301">Appendix, page 301</a>).</p> - - -<h4 id="pollen">POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD.</h4> - -<p>An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees -tied little pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This -fanciful conjecture probably arose from seeing the pollen balls -on the bees' legs.</p> - -<p>Even such scientists as Réaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam, -and many apiarists of the last century, thought they saw in -these pollen-balls the source of wax. But Huber, John -Hunter, Duchet, Wildman, and others, noticed the presence -and function of the wax-pellets already described, and were -aware that the pollen served a different purpose.</p> - -<p>This substance, like honey, is not secreted, nor manufactured -by the bees, only collected. The bees usually obtain -it from the stamens of flowers. But if they gain access to -flour when there is no bloom, they will take this in lieu of -pollen, in which case the former term used above becomes a -misnomer, though usually the bee-bread consists almost -wholly of pollen.</p> - -<p>As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen-baskets -(<a href="#fig22">Fig, 22, <i>p</i></a>) of the posterior legs, to which it is -conveyed by the other legs, and compressed into little oval -masses. The motions in this conveyance are exceedingly -rapid. The bees not infrequently come to the hives, not only -with replete pollen-baskets, but with their whole under surface -thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also show that the same -bee may have her sucking stomach distended with honey. -Thus the bees make the most of their opportunities. It is a -curious fact, noticed even by Aristotle, that the bees, during -any trip, gather only a single kind of pollen, or only gather -from one species of bloom. Hence, while different bees may -have different colors of pollen, the pellets of bee-bread on -any single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">- 112 -</span> -possible that the material is more easily collected and compacted -when homogeneous.</p> - -<p>The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker cells, -and is unloaded by a scraping motion of the posterior legs, -the pollen baskets being first lowered into the cells. The bee -thus freed, leaves the wheat-like masses thus deposited to be -packed by other bees. The cells, which may or may not have -the same color of pollen throughout, are never filled quite to -the top, and not infrequently the same cell may contain both -pollen and honey. Such a condition is easily ascertained by -holding the comb between the eye and the sun. If there is -no pollen it will be wholly translucent; otherwise there will -be opaque patches. A little experience will make this determination -easy, even if the comb is old. It is often stated -that queenless colonies gather no pollen, but this is not true, -though very likely they gather less than they otherwise would. -It is probable that pollen, at least when honey is added, contains -all the essential elements of animal food. It certainly -contains the very important principle, which is not found in -honey—nitrogenous material.</p> - -<p>The function of bee-bread is to help furnish the brood with -proper food. In fact, brood-rearing would be impossible -without it. And though it is certainly not essential to the -nourishment of the bees when in repose, it still may be so, -and unquestionably is, in time of active labor.</p> - - -<h4 id="propolis">PROPOLIS.</h4> - -<p>This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the bees -collect pollen, and not made nor secreted. It is the product -of various resinous buds, and may be seen to glisten on the -opening buds of the hickory and horse-chestnut, where it -frequently serves the entomologist by capturing small insects. -From such sources, from the oozing gum of various trees, -from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about unused -hives, that have previously seen service, do the bees secure -their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to -collect their glue from the varnish, led to the custom of rapping -on the hives to inform the bees, in case of a death in -the family, that they might join as mourners. This custom -still prevails, as I understand, in some parts of the South. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">- 113 -</span> -This substance has great adhesive force, and though soft and -pliable when warm, becomes very hard and unyielding when -cold.</p> - -<p>The use of this substance is to cement the combs to their -supports, to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up -all crevices except the place of exit, which they often contract, -and even to cover any foreign substance that cannot be -removed. Intruding snails have thus been imprisoned inside -the hive. Réaumur found a snail thus encased; Maraldi, a -slug similarly entombed; while I have myself observed a -bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of wings, hair, -etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also encased in this -unique style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by the bees.</p> - - -<h3 id="bibl2">BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h3> - -<p>For those who wish to pursue these interesting subjects -more at length, I would recommend the following authors as -specially desirable: Kirby and Spence, Introduction to -Entomology; Duncan's Transformations of Insects; Packard's -Guide to the Study of Insects (American); F. Huber's New -Observations on the Natural History of Bees; Bevan on the -Honey Bee; Langstroth on the Honey Bee (American); -Neighbour on The Apiary.</p> - -<p>I have often been asked to recommend such treatises, and -I heartily commend all of the above. The first and fourth -are now out of print, but can be had by leaving orders at -second-hand book-stores.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">- 115 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">PART SECOND.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90px;"> - <img src="images/bar_part2.png" width="90" height="32" alt="" /> -</div> - -<h2 class="gesperrt">THE APIARY;</h2> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Its Care and Management.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90px;"> - <img src="images/bar_part2.png" width="90" height="32" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="tdc"><i>Motto:—"Keep all Colonies Strong!"</i></p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">- 117 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION_TO_PART_II">INTRODUCTION TO PART II.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">STARTING AN APIARY.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important -to make a good beginning. This demands preparation on the -part of the apiarist, procuring of bees, and location of his -apiary.</p> - - -<h3 id="prep">PREPARATION.</h3> - -<p>Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper -should inform himself in the art.</p> - - -<h4 id="gd_manual">READ A GOOD MANUAL.</h4> - -<p>To do this, he should procure some good manual, and -thoroughly study, especially the practical part of the business; -and if accustomed to read, think and study, should carefully -read the whole work. Otherwise, he will avoid confusion by -only studying the methods of practice, leaving the principles -and science, to strengthen, and be strengthened by, his experience. -Unless a student, he had better not take a journal -till he begins the actual work, as so much unclassified information, -without any experience to correct, arrange, and select, -will but mystify. For the same reason, he may well be content -with reading a single work, till experience, and a -thorough study of this one, makes him more able to discriminate; -and the same reasoning will preclude his taking more -than one bee-periodical, until he has had at least a year's -actual experience.</p> - - -<h4 id="visit_ap">VISIT SOME APIARIST.</h4> - -<p>In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in -visiting the nearest successful and intelligent apiarist. If -successful, such an one will have a reputation; if intelligent, -he will take the journals, and will show by his conversation -that he knows of the methods and views of his brother -apiarists, and above all, he will not think he knows it all, -and that his is the only way to success. Learn all you can -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">- 118 -</span> -of such, an one, but always let your own judgment and common -sense sit as umpire, that you make no plans or decisions -that your judgment does not fully sustain.</p> - - -<h4 id="college">TAKE A COLLEGE COURSE.</h4> - -<p>It will be <i>most wise</i> to take a course in some College, if -this is practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly discussed. -Here you will not only get the best training as to your chosen -business, as you will study, see and handle, and thus will -have the very best aids to decide as to methods, system and -apparatus, but will also receive that general culture, which -will greatly enhance life's pleasures and usefulness, and which -ever proves the best capital in any vocation.</p> - - -<h4 id="plan">DECIDE ON A PLAN.</h4> - -<p>After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to -decide as to location, hives, style of honey to raise, and general -system of management. But here, as in all the arts, all -our work should be preceded by a well-digested plan of -operations. As with the farmer and gardener, only he who -works to a plan can hope for the best success. Of course, -such plans will vary, as we grow in wisdom and experience. -A good maxim to govern all plans is, "go slow." A good -rule, which will insure the above, "Pay as you go." Make -the apiary pay for all improvements in advance. Demand -that each year's credits exceed its debits; and that you may -surely accomplish this, keep an accurate account of all your -receipts and expenses. This will be a great aid in arranging -the plans for each successive year's operations.</p> - -<p>Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping -changes. "Prove all things, and hold fast that which is -good."</p> - - -<h3 id="procure">HOW TO PROCURE OUR FIRST COLONIES.</h3> - -<p>To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, it is -always best to get them near at hand. We thus avoid the -shock of transportation, can see the bees before we purchase, -and in case there is any seeming mistake, can easily gain a -personal explanation, and secure a speedy adjustment of any -real wrong.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">- 119 -</span></p> - - -<h3 id="bee_kind">KIND OF BEES TO PURCHASE.</h3> - -<p>At the same price always take Italians, as undoutedly they -are best. If black bees can be secured for three, or even for -two dollars less per colony, by all means take them, as they -can be Italianized at a profit for the difference in cost, and, -in the operation, the young apiarist will gain valuable -experience.</p> - -<p>Our motto, too, will demand that we only purchase strong -colonies. If, as recommended, the purchaser sees the colonies -before the bargain is closed, it will be easy to know that -the colonies are strong. If the bees, as they come rushing -out, remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or bring to mind -the gush and rush at the nozzle of the fireman's hose, then -buy. In the hives of such colonies, all combs will be covered -with bees, and in the honey season, brood will be abundant.</p> - - -<h3 id="hive_kind">IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES.</h3> - -<p>As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the -style of hive to be used. Now, if bees can be procured in -such hives, they will be worth just as much more than though -in any other hive, as it costs to make the hive and transfer -the bees. This will be certainly as much as three dollars. -<i>No apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment, two styles -of hives in his apiary.</i> Therefore, unless you find bees in -such hives as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in -box hives and transfer (see <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII</a>.) to your own hives, -as such bees can always be bought at reduced rates. In case -the person from whom you purchase will take the hives back -at a fair rate, after you have transferred the bees to your own -hives, then purchase in any style of movable comb hive, as it -is easier to transfer from a movable comb hive, than from a -box hive.</p> - - -<h3 id="when">WHEN TO PURCHASE.</h3> - -<p>It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April -or May—of course you only purchase strong stocks—if in -the latitude of New York or Chicago—it will be earlier -further south—you can afford to pay more, as you will secure -the increase both of honey and bees. If you desire to purchase -in autumn, that you may gain by the experience of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">- 120 -</span> -wintering, either demand that the one of whom you purchase -insure the safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce -the selling price, at least one-third, from his rates the next -April. Otherwise the novice had better wait and purchase in -spring. If you are to transfer at once, it is almost imperative -that you buy in spring, as it is vexatious, especially for the -novice, to transfer when the hives are crowded with brood and -honey.</p> - - -<h3 id="how_much">HOW MUCH TO PAY.</h3> - -<p>Of course the market, which will ever be governed by -supply and demand, must guide you. But to aid you, I will -append what at present would be a reasonable schedule of -prices almost anywhere in the United States: For box hives, -crowded with black bees—Italians would rarely be found in -such hives—five dollars per colony is a fair price. For black -bees in hives such as you desire to use, eight dollars would -be reasonable. For pure Italians in such hives, ten dollars -is not too much.</p> - -<p>If the person of whom you purchase, will take back the -movable hives after you transfer the bees, you can afford to -pay five dollars for black bees, and seven dollars for pure -Italians. If you purchase in the fall, require 33⅓ per cent, -discount on these rates.</p> - - -<h3 id="locate">WHERE TO LOCATE.</h3> - -<p>If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be -fixed by your principal business or profession. And here I -may state, that if we may judge from reports which come from -nearly every section of the United States, from Maine to -Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly go amiss -anywhere in our goodly land.</p> - -<p>If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select -first with reference to society and climate, after which it will -be well to secure a succession of natural honey-plants (<a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">Chap. XVI.</a>), -by virtue of your locality. It will also be well to look -for reasonable prospects of a good home market, as good home -markets are, and must ever be, the most desirable. It will be -desirable, too, that your neighborhood is not overstocked with -bees. It is a well-established fact, that apiarists with few -colonies receive relatively larger profits than those with large -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">- 121 -</span> -apiaries. While this may be owing in part to better care, -much doubtless depends on the fact that there is not an undue -proportion of bees to the number of honey-plants, and consequent -secretion of nectar. To have the undisputed monopoly -of an area reaching at least four miles in every direction from -your apiary, is unquestionably a great advantage.</p> - -<p>If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your -dangers from possible misfortune may be lessened, then a -small farm—especially a fruit farm—in some locality where -fruit-raising is successfully practiced, will be very desirable. -You thus add others of the luxuries of life to the products -of your business, and at the same time may create additional -pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your other -business. In this case, your location becomes a more complex -matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention. -Some of Michigan's most successful apiarists are also noted -as successful pomologists.</p> - -<p>For position and arrangement of apiary see <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chapter VI</a>.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">- 122 -</span></p> - - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">HIVES AND BOXES</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course -demanded; and here let me state with emphasis, <i>that none -of the standard hives are now covered by patents, so let -no one buy rights</i>. Success by the skillful apiarist with -almost any hive is possible. Yet, without question, some -hives are far superior to others, and for certain uses, and with -certain persons, some hives are far preferable to others, though -all may be meritorious. As a change in hives, after one is -once engaged in apiculture, involves much time, labor and -expense, this becomes an important question, and one worthy -earnest consideration by the prospective apiarist. I shall give -it a first place, and a thorough consideration, in this discussion -of practical apiculture.</p> - - -<h3 id="box">BOX-HIVES.</h3> - -<p>I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks, and -studies—and success in apiculture can be promised to no -other—will ever be content to use the old box-hives. In fact, -thought and intelligence, which imply an eagerness to investigate, -are essential elements in the apiarist's character. And -to such an one a box-hive would be valued just in proportion -to the amount of kindling-wood it contained. A very -serious fault with one of our principal bee-books, which -otherwise is mainly excellent in subject matter and treatment, -is the fact that it presumes its readers to be box-hive men. -As well make emperors, kings, and chivalry the basis of good -government, in an essay written for American readers. I -shall entirely ignore box-hives in the following discussions, -for I believe no sensible, intelligent apiarists, such as read -books, will tolerate them, and that, supposing they would, it -would be an expensive mistake, which I have no right to -encourage, in fact, am bound to discourage, not only for the -benefit of individuals, but also for the art itself.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">- 123 -</span></p> - -<p>To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect -the whole interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able -to exchange combs from one hive to another, to regulate the -movements of the 'bees: by destroying queen-cells, by giving -or withholding drone-comb, by extracting the honey, by introducing -queens, and by many other manipulations to be -explained, which are only practicable with a movable-frame -hive.</p> - - -<h3 id="mv_comb">MOVABLE-COMB HIVES.</h3> - -<p>There are, at present, two types of the movable-comb hive -in use among us, each of which is unquestionably valuable, -as each has advocates among our most intelligent, successful -and extensive apiarists. Each, too, has been superseded by -the other, to the satisfaction of the person making the change. -The kind most used consists of a box, in which hang the -frames which hold the combs. The adjacent frames are so far -separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the -proper distance apart. In the other kind, the frames are -wider than the comb, and when in position are close together, -and of themselves form two sides of a box. When in use, -these frames are surrounded by a second box, without a bottom, -which, with them, rests on a bottom board. Each of -these kinds is represented by various forms, sizes, etc., where -the details are varied to suit the apiarist's notion. Yet, I -believe that all hives in present use, worthy of recommendation, -fall within one or the other of the above named types.</p> - - -<h4 id="lang_hive">THE LANGSTROTH HIVE.</h4> - -<p>This (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>) is the hive most in use among Americans -and Britons, if not among all who practice improved apiculture. -It is stated that the late Major Munn was first to invent -this style of hive. He states (see Bevan, p. 37) that he first -used it in 1834. But, as suggested by Neighbour in his -valuable hand-book, the invention was of no avail to apiarists, -as it was either unknown, or else ignored by practical men. -This invention also originated independently with Rev. L. L. -Langstroth, who brought it forth in 1851, so perfect, that it -needed scarce any improvement; and for this gift, as well as -his able researches in apiculture, as given in his invaluable -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">- 124 -</span> -book, "The Honey-Bee," he has conferred a benefit upon our -art which cannot be over-estimated, and for which we, as -apiarists, cannot be too grateful. It was his book—one of my -old teachers, for which I have no word of chiding—that led -me to some of the most delightful investigations of my -life. It was his invention—the Langstroth hive—that enabled -me to make those investigations. For one, I shall always -revere the name of Langstroth, as a great leader in scientific -apiculture, both in America and throughout the world. His -name must ever stand beside that of Dzierzon and the elder -Huber. Surely this hive, which left the hands of the great -master in so perfect a form, that even the details remain -unchanged by many of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear -his name. Thus, though I prefer and use the size of frame -first used, I believe, by Mr. Gallup, still I use the Langstroth -hive. (See <a href="#Page_287">Appendix, page 287</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig29" style="width: 251px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig29.png" width="251" height="206" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h5 id="char">CHARACTER OF THE HIVE.</h5> - -<p>The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, which, -would exclude doors, drawers, and traps of all kinds. The -body should be made of good pine or white-wood lumber, one -inch thick, thoroughly seasoned, and planed on both sides. -It should be simply a plain box (<a href="#fig30">Fig, 30</a>), without top or -bottom, and of a size and form to suit the apiarist. The size -will depend upon our purpose. If we desire no comb-honey, -or desire comb-honey in frames, the hive may contain 4,000 -cubic inches. If we desire honey in boxes, it should not -contain over 2,000, and may be even smaller. If the hive is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">- 125 -</span> -to be a two-story one—that is, one hive above a similar hive -below (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>)—I prefer that it should be eighteen inches -long, twelve inches wide, and twelve inches deep, inside -measure. If simply small frames or boxes are to be used above, -I would have the hive at least two feet long. A three-fourths -inch rabbet should be cut from the top of the sides or ends -as the apiarist prefers, on the inside (<a href="#fig30">Fig, 30, <i>c</i></a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig30" style="width: 363px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30</span></div> - <img src="images/fig30.png" width="363" height="386" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The rabbet may equal a little more than one-half the thickness of the -board. Heavy tin strips (<a href="#fig33">Fig, 33</a>), three-fourths of an inch -wide, should be tacked to the side below the rabbet, so as to -reach one-fourth of an inch above the shoulder. These are -to bear the frames, and are convenient, as they prevent the -frames from becoming glued to the hive. We are thus able -to loosen the frames without jarring the bees. I would not -have hives without such tin rabbets, though some apiarists, -among whom is Mr. James Heddon, of this State, whose -rank as a successful apiarist is very high, do not like them. -The objection to them is cost, and liability of the frames to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">- 126 -</span> -move when the hive is moved. But with their use we are -not compelled to pry the frames loose, and are not so likely -to irritate the bees, while making an examination of the contents -of the hive, which arguments are conclusive with me.</p> - -<p>Any one who is not a skilled mechanic, especially if he has -not a buzz-saw, had better join the sides of his hives after -the style of making common dry-goods boxes (<a href="#fig30">Fig, 30</a>). In -this case, the sides not rabbeted should project by, else the -corners will have to be stopped up where they were rabbeted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig31" style="width: 294px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig31.png" width="294" height="265" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Bevel-Gauge.</i></span> -</div> - -<p>The mechanic may prefer to bevel the ends of the boards, -and unite them by a miter-joint (<a href="#fig33">Fig, 33</a>). This looks a little -better, otherwise is not superior to the other method. It is -difficult to form accurate joints—<i>and as everything about -the hive should be</i> <span class="smcap">accurate</span> <i>and</i> <span class="smcap">uniform</span>—this style is -not to be recommended to the general apiarist. To miter -with a hand-saw unless one is very skillful, requires a perfect -miter-box, and, even then, much care is required to secure -perfect joints. With a buzz-saw this is easier. We have -only to make a carrier as follows: Take two boards (<a href="#fig31">Fig, 31. <i>a, b</i></a>), -each one foot in length, and dove-tail them together, -as though with two others you meant to make a square box. -Be sure that they form a perfect right-angle. Then bevel -the ends opposite the angle, and unite these with a third -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">- 127 -</span> -board (<a href="#fig31">Fig, 31, c</a>), firmly nailed to the others. We thus have -a triangular pyramid. Through one of the shorter faces -make longitudinal slits (<a href="#fig31">Fig, 31, <i>d</i></a>), so that this can be bolted -firmly to the saw-table. In use, the longer face will reach -the saw, and from thence will slant up and back. Along the -back edge of this a narrow board (<a href="#fig31">Fig, 31, <i>e</i></a>) should be nailed, -which will project an inch above it. This will keep the board -to be beveled in line with the carrier, and will retain the right -angles. Of course the boards for the hive must be perfect -rectangles, and of just the right length and width, before the -bevels are cut.</p> - -<p>Such a carrier (<a href="#fig31">Fig, 31</a>) I ordered for my Barnes' saw, from -a cabinet-maker. It was made of hard wood, all three joints -dove-tailed, and nicely finished, at a cost of $1.50.</p> - -<p>In sawing the ends and sides of the hive, whether by hand -or with a buzz-saw, use should be made of a guide, so that -<i>perfect uniformity</i> will be secured.</p> - - -<h5 id="bot_bd">THE BOTTOM BOARD.</h5> - -<p>For a bottom board or stand (<a href="#fig32">Fig, 32</a>), we should have a -single one-inch board (<a href="#fig32">Fig, 32, <i>b</i></a>) just as wide as the hive, -and four inches longer, if the bees are to enter at the end of -the hive, and as long, and four inches wider, if the bees are to -enter at the side. This is nailed to two pieces of two by -four, or two by two scantling (<a href="#fig32">Fig, 32, <i>a, a</i></a>). Thus the hive -rests two or four inches from the ground. These scantlings -should extend at one end eight inches beyond the board, -and these projections be beveled from the edge of the board, -to the lower outer corner of the scantling. Upon these -beveled edges nail a board (<a href="#fig32">Fig, 32>, <i>d</i></a>), which shall reach from -the edge of the bottom board to the ground. We thus have -the alighting-board, whose upper edge should be beveled, so -as to fit closely to the bottom board. If the hives are to be -carried into a cellar to winter, this alighting-board (<a href="#fig31">Fig, 31, <i>d</i></a>) -had better be separate, otherwise it is more convenient to -have it attached. It may be made separate at first, or may -be easily separated by sawing off the beveled portion of the -scantlings.</p> - -<p>Should the apiarist desire his bees to enter at the side of -the hive, the scantling (<a href="#fig32">Fig, 32, <i>a, a</i></a>) should run the other -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">- 128 -</span> -way, and the alighting-board (<a href="#fig32">Fig, 32, <i>d</i></a>) should be longer, -and changed to the side. I have tried both, and see no difference, -so the matter may be controlled by the taste of the -apiarist.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig32" style="width: 496px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig32.png" width="496" height="341" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>For an opening to the hive (<a href="#fig32">Fig, 32, <i>c</i></a>), I would bevel the -middle of the edge of the bottom board, next to the inclined -board. At the edge, this bevel should be three-quarters of -an inch deep and four inches wide. It may decrease in both -width and depth as it runs back, till at a distance of four -inches, it is one-half an inch wide and five thirty-seconds of -an inch deep. This may terminate the opening, though the -shoulder at the end may be beveled off, if desired.</p> - -<p>With this bottom board the bees are near the ground, and -with the slanting board in front, even the most tired and -heavily-laden will not fail to gain the hive, as they come in -with their load of stores. In spring, too, many bees are -saved, as they come in on windy days, by low hives and an -alighting-board. <i>No hive should be more than four inches -from the ground</i>, and no hive should be without the slanting -alighting-board. With this opening, too, the entrance can be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">- 129 -</span> -contracted in case of robbing, or entirely closed when desired, -by simply moving the hive back.</p> - -<p>Some apiarists cut an opening in the side of the hive, and -regulate the size by tin slides or triangular blocks (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>); -others form an opening by sliding the hive forward beyond the -bottom board—which I would do with the above in hot -weather when storing was very rapid—but for simplicity, -cheapness and convenience, I have yet to see an opening -superior to the above. I think, too, I am a competent judge, -as I have at least a half-dozen styles in present use.</p> - -<p>I strongly urge, too, that only this one opening be used. -Auger holes about the hive, and entrances on two sides, are -worse than useless. By enlarging this opening, we secure -ample ventilation, even in sultry August, and when we contract -the entrance, no bees are lost by finding the usual door -closed.</p> - -<p>Some of our best bee-keepers, as Messrs. Heddon, Baldridge, -etc., prefer that the bottom board be nailed to the hive -(<a href="#fig39">Fig, 39</a>). I have such hives; have had for years, but strongly -object to them. They will not permit a quick clearing of the -bottom board, when we give a cleansing flight in winter, or -when we commence operations in spring, which, especially if -there is a quart or more of dead bees, is very desirable. Nor -with their use can we contract the opening in cold weather, -or to stop robbing, without the blocks (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>), tins or other -traps. <i>Simplicity should be the motto in hive-making.</i> -The arguments in favor of such fastening are: Convenience in -moving colonies, and in feeding, as we have not to fasten the -bottoms when we desire to ship our bees, and to feed we have -only to pour our liquids into the hives.</p> - -<p>Of course, such points are not essential—only matters of -convenience. Let each one decide for himself, which experience -will enable him to do.</p> - - -<h5 id="hv_cover">THE COVER OF THE HIVE.</h5> - -<p>The cover (<a href="#fig33">Fig, 33, <i>a</i></a>) should be about six inches high, -and like the lid of a trunk. The length and breadth may be -the same as the body of the hive, and fit on with beveled -edges (<a href="#fig33">Fig, 33</a>), the body having the outer edge beveled, and -the cover the inner. If we thus join the cover and hive with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">- 130 -</span> -a mitered-joint, we must not be satisfied with anything less -than perfection, else in case of storms, the rain will beat into -our hives, which should never be permitted. Such covers can -be fastened to the hives with hinges, or by hooks and staples. -But unless the apiarist is skilled in the use of tools, or hires a -mechanic to make his hives, it will be more satisfactory to make -the cover just large enough (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>) to shut over and rest -on shoulders formed either by nailing inch strips around the -body of the hive, one inch from the top, or else inside the -cover (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>). If it is preferred to have a two-story hive, -with the upper story (<a href="#fig33">Fig, 33, <i>b</i></a>) just like the lower -(<a href="#fig33">Fig, 33, <i>c</i></a>), this (<a href="#fig53">Fig, 53</a>) may join the lower by a miter-joint, while a -cover (<a href="#fig33">Fig, 33, <i>a</i></a>) two inches high, may join this with a similar -joint.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig33" style="width: 451px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig33.png" width="451" height="524" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">- 131 -</span></p> - -<p>If the upper story shuts over the lower and rests on a -shoulder (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>) it may still be made to take the same sized -frame, by nailing pieces one-half an inch square to the corners, -whose length shall equal the distance from the rabbet in the -lower story to the bottom board. Now nail to these upright -pieces, parallel to the rabbeted faces below, a three-eighths -inch board as wide as the pieces are long. The top of these -thin boards will take the place of the rabbet in the lower -story. This style, which is adopted in the two-story hives as -made by Mr. Langstroth (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>), will permit in the upper -story the same frames as used in the lower story, while two -more can be inserted. Upon this upper story a shallow cover -will rest. Such covers, if desired, may be made roof-like -(<a href="#fig34">Fig, 34</a>), by cutting end pieces, (Fig 34, b) in form of the -gable of a house. In this case there will be two slanting -boards (<a href="#fig34">Fig, 34, <i>a, a</i></a>), instead of one that is horizontal, to -carry off the rain. The slanting boards should project at the -ends (<a href="#fig34">Fig, 34, <i>d</i></a>), for convenience in handling. In such -covers we need thin, narrow ridge-boards (<a href="#fig34">Fig, 34, <i>c</i></a>), to keep -all perfectly dry. These covers look neat, are not so apt to -check, and will dry much quicker after a rain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig34" style="width: 344px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig34.png" width="344" height="109" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>If we secure comb-honey in crates, and winter out-doors—in -which case we shall need to protect in the Northern States—it -will be convenient to have a box of the same general -form as the main body of the hive, from six to eight inches -deep, just large enough to set over the body of the hive and -rest on shoulder-strips, and without top or bottom; this to -have such a cover as just described. Such is the arrangement -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">- 132 -</span> -of Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, which, on the -score of simplicity and convenience, has much to recommend it.</p> - -<p>In the above I have said nothing about porticos (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>). -If hives are shaded as they should be, these are useless, and I -believe that in no case will they pay. To be sure, they are -nice for spider-webs, and a shady place in which bees may -cluster; but such are inconvenient places to study the -wondrous fabrics of the spider, even were he a friend of the -bees, and the most successful apiarist will not force his bees -to hang in idle clusters about the hive.</p> - - -<h5 id="frames">THE FRAMES.</h5> - -<p>The form and size of frames, though not quite as various -as the persons who use them, are still very different. Some -prefer large frames. I first used one ten by eighteen inches, -and afterward a shallow frame about seven by eighteen (<a href="#fig29">Fig, 29</a>). -The advantage claimed for large frames is that there -are less to handle, and time is saved; yet may not smaller -frames be handled so much more dexterously, especially if -they are to be handled through all the long day, as to compensate, -in part at least, for the number? The advantage of the -shallow frame is, as claimed, that the bees will go into boxes -more readily; yet they are not considered so safe for out-door -wintering. This is the style recommended and used by Mr. -Langstroth, which fact may account for its popularity in the -United States. Another frame in common use, is one about -one foot square. I use one eleven inches square. The -reasons that I prefer this form are, that the comb seldom -breaks from the frame, the frames are convenient for nuclei, -and save the expense of constructing extra nucleus hives, and -that these frames permit the most compact arrangement for -winter and spring, and thus enable us to economize heat. By -use of a division board, we can, by using eight of these frames, -occupy just a cubic foot of space in spring, and by repeated -experiments I have found that a hive so constructed that the -bees always cover the combs during the early cold weather, -always gives the best results. As the honey season comes on -more can be added, till we have reached twelve, as many, I -think, as will ever be needed for brood. This was the size of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">- 133 -</span> -frame preferred by Mr. Gallup, and is the one used by Messrs. -Davis and Doolittle, and many others of our most successful -apiarists. That this size is imperative is, of course, not true; -that it combines as many desirable points as any other, I -think, is true. For apiarists who are not very strong, especially -for ladies, it is beyond question superior to all others.</p> - - -<h5 id="const">HOW TO CONSTRUCT THE FRAMES.</h5> - -<p>In this description, I shall suppose that the frames desired -are of the form and size (<a href="#fig35">Fig, 35</a>) which I use. It will be -easy, for any who may desire, to change the form at pleasure. -For the top-bar (<a href="#fig35">Fig, 35, <i>a</i></a>) of the frame, use a triangular -strip twelve and three-quarter inches long, with each face of the -triangle one inch across. Seven-eighths of an inch from each -end of this, form a shoulder, by sawing from one angle to -within one-fourth of an inch of the opposite face, so that -when the piece is split out from the end, these projections -shall be just one-fourth of an inch thick throughout. For -the side pieces (<a href="#fig35">Fig, 35, <i>b, b</i></a>), take strips eleven inches -long, seven-eighths of an inch wide, and one-fourth of an inch -thick. Tack with small brads the end of two of these strips -firmly to the shoulder of the top-bar, taking pains that the -end touches squarely against the projection. Now tack to -the opposite ends or bottoms, the ends of a similar strip -(<a href="#fig35">Fig. 35, <i>d</i></a>) eleven and a half inches long. We shall thus -have a square frame.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig35" style="width: 182px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig35.png" width="182" height="146" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>If comb-foundation is to be used, and certainly it will be -by the enterprising apiarist, then the top-bar (<a href="#fig36">Fig, 36, <i>a</i></a>) -should be twelve and three-quarters inches by one-quarter by -one inch, with a rectangular, instead of a triangular, projection -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">- 134 -</span> -below (<a href="#fig36">Fig, 36, <i>b</i></a>), which should be one-fourth by one-eighth -inch, the longest direction up and down. This should be -entirely to one side of the centre, so that when the foundation -(<a href="#fig36">Fig, 36, <i>c</i></a>) is pressed against this piece it will hang exactly -from the centre of the top-bar. If preferred, the bottom of the -frame (<a href="#fig36">Fig, 36, <i>e</i></a>) need not be more than half as wide or thick -as described above.</p> - -<p>The timber should be thoroughly seasoned, and of the best -pine or white-wood. Care should be taken that the frame be -made so as to hang vertically, when suspended on the rabbets -of the hive. To secure this very important point—true -frames that will always hang true—they should always be -made around a guide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig36" style="width: 242px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig36.png" width="242" height="188" alt="" /> - <span class="small"><i>Frame, also Cross-Section<br /> - of Top-Bar.</i></span> -</div> - - -<h5 id="block">A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMES.</h5> - -<p>This may be made as follows: Take a rectangular board -(<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37</a>) eleven and a quarter by thirteen and a half inches. -On both ends of one face of this, nail hard-wood pieces -(<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>e, e</i></a>) one inch square and eleven inches long, so that one -end (<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>g, g</i></a>) shall lack one-fourth inch of reaching -the edge of the board. On the other face of the board, nail -a strip (<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>c</i></a>) four inches wide and eleven and a quarter -inches long, at right-angles to it, and in such position that -the ends shall just reach to the edges of the board. Midway -between the one inch square pieces, screw on another hard-wood -strip (<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>d</i></a>) one inch square and four inches long, -parallel with and three-fourths of an inch from the edge. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">- 135 -</span> -To the bottom of this, screw a semi-oval piece of hoop-steel -(<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>b, b</i></a>), which shall bend around and press against -the square strips. The ends of this should not reach quite -to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring, -fasten, by rivets, an inch strap (<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>a</i></a>), which shall be -straight when thus riveted. These dimensions are for frames -eleven inches square, inside measure, and must be varied for -other sizes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig37" style="width: 319px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig37.png" width="319" height="260" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames -between the steel springs (<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>b, b</i></a>) and the square strips -(<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>e, e</i></a>); then lay on our top-bar and nail, after which -we invert the block and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the -top-bar. Now press down on the strap (<a href="#fig37">Fig, 37, <i>a</i></a>), which -will loosen the frame, when it may be removed, all complete -and true. Such a gauge not only insures perfect frames, but -demands that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy. -And some such arrangement should always be used in making -the frames.</p> - -<p>The projecting ends of the top-bar will rest on the tins -(<a href="#fig33">Fig, 33</a>), and thus the frame can be easily loosened at any -time without jarring the bees, as the frames will not be glued -fast, as they would in case they rested on the wooden rabbets. -The danger of killing bees is also abolished by use of the tins.</p> - -<p>When the frames are in the hive there should be at least a -three-sixteenths inch space between the sides and bottom of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">- 136 -</span> -the frames, and the sides and bottom of the hive. Even -doubling this would do no harm; though a much wider space -would very likely receive comb, and be troublesome. Frames -that fit close in the hive, or that reach to the bottom, are -very inconvenient and undesirable. To secure against this, -our lumber must be thoroughly seasoned, else when shrinkage -takes place our frames may touch the bottom-board.</p> - -<p>The distance between the frames may be one-fourth of an -inch, though a slight variation either way does no harm. Some -men, of very precise habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the -side of the frames, at top and bottom, which project just a -quarter of an inch, so as to maintain this unvarying distance; -or staples in the bottom of the hive to secure the same end. -Mr. Langstroth so arranged his frames, and Mr. Palmer, of -Hart, Michigan, whose neatness is only surpassed by his success, -does the same thing. I have had hives with these extra -attachments, but found them no special advantage. I think -we can regulate the distance with the eye, so as to meet every -practical demand, and thus save the expense and trouble -which the above attachments cost.</p> - - -<h5 id="fr_cvr">COVER FOR FRAMES.</h5> - -<p>Nothing that I have ever tried is equal to a quilt for this -purpose. It is a good absorbent of moisture, preserves the -heat in spring and winter, and can be used in summer without -jarring or crushing the bees. This should be a real quilt, -made of firm unbleached factory, duck, or cambric—I have -used the first with entire satisfaction for four years—enclosing -a thick layer of batting, and hemmed about the edges. My -wife quilts and hems them on a machine. The quilting is in -squares, and all is made in less than fifteen minutes. The -quilt should be a little larger than the top of the hive, so that -after all possible shrinkage, it will still cover closely. Thus, -when this is put on, no bees can ever get above it. When we -use the feeder, it may be covered by the quilt, and a flap cut -in the latter, just above the hole in the feeder, enables us to -feed without disturbing the bees, though I place the feeder at -the end of the chamber, wherein are the bees, and have only -to double the quilt back when I feed. The only objection -that I know to the quilt is, that the bees will fasten propolis, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">- 137 -</span> -and even comb, between it and the frames, and this looks -bad. A little care 'will make this a small objection. Mr. -Langstroth used a board above the frames, which Mr. Heddon -uses even now. Perhaps Mr. Heddon never used the quilts. -Perhaps his love of order and neatness caused him to discard -them. Still, I feel to thank Mr. A. I. Root for calling my -attention to quilts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig38" style="width: 238px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig38.png" width="238" height="174" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h5 id="div_bd">DIVISION BOARD.</h5> - -<p>A close-fitting division board (<a href="#fig38">Fig, 38</a>) for contracting the -chamber, is very important, and though unappreciated by -many excellent apiarists, still no hive is complete without it. -I find it especially valuable in winter and spring, and useful -at all seasons. This is made the same form as the frames, -though all below the top-bar—which consists of a strip thirteen -inches long by one inch by three-eighths, and is nailed -firmly to the board below—is a solid inch board (<a href="#fig38">Fig, 38, <i>b</i></a>), -which is exactly one foot square, so that it fits closely to -the inside of the hive. If desired, the edges (<a href="#fig38">Fig, 38, <i>e, e</i></a>) -can be beveled, as seen in the figure. When this is inserted -in the hive it entirely separates the chamber into two chambers, -so that an insect much smaller than a bee could not pass -from the one to the other. Mr. A. I. Root makes one of -cloth, chaff, etc. Yet, I think few apiarists would bother -with so much machinery. Mr. W. L. Porter, Secretary of -the Michigan Association, makes the board a little loose, -and then inserts a rubber strip in a groove sawed in the edges. -This keeps the board snug, and makes its insertion easy, even -though heat may shrink or damp may swell either the board -or hive. I have not tried this, but like the suggestion.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">- 138 -</span></p> - -<p>The use of the division board is to contract the chamber -in winter, <i>to vary it so as to keep combs covered in spring</i>, -to convert the hive into a nucleus hive, and to contract the -chamber in the upper-story of a two-story hive, when first -adding frames to secure surplus comb-honey.</p> - - -<h4 id="huber_hive">THE HUBER HIVE.</h4> - -<p>The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged -several of his leaf or unicomb hives together, so that the -frames would open like the leaves of a book; though it has -been stated that the Grecians had, in early times, something -similar.</p> - -<p>In 1866, Mr. T. F. Bingham, then of New York, improved -upon the Huber hive, securing a patent on his triangular -frame hive. This, so far as I can judge, was the Huber hive -made practical.</p> - -<p>In 1868, Mr. M. S. Snow, then of New York, now of Minnesota, -procured a patent on his hive, which was essentially -the same as the hives now known as the Quinby and Bingham -hives.</p> - -<p>Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive, -which is essentially the same as the above, only differing in -details. No patent was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great -heart and boundless generosity endeared him to all acquaintances. -Those who knew him best, never tire of praising the -unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we except Mr. -Langstroth, no man has probably done so much to promote -the interest and growth of improved apiculture in the United -States. His hive, his book, his views of wintering, his introduction -of the bellows-smoker—a gift to apiarists—all speak -his praise as a man and an apiarist.</p> - -<p>The fact that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great -favorite with those who have used it, and is pronounced by so -capable a judge as Mr. Heddon, to be the best movable-comb -hive in existence, that Mr. Quinby preferred this style or type -of hive, that the Quinby form is used by the Hetherington -brothers. Captain J. E., the prince of American apiarists, -and O. J., whose neatness, precision, and mechanical skill -are enough to awaken envy; that the Russell hive is but a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">- 139 -</span> -modification of the same type, are surely enough to awaken -curiosity and bespeak a description.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig39" style="width: 332px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig39.png" width="332" height="215" alt="" /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Frame, Bottom-Board and Frame-Support of Quinby Hive.</i></span> -</div> - -<p>The Quinby hive (<a href="#fig39">Fig, 39</a>), as used by the Hetherington -brothers, consists of a series of rectangular frames (<a href="#fig39">Fig, 39</a>) -twelve by seventeen inches, outside measure. The ends of these -frames are one and a half inches wide and half an inch thick. -The top and bottom one inch wide and half an inch thick. -The outer half of the ends projects one-fourth of an inch -beyond the top and bottom. This projection is lined with -sheet iron, which is inserted in a groove which runs one inch -into each end of the end-pieces and are tacked by the same -nails that fasten the end-bars to the top and bottom-bars. -This iron at the end of the bar bends in at right-angles -(<a href="#fig39">Fig, 39, <i>a, a</i></a>), and extends one-fourth of an inch parallel with the -top and bottom-bars. Thus, when these frames stand side -by side, the ends are close, while half-inch openings extend -between the top and bottom-bars of adjacent frames. The -bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from the bottom-board. -Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with the position -of the back end-bars of the frames is an inch strip of sheet-iron -(<a href="#fig39">Fig, 39, <i>b, b</i></a>) sixteen inches in length. One-third of -this strip, from the front edge back, is bent over so it lies not -quite in contact with the second third, while the posterior third -receives the tacks which hold it to the bottom-board. Now, -when in use this iron flange receives the hooks on the corners -of the frames, so that the frames are held firmly, and can only -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">- 140 -</span> -be moved back and sidewise. In looking at the bees we can -separate the combs at once, at any place. The chamber can -be enlarged or diminished simply by adding or withdrawing -frames. As the hooks are on all four corners of the frames, -the frames can be either end back, or either side up. Boards -with the iron hooks close the sides of the brood cavity, while -a quilt covers the frames.</p> - -<p>The entrance (<a href="#fig39">Fig, 39, <i>e</i></a>) is cut in the bottom-board as -already explained, except that the lateral edges are kept -parallel. A strip of sheet-iron (<a href="#fig39">Fig, 39, <i>d</i></a>) is tacked across -this, on which rest the ends of the front end-bars of the -frames which stand above, and underneath which pass the bees -as they come to and go from the hive. A box, without bottom -and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from four to -six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames. -This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side -and top storing in sections or boxes in summer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig40" style="width: 384px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig40.png" width="384" height="154" alt="" /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive.</i></span> -</div> - -<p>The Bingham hive (<a href="#fig40">Fig, 40</a>) is not only remarkably simple, -but is as remarkable for its shallow depth; the frames being -only five inches high. These have no bottom-bar. The end-bars -are one and a half inches wide, and the top-bar square. -The nails that hold the end-bars pass into the end of the top-bar, -which is usually placed diagonally, so that an edge, not -a face, is below; though some are made with a face below -(<a href="#fig40">Fig, 40, <i>f</i></a>), to be used when comb is transferred. The -frames are held together by two wires, one at each end. Each -wire (<a href="#fig40">Fig. 40, <i>a</i></a>) is a little longer than twice the width of the -hive when the maximum number of frames are used. The ends -of each wire are united and placed about nails (<a href="#fig40">Fig. 40, <i>b, b</i></a>) in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">- 141 -</span> -the ends of the boards (<a href="#fig40">Fig. 40, <i>c, c</i></a>) which form the sides of the -brood-chamber. A small stick (<a href="#fig40">Fig. 40, <i>a</i></a>) spreads these -wires, and brings the frames close together. A box without -bottom and with movable cover, is placed about the frames. -This is large enough and high enough to permit of chaff -packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be -made like the one already described. Mr. Bingham does not -bevel the bottom-board, but places lath under three sides of -the brood-chamber, the lath being nailed to the bottom-board—and -then uses the blocks to contract the entrance (<a href="#fig40">Fig. 40, <i>g</i></a>).</p> - -<p>The advantages of this hive are, simplicity, great space -above for surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed -one hive above another to any height desired, while the frames -may be reversed, end for end, or bottom for top, or the whole -brood-chamber turned up-side down. Thus, by doubling, we -may have a depth of ten inches for winter.</p> - -<p>The objection which I have found in the similar Russell -hive, is danger of killing bees in rapid handling. In the -Russell hive the side-bars are halved together, and held in -place by ingeniously contrived wire hooks. There are no -bottom-bars. I have used none of these except the Russell. -They can be manipulated with rapidity, if we care not how -many bees we crush. It hurts me to kill a bee, and so I find the -Langstroth style more quickly manipulated. Mr. Snow, too, -who was the first to make the above style of hive, has discarded -it in favor of the Langstroth. His objection to the above, -is the fact that the various combs are not sure to be so built -as to be interchangeable. Yet that such apiarists as those -above named prefer these Huber hives, after long use of the -other style, is certainly not without significance.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<h3 id="appar">APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB-HONEY.</h3> - -<p>Although I feel sure that extracted-honey will grow more -and more into favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful -comb, which, from its exquisite flavor and attractive appearance, -has always been, and always will be, admired and desired. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">- 142 -</span> -So, no hive is complete without its arrangement of boxes, -section-frames, and crates, all constructed with the view of -securing this delectable comb-honey in the form that will be -most irresistible.</p> - - -<h4 id="boxes">BOXES.</h4> - -<p>These are for surplus comb-honey in the most salable form. -They may be of any size that best suits the taste of the -apiarist, and the pulse of the market.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig41" style="width: 107px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig41.png" width="107" height="86" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>It is well that the sides of these be of glass. Such -(<a href="#fig41">Fig, 41</a>) may be made as follows: For top and bottom procure -soft-wood boards one-fourth of an inch thick and of the size -desired, one for the bottom and the other for the top of the box. -Take four pieces half an inch square and as long as the desired -height of the honey-box. In two adjacent sides of these saw -grooves in which may slip common glass. These are for corner -pieces. Now tack with small brads the corners of the bottom-board -to the ends of these pieces, then slide in the -glass, and in similar way tack the top-board to the other -ends. Through the bottom-board holes may be bored so that -the bees may enter. A similar box is made by A. H. Russell, -of Adrian, Mich., except that tin forms the corners. These -may be made to take from one to three combs, and are certainly -very attractive. If made small and set in a crate so that all -could be removed at once, they would leave little to be desired. -The Isham box (<a href="#fig42">Fig, 42</a>) is essentially like the Russell; -only the tin at the corners is fastened differently. Surely, all -great minds do run in the same channel. Another form (<a href="#fig43">Fig, 43</a>) -which I find very desirable, and which I used in California -(where they were introduced by Mr. Harbison) more than ten -years ago, is made as follows: Dress off common lath so that -they are smooth, cut off two lengths the desired height of the -box, and one the desired width; tack this last piece to the ends -of the other two, and to the other end tack a similar strip -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">- 143 -</span> -only half as wide. We now have a square frame.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig42" style="width: 217px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig42.png" width="217" height="193" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig43" style="width: 108px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig43.png" width="108" height="107" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Place such frames side by side till a box is made of the desired length. -To hold these together, we have now only to tack on either -side one or two pieces of tin, putting a tack into each section, -thus forming a compact box without ends. The end frames -should have a whole piece of lath for the bottom, and grooves -should be cut in the bottom and top laths, so that a glass may -be put in the ends. Of course there is ample chance for the -bees to enter from below. Now, by placing small pieces of -comb, or artificial comb foundation, which ranks as a discovery -with the movable-frame hive and honey-extractor, on the top -of each frame (<a href="#fig43">Fig, 43</a>), the bees will be led to construct a -separate comb in each frame, and each frame may be sold by -the retail dealer separately, by simply drawing the tacks from -the tins. Barker and Dicer, of Marshall, Michigan, make a -very neat sectional honey-box, which is quite like the above, -except that paper pasted over the frames takes the place of -the tins. These, too, have wood separators as used and sold -by the gentlemen named. The honey-boxes may be placed -directly on the frames, or in case the queen makes trouble by -entering them to deposit eggs—a trouble which I have seldom -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">- 144 -</span> -met, perhaps because I give her enough to do below—we can -plaice strips one-fourth of an inch square between the frames -and boxes. In case we work extensively for box honey, we -should have a rack or crate so made that we can remove all -the boxes at once; in which case to examine the bees we -would not have to remove all the boxes separately.</p> - - -<h4 id="combs">SMALL FRAMES OR SECTIONS.</h4> - -<p>Honey in boxes, unless they consist of sections as just described, -cannot compete with honey in small frames, in our -present markets, and without doubt they will fall more and -more into disfavor. In fact, there is no apparatus for securing -comb-honey that promises so well as these sections. That -they are just the thing to enable us to tickle the market is -shown by their rapid growth in popular favor. Three years -ago I predicted, at one of our State Conventions, that they -would soon replace boxes, and was laughed at. Nearly all who -then laughed, now use these sections. They are cheap, and -with their use we can get more honey, and in a form that will -make it irresistible.</p> - - -<h5 id="gd_sect">REQUISITES OF GOOD SECTIONS</h5> - -<p>The wood should be <i>white</i>, the size small, from four to six -inches square, the sections capable of being glassed, at least -on the faces, not too much cut off from brood-chamber, cheap, -easily made, and so arranged as to be put on or taken off the -hive <i>en masse</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig44" style="width: 304px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig44.png" width="304" height="32" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h5 id="decr">DESCRIPTION.</h5> - -<p>The style of section which I think will soon replace all others, -is easily made, as follows: For a section four inches square take -a strip of <i>clean, white</i> veneer—cut from basswood, poplar -or white-wood—such as is used to make berry-boxes, two -inches wide and twenty inches long; for larger sections make -it proportionally longer. Make a shallow cut every four -inches at right-angles to the sides—though they will do this, -if asked to, at the factory. Now with a chisel (<a href="#fig44">Fig, 44</a>) four -inches long, with one-eighth inch projections at right-angles -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">- 145 -</span> -to the main blade, cut out sections on the opposite edges of -the main strip—which will leave openings one-eighth inch by -four inches, between the first and second shallow cut and the -third and fourth. We now bend this around a square block -(<a href="#fig45">Fig, 45</a>) which will just fill it, letting the ends over-lap, and -drive through these over-lapping sections one or two small -wrought brads on to an iron, (<a href="#fig45">Fig, 45, <i>b</i></a>) set into the block, -by which they will be clinched. Or, by using glue, we may -dispense with the block. Now, if your market requires -glassed sections, or if you wish to insert dividers, either tin -or wood, glue posts one-fourth of an inch square, four in each -section along the uncut sides one-eighth inch from the edges. -The ends of these will just come flush with the gouged edges -above and below. Now, by use of tins such as are used to -fasten window-glass, these can be glassed, or if desired, each -one can receive a tin or wooden separator.