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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Manual of the apiary - -Author: Albert John Cook - -Release Date: May 23, 2022 [eBook #68157] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tom Cosmas compiled from materials made available at The - Internet Archive. - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF THE APIARY *** - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_ and =Bold=. - - - - - MANUAL - - OF - - THE APIARY, - - - BY - - A. J. COOK, - - _Professor of Entomology_ - - IN THE - - MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. - - - FOURTH EDITION, - - _REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED._ - - SIXTH THOUSAND. - - - CHICAGO, ILLS.: THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON - - 1879. - - - Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by - - THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, - - In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. - - - TO THE - - REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH, - - THE - - INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE, - - THE - - HUBER OF AMERICA, AND THE GREATEST MASTER OF - - PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO - - APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD; THIS MANUAL - - IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED - - BY - - THE AUTHOR. - - - - -PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. - - -THE APIARY. - -Why another treatise on this subject? Have we not Langstroth, and -Quinby, and King, and Bevan, and Hunter? Yes; all of these. Each of -which has done excellent service in promoting an important industry. -Each of which possesses peculiar and striking excellences. Yet none -of these combine all of the qualities desirable in a popular manual. -Hence, the excuse for another claimant for public favor. Every cultured -apiarist laments that there is no text-book which possesses all of -the following very desirable characters: Simple style, full in its -discussions, cheap, disinterested, up with the times. It is for the -bee-keeping public to decide whether this treatise meets any more fully -the demands made by the latest discoveries and improvements, by the -wants of those eager to learn, and by the superior intelligence which -is now enlisted in the interests of the Apiary. - -The following is, in substance, the same as the course of lectures -which I have given each year to the students of the Michigan -Agricultural College, and their desire, as expressed in repeated -requests, has led to this publication. - -It will be my desire to consider subjects of merely scientific interest -and value, as fully as scientific students can reasonably desire; and, -that such discussions may not confuse or perplex those who only read or -study with practical ends in view, a very full index is added, so that -the whereabouts of any topic, either of practical or scientific value, -can be easily ascertained. - -In considering the various subjects of interest to the bee-keeper, I -am greatly indebted to the authors mentioned above, and also to the -following journals, all worthy of high commendation: Gleanings in Bee -Culture, American Bee Journal, Bee-Keepers' Magazine, and Bee World. - -The illustrations for this manual were nearly all drawn by the author -from the natural object. - - Michigan Agricultural College, } - Lansing, May 1, 1876. } - - -PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. - - -I little thought when I sent out, less than two years ago, the first -edition--3,000 copies--of my little, unpretending, "Manual of the -Apiary," that more than 2,000 copies would be sold in less than one -year, and that in less than two years a second edition would be -demanded by the apiarists of our country. - -The very kindly reviews and flattering notices by apiarian, scientific, -and other journals, both American and foreign, and the approval, as -expressed by numerous friendly letters, of our most eminent apiarists, -as also the "unprecedented sale of this little work," have not only -been very gratifying, but also assure me that I was quite right in the -opinion that the time was ripe for some such treatise. - -At the urgent request of many apiarian friends, in response to the -oft-repeated desire of my many students, some of whom are becoming -leading apiculturists in our country, and at the suggestion of many -noted apiarists with whom I have no personal acquaintance, I now -send forth this second edition, greatly enlarged, mostly re-written, -even more fully illustrated, and containing the latest scientific -discoveries, and most recent improvements in methods of apiarian -management and bee-keeping apparatus. - -It is impossible for me to state how greatly I am indebted to our -excellent American bee periodicals, and enterprising and intelligent -apiarists, for many--yea, for most--of the valuable thoughts and -suggestions which may be found in the following pages. I am tempted -to mention names of those whose aid and favors have been especially -useful, but find the list so large that I must, perforce, forego the -privilege, and only refer to such persons in the text. - -With the hope that this second edition may reach even more who desire -instruction in this pleasing art, and that it may still further advance -the interests of scientific apiculture. I send it forth to all those -who wish to study more deeply into the mysteries of insect life, or -to gain further knowledge of one of the most fascinating as well as -profitable of arts. - -I make no apology for inserting so much of science in the following -pages. From the letters of inquiry which I am constantly receiving, -especially from apiarists, I am convinced that the people are mentally -hungry for just such food. To satisfy and stimulate just such -appetites is, I am sure, very desirable. - -I recommend nothing in this treatise that I have not proved valuable by -actual trial, unless I mention some eminent person as advising it; nor -do I announce any fact or scientific truth that I have not verified, -except as I give it on the authority of some competent person. - -For most of the figures of the second edition lam indebted to one of my -pupils, Mr. W. L. Holdsworth, whose skill as an artist needs no praise. - -_Appended to this volume is a very full index which will be a great aid -to