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig45" style="width: 151px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig45.png" width="151" height="149" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>If this gluing in of the pieces is thought too troublesome, -we may still achieve the same end by using tin separators in -our crates, and then glass our sections by cutting a square -glass, just the size of the section, outside measure, and with -heavy white paper paste two of these glass to the sections. -This makes each section perfectly close, and is the method -devised by Southard and Ranney for practice the coming season. -A paste made of dextrine, tragacanth, or even flour, -will answer to fasten the strips of paper, which need not be -more than one inch wide. A little carbolic acid, or salicylic -acid in solution, will keep the paste from souring.</p> - -<p>Every apiarist can make these sections for himself, and thus -save freight and profits of making. They are neat, very cheap—costing -but two mills each—and are made strong by use of -the glued posts. They are also light. Very soon our customers -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">- 146 -</span> -will object to buying wood and glass, if our unglassed -sections of comb-honey are kept in close glassed crates.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig46" style="width: 240px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig46.png" width="240" height="143" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Hetherington brothers make a very neat section, as -follows: The top and bottom are each two inches wide, of -one-quarter inch white pine. These receive a groove one-eighth -inch from the ends, which receives the sides, one inch -wide and one-eighth inch thick, which is pressed through to -a central position and glued. This section is five and a half -inches square. They use wooden dividers (<a href="#fig46">Fig, 46, <i>a</i></a>) one-eighth -of an inch thick, as long as the section, but one inch -less in height, so that below and above is a half-inch space, -which permits the bees to pass readily from one section to -another. These are held by a half-inch strip of tin -(<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46, <i>b, b</i></a>), which passes through a groove (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46, <i>c</i></a>) in the ends -of the dividers, and reaches half an inch farther; then turns -at right-angles and ends in a point (<a href="#fig46">Fig. 46, <i>b</i></a>), which, when -in use, sticks into the top or bottom pieces; and so the four -points hold the dividers in place. When ready to sell, they -insert half-inch glass in the grooves each side the narrow side-pieces, -and with tins fasten glass on the faces, and have a -very handsome section. I think this preferable to the Russell -or Isham box or section, as the one-inch strip of wood covers -the part of the comb where it is fastened to the sides, which -is never attractive, while the rest is all glassed. Such sections -were praised in New York and Cincinnati last season as -very fine and neat; equal, if not superior, to all others.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" id="fig47"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig47.png" width="112" height="109" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdc" id="fig48"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig48.png" width="101" height="108" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">- 147 -</span></p> - -<p>A. I. Root prefers sections made as are children's toy-blocks, -the sides fastened by a sort of mortise and tennon -arrangement (<a href="#fig47">Fig, 47</a>). I have received from Mr. James -Heddon a similar section, but neater and more finished, which -is made in Vermont. These are too complex to be made -without machinery, are no better for their fancy corners—in -fact, they are not as strong as is desirable—and, as we cannot -afford to purchase our apparatus when we can as well make -it ourselves, I cannot recommend them for general use.</p> - - -<p>The Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger sections (<a href="#fig48">Fig, 48</a>) are -essentially the same. The top and bottom are a little more -narrow than the sides, and are nailed to them. The Wheeler -sections-invented and patented by Mr. Geo. T. Wheeler, -Mexico, New York, in 1870—are remarkable for being the -first (<a href="#fig52">Fig, 52, <i>K</i></a>) to be used with tin separators (<a href="#fig52">Fig, 52, <i>M</i></a>). -Instead of making the bottoms one-quarter of an inch narrower -for a passage, Mr. Wheeler made an opening in the -bottom, as does Mr. Russell.</p> - - -<h4 id="placing">HOW TO PLACE SECTIONS IN POSITION.</h4> - -<p>There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and -has, as it well may, earnest advocates—one by use of crates, -the other by frames.</p> - -<h5 id="sect_frames">SECTIONS IN FRAMES.</h5> - -<p>I prefer this method, perhaps because I have used it most. -These frames (<a href="#fig49">Fig, 49</a>) are made the same size as the frames -in the brood-chamber, except that they are made of strips two -inches wide, and one-fourth of an inch thick, though the bottom-bar -is a quarter of an inch narrower, so that when two frames -are side by side, there is one-fourth of an inch space between -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">- 148 -</span> -the bottom bars, though the top and side pieces are close together. -The sections are of such a size (<a href="#fig50">Fig, 50, <i>K</i></a>) that -four, or six, or nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames. -Nailed to one side of each large frame are two tin strips -(<a href="#fig50">Fig, 50, <i>t, t′</i></a>) as long as the frame, and as wide into one inch -as are the sections. These are tacked half an inch from the -top and the bottom of the large frames, and so are opposite -the sections, thus permitting the bees to pass readily from -one tier of sections to another, as do the narrower top and -bottom-bars of the sections, from those below to those above. -I learned of such an arrangement of sections from A. I. Root.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig49" style="width: 279px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig49.png" width="279" height="294" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Captain Hetherington tells me that Mr. Quinby used them -years ago. The tin arrangement, though unlike Mr. Wheeler's -(<a href="#fig52">Fig, 52, <i>M</i></a>), would be readily suggested by it. It is more -trouble to make these frames if we have the tins set in so as -just to come flush with the edge of the end-bars of the -frames, but then the frames would hang close together, and -would not be so stuck together with propolis. These may be -hung in the second story of a two-story hive, and just so -many as to fill the same—my hives will take nine—or they -can be put below, beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in -case he hangs these below, inserts a perforated division-board, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">- 149 -</span> -so that the queen will not enter the sections and lay eggs. I -used them very successfully last summer without division-boards, -and neither brood nor pollen were placed in a single -cell. Perhaps wider tins would prevent this should it occur. -In long hives—the "New Idea"—which I find very satisfactory, -after several years' trial, especially for extracted honey—I -have used these frames of sections, and with -the best success. The Italians entered them at once, -and filled them even more quickly than other bees -filled the sections in the upper story. In fact, one -great advantage of these sections in the frames is the -Obvious and ample passage-ways, inviting the bees to enter -them. But in our desire to make ample and inviting openings, -caution is required that we do not over-do the matter, -and invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we have -Charybdis and Scylla, and must, by study, learn to so steer -between, as to avoid both dangers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig50" style="width: 350px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig50.png" width="350" height="313" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h5 id="sec_racks">SECTIONS IN RACKS.</h5> - -<p>These are to use in lieu of large frames, to hold sections, -and are very convenient when we wish to set the sections only -one deep above the brood-chamber. Though, if desired, we -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">- 150 -</span> -can place one rack above another, and so have sections two, -and even three deep.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig51" style="width: 349px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig51.png" width="349" height="182" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig52" style="width: 309px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig52.png" width="309" height="202" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, use a very neat rack -(<a href="#fig51">Fig, 51</a>), in which they use the thin veneer sections which we -recommend as superior to all others for the general apiarist. -They have used these with excellent success, but without -separators, which they wish to insert. Perhaps by taking out -the board partitions (<a href="#fig51">Fig, 51, <i>B, B</i></a>), and putting tin -separators the other way across, they would accomplish their object. -In this case, the ends of the adjacent sections would not be -separated, and the width of the rack would just accommodate -two, three, or four sections, to be governed by size of hive -and sections. The sheet-iron rests (<a href="#fig51">Fig, 51, <i>H, H, H</i></a>) -which, with their bent edges, just raise the rack one-fourth -of an inch from the brood frames, would then run the other -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">- 151 -</span> -way, and give the requisite strength. Thus, the tins would -not be liable to bend, as they would if run the shorter way of -the rack. The end-board, too (<a href="#fig51">Fig. 51. <i>A</i></a>), would be a side-board, -and the strips (<a href="#fig51">Fig. 51, <i>G, G</i></a>), with the intervening -glass, would be at the ends.</p> - -<p>The Wheeler rack (<a href="#fig52">Fig, 52</a>) simply holds the sections, while -each section is glassed separately.</p> - -<p>Captain Hetherington sets a rack of sections above the -frames, and stands sections one above the other on the side for -side storing. Mr. Doolittle makes a rack by placing frames, -such as I have described—except they are only half as high, -and hold but two sections—side by side, where they are held -by tacking a stick on top across each end of the row. He -also places two tiers, two deep, at each end of the brood-chamber, -if he desires to give so much room.</p> - -<p>All apiarists who desire to work for comb honey which will -sell, will certainly use the sections, and either adjust them by -use of frames or crates.</p> - - -<h5>FOOT-POWER SAW.</h5> - -<p>Every apiarist who keeps upwards of fifty colonies of bees, -and makes apiculture a specialty, will find a foot-power saw -a very valuable apparatus.</p> - -<p>I have now used the admirable combined foot-power saw of -W. F. & John Barnes for a year, and find that it grows in -value each month. It permits rapid work, insures uniformity, -and enables the apiarist to give a finish to his work that would -rival that of the cabinet-maker.</p> - -<p>Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and -set the saws, and should never run the machine when not in -perfect order.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">- 152 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to -give the best results, and as this costs some money and more -labor, it should be done once for all. As plan and execution -in this direction must needs precede even the purchase of -bees, this subject deserves an early consideration. Hence, we -will proceed to consider position, arrangement of grounds, -and preparation for each individual colony.</p> - - -<h3 id="position">POSITION.</h3> - -<p>Of course, it is of first importance that the apiary be near -at hand. In city or village this is imperative. In the country -or at suburban homes, we have more choice, but close -proximity to the house is of much importance. In a city, it -may be necessary to follow friend Muth's example, and locate -on the house-tops, where, despite the inconvenience, we may -achieve success. The lay of the ground is not important, -though if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope -in any direction, but better any way than toward the north.</p> - - -<h3 id="arrangement">ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS.</h3> - -<p>Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove -offers inviting shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp. -Such a grove could soon be formed of basswood and tulip -trees, which, as we shall see, are very desirable, as their bloom -offers plenteous and most delicious honey. Even Virgil urges -shade of palm and olive, also that we screen the bees from -winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on the -windward side. Such a screen may be formed of a tall board -fence, which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to -protect against thieves. Yet these are gloomy and forbidding, -and will be eschewed by the apiarist who has an eye to -æsthetics. Ever-green screens, either of Norway spruce, -Austrian or other pine, or arbor vitæ, each or all, are not only -very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and add -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">- 153 -</span> -greatly to the beauty of the grounds. If the apiary is large, -a small, neat, inexpensive house, in the centre of the apiary -grounds, is indispensable. This will serve in winter as a shop -for making hives, frames, etc., and as a store-house for honey, -while in summer it will be used for extracting, transferring, -storing, bottling, etc. In building this, it will be well to construct -a frost-proof, <i>thoroughly drained</i>, dark, and well-ventilated -cellar. To secure the thorough ventilation, pass a -tube, which may be made of tile, from near the bottom, -through the earth to the surface; and another, from near the -bottom, to the chimney or stove-pipe above.</p> - - -<h3 id="prep_colony">PREPARATION FOR EACH COLONY.</h3> - -<p>Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony. -Bees are forced to cluster outside the hive, where the hives -are subjected to the full force of the sun's rays. By the -intense heat, the temperature inside becomes like that of an -oven, and the wonder is that they do not desert entirely. I -have known hives, thus unprotected, to be covered by bees, -idling outside, when by simply shading the hives, all would -go merrily to work. The combs, too, and foundation -especially, are liable, in unshaded hives, to melt and fall -down, which is very damaging to the bees, and very vexatious -to the apiarist. The remedy for all this is to always have the -hives so situated that they will be entirely shaded all through -the heat of the day. This might be done by constructing a shed -or house, but these are expensive and inconvenient, and, therefore, -to be discarded. Perhaps the Coe house-apiary (<a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">Chap. XVIII</a>) -may prove an exception; but, as yet, we have no -reliable assurance of the fact.</p> - -<p>If the apiarist has a convenient grove, this may be trimmed -high, so as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement. -So arrange the hives that while they are shaded through all the -heat of the day, they will receive the sun's rays early and late, -and thus the bees will work more hours. I always face my hives -to the east. If no grove is at command, the hives maybe placed -on the north of a Concord grape-vine, or other vigorous variety, -as the apiarist may prefer. This should be trained to a trellis, -which may be made by setting two posts, either of cedar or -oak. Let these extend four or five feet above the ground, -and be three or four feet apart. Connect them at intervals of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">- 154 -</span> -eighteen inches with three galvanized wires, the last one being -at the top of the posts. Thus we can have shade and grapes, -and can see for ourselves that bees do not injure grapes. If -preferred, we may use ever-greens for this purpose, which can -be kept low, and trimmed square and close on the north. -These can be got at once, and are superior in that they furnish -ample shade at all seasons. Norway spruce is the best. -These should be at least six feet apart. A. I. Root's idea of -having the vines of each succeeding row divide the spaces of -the previous row, in quincunx order, is very good; though I -should prefer the rows in this case to be four, instead of three -feet apart, especially with ever-greens. Until protecting shade -can be thus permanently secured, boards should be arranged -for temporary protection. Many apiarists economize by using -fruit trees for this purpose, which, from their spreading tops, -answer very well.</p> - -<p>Mr. A. I. Root's idea of having sawdust under and about -the hives is, I think, a good one. The hives of the Michigan -Agricultural College (<a href="#fig53">Fig, 53</a>) are protected by ever-greens, -trimmed close on the north side. A space four feet by six, -north of the shrubs, was then dug out to a depth of four -inches, and filled with sawdust (<a href="#fig53">Fig, 53, <i>f</i></a>), underlying which -were old bricks, so that nothing would grow up through the -sawdust. The sawdust thus extends one foot back, or west -of the hive, three feet north, and the same distance to the -east or front side of the hive. This makes it neat about -the hive, and largely removes the danger of losing the queen -in handling the bees; as should she fall outside the hive, the -sharp-sighted apiarist would be very likely indeed to see her.</p> - -<p>Mr. J. H. Nellis, the able Secretary of the North-Eastern -Bee-Keepers' Association, objects to sawdust, as he thinks it -rots too quickly, and blows about badly. He would use sand -or gravel instead. I have tried both gravel and sawdust, and -prefer the latter, as explained above. By having the sawdust -a little below the general surface, and adding a little once in -four or five years, it keeps all nice and agreeable. After the -ever-greens are well started, all the space between the sawdust -areas should be in grass, and kept neatly mown. This -takes but a little time, and makes the apiary always pleasant -and inviting.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">- 155 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig53" style="width: 518px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig53.png" width="518" height="766" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">- 156 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">TO TRANSFER BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>As you may have purchased your bees in box hives, and -so, of course, will desire to transfer them immediately into -movable-frame hives, or, as already suggested, you may wish -to transfer from one movable-frame to another, I will now proceed -to describe the process.</p> - -<p>The best time to transfer is early in the season, when there -is but little honey in the hives, though it may be done at any -time, if sufficient caution is used: still it should never be -done except on warm days, when the bees are actively engaged -in storing. After the bees are busy at work, approach the -old hive, blow a little smoke into the entrance to quiet the -bees, then carry the hive off a few feet, and turn it bottom -up. Place a box over the hive—it will make no difference -whether it fits it close or not, if the bees are so smoked as to -be thoroughly alarmed—and with a stick rap on the lower -hive for about twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey -and go with the queen into the upper hive and cluster. If -towards the last we carefully set the box off once or twice, -and vigorously shake the hive, and then replace the box, we -will hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it more -complete. I got this suggestion from Mr. Baldridge. A few -young bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do -no harm. Now put the box on the old stand, leaving the edge -raised so that the bees which were out may enter, and so all -the bees can get air. If other bees do not trouble, as they -usually will not if busily gathering, we can proceed in the -open air. If they do we must go into some room. I have -frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen, and often in -a barn. Now knock the old hive apart, cut the combs from -the sides, and get the combs out of the old hive with just as -little breakage as possible. Mr. Baldridge, if transferring in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">- 157 -</span> -spring, saws the combs and cross-sticks loose from the sides, -turns the hive into the natural position, then strikes against -the top of the hive with a hammer till the fastenings are -broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the combs are all -free and in convenient shape for rapid work.</p> - -<p>We now need a barrel, set on end, on which we place a -board fifteen to twenty inches square, covered with several -thicknesses of cloth. Some apiarists think the cloth useless, -but it serves, I think, to prevent injury to comb, brood or -honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and a frame on -the comb, and cut out the comb the size of the inside of the -frame, taking pains to save all the brood. Now crowd the -frame over the comb, so that the latter will be in the same -position that it was when in the old hive; that is, so the honey -will be above—the position is not very important—then fasten -the comb in the frame, by winding about all one or two small -wires or pieces of wrapping twine. To raise the frame and -comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till the frame -is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and proceed with -the others in the same way till we have all the worker-comb—that -with small cells—fastened in. To secure the pieces, -which we shall find abundant at the end, take thin pieces of -wood, one-half inch wide and a trifle longer than the frame is -deep, place these in pairs either side the comb, extending up -and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure till the bees -shall fasten them, and secure the strips by winding with small -wire, just above and below the frame, or else tack them to -the frame with small tacks.</p> - -<p>Captain Hetherington has invented and practices a very -neat method of fastening comb into frames. In constructing -his frames, he bores small holes through the top, side, and -bottom-bars of his frames, about two inches apart; these -holes are just large enough to permit the passage of the long -spines of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has -but to stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it -securely. He can also use all the pieces, and still make a -neat and secure frame of comb. He finds this arrangement -convenient, too, in strengthening insecure combs. In answer -to my inquiry, this gentleman said it paid well to bore such -holes in all his frames, which are eleven by sixteen inches, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">- 158 -</span> -inside measure. I discarded such frames because of the -liability of the comb to fall out.</p> - -<p>Mr. Baldridge makes wads of comb, or comb-cappings, -which he finds good, and by pressing these against the edges -of the comb he wishes to fasten, he fastens them to the frames, -quickly and securely.</p> - -<p>Having fastened all the worker-comb that we can into -the frames—of course all the other, and all bright drone-comb, -will be preserved for use as guide-comb—and placed -the frames in the new hive—these should be put together -if they contain brood, especially if the colony is not very -strong, and the empty frames to one side—we then place our -hive on the stand, pushing it forward so that the bees can -enter anywhere along the alighting-board, and then shake all -the bees from the box, and any young bees that may have -clustered on any part of the old hive, or on the floor -or ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately in -front. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all the -busier for having passed "from the old house into the new." -In two or three days, remove the wires or strings and -sticks, when we shall find the combs all fastened and smoothed -off, and the bees as busily engaged as though their present -home had always been the seat of their labors. In case we -practice the methods of either Captain Hetherington or Mr. -Baldridge, there will be nothing to remove, and we need -only go and congratulate the bees in view of their new and -improved home.</p> - -<p>Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the -matter is much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly -smoking the bees, we have but to lift the frames, and shake or -brush the bees into the new hive. For a brush, a chicken or -turkey wing, or a large wing or tail feather from a turkey, -goose or peacock, serves admirably. Now, cut out the comb -in the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten -as already suggested. After the combs are all transferred, -shake all remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has -already been placed on the stand previously occupied by the -old hive.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">- 159 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">FEEDING AND FEEDERS.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are -storing that the queen deposits to the full extent of her capability, -and that brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when -storing ceases, general indolence characterizes the hive. -Hence, if we would achieve the best success, we must keep -the workers active, even before gathering commences, as also -in the interims of honey secretion by the flowers; and to do -this we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloom -in the spring, and whenever the neuters are forced -to idleness during any part of the season, by the absence -of honey-producing flowers. For a number of -years, I have tried experiments in this direction by feeding -a portion of my colonies early in the season, and in the -intervals of honey-gathering, and always with marked results -in favor of the practice.</p> - -<p>Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will receive -ample reward by practicing stimulative feeding early in the -season; then his hive at the dawn of the white clover era -will be redundant with bees, well filled with brood, and in just -the trim to receive a bountiful harvest of this most delicious -nectar.</p> - -<p>Feeding, too, is often necessary to secure sufficient stores -for winter—for no apiarist, worthy the name, will suffer his -faithful, willing subjects to starve, when so little care and -expense will prevent it.</p> - - -<h3 id="how_much2fd">HOW MUCH TO FEED.</h3> - -<p>If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be -great. A half pound a day, or even less, will be all that is -necessary to encourage the bees to active preparation for the -good time coming. For information in regard to supplying -stores for winter see <a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Chapter XVII</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">- 160 -</span></p> - - -<h3 id="what2fd">WHAT TO FEED.</h3> - -<p>For this purpose I would feed coffee A sugar, reduced to -the consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over -from the previous year. The price of the latter will decide -which is the most profitable. Honey, too, that has been -drained or forced out of cappings, etc., is good, and only good -to feed. Many advise feeding the poorer grades of sugar in -spring. My own experience makes me question the policy of -ever using such feed for bees. The policy, too, of feeding -glucose I much question. In all feeding, unless extracted -honey is what we are using, we cannot exercise too great care -that such feed is not carried to the surplus boxes. Only let -our customers once taste sugar in their comb-honey, and not -only is our own reputation gone, but the whole fraternity is -injured. In case we wish to have our combs in the sections -filled or capped, we must feed extracted honey, which may -often be done with great advantage.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig54" style="width: 251px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig54.png" width="251" height="245" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="small"><i>Division-Board Feeder.</i></span> - <span class="smaller">Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, etc.</span> -</div> - - -<h3 id="how2fd">HOW TO FEED.</h3> - -<p>The requisites of a good feeder are: Cheapness, a form to -admit quick feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so arranged -that we can feed without in any way disturbing the -bees. The feeder (<a href="#fig54">Fig, 54</a>) which I have used with the best -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">- 161 -</span> -satisfaction, is a modified division-board, the top-bar of which -(<a href="#fig54">Fig, 54, <i>b</i></a>) is two inches wide. From the upper central -portion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece, the size of an -oyster-can, is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig 54, <i>g</i>), after -the top of the latter has been removed. A vertical piece of -wood (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54, <i>d</i></a>) is fitted into the can so as to separate a -space about one inch square, on one side from the balance of -the chamber. This piece does not reach quite to the bottom -of the can, there being a one-eighth inch space beneath. -In the top-bar there is an opening (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54, <i>e</i></a>) just above the -smaller space below. In the larger space is a wooden float -(<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54, <i>f</i></a>) full of holes. On one side, opposite the larger -chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54, <i>c</i></a>) -is cut off, so that the bees can pass between the can and -top-bar on to the float, where they can sip the feed. The feed -is turned into the hole in the top-bar (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54, <i>e</i></a>), and without -touching a bee, passes down under the vertical strip (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54, <i>d</i></a>) -and raises the float (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54, <i>f</i></a>). The can may be tacked -to the board at the ends near the top. Two or three tacks -through the can into the vertical piece (<a href="#fig54">Fig. 54, <i>d</i></a>) will hold -the latter firmly in place; or the top-bar may press on the -vertical piece so that it cannot move. Crowding a narrow -piece of woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing -a similar strip around the beveled edge of the division-board -makes all snug.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig55" style="width: 326px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig55a.png" width="326" height="117" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="small"><i>Shuck's Boss Bee-Feeder.</i></span><br /> - <img src="images/fig55b.png" width="328" height="183" alt="" /><br /> - <span class="small"><i>Simplicity Bee-Feeder.</i></span> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">- 162 -</span></p> - -<p>One of our students suggests the name -"Perfection" for this feeder. The feeder is placed at the -end of the brood-chamber (<a href="#Page_137">page 137</a>), and the top-bar covered -by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold the quilt over, -when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the hole in the -top-bar. If a honey-board is used, there must be a hole in -this just above the hole in the division-board feeder. In -either case, no bees can escape, the heat is confined, and our -division-board feeder is but little more expensive than a division-board -alone.</p> - -<p>Some apiarists prefer a quart tin can with finely perforated -cover. This is filled with liquid, the cover put on, and the -whole quickly inverted and set above a hole in the quilt. -Owing to the pressure of the air, the liquid will not descend -so rapidly that the bees cannot sip it up.</p> - -<p>Many other styles of feeders are in use, as the "Simplicity" -and "Boss," but I have yet to see one that in all respects -equals the one figured and described above.</p> - -<p>The best time to feed is just at night-fall. In this case the -feed will be carried away before the next day, and the danger -to weak colonies from robbing is not so great.</p> - -<p>In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be -close above the bees to economize the heat. In all feeding, -care is requisite that we may not spill the feed about the -apiary, as this may, and very generally will, induce robbing.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">- 163 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">QUEEN REARING.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and -that the full number of bees is forty thousand, or even more—though -the bees are liable to so many accidents, and as the -queen does not always lay to her full capacity, it is quite -probable that this is about an average number—it will be seen -that each day that a colony is without a queen there is a loss -equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of the -colony, and this is a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of -any day is its special loss, augmented by the several losses of -the previous days. Now, as queens are liable to die, to become -impotent, and as the act of increasing colonies demands -the absence of queens, unless the apiarist has extra ones at his -command, it is imperative, would we secure the best results, -to ever have at hand extra queens. So the young apiarist -must early learn</p> - - -<h3 id="rear_queens">HOW TO REAR QUEENS.</h3> - -<p>As queens may be needed by the last of May, preparations -looking to the early rearing of queens must commence early. -When preparing the colonies for winter the previous autumn, -be sure to place some drone-comb somewhere near the centre -of the colony that has given the best results the previous -season. In March, and certainly by the first of April, see -that all colonies have plenty of bee-bread. If necessary, place -unbolted flour, that of rye or oats is best, in shallow troughs -near the hives. It may be well to give the whole apiary the -benefit of such feeding before the flowers yield pollen. Yet, -I have found that here in Central Michigan, bees can usually -gather pollen by the first week of April, which I think is as -early as they should be allowed to fly, and, in fact, as early as -they will fly with sufficient regularity to make it pay to feed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">- 164 -</span> -the meal. I much question, after some years of experiment, if -it ever pays to give the bees a substitute for pollen.</p> - -<p>The colony under consideration, should be given frames containing -bee-bread which was stored the previous year. At -the same time, March or April, commence stimulative feeding. -If you have another colony equally good with the first, also give -that the pollen, and commence giving it honey or syrup, but only -worker-comb should be in the brood-chamber. This will prevent -the close in-breeding which would of necessity occur if -both queens and drones were reared in the same colony; and -which, though regarded as deleterious in the breeding of all -animals, should be practiced in case one single queen is of -decided superiority to all others of the apiary.</p> - -<p>Very likely in April, drone-eggs will be laid in drone-comb. -I have had drones flying on the first of May. As soon as the -drones commence to hatch out, remove the queen and all eggs -and uncapped brood from some good, strong colony, and -replace it with eggs or brood just hatched from the colony -that is being fed, or if two equally good colonies have been -stimulated, from the one in which no drone-comb was placed. -The queen which has been removed may be used in making -a new colony, in manner soon to be described under "dividing -or increasing the number of colonies." This queenless colony -will immediately commence forming queen-cells (<a href="#fig56">Fig, 56</a>). -Sometimes these are formed to the number of fifteen or -twenty, and they are started, too, in a full, vigorous colony, -in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off -edges of the comb, or cutting holes in the same where there -are eggs or larvæ; just hatched, will almost always insure the -starting of queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed, too, -that our queens are started from eggs or from larvæ but just -hatched, as we have given the bees no other, and so are fed -the royal pabulum from the first. Thus, we have met every -possible requisite to secure the most superior queens. By -removal of the queen we also secure a large number of cells, -while if we waited for the bees to start the cells preparatory -to natural swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable -conditions named above, we shall probably fail to secure so -many cells, and may have to wait longer than we can afford.</p> - -<p>Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">- 165 -</span> -others, or who has only pure Italians, will still find that it -pays to practice this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier, -or the breeder of our larger domestic animals, so, too, the -apiarist is ever observing some individuals of marked superiority, -and he who carefully selects such queens to breed -from, will be the one whose profits will make him rejoice, -and whose apiary will be worthy of all commendation. As will -be patent to all, by the above process we exercise a care in -breeding which is not surpassed by the best breeders of horses -and cattle, and which no wise apiarist will ever neglect.</p> - -<p>After we have removed all the queen-cells, in manner soon -to be described, we can again supply eggs, or newly-hatched -larvæ—always from those queens which close observation has -shown to be the most vigorous and prolific in the apiary—and -thus keep the same queenless colony or colonies, engaged in -starting queen-cells till we have all we desire. Yet we must -not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition of capped -brood, which we may take from any hive as most convenient. -I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should not be -started after the first of September, as I have observed that -late queens are not only less prolific, but shorter lived. In -nature, late queens are rarely produced, and if it is true that -they are inferior, it might be explained in the fact, that the -ovaries remain so long inactive. As queens that are long -unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, mated queens long -inactive are enfeebled.</p> - -<p>In a week the cells are capped, and the apiarist is ready to -form his</p> - - -<h3 id="nuclei">NUCLEI.</h3> - -<p>A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees—a hive -and colony on a small scale, for the purpose of rearing and -keeping queens. We want the queens, but can afford to each -nucleus only a few bees. The nucleus hive, if we use frames -not more than one foot square, need be nothing more than -an ordinary hive, with chamber confined by a division-board -to the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large, -then it may be thought best to construct special nucleus hives. -These are small hives, need not be more than six inches each -way, that is, in length, breadth, and thickness, and made to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">- 166 -</span> -contain from four to six frames of corresponding size. These -frames are filled with comb. I have for the last two or three -years used the first named style of nucleus hive, and have -found it advantageous to have a few long hives made, each -to contain five chambers, while each chamber is entirely -separate from the one next to it, is five inches wide, and -is covered by a separate, close-fitting board, and the whole by -a common cover. The entrance for the two end chambers is -at the ends near the same side of the hive. The middle -chamber has its entrance at the middle of the side near which -are the end entrances, while the other two chambers open on -the opposite side, as far apart as is possible. The outside -might be painted different colors to correspond with the -divisions, if thought necessary, especially on the side with -two openings. Yet I have never taken this precaution, nor -have I been troubled much by losing queens. They have -almost invariably entered their own apartments when returning -from their wedding tour. These hives I use to keep -queens during the summer. Except the apiarist engages in -queen-rearing extensively as a business, I doubt the propriety of -building such special nucleus hives. The usual hives are good -property to have in the apiary, will soon be needed, and may -be economically used for all nuclei. In spring I make use of -my hives which are prepared for prospective summer use, for -my nuclei. Now go to different hives of the apiary, and take -out three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has -brood, and so on, till there are as many nuclei prepared as -you have queen-cells to dispose of The bees should be left -adhering to the frames of comb, only <i>we must be certain that -the queen is not among them</i>, as this would take the queen from -where she is most needed, and would lead to the sure destruction -of one queen-cell. To be sure of this, never take such -frames till <i>you have seen the queen</i>, that you may be sure -she is left behind. I usually shake off into the nucleus the -bees from one or two more frames, so that, even after the old -bees have returned, there will still be a sufficient number of -young bees left in the nucleus to keep the temperature at a -proper height. If any desire the nuclei with smaller frames, -these frames must of course be filled with comb, and then we -can shake bees immediately into the nuclei, as given above, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">- 167 -</span> -till they shall have sufficient to preserve a proper temperature. -In this case the queen-cell should be inserted just before the -bees are added; in the other case, either before or after. -Such special articles about the apiary are costly and inconvenient. -I believe that I should use hives even with the -largest frames for nuclei. In this case we should need to -give more bees. To insert the queen-cell—for we are now to -give one to each nucleus, so we can never form more nuclei -than we have capped queen-cells—we first cut them out, -commencing to cut on either side the base of the cell, at least -one-half inch distant, <i>we must not in the least compress the -cell</i>, then cutting up and out for two inches, then across opposite -the cell. This leaves the cell attached to a wedge-shaped -piece of comb (<a href="#fig56">Fig, 56</a>), whose apes is next the cell.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig56" style="width: 302px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig56.png" width="302" height="297" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>A similar cut in the middle frame of the nucleus, which in -case of the regular frames is the one containing brood, will -furnish an opening to receive the wedge containing the cell. -The comb should also be cut away beneath (<a href="#fig56">Fig, 56</a>), so that -the cell cannot be compressed. After all the nuclei have -received their cells and bees, they have only to be set in a -shady place and watched to see that sufficient bees remain. -Should too many leave, give them more by removing the cover -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">- 168 -</span> -and shaking a frame loaded with bees over the nucleus; keep the -opening nearly closed, and cover the bees with a quilt. The -main caution in all this <i>is to be sure not to get any old queen -in a nucleus</i>. In two or three days the queens will hatch, and -in a week longer will have become fertilized, and that, too, -in case of the first queens, by selected drones, for as yet -there are no other in the apiary, and the apiarist will possess -from ten to thirty-five queens, which will prove his best stock -in trade. I cannot over-estimate the advantage of ever -having extra queens. To secure pure mating later, we must -cut all drone-comb from inferior colonies, so that they shall -rear no drones. If drone larvæ are in uncapped cells, they -may be killed by sprinkling the comb with cold water. By -giving the jet of water some force they may be washed out, -or we may throw them out with the extractor, then use the -comb for starters in our sections. By keeping empty frames, -and empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept active; -yet with so few bees, one cannot expect very much from the nuclei. -After cutting all the queen-cells from our old hive, we -can again insert eggs, as above suggested, and obtain another lot -of cells, or, if we have a sufficient number, we can leave a -single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be the happy possessor -of a queen, and just as flourishing as if the even tenor -of its ways had not been disturbed.</p> - - -<h3 id="clip">SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN'S WING?</h3> - -<p>In the above operation, as in many other manipulations of -the hive, we shall often gain sight of the queen, and can, if -we desire, clip her wing, if she has met the drone, that in no -case she shall lead the colony away to parts unknown. This -does not injure the queen, as some have claimed. General -Adair once stated that such treatment injured the queen, as -it cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by -so excellent a naturalist as Dr. Packard. Yet we are sure -that this is all a mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as -we have seen, go to the wings to carry nourishment to these -members. With the wing goes the necessity of nourishment -and the need of the tubes. As well say that the amputation -of the human leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution, as -it would cut off the supply of blood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">- 169 -</span></p> - -<p>Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of -the queen's wings for years. Yet, these queens show no diminution -of vigor: we should suppose they would be even more -vigorous, as useless organs are always nourished at the expense -of the organism, and if entirely useless, are seldom long continued -by nature. The ants set us an example in this matter, -as they bite the wings off their queens, after mating has transpired. -They mean that the queen ant shall remain at home -<i>nolens volens</i>, and why shall not we require the same of the -queen bee? Were it not for the necessity of swarming in nature, -we should doubtless have been anticipated in this matter -by nature herself. Still, if the queen essays to go with a swarm, -and if the apiarist is not at hand, she will very likely be lost, -never regaining the hive; but in this case the bees will be -saved, as <i>they will</i> return without fail. I always mean to be -so watchful, keeping my hives shaded, giving ample room, -and dividing or increasing, as to prevent natural swarming. -But in lieu of such caution I see no objection to clipping the -queen's wing, and would advise it.</p> - -<p>Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year, -the secondary the second year, the other primary the -third, and if age of the queen permits, the remaining -wing the fourth year. Yet, such data, with other matters of -interest and importance, better be kept on a slate or card, and -firmly attached to the hive, or else kept in a record, opposite -the number of the hive. The time required to find the queen -is sufficient argument against the "queen-wing record.". It is -not an argument against the once clipping of the queen's wings, -for, in the nucleus hives, queens are readily found, and even in -full colonies this is not very difficult, especially if we heed the -dictates of interest and keep Italians. It will be best, even -though we have to look up black queens, in full colonies. -The loss of one good colony, or the vexatious trouble of -separating two or three swarms which had clustered together, -would soon vanquish this argument of time.</p> - -<p>To clip the queen's wing, take hold of her wings with the -left thumb and index finger—never grasp her body, <i>especially -her abdomen</i>, as this will be very apt to injure her—raise -her off the comb, then turn from the bees, place her gently -on a board or any convenient object—even the knee will do—she -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">- 170 -</span> -will thus stand on her feet, and not trouble by constantly -passing her legs up by her wings, where they, too, would be -in danger of being cut off. Now, take a small pair of scissors, -and with the right hand open them, carefully pass one blade -under one of the front wings, shut the blades, and all is over. -Some apiarists complain that queens thus handled often -receive a foreign scent, and are destroyed by the bees. I have -clipped hundreds, and never lost one. I believe that the -above method will not be open to this objection. Should the -experience of any one prove to the contrary, the drawing on -of a kid glove, or even the fingers of one, might remove the -difficulty.</p> - - -<h4 id="fertile">FERTILE WORKERS.</h4> - -<p>We have already referred to (pp. <a href="#Page_77">77</a> and <a href="#Page_90">90</a>) and described -fertile workers. As these can only produce unimpregnated -eggs, they are, of course, valueless, and unless superseded by -a queen, will soon cause the destruction of the colony. As -their presence often prevents the acceptance of cells or a -queen, by the common workers, they are a serious pest.</p> - -<p>The absence of worker brood, and the abundant and careless -deposition of eggs—some cells being skipped, while others -have received several eggs—are pretty sure indications of -their presence.</p> - -<p>To rid a colony of these, unite it with some colony with a -good queen, after which the colony may be divided if very -strong. Simply exchanging places of a colony with a fertile -worker, and a good strong colony, will often cause the destruction -of the wrong-doer. In this case, brood should be given -to the colony which had the fertile worker, that they may rear -a queen; or better, a queen-cell or queen should be given -them. Caging a queen in a hive, with a fertile worker, for -thirty-six hours, will often cause the bees to accept her. -Shaking the bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will -often rid them of the counterfeit queen, after which they will -receive a queen-cell or a queen.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">- 171 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">INCREASE OF COLONIES.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>No subject will be of more interest to the beginner, than -that of increasing stocks. He has one or two, he desires as -many score, or, if very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a -Hetherington or a Harbison, as many thousand. This is a -subject, too, that may well engage the thought and study of -men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many -veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining an -increase of stocks.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail -methods, let me state and enforce, that it is always safest, -and generally wisest, especially for the beginner, to be content -with doubling, and certainly, with tripling, his number -of colonies each season. Especially let all remember the motto, -"Keep all colonies strong."</p> - -<p>There are two ways to increase: The natural, known as -swarming, already described under natural history of the bee; -and artificial, improperly styled artificial swarming. This is -also called, and very properly, too, "dividing."</p> - - -<h3 id="swarming">SWARMING.</h3> - -<p>To prevent anxiety and constant watching, and to secure a -more equable division of bees, and, as I know, more honey, -it is better to provide against swarming entirely by use of -means which will appear in the sequel. But as this requires -some experience, and, as often, through neglect, either necessary -or culpable, swarms may issue, every apiarist should be -ever ready with both means and knowledge for immediate -action. Of course, the hives were all made the previous -winter, <i>and will never be wanting</i>. Neglect to provide -hives before the swarming season, is convincing proof that -the wrong pursuit has been chosen.</p> - -<p>If, as we have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">- 172 -</span> -matter becomes very simple, in fact, so much simplified that -were there no other argument, this would be sufficient to -recommend the practice of cutting the queen's wing. -Now, if several swarms cluster together, we have not -to separate them, they will separate of themselves and -return to their old home. To migrate without the queen -means death, and life is sweet even to bees, and is not -to be willingly given up except for home and kindred. -Neither has the apiarist to climb trees, to secure his -bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice-work or pickets -of his fence, from the very top of a tall, slender, fragile fruit -tree, or other most inconvenient places. Nor will he even -be tempted to pay his money for patent hivers. He knows -his bees will return to their old quarters, so he is not -perturbed by the fear of loss, or plans to capture the unapproachable. -It requires no effort "to possess his soul in -patience." If he wishes no increase, he steps out, takes -the queen by the remaining wings, as she emerges from -the hive, soon after the bees commence their hilarious leave-taking, -puts her in a cage, opens the hive, destroys, or, if he -wishes to use them, cuts out the queen cells as already -described (<a href="#Page_167">page 167</a>), gives more room—either by adding -boxes or taking out some of the frames of brood, as they may -well be spared, places the cage enclosing the queen under the -quilt, and leaves the bees to return at their pleasure. At -night-fall the queen is liberated, and very likely the swarming -fever subdued for the season.</p> - -<p>If it is desired to hive the absconding swarm with a nucleus -colony, exchange the places of the old hive containing the -caged queen, and the nucleus, to which the swarm will then -come. Remove queen-cells from the old hives as before, give -some of the combs of brood to the nucleus, which is now a -full colony, and empty frames, with comb or foundation -starters, or, if you have them, empty combs to both, liberate -the queen at night and all is well, and the apiarist rejoices in -a new colony. If the apiarist has neglected to form nuclei, -and so has no extra queens—<i>and this is a neglect</i>—and -wishes to hive his swarm separately, he places his caged queen -in an empty hive, with which he replaces the old hive till the -bees return, then this new hive, with queen and bees, and, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">- 173 -</span> -still better, with a frame or two of brood, honey, etc., in the -middle, which were taken from the old hive, is set on a new -stand. The old hive, with all the queen-cells except the largest -and finest one removed, is set back, so that the apiarist has -forestalled the issue of after-swarms, except that other queen-cells -are afterward started, which is not likely to happen. -The old queen is liberated as before, and we are in the way -of soon having two good colonies. Some apiarists cage the -queen and let the bees return, then divide the colony as soon -to be described.</p> - -<p>Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase of -colonies, cage the old queen, destroy cells, and exchange this -hive—after taking out three or four frames of brood to -strengthen nuclei—with one that recently swarmed. Thus -a colony that recently sent out a swarm, but retained their -queen, has probably, from the decrease of bees, loss of brood -and removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming fever, and if we -give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will accept the -bees from a new swarm, and spend their future energies in -storing honey. Southard and Ranney have been very successful -in the practice of this method. If building of drone-comb -in the empty frames which replaced the brood-frames -removed, should vex the apiarist—Dr. Southard says they had -no such trouble—it could be prevented by giving worker-foundation. -If the swarming fever is not broken up, we -shall only have to repeat the operation again in a few days.</p> - - -<h4 id="hiving_sw">HIVING SWARMS.</h4> - -<p>But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or from -taste, or other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire to -"deform her royal highness." Then the apiarist must possess the -means to save the would-be rovers. The means are good -hives in readiness, some kind of a brush—a turkey-wing will -do—and a bag or basket, with ever open top, which should be -at least eighteen inches in diameter, and this receptacle so -made that it may be attached to the end of a pole, and two -such poles, one very long and the other of medium length.</p> - -<p>Now, let us attend to the method: As soon as the cluster -commences to form, place the hive on the ground near by, -leaving the entrance widely open, which with our bottom-board -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">- 174 -</span> -only requires that we draw the hive forward an inch Or -more over the alighting-board. As soon as the bees are fully -clustered, we must manage as best we can to empty the whole -cluster in front of the hive. As the bees are full of honey -we need have little fear of stings. Should the bees be on a -twig that could be sacrificed, this might be easily out off with -either a knife or saw, and so carefully as hardly to disturb -the bees; then carry and shake the bees in front of the hive, -when with joyful hum they will at once proceed to enter. If -the twig must not be cut, shake them all into the basket, and -empty before the hive. Should they be on a tree trunk, or a -fence, then brush them with the wing into the basket, and -proceed as before. If they are high up on a tree, take the -pole and basket, and perhaps a ladder will also be necessary.</p> - -<p>Always let ingenuity have its perfect work, not forgetting -that the object to be gained is to get just as many of -the bees as is possible on the alighting-board in front of the -hive. Carelessness as to the quantity might involve the loss -of the queen, which would be serious. The bees to ill not -remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should a cluster -form where it is impossible to brush or shake them off, they -can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it above them -and blowing smoke among them. As soon as they are -nearly all in—a few may be flying around, but if the queen -is in the new hive, they will go back to their old home, or -find the new one—which Mr. Betsinger says they will always -do, if it is not far removed—remove the hive to its permanent -stand. All washes are more than useless. It is better -that the hive be clean and pure. With such, if they are -shaded, bees will generally be satisfied. But assurance -will be made doubly sure by giving them a frame -of brood, in all stages of growth, from the old hive. -This may be inserted before the work of hiving is -commenced. Mr. Betsinger thinks this will cause them to -leave; but I think he will not be sustained by the experience -of other apiarists. He certainly is not by mine. I never -knew but one colony to leave uncapped brood; I have often -known them to swarm out of an empty hive once or twice, -and to be returned, after brood had been placed in the hive, -when they accepted the changed conditions, and went at once -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">- 175 -</span> -to work. This seems reasonable, too, in view of the attachment -of bees for their nest of brood, as also from analogy. -How eager the ant to convey her larvæ and pupæ—the so-called -eggs—to a place of safety, when the nest has been -invaded and danger threatens. Bees doubtless have the same -desire to protect their young, and as they cannot carry them -away to a new home, they remain to care for them in one that -may not be quite to their taste.</p> - -<p>If it is not desired to increase, the bees may be given to a -colony which has previously swarmed, after removing from -the latter all queen-cells, and adding to the room by giving -boxes and removing some frames of brood to strengthen -nuclei. This plan is practiced by Dr. Southard. We may even -return the bees to their old home by taking the same precautionary -measures, with a good hope that storing and not -swarming will engage their attention in future; and if we -exchange their position with that of a nucleus, we shall be -still more likely to succeed in overcoming the desire to swarm; -though some seasons, usually when honey is being gathered -each day for long intervals, but not in large quantities, -the desire and determination of some colonies to swarm is implacable. -Room, ventilation, changed position of hive, each -and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify -the propensity, by giving the swarm a new home, and make -an effort</p> - - -<h3 id="prev2nd">TO PREVENT SECOND SWARMS.</h3> - -<p>As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on -hand extra queens. Now, if he does not desire to form nuclei -(as already explained), and thus use these queen cells, he will at -once cut them <i>all</i> out, and destroy them, and give the old -colony a fertile queen. The method of introduction will be -given hereafter, though in such cases there is very little danger -incurred by giving them a queen at once. And by thoroughly -smoking the bees, and sprinkling with sweetened water, and -daubing the new queen with honey, we may be almost sure of -success. If desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming -nuclei, in manner before described. In this way we save our -colony from being without a fertile queen for at least thirteen, -days, and that, too, in the very height of the honey season,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">- 176 -</span> -when time is money. If extra queens are wanting, we have -only to look carefully through the old hive and remove all -but one of the queen-cells. A little care will certainly make -sure work, as, after swarming, the old hive is so thinned of -bees, that only carelessness will overlook queen-cells in such -a quest.</p> - - -<h3 id="prevsw">TO PREVENT SWARMING.</h3> - -<p>As yet we can only partly avert swarming. Mr. Quinby -offered a large reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and -never had to make the payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it, -and partially succeeded, by granting much space to the bees, -so that they should not be impelled to vacate for lack of room.' -The Quinby hive already described, by the large capability of -the brood-chamber, and ample opportunity for top and side-storing, -looks to the same end. But we may safely say that -a perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the -bee-keeping public. The best aids toward non-swarming -are shade, ventilation, and roomy hives. But as we shall -see in the sequel, much room in the brood-chamber, unless -we work for extracted honey—by which means we -may greatly repress the swarming fever—prevents our -obtaining honey in a desirable style. If we add sections, -unless the connection is quite free—in which case -the queen is apt to enter them and greatly vex us—we must -crowd some to send the bees into the sections. Such crowding -is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by abrading -the combs of capped honey in the brood-chamber, as suggested -to me by Mr. M. M. Baldridge—causing the honey to run -down from the combs—sent the bees crowding to the sections, -and thus deferred or prevented swarming.</p> - -<p>It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is very -rapid, and then by rapidly feeding the extracted honey in the -interims of honey secretion, we might prevent swarming, -secure very rapid breeding, and still get our honey in sections. -Too few experiments, to be at all decisive, have led me to look -favorably in this direction.</p> - -<p>The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure honey -without increase, as practiced and advised by some even of -our distinguished apiarists, seems to me a <i>very questionable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">- 177 -</span> -practice</i>, to which I cannot even lend my approval by so much -as detailing the method. I would rather advise: keeping a, -queen, and the workers all at work <i>in every</i> hive, if possible, -all the time.</p> - - -<h3 id="increase">HOW TO MULTIPLY COLONIES WITH THE BEST RESULTS.</h3> - -<p>We have already seen the evils of natural swarming, -for, even though no stock is too much reduced in numbers, -no colony lost by not receiving prompt attention, no Sunday -quiet disturbed, and no time wasted in anxious watching, yet, -at best, the old colony is queenless for about two weeks, <i>a -state of things which no apiarist can or should afford</i>. -The true policy then is to practice artificial swarming, as -just described, where we save time by cutting the queen's-wing, -and save loss by permitting no colony to remain queenless, -or still better to</p> - - -<h3 id="divide">DIVIDE.</h3> - -<p>This method will secure uniform colonies, will increase our -number of colonies just to our liking, will save time, and that, -too, when time is most valuable, and is in every respect safer and -preferable to swarming. I have practiced dividing ever since -I have kept bees, and <i>never without the best results</i>.</p> - - -<h4 id="how2div">HOW TO DIVIDE.</h4> - -<p>By the process already described, we have secured a goodly -number of fine queens, which will be in readiness at the -needed time. Now, as soon as the white clover harvest is -well commenced, early in June, we may commence operations. -If we have but one colony to divide, it is well to wait till they -become pretty populous, but not till they swarm. Take one -of our waiting hives, which now holds a nucleus with fertile -queen, and remove the same close along side the colony we -wish to divide. This must only be done on warm days when -the bees are active, and better be done, while the bees are -busy, in the middle of the day. Remove the division-board -of the new hive, and then remove five combs, well loaded with -brood, and of course containing some honey, from the old -colony, bees and all, to the new hive. Also take the remaining -frames and shake the bees into the new hive. <i>Only be sure -that the queen still remains in the old hive.</i> Fill both the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">- 178 -</span> -hives with empty frames—if the frames are filled with empty -comb it will be still better, if not it will pay to give starters -or full frames of foundation—and return the new hive to its -former position. The old bees will return to the old colony, -while the young ones will remain peaceably with the new -queen. The old colony will now contain at least seven frames -of brood, honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, so -that they will work on as though naught had transpired, -though perhaps moved to a little harder effort by the added -space and five empty frames. The empty frames may be all -placed at one end, or placed between the others, though not -so as to divide brood.</p> - -<p>The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc., -three from the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young -fertile queen, plenty of bees, those of the previous nucleus -and the young bees from the old colony, and will work with -a surprising vigor, often even eclipsing the old colony.</p> - -<p>If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make -the new colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take -one frame of brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two -from each of three, and carry them, bees and all, and place -with the nucleus. <i>Only, be sure that no queen is removed.</i> -Fill all the hives with empty combs, or foundation instead of -frames, as before. In this way we increase without in the -least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a colony -every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size of -our apiary, and can thus always, so my experience says, prevent -swarming.</p> - -<p>By taking only brood that is all capped, we can safely add -one or two frames to each nucleus every week, without adding -any bees, as there would be no danger of loss by chilling the -brood. In this way, as we remove no bees, we have to spend -no time in looking for the queen, and may build up our nuclei -into full stocks, and keep back the swarming impulse with -great facility.</p> - -<p>These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and -so I will not complicate the subject by detailing others. The -only objection that can be urged against them, and even this -does not apply to the last, is that we must seek out the queen -in each hive, or at least be sure that we do not remove her, -though this is by no means so tedious if we have Italians, as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">- 179 -</span> -of course we all will. I might give other methods which -would render unnecessary this caution, but they are to my -mind inferior, and not to be recommended. If we proceed as -above described, the bees will seldom prepare to swarm at all, -and if they do they will be discovered in the act, by such frequent -examinations, and the work may be cut short by at -once dividing such colonies as first explained, and destroying -their queen-cells, or, if desired, using them for forming new -nuclei.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">- 180 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>The history and description of Italians (see Frontis-plate) -have already been considered (<a href="#Page_41">p. 41</a>), so it only remains to -discuss the subject in a practical light.</p> - -<p>The superiority of the Italians seems at present a mooted -question. A few among the able apiarists in our country -take the ground that a thorough balancing of qualities will -make as favorable a showing for the German, as for the Italian -bees. I think, too, that the late Baron of Berlepsch held -to the same view.</p> - -<p>I think I am capable of acting as judge on this subject. -I have never sold a half-dozen queens in my life, and so have -not been unconsciously influenced by self-interest. In fact, -I have never had, if I except two years, any direct interest -in bees at all, and all my work and experiments had only the -promotion and spread of truth as the ultimatum.</p> - -<p>Again, I have kept both blacks and Italians side by side, -and carefully observed and noted results during eight years -of my experience. I have carefully collected data as to increase -of brood, rapidity of storing, early and late habits in -the day and season, kinds of flowers visited, amiability, etc., -and I believe that to say that they are not superior to black -bees, is like saying that a Duchess among short-horns is in no -wise superior to the lean, bony kine of Texas; or that our -Essex and Berkshire swine are no whit better than the cadaverous -lank breeds, with infinite noses, that, happily, are now -so rare among us. The Italians are <i>far</i> superior to the -German bees in many respects, and more—though I am acquainted -with all the works on apiculture printed in our language, and -have an extensive acquaintance with the leading apiarists of -our country from Maine to California, yet I know of scarcely -a baker's dozen that have had opportunity to form a correct -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">- 181 -</span> -judgment, that do not give strong preference to the Italians. -That these men are honest, is beyond question; that those -who disagree with us are equally so, there is no doubt. The -black bees are in some respects superior to the Italians, and -if a bee-keeper's methods cause him to give these points undue -importance, in forming his judgments, then his conclusions -may be wrong. Faulty management, too, may lead to wrong -conclusions.</p> - -<p>The Italians certainly possess the following points of superiority:</p> - -<p>First. They possess longer tongues (<a href="#fig20">Fig, 20</a>), and so can -gather from flowers which are useless to the black bee. This -point has already been sufficiently considered (<a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>). How -much value hangs upon this structural peculiarity, I am unable -to state. I have frequently seen Italians working on red -clover. I never saw a black bee thus employed. It is easy -to see that this might be, at certain times and certain seasons, -a very material aid. How much of the superior storing -qualities of the Italians is due to this lengthened ligula, I -am unable to say.</p> - -<p>Second. They are more active, and with the same opportunities -will collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter -of observation, which I have tested over and over again. Yet -I will give the figures of another: Mr. Doolittle secured from -two colonies, 309 lbs. and 301 lbs., respectively, of <i>box honey</i>, -during the past season. These surprising figures, the best he -could give, were from his best Italian stocks. Similar testimony -comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the sea, and from -hosts of our own apiarists.</p> - -<p>Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only -true of the day, but of the season. On cool days in spring, -I have seen the dandelions swarming with Italians, while not -a black bee was to be seen. On May 7th, 1877, I walked -less than one-half a mile, and counted sixty-eight bees gathering -from dandelions, yet only two were black bees. This -might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to -spring dwindling. Yet, with the proper management, to be -described while considering the subject of wintering, we think -this no objection, but a great advantage.</p> - -<p>Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">- 182 -</span> -robbers. Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their -hard-earned stores soon find that they have "dared to beard -the lion in his den." This is so patent, that even the advocates -of black bees are ready to concede it.</p> - -<p>Fifth. They are almost proof against the ravages of the -bee-moth's larvæ. This is also universally conceded.</p> - -<p>Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is -probably in part due to the greater and more constant activity -of the neuters. This is observable at all seasons, but very -striking when building up in spring. No one who will take -the pains to note the increase of brood will long remain in -doubt on this point.</p> - -<p>Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is -desirable to have the bees very quiet.</p> - -<p>Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which is a great -advantage. In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is -frequently desirable to find the queen. In full colonies I -would rather find three Italian queens than one black one. -Where time is money, this becomes a matter of much importance.</p> - -<p>Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb -while being handled, which some might regard a doubtful -compliment, though I consider it a desirable quality.</p> - -<p>Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other -bees. They will find honey when the blacks gather none, -and the time for robbing is when there is no gathering. This -may explain the above peculiarity.</p> - -<p>Eleventh. And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for preference, -did it stand alone, the Italian bees are <i>far more amiable</i>. -Years ago I got rid of my black bees, because they were so -cross. Two years ago I got two or three colonies, that my -students might see the difference, but to my regret; for, as we -removed the honey in the autumn, they seemed perfectly -furious, like demons, seeking whom they might devour, and -this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous -Italians were safely handled, even without smoke. The -experiment at least satisfied a large class of students as to -superiority. Mr. Quinby speaks in his book of their being -cross, and Captain Hetherington tells me, that if not much -handled, they are more cross than the blacks. From my own -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">- 183 -</span> -experience, I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even more -cross than are the pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly -as desirable as the pure Italians.</p> - -<p>I have kept these two races side by side for years, I have -studied them most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the -above eleven points of excellence is too strongly stated.</p> - -<p>The black bees will go into close boxes more readily than -Italians, but if we use the sectional frames, and on other -grounds we can afford to use no other, we shall find, with -the more ample connection between the brood-chamber and -sections, that even here, as Mr. Doolittle and many others -have shown, the Italians still give the best returns.</p> - -<p>I have some reasons to think that the blacks are more -hardy, and have found many apiarists who agree with me. -Yet, others of wide experience, think that there is no difference, -while still others think the Italians more hardy.</p> - -<p>The Italian bees are said to dwindle worse in spring, which, -as they are more active, is quite probable. As I have never -had a case of serious spring dwindling, I cannot speak from -experience. If the bee-keeper prevents early spring flying, -which is very detrimental to either black or Italian bees, this -point will have no weight, even if well taken.</p> - - -<h3 id="only_ital">ALL SHOULD KEEP ONLY ITALIANS.</h3> - -<p>The advantages of the Italians, which have been considered -thus fully, are more than sufficient to warrant the exclusion -of all other bees from the apiary. Truly, no one need to -be urged to a course, that adds to the ease, profit, and agreeableness -of his vocation.</p> - - -<h3 id="how2it">HOW TO ITALIANIZE.</h3> - -<p>From what has been already explained regarding the natural -history of bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to -change our bees, is to change our queens. Hence, to Italianize -a colony, we have only to procure and introduce an Italian -queen.</p> - - -<h3 id="intro_qn">HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN.</h3> - -<p>In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony -composed wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to introduce -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">- 184 -</span> -a queen in the manner explained in the section on artificial -swarming. To introduce a queen to a colony composed of old -bees more care is required. First, we should seek out the old -queen and destroy her, then cage our Italian queen in a wire -cage, which may be made by winding a strip of wire-cloth, three -and one-half inches wide, and containing fifteen to twenty -meshes to the inch, about the finger. Let it lap each way -one-half inch, then cut it off. Ravel out the half inch on -each side, and weave in the ends of the wires, forming a tube -the size of the finger. We now have only to put the queen in -the tube, and pinch the ends together, and the queen is caged. -The cage containing the queen should be inserted between two -adjacent combs containing honey, each of which will touch it. -The queen can thus sip honey as she needs it. If we fear the -queen may not be able to sip the honey through the meshes -of the wire, we may dip a piece of clean sponge in honey and -insert it in the upper end of the cage before we compress this -end. This will furnish the queen with the needed food. In -forty-eight hours we again open the hive, after a thorough -smoking, also the cage, which is easily done by pressing the -upper end, at right-angles to the direction of the pressure -when we closed it. In doing this do not remove the cage. -Now keep watch, and if, as the bees enter the cage or as the -queen emerges, the bees attack her, secure her immediately -and re-cage her for another forty-eight hours. I usually let -some honey drip on the queen as soon as the cage is opened. -Some think this renders the bees more amiable. I have -introduced many queens in this manner, and have very rarely -been unsuccessful.</p> - -<p>Mr. Dadant stops the cage with a plug of wood, and when -he goes to liberate the queen replaces the wooden stop with -one of comb, and leaves the bees to liberate the queen by -eating out the comb. I have tried this, but with no better -success than I have had with the above method, while with -this plan the queen is surely lost if the bees do not receive her -kindly. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at one end, -which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of the cage -reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the queen is -thus held by cage and comb till the bees liberate her. I have -never tried this plan. When bees are not storing, especially -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">- 185 -</span> -if robbers are abundant, it is more difficult to succeed, and at -such time the utmost caution will occasionally fail of success -if the bees are old.</p> - -<p>A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can almost always -be safely given at once to the colony, after destroying the old -queen.</p> - -<p>A queen cell is usually received with favor. If we adopt -this course we must be careful to destroy all other queen-cells -that may be formed; and if the one we supply is destroyed, -wait seven days, then destroy all their queen-cells, -and they are sure to accept a cell. But to save time I should -always introduce a queen.</p> - -<p>If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very -great value, we might make a new colony, all of young bees, -as already described. Smoke them well, sprinkle with -sweetened water, daub the queen with honey, and introduce -immediately. This method would involve really no risk. If -the apiarist was still afraid, he could make assurance still -more sure by taking combs of brood where the young bees -were rapidly escaping from the cells; there would soon be -enough young bees to cluster about the queen, and soon -enough bees for a good colony. This plan would not be advisable -except in warm weather, and care is also required to protect -from robbers. The colony might be set in the cellar for -a few days, in which case it would be safe even in early spring.</p> - -<p>By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may -commence the next spring, and, as described in the section -explaining the formation of artificial swarms, we may control -our rearing of drones, queens, and all, and ere another autumn -have only the beautiful, pure, amiable, and active Italians. -I have done this several times, and with the most perfect satisfaction. -I think by making this change in blood, we add -certainly two dollars to the value of each colony, and I know -of no other way to make money so easily and pleasantly.</p> - - -<h3 id="get_qn">TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEEN.</h3> - -<p>Send to some reliable breeder, and ask for a queen worth -at least five dollars. It is the mania now to rear and sell -cheap queens. These are reared—must be reared—without -care, and will, I fear, prove very cheap. It is a question, if -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">- 186 -</span> -any more sure way could be devised to injure our stocks than -the dollar queen business, which is now so popular. It is -quite probable that much of the superiority of Italian bees is -owing to the care and careful selection in breeding. Such -careful selection in-breeding, either with black or Italian bees, -is what will augment the value of our apiaries.</p> - -<p>The tendency of the dollar queen business is to disseminate -the inferior queens, many of which will appear in every -apiary. These should be killed, not sold. Yet, many an -apiarist will think even the poorest queens are worth a dollar. -My friend, Mrs. Baker, bought a dollar "Albino" queen last -season which was not worth a cent. Yet it cost only a dollar, -and, of course, no satisfaction could be secured or even asked -for. I think it behooves apiarists to think of this matter, -and see if dollar queens are not very dear. I have thrown -away three dollars on them, and have concluded to pay more -and buy cheaper in future.</p> - -<p>I believe our breeders should be encouraged to give us the -best; to study the art of breeding, and never send out an -inferior queen. In this way we may hope to keep up the -character of our apiaries, and the reputation of Italians. -Else we are safer under the old system where "natural selection" -retained the best, by the "survival of the fittest."</p> - - -<h3 id="rearing">REARING AND SHIPPING QUEENS.</h3> - -<p>I have already explained the matter of queen-rearing. -After many inquiries, and some experience, I much doubt if -any apiarist can afford to rear queens, such as apiarists wish -to buy, for less than four or five dollars. Only the best -should be sold, and no pains should be spared by the breeder -to secure such queens.</p> - - -<h4 id="ship_qn">TO SHIP QUEENS.</h4> - -<p>This is a very simple matter. We have only to secure -a square block two inches each way, and one and a half -inches deep—a hole bored into a two-inch plank to within -a quarter of an inch of the bottom serves admirably. In -this should be inserted a piece of capped honey, which has -been <i>entirely</i> cleaned by bees. Bees will speedily perform -this work, if the comb containing the honey is placed on the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">- 187 -</span> -alighting-board. This must be fastened into the shipping-box, -which is easily done, by pinning it with a slender wooden -pin, which passes through holes previously bored in the box. -We now cover the open chamber with fine wire-cloth, put -in our queen and fifteen or twenty bees, and she is ready to -ship. <i>Any uncapped honey to daub the queen is almost -sure to prove fatal.</i></p> - -<p>Mr. A. I. Root furnishes a cage already provisioned with -sugar (<a href="#fig57">Fig, 57</a>), which is very neat and safe. I have received -queens from Tennessee, which were fed exclusively on candy, -and came in excellent condition.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig57" style="width: 339px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig57.png" width="339" height="219" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h4 id="move">TO MOVE COLONIES.</h4> - -<p>Should we desire to purchase Italian or other colonies, the -only requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover for -ventilation, secure fastening of the frames so they cannot -possibly move, and combs old enough so that they shall not -break down and fall out. I would never advise moving bees -in winter, though it has often been done with entire safety. -I should wish the bees to have a flight very soon after such -disturbance.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">- 188 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">EXTRACTING, AND THE EXTRACTOR.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the -queen has no room to lay her eggs, especially if there is any -neglect to give other room for storing. Honey, too, in brood-combs -is unsalable, because the combs are dark, and the size -undesirable. Comb, too, is very valuable, and should never -be taken from the bees, except when desired to render the -honey more marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very -efficient auxiliary in the</p> - - -<h3 id="extractor">HONEY EXTRACTOR.</h3> - -<p>No doubt some have expected and claimed too much -for this machine. It is equally true, that some have blundered -quite as seriously in an opposite direction. For, since -Mr. Langstroth gave the movable frame to the world, the -apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any inventor as to -him who gave us the Mell Extractor, Herr von Hruschka, of -Germany. Even if there was no sale for extracted honey—aye, -more, even if it must be thrown away, which will never -be necessary, as it may always be fed to the bees with profit, -even then I would pronounce the extractor an invaluable aid -to every bee-keeper.</p> - -<p>The principle which makes this machine effective is that of -centrifugal force, and it was suggested to Major von -Hruschka, by noticing that a piece of comb which was twirled -by his boy at the end of a string, was emptied of its honey. -Herr von Hruschka's machine was essentially like those now -so common, though in lightness and convenience there has -been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a -wooden tub, with a vertical axle in the centre, which revolved -in a socket fastened to the bottom of the vessel, while from the -top of the tub, fastenings extended to the axle, which projected -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">- 189 -</span> -for a distance above. The axle was thus held exactly in the -centre of the tub. Attached to the axle was a frame or rack -to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against a wire-cloth. -The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the -uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwinding a -string, which had been previously wound about the top of the -axle, after the style of top-spinning. Replace the wooden -tub with one of tin, and the string with gearing, and it will -be seen that we have essentially the neat extractor of to-day. -As the machine is of foreign invention, it is not covered by a -patent, and may be made by any one without let or hindrance. -A good machine may be bought for eight dollars.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig58" style="width: 313px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig58.png" width="313" height="282" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h4 id="wh_style">WHAT STYLE TO BUY.</h4> - -<p>The machine should be as light as is consistent with -strength. It is best that the can be stationary, and that -only a light frame be made to revolve with the comb. It is -desirable that the machine should run with gearing, not only -for ease, but also to insure or allow an even motion, so that -we need not throw even drone larvæ from the brood-cells. -The arrangement for exit of the honey should permit a speedy -and perfect shut-off. A molasses gate is excellent to serve -for a faucet. I should also prefer that the can hold considerable -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">- 190 -</span> -honey—thirty or forty pounds—before it would be -necessary to let the honey flow from it.</p> - -<p>In case of small frames, like the ones I have described as -most desirable to my mind, I should prefer that the rack might -hold four frames. Mr. O. J. Hetherington has found that -winding the rack with fine wire, serves better than wire-cloth -to resist the combs, while permitting the honey to pass. The -rack should set so low in the can that no honey would ever -be thrown over the top to daub the person using the machine. -I think that a wire basket, with a tin bottom, and made to -hook on to the comb-rack (<a href="#fig58">Fig, 58, <i>a, a</i></a>) which will hold pieces of -comb not in frames, a desirable improvement to an extractor. -Such baskets are appended to the admirable extractor (<a href="#fig58">Fig, 58</a>) -made by Mr. B. O. Everett, of Toledo, Ohio, which, though -essentially like the extractor of Mr. A. I. Root, has substantial -improvements, and is the cheapest, and I think the best -extractor, that I have used or seen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig59" style="width: 146px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig59.png" width="146" height="202" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>I have tried machines where the sides of the rack (<a href="#fig59">Fig, 59</a>) -inclined down and in, for the purpose of holding pieces of -comb, but found them unsatisfactory. The combs would not -be sustained. Yet, if the frames were long and narrow, so -that the end of the frame would have to rest on the bottom -of the rack, instead of hanging as it does in the hive, such -an incline might be of use to prevent the top of the frame -from falling in, before we commence to turn the machine.</p> - -<p>The inside, if metal, which is lighter and to be preferred -to wood, as it does not sour or absorb the honey, should be -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">- 191 -</span> -either of tin or galvanized iron, so as not to rust. A cover -to protect the honey from dust, when not in use, is very -desirable. The cloth cover, gathered around the edge by a -rubber, as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent for this -purpose. As no capped honey could be extracted, it is necessary -to uncap it, which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To do -this, nothing is better than the new Bingham & Hetherington -honey knife (<a href="#fig60">Fig, 60</a>). After a thorough trial of this knife, -here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to -any other that we have used, though we have several of the -principal knives made in the United States. It is, perhaps, -sometimes desirable to have a curved point (<a href="#fig61">Fig, 61</a>), though -this is not at all essential.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig60" style="width: 300px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig60.png" width="300" height="112" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig61" style="width: 293px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig61.png" width="293" height="80" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h3 id="use_extr">USE OF THE EXTRACTOR.</h3> - -<p>Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, -it is nevertheless a fact, that the queen often remains idle, or -extrudes her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are no -empty cells. The honey yield is so great that the workers -occupy every available space, and sometimes even they become -unwilling idlers, simply because of necessity. Seldom a year -has passed but that I have noticed some of my most prolific -queens thus checked in duty. It is probable that just the -proper arrangement and best management of frames for surplus -would make such occasions rare; yet, I have seen the -brood-chamber in two-story hives, with common frames above—the -very best arrangement to promote storing above the -brood-chamber—so crowded as to force the queen either to idleness -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">- 192 -</span> -or to egg-laying in the upper frames. This fact, as also -the redundant brood, and excessive storing that follows upon -extracting from the brood-chamber, make me emphatic upon -this point, notwithstanding the fact that some men of wide -experience and great intelligence, think me wrong.</p> - -<p>The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey-extracted -honey—in poor seasons, when he could get very -little, if any, in sections or boxes.</p> - -<p>By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the -apiarist can secure nearly if not quite double the amount of -honey, that he could get in combs.</p> - -<p>The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the -fall, which, if left in the hive, may cause disease and death.</p> - -<p>By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from -our surplus brood-combs in the fall, and thus have a salable -article, and have the empty combs, which are invaluable for -use the next spring. We now have in our apiary one hundred -and fifty such empty combs.</p> - -<p>If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket -attachment, at the bottom as I have suggested, the uncapped -sections can be emptied in the fall, if desired, and pieces of -drone-comb cut from the brood-chamber, which are so admirable -for starters in the sections, can be emptied of their honey -at any season.</p> - -<p>By use of the extractor, we can furnish at one-half the -price we ask for comb-honey, an article which is equal, if not -superior, to the best comb-honey, and which, were it not for -appearance alone, would soon drive the latter from the market.</p> - - -<h3 id="when_ext">WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR.</h3> - -<p>If extracted honey can be sold for fifteen, or even twelve -cents, the extractor may be used profitably the summer -through; otherwise use it sufficiently often that there may -always be empty worker-cells in the brood-chamber.</p> - -<p>It is often required with us during the three great -honey harvests—the white clover, basswood, and that of fall -flowers. I have always extracted the honey so frequently as -to avoid much uncapping. If the honey was thin, I would -keep it in a dry warm room, or apply a mild heat, that it -might thicken, and escape danger from fermentation. Yet, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">- 193 -</span> -so many have sustained a loss by extracting prematurely, that -I urge all never to extract till after the bees have sealed the -cells. The labor of uncapping, with the excellent honey -knives now at our command, is so light, that we can afford to -run no risk that the honey produced at our apiaries shall sour -and become worthless.</p> - -<p>If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to the fluid state -with no injury, by healing, though the temperature should -never rise above 200° F. This can best be done by placing -the vessel containing the honey in another containing water, -though if the second vessel be set on a stove, a tin basin or -pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel from touching -the bottom, else the honey would burn. As before stated, the -best honey is always sure to crystallize, but it may be prevented -by keeping it in a temperature which is constantly -above 80° F. If canned honey is set on top a furnace in which -a fire is kept burning, it will remain liquid indefinitely.</p> - -<p>To render the honey free from small pieces of comb, or -other impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth -or wire sieve—I purposely refrain from the use of the word -strainer, as we should neither use the word strained, nor allow -it to be used, in connection with extracted honey—or else -draw it off into a barrel, with a faucet or molasses gate near -the lower end, and after all particles of solid matter have -risen to the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom. -In case of very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory -as the first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is -thinner, and will of course pass more readily through common -toweling or fine wire-cloth.</p> - -<p>Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want of -empty cells. Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and the -honey from all the brood-combs not needed for winter. The -honey, too, should be thrown from pieces of drone-comb which -are cut from the brood-frames, and from the uncapped comb -in sections at the close of the season.</p> - - -<h3 id="how2ext">HOW TO EXTRACT.</h3> - -<p>The apiarist should possess one or two light boxes, of sufficient -size to hold all the frames from a single hive. These -should have convenient handles, and a close-fitting cover, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">- 194 -</span> -which will slide easily either way. These will be more easily -used if they rest on legs, which will raise their tops say three -feet from the ground. Now, go to two or three colonies, take -enough combs, and of the right kind for a colony. The bees -may be shaken off or brushed off with a large feather. If -the bees are troublesome, close the box as soon as each comb -is placed inside. Extract the honey from these, using care -not to turn so hard as to throw out the brood. If necessary, -with a thin knife pare off the caps, and after throwing the -honey from one side, turn the comb around, and extract it -from the other. If combs are of very different weights, it will -be better for the extractor to use those of nearly equal weights -on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. Now take -these combs to another colony, whose combs shall be replaced -by them. Then close the hive, extract this second set of -combs, and thus proceed till the honey has all been extracted. -At the close, the one or two colonies from which the first -combs were taken shall receive pay from the last set extracted, -and thus, with much saving of time, little disturbance of bees, -and the least invitation to robbing, in case there is no gathering, -we have gone rapidly through the apiary.</p> - - -<h4 id="keep_ext">TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY.</h4> - -<p>Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be run -into them from the extractor. The honey should be thick, -and the vessels may be sealed or corked, and boxed at once.</p> - -<p>If large quantities of honey are extracted, it may be most -conveniently kept in barrels. These should be first-class, and -ought to be waxed before using them, to make assurance -doubly sure against any leakage. To wax the barrels, we may -use beeswax, but paraffine is cheaper, and just as efficient. -Three or four quarts of the hot paraffine or wax should be -turned into the barrel, the bung driven in tight, the barrel -twirled in every position, after which the bung is loosened by -a blow with the hammer, and the residue of the wax turned -out. Economy requires that the barrels be warm when -waxed, so that only a thin coat will be appropriated.</p> - -<p>Large tin cans, waxed and soldered at the openings after -being filled, are cheap, and may be the most desirable receptacles -for extracted honey.</p> - -<p>Extracted honey should always be kept in dry apartments.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">- 195 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">HANDLING BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>But some one asks the question, shall we not receive those -merciless stings, or be introduced to what "Josh" calls the -"business end of the bee?" Perhaps there is no more causeless, -or more common dread, in existence, than this of bees' -stings. When bees are gathering, they will never sting unless -provoked. When at the hives—especially if Italians—they -will rarely make an attack. The common belief, too, that -some persons are more liable to attack than others, is, I think, -put too strong. With the best opportunity to judge, with -our hundreds of students, I think I may safely say that one -is almost always as liable to attack as another, except that -he is more quiet, or does not greet the usually amiable -passer-by, with those terrific thrusts, which would vanquish -even a practiced pugilist. Occasionally a person <i>may</i> have -a peculiar odor about his person that angers bees and invites -their darting tilts, with drawn swords, venom-tipped, yet, -though I take my large classes each season, at frequent intervals, -to see and handle the bees, each for himself, I still await -the first proof of the fact, that one person is more liable to -be stung than another, providing each carries himself with -that composed and dignified bearing, that is so pleasing to the -bees. True, some people, filled with dread, and the belief that -bees regard them with special hate and malice, are so ready -for the battle, that they commence the strife with nervous -head-shakes and beating of the air, and thus force the bees -to battle, <i>nolens volens</i>. I believe that only such are regarded -with special aversion by the bees. Hence, I believe that no -one need be stung.</p> - -<p>Bees should never be jarred, nor irritated by quick motions. -Those with nervous temperaments—and I plead very guilty -on this point—need not give up, but at first better protect -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">- 196 -</span> -their faces, and perhaps even their hands, till time and experience -show them that fear is vain; then they will divest -themselves of all such useless encumbrances. Bees are more -cross when they are gathering no honey, and at such times, -black bees and hybrids, especially, are so irritable that even -the experienced apiarist will wish a veil.</p> - - -<h3 id="veil">THE BEST BEE-VEIL.</h3> - -<p>This should be made of black tarlatan, sewed up like a -bag, a half yard long, without top or bottom, and with a -diameter of the rim of a common straw-hat. Gather the top -with braid, so that it will just slip over the crown of the hat—else, -sew it to the edge of the rim of some cheap, cool hat, -in fact, I prefer this style—and gather the bottom with rubber -cord or rubber tape, so that it may be drawn over the hat rim, -and then over the head, as we adjust the hat.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig62" style="width: 159px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig62.png" width="159" height="289" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Some prefer to dispense with the rubber cord at the bottom -(<a href="#fig62">Fig, 62</a>), and have the veil long so as to be gathered in by -the coat or dress. If the black tarlatan troubles by coloring -the shirt or collar, the lower part may be made of white netting. -When in use, the rubber cord draws the lower part -close about the neck, or the lower part tucks within the coat -or vest (<a href="#fig62">Fig, 62</a>), and we are safe. This kind of a veil is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">- 197 -</span> -cool, does not impede vision at all, and can be made by any -woman at a cost of less than twenty cents. Common buckskin -or sheep-skin gloves can be used, as it will scarcely pay -to get special gloves for the purpose, for the most timid person—I -speak from experience—will soon consider gloves an -unnecessary nuisance.</p> - -<p>Special rubber gloves are sold by those who keep on hand -apiarian supplies.</p> - -<p>Some apiarists think that dark clothing is specially obnoxious -to bees.</p> - -<p>For ladies, my friend, Mrs. Baker, recommends a dress -which, by use of the rubber skirt-lift or other device, can be -instantly raised or lowered. This will be convenient in the -apiary, and tidy anywhere. The Gabrielle style is preferred, -and of a length just to reach the floor. It should be belted -at the waist, and cut down from the neck in front, one-third -the length of the waist, to permit the tucking in of the veil. -The under-waist should fasten close about the neck. The -sleeves should be quite long to allow free use of the arms, -and gathered in with a rubber cord at the wrist, which will -hug the rubber gauntlets or arm, and prevent bees from crawling -up the sleeves. The pantalets should be straight and -full, and should also have the rubber cord in the hem to draw -them close about the top of the shoes.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Baker also places great stress on the wet "head-cap," -which she believes the men even would find a great comfort. -This is a simple, close-fitting cap, made of two thicknesses -of coarse toweling. The head is wet with cold water, and the -cap wet in the same, wrung out, and placed on the head.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Baker would have the dress neat and clean, and so -trimmed that the lady apiarist would ever be ready to greet -her brother or sister apiarists. In such a dress there is no -danger of stings, and with it there is that show of neatness -and taste, without which no pursuit could attract the attention, -or at least the patronage, of our refined women.</p> - - -<h3 id="quiet_bees">TO QUIET BEES.</h3> - -<p>In harvest seasons, the bees, especially if Italians, can -almost always be handled without their showing resentment. -But at other times, and whenever they object to necessary -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">- 198 -</span> -familiarity, we have only to cause them to fill with honey to -render them harmless, unless we pinch them. This can be -done by closing the hive so that the bees cannot get out, and -then rapping on the hive for four or five minutes. Those -within will fill with honey, those without will be tamed by -surprise, and all will be quiet. Sprinkling the bees with -sweetened water will also tend to render them amiable, and -will make them more ready to unite, to receive a queen, and -less apt to sting. Still another method, more convenient, is to -smoke the bees. A little smoke blown among the bees will -scarcely ever fail to quiet them, though I have known black -bees in autumn, to be very slow to yield. Dry cotton cloth, -closely wound and sewed or tied, or better, pieces of dry, rotten -wood, are excellent for the purpose of smoking. These are -easily handled, and will burn for a long time. But best of all -is a</p> - - -<h3 id="bellows">BELLOWS-SMOKER.</h3> - -<p>This is a tin tube attached to a bellows. Cloth or rotten -wood can be burned in the tube, and will remain burning -a long time. The smoke can be directed at pleasure, the -bellows easily worked, and the smoker used without any disagreeable -effects or danger from fire. It can be got from any -dealer in bee apparatus, and only costs from $1.25 to $2.00. -I most heartily recommend it to all.</p> - -<p>There are two smokers in use, which I have found very -valuable, and both of which are worthy of recommendation.</p> - - -<h4 id="quinby_sm">THE QUINBY SMOKER.</h4> - -<p>This smoker (<a href="#fig63">Fig, 63, <i>a</i></a>) was a gift to bee-keepers by the -late Mr. Quinby, and not patented; though I supposed it was, -and so stated in a former edition of this work. Though a -similar device had been previously used in Europe, without -doubt Mr. Quinby was not aware of the fact, and as he was -the person to bring it to the notice of bee-keepers, and to -make it so perfect as to challenge the attention and win the -favor of apiarists <i>instanter</i>, he is certainly worthy of great -praise, and deserving of hearty gratitude. This smoker, until -a better one appeared, was a very valuable and desirable -instrument. Its faults were, lack of strength, too small a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">- 199 -</span> -fire-tube, too little draft when not in use, so that the fire -would go out, and too great liability to fall over on the side, -when the fire was sure to be extinguished. Many of these -defects, however, have been corrected, and other improvements -made in a new smoker, called the Improved Quinby -(<a href="#fig63">Fig, 63, <i>b</i></a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig63" style="width: 276px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig63.png" width="276" height="228" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h4 id="bingham_sm">THE BINGHAM SMOKER.</h4> - -<p>This smoker (<a href="#fig64">Fig, 64</a>) not only meets all the requirements, -which are wanting in the old Quinby smoker, but shows by its -whole construction, that it has not only as a whole, but in -every part, been subject to the severest test, and the closest, -thought and study.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="fig64" style="width: 119px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig64.png" width="119" height="242" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">- 200 -</span></p> - -<p>At first sight this seems an improved copy of Mr. Quinby's -smoker, and so I first thought, though I only saw it in Mr. -Bingham's hand at a Convention. I have since used it, -examined it in every part, and have to say that it is not a -Quinby smoker. The bellows, the valve, the cut-off, and even -the form, are all peculiar. The special point to be commended, -and, I suppose, the only one patentable, is the cut-off between -the bellows and fire-tube, so that the fire seldom goes out, -while even hard-wood, as suggested by the inventor, forms an -excellent and ever-ready fuel. The valve for the entrance of -air to the bellows, permits rapid work, the spring is of the -best clock-spring material, the leather perfect, not split -sheep-skin, while the whole construction of the bellows, and the -plan of the fire-screen and cut-off draft, show much thought -and ingenuity. I am thus full in this description, that I may -not only benefit my readers, all of whom will want a smoker, -but also out of gratitude to Mr. Bingham, who has conferred -such a favor on American apiarists. There are three sizes, -which may be bought for $1.00, $1.50 and $1.75, respectively, -including postage.</p> - -<p>Mr. Bingham, to protect himself, and preserve the quality -of his invention, has procured a patent. This, provided he -has only patented his own invention, is certainly his right, -which I think honesty requires us all to respect. Like Mr. -Langstroth, he has given us a valuable instrument; let us see -that he is not defrauded out of the justly earned reward for -his invention.</p> - -<p>Brother apiarists, let us cease this unjust clamor against -patents and patentees. If a man procures a patent on a -worthless thing, let him alone, and where is the damage? If -a man procures a patent on a valuable and desirable invention, -then buy it, or pay for the right to make it, and thus keep the -Eighth and Tenth Commandments (Exodus, 20th chap., 8th -and 10th verses). Let us never buy an article unless we -know it is valuable and desirable for us, no matter how -stoutly importuned; but for honesty's sake, and that we may -encourage more inventions, let us respect a man's patent as -we would any other property. If we are in doubt as to the -correctness of some person's claim, let us not be forced to -pay a bonus, but first write to some candid editor or other -authority, and if we find a man has a right to the article, then -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">- 201 -</span> -pay as we would any other debt. I should be very suspicious -of any man's honesty who was not willing to respect such -rights.</p> - - -<h3 id="smoke">TO SMOKE BEES.</h3> - -<p>Approach the hive, blow a little smoke in at the entrance, -then open from above, and blow in smoke as required. If at -any time the bees seem irritable, a few puffs from the smoker -will subdue them. Thus, any person may handle his bees -with perfect freedom and safety. If at any time the fire-chamber -and escape-pipe become filled with soot, they can -easily be cleaned by revolving an iron or hard-wood stick inside -of them.</p> - - -<h3 id="cure_stings">TO CURE STINGS.</h3> - -<p>In case a person is stung, he should step back a little for a -moment, as the pungent odor of the venom is likely to anger -the bees and induce further stinging. The sting should be -withdrawn, and if the pain is such as to prove troublesome, -apply a little ammonia. The venom is an acid, and is neutralized -by the alkali. Pressing over the sting with the barrel -of a watch-key is also said to be of some use in staying the -progress of the poison in the circulation of the blood. In -case horses are badly stung, as sometimes happens, they -should be taken as speedily as possible into a barn (a man, -too, may escape angry bees by entering a building), where the -bees will seldom follow, then wash the horses in soda water, -and cover with blankets wet in cold water.</p> - - -<h3 id="sweat">THE SWEAT THEORY.</h3> - -<p>It is often stated that sweaty horses and people are -obnoxious to the bees, and hence, almost sure targets for their -barbed arrows. In warm weather I perspire most profusely, -yet am scarcely ever stung, since I have learned to control my -nerves. I once kept my bees in the front yard—they looked -beautiful on the green lawn—within two rods of a main -thoroughfare, and not infrequently let my horse, covered with -sweat upon my return from a drive, crop the grass, while cooling -off, right in the same yard. Of course, there was some -danger, but I never knew my horse to get stung. Why, then, -the theory? May not the more frequent stings be consequent -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">- 202 -</span> -upon the warm, nervous condition of the individual? The -man is more ready to strike and jerk, the horse to stamp and -switch. The switching of the horse's tail, like the whisker -trap of a full beard, will anger even a good-natured bee. I -should dread the motions more than the sweat, though it may -be true that there is a peculiarity in the odor from either the -sensible or insensible perspiration of some persons, that angers -the bees and provokes the use of their terrible weapons.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">- 203 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">COMB FOUNDATION.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<div class="figright" id="fig65" style="width: 119px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig65.png" width="119" height="97" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Every apiarist of experience knows that empty combs in -frames, comb-guides in the sections, to tempt the bees and to -insure the proper position of the full combs, in fact, combs of -almost any kind or shape, are of great importance. So every -skillful apiarist is very careful to save all drone-comb that is -cut out of the brood-chamber—where it is worse than useless, -as it brings with it myriads of those useless gormands, the -drones—to kill the eggs, remove the brood, or extract the -honey, and to transfer it to the sections. He is equally careful -to keep all his worker-comb, so long as the cells are of -proper size to domicile full-sized larvæ, and never to sell any -comb, or even comb-honey, unless a much greater price makes -it desirable.</p> - -<p>No wonder, then, if comb is so desirable, that German -thought and Yankee ingenuity have devised means of giving -the bees at least a start in this important, yet expensive work -of comb-building, and hence the origin of another great aid -to the apiarist—comb foundation (<a href="#fig65">Fig, 65</a>).</p> - - -<h3 id="history">HISTORY.</h3> - -<p>For more than twenty years the Germans have used impressed -sheets of wax as a foundation for comb, as it was first -made by Herr Mehring, in 1857. These sheets are four or five -times as thick as the partition at the centre of natural comb, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">- 204 -</span> -which is very thin, only 1-180 of an inch thick. This is pressed -between metal plates so accurately formed that the wax receives -rhomboidal impressions which are a <i>fac simile</i> of the -basal wall or partition between the opposite cells of natural -comb. The thickness of this sheet is no objection, as it is -found that the bees almost always thin it down to the natural -thickness, and probably use the shavings to form the walls.</p> - - -<h3 id="am_found">AMERICAN FOUNDATION.</h3> - -<p>Mr. Wagner secured a patent on foundation in 1861, but as -the article was already in use in Germany, the patent was, as -we understand, of no legal value, and certainly, as it did -nothing to bring this desirable article into use, it had no virtual -value. Mr. Wagner was also the first to suggest the idea of -rollers. In Langstroth's work, edition of 1859, p. 373, occurs -the following, in reference to printing or stamping combs: -"Mr. Wagner suggests forming these outlines with a simple -instrument somewhat like a wheel cake cutter. When a large -number are to be made, a machine might easily be constructed -which would stamp them with great rapidity." In 1866, the -King Brothers, of New York, in accordance with the above -suggestion, invented the first machine with rollers, the <i>product</i> -of which they tried but failed to get patented. These -stamped rollers were less than two inches long. This machine -was useless, and failed to bring foundation into general use.</p> - -<p>In 1874, Mr. Frederick Weiss, a poor German, invented the -machine which brought the foundation into general use. His -machine had lengthened rollers—they being six inches long—and -shallow grooves between the pyramidal projections, so -that there was a very shallow cell raised from the basal impression -as left by the German plates. This was the machine -on which was made the beautiful and practical foundation -sent out by "John Long," in 1874 and 1875, and which proved -to the American apiarists that foundation machines, and foundation, -too, were to be a success. I used some of this early -foundation, and have been no more successful with that made -by the machines of to-day. To Frederick Weiss, then, are -Americans and the world indebted for this invaluable aid to -the apiarist. Yet, the poor old man has, I fear, received -very meager profits from this great invention, while some -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">- 205 -</span> -writers ignore his services entirely, not granting him the poor -meed of the honor. Since that time many machines have -been made, without even a thank you, as I believe, to this -old man, Weiss. Does not this show that patents, or something—a -higher morality, if you please—is necessary, that -men may secure justice? True, faulty foundation, and faulty -machines were already in use, but it was the inventive skill -of Mr. Weiss that made foundation cheap and excellent, -and thus popularized it with the American apiarists.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig66" style="width: 328px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig66.png" width="328" height="230" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>These Weiss machines turn out the comb-foundation -not only of exquisite mold, but with such rapidity that it can -be made cheap and practicable. Heretofore these machines -have been sold at an enormous profit. Last November, 1877, -I expostulated with one of the manufacturers of American -machines, because of the high price, saying, as I looked at -one of the machines: These ought to be sold for thirty or -forty dollars, instead of one hundred dollars. He replied -that such machines—with rollers, not plates—that gave the -foundation the exact figure of natural comb, were only made, -he thought, by the person who made his machines, and thus -convinced me that said person should be rewarded, <i>amply -rewarded</i>, for his invention. But as I have since learned -that this is only the Weiss machine, and does no more perfect -work, I now think Mr. Weiss should receive the super-extra -profits. Even with machines at one hundred dollars, foundation -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">- 206 -</span> -was profitable, as I with many others have found. But -with the present price—forty dollars, which I think, judging -from the simplicity of the machine, advertised at that price -(<a href="#fig66">Fig, 66</a>), must be reduced still lower—we can hardly conceive -what an immense business this is soon to become.</p> - - -<h3 id="how_fnd_md">HOW FOUNDATION IS MADE.</h3> - -<p>The process of making the foundation is very simple. -Thin sheets of wax, as thin as is consistent with strength, are -simply passed between the rollers, which are so made as to -stamp worker or drone foundation, as may be desired. The -rollers are well covered with starch-water to secure against -adhesion. Two men can roll out about four hundred pounds -per day.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig67" style="width: 391px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig67.png" width="391" height="222" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h3 id="sec_wax">TO SECURE THE WAX SHEETS.</h3> - -<p>To make the thin sheets of wax, Mr. A. I. Root takes sheets -or plates of galvanized iron with a wooden handle. These are -cooled by dipping in ice-water, and then are dipped two, or -three times if the wax is very hot, in the melted wax, which -is maintained at the proper temperature by keeping it in a -double-walled vessel, with hot water in the outer chamber. -Such a boiler, too, prevents burning of the wax, which would -ruin it, while it is being melted. After dipping the plates in -the wax, they are again dipped, when dripping has ceased, into -the cold water, after which the sheets of wax are cleaved off, -the plates brushed, wiped, cooled, and dipped again. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">- 207 -</span> -boiler used in melting the wax has the gate with a fine wire -sieve attached near the top, so that the wax as it is drawn off -into the second boiler, will be thoroughly cleansed. Mr. Root -states that two men and a boy will thus make four hundred -pounds of wax sheets in a day.</p> - -<p>Others use wooden plates on which to mold the sheets, -while the Hetherington brothers prefer, and are very successful -with a wooden cylinder, which is made to revolve in the -melted wax, and is so hinged, that it can be speedily raised -above or lowered into the liquid.</p> - -<p>For cutting foundation, nothing is so admirable as the -Carlin cutter (<a href="#fig67">Fig, 67, <i>a</i></a>), which is like the wheel glass-cutters -sold in the shops, except that a larger wheel of tin takes the -place of the one of hardened steel. Mr. A. I. Root has -suggested a grooved board (<a href="#fig67">Fig. 67, <i>b</i></a>) to go with the above, -the distance between the grooves being equal to the desired -width of the strips of comb foundation to be cut.</p> - - -<h3 id="use_fnd">USE OF FOUNDATION.</h3> - -<p>I have used foundation, as have many other more extensive -apiarists, with perfect success in the section-boxes. The bees -have so thinned it that even epicures could not tell comb-honey -with such foundation, from that wholly made by the -bees. Yet, I forbear recommending it for such use. When -such men as Hetherington, Moore, Ellwood, and L. C. Root, -protest against a course, it is well to pause before we adopt it; -so, while I have used foundation, I think with some small advantage -in sections and boxes for three years, I shall still -pronounce against it.</p> - -<p>It will not be well to have the word artificial hitched on to -our comb-honey. I think it exceedingly wise to maintain inviolate -in the public mind the idea that comb-honey is <i>par -excellence</i>, a natural product. And as Captain Hetherington -aptly suggests, this argument is all the more weighty, in view -of the filthy condition of much of our commercial beeswax.</p> - -<p>Again, our bees may not always thin the foundation, and -we risk our reputation in selling it in comb-honey, and an -unquestioned reputation is too valuable to be endangered in this -way, especially as in these days of adulteration, we may not -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">- 208 -</span> -know how much paraffine, etc., there is in our foundation, -unless we make it ourselves.</p> - -<p>Lastly, there is no great advantage in its use in the sections, -as drone-comb is better, and with caution and care this can be -secured in ample quantities to furnish very generous starters -for all our sections. This will readily adhere, if the edge be -dipped into melted beeswax, and applied to the sections.</p> - -<p>If any one should still be disposed to make such use of -foundation, they should only purchase of very reliable parties, -that they may be sure to use only such wax as is genuine, -<i>yellow</i>, clean, and <i>certainly unmixed with paraffine</i>, or any -of the commercial products which were first used to adulterate -the wax. <i>Only pure, clean, unbleached wax should -be used in making foundation.</i> We should be <i>very careful</i> -not to put on the market any comb-honey where the foundation -had not been properly thinned by the bees. Perhaps a -very fine needle would enable one to determine this point -without injury to the honey.</p> - -<p>But the most promising use of foundation, to which there -can be no objection, is in the brood-chamber. It is astonishing -to see how rapidly the bees will extend the cells, and how -readily the queen will stock them with eggs if of the right -size, five cells to the inch. <i>The foundation should always -be the right size either for worker or drone-comb.