the student._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - Who May Keep Bees 11 - Specialists 11 - Amateurs 11 - Who are Specially Interdicted 12 - Inducements to Bee-Keeping 12 - Recreation 12 - Profit 13 - Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit 15 - Adaptation to Women 15 - Improves the Mind and Observation 17 - Yields Delicious Food 17 - What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires 18 - Mental Effort 18 - Experience Necessary 18 - Learn from Others 18 - Aid from Conventions 19 - Aid from Bee Papers 19 - American Bee Journal 19 - Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 - Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 - Books for the Apiarist 21 - Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21 - Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-Keeping 22 - King's Text-Book 22 - A, B, C of Bee Culture 22 - Foreign Works 22 - Promptitude 23 - Enthusiasm 24 - - -PART I. - -Natural History of the Honey Bee. - -CHAPTER I. - - The Bee's Place in the Animal Kingdom 27 - The Branch of the Honey-Bee 27 - The Class of the Honey-Bee 28 - The Order of the Honey-Bee 30 - The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee 31 - The Family of the Honey-Bee 34 - The Genus of the Honey-Bee 38 - The Species of the Honey-Bee 41 - The Varieties of the Honey-Bee 41 - German, or Black Bee 41 - Italian, or Ligurian 41 - Fasciata, or Egyptian 42 - Other Varieties 43 - Bibliography 44 - Valuable Books on Entomology 47 - -CHAPTER II. - - Anatomy and Physiology 48 - Anatomy of Insects 48 - Organs of the Head 48 - Appendages of the Thorax 55 - Internal Anatomy 56 - Secretory Organs 61 - Sex Organs 62 - Transformations 66 - The Egg 67 - The Larva 68 - The Pupa 68 - The Imago Stage 70 - Incomplete Transformations 70 - Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey Bee 71 - Three Kinds of Bees in Each Colony 71 - The Queen 71 - The Drone 86 - The Neuters or Workers 90 - -CHAPTER III. - - Swarming, or Natural Method of increase 101 - -CHAPTER IV. - - Products of Bees, their Origin and Function 104 - Honey 104 - Wax 106 - Pollen, or Bee-Bread 111 - Propolis 112 - Bibliography 113 - - -Part II. - - The apiary, its Care and Management 115 - -INTRODUCTION. - - Preparation 117 - Read a Good Manual 117 - Visit some Apiarist 117 - Take a College Course 118 - Decide on a Plan 118 - How to Procure our Bees 118 - Kind of Bees to Purchase 119 - In What Kind of Hives 119 - When to Purchase 119 - How Much to Pay 120 - Where to Locate 120 - -CHAPTER V. - - Hives and Boxes 122 - Box Hives 122 - Movable Comb Hives 123 - The Langstroth Hive 123 - Character of the Hive 124 - The Bottom Board 127 - The Cover 129 - The Frames 132 - How to Construct the Frames 133 - A Block for making Frames 134 - Cover for Frames 136 - Division Board 137 - The Huber Hive 138 - Apparatus for Securing Comb Honey 141 - Boxes 142 - Small Frames or Sections 144 - Requisites of Good Sections 144 - Description 144 - How to Place Sections in Position 147 - Sections in Frames 147 - Sections in Racks 149 - -CHAPTER VI. - - Position and Arrangement of the Apiary 152 - Position 152 - Arrangement of Ground 152 - Preparation for each Colony 153 - -CHAPTER VII. - - To Transfer Bees 156 - -CHAPTER VIII. - - Feeding and Feeders 159 - How Much to Feed 159 - How to Feed 160 - -CHAPTER IX. - - Queen Rearing 163 - How to Rear Queens 163 - Nuclei 165 - Shall we Clip the Queen's Wing? 168 - -CHAPTER X. - - Increase of Colonies 171 - Swarming 171 - Hiving Swarms 173 - To Prevent Second Swarms 175 - To Prevent Swarming 176 - How Best to Increase 177 - Dividing 177 - How to Divide 177 - -CHAPTER XI. - - Italians and Italianizing 180 - All Should Keep Only Italians 183 - How to Italianize 183 - How to Introduce a Queen 183 - To Get Italian Queens 185 - Rearing and Shipping Queens 186 - To Ship Queens 186 - To Move Colonies 187 - -CHAPTER XII. - - Extracting and the Extractors 188 - Honey Extractor 188 - What Style to Buy 189 - Use of the Extractor 191 - When to use the Extractor 192 - How to Extract 194 - -CHAPTER XIII. - - Handling Bees 195 - The Best Bee Veil 196 - To Quiet Bees 197 - Bellows Smoker 198 - The Quinby Smoker 198 - The Bingham Smoker 199 - How to Smoke Bees 201 - To Cure Stings 201 - The Sweat Theory 201 - -CHAPTER XIV. - - Comb Foundation 203 - History 203 - American Foundation 204 - How Foundation is Made 206 - To Secure the Wax Sheets 206 - Use of Foundation 207 - To Fasten the Foundation 209 - Save the Wax 211 - Methods 211 - -CHAPTER XV. - - Marketing Honey 213 - How to Invigorate the Market 213 - Extracted Honey 214 - How to Tempt the Consumer 214 - Comb Honey 215 - Rules to be Observed 215 - -CHAPTER XVI. - - Honey Plants 218 - What are the Valuable Honey Plants? 220 - Description with Practical Remarks 222 - April Plants 223 - May Plants 225 - June Plants 228 - July Plants 237 - August and September Plants 242 - Books on Botany 244 - Practical Conclusions 244 - -CHAPTER XVII. - - Wintering Bees 246 - The Cause of Disastrous Wintering 246 - Requisite to Safe Wintering--Good Food 248 - Secure Late Breeding 249 - To Secure and Maintain Proper Temperature 249 - Box for Packing 250 - Chaff Hives 251 - Wintering in Cellar or House 252 - Burying Bees 254 - Spring Dwindling 254 - -CHAPTER XVIII. - - The House Apiary 255 - Description 255 - Are they Desirable 256 - The Case as it Now Stands 256 - -CHAPTER XIX. - - Evils that Confront the Apiarist 258 - Robbing 258 - Disease 259 - Foul Brood 259 - Remedies 260 - Enemies of Bees 262 - The Bee Moth 262 - History 266 - Remedies 266 - Bee Killer 267 - Bee Louse 268 - Important Suggestion 269 - Bee Hawk 269 - Tachina Fly 270 - Spiders 271 - Ants 271 - Wasps 271 - The King Bird 272 - Toads 272 - Mice 272 - -CHAPTER XX. - - Calendar and Axioms 274 - Work for Different Months 274 - January 274 - February 274 - March 274 - April 275 - May 275 - June 275 - July 275 - August 275 - September 276 - October 276 - November 276 - December 276 - Axioms 277 - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - 1. Trachea 28 - 2. Respiratory Apparatus of a Bee 29 - 3. Bee's Wings 38 - 4. Head of Drone 39 - 5. Head of Worker 39 - 6. Head of Bee 49 - 7. Thorax of Bee 55 - 8. Nervous System of Drone 58 - 9. Alimentary Canal 60 - 10. Male Organs of Bee 63 - 11. Queen Organs 64 - 12. Larva of Bee 68 - 13. Pupa of Bee 69 - 14. Queen Bee 72 - 15. Labium of Queen 73 - 16. Part of Queen's Leg 74 - 17. Drone 86 - 18. Part of Drone's Leg 87 - 19. Worker Bee 90 - 20. Tongue of Worker Bee 91 - 21. Jaw of Queen, Drone and Worker 92 - 22. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker--outside 93 - 23. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker--inside 94 - 24. Anterior Leg of Worker 94 - 25. Sting of Worker 95 - 26. Egg and Brood 97 - 27. Wax Scales 106 - 28. Honey-Comb 109 - 29. Langstroth Hive 124 - 30. Body of Hive 125 - 31. Bevel Gauge 126 - 32. Bottom-Board 128 - 33. Two-Story Hive 130 - 34. Cover to Hive 131 - 35. Frame 133 - 36. Frame, with Cross-Section of Top-Bar 134 - 37. Block for making Frames 135 - 38. Division-Board 137 - 39. Part of Quinby Hive 139 - 40. Part of Bingham Hive 140 - 41. Glass Honey Box 142 - 42. Isham Honey Box 143 - 43. Harbison Section Frame 143 - 44. Chisel 144 - 45. Block for Section Making 145 - 46. Hetherington Separator 146 - 47. Dove-tailed Section 146 - 48. Phelps Section 147 - 49. Section Frame 148 - 50. Sections in Frame 149 - 51. Southard's Section Back 150 - 52. Wheeler's Section Back 150 - 53. Hive in Shade of Ever-green 155 - 54. Feeder 160 - 55. Simplicity Feeder 161 - 56. Queen-cell Inserted in Comb 167 - 57. Shipping Queen Cage 187 - 58. Everett's Extractor 189 - 59. Comb Basket for Extractor 190 - 60. Knife for Uncapping 191 - 61. Knife with Curved Point 191 - 62. Bee-Veil 196 - 63. Quinby Smokers 199 - 64. Bingham Smoker 199 - 65. Comb Foundation 203 - 66. Comb Foundation Machine 205 - 67. Comb Foundation Cutter 206 - 68. Block for Fastening Foundation 210 - 69. Presser for Block 211 - 70. Wax Extractor 212 - 71. Prize Crate 216 - 72. Heddon Crate 217 - 73. Maple 222 - 74. Willow 223 - 75. Judas Tree 224 - 76. American Wistaria 225 - 77. Chinese Wistaria 226 - 78. Barberry 226 - 79. White Sage 227 - 80. White or Dutch Clover 228 - 81. Alsike Clover 229 - 82. Melilot Clover 230 - 83. Borage 230 - 84. Mignonette 231 - 85. Okra 231 - 86. Mint 232 - 87. Pollen of Milk-Weed 233 - 88. Black Mustard 233 - 89. Rape 234 - 90. Tulip 235 - 91. Teasel 236 - 92. Cotton 236 - 93. Basswood 237 - 94. Figwort 238 - 95. Button-Bush 240 - 96. Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 239 - 97. Boneset 241 - 98. Buckwheat 242 - 99. Golden Rod 243 - 100. Sun Flower 243 - 101. Packing-Box for Winter 250 - 102. Gallery of Moth Larva 262 - 103. Moth Larva in Comb 263 - 104. Moth Larvæ 264 - 105. Moth Cocoons 264 - 106. Moth with Wings Spread 264 - 107. Male and Female Moths 265 - 108. Bee-Killer 268 - 109. Bee Louse 268 - 110. Tachina Fly 270 - 111. Munn Hive 279 - 112. Munn's Triangular Hive 280 - 113. Lecanium Tulipiferas 288 - 114. Stem of Motherwort 289 - 115. Fruit and Leaf of Motherwort 290 - 116. Motherwort Bloom 291 - 117. Sour-Wood 292 - 118. Stinging-Bug--natural size 294 - 119. Magnified twice 294 - 120. Beak, magnified 294 - 121. Antenna, magnified 295 - 122. Anterior leg, exterior view 295 - 123. " " interior view 295 - 124. Claw, extended 296 - 125. Middle leg, magnified 296 - 126. Southern Bee-Killer 297 - 127. Wings extended 297 - 128. Head of 298 - 129. Wing of 299 - 131. Foot of 298 - 130. Wing of Asilus Missouriensis 300 - 132. Honey-Comb Coral 301 - 133. Wasp-stone Coral 302 - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - - -WHO MAY KEEP BEES. - - -SPECIALISTS. - -Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do whatever the -needs of his business require, with no thought of delay, may make -apiculture a specialty, with almost certain prospects of success. -He must also be willing to work with Spartan energy during the busy -season, and must persist, though sore discouragement, and even dire -misfortune, essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains. -As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in apiculture. -I make no mention of capital to begin with, or territory on which -to locate; for men of true metal--men whose energy of mind and body -bespeak success in advance--will solve these questions long before -their experience and knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of -large apiaries. - - -AMATEURS. - -Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended to those of -any business or profession, who possess the above named qualities, -and control a little space for their bees, a few rods from street and -neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives may securely rest (C. F. Muth, -of Cincinnati, keeps his bees very successfully on the top of his -store, in the very heart of a large city), and who are able to devote -a little time, when required, to care for their bees. The amount of -time will of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with -proper management this time may be granted at any period of the day or -week, and thus not interfere with the regular business. Thus residents -of country, village, or city, male or female, who may wish to be -associated with and study natural objects, and add to their income and -pleasure, will find here, an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies, -shut out from fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point -sadly to departing health, and vigor, and to men the nature of whose -business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too highly -recommended as an avocation. - - -WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED. - -There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially susceptible -to the poison intruded with the bee's sting. Sometimes such persons, if -even stung on the foot, will be so thoroughly poisoned that their eyes -will swell so they cannot see, and will suffer with fever for days, -and, very rarely, individuals are so sensitive to this poison that a -bee-sting proves fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should -never keep bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Kleine and -Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but spurred on by -their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon become so inoculated that they -experience no serious injury from the stings. It is a well-recognized -fact, that each successive sting is less powerful to work harm. Every -bee-keeper is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though with -the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion neither of fear -nor anxiety. - - -INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING. - -RECREATION. - -Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the