</i> Of -course the latter size would never be used in the brood-chamber. -The advantage of foundation is, first, to insure worker-comb, -and thus worker-brood, and second, to furnish wax, so -that the bees may be free to gather honey. We proved in -our apiary the past two seasons, that by use of foundation, -and a little care in pruning out the drone-comb, we could -limit or even exclude drones from our hives, and we have but -to examine the capacious and constantly crowded stomachs -of these idlers, to appreciate the advantage of such a -course. Bees may occasionally tear down worker-cells and -build drone-cells in their place; but such action, I believe, -is not sufficiently extensive to ever cause anxiety. I am also -certain that bees that have to secrete wax to form comb, do -much less gathering. Wax secretion seems voluntary, and -when rapid seems to require quiet and great consumption of -food. If we make two artificial colonies equally strong, supply -the one with combs, and withhold them from the other, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">- 209 -</span> -we will find that this last sends much fewer bees to the fields, -while all the bees are more or less engaged in wax secretion. -Thus the other colony gains much more rapidly in honey, -first, because more bees are storing; second, because less -food is consumed. This is undoubtedly the reason why -extracted-honey can be secured in far greater abundance than -can comb-honey.</p> - -<p>The foundation if used the full depth of the frame, stretches -so that many cells are so enlarged as to be used for drone-brood. -This demands, if we use the sheets unstrengthened, -that they only be used as guides, not reaching more than one-third -of the depth of the frame. Strips not less than four -inches wide will not sag to do any harm. The foundation, -too, should not quite reach the sides of the frame, as by -expansion it is liable to warp and bend. Captain J. E. -Hetherington has invented a cure for this stretching and warping, -by strengthening the foundation. To do this, he runs -several fine copper wires into the foundation as it passes -through the machine.</p> - -<p>I understand, too, that Mr. M. Metcalf, of this State, has a -similar device now being patented.</p> - -<p>This is a valuable suggestion, as it permits full-sized sheets -of foundation to be inserted in the frames. I presume that -very soon all worker-foundation will contain such wires.</p> - - -<h3 id="fasten_fnd">TO FASTEN THE FOUNDATION.</h3> - -<p>In the thin sections, the foundation can best be fastened -by use of the melted wax. To accomplish this, I have used a -block made thus: Saw a fifteen-sixteenths inch board so that -it will just exactly fill a section. Screw this to a second -board, which is one-half inch broader each way, so that the -larger under board will project one-quarter of an inch each -side the top board. Now set the section over the top board, -place the foundation, cut a trifle shorter than the inside of the -section, within, close to the top and one side of the section, -and cause it to adhere by running on a little of the melted -wax, which, by use of a kerosene lamp or stove, may be kept -melted. If the basin is double-walled, with water in the -outer chamber and wax in the inner, it is much safer, as then -the wax will never burn.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">- 210 -</span></p> - -<p>If the tops of the sections are thick, they may be grooved, -and by crowding the foundation into the groove, and, if -necessary, pressing it with a thin wedge, it will be securely held.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig68" style="width: 208px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig68.png" width="208" height="224" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>This last method will work nicely in case of fastening into -the brood-frames. But I have found that I could fasten them -rapidly and very securely by simply pressing them against -the rectangular projection from the top-bar already described -(<a href="#Page_134">page 134</a>). In this case a block (<a href="#fig68">Fig, 68, <i>a</i></a>) should reach -up into the frame from the side which is nearest to the rectangular -projection—it will be remembered that the projection (<a href="#fig36">Fig, 36</a>) -is a little to one side of the centre of the top-bar, so that the -foundation shall hang exactly in the centre—so far that its -upper surface would be exactly level with the upper surface -of the rectangular projection. This block, like the one described -above, has shoulders (<a href="#fig68">Fig, 68, <i>f</i></a>), so that it will always -reach just the proper distance into the frame. It is also -rabbeted at the edge where the projection of the top-bar -of the frame will rest, (<a href="#fig68">Fig, 68, <i>b</i></a>), so that the projection -has a solid support, and will not split off with pressure. -We now set our frame on this block, lay on our foundation, -cut the size we desire, which, unless strengthened, will be as -long as the frame, and about four inches wide. The foundation -will rest firmly on the projection and block, and touch -the top-bar, at every point. We now take a board as thick -as the projection is deep, and as wide (<a href="#fig69">Fig, 69, <i>d</i></a>) as the frame -is long, which may be trimmed off, so as to have a convenient -handle (<a href="#fig69">Fig. 69, <i>e</i></a>), and by wetting the edge of this (<a href="#fig69">Fig. 69, <i>d</i></a>) -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">- 211 -</span> -either in water, or, better, starch-water, and pressing -with it on the foundation above the projection, the foundation -will be made to adhere firmly to the latter, when the frame -may be raised with the block, taken off, and another fastened -as before. I have practiced this plan for two years, and have -had admirable success. I have very rarely known the foundation -to drop, though it must be remembered that our hives -are shaded, and our frames small.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig69" style="width: 138px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig69.png" width="138" height="90" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The above methods are successful, but probably will receive -valuable modifications at the hands of the ingenius apiarists -of our land. Study in this direction will unquestionably -pay, as the use of this material is going to be very extensive, -and any improvements will be hailed with joy by the bee-keeping -fraternity.</p> - - -<h3 id="save_wax">SAVE THE WAX.</h3> - -<p>As foundation is becoming so popular, and is destined to -come into general use, it behooves us all to be very careful -that no old comb goes to waste. Soiled drone-comb, old, -worthless worker-comb, and all fragments that cannot be used in -the hives, together with cappings, after the honey is drained -out through a coarse bag or colander—which process may be -hastened by a moderate heat, not sufficient to melt the wax, -and frequent stirring—should be melted, cleansed, and -molded into cakes of wax, soon to be again stamped, not by -the bees, but by wondrous art.</p> - - -<h4 id="methods">METHODS.</h4> - -<p>A slow and wasteful method is to melt in a vessel of heated -water, and to purify by turning off the top, or allowing to -cool, when the impurities at the bottom are scraped off, and -the process repeated till all impurities are eliminated.</p> - -<p>A better method to separate the wax is to put it into a -strong, rather coarse bag, then sink this in water and boil. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">- 212 -</span> -At intervals the comb in the bag should be pressed and stirred. -The wax will collect on top of the water.</p> - -<p>To prevent the bag from burning, it should be kept from -touching the bottom of the vessel by inverting a basin in the -bottom of the latter, or else by using a double-walled vessel. -The process should be repeated till the wax is perfectly -cleansed.</p> - -<p>But, as wax is to become so important, and as the above -methods are slow, wasteful, and apt to give a poor quality of -wax, specialists, and even amateurs who keep as many as ten -or twenty colonies of bees, may well procure a wax extractor -(<a href="#fig70">Fig, 70</a>). This is also a foreign invention, the -first being made by Prof. Gerster, of Berne, Switzerland. -These cost from five to seven dollars, are made of tin, are -very convenient and admirable, and can be procured of any -dealer in apiarian supplies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig70" style="width: 323px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig70.png" width="323" height="201" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>By this invention, all the wax, even of the oldest combs, -can be secured, in beautiful condition, and as it is perfectly -neat, there is no danger of provoking the "best woman in the -world," as we are in danger of doing by use of either of the -above methods—for what is more untidy and perplexing than -to have wax boil over on the stove, and perhaps get on to the -floor, and be generally scattered about.</p> - -<p>All pieces of comb should be put into a close box, and if -any larvæ are in it, the comb should be melted so frequently -that it would not smell badly. By taking pains, both in -collecting and melting, the apiarist will be surprised at the close -of the season, as he views his numerous and beautiful cakes of -comb, and rejoice as bethinks how little trouble it has all cost.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">- 213 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">MARKETING HONEY.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>No subject merits more attention by the apiarist than that -of marketing honey. There is no question but that the supply -is going to continually increase, hence, to sustain the price -we must stimulate the demand, and by doing this we shall -not only supply the people with a food element which is -necessary to health, but we shall also supersede in part the -commercial syrups, which are so adulterated as not only to -be crowded with filth the most revolting, but are often even -teeming with poison. (Report of Michigan Board of Health -for 1874, pp. 75-79.) To bring, then, to our neighbor's table -the pure, wholesome, delicious nectar, right from the hive, is -philanthropy, whether he realizes it or not.</p> - -<p>Nor is it difficult to stimulate the demand. I have given -special attention to this topic for the last few years, and am -free to say, that not a tithe of the honey is consumed in our -country that might and should be.</p> - - -<h3 id="inv_market">HOW TO INVIGORATE THE MARKETS.</h3> - -<p>First. See that no honey goes to market from your apiary -that is not in the most inviting form possible. Grade <i>all the -honey thoroughly</i>, and expect prices to correspond with the -grade. See that every package and vessel is not only attractive, -but so arranged as not to make the dealer any trouble or -cause him any vexation. One leaky can or crate may do -great injury.</p> - -<p>Second. See that every grocer in your vicinity has honey -constantly on hand. Do all you can to build up a home market. -The advice to sell to only one or two dealers is wrong -and pernicious. Whether we are to buy or sell, we shall find -almost always that it will be most satisfactory to deal with -men whom we know, and who are close at hand. Only when -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">- 214 -</span> -you outgrow your home market should you ship to distant -places. This course will limit the supply in the large cities, -and thus raise the prices in the great marts, whose prices fix -those in the country. Be sure to keep honey constantly in -the markets.</p> - -<p>Third. Insist that each grocer makes the honey <i>very</i> conspicuous. -If necessary, supply large, fine labels, with your -own name almost as prominent as is that of the article.</p> - -<p>Fourth. Deliver the honey in small lots, so that it will be -sure to be kept in inviting form, and, if possible, attend to -the delivery yourself, that you may know that all is done -"decently and in order."</p> - -<p>Fifth. Instruct your grocers that they may make the honey -show to the best effect, and thus captivate the purchaser -through the sight alone.</p> - -<p>Sixth. <i>Call local conventions</i>, that all in the community -may know and practice the best methods, so that the -markets may not be demoralized by poor, unsalable honey.</p> - -<p>Of course, the method of preparation will depend largely, -and vary greatly, upon the style of honey to be sold, so we -will consider these kinds separately.</p> - - -<h3 id="extr_honey">EXTRACTED HONEY.</h3> - -<p>As before intimated, extracted honey has all the flavor, and -is in every way equal, if not superior—comb itself is innutritious, -and very indigestible—to comb-honey. When people -once know its excellence—know that it is not "strained"—let -us, as apiarists, strive in every way to kill that word—then -the demand for this article will be vastly increased, to -the advantage both of the consumer and the apiarist.</p> - -<p>Explain to each grocer what we mean by the word extracted, -and ask him to spread wide the name and character of the -honey. Leave cups of the honey with the editors and men -of influence, and get them to discuss its origin and merits. -I speak from experience, when I say that in these ways the -reputation and demand for extracted honey can be increased -to a surprising degree, and with astonishing rapidity.</p> - - -<h3 id="tempt_cons">HOW TO TEMPT THE CONSUMER.</h3> - -<p>First. Have it chiefly in small cups—jelly cups are best. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">- 215 -</span> -Many persons will pay twenty-five cents for an article, when -if it cost fifty cents they would not think of purchasing.</p> - -<p>Second. Only put it in such vessels as jelly cups or glass -fruit jars, etc., that will be useful in every household when -the honey is gone, that the buyer may feel that the vessel is -clear gain.</p> - -<p>Third. Explain to the grocer that if kept above the temperature -of 70° or 80° F., it will not granulate, that granulation -is a pledge of purity and superiority, and show him how -easy it is to reduce the crystals, and ask him to explain this -to his customers. If necessary, liquify some of the granulated -honey in his presence.</p> - -<p>Lastly. If you do not deliver the honey yourself, be sure -that the vessels will not leak in transit. It is best, in case -jelly cups are used, that they be filled at the grocery. And -don't forget the large label, which gives the kind of honey, -grade, and producer's name.</p> - - -<h3 id="comb-honey">COMB-HONEY.</h3> - -<p>This, from its wondrous beauty, especially when light-colored -and immaculate, will always be a coveted article for -the table, and will ever, with proper care, bring the highest -price paid for honey. So it will always be best to work for -this, even though we may not be able to procure it in such -ample profusion as we may the extracted. He who has all -kinds, will be able to satisfy every demand, and will most -surely meet with success.</p> - - -<h4 id="rules">RULES TO BE OBSERVED.</h4> - -<p>This, too, should be chiefly in small sections (<a href="#fig50">Fig, 50</a>), for, -as before stated, such are the packages that surely sell. -Sections from four to six inches square will just fill a plate -nicely, and look very tempting to the proud house-wife, -especially if some epicurean friends are to be entertained.</p> - -<p>The sections should surely be in place at the dawn of the -white clover season, so that the apiarist may secure the most -of this irresistible nectar, chaste as if capped by the very -snow itself. They should be taken away as soon as capped, -as delay makes them highways of travel for the bees, which -always mar their beauty.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">- 216 -</span></p> - -<p>When removed, if demanded, glass the sections, but before -this, we should place them in hives one upon another, or special -boxes made tight, with a close cover, in which to store either -brood-frames in winter or sections at any season, and sulphur -them. This is quickly and easily done by use of the smoker. -Get the fire in the smoker well to burning, add the sulphur, -then place this in the top hive, or top of the special box. -The sulphurous fumes will descend and deal out death to all -moth larvæ. <i>This should always be done</i> before shipping -the honey, if we regard our reputations as precious. It is -well to do this immediately upon removal, and also two weeks -after, so as to destroy the moth larvæ not hatched when the -sections are removed.</p> - -<p>If separators have been used, these sections are in good -condition to be glassed, and are also in nice shape to ship -even without glass, as they may stand side by side and not -mar the comb.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig71" style="width: 327px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig71.png" width="327" height="144" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The shipping-crate (<a href="#fig71">Fig, 71</a>) should be strong, neat and -cheap, with handles as seen in <a href="#fig71">Fig, 71</a>—such handles are also -convenient in the ends of the hives, and can be cut in an -instant by having the circular-saw set to wabble. With handles -the crate is more convenient, and is more sure to be set on -its bottom. The crate should also be glassed, as the sight -of the comb will say: "Handle with care."</p> - -<p>Mr. Heddon also makes a larger crate (<a href="#fig72">Fig, 72</a>), which is -neat and cheap. Muth's crate is like Heddon's, only smaller.</p> - -<p>It is well, too, to wrap the sections in paper, as thus breakage -of one will not mean general ruin. However, this would -be unnecessary in case the sections were of veneer and glassed, -as before described.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">- 217 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig72" style="width: 297px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig72.png" width="297" height="188" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it -will pay him to furnish his own boxes. These should be -made of white-wood, very neat, and glassed in front to show -the honey, and the cover so fixed that unglassed sections—and -these, probably, will soon become the most popular—cannot -be punched or fingered. Be sure, too, that the label, -with kind of honey, grade, and name of apiarist, be so plain -that "he who runs may read."</p> - -<p>Comb-honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of -autumn, or the cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms, -or the comb will break from the section when handled. By -keeping it quite warm for some days previous to shipment, it -may be sent to market even in winter, but must be handled -very carefully, and must make a quick transit.</p> - -<p>Above all, <i>let "taste and neatness" ever be your motto</i>.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">- 218 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">HONEY PLANTS.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>As bees do not make honey, but only gather it, and as -honey is mainly derived from certain flowers, it of course -follows that the apiarist's success will depend largely upon -the abundance of honey-secreting plants in the vicinity of his -apiary. True it is that certain bark and plant lice secrete a -kind of liquid sweet—honey of doubtful reputation—which, -in the dearth of anything better, the bees seem glad to -appropriate. I have thus seen the bees thick about a large -bark-louse which attacks the tulip tree, and thus often destroys -one of our best honey trees. This is an undescribed species -of the genus <i>Lecanium</i>. I have also seen them thick about -three species of plant lice. One, the <i>Pemphigus imbricator</i>, -Fitch, works on the beech tree. Its abdomen is thickly -covered with long wool, and it makes a comical show as it -wags this up and down upon the least disturbance. The -leaves of trees attacked by this louse, as also those beneath -the trees, are fairly gummed with a sweetish substance. I -have found that the bees avoid this substance, except at -times of extreme drouth and long protracted absence of -honeyed bloom. It was the source of no inconsiderable stores -during the terribly parched autumn of Chicago's great -disaster. (See <a href="#Page_286">Appendix, page 286</a>).</p> - -<p>Another species of <i>Pemphigus</i> gives rise to certain solitary -plum-like galls, which appear on the upper surface of the -red elm. These galls are hollow, with a thin skin, and within -the hollows are the lice, which secrete an abundant sweet -that often attracts the bees to a feast of fat things, as the gall -is torn apart, or cracks open, so that the sweet exudes. This -sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be unwholesome -to the bees.</p> - -<p>Another aphis, of a black hue, works on the branches of our -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">- 219 -</span> -willows, which they often entirely cover, and thus greatly damage -another tree valuable for both honey and pollen. Were it -not that they seldom are so numerous two years in succession, -they would certainly banish from among us one of our most -ornamental and valuable honey-producing trees. These are -fairly thronged in September and October, and not unfrequently -in spring and summer if the lice are abundant, by -bees, wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager to lap, -up the oozing sweets. This louse is doubtless the <i>Lachnus -dentatus</i>, of Le Baron, and the <i>Aphis salicti</i>, of Harris.</p> - -<p>Bees also get, in some regions, a sort of honey-dew, -which enables them to add to their stores with surprising -rapidity. I remember one morning while riding on horse-back -along the Sacramento river, in California, I broke -off a willow twig beside the road when, to my surprise, -I found it was fairly decked with drops of honey. Upon -further examination I found the willow foliage was abundantly -sprinkled by these delicious drops. These shrubs -were undisturbed by insects, nor were they under trees. -Here then was a real case of honey-dew, which must have -been distilled through the night by the leaves. I never saw -any such phenomenon in Michigan, yet others have. Dr. A. -H. Atkins, an accurate and conscientious observer, has noted -this honey-dew more than once here in Central Michigan.</p> - -<p>Bees also get some honey from oozing sap, some of questionable -repute from about cider mills, some from grapes and -other fruit which have been crushed, or eaten and torn by -wasps and other insects. That bees ever tear the grapes is a -question of which I have failed to receive any personal proof, -though for years I have been carefully seeking it. I have -lived among the vineyards of California, and have often -watched bees about vines in Michigan, but never saw bees -tear open the grapes. I have laid crushed grapes in the -apiary, when the bees were not gathering, and were ravenous -for stores, which, when covered with sipping bees, were -replaced with sound grape-clusters, which in no instance were -mutilated. I have thus been led to doubt if bees ever attack -sound grapes, though quick to improve the opportunities -which the oriole's beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer -them. Still, Prof. Riley feels sure that bees are sometimes -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">- 220 -</span> -thus guilty, and Mr. Bidwell tells me he has frequently seen -bees rend sound grapes, which they did with their feet. -Yet, if this is the case, it is certainly of rare occurrence, -and is more than compensated by the great aid which the -bees afford the fruit-grower in the great work of cross-fertilization, -which is imperatively necessary to his success, as has -been so well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin. -It is true that cross-fertilization of the flowers, which can only -be accomplished by insects, and early in the season by the -honey-bee, is often, if not always, necessary to a full yield of -fruit and vegetables. I am informed by Prof W. W. Tracy, -that the gardeners in the vicinity of Boston keep bees that -they may perform this duty. Even then, if Mr. Bidwell and -Prof. Riley are right, and the bee does, rarely—for surely this -is very rare, if ever—destroy grapes, still they are, beyond any -possible question, invaluable aids to the pomologist.</p> - -<p>But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers.</p> - - -<h3 id="val_hny_plnts">WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY PLANTS?</h3> - -<p>In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance -for May is the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In -June white clover yields largely of the most attractive honey, -both as to appearance and flavor. In July the incomparable -basswood makes both bees and apiarist jubilant. In August -buckwheat offers a tribute, which we welcome, though it be dark -and pungent in flavor, while with us in Michigan, August and -September give us a profusion of bloom which yields to no -other in the richness of its capacity to secrete honey, and is not -cut-off till the autumn frosts—usually about September 15.</p> - -<p>Thousands of acres of golden rod, boneset, asters, and -other autumn flowers of our new northern counties, as yet -have blushed unseen, with fragrance wasted. This unoccupied -territory, unsurpassed in its capability for fruit production, -covered with grand forests of maple and basswood, and spread -with the richest of autumn bloom, offers opportunities to the -practical apiarist rarely equaled except in the Pacific States, -and not even there, when other privileges are considered. In -these localities, two or three hundred pounds to the colony is -no surprise to the apiarist, while even four or five hundred -are not isolated cases.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">- 221 -</span></p> - -<p>In the following table will be found a list of valuable honey-plants. -Those in the first column are annual, biennial or -perennial; the annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus: (); -the biennial enclosed in brackets thus: []; while those in the -second column are shrubs or trees; the names of shrubs -being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of commencement -of bloom is, of course, not invariable. The one appended, -in case of plants which grow in our State, is about average -for Central Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in -small capitals yield very superior honey. Those with (<i>a</i>) are -useful for other purposes than honey secretion. All but those -with a * are native or very common in Michigan. Those written -in the plural refer to more than one species. Those followed -by a † are very numerous in species. Of course I have not -named all, as that would include some hundreds which have -been observed at the college, taking nearly all of the two great -orders Compositæ and Rosaceæ. I have only aimed to give -the most important, omitting many foreign plants of notoriety, -as I have had no personal knowledge of them:</p> - -<table style="width: 20em; margin: 2em auto;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="bdt2 bdb2 tdc">DATE.</td> - <td class="bdt2 bdb2 bdl tdc">Annuals or Perennials.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">April</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Dandelion.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">April and May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Strawberry. (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May and June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*White Sage, California</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May and June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Sumac, California.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May and June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Coffee Berry, California</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl"><span class="smcap">White Clover.</span> (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl"><span class="smcap">Alsike Clover.</span> (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*[<span class="smcap">Sweet Clover.</span>]</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Horehound. [Weed.]</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Ox-eyed Daisy—Bad</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Bush Honeysuckle.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Sage.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Motherwort.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*(Borage.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*(Cotton.) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Silk or Milk Weeds.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Mustard)†</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*(Rape.) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">St. John's Wort.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(<span class="smcap">Mignonette.</span>) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Corn.) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*(Teasel.) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July to August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Catnip. (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July to August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Asparagus. (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July to August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*(Rocky M't. Bee Plant)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Boneset.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Bergamot.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Figwort.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Buckwheat.) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Snap-dragon.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(<span class="smcap">Golden Rod.</span>)†</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Asters.†</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Marsh Sun-Flowers.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Tick-Seed.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Beggar-Ticks.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August to frost</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Spanish Needles.</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<table style="width: 30em; margin: 2em auto;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="bdt2 bdb2 tdc">DATE.</td> - <td class="bdt2 bdb2 bdl tdc">Shrubs or Trees.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">March and Ap'l</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Red or Soft Maple.(<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">March and Ap'l</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Poplar or Aspen.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">March and Ap'l</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Silver Maple.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">March and Ap'l</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Judas Tree.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Shad-bush.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Alder.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Maples-Sugar Maple (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Crab Apple.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Hawthorns.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May.</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl"> - <table style="margin-left:0;" summary="data1"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span style="font-size: 2em;">{</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Fruit Trees—Apple,<br /> - Plum, Cherry, Pear, etc. (<i>a</i>)</td> - </tr> - </table></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Currant and Gooseberry. (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*(Wistaria Vine-South)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Chinese Wistaria Vine—South.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May and June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Barberry.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May and June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Grape-vine.) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May and June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Tulip-tree.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">May and June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Sumac.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Wild-Plum.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Black Raspberry.) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">Locusts.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(<span class="smcap">Red Raspberry.</span>) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Blackberry.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">June to July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Sour-wood—South.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Button Bush.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl"><span class="smcap">Basswood.</span> (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Virginia Creeper.) (<i>a</i>)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July to August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Pepper-tree, Cal'a.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">July to Sept</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*(St. John's Worts.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">(Late Sumac.)</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">August to Sept.</td> - <td class="bdl1 tdl">*Red Gum, California.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">- 222 -</span></p> - - -<h4 id="desc_w_rem">DESCRIPTION WITH PRACTICAL REMARKS.</h4> - -<p>As this subject of bee pasturage is of such prime importance, -and as the interest in the subject is so great and -wide-spread, I feel that details with illustrations will be more -than warranted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig73" style="width: 348px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—<i>Maple</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig73.png" width="348" height="518" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>We have abundant experience to show that forty or fifty -colonies of bees, take the seasons as they average, are all that -a single place will sustain to the greatest advantage. Then, -how significant the fact, that when the season is the best, full -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">- 223 -</span> -three times that number of colonies will find ample resources -to keep all employed. So this subject of artificial pasturage -becomes one well worthy close study and observation. The -subject, too, is a very important one in reference to the location -of the apiary.</p> - -<p>It is well to remember in this connection, that two or three -miles should be regarded as the limit of profitable gathering. -That is, apiaries of from fifty to one hundred or more colonies, -should not be nearer than four or five miles of each other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig74" style="width: 240px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>-<i>Willow</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig74.png" width="240" height="317" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h5 id="apr_pl">APRIL PLANTS.</h5> - -<p>As we have already seen, the apiarist does not secure the -best results, even in the early spring, except the bees are -encouraged by the increase of their stores of pollen and -honey; hence, in case we do not practice stimulative feeding—and -many will not—it becomes very desirable to have some -early bloom. Happily, in all sections of the United States -our desires are not in vain.</p> - -<p>Early in spring there are many scattering wild flowers, as -the blood-root (<i>Sanguinaria canadensis</i>), liver-leaf (<i>Hepatica acutiloba</i>),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">- 224 -</span> -and various others of the crowfoot family, as -also many species of cress, which belong to the mustard -family, etc., all of which are valuable and important.</p> - -<p>The maples (<a href="#fig73">Fig, 73</a>), which are all valuable honey plants, -also contribute to the early stores. Especially valuable are -the silver maples (<i>Acer dasycarpum</i>), and the red or soft -maples (<i>Acer rubrum</i>), as they bloom so very early, long -before the leaves appear. The bees work on these, here in -Michigan, the first week of April, and often in March. They -are also magnificent shade trees, especially those that have -the weeping habit. Their early bloom is very pleasing, their -summer form and foliage beautiful, while their flaming tints -in autumn are indescribable. The foreign maples, sycamore, -<i>Acer pseudo-platanus</i>, and Norway, <i>Acer platanoides</i>, are -also very beautiful. Whether superior to ours as honey -plants, I am unable to say.</p> - -<p>The willows, too (<a href="#fig74">Fig, 74</a>), rival the maples in the early -period of bloom. Some are very early, blossoming in March, -while others, like the white willow (<i>Salix alba</i>) (<a href="#fig74">Fig, 74</a>), -bloom in May. The flowers on one tree or bush of the willow -are all pistillate, that is, have pistils, but no stamens, while -on others they are all staminate, having no pistils. On the -former, they can gather only honey, on the latter only pollen. -That the willow furnishes both honey and pollen is attested -by the fact that I saw both kinds of trees, the pistillate and -the staminate, thronged with bees the past season. The willow, -too, from its elegant form and silvery foliage, is one of -our finest shade trees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig75" style="width: 183px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—<i>Judas Tree</i></div> - <img src="images/fig75.png" width="183" height="175" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">- 225 -</span></p> - -<p>In the south of Michigan, and thence southward to Kentucky, -and even beyond, the Judas tree, or red-bud, <i>Cercis -canadensis</i> (<a href="#fig75">Fig, 75</a>), is not only worthy of cultivation as a -honey plant, but is also very attractive, and well deserving -of attention for its ornamental qualities alone. This blooms -from March to May, according to the latitude.</p> - -<p>The poplars—not the tulip—also bloom in April, and are -freely visited by the bees. The wood is immaculate, and i& -used for toothpicks. Why not use it for honey-boxes?</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig76" style="width: 431px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—<i>American Wistaria</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig76.png" width="431" height="284" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h5 id="may_pl">MAY PLANTS.</h5> - -<p>In May we have the grand sugar maple, <i>Acer saccharinum</i> -(<a href="#fig73">Fig, 73</a>), incomparable for beauty, also all our various fruit -trees, peach, cherry, plum, apple, etc., in fact all the Rosaceæ -family. Our beautiful American Wistaria, <i>Wistaria frutescens</i> -(<a href="#fig76">Fig, 76</a>), the very ornamental climber, or the still more -lovely Chinese Wistaria, <i>Wistaria sinensis</i> (<a href="#fig77">Fig, 77</a>), which -has longer racemes than the native, and often blossoms twice -in the season. These are the woody twiners for the apiarist. -The barberry, too, <i>Berberis vulgaris</i> (<a href="#fig78">Fig, 78</a>), comes after -fruit blossoms, and is thronged with bees in search of nectar -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">- 226 -</span> -in spring, as with children in winter, in quest of the beautiful -scarlet berries, so pleasingly tart.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig77" style="width: 254px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—<i>Chinese Wistaria</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig77.png" width="254" height="372" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig78" style="width: 164px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—<i>Barberry</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig78.png" width="164" height="218" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In California, the sumac, the coffee berry, and the famous -white sage (<a href="#fig79">Fig, 79</a>), keep the bees full of activity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">- 227 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig79" style="width: 475px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—<i>White Sage.</i></div> - <img src="images/fig79.png" width="475" height="714" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">- 228 -</span></p> - - -<h5 id="jun_pl">JUNE PLANTS.</h5> - -<div class="figright" id="fig80" style="width: 230px;"> - <img src="images/fig80.png" width="230" height="270" alt="" /> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—<i>White or Dutch Clover.</i></div> -</div> - -<p>With June comes the incomparable white or Dutch clover, -<i>Trifolium repens</i> (<a href="#fig80">Fig, 80</a>), whose chaste and modest bloom -betokens the beautiful, luscious, and unrivalled sweets which -are hidden in its corolla tube. Also its sister, Alsike or -Swedish, <i>Trifolium hybrida</i> (<a href="#fig81">Fig, 81</a>), which seems to resemble -both the white and red clover. It is a stronger grower than -the white, and has a whitish blossom tinged with pink. -This forms excellent pasture and hay for cattle, sheep, etc., -and may well be sown by the apiarist. It will often pay -apiarists to furnish neighbor farmers with seed as an inducement -to grow this par excellent honey plant. Like white -clover, it blooms all through June into July. Both of these -should be sown early in spring with timothy, five or six -pounds of seed to the acre, in the same manner that red -clover seed is sown.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">- 229 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig81" style="width: 362px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—<i>Alsike Clover.</i></div> - <img src="images/fig81.png" width="362" height="668" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">- 230 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig82" style="width: 203px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—<i>Melilot Clover</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig82.png" width="203" height="288" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig83" style="width: 299px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—<i>Borage</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig83.png" width="299" height="292" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Sweet clover, yellow and white, <i>Melilotus officinalis</i> -(<a href="#fig82">Fig, 82</a>), and <i>Melilotus alba</i>, are well named. They bloom from -the middle of June to the middle of July. Their perfume -scents the air for long distances, and the hum of bees that -throng their flowers is like music to the apiarist's ear. The -honey, too, is just exquisite. These clovers are biennial, not -blooming the first season, and dying after they bloom the -second season. Another disagreeable fact, they have no value -except for honey. They are said to become pernicious weeds -if allowed to spread.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">- 231 -</span></p> - -<p>The other clovers—lucerne, yellow trefoil, scarlet trefoil, and -alfalfa—have not proved of any value with us, perhaps owing -to locality.</p> - -<p>Borage, <i>Borago officinalis</i> (<a href="#fig83">Fig, 83</a>), an excellent bee -plant, blooms from June till frost, and is visited by bees even -in very rainy weather. It seems not to be a favorite, but is -eagerly visited when all others fail to yield nectar.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" id="fig84"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—<i>Mignonette</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig84.png" width="125" height="231" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdc" id="fig85"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—<i>Okra</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig85.png" width="238" height="248" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>Mignonette, <i>Reseda odorata</i> (<a href="#fig84">Fig, 84</a>), blooms from the -middle of June till frost, is unparalleled for its sweet odor, -furnishes nectar in profusion, and is well worthy cultivation. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">- 232 -</span> -It does not secrete well in wet weather, but in favorable -weather it is hardly equalled.</p> - -<p>Okra or gumbo, <i>Hibiscus esculentus</i>, (<a href="#fig85">Fig, 85</a>), also blooms -in June. It is as much sought after by the bees in quest of -honey, as by the cook in search of a savory vegetable, or one -to give tone to soup.</p> - -<p>Sage, <i>Salvia officinalis</i>, horehound, <i>Marrubium vulgare</i>, -motherwort, <i>Leonurus cardiaca</i>, and catnip, <i>Nepeta cataria</i>, -which latter does not commence to bloom till July, all furnish -nice white honey, remain in bloom a long time, and are very -desirable, as they are in bloom in the honey dearth of July -and August. They, like many others of the mint family -(<a href="#fig86">Fig, 86</a>), are thronged with bees during the season of bloom.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig86" style="width: 249px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—<i>Mint</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig86.png" width="249" height="270" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The first and last are of commercial importance, and all may -well be introduced by apiarists, wherever there is any space -or waste ground.</p> - -<p>The silk or milk-weed furnishes abundant nectar from -June to frost, as there are several species of the genus -Asclepias, which is wide-spread in our country. This is the -plant which has large pollen masses which often adhere to -the legs of bees (<a href="#fig87">Fig, 87</a>), and sometimes so entrap them as -to cause their death. Prof. Riley once very graciously advised -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">- 233 -</span> -planting them to kill bees. I say graciously, as I have -watched these very closely, and am sure they do little harm, -and are rich in nectar. Seldom a bee gets caught so as to -hold it long, and when these awkward masses are carried -away with the bee, they are usually left at the door of the -hive, where I have often seen them in considerable numbers. -The river bank hard by our apiary is lined with these -sweet-smelling herbs, and we would like even more.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" id="fig87"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—<i>Pollen of Milk-weed</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig87.png" width="138" height="129" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdc" id="fig88"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—<i>Black Mustard</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig88.png" width="175" height="299" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Black mustard, <i>Sinapis nigra</i> (<a href="#fig88">Fig, 88</a>) white mustard, -<i>Sinapis alba</i>, and rape, <i>Brassica campestris</i> (<a href="#fig89">Fig, 89</a>), -all look much alike, and are all admirable bee plants, -as they furnish much and beautiful honey. The first, if self-sown, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">- 234 -</span> -blooms July 1st, the others June 1st; the first about -eight weeks after sowing, the others about four. The mustards -bloom for four weeks, rape for three. These are all -specially commendable, as they may be made to bloom during -the honey dearth of July and August, and are valuable plants -to raise for the seed. Rape seems to be very attractive to -insects, as the flea beetles and the blister beetles are often -quite too much for it, though they do not usually destroy the -plants till after they have blossomed. I have several times -purchased what purported to be Chinese mustard, dwarf and -tall, but Prof. Beal, than whom there is no better authority, -tells me they are only the white and black, and certainly, they -are no whit better as bee plants. These plants, with buckwheat, -the mints, borage and mignonette, are specially -interesting, as they cover, or may be made to cover, the honey -dearth from about July 20th to August 20th.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig89" style="width: 243px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—<i>Rape</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig89.png" width="243" height="300" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The mustards and rape may be planted in drills about eight -inches apart, any time from May 1st to July 15th. Four -quarts will sow an acre.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">- 235 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig90" style="width: 395px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—<i>Tulip</i></div> - <img src="images/fig90.png" width="395" height="532" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In this month blooms the tulip tree, <i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i> -(<a href="#fig90">Fig, 90</a>)—often called poplar in the South—which is -not only an excellent honey producer, but is one of our most -stately and admirable shade-trees. Now, too, bloom the -sumacs, though one species blooms in May, the wild plum, -the raspberries, whose nectar is unsurpassed in color and -flavor, and the blackberry. Corn, too, is said by many to yield -largely of honey as well as pollen, and the teasel, <i>Dipsacus -fullonum</i> (<a href="#fig91">Fig, 91</a>), is said, not only by Mr. Doolittle, but -by English and German apiarists, to yield richly of beautiful -honey. This last, too, has commercial importance. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">- 236 -</span> -blackberry opens its petals in June, and also the fragrant -locust, which, from its rapid growth, beautiful form and handsome -foliage, would rank among our first shade trees, except -that it is so tardy in spreading its canopy of green, and so -liable to ruinous attack by the borers, which last peculiarity it -shares with the incomparable maples. Washing the trunks -of the trees in June and July with soft soap, will in great -part remove this trouble.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig91" style="width: 290px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—<i>Teasel</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig91.png" width="290" height="270" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig92" style="width: 161px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—<i>Cotton</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig92.png" width="161" height="220" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Now, too, our brothers of the South reap a rich harvest -from the great staple, cotton (<a href="#fig92">Fig, 92</a>), which commences to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">- 237 -</span> -bloom early in June, and remains in blossom even to October. -This belongs to the same family—Mallow—as the hollyhock, -and like it, blooms and fruits through the season.</p> - - -<h5 id="jul_pl">JULY PLANTS.</h5> - -<p>Early in this month opens the far-famed basswood or linden, -<i>Tilia Americana</i> (<a href="#fig93">Fig, 93</a>), which, for the profusion -and quality of its honey has no superior. The tree, too, from -its great spreading top and fine foliage, is magnificent for -shade. Five of these trees are within two rods of my study -window, and their grateful fragrance, and beautiful form and -shade, have often been the subject of remark by visitors.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig93" style="width: 274px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—<i>Basswood</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig93.png" width="274" height="310" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Figwort, <i>Scrophularia nodosa</i> (<a href="#fig94">Fig, 94</a>), often called rattle-weed, -as the seeds will rattle in the pod, and carpenter's -square, as it has a square stalk, is an insignificant looking -weed, with inconspicuous flowers, that afford abundant nectar -from the middle of July till frost. I have received almost as -many for identification as I have of the asters and golden-rods. -Prof. Beal remarked to me a year or two since, that it -hardly seemed possible that it could be so valuable. We -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">- 238 -</span> -cannot always rightly estimate by appearances alone. It is a -very valuable plant to be scattered in waste places.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig94" style="width: 224px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—<i>Figwort</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig94.png" width="224" height="264" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>That beautiful and valuable honey plant, from Minnesota, -Colorado, and the Rocky Mountains, cleome, or the Rocky -Mountain bee-plant, <i>Cleome integrifolia</i> (<a href="#fig96">Fig, 96</a>), if -self-sown, or sown early in spring, blooms by the middle of July, -and lasts for long weeks. Nor can anything be more gay -than these brilliant flowers, alive with bees all through the -long fall. This should be planted in fall or spring, in drills -two feet apart, the plants six inches apart in the drills. The -seeds, which grow in pods, are very numerous, and are said -to be valuable for chickens. Now, too, commence to bloom -the numerous eupatoriums, or bonesets, or thoroughworts -(<a href="#fig97">Fig, 97</a>), which fill the marshes of our country, and the hives -as well, with their rich golden nectar—precursors of that profusion -of bloom of this composite order, whose many species -are even now budding in preparation for the sea of flowers -which will deck the marsh-lands of August and September. -Wild bergamot, too, <i>Monarda fistulosa</i>, which, like the -thistles, is of importance to the apiarist, blooms in July.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig95" style="width: 308px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—<i>Button Bush</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig95.png" width="308" height="360" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">- 239 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig96" style="width: 426px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—<i>Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig96.png" width="426" height="650" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">- 240 -</span></p> - -<p>The little shrub of our marshes, appropriately named button-bush, -<i>Cephalanthus occidentalis</i>, (<a href="#fig95">Fig, 95</a>), also shares -the attention of the bees with the linden; while apiarists -of the South find the sour-wood, or sorrel tree, <i>Oxydendrum -arboreum</i>, a valuable honey tree. This belongs to the Heath -family, which includes the far-famed heather bloom of England. -It also includes our whortleberry, cranberry, blueberry, -and one plant which has no enviable reputation, as furnishing -honey, which is very poisonous, even fatal to those who eat, -the mountain laurel, <i>Kalmia latifolia</i>. Yet, a near relative -of the South <i>Andromeda nitida</i>, is said to furnish beautiful -and wholesome honey in great quantities. The Virginia -creeper also blooms in July. I wish I could say that this -beautiful vine, transplendent in autumn, is a favorite with the -honey-bee. Though it often, nay always, swarms with wild -bees when in blossom, yet I never saw a honey-bee visit the -ample bloom amidst its rich, green, vigorous foliage. Now, -too, the St. John's wort, <i>Hypericum</i>, with its many species, -both shrubby and herbaceous, offers bountiful contributions -to the delicious stores of the honey-bee. The catnip, too, -<i>Nepeta cataria</i>, and our cultivated asparagus—which if -uncut in spring will bloom in June—so delectable for the -table, and so elegant for trimming table meats and for banquets -in autumn, come now to offer their nectarian gifts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">- 241 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig97" style="width: 444px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—<i>Boneset</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig97.png" width="444" height="650" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">- 242 -</span></p> - - -<h5 id="aug_pl">AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER PLANTS.</h5> - -<p>The cultivated buckwheat, <i>Fagopyrum esculentum</i>, (<a href="#fig98">Fig, 98</a>), -usually blooms in August, as it is sown the first of July—three -pecks per acre is the amount to sow—but by sowing -the first of June, it may be made to bloom the middle of -July, when there is generally, in most localities, an absence -of nectar-secreting flowers. The honey is inferior in color -and flavor, though some people prefer this to all other honey. -The silver-leaf buckwheat blooms longer, has more numerous -flowers, and thus yields more grain than the common variety.</p> - -<p>Now, too, come the numerous golden-rods. The species of -this genus, <i>Solidago</i> (<a href="#fig99">Fig, 99</a>), in the Eastern United States, -number nearly two-score, and occupy all kinds of soils, and -are at home on upland, prairie and morass. They yield -abundantly of rich, golden honey, with flavor that is unsurpassed -by any other. Fortunate the apiarist who can boast of a -thicket of Solidagoes in his locality.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" id="fig98"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—<i>Buckwheat</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig98.png" width="240" height="291" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdc" id="fig99"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—<i>Golden-Rod</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig99.png" width="235" height="349" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">- 243 -</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig100" style="width: 165px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—<i>Aster</i>.</div> - <img src="images/fig100.png" width="165" height="146" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The many plants usually styled sun-flowers, because of -their resemblance to our cultivated plants of that name, -which deck the hill-side, meadow and marsh-land, now unfurl -their showy involucres, and open their modest corollas, to invite -the myriad insects to sip the precious nectar which -each of the clustered flowers secretes. Our cultivated sun-flowers, -I think, are indifferent honey plants, though some -think them big with beauty, and their seeds are relished by -poultry. But the asters (<a href="#fig100">Fig, 100</a>), so wide-spread, the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">- 244 -</span> -beggar-ticks, <i>Bidens</i>, and Spanish-needles of our marshes, -the tick-seed, <i>Coreopsis</i>, also, of the low, marshy places, -with hundreds more of the great family Compositæ, are replete -with precious nectar, and with favorable seasons make the -apiarist who dwells in their midst jubilant, as he watches the -bees, which fairly flood the hives with their rich and delicious -honey. In all of this great family, the flowers are small and -inconspicuous, clustered in compact heads, and when the -plants are showy with bloom, like the sun-flowers, the brilliancy -is due to the involucre, or bracts which serve as a frill to decorate -the more modest flowers.</p> - -<p>I have thus mentioned the most valuable honey plants of -our country. Of course there are many omissions. Let all -apiarists, by constant observation, help to fill up the list.</p> - - -<h4 id="botany">BOOK ON BOTANY.</h4> - -<p>I am often asked what books are best to make apiarists -botanists. I am glad to answer this question, as the study of -botany will not only be valuable discipline, but will also furnish -abundant pleasure, and more, give important practical -information. Gray's Lessons, and Manual of Botany, in one -volume, published by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., New -York, is the most desirable treatise on this subject.</p> - - -<h5 id="pract_con">PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS.</h5> - -<p>It will pay well for the apiarist to decorate his grounds -with soft and silver maples, for their beauty and early bloom. -If his soil is rich, sugar maples and lindens may well serve a -similar purpose. The Judas tree, too, and tulip trees, both -North and South, may well be made to ornament the apiarist's -home. For vines, obtain the wistarias.</p> - -<p>Sow and encourage the sowing of Alsike clover and silver-leaf -buckwheat in your neighborhood. Be sure that your -wife, children and bees, can often repair to a large bed of the -new giant or grandiflora mignonette, and remember that it, -with cleome and borage, blooms till frost. Study the bee -plants of your region, and then study the above table, and provide -for a succession, remembering that the mustards, rape and -buckwheat may be made to bloom almost at pleasure, by sowing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">- 245 -</span> -at the proper time. Don't forget that borage and the -mustards seem comparatively indifferent to wet weather. Be -sure that all waste places are stocked with motherwort, catnip, -asters, etc. (See<a href="#Page_289"> Appendix, page 289</a>).</p> - -<p>The above dates are only true for the most part in Michigan -and Northern Ohio, and for more Southern latitudes must -be varied, which by comparison of a few, as the fruit trees, -becomes no difficult matter.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">- 246 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">WINTERING BEES.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>This is a subject, of course, of paramount importance to -the apiarist, as this is the rock on which some of even the -most successful have recently split. Yet I come fearlessly -to consider this question, as from all the multitude of disasters -I see no occasion for discouragement. If the problem -of successful wintering has not been solved already, it surely -will be, and that speedily. So important an interest was -never yet vanquished by misfortune, and there is no reason to -think that history is now going to be reversed. Even the -worst aspect of the case—in favor of which I think, though -in opposition to such excellent apiarists as Marvin, Heddon, -etc., that there is no proof, and but few suggestions even—that -these calamities are the effects of an epidemic, would be -all powerless to dishearten men trained to reason from effect -to cause. Even an epidemic—which would by no means skip -by the largest, finest apiaries, owned and controlled by the -wisest, most careful, and most thoughtful, as has been the -case in the late "winters of our discontent," nor only choose -winters of excessive cold, or following great drouth and -absence of honey secretion in which to work its havoc—would -surely yield to man's invention.</p> - - -<h3 id="dis_wint">THE CAUSE OF DISASTROUS WINTERING.</h3> - -<p>Epidemic, then, being set aside as no factor in the solution, -to what shall we ascribe such wide-spread disasters? I fully -believe, and to no branch of this subject have I given more -thought, study, and observation, that all the losses may be -traced either to unwholesome food, failure in late breeding -of the previous year, extremes of temperature, or to protracted -cold with excessive dampness. I know from actual -and wide-spread observation, that the severe loss of 1870 and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">- 247 -</span> -1871 was attended in this part of Michigan with unsuitable -honey in the hive. The previous autumn was unprecedentedly -dry. Flowers were rare, and storing was largely from insect secretion, -and consequently the stores were unwholesome. I tasted -of honey from many hives only to find it most nauseating. I -fully believe that had the honey been thoroughly extracted the -previous autumn, and the bees fed good honey or sugar, no -loss would have been experienced. At least it is significant -that all who did so, escaped, even where their neighbors all -failed. Nor less so the fact that when I discovered eight of -my twelve colonies dead, and four more just alive, I cleaned -the remaining ones all out, and to one no worse nor better -than the others I gave good capped honey stored early the -previous summer, while the others were left with their old -stores, that one lived and gave the best record I have ever -known, the succeeding season, while all the others died.</p> - -<p>Again, suppose that after the basswood season in July, -there is no storing of honey, either from want of space, or -from lack of bloom. In this case brood-rearing ceases. Yet -if the weather is dry and warm, as of course it will be in -August and September, the bees continue to wander about, -death comes apace, and by autumn the bees are reduced in -numbers, old in days, and illy prepared to brave the winter -and perform the duties of spring. I fully believe that if all -the colonies of our State and country had been kept breeding -by proper use of the extractor, and feeding, even till into -October, we should have had a different record, especially as -to spring dwindling, and consequent death. In the autumn -of 1872 I kept my bees breeding till the first of October. -The following winter I had no loss, while my neighbors lost -all of their bees.</p> - -<p>Extremes of heat and cold are also detrimental to the bees. -If the temperature of the hive becomes too high the bees -become restless, fat more than they ought, and if confined to -their hives are distended with their fœces, become diseased, -besmear their comb and hives, and die. If when they become -thus disturbed, they could have a purifying flight, all would -be well.</p> - -<p>Again, if the temperature becomes extremely low, the bees to -keep up the animal heat must take more food; they are uneasy, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">- 248 -</span> -exhale much moisture, which may settle and freeze on the -outer combs about the cluster, preventing the bees from getting -the needed food, and thus in this case both dysentery and -starvation confront the bees. That able and far-seeing -apiarist the lamented M. Quinby, was one of the first to -discover this fact; and here as elsewhere gave advice that if -heeded, would have saved great loss and sore disappointment.</p> - -<p>I have little doubt, in fact I know from actual investigation, -that in the past severe winters, those bees which under confinement -have been subject to severe extremes, are the ones -that have invariably perished. Had the bees been kept in a -uniform temperature ranging from 35° to 45° F., the record -would have been materially changed.</p> - -<p>Excessive moisture, too, especially in cases of protracted -cold, is always to be avoided. Bees, like all other animals, -are constantly giving off moisture, which of course will be -accelerated if the bees become disturbed, and are thus led to -consume more food. This moisture not only acts as explained -above, but also induces fungous growths. The mouldy comb is -not wholesome, though it may never cause death. Hence -another necessity of sufficient warmth to drive this moisture -from the hive and some means to absorb it without opening -the hive above and permitting a current, which will disturb -the bees, and cause the greater consumption of honey.</p> - - -<h3 id="safe_wint">THE REQUISITE TO SAFE WINTERING—GOOD FOOD.</h3> - -<p>To winter safely, then, demands that the bees have thirty -pounds by weight not guess—I have known three cases when -guessing meant starvation—of good capped honey (coffee A -sugar is just as good). If desired this may be fed as previously -explained, which should be done so early that all will -be capped during the warm days of October. Let us be wary -how we trust even crystallized glucose. It might be safe -during a warm winter, when the bees would have frequent -flights, yet prove disastrous in a cold winter. Let us use it -cautiously till its merits are assured. I prefer, too, that some -of the comb in the centre of the hive has empty cells, to give -a better chance to cluster, and that all the combs have a -small hole through the centre, that the bees may pass freely -through. This hole may simply be cut with a knife, or a tin -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">- 249 -</span> -tube the size of one's finger may be driven through the comb, -and left in if desired, in which case the comb should be -pushed out of the tube, and the tube be no longer than the -comb is thick. This perforatory work I always do early in -October, when I extract all uncapped honey, take out all -frames after I have given them the 30 lbs., <i>by weight</i>, of -honey, confine the space with a division-board, cover with the -quilt and chaff, and then leave undisturbed till the cold of -November calls for further care.</p> - - -<h4 id="sec_late_breeding">SECURE LATE BREEDING.</h4> - -<p>Keep the bees breeding till the first of October. Except -in years of excessive drouth, this will occur in many parts -of Michigan without extra care. Failure may result from the -presence of worthless queens. Any queens which seem not -to be prolific should be superseded whenever the fact becomes -evident. <i>I regard this as most important.</i> Few know how -much is lost by tolerating feeble, impotent queens in the -apiary, whose ability can only keep the colonies alive. Never -keep such queens about. Here, then, is another reason for -always keeping extra queens on hand. Even with excellent -queens, a failure in the honey yield may cause breeding to -cease. In such cases, we have only to feed as directed under -the head of feeding.</p> - - -<h4 id="sec_maint_temp">TO SECURE AND MAINTAIN THE PROPER TEMPERATURE.</h4> - -<p>We ought also to provide against extremes of temperature. -It is desirable to keep the temperature between 35° and 50° -F. through the entire winter, from November to April. If -no cellar or house is at hand, this maybe accomplished as -follows: Some pleasant dry day in late October or early November, -raise the stand and place straw beneath; then surround -the hive with a box a foot outside the hive, with -movable top and open on the east; or else have a long wooden -tube, opposite the entrance, to permit flight. This tube -should be six or eight inches square, to permit easy -examination in winter. The same end may be gained -by driving stakes and putting boards around. When we -crowd between the box and the hive either straw, chaff, or -shavings. After placing a good thickness of straw above the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">- 250 -</span> -hive, lay on the cover of the box, or cover with boards. -This preserves against changes of temperature during the -winter, and also permits the bees to fly if it becomes necessary -from a protracted period of warm winter weather. I -have thus kept all my bees safely during two of the disastrous -winters.</p> - -<p>As there is at present no plan of wintering, which promises -to serve so well for all our apiarists, in view of its cheapness, -ease, convenience, and universal efficiency, I will describe in -detail the box now in use at the College, which costs only -one dollar per hive, and which is convenient to store away in -summer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig101" style="width: 378px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig101.png" width="378" height="341" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h3 id="bx4pack">BOX FOR PACKING.</h3> - -<p>The sides of this (<a href="#fig101">Fig, 101, <i>a, a</i></a>), facing east and west are -three and a half feet long, two feet high on the south end, -and two and a half feet on the north. They are in one piece, -which is secured by nailing the boards which form them to -cleats, which are one inch from the ends. The north end -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">- 251 -</span> -(<a href="#fig101">Fig, 101, <i>b</i></a>) is three feet by two and a half feet, the south -(<a href="#fig101">Fig. 101, <i>b</i></a>), three feet by two, and made the same as are the -sides. The slanting top of the sides (<a href="#fig101">Fig. 101, <i>a, a</i></a>) is made -by using for the upper board, the strip formed by sawing -diagonally from corner to corner a board six inches wide and -three feet long. The cover (<a href="#fig101">Fig. 101, <i>g</i></a>), which is removed -in the figure, is large enough to cover the top and project one -inch at both ends. It should be battened, and held in one -piece by cleats (<a href="#fig101">Fig. 101, <i>h</i></a>) four inches wide, nailed on to -the ends. These will drop over the ends of the box, and thus -hold the cover in place, and prevent rain and snow from -driving in. When in place this slanting cover permits the -rain to run off easily, and will dry quickly after a storm. -By a single nail at each corner the four sides may be -tacked together about the hives, when they can be packed -in with straw (<a href="#fig101">Fig. 101</a>), which should be carefully done if -the day is cold, so as not to disquiet the bees. At the centre -and bottom of the east side (<a href="#fig101">Fig. 101, <i>c</i></a>), cut out a square -eight inches each way, and between this and the hive place -a bottomless tube (the top of this tube is represented as -removed in figure to show entrance to hive), before putting -around the straw and adding the cover. This box should be -put in place before the bleak cold days of November, and -retained in position till the stormy winds of April are passed -by. This permits the bees to fly when very warm weather -comes in winter or spring, and requires no attention from the -apiarist. By placing two or three hives close together in -autumn—<i>yet never move the colonies more than three or -four feet</i> at any one time, as such removals involve the loss -of many bees—one box may be made to cover all, and at less -expense. Late in April these may be removed and packed -away, and the straw carried away, or removed a short distance -and burned.</p> - - -<h3 id="chaff_hives">CHAFF HIVES.</h3> - -<p>Messrs. Townley, Butler, Root, and others, prefer chaff -hives, which are simply double-walled hives, with the four or -five inch chambers filled with chaff. The objection to these -I take to be: First, Danger that so limited a space would -not answer in severe seasons; Second, That such cumbrous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">- 252 -</span> -hives would be inconvenient to handle in summer; and, -Third, A matter of expense. That they would in part supply -the place of shade, is, perhaps, in their favor, while Mr. A. I. -Root thinks they are not expensive.</p> - - -<h3 id="wint_in_cellar">WINTERING IN CELLAR OR HOUSE.</h3> - -<p>With large apiaries the above method is expensive, and -specialists may prefer a cellar or special depository, which I -think are quite as safe, though they demand attention and -perhaps labor in winter. After my experience in the winter -of 1874 and 1875, losing all my bees by keeping them in a -house with double walls filled in with sawdust, in which the -thermometer indicated a temperature below zero for several -weeks, in which time my strongest colonies literally starved -to death in the manner already described, I hesitate to -recommend a house above ground for Michigan, though with -very numerous colonies it might do. Such a house must, if -it answer the purpose, keep an equable temperature, at least -3° and not more than 10° above freezing, be perfectly dark, -and ventilated with tubes above and below, so arranged as to -be closed or opened at pleasure, and not admit a ray of light.</p> - -<p>A cellar in which we are sure of our ability to control the -temperature, needs to be also dry, dark, and quiet, and ventilated -as described above. As already stated, the ventilator -to bring air may well be made of tile, and pass through the -earth for some feet and then open at the bottom of the -cellar. If possible, the ventilator that carries the foul air off -should be connected with a stove pipe in a room above, with -its lower end reaching to the bottom of the cellar. The -College apiary cellar is grouted throughout, which makes it -more dry and neat. Of course it should be thoroughly drained.</p> - -<p>The colonies should be put into the depository when the -hives are dry, <i>before cold weather</i>, and should remain -till April; though in January and March, if there are -days that are warm, they should be taken out and the bees -permitted to fly, though not unless they seem uneasy and -soil the entrance to their hives. <i>Always</i> when taken out -they should be placed on their old stands, so that no bees -may be lost. Towards night, when all are quiet, return -them to the cellar. I would not remove bees till towards -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">- 253 -</span> -night, as it is better that they have a good flight, and then -become quiet. When moved out it is <i>very</i> desirable to brush -away all dead bees which is an argument in favor of a movable -bottom-board. In moving the hives, great care should be -exercised not to jar them. It were better if the bees should -not know that they were being moved at all.</p> - -<p>That the moisture may be absorbed, I cover the bees with -a quilt, made of coarse factory cloth, enclosing a layer of -cotton batting. Above this I fill in with straw which is -packed in so closely that the cover may be removed without -the straw falling out. If desirable the straw may be cut—or -chaff may be used—and may be confined in a bag made of -factory, so that it resembles a pillow. I now use these and -like them. This is not only an excellent absorbent, but -preserves the heat, and may well remain, till the following -June.</p> - -<p>I have found it advantageous, when preparing my bees for -winter, in October, to contract the chamber by use of a division -board. This is very desirable if wintered out doors, and -with frames a foot square is very easily accomplished. By -use of eight frames the space (one cubic foot) is very compact, -and serves to economize the heat, not only in winter, but in -spring. By thus using a division board with only three -frames, I have been very successful in wintering nuclei. We -have only to guard against low temperature.</p> - -<p>Perhaps I ought to say that all colonies should be strong -in autumn; but I have said before, never have weak colonies. -Yet for fear some have been negligent. I remark that weak -colonies should be united in preparing for winter. To do this, -approximate the colonies each day four or five feet till they -are side by side. Now remove the poorest queen, then smoke -thoroughly, sprinkle both colonies with sweetened water -scented with essence of peppermint, putting a sufficient number -of the best frames and all the bees into one of the hives, and -then set this midway between the position of the hives at the -commencement of the uniting. The bees will unite peaceably, -and make a strong colony. Uniting colonies may pay at -other seasons. It may seem rash to some, yet I fully believe -that if the above suggestions are carried out in full, I may -guarantee successful wintering. But if we do lose our bees—with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">- 254 -</span> -all our hives, combs and honey, we can buy colonies in -the spring, with a perfect certainty of making 200 or 300 per -cent, on our investment. Even with the worst condition of -things, we are still ahead, in way of profit, of most other -vocations.</p> - - -<h3 id="bury_hives">BURYING BEES.</h3> - -<p>Another way to winter safely and very economically, is to -bury the bees. If this is practiced the ground should either -be sandy or <i>well drained</i>. If we can choose a side-hill it should -be done. Beneath the hives and around them, straw should -be placed. I should advise leaving the entrance well open, -yet secure against mice. <i>The hives should all be placed -beneath the surface</i> level of the earth, then form a mound -above them sufficient to preserve against extreme warmth or -cold. A trench about the mound to carry the water off -quickly is desirable. In this arrangement the ground acts as -a moderator. Five colonies thus treated the past winter, -(1877-8) lost all told less than one-half gill of bees. As this -method has not been so long tried, as the others, I would -suggest caution. Try it with a few colonies, till you are -assured as to the best arrangement, and of its efficacy. I am -inclined to think that it is next to a good snow-bank, as a -winter repository.</p> - - -<h3 id="spr_dwindling">SPRING DWINDLING.</h3> - -<p>As already suggested, this is not to be feared if we keep -our bees breeding till late autumn. It may be further -prevented by forbidding late autumn flights, frequent flights -in winter, when the weather is warm, and too early flying in -spring. These may all be curtailed or prevented by the packing -system as described above, as thus prepared the bees will -not feel the warmth, and so will remain quiet in the hive. -Nine colonies which I have packed have been remarkably -quiet, and are in excellent condition this, February 25th, -while two others unpacked have flown day after day, much, -I fear, to their injury. I would leave bees in the packing -till near May, and in the cellar or ground, till early flowers -bloom, that we may secure against too rapid demise of bees in -spring.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">- 255 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">THE HOUSE APIARY.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<h3 id="desc">DESCRIPTION.</h3> - -<p>This is a double-walled house, which may be rectangular -or octagonal in form. The outer wall should be of brick, and -made as thin as possible. Inside of this there should be -wooden strips two-inches thick, which should receive a layer -of paper-sheeting inside, which may be held by nailing strips -two-inches wide immediately inside the first mentioned strips. -These last strips should receive lath, after which all should -be plastered. This may cost more than a purely wooden -structure, but it will be more nearly frost-proof than any -other kind of wall, and in the end will be the cheapest. -There will be two dead air-chambers, each two inches deep, -one between the paper and brick, the other between the paper -and the plaster. The entire wall will be at least eight inches -thick. If desired, it may be made less thick by using one-inch -strips, though for our very severe winters the above is -none too thick. The doors and windows should be double and -should all shut closely against rubber. The outer ones should -consist of glass, and should be so hung as to swing out, and -in hot weather should be replaced with door, and window-screens, -of coarse, painted, wire gauze. A small window just -above each colony of bees is quite desirable.</p> - -<p>Somewhere in the walls there should be a ventilating tube—a -brick flue would be very good—which should open into -the room just above the floor. Above it might open into the -attic, which should be well aired. Ventilators such as are -so common on barns might be used.</p> - -<p>The pipe for admitting air, should, as in the cellar before -described, pass through the ground and enter the floor from -below. A good cellar, well ventilated and thoroughly dry -will be convenient, and should not be neglected. I would -have the building but one story, with joists in ceiling above -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">- 256 -</span> -eight inches thick. Above these I would sheet with building -paper, fastened by nailing strips two inches deep on top, -above which I would ceil with matched boards. I should -lath and plaster below the joists. The hives, which are to be -kept constantly in this house, may rest on two rows of shelves, -one at the floor, the other three feet high, and should be arranged -for both top and side storing in the small section -frames. Indeed, the hive need only consist of the two rabbeted -side-boards (<a href="#fig30">Fig, 30, <i>c</i></a>), and a division-board with -quilt. The entrances of course pass through the wall. An -alighting-board, so hinged as to be let down in summer, but -tightly closed over the entrance during very severe winter -weather, I should think would be very desirable. Between -the double windows, which it will be remembered shut closely -against rubber, sacks of chaff may be placed in winter, if -found necessary to keep the proper temperature. With few -colonies this might be very necessary. The adjacent entrances -should vary in color, so that young queens would not go -astray, when they returned from their "Marriage flight."</p> - - -<h3 id="deirable">ARE THEY DESIRABLE?</h3> - -<p>As yet, I think this question cannot be answered. Some -who have tried them, among whom are Messrs. Russell and -Heddon, of this State, pronounce against them. Perhaps -they have faulty houses, perhaps they have had too brief an experience -to judge correctly. Others, among whom are Messrs. -A. I. Root, Burch, and Nellis, have tried them, and are loud -in their favor. I think these first trials are hardly conclusive, -as perfection seldom comes in any system with the first experience. -That the early use of these houses has met with so -much favor, seems to argue that with more experience, and -greater perfection, they may become popular. Yet I would -urge people to be slow to adopt these costly houses, as enough -will do so to thoroughly test the matter; when, if they prove -a desideratum, all can build; whereas, if they prove worthless, -we shall not have to regret money squandered, in the -adoption of what was of doubtful value.</p> - - -<h3 id="the_case">THE CASE AS IT NOW STANDS.</h3> - -<p>The desirable points as they now appear, are: First. The -bees are in condition to winter with no trouble or anxiety. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">- 257 -</span> -Second. The bees are handled in the house, and as they fly at -once to the windows, where they can be suffered to escape, -they are very easily and safely handled, even with little or no -protection. Third. As we can extract, manipulate honey -boxes, etc., right in the same house, it is desirable on the -score of convenience. Fourth. As the bees are protected -from the sudden rise of the out-door temperature, they will -be kept from frequent flights during the cold, forbidding days -of fall, winter and spring, and will thus be more secure against -spring dwindling. Fifth. As the bees are so independent of -out-door heat, because of the thick walls, with intervening-air-spaces, -they are found less inclined to swarm. Sixth. -We can lock our house, and know that thieves cannot steal -our hard-earned property.</p> - -<p>The objections to them are: First. The bees leave the -hives while being handled, crawl about the house, from which -it is difficult to dislodge them, especially the young bees. -This objection may disappear with improved houses and practice. -Second. In very severe winters, like that of 1874 and -1875, they may not offer sufficient protection, yet they would -be much safer than chaff hives, as there would be many colonies -all mutually helping each other to maintain the requisite -temperature, and the walls might be even thicker than specified -above, without any serious inconvenience. Third. Some -think it pleasanter and more desirable to handle bees out-doors, -where all is unconfined. Fourth. The cost of the -house; yet this is only for once in a life-time, and saves providing -shade, sawdust, packing-boxes, complex hives, etc.</p> - -<p>So, we see the question is too complex to be settled except -by careful experiment, and this, too, for a series of years. -There are so many now in use in the various States, that the -question must soon be settled. I predict that these structures -will grow more and more into favor.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">- 258 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>There are various dangers that are likely to vex the apiarist, -and even to stand in the way of successful apiculture.—Yet, -with knowledge, most, if not all of these evils may be -wholly vanquished. Among these are: Robbing among the -bees, disease, and depredations from other animals.</p> - - -<h3 id="robbing">ROBBING.</h3> - -<p>This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inexperienced. -Bees only rob at such times as the general -scarcity of nectar forbids honest gains. When the question -comes: Famine or theft, like many another, they are not -slow to choose the latter. It is often induced by working -with the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered -about or left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be -feared in spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both -honey and bees, and thus are unable to protect their own -meager stores. The remedies for this evil are not far to -seek:</p> - -<p>First. Strong colonies are <i>very rarely</i> molested, and are -almost sure to defend themselves against marauders; hence, -it is only the weaklings of the apiarist's flock that are in -danger. Therefore, regard for our motto, "Keep all colonies -strong," will secure against harm from this cause.</p> - -<p>Second. Italians, as before stated, are fully able, and quite -as ready, to protect their rights against neighboring tramps. -Woe be to the thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred -rights of the home of our beautiful Italians. For such -temerity is almost sure to cost the intruder its life.</p> - -<p>But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and those too of black -bees, are still easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing -of the entrance so that but a single bee can pass through, is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">- 259 -</span> -all sufficient. With the hive we have recommended, this is -easily accomplished by simply moving the hive back.</p> - -<p>Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to -move them into the cellar for a few days. This is a further -advantage, as less food is eaten, and the strength of the individual -bees is conserved by the quiet, and as there is no -nectar in the fields no loss is suffered.</p> - -<p>In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey gathering, -we cannot be too careful to keep all honey from the bees -unless placed in the hives. The hives, too, should not be -kept open long at a time. Neat, quick work should be the -watch-word. During times when robbers are essaying to -practice their nefarious designs, the bees are likely to be -more than usually irritable, and likely to resent intrusion; -hence the importance of more than usual caution, if it is -desired to introduce a queen.</p> - - -<h3 id="disease">DISEASE.</h3> - -<p>The common dysentery—indicated by the bees soiling their -hives, as they void their feces within instead of without—which -has been so free, of late, to work havoc in our apiaries, -is, without doubt, I think, consequent upon wrong management -on the part of the apiarist, as already suggested in -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Chapter XVII</a>. As the methods to prevent this have already -been sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible</p> - - -<h3 id="foul_brood">FOUL BROOD.</h3> - -<p>This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle—though -this is doubtful, as a stench attends common dysentery—though -it has occurred in our State as well as in States -about us, is not familiar to me, I having never seen but one -case, and that on Kelly's Island, in the summer of 1875, -where I found it had reduced the colonies on that Island to -two. No bee malady can compare with this in malignancy. -By it Dzierzon once lost his whole apiary of 500 colonies.—Mr. -E. Rood, first President of the Michigan Association, has -lost his bees two or three times by this same terrible plague.</p> - -<p>The symptoms are as follows: Decline in the prosperity -of the colony, because of failure to rear brood. The brood -seems to putrefy, becomes "brown and salvy," and gives off a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">- 260 -</span> -stench, which is by no means agreeable, while later, the caps -are concave instead of convex, and have a little hole through -them.</p> - -<p>There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fearful -plague. Like the fell "Pebrine," which came so near -exterminating the "silk worm," and a most lucrative and -extensive industry in Europe, it, as conclusively shown by -Drs. Preusz and Shönfeld, of Germany, is the result of fungous -or vegetable growth. Shönfeld not only infected healthy -bee larvæ, but those of other insects, both by means of the -putrescent foul brood, and by taking the spores.</p> - -<p>Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so -infinitesimally small as often to elude the sharp detection of -the expert microscopist. Most of the terrible, contagious -diseases that human flesh is heir to, like typhus, diphtheria, -cholera, small pox, &c., &c., are now thought to be due -to microscopic germs, and hence to be spread from home -to home, and from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary -that the spores, the minute seeds, either by contact or by -some sustaining air current, be brought to new soil of flesh -blood or other tissue—their garden spot—when they at once -spring into growth, and thus lick up the very vitality of -their victims. The huge mushroom will grow in a night. So -too, these other plants—the disease germs—will develop -with marvelous rapidity; and hence the horrors of yellow -fever, scarlatina, and cholera.</p> - -<p>To cure such diseases, the fungi must be killed. To prevent -their spread, the spores must be destroyed, or else confined. -But as these are so small, so light, and so invisible—easily -borne and wafted by the slightest zephyr of summer, -this is often a matter of the utmost difficulty.</p> - -<p>In "Foul Brood" these germs feed on the larvæ of the -bees, and thus convert life and vigor into death and decay. -If we can kill this miniature forest of the hive, and destroy -the spores, we shall extirpate the terrible plague.</p> - - -<h4 id="remedies">REMEDIES.</h4> - -<p>If we can find a substance that will prove fatal to the -fungi, and yet not injure the bees, the problem is solved. -Our German scientists—those masters in scientific research -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">- 261 -</span> -and discovery, have found this valuable fungicide in salicylic -acid, an extract from the same willows that give us pollen -and nectar. This cheap white powder is easily soluble in -alcohol, and when mixed with borax in water.</p> - -<p>Mr. Hilbert, one of the most thoughtful of German bee-keepers, -was the first to effect a radical cure of foul brood in -his apiary by the use of this substance. He dissolved fifty -grains of the acid in five hundred grains of pure spirits. -One drop of this in a grain of distilled water is the mixture -he applied. Mr. C. F. Muth, from whom the above facts as -to Herr Hilbert are gathered, suggests a variation in the -mixture.</p> - -<p>Mr. Muth suggests an improvement, which takes advantage -of the fact that the acid, which alone is very insoluble -in water, is, when mixed with borax, soluble. His recipe -is as follows: One hundred and twenty-eight grains of -salicylic acid, one hundred and twenty-eight grains of soda -borax, and sixteen ounces distilled water. There is no reason -why water without distillation should not do as well.</p> - -<p>This remedy is applied as follows: First uncap all the brood, -then throw the fluid over the comb in a fine spray. This -will not injure the bees, but will prove fatal to the fungi.</p> - -<p>If the bees are removed to an empty hive, and given no -comb for three or four days, till they have digested all the -honey in their stomachs, and then prevented visiting the -affected hive, they are said to be out of danger. It would -seem that the spores are in the honey, and by taking that, the -contagion is administered to the young bees. The honey may -be purified from these noxious germs, by subjecting it to the -boiling temperature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to -the spores of fungoid life. By immersing the combs in a -salicylic acid solution, or sprinkling them with the same, -they would be rendered sterile, and could be used without -much fear of spreading contagion. The disease is probably -spread by robber bees visiting affected hives, and carrying -with them in the honey the fatal germs.</p> - -<p>I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and -water is very superior, and I much prefer it for either general -or special use to gum Arabic. Yet it soon sours—which -means that it is nourishing these fungoid plants—and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">- 262 -</span> -thus becomes disagreeable. I have found that a very -little salicylic acid will render it sterile, and thus preserve it -indefinitely.</p> - - -<h3 id="enemies">ENEMIES OF BEES.</h3> - -<p>Swift was no mean entomologist, as shown in the following stanza:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"The little fleas that do us tease,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">Have lesser fleas to bite them,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">And these again have lesser fleas,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">And so ad infinitum."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave -the attacks of reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they -are beset with perils at home, and perils abroad, perils by night -and perils by day.</p> - - -<h4 id="bee_moth">THE BEE MOTH—<i>Galleria Cereana</i>, Fabr.</h4> - -<p>This insect belongs to the family of snout moths, Pyralidæ. -This snout is not the tongue, but the palpi, which -fact was not known by Mr. Langstroth, who is usually so -accurate, as he essayed to correct Dr. Harris, who stated correctly, -that the tongue, the ligula, was "very short and -hardly visible." This family includes the destructive hop -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">- 263 -</span> -moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its members -are very readily recognized by their unusually long -palpi, the so-called snouts.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig102.png" width="147" height="316" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig, 103.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig103.png" width="221" height="278" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The eggs of the bee moth are white, globular and very -small. These are usually pushed into crevices by the female -moth as she extrudes them, which she can easily do by aid -of her spy-glass-like ovipositor. They may be laid in the -hive, in the crevice underneath it or about the entrance.—Soon -these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty looking caterpillars, -with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed. -To better protect themselves from the bees, they wrap themselves -in a silken tube (<a href="#fig102">Fig, 102</a>) which they have power to -spin. They remain in this tunnel of silk during all their -growth, enlarging it as they eat. By looking closely, the -presence of these larvæ may be known by this robe of glistening -silk, as it extends in branching outlines (<a href="#fig103">Fig, 103</a>) -along the surface of the comb. A more speedy detection, -even, than the defaced comb, comes from the particles of -comb, intermingled with the powder-like droppings of the -caterpillars, which will always be seen on the bottom-board -in case the moth-larvæ are at work. Soon, in three or four -weeks, the larvæ are full grown (<a href="#fig104">Fig, 104</a>). Now the six -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">- 264 -</span> -jointed, and the ten prop-legs—making sixteen in all, the usual -number of caterpillars—are plainly visible.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" id="fig104"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig104.png" width="188" height="69" alt="" /></td> - <td class="tdc" id="fig105" rowspan="2"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig105.png" width="297" height="237" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" id="fig106"><div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig106.png" width="165" height="117" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>These larvæ are about an inch long, and show, by their plump appearance, -that they at least, can digest comb. They now spin their -cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very numerous, -singly (<a href="#fig105">Fig, 105, <i>a</i></a>) or in clusters (<a href="#fig105">Fig, 105, <i>b</i></a>) on the -comb, or even in the drone-cells (<a href="#fig105">Fig, 105, <i>c</i></a>) in which they -become pupæ, and in two weeks, even less, sometimes, during -the extreme heat of summer, the moths again appear. In -winter, they may remain as pupæ for months. The moths or -millers—sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers—are of -an obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards, that they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">- 265 -</span> -are very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are -about three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (<a href="#fig106">Fig, 106</a>) -nearly one and one-fourth inches. The females (<a href="#fig107">Fig, 107</a>) are -darker than the males (<a href="#fig107">Fig, 107</a>), possess a longer snout, and -are usually a little larger. The wings, when the moths are -quiet (<a href="#fig107">Fig, 107</a>) are flat on the back for a narrow space, then -slope very abruptly. They rest by day, yet, when disturbed, -will dart forth with great swiftness, so Réaumur styled them -"nimble-footed." They are active by night, when they essay -to enter the hive and deposit their one or two hundred eggs. -If the females are held in the hand they will often extrude -their eggs; in fact, they have been known to do this even after -the head and thorax were severed from the abdomen, and still -more strange, while the latter was being dissected.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig107" style="width: 124px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig107.png" width="124" height="124" alt="" /> - <span class="smaller"><i>Male. Female.</i></span> -</div> - -<p>It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first -moths occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I -have seen these moths in every month from May to September, -and as I have proved by actual observation that they may -pass from egg to moth in less than six weeks, I think under -favorable conditions there may be even three broods a year. -It is true that the varied conditions of temperature—as the -moth larvæ may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few -bees, or one crowded with bee life—will have much to do -with the rapidity of development. Circumstances may so -retard growth and development that there may not be more -than two, and possibly, in extreme cases, more than one brood -in a season.</p> - -<p>It is stated by Mr Quinby that a freezing temperature will -kill these insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks -that a deserted hive is safe, neither of which assertions are -correct. I have seen hives, whose bees were killed by the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">- 266 -</span> -severe winter, crowded with moth pupæ or chrysalids the -succeeding summer. I have subjected both larvæ and pupæ -to the freezing temperature without injuring them. I -believe, in very mild winters, the moth and the chrysalids -might be so protected as to escape unharmed, even outside -the hive. It is probable too, that the insects may pass the -winter in any one of the various stages.</p> - - -<h5 id="bm_history">HISTORY.</h5> - -<p>These moths were known to writers of antiquity, as even -Aristotle tells of their injuries. They are wholly of oriental -origin, and are often referred to by European writers as a -terrible pest. Dr. Kirtland, the able scientist, the first President -of our American Bee Convention, whose decease we -have just had to mourn, once said in a letter to Mr. Langstroth, -that the moth was first introduced into America in -1805, though bees had been introduced long before. They -first seemed to be very destructive. It is quite probable, as -has been suggested, that the bees had to learn to fear and -repel them; for, unquestionably, bees do grow in wisdom.—In -fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited knowledge, -which once had to be acquired by the animal. Surely -bees and other animals learn to battle new enemies, and vary -their habits with changed conditions, and they also transmit -this knowledge and their acquired habits to their offspring, -as illustrated by setter and pointer dogs. In time, may not -this account for all those varied actions, usually ascribed to -instinct? At least, I believe the bee to be a creature of no -small intelligence.</p> - - -<h5 id="bm_remedies">REMEDIES.</h5> - -<p>In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth. -Once a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even disquiet -the intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call it -a blessed evil, as it will destroy the bees of the heedless, and -thus prevent injury to the markets by their unsalable honey, -while to the attentive bee-keeper it will work no injury at -all. Neglect and ignorance are the moth breeders.</p> - -<p>As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured by -moths, and strong colonies never. As the enterprising apiarist -will only possess these, it is clear that he is free from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">- 267 -</span> -danger. The intelligent apiarist will also provide, not only -against weak, but queenless colonies as well, which from their -abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth invasion. -Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not -to court death, to make no effort to delay it.</p> - -<p>In working with bees, an occasional web will be seen -glistening in the comb, which should be picked out with a -knife till the manufacturer—the ruthless larva—is found, -when it should be crushed. Any larva seen about the bottom -board, seeking a place to spin its cocoon, or any pupæ, -either on comb or in crack, should also be killed. If, -through carelessness, a colony has become hopelessly victimized -by these filthy, stinking, wax devourers, then the bees -and any combs not attacked should be transferred to another -hive, after which the old hive should be sulphured by use of -the smoker, as before described (<a href="#Page_216">page 216</a>), then by giving one or -two each of the remaining combs to strong colonies, after killing -any pupæ that may be on them, they will be cleaned -and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony brood, if it -has any vigor remaining, and if necessary a good queen, it -will soon be rejoicing in strength and prosperity.</p> - -<p>We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and -frames of comb (<a href="#Page_216">page 216</a>), and so need not speak further of -them.</p> - -<h4 id="killer">BEE KILLER—<i>Asilus Missouriensis</i>, Riley.</h4> - -<p>This is a two-winged fly, of the predacious family Asilidæ, -which attacks, and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon -its fluids. It is confined to the southern part of our country.</p> - -<p>The fly (<a href="#fig108">Fig, 108</a>) has a long, pointed abdomen, strong -wings, and is very powerful. I have seen an allied species -attack and overcome the powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I -took them both with my net, and now have them pinned, as -they were captured, in our College cabinet. These flies delight -in the warm sunshine, are very quick on the wing, and -are thus not easily captured. It is to be hoped that they -will not become very numerous. If they should, I hardly -know how they could be kept from their evil work. Frightening -them, or catching with a net might be tried, yet these -methods would irritate the bees, and need to be tried before -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">- 268 -</span> -they are recommended. I have received specimens of this -fly from nearly every Southern State. There are very similar -flies North, belonging to the same genus, but as yet we have -no account of their attacking bees, though such a habit might -easily be acquired, and attacks here would not be surprising.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig108" style="width: 250px; padding-bottom: 12px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig108.png" width="250" height="212" alt="" /> -</div> - -<h4 id="louse">BEE-LOUSE—<i>Branla Cœca</i>, Nitsch.</h4> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc figcaption" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" id="fig109"><img src="images/fig109a.png" width="224" height="204" alt="" /> - <div class="small"><i>Imago.</i></div></td> - <td class="tdc"><img src="images/fig109b.png" width="111" height="159" alt="" /> - <div class="small"><i>Larva.</i></div></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>This louse (<a href="#fig109">Fig, 109</a>) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of -the uniques among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite, -and serves as a very good connecting link between insects -and spiders, or, still better, between the Diptera, where it -belongs, and the Hemiptera, which contains the bugs and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">- 269 -</span> -most of the lice. It assumes the semi-pupa state almost as -soon as hatched, and strangest of all, is, considering the size -of the bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its nourishment, -enormously large. Two or three, and sometimes even -more, (the new Encyclopedia Britannica says 50 or 100), are -often found on a single bee. When we consider their great size -we cannot wonder that they very soon devitalize the bees.</p> - -<p>These, as yet, have done little damage, except in the south -of Continental Europe. The fact that they have not become -naturalized in the northern part of the Continent, England -or America, would go to show that there is something inimical -to their welfare in our climate, especially as they are -constantly being introduced, coming as hangers-on to our imported -bees. Within a year I have received them from no -less than three sources—twice from New York and once -from Pennsylvania—each time taken from bees just received -from Italy. The only way that I could suggest to rid bees -of them would be to make the entrance to the hive small, so -that as the bees enter, they would be scraped off.</p> - - -<h5 id="suggestion">IMPORTANT SUGGESTION.</h5> - -<p>In view of the serious nature of this pest and the difficulty in -the way of its extinction, I would urge importers, and people -receiving imported queens, to be very careful to see that -these lice, which, from their size, are so easily discovered, -are surely removed before any queen harboring them is introduced. -This advice is especially important, in view of the -similarity in climate of our own beautiful South, to the sunny -slopes of France and Italy. Very likely the lice could not -flourish in our Southern States, but there would be great -cause to fear the results of its introduction into our Eldorado, -the genial States of the West. In California, they -might be even worse than the drouth, as they might come as -a permanent, not a temporary evil.</p> - - -<h4 id="hawk">BEE HAWK—<i>Libellula</i>.</h4> - -<p>This large, fine lace wing is a neuropterous insect. It -works in the Southern States and is called Mosquito-hawk.—Insects -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">- 270 -</span> -of the same genus are called dragon flies, devil's, -darning-needles, &c. These are exceedingly predacious. In -fact, the whole sub-order is insectivorous. From its four -netted, veined wings, we can tell it at once from the asilus -before mentioned, which has but two wings. The Bee or -Mosquito-hawk is resplendent with metallic green, while the -Bee Killer is of sober gray. The Mosquito Hawk is not -inaptly named, as it not only preys on other insects, swooping -down upon them with the dexterity of a hawk, but its -graceful gyrations, as it sports in the warm sunshine at noonday, -are not unlike those of our graceful hawks and falcons. -These insects are found most abundant near water, as they -lay their eggs in water, where the larvæ live and feed upon -other animals. The larvæ are peculiar in breathing by gills -in their rectum. The same water that bathes these organs -and furnishes oxygen, is sent out in a jet, and thus sends the -insect darting along. The larvæ also possess enormous jaws, -which formidable weapons are masked till it is desired to use -them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped or unhinged -and the terrible jaws open and close upon the unsuspecting -victim, which has but a brief time to bewail its temerity.</p> - -<p>A writer from Georgia, in <i>Gleanings</i>, volume 6, page 35, -states that these destroyers are easily scared away, or brought -down by boys with whips, who soon become as expert in -capturing the insects, as are the latter in seizing the bees. The -insects are very wild and wary, and I should suppose this -method would be very efficient.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig110" style="width: 203px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig110.png" width="203" height="143" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h3 id="tachina">TACHINA FLY.</h3> - -<p>From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain -that there is a two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">- 271 -</span> -(<a href="#fig110">Fig, 110</a>), that works on bees. I have never seen these, -though I have repeatedly requested those who have, to send -them to me. My friend, Mr. J. L. Davis, put some sick -looking bees into a cage, and hatched the flies which he told -me looked not unlike a small house fly. It is the habit -of these flies, which belong to the same family as our house -flies, which they much resemble, to lay their eggs on other -insects. Their young, upon hatching, burrow into the insect -that is being victimized, and grow by eating it. It would -be difficult to cope with this evil, should it become of great -magnitude. We may well hope that this habit of eating -bees is an exceptional one with it.</p> - - -<h3 id="spiders">SPIDERS.</h3> - -<p>These sometimes spread their nets so as to capture bees. -If porticos—which are, I think, worse than a useless -expense—are omitted, there will very seldom be any cause for -complaints against the spiders, which on the whole are friends. -As the bee-keeper who would permit spiders to worry his bees -would not read books, I will discuss this subject no further.</p> - - -<h3 id="ants">ANTS.</h3> - -<p>These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and -seldom, if ever, I think, do any harm. Should the apiarist -feel nervous, he can very readily brush them away, or destroy -them by use of any of the fly poisons which are kept in the -markets. As these poisons are made attractive by adding -sweets, we must be careful to preclude the bees from gaining -access to them. As we should use them in spring, and as we -then need to keep the quilt or honey-board close above the -bees, and as the ants cluster above the brood chamber, it is -not difficult to practice poisoning. One year I tried Paris -green with perfect success.</p> - - -<h3 id="wasps">WASPS.</h3> - -<p>I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South, -as in Europe, we hear of such depredations. I have received -wasps, sent by our southern brothers, which were caught -destroying bees. The wasps are very predacious, and do -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">- 272 -</span> -immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect pests. I -have seen wasps carry off "currant-worms" with a celerity -that was most refreshing.</p> - -<p>As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much -damage—even if they ever do any—any great damage which -may occur would doubtless come from the social paper-makers. -In this case, we have only to find the nests and -apply the torch, or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun to the nest -and shoot. This should be done at night-fall when the wasps -have all gathered home. Let us not forget that the wasps do -much good, and so not practice wholesale slaughter unless we -have strong evidence against them.</p> - -<h3 id="king_bird">THE KING BIRD—<i>Tyrannus Carolinensis</i>.</h3> - -<p>This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly-catchers, -a very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly -insectivorous, and do immense good by destroying our insect -pests. The king bird is the only one of them in the United -States that deserves censure. Another, the chimney swallow -of Europe, has the same evil habit. Our chimney swallow -has no evil ways. I am sure, from personal observation, -that these birds capture and eat the workers, as well as drones; -and I dare say, they would pay no more respect to the finest -Italian Queen. Yet, in view of the good that these birds do, -unless they are far more numerous and troublesome than I -have ever observed them to be, I should certainly be slow to -recommend the death warrant.</p> - - -<h3 id="toads">THE TOADS.</h3> - -<p>The same may be said of the toads, which may often be -seen sitting demurely at the entrance of the hives, and lapping -up the full-laden bees with the lightning-like movement -of their tongues, in a manner which can but be regarded -with interest, even by him who suffers loss. Mr. Moon, the -well known apiarist, made this an objection to low hives; -yet, the advantage of such hives far more than compensates, -and with a bottom-board, such as described in the chapter -on hives, we shall find that the toads do very little damage.</p> - - -<h3 id="mice">MICE.</h3> - -<p>These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">- 273 -</span> -apiary. They enter the hives in winter, mutilate the comb, -irritate, perhaps destroy, the bees, and create a very offensive -stench. They often greatly injure comb which is outside the -hive, destroy smokers, by eating the leather off the bellows, -and if they get at the seeds of honey plants, they never retreat -till they make a complete work of destruction.</p> - -<p>In the house and cellar, these plagues should be, by use of -eat or trap, completely exterminated. If we winter on the -summer stands, the entrance should be so contracted that mice -cannot enter the hive. In case of packing as I have recommended, -I should prefer a more ample opening, which may be -safely secured by taking a piece of wire cloth or perforated -tin, and tacking it over the entrance, letting it come within -one-fourth of an inch of the bottom-board. This will give -more air, and still preclude the entrance of these miserable -vermin. (See <a href="#Page_293">Appendix, page 293</a>).</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">- 274 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">CALENDAR AND AXIOMS.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<h3 id="work4mths">WORK FOR DIFFERENT MONTHS.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h3> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where the fruit trees blossom -about the first of May. By noting these flowers, the dates can be easily changed -to suit any locality</p> - -</div> - -<p>Though every live apiarist will take one, at least, of the three -excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our country, -in which the necessary work of each month will be detailed, -yet it may be well to give some brief hints in this place.</p> - - -<h4 id="jan">JANUARY.</h4> - -<p>During this month the bees will need little attention.—Should -the bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy, -which will not happen if the requisite precautions are taken, -and there come a warm day, it were well to set them on their -summer stands, that they may enjoy a purifying flight. At -night when all are again quiet return them to the cellar.—While -out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if -there are many dead bees. This is the time, too, to read, -visit, study and plan for the ensuing season's work.</p> - - -<h4 id="feb">FEBRUARY.</h4> - -<p>No advice is necessary further than that given for January, -though if the bees have a good fly in January, they will -scarcely need attention in this month. The presence of snow -on the ground need not deter the apiarist from giving his -bees a flight, providing the day is warm and still. It is -better to let them alone if they are quiet.</p> - - -<h4 id="mar">MARCH.</h4> - -<p>Bees should still be kept housed, and those outside still retain -about them the packing of straw, shavings, &c. Frequent -flights do no good, and wear out the bees. Colonies that are -uneasy, and besmear their hives should be set out, and -allowed a good flight and then returned.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">- 275 -</span></p> - -<p>The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens -and drones should now be fed, to stimulate breeding. By -careful pruning, too, we may and should prevent the rearing -of drones in any but the best colonies. If from lack of care -the previous autumn, any of our stocks are short of stores, now -is when it will be felt. In such cases feed either honey, sugar, -syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath the quilt.</p> - - -<h4 id="apr">APRIL.</h4> - -<p>Early in this month the bees may all be set out. It will -be best to feed all, and give all access to flour, when they -will work at it, though usually they can get pollen as soon -as they can fly out to advantage. Keep the brood chamber -contracted so that the frames will all be covered, and cover -well above the bees to economize heat.</p> - - -<h4 id="may">MAY.</h4> - -<p>Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till -bloom appears. Give room for storing. Extract if necessary, -and keep close watch, that you may anticipate and -forestall any attempt to swarm. Now, too, is the best time -to transfer.</p> - - -<h4 id="jun">JUNE.</h4> - -<p>Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens. -Divide the colonies, as may be desired, especially enough to -prevent attempts at swarming. Extract if necessary or best; -adjust frames or sections, if comb honey is desired, and be -sure to keep all the white clover honey, in whatever form -taken, separate from all other. Now is the best time to -Italianize.</p> - - -<h4 id="jul">JULY.</h4> - -<p>The work this month is about the same as that of June.—Supersede -all poor and feeble queens. Keep the basswood -honey by itself, and remove boxes or frames as soon as full. -Be sure that queens and workers have plenty of room to do -their best, and suffer not the hot sun to strike the hives.</p> - - -<h4 id="aug">AUGUST.</h4> - -<p>Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between basswood -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">- 276 -</span> -and fall bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give -plenty of room for queen and workers as fall storing commences.</p> - - -<h4 id="sep">SEPTEMBER.</h4> - -<p>Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing -ceases, which usually occurs about the middle of this month; -feed sparingly till the first of October. If robbing occurs, -contract the entrance of the hive robbed. If it is desired to -feed honey or sugar for winter, it should be done the last of -this month.</p> - - -<h4 id="oct">OCTOBER.</h4> - -<p>Prepare colonies for winter. See that all have at least -thirty pounds, by weight, of good, capped honey, and that all -are strong in bees. Contract the chamber, by using division -board, and cover well with the quilt. Be sure that one or -two central frames of comb contain many empty cells, and -that all have a central hole through which the bees can pass.</p> - - -<h4 id="nov">NOVEMBER.</h4> - -<p>Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar -or depository, or pack about those left out on the summer -stands.</p> - - -<h4 id="dec">DECEMBER.</h4> - -<p>Now is the time to make hives, honey-boxes, &c., for the -coming year. Also labels for hives. These may just contain -the name of the colony, in which case the full record -will be kept in a book; or the label may be made to contain -a full register as to time of formation, age of queen, &c., &c. -Slates are also used for the same purpose.</p> - -<p>I know from experience that any who heed all of the above -may succeed in bee-keeping,—may win a double success:—Receive -pleasure and make money. I feel sure that many -experienced apiarists will find advice that it may pay to -follow. It is probable that errors abound, and certain that -much remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that what -they do not know is greatly in excess of what they do know.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">- 277 -</span></p> - - -<h3 id="axioms">AXIOMS.</h3> - -<p>The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just as -true to-day as they were when written by that noted author:</p> - -<p>There are a few <i>first principles</i> in bee-keeping which -ought to be as familiar to the Apiarist as the letters of the -alphabet.</p> - -<p>First. Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack.</p> - -<p>Second. Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing -them to accept of liquid sweets.</p> - -<p>Third. Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming -on their hives, fill themselves with honey and lose all disposition -to sting, unless they are hurt.</p> - -<p>Fourth. Bees dislike any <i>quick</i> movements about their -hives, especially any motion which <i>jars</i> their combs.</p> - -<p>Fifth. In districts where forage is abundant only for a -short period, the largest yield of honey will be secured by a -<i>very</i> moderate increase of stocks.</p> - -<p>Sixth. A moderate increase of colonies in any one season, -will, in the long run, prove to be the easiest, safest, and -cheapest mode of managing bees.</p> - -<p>Seventh. Queenless colonies, unless supplied with a queen, -will inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee-moth, -or by robber-bees.</p> - -<p>Eighth. The formation of new colonies should ordinarily -be confined to the season when bees are accumulating -honey; and if this, or any other operation, must be performed -when forage is scarce, the greatest precautions -should be used to prevent robbing.</p> - -<p>The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in -Oettl's Golden Rule: <span class="smcap">keep your stocks strong</span>. If you -cannot succeed in doing this, the more money you invest in -bees, the heavier will be your losses; while, if your stocks are -strong, you will show that you are a <i>bee-master</i>, as well as -& bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on generous returns -from your industrious subjects.</p> - -<p><i>"Keep all colonies strong."</i></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">- 278 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX.<br /> - -<span class="smaller">HISTORY OF MOVABLE FRAMES.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<p>Movable frames have revolutionized bee-keeping, and so -out-rank the reaper and mower, and equal the cotton-gin. -Few inventions have exerted so powerful an influence upon -the art which they serve. Their history will ever be a subject -of exceeding interest to bee-keepers, and their inventor -worthy the highest regard as the greatest benefactor of our -art. In writing their history, I have no personal interest or -bias, and am only impelled by a love of truth and justice. I -am the more eager to write this history, as some of our -apiarists, and they among the best informed and most influential -(<i>American Bee Journal</i>, vol. 14, p. 380), are misinformed -in the premises. In obtaining the data for this -account, I am under many obligations to our great American -master in apiculture. Rev. L. L. Langstroth, whose thorough -knowledge and extensive library have been wholly at my -command.</p> - -<p>We are informed by George Wheeler, in his "Journey into -Greece," published in 1682, page 411, that the Greeks had -partial control of the combs. "The tops" of the willow -hives "are covered with broad flat sticks. Along each of -these sticks the bees fasten their combs; so that a comb may -be taken out whole."</p> - -<p>Swammerdam had no control of the comb, nor had Réaumur. -The latter used narrow hives, which contained but two -combs; but these were stationary. Huber was the first to -construct a hive which gave him control of the combs and -access to the interior of the hive. In August, 1879, Huber -wrote to Bonnet as follows: "I took several small fir boxes, -a foot square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them together -by hinges, so that they could be opened and shut like the -leaves of a book. When using a hive of this description, we -took care to fix a comb in each frame, and then introduced -all the bees."