pleasure -which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination about the -apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always presenting the most -pleasurable surprises to those on the alert to receive them. And among -the insect hosts, especially bees, the instincts and habits are so -inexplicable and marvelous, that the student of this department of -nature never ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less -with wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords most -wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look in upon the -book of nature, and study the marvelous pages she is ever waiting to -present. To such, the very fascination of their pursuit is of itself -a rich reward for the time and labor expended. I doubt if there is -any other class of manual laborers who engage in their business, and -dwell upon it, with the same fondness as do bee-keepers. Indeed, to -meet a scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough study -of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its very nature, go -hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I once asked an extensive -apiarist, who was also a farmer, why he kept bees. The answer was -characteristic: "Even if I could not make a good deal the most money -with my bees, I should still keep them for the real pleasure they -bring me." But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof. Daniels, -President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties are very -severe. Said he: "For the restful pleasure which I receive in their -management." I am very sure, that were there no other inducement -than that of pleasure, I should be slow to part with these models of -industry, whose marvelous instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever -ministering to my delight and astonishment. - -A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and College -classmate, O. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I took him to see our -apiary, and as we looked at the bees and their handiwork, just as the -nectar from golden-rod and asters was flooding the honey-cells; he -became enraptured, took my little "Manual of the Apiary" home with him, -and at once subscribed for the old _American Bee Journal_. He very soon -purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so much of pleasure -and recreation in the duties imposed by his new charge, that he has -written me several times, expressing gratitude that I had led him into -such a work of love and pleasure. - -PROFITS. - -The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pursuit. When -we consider the comparatively small amount of capital invested, the -relatively small amount of labor and expense attending its operations, -we are surprised at the abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its -intelligent practice. I do not wish to be understood here as claiming -that labor--yes, real hard, back-aching labor--is not required in the -apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colonies, will have, -at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous work. Yet this will be -both pleasant and Healthful, and will go hand-in-hand with thought, -so that brain and muscle will work together. Yet this time of hard, -physical labor will only continue for five or six months, and for the -balance of the year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure. -Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, indolent, -heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in any other -calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years of experience, where -accurate weight, measure, and counting of change has given no heed to -conjecture, that there is no manual labor pursuit, where the returns -are so large, when compared with the labor and expense. - -An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in Michigan, with -the absolute certainty of more than doubling his investment the first -season; while a net gain of 400 per cent, brings no surprise to the -experienced apiarists of our State. This of course applies only to a -limited number of colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States -as a location for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I -ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary, have -netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net return of $24.04, -while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above all expense, of over 400 -per cent, of their entire value in the spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who -graduated at our College one year since, purchased last spring seven -colonies of bees. The proceeds of these seven colonies have more than -paid all expenses, including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while -there are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count -the labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered -with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our State -who possess good apiaries and good improved farms, have told me that -their apiaries were more profitable than all the remainder of their -farms. Who will doubt the profits of apiculture in the face of friend -Doolittle's experience? He has realized $6,000, in five years, simply -from the honey taken from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of -all expenses except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks, -and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colonies, and -we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee-keeping made Adam -Grimm a wealthy man. It brought to Capt. Hetherington over $10,000 -as the cash receipts of a single year's honey-crop. It enabled Mr. -Harbison, so it is reported, to ship from his own apiary, eleven -car-loads of comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater -recommendation has any pursuit? Opportunity for money-making, even with -hardships and privations, is attractive and seldom disregarded; such -opportunity with labor that brings, in itself, constant delight, is -surely _worthy_ of attention. - -EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT. - -Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience, that serves -so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds to the poorly paid, -out-door air to the clerk and office-hand, healthful exercise to the -person of sedentary habits, and superb recreation to the student or -professional man, and especially to him whose life-work is of that -dull, hum-drum, routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The -labor, too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and -management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as not to -infringe upon the time demanded by the regular occupation. Indeed, I -have never been more heartily thanked, than by such parsons as named -above, and that, too, because I called them to consider--which usually -means to adopt--the pleasing duties of the apiary. - -ADAPTATION TO WOMEN. - -Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society has not been -over-ready to favor--our women. Widowed mothers, dependent girls, the -weak and the feeble, all may find a blessing in the easy, pleasant, and -profitable labors of the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and -health, can care for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient -strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when -loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper thought -and management, full colonies need never be lifted, nor work done in -the hot sunshine. Yet right here let me add, and emphasize the truth, -_that only those who will let energetic thought and skillful plan, and -above all promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weakness, -should enlist as apiarists._ Usually a stronger body, and improved -health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and exercise, will make -each successive day's labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding -growth in the size of the apiary for each successive season. One of the -most noted apiarists, not only in America but in the world, sought in -bee-keeping her lost health, and found not only health, but reputation -and influence. Some of the most successful apiarists in our country are -women. Of these, many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning -health, grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which -to vanquish the grim monster. Said "Cyula Linswik"--whose excellent and -beautifully written articles have so often charmed the readers of the -bee publications, and who has had five years of successful experience -as an apiarist--in a paper read before our Michigan Convention of -March, 1877: "I would gladly purchase exemption from in-door work, -on washing-day, by two days' labor among the bees, and I find two -hours' labor at the ironing-table more fatiguing than two hours of the -severest toil the apiary can exact. * * * I repeat, that apiculture -offers to many women not only pleasure but profit. * * * Though the -care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who experiments -in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find that it means, at some -seasons, genuine hard work. * * * There is risk in the business, -I would not have you ignore this fact, but an experience of five -years has led me to believe that the risk is less than is generally -supposed." Mrs. L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees -very successfully for four years, read an admirable paper before the -same Convention, in which she said: "But I can say, having tried both," -(keeping boarding-house and apiculture,) "I give bee-keeping the -preference, as more profitable, healthful, independent and enjoyable. * -* * I find the labors of the apiary more endurable than working over a -cook-stove in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * I -believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find renewed -vigor of body and mind in the labors and recreations of the apiary. * * -* By beginning in the early spring, when the weather was cool and the -work light, I became gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by -mid-summer found myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as -my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life. Previously, to -attend an open-air picnic was to return with a head-ache. * * * My own -experience in the apiary has been a source of interest and enjoyment -far exceeding my anticipations." Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but -two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over $100; -the second year but a few cents less than $300; and the third year -about $250. "The proof of the pudding is in the eating;" so, too, such -words as given above, show that apiculture offers special inducements -to our sisters to become either amateur or professional apiarists. - -IMPROVES THE MIND AND THE OBSERVATION. - -Successful apiculture demands close and accurate observation, and hard, -continuous thought and study, and this, too, in the wondrous realm of -nature. In all this, the apiarist receives manifold and substantial -advantages. In the cultivation of the habit of observation, a person -becomes constantly more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure, -results which also follow as surely on the habit of thought and -study. It is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is -so frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the hive, can -ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his hands. The mind -is occupied, and there is no chance for _ennui_. The whole tendency, -too, of such thought and study, where nature is the subject, is to -refine the taste, elevate the desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get -our youth, with their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome -study, and we shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies -of the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the -saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that even the -old philosophers would have coveted; furnishes the rarest food for the -observing faculties, and, best of all, by keeping its votaries face -to face with the matchless creations of the _All Father_, must draw -them toward Him "who went about doing good," and in "whom there was no -guile." - -YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD. - -A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of mention, is -the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea, our very lives, -demand that we