—(Edinburgh edition of Huber, p. 4). Although -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">- 279 -</span> -Morlot and others attempted to improve this hive, it never -gained favor with practical apiarists.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig111" style="width: 342px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig111.png" width="342" height="341" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The first person to adjust frames in a case appears to have -been Mr. W. Augustus Munn, of England. I have in my -possession a letter from Mr. Munn, dated November 9th, -1863, in which he states that the hive "had been in use since -1834." The first printed description of any of his hives appeared -in the "Gardener's Chronicle" for 1843. This article -was written by a lady, and signed "E. M. W." Its premature -publication made it impossible for Mr. Munn to secure a -patent in Great Britain. In 1843 he secured a patent in -France. The hive patented is fully described in his -"Description of the Bar and Frame Hive," published in London, -in 1844. There is also a figure (<a href="#fig111">Fig, 111</a>). I copy from the -work which is before me, pp. 7 and 8: "An oblong box is -formed, about thirty inches long, sixteen inches high, and -twelve inches broad. One of the long sides is constructed to -open with hinges, and to hang on a level with the bottom. -As many grooves half an inch broad, half an inch deep, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">- 280 -</span> -about 9½ inches long, are formed 1⅛ inches apart on the inside -of the bottom of the box, as its length will admit. At the -top are corresponding grooves to those made in the bottom -of the box. The bee-frames are made of half inch mahogany, -being 12 inches high, 9 inches long, and not more than half -an inch broad, sliding into the fifteen grooves formed on the -bottom, and kept securely in their places by the upper grooves," -and by propolis, the author might well have added. American -apiarists need not be told that such a hive would be wholly -impracticable. Without bees in it, the changes of weather -would make the sliding of the frames very difficult; with the -bees inside, the removal of the frames would be practically -impossible.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig112" style="width: 322px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig112.png" width="322" height="324" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In 1851 Mr. Munn issued a second edition of his book, in -the preface of which I find the following: "Having materially -simplified the bar-frame hive, by forming the 'oblong bar-frames' -into 'triangular frames,' and making them lift out of -the top, instead of the back of the bee-box, I have republished -the pamphlet." The triangular hive (<a href="#fig112">Fig, 112</a>) is -described and figured, and is the same as found illustrated in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">- 281 -</span> -Munn's "Bevan on the Honey Bee." This hive, although a -possible improvement on the other, is costly, intricate, and -still very impracticable. In the price-list of J. Pettitt, Dover, -England, 1864, I find this hive priced at £3 3s., or about -$15.00. From the figure we learn that there were some wide -spaces about the frames. These would of course be filled -with comb, and render the hives entirely unsuitable for common -use. That this hive lacked the essential requisites to -success is evident from words penned by the inventor in 1863: -"The hive matters little if the pasturage is good." And it -is easy to see from the complex arrangement of the frames, -and the wide spaces about them, that as Mr. Munn said, -referring to his hive, "When left to themselves the bees shut -up the shop." Had invention stopped with Major Munn's -hive, we should to-day be using the old box hive, and sighing -in vain for a better. Neighbour well says (3d edition, p. 129): -"Probably the reason of the invention's failure was the -expensiveness of the Major's fittings, which make the hive -appear more like some astronomical instrument, than a box -for bees. Be this as it may, there was no such thing as a -frame hive in use in England till 1860."</p> - -<p>It would seem strange, that after going so far Major Munn -should have failed to give bee-keepers a hive of value. Yet -with his view that smoke injured the bees and brood (2d edition, -p. 21), we can readily see, that with his hive and black -bees, a man would need the skin of a rhinoceros, and nerves -of brass, to do much by way of actual manipulation for practical -purposes. It has been truly said that "The Huber hive -can be used with far greater ease and safety, by a novice, than -can Munn's."</p> - -<p>It will be seen by reference to "Bee Culture with Movable -Frames," published by Pastor George Kleine, Hanover, Germany, -in 1853, p. 5, that a druggist by the name of Schmidt, -in a work which he published in Freiburg, in 1851, entitled, -"The New Bee Homes," describes a hive with the Huber -leaves having prolonged tops which hung on rabbets, much as -do our frames. These Huber leaves were close-fitting, and -so not practical. Kleine regarded this as inferior to the -Huber hive, in that the combs must be taken out from above. -With a side opening he thinks it would be a material improvement. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">- 282 -</span> -It is evident from Kleine's work, that he knew nothing -either of Munn or his hive.</p> - -<p>In 1847, Jacob Shaw, Jr., then of Hinckley, Ohio, published -in the <i>Scientific American</i>, March 5th, 1847, p. 187, -the description of a hive devised by him. A person who has -seen the hive tells me that as described and first used, this -hive had close-fitting frames, which rested in a double-walled -tin box. By turning hot water into the chamber, the frames -would be loosened. We do not wonder that, as Mr. Shaw -deposed, he only made one hive, and that he could only persuade -one colony of the several which he tried, to accept the -situation, and that this one soon perished. He got no surplus, -and wisely set the hive aside.</p> - -<p>In 1847, the well known agricultural writer, Solon Robinson, -suggested in an article published in the <i>Albany Cultivator</i>; -a tin hive made up of unicomb apartments which should -set close side by side, and be connected by inter-communicating -holes. Of course, such a hive would only succeed in the -imagination.</p> - -<p>M. Debeauvoys published, in 1847, the 2d edition of -"Guide de l'Apiculteur," at Angers, France, in which he -described a movable comb hive, to meet the practical wants -of French bee-keepers. This hive was not only no improvement -on that of Huber, but even less easy of manipulation. -The top-bar and uprights of the frames were close-fitting to -the top and sides of the hive. Says M. Hamet, editor of the -French bee paper, in his work, "Cours Pratique D'Apiculture," -1859 edition: "The removal of the frames is more -difficult than from the Huber hive, and it has never been -accepted by the practical bee-keepers of France." Mr. Chas. -Dadant describes this hive, which he once made and used, in the -<i>American Bee Journal</i>, vol. 7, p. 197. He says of it: "The -hive worked well when new and empty; but after the bees -had glued the frames, it was difficult to remove them without -breaking the combs. It would have been entirely impossible -to remove them at all, without separating the ends -of the hive from the frames with a chisel. This hive, which -had gained 2,500 proselytes in France, was very soon abandoned -by all, and the disciples of Debeauvoys returned to -the old-fashioned straw hive." He adds, further, that these -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">- 283 -</span> -hives were disastrous to French bee culture. Once misled by -movable frames, they ever afterwards refused them even for -trial. Of course Mr. S. S. Fisher, once commissioner of -patents, and an expert, could see nothing in this hive, or any -of the inventor's modifications of it, to invalidate the Langstroth -patent. How grateful all American apiarists should -be, that Mr. Langstroth's invention was of a different type.</p> - -<p>As already stated, bars were used centuries ago in Greece. -Della Rocca, in a work published in 1790, also describes bars -as used by him. Schirach used slats across the top of a box -with rear-opening doors, as early as 1771. In Key's work, -"Ancient Bee Master's Farewell," London, 1796, p. 42, such -hives are described, and beautifully illustrated, plate 1, figs. -2 and 3. Bevan, London, 1838, describes on p. 82 a similar -hive, with the bars set in rabbets, which is figured on p. 83.</p> - -<p>In 1835, Dzierzon, who has been to Germany what Langstroth -has to America, commenced bee-culture. Three years -later he adopted the bar hive, and although these bar hives -were previously of little value to practical apiculture, in his -hands they became a most valuable instrument. To remove -the combs, the great German master had to cut them loose -from the sides of the hives. Yet from his great skill in -handling them, his studious habits, and invaluable researches, -which gave to the world the knowledge of parthenogenesis -among bees, his hive and system marked a new era in German -apiculture.</p> - -<p>In 1851, our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of -what foreign apiarian inventors had done, save what he could -find in Huber, and edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive -now in common use among the advanced apiarists of America. -It is this hive, the greatest apiarian invention ever made, -that has placed American apiculture in advance of that of -all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America -could say with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, that the improved -hives were without value except to the amateur, and -inferior for practical purposes? Our apiarists not native to -our shores, like the late Adam Grimm and Mr. Chas. Dadant, -always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was the inventor of this -hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness. Well did the -late Mr. S. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly and truth-loving -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">- 284 -</span> -editor of the early volumes of the <i>American Bee Journal</i>, -himself of German origin, say: "When Mr. Langstroth -took up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done, and -saw wherein he had failed—failing, possibly, only because he -aimed at nothing more than constructing an observing hive, -suitable for his purposes. Mr. Langstroth's object was other -and <i>higher</i>. He aimed at making frames movable, interchangeable, -and <i>practically</i> serviceable in bee culture." And -how true what follows: "<i>Nobody</i> before Mr. Langstroth ever -succeeded in devising a mode of making and using a movable -frame that was of any practical value in bee culture." No -man in the world, beside Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant -with this whole subject as was Mr. Wagner. His extensive -library and thorough knowledge made him a competent judge. -Now that the invention is public property, men will cease to -falsify and even perjure themselves, to rob an old man, whose -words, writings, and whole life, shine with untarnished -ingenuousness. And very soon all will unite with the great -majority of intelligent American apiarists of to-day, in rendering -to this benefactor of our art, the credit; though he -has been hopelessly deprived of the pecuniary benefits of his -great invention.</p> - -<p>Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention -of frames contained in a case, when he made his invention, -in 1851, does not profess to have been the first to have -invented them. Every page of his book shows his transparent -honesty, and desire to give all due credit to other writers and -inventors. He does claim, and very justly, to have invented -the first practical frame hive, the one described in his patent, -applied for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his -book.</p> - -<p>While the name of the late Baron Von Berlepsch will -always stand in the front rank of apiarists, he never gave the -world any description of a movable frame hive, until Mr. -Langstroth had applied for a patent, and not until the Langstroth -hive was largely in use.</p> - -<p>It has been claimed that Mr. Andrew Harbison invented -and used in his father's apiary, previous to 1851, the Langstroth -hive. In the <i>Dollar Newspaper</i> for January 21, 1857, -a brother, Mr. W. C. Harbison, who also lived with his father -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">- 285 -</span> -at the time the invention is said to have been made, says: -"I will venture the prediction that both Quinby's hive and -mine will ere long be cast aside, to give place to a hive constructed -in such a manner that the apiarian can have access -to every part of the hive at pleasure, without injury to the -colony. In this particular both Mr. Quinby and myself have -<i>singly failed</i>. The invention of such a hive was reserved -for Mr. Langstroth." It is significant that J. S. Harbison, -another brother, who was also with his father at the time, in -his "Bee Culture," San Francisco, 1861, speaks of the Langstroth -hive, p. 149, but not of that of his brother. It has -also been claimed that W. A. Flanders, Martin Metcalf, -and Edward Townley, each invented this hive prior to Mr! -Langstroth's invention. Yet, each of these gentlemen wrote -a book, in which no mention is made of such an invention. Well -might Mr. Langstroth say, "I can well understand what Job -meant when he said, 'O! that my enemy had written a book.'" -It is also stated that Mr. A. F. Moon was a prior inventor of -this hive. Mr. Moon's own testimony, that he not only -abandoned his invention, being unable to secure straight -combs, but <i>even forgot all about it</i>, till it was discovered in -an old rubbish pile, shows that he did nothing that would, in -court, overthrow Mr. Langstroth's claims, or that in the least -conferred any benefit upon bee-keepers. Mr. Maxwell, of -Mansfield, Ohio, was another who is said to have anticipated -Mr. Langstroth. Yet Mr. Maxwell's own son swears that he -helped his father make all his hives, and that his father never -used a movable frame till after 1851. Solon Robinson thought -his brother. Dr. Robinson, of Jamaica Plains, near Boston, -made and used movable frame hives prior to 1852. The wife -of Dr. Robinson testified that her husband bought a right to -use the Langstroth hive, and with it made his first movable -frames.</p> - -<p>Every claim, both at home and abroad, to the invention of -a practical movable frame hive, prior to that of Mr. Langstroth, -when examined, is found to have no substantial foundation. -All previous hives were plainly inferior to the -improved Huber hive as described in Bevan, p. 106. It is a -sad blot upon American apiculture, that he who raised it to -the proud height which it occupies to-day, should have been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">- 286 -</span> -shamefully defrauded of the just reward for his great invention. -But it gives me the greatest pleasure to state, that by -no possible word could I gather that Mr. Langstroth feels any -bitterness towards those who seem wilfully to have stolen his -invention, while with a mantle of charity, great as is his noble -heart, he covers the thousands who either thought he had no -valid claim, or else that the purchase of a right from others, -entitled them to his invention. As an inventor and writer on -apiculture, Mr. Langstroth will ever be held in grateful -memory. How earnestly will American apiarists desire that -he may be spared to us until he completes his autobiography, -that we may learn how he arrived at his great discovery, and -may study the methods by which he gleaned so many rich and -valuable truths.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<h3>LECANIUM TULIPIFERÆ—<span class="smcap">Cook</span>.</h3> - -<p>In the summer of 1870, this louse, which, so far as I -know, has never yet been described, and for which I propose -the above very appropriate name, tulipiferæ—the Lecanium of -the tulip tree—was very common on the tulip trees about the -College lawns. So destructive were they that some of the -trees were killed outright, others were much injured, and had -not the lice for some unknown reason ceased to thrive, we -should soon have missed from our grounds one of our most -attractive trees.</p> - -<p>Since the date above given, I have received these insects, -through the several editors of our excellent bee papers, from -many of the States, especially those bordering the Ohio -River. In Tennessee they seem very common, as they are -often noticed in abundance on the fine stately tulip trees of -that goodly State—in the South this tulip tree is called the -poplar, which is very incorrect, as it is in no way related to -the latter. The poplar belongs to the willow family; the -tulip to the magnolia, which families are wide apart. In -Pennsylvania the louse has been noticed on the cucumber -tree—Magnolia acuminata.</p> - -<p>Wherever the tulip-tree lice have been observed sucking -the sap and vitality from the trees, there the bees have also -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">- 287 -</span> -been seen, lapping up a sweet juicy exudation, which is -secreted by the lice. In 1870 I observed that our tulip -trees were alive with bees and wasps, even as late as August, -though the trees are in blossom only in June. Examination -showed that the exuding sweets from these lice were what -attracted the bees. This was observed with some anxiety, as -the secretion gives off a very nauseating odor.</p> - -<p>The oozing secretions from this and other lice, not only of -the bark-louse family (Coccidæ), but of the plant-louse family -(Aphidæ), are often referred to as honey-dew. Would it not -be better to speak of these as insect secretions, and reserve -the name honey-dew for sweet secretions from plants, other -than those which come from the flowers?</p> - - -<h3>NATURAL HISTORY OF THE LECANIUM TULIPIFERÆ.</h3> - -<p>The fully developed insect, like all bark lice, is in the form -of a scale (<a href="#fig113">Fig, 113, 1</a>), closely applied to the limb or twig -on which it works. This insect, like most of its genus, is -brown, very convex above, (<a href="#fig113">Fig. 113, 1</a>), and concave beneath, -(<a href="#fig113">Fig. 113, 2</a>). On the under side is a cotton-like secretion, -which serves to enfold the eggs. Underneath the species in -question are two transverse parallel lines of this white down, -(<a href="#fig113">Fig. 113, 2</a>). One of them, probably the anterior, is nearly -marginal, and is interrupted in the middle; while the other -is nearly central, and in place of the interruption at the -middle, it has a V-shaped projection back or away from the -other line. The form of the scale is quadrangular, and -not unlike that of a turtle, (<a href="#fig113">Fig. 113, 1</a>). When fully -developed it is a little more than 3-16 of an inch long, and a -little more than ⅔ as wide.</p> - -<p>Here at Lansing, the small, yellow, oval eggs appear late -in August. In Tennessee they would be found under the -scales in their cotton wrappings many days earlier. The eggs -are 1-40 of an inch long, and 1-65 of an inch wide. These -eggs, which are very numerous, hatch in the locality of their -development, and the young or larval lice, quite in contrast -with their dried, inert, motionless parents, are spry and -active. They are oval, (<a href="#fig113">Figs. 113, 3 and 4</a>), yellow; and -1-23 of an inch long, and 1-40 of an inch wide. The eyes, -antenna (<a href="#fig113">Fig. 113, 5</a>), and legs, (<a href="#fig113">Fig. 113, 6</a>), are plainly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">- 288 -</span> -visible when magnified 30 or 40 diameters. The 9-jointed -abdomen is deeply emarginate, or cut into posteriorly, (<a href="#fig113">Fig. -113, 3</a>), and on each side of this slit is a projecting stylet or -hair, (<a href="#fig113">Figs. 113, 3 and 4</a>), while from between the eyes, on -the under side of the head, extends the long recurved beak, -(<a href="#fig113">Fig. 113, 4</a>). The larvæ soon leave the scales, crawl about -the tree, and finally fasten by inserting their long slender -beaks, when they so pump up the sap that they grow with -surprising rapidity. In a few weeks their legs and antennæ -seem to disappear as they become relatively so small, and -the scale-like form is assumed. In the following summer the -scale is full-formed and the eggs are developed. Soon the -scale, which is but the carcass of the once active louse, drops -from the tree, and the work of destruction is left to the -young lice, a responsibility which they seem quite ready to -assume.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig113" style="width: 436px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig113.png" width="436" height="355" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In my observations I have detected no males. Judging -from others of the bark-lice, these must possess wings, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">- 289 -</span> -will never assume the scale form, though Prof. P. K Uhler -writes me that the males of some bark lice are apterous.</p> - - -<h3>REMEDIES.</h3> - -<p>If valued shade or honey trees are attacked by these -insatiate destroyers, they could probably be saved by discreet -pruning—cutting off the affected branches before serious -injury was done, or by syringing the trees with a solution of -whale oil, soap—or even common soft soap would do—just as -the young lice are leaving the scales. It would be still -better to have the solution hot. Whitman's Fountain Pump -is admirable for making such applications.</p> - -<p><a href="#fig113">Fig. 1</a> is slightly magnified; the others are largely magnified.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<h3>MOTHERWORT AS A HONEY PLANT.</h3> - -<p>(<i>Leonurus cardiaca L.</i>)</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="fig114" style="width: 134px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig114.png" width="134" height="292" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Perhaps none of our common herbs promises better, as a -honey plant, than the one in question. It is a very hardy -perennial, and once introduced in waste places, it is sure to -hold its own, until it becomes desirable to extirpate it, when, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">- 290 -</span> -at man's bidding, it quickly lets go its hold, so that it is not -a dangerous plant to introduce. The blossoms appear at this -place about June 25th, and persist for a full month, and -during the entire time are crowded with bees, whatever may -be the character of the weather, whether wet or dry, warm or -cool, whether the plant is in the midst of honey plants or -isolated. We are thus assured that the plant is constantly -secreting nectar, and is also a favorite with bees. Rape, -mustards and borage seem indifferent to the weather, but are -not favorites with the bees. Motherwort, then, has three -admirable qualities: It is long in bloom, the flowers afford -fine honey at all times, and it is a favorite with the bees. -If it could be made to bloom about three weeks later, coming -in just after basswood, it would have nearly all the desired -qualities. I think that we might bring this about by mowing -the plants in May. I am led to this opinion from the fact -that some plants which we set back by transplanting in May, -are still in bloom this August 10th, and are now alive with, -bees, dividing their attention with the beautiful cleome, which, -is now in full bloom, and fairly noisy with bees.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig115" style="width: 329px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig115.png" width="329" height="274" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">- 291 -</span></p> - - -<h3>DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT.</h3> - -<p>The stalk is square (<a href="#fig114">Fig, 114</a>), branching, and when cultivated, -attains a height of some four feet; though, as it grows in -waste places, it is seldom more than three feet. The branches, -and also the leaves, are opposite (Figs. <a href="#fig114">114</a> and <a href="#fig115">115</a>), and in -the axiles of the latter are whorls of blossoms (Figs. <a href="#fig115">115</a> -and <a href="#fig116">116</a>), which succeed each other from below to the top of -the branching stems. The corolla is like that of all the -mints, while the calyx has five teeth, which are sharp and -spine-like in the nutlets as they appear at the base of the -leaves (<a href="#fig115">Fig, 115</a>). As they near the top, the whorls of blossoms -and succeeding seeds are successively nearer together, -and finally become very crowded at the apex (<a href="#fig116">Fig, 116</a>). The -leaves are long and palmately lobed (<a href="#fig115">Fig, 115</a>). The small -blossom is purple.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig116" style="width: 228px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig116.png" width="228" height="378" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">- 292 -</span></p> - - -<h3>THE SOUR-WOOD TREE.</h3> - -<p>The sorrel tree (<i>Oxydendrum arboreum</i>) (<a href="#fig117">Fig, 117</a>), so -called because of the acidity of the leaves, is a native of -the South, but has been grown even as far north as New York. -It often attains no mean dimensions in its native home along -the Alleghanies, often reaching upward more than fifty feet, -and acquiring a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig117" style="width: 324px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig117.png" width="324" height="476" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The flowers are arranged in racemes, are more drooping -than represented in the figure, are white, and with the beautiful -foliage make an ornamental tree of high rank. The -bark is rough, and the wood so soft as to be worthless, either -as fuel or for use in the arts. As a honey tree, it is very -highly esteemed; in fact, it is the linden of the South.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">- 293 -</span></p> - - -<h3>THE JAPAN MEDLAR.</h3> - -<p>I have received from J. M. Putnam, of New Orleans, La., -flowers of the <i>Mespilus Japonica</i>, or Japan plum. He states -that it bears a most delicious fruit, blooms from August till -January, unless cut off by a severe frost, and is proof against -ordinary frosts. He states that it furnishes abundance of -delicious honey, and that, too, when his bees were gathering -from no other source.</p> - -<p>The <i>Mespilus Germanica</i> grows in England, and is much -praised for its fruit. From Mr. Putnam's account, the <i>M. -Japonica</i> is unprecedented in its length of bloom. We think -two months a long time. We pay high tribute to mignonette, -cleome and borage, when we tell of four months of bloom; -but this is mild praise when compared with this Japan plum, -which flowers from August first till January.</p> - -<p>The flowers are in a dense panicle, and were still fragrant -after their long journey. The leaf is lanceolate, and very -thick, some like the wax plant. I should say it was an evergreen. -The apiarists of the South are to be congratulated -on this valuable acquisition to their bee forage. I hope it -will thrive North as well as South.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<h3>THE STINGING-BUG.—<i>Phymata Erosa</i>, <span class="smcap">Fabr.</span></h3> - -<p>This insect is very widely distributed throughout the United -States. I have received it from Maryland to Missouri on -the South, and from Michigan to Minnesota on the North. -The insect will lie concealed among the flowers, and upon -occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm's length, and suck -out its blood and life.</p> - -<p>This is a Hemipteran, or true bug, and belongs to the -family <i>Phymatidæ Uhr</i>. It is the <i>Phymata Erosa</i>, Fabr., -the specific name erosa referring to its jagged appearance. -It is also called the "stinging bug," in reference to its habit -of repelling intrusion by a painful thrust with its sharp, -strong; beak.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">- 294 -</span></p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td id="fig118"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—<br /><span class="smaller"><i>Side view, natural size.</i></span></div></td> - <td> </td> - <td id="fig119"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—<br /><span class="smaller"><i>Magnified twice.</i></span></div></td> - <td> </td> - <td id="fig120"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—<br /><span class="smaller"><i>Beak, much magnified.</i></span></div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td style="width:150px; margin: 0 auto;"><img src="images/fig118.png" width="132" height="168" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td style="width:150px; margin: 0 auto;"><img src="images/fig119.png" width="74" height="83" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td style="width:150px; margin: 0 auto;"><img src="images/fig120.png" width="69" height="147" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The "stinging bug" (<a href="#fig118">Fig, 118</a>) is somewhat jagged in -appearance, about three-eighths of an inch long, and generally -of a yellow color; though this latter seems quite variable. -Frequently there is a distinct greenish hue. Beneath the -abdomen, and on the back of the head, thorax and abdomen, -it is more or less specked with brown; while across the dorsal -aspect of the broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of -brown (<a href="#fig119">Fig, 119 <i>d, d</i></a>). Sometimes this stripe is almost -wanting, sometimes a mere patch, while rarely the whole abdomen, -is very slightly marked, and as often we find it almost wholly -brown above and below. The legs (<a href="#fig119">Fig. 119, 6</a>), beak and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">- 295 -</span> -antennæ (<a href="#fig119">Fig. 119, <i>a</i></a>) are greenish yellow. The beak -(<a href="#fig120">Fig. 120</a>) has three joints (<a href="#fig120">Fig. 120, <i>a, b, c</i></a>) and a sharp -point (<a href="#fig120">Fig. 120, <i>d</i></a>).</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td id="fig121"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—<br /><span class="smaller"><i>Antenna, much magnified.</i></span></div></td> - <td> </td> - <td id="fig122"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—<br /><span class="smaller"><i>Anterior Leg, magnified—exterior view.</i></span></div></td> - <td> </td> - <td id="fig123"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—<br /><span class="smaller"><i>Interior view.</i></span></div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td style="width:150px; margin: 0 auto;"><img src="images/fig121.png" width="119" height="168" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td style="width:150px; margin: 0 auto;"><img src="images/fig122.png" width="104" height="91" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td style="width:150px; margin: 0 auto;"><img src="images/fig123.png" width="103" height="87" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>This beak is not only the great weapon of offense, -but also the organ through which the food is sucked. By the -use of this, the insect has gained the soubriquet of stinging -bug. This compact jointed beak is peculiar to all true bugs, -and by observing it alone, we are able to distinguish all the -very varied forms of this group. The antenna (<a href="#fig121">Fig, 121</a>) is; -four-jointed. The first joint (<a href="#fig121">Fig, 121, <i>a</i></a>) is short, the second -and third (<a href="#fig121">Fig. 121, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i></a>) are long and slim, while the -terminal one (<a href="#fig121">Fig. 121, <i>d</i></a>) is much enlarged. This enlarged -joint is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as -described by Latreille. But the most curious structural -peculiarity of this insect, and the chief character of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">- 296 -</span> -genus Phymata, is the enlarged anterior legs (Figs. <a href="#fig122">122</a>, <a href="#fig123">123</a> and <a href="#fig124">124</a>). -These, were they only to aid in locomotion, would -seem like awkward, clumsy organs, but when we learn that they -are used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but -appreciate and admire their modified form. The femur (<a href="#fig122">Fig, 122, <i>b</i></a>) -and the tarsus (<a href="#fig122">Fig. 122, <i>a</i></a>) are toothed, while the -latter is greatly enlarged. From the interior lower aspect of -the femur (<a href="#fig123">Fig, 123</a>) is the small tibia, while on the lower -edge of the tarsus (<a href="#fig123">Fig, 123, <i>d</i></a>) is a cavity in which rests the -single claw. The other four legs (<a href="#fig125">Fig, 125</a>) are much as usual.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td id="fig124"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—<br /><span class="smaller"><i>Claw, extended</i>.</span></div></td> - <td> </td> - <td id="fig125"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—<br /><span class="smaller"><i>Middle Leg, much magnified</i>.</span></div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td style="width:150px; margin: 0 auto;"><img src="images/fig124.png" width="156" height="97" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td style="width:150px; margin: 0 auto;"><img src="images/fig125.png" width="137" height="161" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p>This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous, lying -in wait, often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to capture -and destroy unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, butterflies, -moths, and even bees and wasps. We have already -noticed how well prepared it is for this work by its jaw-like -anterior legs, and its sharp, strong, sword-like beak.</p> - -<p>It is often caught on the golden rod. This plant, from its -very color, tends to conceal the hug, and from the very character -of the plant—being attractive as a honey plant to bees—the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">- 297 -</span> -slow bug is enabled to catch the spry and active honey-bee.</p> - -<p>As Prof. Uhler well says of the "stinging-bug": "It is -very useful in destroying caterpillars and other vegetable-feeding -insects, but is not very discriminating in its tastes, -and would as soon seize the useful honey-bee as the pernicious -saw-fly." And he might have added that it is equally indifferent -to the virtues of our friendly insects like the parasitic -and predaceous species.</p> - -<p>We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its -destruction would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely -scattered as are the flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest -its case, at least until its destructiveness becomes more -serious than at present.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td id="fig126"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span></div></td> - <td> </td> - <td id="fig127"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span></div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/fig126.png" width="82" height="161" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td><img src="images/fig127.png" width="243" height="139" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - - - -<h3>THE SOUTHERN BEE-KILLERS.</h3> - -<p><i>Mallophora orcina and Mallophora bomboides.</i></p> - -<p>I have received from several of our enterprising bee-keepers -of the South—Tennessee, Georgia and Florida—the above -insects, with the information that they dart forth from some -convenient perch, and with swift and sure aim, grasp a bee, -bear it to some bush, when they leisurely suck out all but the -mere crust, and cast away the remains. The bee which is -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">- 298 -</span> -thus victimized, is readily known by the small hole in the -back, through which the juices were pumped out.</p> - -<p>The insects plainly belong to the family Asilidæ, the same -that includes the Missouri bee-killer, <i>Asilus Missouriensis</i>, the -Nebraska bee-killer, <i>Promachus bastardi</i>, and other predatory -insects, several of which, I regret to say, have the same evil -habit of killing and devouring our friends of the hive.</p> - -<p>The characters of this family, as given by Loew, one of the -greatest authorities on Diptera, or two-winged flies, are prolonged -basal cells of the wings, third longitudinal vein -bifurcate, third joint of antenna simple, under lip forming a -horny sheath, empodium, a projection below and beneath the -claws (<a href="#fig131">Fig, 131, <i>c</i></a>), a horny bristle.</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td id="fig128"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span></div></td> - <td> </td> - <td id="fig131"><div class="figcaption tdc"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span></div></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/fig128.png" width="150" height="233" alt="" /></td> - <td> </td> - <td><img src="images/fig131.png" width="99" height="195" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The insects in question belong to Loew's third group, -Asilina, as the antennæ end in a bristle (<a href="#fig128">Fig, 128</a>), while the -second longitudinal vein of the wing (<a href="#fig129">Fig, 129, <i>b</i></a>) runs into -the first (<a href="#fig129">Fig, 129, <i>a</i></a>).</p> - -<p>The genus is <i>Mallophora</i>. The venation of the wings much -resembles that of the genus <i>Promachus</i>, the same that contains -the Nebraska bee-killer, though the form of these insects -is very different. The Nebraska bee-killer is long and slim -like the <i>Asilus Missouriensis</i> (see <a href="#fig108">Fig, 108</a>), while the one in -question is much like the neuter bumble-bee in form.</p> - -<p>In <i>Mallophora</i> and <i>Promachus</i>, the venation is as represented -in <a href="#fig129">Fig, 129</a>, where, as will be seen, the second vein -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">- 299 -</span> -(<a href="#fig129">Fig, 129, <i>b</i></a>) forks, while in the genus Asilus (<a href="#fig130">Fig, 130</a>) -the third vein is forked, though in all three genera the third -joint of the antennæ (<a href="#fig128">Fig, 128</a>) ends in a prolonged bristle.</p> - -<p>One of the most common of these pests, which I am -informed by Dr. Hagen, is <i>Mallophora orcina</i>, Wied, -(<a href="#fig126">Fig, 126</a>) is one inch long, and expands one and three-fourths -inches (<a href="#fig127">Fig, 127</a>). The head (<a href="#fig128">Fig, 128</a>) is broad, the eyes -black and prominent, the antennæ three-jointed, the last joint -terminating in a bristle, while the beak is very large, strong, -and like the eyes and antennæ, coal black. This is mostly -concealed by the light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick -about the mouth and between the eyes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig129" style="width: 330px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129,</span></div> - <img src="images/fig129.png" width="330" height="169" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow -hairs. The abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with -yellow hairs except the tip, which is black. Beneath, the -insect is clear black, though there are scattering hairs of -a grayish yellow color on the black legs. The pulvilli, or feet -pads (<a href="#fig131">Fig, 131, <i>b</i></a>) are two in number, bright yellow in color, -surmounted by strong black claws (<a href="#fig131">Fig. 131, <i>a</i></a>), while below -and between is the sharp spine (<a href="#fig131">Fig, 131, <i>c</i></a>), technically known -as the empodium.</p> - -<p>I cannot give the distinctions which mark the sexes, nor -can I throw any light upon the larval condition of the insect.</p> - -<p>The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking. -Their flight is like the wind, and perched near the hive, they -rush upon the unwary bee returning to the hive with its full -load of nectar, and grasping it with their hard strong legs, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">- 300 -</span> -they bear it to some perch near by, when they pierce the -crust, suck out the juices, and drop the carcass, and are then -ready to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee shows the -cause of its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not -always killed at once by this rude onslaught, but often can -crawl some distance away from where it falls, before it expires.</p> - -<p>Another insect nearly as common is the <i>Mallophora bomboides</i>, -Wied. This fly might be called a larger edition of the -one just described, as in form, habits and appearance, it closely -resembles the other. It belongs to the same genus, possessing -all the generic characters already pointed out. It is very -difficult to capture them, as they are so quick and active.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig130" style="width: 129px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig130.png" width="129" height="48" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and expands -two and a half inches. The head and thorax are much as in -the other species. The wings are very long and strong, and, -as in the other species, are of a smoky brown color. The -abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to side on the -tinder surface, while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant on -the legs and whole under portion of the body. The color is -a lighter yellow than in the other species. These insects are -powerfully built, and if they become numerous, must prove a -formidable enemy to the bees.</p> - -<p>Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia, -though it closely resembles the two just described, is of a -different genus. It is the <i>Laphria thoracica</i> of Fabricius. -In this genus the third vein is forked, and the third joint of -the antenna is without the bristle, though it is elongated and -tapering. The insect is black, with yellow hair covering the -upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly black -both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on -the femurs and tibia. This insect belongs to the same family -as the others, and has the same habits. It is found North as -well as South.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">- 301 -</span></p> - - -<h3>HONEY-COMB CORAL.</h3> - -<p>A very common fossil found in many parts of the Eastern -and Northern United States, is, from its appearance, often -called petrified honey-comb. We have many such specimens -in our museum. In some cases the cells are hardly larger -than a pin-head; in others a quarter of an inch in diameter.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig132" style="width: 283px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig132.png" width="283" height="259" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>These (<a href="#fig132">Fig, 132</a>) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led -to believe, though the resemblance is so striking that no -wonder that the public generally are deceived. These specimens -are fossil coral, which the paleontologist places in the -genus Favosites; favosus being a common species in our State. -They are very abundant in the lime rock in northern Michigan, -and are very properly denominated honey-stone coral. -The animals of which these were once the skeletons, so to -speak, are not insects at all, though often called so by men -of considerable information. It would be no greater blunder -to call an oyster or a clam an insect.</p> - -<p>The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the -Upper Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and disappeared -in the early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till -the Devonian age, and no Hymenoptera—bees, wasps, etc.—till -after the Carboniferous. So the old-time Favosites reared -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">- 302 -</span> -its limestone columns and helped to build islands and continents -untold ages—millions upon millions of years—before -any flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious nectar. -In some specimens of this honey-stone coral (<a href="#fig133">Fig, 133</a>), there -are to be seen banks of cells, much resembling the paper cells -of some of our wasps. This might be called wasp-stone -coral, except that both styles were wrought by the self-same -animals.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="fig133" style="width: 356px;"> - <div class="figcaption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span></div> - <img src="images/fig133.png" width="356" height="352" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">- 303 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">GENERAL INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<div class="tdc"> -[ <a href="#A">A</a> ][ <a href="#B">B</a> ][ <a href="#C">C</a> ][ <a href="#D">D</a> ][ <a href="#E">E</a> ][ <a href="#F">F</a> ][ <a href="#G">G</a> ][ <a href="#H">H</a> ]<br /> -[ <a href="#I">I</a> ][ <a href="#J">J</a> ][ <a href="#K">K</a> ][ <a href="#L">L</a> ][ <a href="#M">M</a> ][ <a href="#N">N</a> ][ <a href="#O">O</a> ][ <a href="#P">P</a> ]<br /> -[ <a href="#Q">Q</a> ][ <a href="#R">R</a> ][ <a href="#S">S</a> ][ <a href="#T">T</a> ][ <a href="#U">U</a> ][ <a href="#V">V</a> ][ <a href="#W">W</a> ][ <a href="#X">X</a> ] -</div> - -<p class="p0"> -<span class="smcap" id="A">A B C of Bee Culture</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Abdomen of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Air Tubes</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Albino Bees</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Alighting-Board</span> <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> - separate from bottom-board <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Alsike Clover</span>—see clover <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">American Bee Journal</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Amateurs</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Anatomy and Physiology</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> - of bees <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> - of insects <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> - internal <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Antenna</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Ants</span> <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> - remedies for <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> - function <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Apiary,</span><br /> - where to locate <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> - grounds <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> - house—see house apiary <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> - position of <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Apiary Grounds</span> <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> - arrangement of <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> - improvement of <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - screens for <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> - shade for <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Apiculture,</span><br /> - adaptation to women <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> - as an avocation <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> - fascination of <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> - for amateurs <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> - for specialists <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> - inducements to <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> - adaptation to women <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> - excellence for amateurs <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> - improves the mind <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> - recreation <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> - yields delicious food <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> - profits of <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> - requisites to <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> - conventions <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> - enthusiasm <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> - experience <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> - mental effort <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> - persistence <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> - prompt attention <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> - publications <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> - study and thought <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> - visits to other apiarists <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> - work <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> - unsuited to whom <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Apidæ Family</span> <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> - animals of <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> - instincts of <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Apis Genus</span> <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> - animals of <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> - characters of <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Apis Mellifica</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Aristotle</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Articulate Branch</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> - animals of <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Artificial Colonies</span> <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> - advantages of <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> - how made <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> - one from one <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> - one from several <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Axioms</span> <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="B">Barberry</span> <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Barnes' Saw</span> <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Basswood</span> <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bees,</span><br /> - as fertilizers <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> - burying <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> - how to procure <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> - injuring fruit <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> - kind to purchase <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> - kinds in each colony <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> - place in the animal kingdom <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> - quieted <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> - by jarring <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> - by smoking <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> - value of <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> - when to purchase <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> - who may keep <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> - why keep <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee-Bread</span>—see pollen <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee Dress for Ladies</span> <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee Enemies</span> <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> - ants <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> - bee-hawk <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> - bee-killer <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br /> - bee-louse <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> - bee-moth <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> - king-bird <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> - mice <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> - spiders <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> - tachina fly <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> - toads <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> - wasps <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee Gloves</span> <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee Glue</span>—see propolis <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee Hawk</span> <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> - remedy for <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee-Keepers' Axioms</span> <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee-Keepers' Magazine</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee-Killer</span> <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> - remedies for <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee-Louse</span> <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> - remedy for <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">- 304 -</span> -<span class="smcap">Bee-Moth</span> <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> - cocoons of <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> - eggs of <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> - larva of <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> - remedies <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> - silk tube of <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee Plants</span>—see plants <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> - necessary to success <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> - list of <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee Veil</span> <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bees Angered</span> <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> - by quick movements <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> - by sweat <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bees Subdued</span> <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Beeswax</span> <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> - from what <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> - how separated <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Beggar-Ticks</span> <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bergamot</span> <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bevan on the Honey-Bee</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bevel-Gauge</span> <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bevel Joints</span> <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bingham Hive</span> <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bingham Smoker</span> <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Black Bees</span>—see German bees <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Blackberries</span> <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Blood of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Body of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> - parts of <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bombus</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Boneset</span> <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bonnet</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Books for the Apiarist</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> - A B C of Bee Culture <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> - Bevan's Honey-Bee <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> - foreign <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> - Gray's Botany <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> - Huber <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> - Hunter's Manual <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> - King's Text-Book <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> - Langstroth on the Honey-Bee <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> - Neighbour's Apiary <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> - Quinby's Mysteries <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Books for the Entomologist</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> - Duncan's Transformations of Insects <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> - Kirby & Spence <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> - Packard <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> - Westwood <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> - Reports <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> - Fitch <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> - Harris <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> - Riley <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Borage</span> <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bottom-board</span> <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> - immovable <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Box Hives</span> <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Boxes</span> <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> - Barker & Dicer <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> - crate for <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> - Harbison <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> - Isham <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> - position of <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> - Russell <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> - special support for <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> - use <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Box Honey</span> <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> - when to secure <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> - where to keep <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Branch</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> - articulata <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> - of the honey-bee <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Breathing of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Breathing-mouths</span> <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Buckwheat</span> <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Button-ball</span> <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="C">Cages</span><br /> - for introducing queen <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> - for shipping queen <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Calendar</span> <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Carpenter Bees</span> <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Catnip</span> <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Chaff Hives</span> <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Chrysalids</span> <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Circulatory System</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Class</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> - insecta <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> - of the honey-bee <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Cleome</span>—see Rocky M't'n bee plant <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Clover</span> <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - Alsike <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> - sweet <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> - white <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Clustering Outside the Hive</span> <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - cause of <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - how prevented <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - adding room <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> - extracting <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> - shading <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Cocoons</span> <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> - of bees <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">College Course</span> <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Colonies</span>,<br /> - always strong <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> - how moved <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Columella</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Comb</span> <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> - cells in <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> - worker <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> - drone <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> - for guide <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> - how fastened <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> - how made <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> - transparency of <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> - what determines kind <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Comb Foundation</span> <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> - American <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> - history of <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> - how cut <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> - how fastened <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> - how made <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">- 305 -</span> -<span class="smcap">Comb Foundation Machine</span> <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> - inventor of <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Comb Honey</span> <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> - apparatus to secure <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> - care of <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> - in boxes <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> - in frames <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> - in what form <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> - marketing <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> - when to secure <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Conventions</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Corn</span> <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Cotton</span> <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Cover for Frames</span> <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Cover for Hives</span> <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Crates</span>,<br /> - section <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> - market <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Cyprian Bee</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="D">De Geer</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Digestive Organs</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Diseases</span> <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> - dysentery <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> - foul brood <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dissection</span> <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dissecting Instruments</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> - lenses <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> - needle points <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> - dividers—see separators <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dividing Colonies</span>—see artificial colonies <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Division-board</span> <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dollar Queens</span> <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dorsata Bee</span> <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dress for Ladies</span> <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Drones</span> <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> - development of <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> - eggs of <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> - eyes of <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> - function of <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> - influence of, on drone progeny <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> - jaws of <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> - leg of <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> - longevity of <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> - number of <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> - tongue of <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> - when in hive <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> - why so numerous <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dysentery</span> <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="E">Egg</span> <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> - of insects <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> - of bee <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Egyptian Bee</span> <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Empty Cells</span> <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> - importance of <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> - how to secure <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Entrance to Hive</span> <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Epicranium</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Extractor</span>,<br /> - of honey <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> - Everett's <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> - history of <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> - how to use <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> - knives for <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> - rack for <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> - when to use <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> - wire comb baskets for <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> - of wax <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Extracted Honey</span> <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> - market for <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Extracting Honey</span> <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> - how done <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br /> - why done <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> - when done <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Eyes of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> - compound <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> - simple <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="F">Fabricius</span> <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Family</span> <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> - apidæ <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> - of the honey-bee <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Feeder</span> <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Feeding</span> <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> - amount to feed <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> - what to feed <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> - honey <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> - sugar <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> - flour <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Female Organs</span> <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Fertile Workers</span> <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Fertilization of Flowers by Bees</span> <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Figwort</span> <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Fitch's Report</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Foot-power Saw</span> <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Foul Brood</span> <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> - cause <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> - cure for <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> - symptoms of <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Foundation</span> <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> - history of <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> - how cut <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br /> - how fastened <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> - how made <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Frames</span> <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> - arrangement for surplus <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> - block for making <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> - cover for <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> - form of <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> - Gallup <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> - gauge for construction <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> - inventor of <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> - Langstroth <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> - number of <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> - section <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> - small—see sections <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> - space about <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> - space between <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Fruit trees</span> <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">- 306 -</span><br /> -<span class="smcap" id="G">Gallup Frame</span> <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Geoffroy</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Genus</span>,<br /> - apis <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> - of the honey-bee <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">German or Black Bee</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Gleanings in Bee Culture</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Gloves</span> <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Golden-rod</span> <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Grapes Injured by Bees</span> <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Grape Vines for Shade</span> <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Gunther</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="H">Handling Bees</span> <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Harris' Injurious Insects</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Harvey</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Head of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> - organs of <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Heart of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Hexapods</span>—see Insects <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Hives</span> <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> - alighting-board of <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> - <span class="smcap">Bingham</span> <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> - bottom-board of <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> - box not good <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> - chaff <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> - cover of <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> - division-board for <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> - entrance to <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> - frames for <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> - Huber <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> - joints of <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> - square <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> - bevel <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> - Langstroth <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> - lumber for <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> - movable comb <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> - movable frame <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> - near the ground <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> - nucleus <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> - position of <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> - Quinby <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> - rabbet of <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> - size of <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Honey</span> <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> - collected, not secreted <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> - defined <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> - extracted <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br /> - for food <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> - granulated, how dissolved <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br /> - how collected <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> - how deposited <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> - how transported <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> - marketing of <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> - natural use of <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> - source of <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> - bark lice <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> - honey-dew <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br /> - plants <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> - plant lice <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> - other sources <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Honey-Comb</span>—see comb <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Honey Extractor</span>—see extractor <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> - importance of <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> - requisites of <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> - when to use <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Honey Knives</span> <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Honey Plants</span>—see plants <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> - for April <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> - for May <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - for July <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> - for June <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - for August <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> - importance of <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> - list of <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">House Apiary</span> <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> - advantages of <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> - are they desirable? <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> - objections to <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Huber</span> <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Huber Hive</span> <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> - kinds of <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Hunter's Manual</span> <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Hymenopterous Insects</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> - the highest <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> - parasitic <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="I">Imago</span> <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Insecta</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> - animals of <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - class <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Insects</span>, or <span class="smcap">Hexapods</span> <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - abdomen of <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - head of <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - imago of <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - larva of <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - pupa of <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - thorax of <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - transformations of <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> - transformations, complete <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> - transformations, incomplete <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Introduction of Cell</span> <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Introduction of Queen</span> <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Intestines</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Italian Bees</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> - description of <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> - figure of Frontispiece<br /> - history of <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> - superiority of <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="J">Jaws</span> <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Judas Tree</span> <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="K">King Bird</span> 27?<br /> -<span class="smcap">King's Text-Book</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Kirby & Spence's Entomology</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="L">Labium</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Labrum</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Ladies' Bee Dress</span> <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Langstroth</span>, Rev. L. L. <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Langstroth Frame</span> <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Langstroth Hive</span> <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Langstroth on the Honey-Bee</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Larva</span> <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Latreille</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">- 307 -</span> -<span class="smcap">Leaf-Cutting Bee</span> <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Legs of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -Linnæus <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Ligula</span> <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Location of Apiary</span> <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Locust Trees</span> <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Lyonnet</span> <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="M">Male Organs</span> <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Mandibles</span> <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Maple</span> <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Market</span>—for honey <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> - crate for <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> - figures of <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a><br /> - for comb <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> - for extracted <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> - how to stimulate <a href="#Page_213">213</a><br /> - rules for <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Mason Bees</span> <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Maxillæ</span> <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Megachile</span> <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Melipona</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Mice</span> <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> - remedy for <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Mignonette</span> <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Milk-Weed</span> <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - pollen masses of <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Mimicry</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Mouth Parts</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> - variation of <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Movable-Comb Hives</span> <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> - two types <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Moving Colonies</span> <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Multiplying Colonies</span> <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Muscles of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Mustard</span> <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="N">Natural History of the Honey-Bee</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Natural Method of Increase</span> <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Natural Swarms</span> <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> - means to save <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> - implements required <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> - not desirable <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> - second swarms prevented <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Neighbour, The Apiary</span> <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Nerves of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Neuters</span> <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> - cocoon of <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> - development of <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> - eggs of <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> - eyes of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> - function of <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> - old workers <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> - young workers <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> - honey stomach of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> - jaws of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> - larva of <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> - longevity of <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> - number of <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> - pollen baskets of <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> - pupa of <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> - size of <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> - sting of <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> - tarsi of <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> - tibia of <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> - tongue of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> - wings of <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Nymphs</span> <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="O">Order</span> <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - of insects <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> - of the honey-bee <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Osmia</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Ovaries</span> <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="P">Packard's Entomology</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Palpi</span> <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Papers</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> - <span class="smcap">American Bee Journal</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> - <span class="smcap">Bee-Keepers' Magazine</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> - <span class="smcap">Gleanings in Bee Culture</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Paraglossæ</span> <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Parasitic Insects</span> <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Parasitic Bees</span> <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Parthenogenesis</span> <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> - in bees <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> - in other insects <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Plants</span> <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> - asters <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br /> - April <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> - August <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> - barberry <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> - basswood <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> - beggar-ticks <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> - bergamot <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - blackberry <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> - boneset <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> - buckwheat <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br /> - button-ball <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> - catnip <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> - clover <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - Alsike <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> - sweet <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> - white <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - coffee berry <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> - corn <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> - cotton <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> - figwort <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - fruit trees <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - golden-rod <a href="#Page_242">242</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br /> - Judas tree <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">- 308 -</span> - July <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> - June <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> - list of <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> - locust <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> - maples <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> - milk-weed <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - pollen-masses <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> - mints <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - mignonette <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> - mustard <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> - okra <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> - poplar <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - rape <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> - Rocky Mountain bee <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> - sage <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - white <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br /> - sour-wood <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> - Spanish needles <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> - St. John's wort <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> - sumac <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> - teasel <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> - tick-seed <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> - tulip tree <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> - willow <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> - wistaria <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - American <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - Chinese <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Pliny</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Poison from Sting</span> <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> - innoculation of <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Poison Sack</span> <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Pollen</span> <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> - function of <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> - how carried <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> - nature of <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> - source of <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> - where deposited <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Preparation for Apiculture</span> <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> - college course <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> - plan <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> - read <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> - visit <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Products of Bees</span> <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> - comb <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> - honey <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> - pollen or bee-bread <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> - propolis or bee-glue <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> - wax <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Products of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Propolis or Bee-Glue</span> <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> - function of <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> - nature of <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> - source of <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Publications</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> - <span class="smcap">American Bee Journal</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> - <span class="smcap">Bee-Keepers' Magazine</span> <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> - <span class="smcap">Gleanings in Bee Culture</span> <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Pupa</span> <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="Q">Queen</span> <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> - brood from eggs <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> - cages <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> - cell <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> - introduction of <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> - when started <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> - where built <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> - clipping wing of <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> - how done <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> - not injurious <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> - why done <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> - cocoon of <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> - development of <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> - eggs of <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> - how impregnated <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> - Wagner's theory <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> - fecundity of <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> - food of larvæ <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> - function of <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> - how procured <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> - importance of <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> - impregnation of <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> - only on the wing <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /> - introduction of <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> - laying of <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> - longevity of <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> - must have empty cells <a href="#Page_188">188</a><br /> - never to be wanting <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> - never to be poor <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> - no sovereign <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> - ovaries of <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> - oviduct of <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> - piping of <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> - rearing of <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> - sex of <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> - shipping <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> - size of <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> - spermatheca of <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> - sterility of <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> - sting of <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> - tongue of <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> - wings of <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Queen Cells</span> <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> - how secured <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> - introduction of <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Queen Rearing</span> <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Queen Shipping</span> <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> - cage for <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Queen White Ant</span> <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> - fecundity of <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Quilt</span> <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Quinby, M.</span> <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Quinby Hive</span> <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-keeping</span> <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Quinby Smoker</span> <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="R">Rabbets for Hive</span> <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> - of tin <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Races of the Honey-Bee</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> - Egyptian <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> - German or black <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">- 309 -</span> - Italian or Ligurian <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> - history of <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> - characters of <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> - superiority of <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> - other <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Ray</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Réaumur</span> <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Respiration</span> <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Riley's Reports</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Robbing</span> <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> - how checked <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> - how prevented <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> - when to fear <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Rocky Mountain Bee Plant</span> <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Royal Jelly</span> <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Russell Hive</span> <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="S">Salicylic Acid</span> <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sage</span> <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - white <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sawdust</span> <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Saws</span> <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> - Barnes' <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> - foot-power <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Second Swarms</span> <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Secretion</span> <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Secretory Organs</span> <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sections</span> <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> - dove-tail <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> - Hetherington <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> - glassing <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> - Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> - veneer <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> - glassing <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Section Block</span> <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Section Frame</span> <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> - where placed <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Section Rack</span> <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> - Doolittle <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> - Southard & Ranney's <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> - Wheeler <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Senses of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> - hearing <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> - seeing <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> - smelling <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> - feeling <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Separators</span> <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> - tin <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> - wooden <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Shade for Hives</span> <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - ever-greens <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> - grape-vines <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - houses <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - use of <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - prevents idleness <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> - prevents melting of comb <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Smokers</span> <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> - bellows <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> - how used <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> - Bingham <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> - Quinby <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sour-wood</span> <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Spanish Needles</span> <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Specialists</span> <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Species of the Honey-Bee</span> <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Spermatheca</span> <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Spiders</span> <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Spiracles</span> <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Spring Dwindling</span> <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Starting an Apiary</span> <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sting</span> <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Stingless Bees</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Stings</span> <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> - cure of <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">St. John's Wort</span> <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Stomach</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> - sucking <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> - true <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sub-Order</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> - Hymenoptera <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> - of the honey-bee <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sumac</span> <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sun-Flower</span> <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Swammerdam</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Swarming</span> <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> - after-swarms <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> - clustering <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> - drone-brood started <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> - old colony—how known <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> - preparation for <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> - drone-brood <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> - queen cells <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> - prevented <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> - when to expect <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Swarms</span> <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> - hiving <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br /> - easy method <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> - second <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> - how prevented <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="T">Tachina Fly</span> <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Tailor-Bee</span> <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Teasel</span> <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Thorax of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> - appendages of <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Tick-Seed</span> <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Toads</span> <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Tongue</span> <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Trachea</span> <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Transferring</span> <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> - method of <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> - when easiest <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Transformations of Insects</span> <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> - incomplete <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Trigona</span> <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Tulip Tree</span> <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="U">Uniting</span> <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> - when advisable <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="V">Varieties of the Honey-Bee</span>—see races <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Veil</span> <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">- 310 -</span> -<span class="smcap">Virgil</span> <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="W">Wagner</span> <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Wagner's Theory</span> <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Wasps</span> <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> - remedies for <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Water for Bees</span> <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Wax</span> <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> - composition of <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> - function of <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> - how secured <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br /> - importance of <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br /> - source of <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Wax Extractor</span> <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Wax Pockets</span> <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Weiss' Foundation Machine</span> <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Westwood on Insects</span> <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Willow</span> <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Wings</span> <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> - clipping <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> - of drone <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> - of queen <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> - of worker <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Wintering</span> <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> - requisites to safe <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> - absorbents above bees <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> - chaff hives <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> - chamber contracted <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> - colonies prepared <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> - depositories for <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> - cellar <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> - house <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> - house apiary <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> - good food <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> - late breeding <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> - packing-box <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> - protected if left out <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> - why disastrous <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> - excessive moisture <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> - extremes of temperature <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> - spring dwindling <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> - too early cessation of storing <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> - unwholesome food <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Women as Bee-Keepers</span> <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Workers</span>—see Neuters <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> - fertile <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Wistaria</span> <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - American <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - Chinese <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap" id="X">Xylocopa</span> <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> -</p> - - -<h2>INDEX TO APPENDIX.</h2> - - -<p class="p0"> -<span class="smcap">Bark Louse</span> <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br /> - of Tulip Tree <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Bee Enemies</span> <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Berlepsch</span> <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Debeauvoys' Hive</span> <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Della Rocca</span> <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dzierzon</span> <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Dzierzon Hive</span> <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Fossil Honey Comb</span> <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br /> - figures of <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Grecian Hives</span> <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Harbison Hive</span> <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">History of Movable Frames</span> <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Hives</span> <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> - Berlepsch <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> - Debeauvoys <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> - Della Rocca <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> - Dzierzon <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> - Harbison <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> - Huber <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> - Langstroth <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> - Munn <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> - figures of <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> - Schirach <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> - Schmidt <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> - Shaw <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Insects</span> <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> - Laphria thoracica <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> - Lecanium tulipiferæ <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br /> - Mallophora bomboides <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> - Mallophora orcina <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> - Phymata erosa <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Japan Medlar</span> <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Kleine</span> <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Langstroth Hive</span> <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Laphria thoracica</span> <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Lecanium tulipiferæ</span> <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Mallophora bomboides</span> <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> -<span class="smcap"> " orcina</span> <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Motherwort</span> <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> - figures of <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Munn Hive</span> <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> - figures of <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Phymata erosa</span> <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> - figures of <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Plants</span> <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> - Japan medlar <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> - Motherwort <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> - Sour-wood <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Réaumur</span> <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Schmidt's Hive</span> <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Schirach's hive</span> <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Shaw's Hive</span> <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Sourwood</span> <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Southern Bee-killers</span> <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> - figures of <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Stinging Bug</span> <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> - figures of <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br /> -<span class="smcap">Swammerdam</span> <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">Triangular Hive</span> <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> - figure of <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> -</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">- 311 -</span></p> - - -<p class="pmt4 caption3"><b>COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.</b></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 182px;"> - <img src="images/line_bars.png" width="182" height="16" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="tdc"><b>NOTICES BY THE PRESS.</b></p> - -<p>Needs no recommendation—recommends itself.—<i>Western Rural</i>, Chicago.</p> - -<p>This work is exceedingly valuable—indeed indispensable to apiarists.—<i>Voice of -Masonry.</i></p> - -<p>Treating the art in all its different branches in a clear, concise and interesting -manner.—<i>The Canadian Entomologist.</i></p> - -<p>It is the fullest, most practical, and most satisfactory treatise on the subject -now before the public.—<i>Country Gentleman.</i></p> - -<p>It contains the latest developments of science connected with bee-culture and -honey production.—<i>Chicago Evening Journal.</i></p> - -<p>It contains the latest scientific discoveries in apiarian management and -bee-keeping apparatus.—<i>Prairie Farmer, Chicago.</i></p> - -<p>The latest, fullest, most practical and satisfactory treatise on the subject, now -before the public.—<i>Lambton</i>, (Canada) <i>Advocate</i>.</p> - -<p>Every point connected with the subject is handled in a clear, exhaustive, yet -pithy and practical manner.—<i>Rural New Yorker.</i></p> - -<p>It is both a practical and scientific discussion, and nothing that could interest -the bee-raiser is left unsaid.—<i>Chicago Inter-Ocean.</i></p> - -<p>The most thorough work on the apiary ever published, and the only one illustrating -the various bee plants.—<i>Lansing</i> (Mich.) <i>Republican</i>.</p> - -<p>Prof. Cook is an entomologist, a botanist, a ready writer, a passionate lover of -the honey-bee, and his new work savors of all these qualities.—<i>Standard</i>, New -Bedford, Mass.</p> - -<p>I feel like thanking God that we have such a man as Prof. Cook to take hold of -the subject of bee-culture in the masterly way in which he has done it.—<i>Gleanings -in Bee Culture.</i></p> - -<p>It is a book which does credit to our calling; one that every bee-keeper may -welcome as a fit exponent of the science which gives pleasure to all who are engaged -in it.—<i>American Bee Journal.</i></p> - -<p>The honey-bee comes with the perfume of summer flowers, and one of its best -friends, A. J. Cook, has written its history and habits in a handsomely illustrated -volume.—<i>American Poultry Journal.</i></p> - -<p>It is just what might have been expected from the distinguished author—a work -acceptable to the ordinary bee-man, and a delight to the student of scientific -apiculture.—<i>Bee Keepers' Magazine.</i></p> - -<p>Cook's new "Manual of the Apiary," comes with high encomiums from America; -and certainly it appears to have cut the ground from under future book makers, -for some time to come.—<i>British Bee Journal.</i></p> - -<p>It is the most complete and practical treatise on bee-culture in Europe or -America. The arrangement is successive, and every topic is lucidly treated in the -Professor's blithesome, light-hearted, pithy, suggestive style.—<i>Post and Tribune</i>, -Detroit, Mich.</p> - -<p>The typography and general execution of the work is handsome and neat, and -altogether we have a work that may be safely recommended as the Manual of the -Apiarist—the book, par excellence, to which all may revert with both pleasure and -profit, for instruction in the management of the apiary.—<i>Michigan Farmer.</i></p> - -<p>It must rank with Henderson's manuals, and share with them the praise of being -an indispensable adjunct to every specialist's library. It is a scientific, practical -book, a book of "how to do" and "why to do," tersely written, yet fully expressed; -a book to the credit of American literature.—<i>Scientific Farmer</i>, Boston.</p> - -<p class="p0"><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /> It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper and superbly -illustrated. Price, bound in cloth, <b>$1.25;</b> in paper, <b>$1.00,</b> postpaid. Per -dozen: cloth, $12.00; paper, $9.50.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><b>THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,</b></p> - -<p class="pmb4 tdc"><b>972 and 974 West Madison Street, CHICAGO.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">- 312 -</span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" id="text_am_bee_jour" style="width: 605px;"> - <img src="images/text_am_bee_jour.png" width="605" height="98" alt="THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL," /> -</div> - -<p class="tdc"><b>Is an elegant fifty-two paged Illustrated Monthly,</b></p> - -<p class="tdc"><em>DEVOTED EXCLUSIVELY TO BEE-CULTURE,</em></p> - -<p class="tdc"><b>At $1.50 per annum, in advance; Sample Copy. 10c.</b></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;"> - <img src="images/line_bar.png" width="231" height="17" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p> -<i>Capt. J. E. Hetherington Cherry Valley, N. Y., says: The readers of the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL and its<br /> -Present management are, I think, fit Subjects for congratulation. You certainly give us a good paper, and none of<br /> -us hesitate to recommend it to the extent of saying that no bee-keeper, great or small, can afford to do without it.</i><br /> -</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;"> - <img src="images/line_bar.png" width="231" height="17" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>I find the Bee Journal an excellent companion and adviser.—L. M. Wainwright, Noblesville, Ind.</p> - -<p>The Bee Journal is the largest and best bee paper published.—D. L. Franklin, Boone Co., N. Y.</p> - -<p>It has saved me $56.25 in hives alone, to say nothing of the other information.—R. Matthews, Pontiac, Ill.</p> - -<p>You have worked up the American Bee Journal almost to perfection.—Orion Siggins, West Hickory, Pa.</p> - -<p>I would not do without the American Bee Journal for three times its price.—J. E. Kearns, Waterloo, Pa.</p> - -<p>I have learned more from it, of how to handle bees, than from all other sources.—R. Corbett, Malden, Ill.</p> - -<p>I consider the Bee Journal the <i>best</i> bee publication—having read them all.—J. E. Hunter, Jones Co., Iowa.</p> - -<p>The Journal grows better every month. No bee man should be without it.—John Barfoot, New Canton, Ill.</p> - -<p>I do not see how any one can do with out it. I have had bees for 40 years.—A. M. Burnett, Valley Mills, Texas.</p> - -<p>The Bee Journal comes loaded with good things. I can not see how it is possible to make it so much better -every month.—T. J. Ward, St. Mary's, Ind.</p> - -<p>If you keep on improving the Bee Journal as you have within the past year, it must soon become the <i>ne -plus ultra</i> of bee literature the World over.—O. W. Speer, Easton, Pa.</p> - -<p>I am among the many who are glad that the American Bee Journal fell into the hands of those who have -no hobbies to ride nor axes to grind. I only express the views of many others.—F. A. Snell, Milledgeville, Ill.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><i>PUBLISHED ON THE FIRST DAY OF EVERY MONTH, BY</i></p> - -<p class="pmb4 caption3"><b>THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, 972 & 974 W. Madison St., Chicago.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">- 313 -</span></b></p> - - -<div class="bbox"> - -<p class="caption2"><b>THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL</b></p> - - - -<p class="caption4"><b>APPRECIATIVE NOTICES.</b></p> - -<p>It is the most valuable publication on bee-culture in America.—<i>Sun</i>, -Anoka, Minn.</p> - -<p>It is authority in all matters pertaining to bee-culture.—<i>Republican</i>, -Mason City, Iowa.</p> - -<p>It stands at the head of American publications devoted to bee-culture.—<i>Patriot</i>, -Springfield, Mo.</p> - -<p>It is a complete guide to those interested in bee-culture.—<i>Everybody's -Ledger</i>, Lewiston, Pa.</p> - -<p>It is most valuable, and will always find a hearty welcome in -every apiary.—<i>Herald</i>, Los Angeles, Cal.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">American Bee Journal</span>; is a publication of great value -to all honey producers.—<i>Daily News</i>, Danville, Va.</p> - -<p>We recommend the <span class="smcap">American Bee Journal</span>, as the ablest bee -paper in the United States.—<i>Farmers' Home Journal.</i></p> - -<p>It is progressive, interesting and valuable to every one who -keeps bees, and is ably edited.—<i>Agriculturist</i>, Quincy, Ill.</p> - -<p>It is full of useful suggestions and instructive articles to every -one interested in honey producing.—<i>Democrat</i>, Allegan, Mich.</p> - -<p>It is full to overflowing with matters pertaining to the successful -management of the little honey producers—a thoroughly live -periodical.—<i>Standard</i>, New Bedford, Mass.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Journal</span> surpasses itself; each issue improves upon the -last, in the bright, cheerful appearance and instructive influence -of its whole composition.—W. Williamson, Lexington, Ky.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">American Bee Journal</span> is increasing in influence with -each number. It is a valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper, and -should be taken and read by all interested in bee-culture.—<i>Standard</i>, -Cedar Rapids, Iowa.</p> - -<p>I hail the coming of the <span class="smcap">Bee Journal</span> with joy. It is the -greatest light we have on bee-culture, bringing ideas, not only -from the editor, but from all the other experienced bee men of -the land.—L. A. Taber, Holyoke, Mass.</p> - -<p>In its department of journalism, the <span class="smcap">American Bee Journal</span> -stands without a rival. Devoted exclusively to bee-culture and -the production of pure honey, its columns are filled with such -matter as a keeper of bees can read and profit by. Its table of -contents is as full as it is interesting.—<i>Gazette</i>, Lewiston, Pa.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">American Bee Journal</span> ought to be taken by all bee-keepers; -it is neatly printed and replete in useful information -about bees and honey. It fully describes the habits of those busy -extractors of sweets from flowers and herbs, whose products, with -the yield from our cows, makes our land literally flow with "milk -and honey."—<i>Maryland Farmer.</i></p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Bee Journal</span> is pre-eminently above all its competitors. -It is full of fire, enterprise and vim; it discusses the various -questions pertaining to bee-culture with spirit and energetic -thought; it is an honor to its Editor and to the interest which -sustains it. It has no individual axe to grind, but is the fearless -champion of all that is useful and good; steadfast, unwavering, -honest; never vacillating or swerving; but true, as the needle to -the pole, to the interest of bee-keepers. It should be supported -by every one interested in bees or honey.—<span class="smcap">American Grocer.</span></p> - - -<p class="caption2"><b>THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,</b></p> - -<p class="tdr"><b>972 and 974 West Madison St., CHICAGO.</b></p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">- 314 -</span></p> - - -<p class="pmt4 caption2"><b>Ha! Ha! Ha! Just What I Want!</b></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;"> - <img src="images/line_bar.png" width="231" height="17" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figright" id="bingham_smoker" style="width: 103px;"> - <img src="images/bingham_smoker.png" width="103" height="217" alt="Bingham Smoker" /> -</div> - -<p>The Michigan Bee-Keepers' Association, having all the -Smokers before it, "pronounced Bingham's Patent Smoker the -best."</p> - -<p>J P Moore, of Binghamton, New York, after using one some -time, said: "My Smoker troubles are all over, and the -bee-keepers owe you a debt of gratitude."</p> - -<p>Professor Cook, of Michigan Agricultural College, says: "It -is the best in the market."</p> - -<p>R. M. Argo, Lowell, Kentucky, says: "It is all that any -bee-keeper could desire."</p> - -<p>Paul L. Viallon, Bayou Goula, Louisiana, writes, April 6th, -1878: "Your Smokers are far superior to any ever invented; -and we bee-keepers owe you a vote of thanks for your Ingenious -invention. Many may try to improve on yours, but I am positive -none will make a better one."</p> - -<p>This is the first and only bellows Smoker ever made which -would burn stove-wood. It burns anything combustible, and -needs no care except to be refilled once in one or two hours. -Works easy, and will throw a stream of smoke ten feet. It will -not go out or wear out. It will save time, stings and money, and -perhaps a valuable horse.</p> - -<p>The inventor is the only party having a right to manufacture -said Smoker, and it is safe to buy of him.</p> - -<table style="width: 20em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Large size,</td> - <td class="tdl">2½ inch,</td> - <td class="tdl">by mail</td> - <td class="tdr"><b>$1.75</b></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Standard size,</td> - <td class="tdl">2 inch,</td> - <td class="tdl">by mail</td> - <td class="tdr"><b>$1.50</b></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Small size,</td> - <td class="tdl">1¾ inch,</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr"><b>$1.00</b></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Address,<span style="letter-spacing: 2em;"> </span><b>T. F. BINGHAM, Otsego, Allegan Co., Mich.</b></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 182px;"> - <img src="images/line_bars.png" width="182" height="16" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption3"><b>BINGHAM & HETHERINGTON'S HONEY KNIFE.</b></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="b_h_honey_knife" style="width: 271px;"> - <img src="images/b_h_honey_knife.png" width="271" height="96" alt="B & H Honey Knife" /> -</div> - -<p>These knives are peculiarly -constructed, and of the best -steel, finish and temper. To secure the credit of our invention -and enable us to furnish them -cheaply, and of standard excellence to bee-keepers, we have -had them patented.</p> - -<p>In use, if the combs are held -upright the caps are carried away from the combs so they never touch them after -being cut off. If the combs are laid on a table to uncap, the movable cap-catcher -gathers the wide sheet of caps in a roll, and easily carries all that the largest -combs contain without dropping one upon the comb after being cut off. The blade -is two inches wide; but as only the edge rests on the combs, they uncap the most -delicate combs without tearing, and work as easily as if only one-fourth inch wide.</p> - -<p> -Sent singly, per express, for <b>$1.00,</b> With Movable Cap-catcher, <b>$1.25.</b><br /> -</p> - -<p>As knives are not carried in the mail, we make 10 per cent, reduction from <i>regular -retail rates</i> to clubs and others who send the money for three or more, to be -sent in one package. [Finger] Send for circular. Address,</p> - -<p class="tdr"><b><span class="larger">BINGHAM & HETHERINGTON'S,</span> Otsego, Mich.</b></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="line_o" style="width: 124px;"> - <img src="images/line_o.png" width="124" height="13" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Lansing, Mich., Feb. 11, 1879.—After a thorough trial of your honey knife here at -the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any other that we have used, -though we have several of the principal knives made in the United States.</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -<span class="smcap">A. J. Cook.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p>Middlefield, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1879.—I have been using your two-inch uncapping -knife the past season. For rapidity and ease in operating, they far excel any -knife I have ever used. Its shape and beveled edges make it perfect for uncapping -uneven and crooked combs. It works equally well with either right or left -stroke. We uncapped hundreds of combs in piece boxes, and both my associates -and myself have come to the conclusion that they facilitate the labor fully one-half, -and are perfection itself, leaving nothing to be desired.</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -<span class="smcap">A. G. Murphy.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p>Cherry Valley, N. Y., Jan. 5, 1879.—I received the knives all right, and on account -of their superiority I feel that you, and bee-keepers as well, are entitled to a report -on them. For my own use I much prefer them to any knife I have ever -uncapped with, for the reason that I can uncap much more honey. A better test -is in the hands of three or four of my men who used them for several consecutive -days, and without exception pronounced them the best knives I owned. One -even went so far as to insist that he could uncap one-third; faster than with any -other knife I had, and when uncapping prize boxes he satisfactorily demonstrated -it. You may send me half a dozen for my own apiaries.</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -<span class="smcap">J. E. Hetherington.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p>The Michigan Bee-Keepers' Association especially recommends the Bingham & -Hetherington Honey Knife and the Bingham Smoker.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">- 315 -</span></p> - - -<p class="pmt4 caption2"><b>Muth's All-Metal Honey Extractor.</b></p> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Patented Sept. 24th, 1878.</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="muth_honey_extractor" style="width: 281px;"> - <img src="images/muth_honey_extractor.png" width="281" height="317" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Every bee-keeper is aware -of the advantages afforded -by a judicious use of the -Honey Extractor. The inventions of the movable -comb frames by Rev. L. L. -Langstroth, and that of the -Honey Extractor by Major v. -Hruschka, are the greatest -achievements in the apiary. -They have made it possible -to multiply our practical results tenfold, and to put a -system to bee-culture.</p> - -<p>Quite a number of different styles of extractors have -been made since their first -invention, about 10 or 12 -years ago. Mine differs from -others by the slanting sides -of the comb basket, arranged above a receptacle -for honey in the same tin -can, and with a substantial -gearing which requires not -more than the strength of a -child to work the machine all -day with ease; frames of different sizes, but smaller than -the comb-basket, and pieces -of comb without a frame, -are placed against the slanting sides, and without being -fastened, emptied of their contents completely, and, to the uninitiated, in an -incredulous short time.</p> - -<p>The cells having a downward tendency, empty more readily, both in top and -bottom of frames, than when in a vertical position, as every practical test will -show, and the flying of honey, in the shape of a fine spray, over the top of the can -is prevented.</p> - -<p>There is a receptacle for 60 lbs. or more of honey in the extractor, according to -the depth of the comb-basket, which can be made of any size desired—for instance, -for Langstroth's and Quinby's frames, the comb-basket is 18½ inches -deep, and the receiver holds about 65 lbs. of honey. If the American frame is -the largest to be extracted, the comb-basket is only 12 inches deep, while the -extractor holds about 140 lbs. of honey before it touches the revolving basket and -needs to be drawn off by the iron faucet at the bottom.</p> - -<p>My standard size of comb-basket is 12¼ × 18½ inches, and admits the Langstroth, -Quinby and American frames. When ordering, please state the largest size of -frames used.</p> - -<p>When, after the honey season, a number of small frames are unfinished, six of -them can be piled against each side of the comb-basket for extraction; or, short -comb-holders, which are sent with each Extractor, may be hung on each side, and -only four sections emptied at one time.</p> - -<p>Extracting two large frames at one time is much the handiest arrangement, and -generally satisfies the most ambitious; but the Extractor can be made large -enough to hold four frames, at an additional cost of $2.50. -A close-fitting cover keeps dust, flies and bees out when extracting is over. -I was obliged to cover my improvement with a patent, merely to protect my -interest.</p> - -<p>My Extractor is second to none for all practical purposes, and one of the cheapest -in the market in consideration of material and workmanship.</p> - -<p class="caption3"><b>Muth's Uncapping Knife,</b></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="muth_knife" style="width: 303px;"> - <img src="images/muth_knife.png" width="303" height="66" alt="Muth Knife" /> -</div> - -<p class="p0 pmb4">IS THIN-BLADED, OF THE BEST STEEL, -HANDY FOR THE PURPOSES INTENDED AND CHEAP.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><b>PRICE FOR EXTRACTOR AND KNIFE, $12.00.</b></p> - -<p class="tdc">For further particulars, address</p> - -<p class="tdc"><b><span class="larger">C. F. MUTH,</span> Cincinnati, O.</b></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">- 316 -</span></p> - - -<p class="pmt4 caption3"><b>BARNES' PATENT</b></p> - -<p class="caption2"><b>FOOT-POWER MACHINERY.</b></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="line_bar" style="width: 231px;"> - <img src="images/line_bar.png" width="231" height="17" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption3"><i>Fifteen Different Machines,</i></p> - -<p>With which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon Makers, and Jobbers -in Miscellaneous work, can compete as to <i>Quality</i> and <i>Price</i> -with steam-power machinery.</p> - -<p class="tdc">WILL SEND MACHINES ON TRIAL IF DESIRED.</p> - -<p><i>Every Bee-Keeper should have an outfit from these Machines for hive-making.</i></p> - -<div class="figleft" id="barnes_fp_saw" style="width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/barnes_fp_saw.png" width="350" height="458" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>We give the following letter from Mr. W. -P. Hogarty, of Wyandotte, Kans., to show -their usefulness. He -says: "If any criticise your circular saw, -you can tell them I -use it, and with one -hand, made all my -bee hives for ninety-five stands of bees, -including frames and -section brace, and I -feel perfectly able to -do the work for one -hundred and fifty -stands." * * * "In -order that you may -know the amount of -work on each of my -hives, will say, they -are two feet long, by -two feet high, by -about two feet wide. -They are double walled and double -bottomed, with two inch -intervening; and in -addition to the nine -frames, there are fifteen cases, each case -containing two honey -boxes and two division boards, and three -boxes to contain chaff -for winter protection. -You will see there is -an immense amount -of sawing to be done, -but I have found your -saw equal to the task -required of it."</p> - -<p>We will send our illustrated catalogue FREE on application. Say -where you read this, and address</p> - -<p class="tdr larger">W. F. & JOHN BARNES,</p> - -<p class="tdr"><i>Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill.</i></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">- 317 -</span></p> - -<p class="pmt4 caption2">NEW LANGSTROTH BEE HIVE,</p> - -<p class="caption3">WITH MANIPULATING SIDE.</p> - -<div class="figleft" id="langstroth_hive" style="width: 293px;"> - <img src="images/langstroth_hive.png" width="293" height="223" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>This Improvement in the -old Langstroth Hive Is exceedingly valuable, as it -allows the closest watching of -a colony with the greatest -ease and comfort. By turning -the thumb-screw (L) and -opening the movable side -(which takes but an instant), -frames can be examined, -by removing the loose -side-board (M), the bottom-board may be -cleaned—giving -the advantages claimed -for a loose bottom-board, -without its disadvantages.</p> - -<p>This Hive is a combination -the Langstroth Hive and -North Star Hive—as pated June 5, 1877—and, no -doubt, will gain universal approbation as soon as its -advantages are known.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="langstroth_prize_boxes" style="width: 247px;"> - <img src="images/langstroth_prize_boxes.png" width="247" height="143" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The New Langstroth hive is peculiarly adapted for the production of comb -honey—its Honey Rack is the best in -use, and is adapted to the use of -the Prize Boxes. It holds 18 Prize -Boxes, with the separators between -them, marked B B in the cut. The -wedge (A) holds all with a vise-like -grasp. The outer boxes are glassed -as they stand on the hive (C C C). -By removing the wedge (A) any box -may be instantly removed, examined, -returned, or replaced by an -empty one—the spaces between the -rows readily admitting the fingers -for that purpose.</p> - -<p class="caption4"><b>SAMPLE NEW LANGSTROTH HIVE</b>—Nailed, Not Painted.</p> - -<table style="font-size: 85%; width: 85%;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td><p class="hanging">No. 1.—Brood Chamber, 10 frames, portico, 7½-inch cap—no surplus arrangement</p></td> - <td class="tdr">$2 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="hanging">No. 2.—Same as No. 1, with Comb-Honey Back, complete, same as shown by the above cuts</p></td> - <td class="tdr">3 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="hanging">No. 3.—Same as No. 1, but having 20 frames, and Comb-Honey Back—a complete 3-story hive</p></td> - <td class="tdr">3 75</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="hanging">No. 4.—Brood Chamber, 10 frames, and 7-inch story, with 7 cases containing Prize Boxes and tin Separators, for surplus Honey, with 2-inch cap</p></td> - <td class="tdr">3 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="hanging">No. 5.—Same as No. 4—but having 10 extra frames—a complete 3-story hive</p></td> - <td class="tdr">3 75</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td><p class="hanging">No. 6.—Brood Chamber, with 10 extra frames, for extracting, and 2-inch cap</p></td> - <td class="tdr">3 00</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /></td> - <td class="tdc" style="width: 15em;"><i>If painted, add $1.00 each.</i></td> - <td><img src="images/finger2.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption4"><b>MATERIAL FOR NEW LANGSTROTH HIVES.</b></p> - -<p class="tdc">CUT, READY TO NAIL-(14⅛ × 18⅜ inches inside).</p> - -<table style="font-size: 85%; width: 45%;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">In lots of</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdl"> No. 1</td> - <td class="tdl">—(one-story),</td> - <td class="tdr">$1 25</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">1 20</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">1 10</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">1 05</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">1 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">In lots of</td> - <td class="tdr">5</td> - <td class="tdl"> No. 6</td> - <td class="tdl">—(two-story),</td> - <td class="tdr">$1 80</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">10</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">1 70</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">1 60</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">50</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">1 53</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">1 50</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="caption4"><b>MATERIAL FOR LANGSTROTH FRAMES.</b></p> - -<p class="tdc">CUT, READY TO NAIL—(9⅛ × 17⅝ inches outside).</p> - -<table summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - <td class="tdl"> frames</td> - <td class="tdr">$1 50</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">1,000</td> - <td class="tdl"> frames</td> - <td class="tdr">$14 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">6,000</td> - <td class="tdl"> frames, per 1,000</td> - <td class="tdr">$12 00</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tdc"><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /> -For sale at wholesale and retail. Address</p> - -<p class="caption3"><b>SPERRY & CHANDLER, 974 W. Madison St., CHICAGO,</b></p> - -<p class="pmb4 tdc"><i>Or at the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL OFFICE.</i></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">- 318 -</span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" id="modest_bee_hive" style="width: 315px;"> - <img src="images/modest_bee_hive.png" width="315" height="373" alt="Modest Bee Hive" /><br /> - <span class="smaller">PRICES TO SUIT THE TIMES. LANGSTROTH AND MODEST HIVES FOR THE MILLION!</span> -</div> - - -<p class="caption2nb">HONEY BOXES AND SECTIONS,</p> - -<p class="tdc">Plain and dove-tailed, are large specialties.</p> - -<p class="caption3"><b>COMB FOUNDATION,</b></p> - -<p>We are producing in large quantities, and of superior quality. Our facilities are -such that we can supply in any quantity desired on short notice, and all favoring -us with their orders shall have prompt and satisfactory attention.</p> - -<p class="caption3"><b>WAX TO BE MADE INTO FOUNDATION.</b></p> - -<p>Lots of 100 lbs. and upwards sent us, with 12½c. per lb., freight prepaid, will be -made up and cut to any size, and delivered on board cars here.</p> - -<p class="caption3"><b>ITALIAN QUEENS!</b></p> - -<p>The superiority of the Queens reared in our apiaries is so well established, we -shall not here detail their merits; but to those wishing honey-producing stock, -combined with prolificness, we will say they are not beaten.</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -Dowagiac, Michigan, November 20, 1878.<br /> -</p> - -<p>In regard to your bees, if you were my enemy, and I had anything to say -about your stock, I should say the truth, that I count yours worth more than twice -that or any of the numerous strains that I have tested. They converted me to -yellow bees,, notwithstanding that they are not near as yellow as those I had -formerly. I advise you not to buy, or take as a gift, any other blood; but just -stand right where you are, and perfect the strain by carefully breeding out any -imperfections that may show themselves, and breeding in all the good qualities -your bees now possess. I shall do the same, purchasing of none but you. I have -hybrids crossed by your stock, that are quiet, good-natured, and splendid -comb-builders and storers.</p> - -<p class="tdc"> -Yours truly. JAMES HEDDON.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="caption3"><i>Extractors, Smokers, Bee Veils,</i></p> - -<p>and everything needed in the apiary, supplied at the lowest living rates. Order -your goods early, remembering that large yields of honey are only obtained by -having everything ready for securing it.</p> - -<p class="pmb4 caption4"><b>J. OATMAN & SONS, Dundee, Ill.</b></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">- 319 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3"><b>THE BEST IS THE CHEAPEST!</b></p> - -<p class="caption3 gesperrt">COFFINBERRY'S</p> - -<p class="caption2"><b>EXCELSIOR HONEY EXTRACTOR!</b></p> - -<p class="caption4">From Eight to Fourteen Dollars.</p> - -<p>Having made several improvements in the EXCELSIOR EXTRACTOR for -1879, it is now offered to the Bee-Keepers of America as the MOST PERFECT -MACHINE IN THE MARKET. The universal favor with which the EXCELSIOR -EXTRACTOR was received in 1878, has induced other manufacturers to -adopt several of its improvements. My experience and experiments of last -season, with the assistance and suggestions of skillful workmen, have enabled me to -perfect an Extractor that <b>cannot be excelled, and can only be equaled -by being closely imitated</b>.</p> - -<div class="figright" id="excel_honey_extr" style="width: 146px;"> - <img src="images/excel_honey_extr.png" width="146" height="324" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Excelsior is made entirely of metal, and is consequently -very light, strong and durable, with lugs at the -bottom for firmly attaching to the floor if desired.</p> - -<p>The strong over-motion gearing, so necessary to ease -in running and speedy operating, was designed and is -manufactured expressly for the Excelsior. A child -ten years of age can operate the machine as rapidly as -it can be supplied with combs.</p> - -<p>The top or cross-band, to which is attached the gearing, -is wrought iron, three inches broad, with the ends -turned down in such manner as to thoroughly brace -and strengthen the can, and holding the basket firmly -in an upright position.</p> - -<p>The Comb Basket having vertical sides, insures the -extracting power alike for top and bottom of frames. -The sides of the basket being movable and interchangeable, -greatly facilitate the operation of dusting before -and thoroughly cleaning after use if desired.</p> - -<p>The basket can be taken from or replaced in the can -in a moment, there being no rusty screws to take out -or nuts to remove.</p> - -<p>At the bottom of the can, and below the basket, is a -cone or metal standard, in the top of which revolves -the bottom pivot of the basket, thereby giving room for -sixty or seventy pounds of honey without touching the -basket or pivot below.</p> - -<p>Nos. 3, 4 and 5 have strainers covering the canal leading -to the faucet, which obviate the delay of several -hours in waiting for the honey to settle, and the tedious -and wasteful process of skimming. The faucet being -below the bottom level of the honey, renders unnecessary -the usual tipping and wrenching incident to drawing -off the honey. These also have close-fitting metal -covers, which entirely exclude dust, dirt, flies and bees when not in use.</p> - -<p>The baskets of Nos. 4 and 5 have no center rod running from top to bottom, -which will be found very convenient by those who uncap both sides of the comb -before putting in the basket, as they can be turned without removal.</p> - -<p>The strong iron handles placed at the sides, a little above the center, are -completely side-braced, and add much to convenience in handling.</p> - -<p>The wire baskets are very neat specimens of skillful workmanship, thoroughly -braced at every point where experience has proven it to be most requisite, and -nothing has been omitted that could add to its efficiency.</p> - -<p>The No. 4, for <b>three</b> frames, has a triangular basket, movable sides, no center -rod, runs smoothly regardless of number of frames, and is fast superseding the -demand for four-sided baskets.</p> - -<p class="caption4"><b>A LOWER PRICED MACHINE.</b></p> - -<p>A cheaper machine being called for by those having but few colonies, and not -making a specialty of bee-keeping, I have made a special size to take the -Langstroth frame, and one for the American, to sell at <b>$8.00</b> each. These have no -covers or strainer, and are smaller than the $12.00 and $14.00 sizes, but for the -frames named are equal to the others for effective work, and are the <b>best cheap -Extractors made</b>.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><b>Sizes and Prices:</b></p> - -<table style="font-size: 85%;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">No.</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="7">1.—For 2 Langstroth frames, 10 × 18 inches</td> - <td class="tdr">$8 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="7">2.—For 2 American frames, 13 × 13 inches</td> - <td class="tdr">8 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdl">3.—For 2 </td> - <td class="tdl">frames,</td> - <td class="tdc">13 × 20 </td> - <td class="tdl">inches, </td> - <td class="tdl">or less </td> - <td class="tdl">(which embraces all </td> - <td class="tdl">standard sizes) </td> - <td class="tdr">12 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdl">4.—For 3</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">12 00</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdl">5.—For 4</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdc">"</td> - <td class="tdr">14 00</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tdc"><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /> -A liberal discount to dealers in Bee-Keepers' supplies and to<br /> -parties ordering in quantity.</p> - -<p class="tdr">Address, <b>C. C. COFFINBERRY, Chicago, Ill.,</b></p> - -<p class="pmb4 tdc">Or <b>American Bee Journal, Chicago, Ill.</b>, where samples can be seen.</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">- 320 -</span></p> - - -<table style="width: 30em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">REV. A. SALISBURY.</td> - <td class="tdr">JOHN M. HAYES.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><p class="caption3"><b>SALISBURY & HAYES,</b></p></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table style="width: 30em;" summary="data"> -<tr> - <td><img src="images/queen_bee.png" width="108" height="184" alt="Queen Bee" /></td> - <td> - <p class="tdc">Propagators of</p> - - <p class="caption2nb">FINE QUEENS AND BEES,</p> - - <p class="tdc">From Imported and Home-bred Mothers.</p> - - <p class="tdc"><span class="larger"><b>Manufacturers of Comb Foundation,</b></span></p> - - <p class="tdc"><span class="larger gesperrt">HIVES,</span></p> - - <p class="tdc"><span class="larger"><b>Surplus Honey Boxes,</b></span></p> - - <p class="tdc"><i>QUEEN SHIPPING CAGES, &c.</i></p> - </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="larger"><b>Dealers in ALL NECESSARY APIARY SUPPLIES.</b></span></p> - -<p class="tdc">All work executed in good style, and prices to suit the times.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /> -Send for Circular.</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -<span class="larger"><b>SALISBURY & HAYES,</b></span><br /> -<br /> -<i>Camargo, Douglas County, Ill.</i><br /> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="tdc">FRIENDS! If you are in any way interested in</p> - -<p class="caption2nb">Bees or Honey!</p> - -<p class="tdc">We will with pleasure send you a sample copy of our</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">MONTHLY GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE,</p> - -<p class="tdc">With a Descriptive Price-List of the latest improvements in</p> - -<p class="tdc">HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS, ARTIFICIAL COMB,</p> - -<p class="tdc"><b>SECTION HONEY BOXES,</b></p> - -<p class="tdc">All books and journals, and everything pertaining to bee culture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;"> - <img src="images/line_bar.png" width="231" height="17" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4nb">NOTHING PATENTED</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;"> - <img src="images/line_bar.png" width="231" height="17" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="tdc">Simply send your address on a postal card, written plainly, to</p> - -<p class="pmb4 tdr"> -<span class="larger"><b>A. I. ROOT, Medina, Ohio.</b></span><br /> -</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">- 321 -</span></p> - - -<div class="figcenter" id="hall_chan_chicago" style="width: 552px;"> - <img src="images/hall_chan_chicago.png" width="552" height="280" alt="" /> -<span class="smaller">HALLOCK & CHANDLER DESIGNERS AND ENGRAVER ON WOOD<br /> -89 Madison Street, Corner of Dearborn, Chicago.</span> -</div> - - -<p class="tdc"><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /> -Mr. Chandler, of the above firm, being a practical bee-keeper,<br /> -will personally supervise the execution of all designs and<br /> -engravings for bee-keepers and dealers in apiarian supplies.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /> -<i>Prices Moderate and Satisfaction Guaranteed.</i> <img src="images/finger2.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="caption3"><b>Italian Bees and Queens,</b></p> - -<p class="tdc">COMB FOUNDATION,</p> - -<p class="caption2"><b>HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS,</b></p> - -<p class="tdc"><i>SURPLUS HONEY BOXES OF EVERY STYLE,</i></p> - -<p class="caption3"><b>FOOT-POWER SAWS,</b></p> - -<p class="tdc">BEE SMOKERS, SEEDS FOR HONEY PLANTS, CASES<br /> -AND RACKS FOR HIVES, SHIPPING CRATES.<br /> -HONEY KNIVES, QUEEN CAGES,</p> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="larger"><b>AND EVERYTHING USEFUL IN AN APIARY.</b></span></p> - -<p class="tdc"><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /> -Our Illustrated Catalogue of Implements for the<br /> -Apiary, SENT FREE.</p> - -<p class="pmb4 tdr">Address, <span class="larger"><b>THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,</b></span><br /> -<b>972 and 974 West Madison St., Chicago.</b></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">- 322 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption2"><b>PUBLICATIONS FOR THE APIARY,</b></p> - -<p class="tdc">FOR SALE AT THE OFFICE OF</p> - -<p class="caption3"><i>The American Bee Journal,</i></p> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="larger"><b>974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill.</b></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="line_bars" style="width: 182px;"> - <img src="images/line_bars.png" width="182" height="16" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="p0 larger2"><b>COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.</b></p> - -<p>This is a new edition of Prof. Cook's Manual of the Apiary, entirely re-written, -greatly enlarged and superbly illustrated.</p> - -<p>Being new, it is fully up with the times on every conceivable subject that -interests the apiarist. It is not only instructive, but intensely interesting.</p> - -<p>It comprises a full delineation of the anatomy and physiology of the Honey-Bee, -illustrated with costly wood engravings, full descriptions of honey-producing -plants, trees and shrubs, &c., splendidly illustrated—and last, though not -least, detailed instructions for the successful accomplishment of all the various -manipulations necessary in the apiary.</p> - -<p>This work is a masterly production, and one that no bee-keeper, however -limited his means, can afford to do without.</p> - -<p>It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper, and superbly -illustrated throughout. Price, bound in cloth, $1.25, postpaid; in paper -binding, $1.00, postpaid.</p> - - -<p class="p0 larger2"><b>THE HIVE AND HONEY-BEE, by L. L. Langstroth.</b></p> - -<p>This is a standard volume, well illustrated and nicely printed. Price, $2.00.</p> - - -<p class="p0 larger2"><b>MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING, by M. Quinby.</b></p> - -<p>The author has treated the subject of Bee-Keeping in a manner that cannot -fail to interest all who read this work. Price, $1.50.</p> - - -<p class="p0 larger2"><b>THE DZIERZON THEORY; being a full elucidation of Scientific Bee-Keeping.</b></p> - -<p>This "theory" presents in the form of distinct propositions, the fundamental -principles of bee-culture, and in this work the late Baron of Berlepsch furnishes -a condensed statement of the facts and arguments by which these propositions -are demonstrated. It is of untold value to beginners and all others who desire -to study the subject of apiculture. It is just what thousands want.</p> - -<p>It contains 60 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, postpaid, 20 cents, -or three copies for 50 cents.</p> - - -<p class="p0 larger2"><b>HONEY, AS FOOD AND MEDICINE, by the Editor of the American Bee Journal.</b></p> - -<p>This is a pamphlet of 24 pages, discoursing upon the Ancient History of Bees -and Honey; the nature, quality, sources, and preparation of Honey for the -Market; Honey, as an article of Food, giving recipes for making Honey Cakes, -Cookies, Puddings, Foam, Wines, &c.; and Honey as Medicine, followed by -many useful Recipes. It is intended for consumers, and should be scattered by -thousands all over the country, and thus assist in creating a demand for -honey.—Prices: Single copies, 10 cents postpaid; 15 copies for $1.00 by mail, -postpaid; 100 copies, with name and address of honey-producer printed on them, -$5.00 by mail, postpaid; 250 copies, by express, at 4 cents each; 500 or more -copies, by express, at 3 cents each. It is published in German also at the same -prices.</p> - - -<p class="p0 larger2"><b>WINTERING BEES; How to do it Successfully.</b></p> - -<p>This contains all the Prize Essays on this important subject that were read -before the Centennial Bee-Keepers' Association. The prize ($25 in gold) was -awarded to Prof. Cook's Essay, which is reported in full in this pamphlet.</p> - -<p>It contains 30 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, 15 cents, or five -copies for 50 cents.</p> - - -<p class="p0 larger2"><b>SPECIAL EDITION of the Journal.</b></p> - -<p>Containing the Official Report of the Proceedings of the National Convention, -hold in New York, Oct., 16-18, 1877, with all the Essays and Discussions,—together -with a description of the implements for the Apiary, on exhibition at the American -Institute Fair.—Price 10 cents.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><img src="images/finger1.png" width="22" height="10" alt="" /> -<i>Send by Postal Money Order, Draft or Registered Letter at our risk.</i></p> - -<p class="tdr"><span class="larger"><b>THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,</b></span> <br /> -<i>974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill,</i></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<div class="transnote"> - -<p class="caption3nb">Transcriber Note</p> - -<p>Minor typos corrected. Discrepancies between the table of Contents' -section titles and that displayed in the Chapter were corrected. The -Illustrations list ended at number <a href="#Page_viii">110</a> but the volume has 133 numbered -illustrations. So, a copy of the list for numbers 111 to 133 was -appended from the Seventh Edition.</p> -</div> - - - - - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF THE APIARY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin-top:1em; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/b_h_honey_knife.png b/old/68157-h/images/b_h_honey_knife.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a18ac5e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/b_h_honey_knife.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/bar_part1.png b/old/68157-h/images/bar_part1.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2bf663f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/bar_part1.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/bar_part2.png b/old/68157-h/images/bar_part2.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2cc1a2a..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/bar_part2.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/barnes_fp_saw.png b/old/68157-h/images/barnes_fp_saw.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 613f95f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/barnes_fp_saw.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/bingham_smoker.png b/old/68157-h/images/bingham_smoker.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5d0bf63..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/bingham_smoker.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/bracer_32.png b/old/68157-h/images/bracer_32.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 618f974..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/bracer_32.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/cover.png b/old/68157-h/images/cover.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f896251..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/cover.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/cover_epub.jpg b/old/68157-h/images/cover_epub.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0a33ccc..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/cover_epub.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/excel_honey_extr.png b/old/68157-h/images/excel_honey_extr.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index afb4b46..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/excel_honey_extr.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig1.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig1.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ac7d283..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig1.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig10.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig10.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b6fa25c..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig10.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig100.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig100.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 86bbe3c..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig100.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig101.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig101.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 758e64b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig101.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig102.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig102.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c37a36b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig102.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig103.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig103.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4134f00..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig103.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig104.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig104.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a247c1d..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig104.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig105.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig105.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5f64280..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig105.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig106.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig106.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8c09b0f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig106.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig107.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig107.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5914c95..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig107.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig108.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig108.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index db073ba..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig108.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig109a.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig109a.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5e2383f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig109a.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig109b.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig109b.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7edb6d2..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig109b.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig11.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig11.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 88a3862..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig11.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig110.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig110.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 50691cb..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig110.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig111.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig111.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f5ece59..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig111.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig112.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig112.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index eb48329..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig112.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig113.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig113.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b2a077e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig113.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig114.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig114.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 97e055f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig114.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig115.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig115.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ef8a941..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig115.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig116.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig116.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 498daa4..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig116.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig117.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig117.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e16bc5f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig117.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig118.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig118.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 11b1e9f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig118.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig119.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig119.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ded2fc1..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig119.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig12.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig12.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 83c1b21..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig12.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig120.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig120.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1158a81..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig120.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig121.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig121.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 211404b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig121.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig122.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig122.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e55c225..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig122.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig123.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig123.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 533c4f0..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig123.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig124.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig124.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8f64f94..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig124.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig125.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig125.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ab2ff1d..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig125.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig126.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig126.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a0f9a3d..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig126.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig127.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig127.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c688dcd..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig127.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig128.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig128.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8e5807c..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig128.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig129.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig129.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e28068a..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig129.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig13.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig13.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ea44d49..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig13.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig130.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig130.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7f21684..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig130.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig131.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig131.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9298d4f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig131.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig132.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig132.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f94d3d4..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig132.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig133.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig133.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a16837b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig133.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig14.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig14.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9476924..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig14.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig15.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig15.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0ecad8e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig15.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig16.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig16.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 393ffc8..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig16.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig17.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig17.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 308bb87..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig17.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig18.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig18.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 60bb666..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig18.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig19.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig19.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 226ff01..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig19.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig2.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig2.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 476c546..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig2.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig20.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig20.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 486c752..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig20.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig21_a.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig21_a.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a204200..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig21_a.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig21_b.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig21_b.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f5680da..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig21_b.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig21_c.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig21_c.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fd9c3cc..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig21_c.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig22.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig22.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6b0c1fc..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig22.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig23.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig23.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 61e49f9..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig23.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig24.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig24.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5140c68..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig24.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig25.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig25.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d0e6d1e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig25.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig26.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig26.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 32cff62..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig26.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig26b.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig26b.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7f8c83b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig26b.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig27a.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig27a.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 27e4dfe..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig27a.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig27b.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig27b.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8dcebf4..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig27b.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig28a.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig28a.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 622b5f3..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig28a.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig28b.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig28b.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5fc4765..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig28b.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig29.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig29.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6840554..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig29.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig3.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig3.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 144509d..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig3.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig30.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig30.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 688ed0c..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig30.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig31.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig31.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 66afe7d..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig31.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig32.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig32.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fd96986..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig32.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig33.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig33.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5274565..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig33.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig34.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig34.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4c1696e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig34.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig35.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig35.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 16865e3..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig35.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig36.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig36.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0062780..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig36.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig37.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig37.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c46382b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig37.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig38.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig38.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index db29c01..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig38.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig39.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig39.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 519bb32..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig39.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig4.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig4.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index dd16401..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig4.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig40.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig40.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6447247..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig40.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig41.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig41.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 37d4654..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig41.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig42.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig42.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2e06898..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig42.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig43.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig43.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 14ff755..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig43.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig44.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig44.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index eab0cc3..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig44.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig45.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig45.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 594a989..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig45.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig46.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig46.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4a871f4..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig46.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig47.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig47.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6366509..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig47.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig48.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig48.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8bdb7b9..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig48.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig49.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig49.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 30a7f85..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig49.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig5.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig5.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 267e3c9..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig5.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig50.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig50.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f9a9374..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig50.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig51.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig51.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1f173b0..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig51.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig52.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig52.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 664aca4..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig52.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig53.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig53.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ff585e4..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig53.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig54.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig54.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a66c4ff..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig54.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig55a.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig55a.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7256711..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig55a.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig55b.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig55b.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4f6c85c..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig55b.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig56.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig56.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 78d3ba2..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig56.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig57.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig57.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9c9d3fe..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig57.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig58.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig58.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9c59851..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig58.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig59.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig59.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 36d1dd7..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig59.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig6.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig6.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9a63dd3..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig6.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig60.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig60.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a263ce4..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig60.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig61.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig61.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 332e6c1..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig61.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig62.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig62.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 375e17a..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig62.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig63.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig63.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7b1b6cb..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig63.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig64.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig64.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4227c3e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig64.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig65.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig65.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a794025..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig65.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig66.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig66.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 77e0595..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig66.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig67.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig67.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 64a13c4..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig67.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig68.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig68.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e7f6149..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig68.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig69.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig69.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4ef91bd..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig69.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig7.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig7.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a43e39f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig7.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig70.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig70.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 02ddfdd..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig70.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig71.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig71.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index acaaccf..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig71.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig72.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig72.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1a72258..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig72.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig73.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig73.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 292a4c9..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig73.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig74.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig74.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 22fa626..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig74.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig75.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig75.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a675e0a..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig75.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig76.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig76.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 26acea0..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig76.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig77.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig77.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2c5dd3b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig77.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig78.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig78.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 44b57e9..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig78.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig79.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig79.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 536b72c..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig79.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig8.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig8.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1cc6b3f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig8.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig80.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig80.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7609ba5..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig80.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig81.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig81.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ac569d6..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig81.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig82.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig82.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9ebd19a..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig82.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig83.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig83.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 48a9e91..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig83.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig84.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig84.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1752497..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig84.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig85.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig85.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 970a7a8..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig85.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig86.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig86.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 696acf8..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig86.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig87.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig87.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e02cebd..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig87.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig88.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig88.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 598c5d6..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig88.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig89.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig89.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7b9148a..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig89.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig9.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig9.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 88f817a..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig9.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig90.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig90.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ca7a3c9..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig90.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig91.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig91.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 428e89c..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig91.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig92.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig92.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b07fb7f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig92.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig93.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig93.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cd02156..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig93.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig94.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig94.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ac062e7..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig94.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig95.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig95.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1cf587b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig95.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig96.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig96.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e2e39c6..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig96.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig97.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig97.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8e1bfd6..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig97.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig98.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig98.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 99fbef3..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig98.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/fig99.png b/old/68157-h/images/fig99.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4af529d..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/fig99.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/finger1.png b/old/68157-h/images/finger1.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e736d1b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/finger1.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/finger2.png b/old/68157-h/images/finger2.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a96493e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/finger2.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/hall_chan_chicago.png b/old/68157-h/images/hall_chan_chicago.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3a0053b..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/hall_chan_chicago.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/langstroth_hive.png b/old/68157-h/images/langstroth_hive.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bc393c0..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/langstroth_hive.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/langstroth_prize_boxes.png b/old/68157-h/images/langstroth_prize_boxes.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8431e46..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/langstroth_prize_boxes.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/line_bar.png b/old/68157-h/images/line_bar.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8370f35..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/line_bar.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/line_bars.png b/old/68157-h/images/line_bars.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8453fca..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/line_bars.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/line_o.png b/old/68157-h/images/line_o.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 627101f..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/line_o.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/modest_bee_hive.png b/old/68157-h/images/modest_bee_hive.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 83f5587..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/modest_bee_hive.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/muth_honey_extractor.png b/old/68157-h/images/muth_honey_extractor.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 90769a9..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/muth_honey_extractor.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/muth_knife.png b/old/68157-h/images/muth_knife.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b06e78d..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/muth_knife.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/queen_bee.png b/old/68157-h/images/queen_bee.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7552b6e..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/queen_bee.png +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68157-h/images/text_am_bee_jour.png b/old/68157-h/images/text_am_bee_jour.png Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 62be42c..0000000 --- a/old/68157-h/images/text_am_bee_jour.png +++ /dev/null |