should eat sweets. It is a truth that our sugars, and -especially our commercial syrups, are so adulterated as to be often -poisonous. The apiary, in lieu of these, gives us one of the most -delicious and wholesome of sweets, which has received merited praise, -as food fit for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present -day. To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the -equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is certainly a -blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and friends -with a most necessary and desirable food element, and this with no -cloud of fear from vile, poisonous adulterations. - - -WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES. - -MENTAL EFFORT. - -No one should commence this business who is not willing to read, think -and study. To be sure, the ignorant and unthinking may stumble on -success for a time, but sooner or later, failure will set her seal upon -their efforts. Those of our apiarists who have studied the hardest, -observed the closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the -late terrible winters with but slight loss. - -Of course the novice will ask. How and what shall I study? - -EXPERIENCE NECESSARY. - -Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence with a few -colonies, even one or two is best, and make the bees your companions -at every possible opportunity. Note every change, whether of the bees, -their development, or work, and then by earnest thought strive to -divine the cause. - -LEARN FROM OTHERS. - -Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists. Note their -methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by conversation to gain new and -valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt whatever is found, by comparison, -to be an improvement upon your own past system and practice. - -AID FROM CONVENTIONS. - -Attend conventions whenever distance and means render this possible. -Here you will not only be made better by social intercourse with those -whose occupation and study make them sympathetic and congenial, but you -will find a real conservatory of scientific truths, valuable hints, -and improved instruments and methods. And the apt attention--rendered -possible by your own experience--which you will give to essays, -discussions and private conversations, will so enrich your mind, that -you will return to your home encouraged, and able to do better work, -and to achieve higher success. I have attended nearly all the meetings -of the Michigan Convention, and never yet when I was not well paid for -all trouble and expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions -which I received. These I would carry home, and test as commanded by -the Apostle: "Prove all things and hold fast that which is good." - -AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS. - -Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of the three -excellent bee publications that are issued in our country. It has -been suggested that Francis Huber's blindness was an advantage to -him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs of eyes, his wife's -and servant's, instead of one. So, too, of the apiarist who reads the -bee publications. He has the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too, -of hundreds of intelligent and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that -squanders his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures? He who -"_cannot afford_" to take a bee-journal. - -It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any one of these -valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. Each has its peculiar -excellences, and all who can, may well secure all of them to aid and -direct their ways. - -AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL. - -This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its age, -but for the ability with which it has been managed, with scarce any -exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel Wagner, its founder -and long its editor, had few superiors in breadth of culture, strength -of judgment, and practical and historic knowledge of apiculture. -With what pleasure we remember the elegant, really classic, diction -of the editorials, the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities -which marked the old American Bee Journal as it made its monthly -visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel Wagner. -Some one has said that there is something in the very atmosphere of -a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all who approach him. I have -often thought, as memory reverted to the old American Bee Journal, or -as I have re-read the numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner's -superior learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his -noble character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding, -instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess the -early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to state that the -American Bee Journal is again in good hands, and that its old prestige -is fully restored. Mr. Newman is an experienced editor, a man of -excellent judgment and admirable balance, a man who demonstrates his -dislike of criminations and recriminations by avoiding them; who has -no special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost sure -to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers who lends his -aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so much to spread apiarian -knowledge. And when I add, that he brings to his editorial aid the -most able, experienced and educated apiarists of the world, I surely -have spoken high but _just_ praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose -enviable reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by -Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago. Price, $2.00 a year. - -GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE. - -This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five years, -by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from the first. -Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly experimenting; a -terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good nature and enthusiasm. -I am free to say, that in practical apiculture I am more indebted to -Mr. Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. I -also think that, with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent -advancement of practical apiculture than any other person in our -country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so inimical to -conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises that with which he -has had so brief an experience, and must consequently know so little. -This trait makes it imperative that the apiarist read discriminately, -and then decide for himself. In case of an innovation, wait for -Mr. Root's continued approval, else prove its value before general -adoption. This sprightly little journal is edited by A. I. Root, -Medina, Ohio. Price, $1.00 a year. - -BEE-KEEPER'S MAGAZINE. - -I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less of it than -of the others. It is well edited, and certainly has many very able -contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root deal largely in their own -wares, and, of course, give space to their advertisement, yet, in all -my dealings with them, and I have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have -ever found them prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J. -King, New York. Price, $1.50 a year. - -BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST. - -Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture, both -American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a course to others. -Each book has peculiar excellences, and each one may be read with -interest and profit. - -LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE. - -Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee-literature. -I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have received from the -study of its pages. It was a high, but deserved encomium, which J. -Hunter, of England, in his "Manual of Bee-Keeping," paid to this work: -"It is unquestionably the best bee-book in the English language." - -The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter so replete -with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, that it is a -desirable addition to any library, and no thoughtful, studious apiarist -can well be without it. It is especially happy in detailing the methods -of experimentation, and in showing with what caution the true scientist -establishes principles or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully -free from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture -remained stationary, there would have been little need of another -work; but as some of the most important improvements in apiculture are -not mentioned, the book alone would be a very unsatisfactory guide to -the apiarist of to-day. Price, $2.00. - -QUINBY'S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING. - -This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of America's most -successful bee-keepers. It proceeds, I think, on a wrong basis in -supposing that those who read bee-books will use the old box-hives, -especially as the author is constantly inferring that other hives are -better. It contains many valuable truths, and when first written was a -valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper. I understand that the work has -been revised by Mr. L. C. Root. Price, $1.50. - -KING'S TEXT-BOOK. - -This is a compilation of the above works, and has recently been -revised, so that it is abreast of the times. It is to be regretted that -the publisher did not take more pains with his work, as the typography -is very poor. The price is $1.00. - -A B C OF BEE-CULTURE. - -This work was issued in numbers, but is now complete. It is arranged -in the convenient form of our cyclopædias, is printed in fine style, -on beautiful paper, and is to be well illustrated. I need hardly say -that the style is pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter will, of -course, be fresh, embodying the most recent discoveries and inventions -pertaining to bee-keeping. That it may be kept abreast of apiarian -progress, the type is to be kept in position, so that each new -discovery may be added as soon as made. The price is $1.00. - -FOREIGN WORKS. - -Bevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and shows by its -able historical chapters, admirable scientific disquisitions, and -frequent quotations and references to practical and scientific writers -on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient and modern, that the writers were -men of extensive reading and great scientific ability. The book is of -no practical value to us, but to the student it will be read with great -interest. Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in -my library that treat of bees and bee-keeping, if I may except back -volumes of the bee-publications. - -"The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture," by Alfred Neighbour, -London, is a fresh, sprightly little work, and as the third edition has -just appeared, is, of course, up with the times. The book is in nice -dress, concise, and very readable, and I am glad to commend it. - -A less interesting work, though by no means without merit, is the -"Manual of Bee-Keeping," by John Hunter, London. This is also recent. -I think these works would be received with little favor among American -apiarists. They are exponents of English apiculture, which in method -would seem clumsy to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in -implements and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Germans -and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and hence their -text-books and journals compare illy with ours. I believe the many -intelligent foreign apiarists who have come to this country and are -now honored members of our own fraternity, will sustain this position. -_Foreign scientists_ are ahead of American, but we glean and utilize -their facts and discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is -discovered by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten times as -many American as foreign apiarists know of this and practice by the -knowledge. In practical fields, on the other hand, as also in skill and -delicacy of invention, we are, I think, in advance. So our apiarists -have little need to go abroad for either books or papers. - -PROMPTITUDE. - -Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping, is prompt -attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock on which many -bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often that they have wrecked -their success. I have no doubt that more colonies die from starvation, -than from all the bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is -this? Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by -absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must we blame? -Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of queen and -workers, just because room is denied them, is very great. Who is the -guilty party? Plainly, neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways, -indifference to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments, -greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be successful, -promptitude must be our motto. Each colony of bees requires but very -little care and attention. Our every interest demands that this be not -denied, nor even granted grudgingly. The very fact that this attention -is slight, renders it more liable to be neglected; but this neglect -always involves loss--often disaster. - -ENTHUSIASM. - -Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desirable, if not -an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To be sure, this is -a quality whose growth, with even slight opportunity, is almost sure. -It only demands perseverance. The beginner, without either experience -or knowledge, may meet with discouragements--unquestionably will. -Swarms will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist -will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with great -disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet reproof more sharp -than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCE, all these difficulties quickly -vanish. Every contingency will be foreseen and provided against, and -the myriad of little workers will become as manageable and may be -fondled as safely as a pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister -to their needs with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he -does to his gentlest cow or favorite horse. _Persistence in the face of -all those discouragements which are so sure to confront inexperience, -will surely triumph._ In-sooth, he who appreciates the beautiful and -marvelous, will soon grow to love his companions of the hive, and the -labor attendant upon their care and management. Nor will this love -abate till it has kindled into enthusiasm. - -True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled by no warmth -of feeling, whose superior intelligence, system and promptitude, stand -in lieu of and make amends for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe -such are rare, and certainly they work at great disadvantage. - - - - - PART FIRST. - - - - - NATURAL HISTORY - - OF - - THE HONEY BEE. - - - - - NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE BEE'S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. - - -It is estimated by Heer and other eminent naturalists, that there -are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It will be both -interesting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we -may know the position and relationship of the bee to all this mighty -concourse of life. - -BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon I., -grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one branch, -appropriately named Articulates, as this term indicates the jointed -or articulated structure which so obviously characterizes most of the -members of this group. - -The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a technical -meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of union of two -parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus, the parts of an -insect's legs, as well as the surfaces of union, are styled joints or -articulations. All apiarists who have examined carefully the structure -of a bee, will at once pronounce it an Articulate. Not only is its -body, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close -inspection we find the legs, the antennæ, and even the mouth-parts, -likewise, jointed. - -In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea--which includes the -rollicking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether he moves -forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the sow-bug, lively -and plump, even in its dark, damp home under old boards, etc., and the -barnacles, which fasten to the bottom of ships, so that vessels are -often freighted with life within and without. - -The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, as the leech, -the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which gives us food, is -related to the dreaded tape-worm with its hundred of joints, which, -mayhaps, robs us of the same food after we have eaten it, and the -terrible pork-worm or trichina, which may consume the very muscles we -have developed in caring for our pets of the apiary. - -The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in the bee and -lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms. This skeleton, unlike -that of Vertebrates or back-bone animals, to which we belong, is -outside, and thus serves to protect the inner, softer parts, as well -as to give them attachment, and to give strength and solidity to the -animal. - -This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden-banded -Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, animals of this -branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually bony skeleton; from -the less active Molluscan branch, with their soft, sack-like bodies, -familiar to us in the snail, the clam, the oyster, and the wonderful -cuttle-fish--the devil-fish of Victor Hugo--with its long, clammy arms, -strange ink-bag and often prodigious size; from the Radiate branch, -with its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral -animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents and from -the lowest, simplest. Protozoan branch, which includes animals so -minute that we owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, so -simple that they have been regarded as the apron-strings which tie -plants to animals. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. - -_A Trachea magnified._] - -THE CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly characterized -by breathing air usually through a very complicated system of -air-tubes. These tubes (Fig. 1), which are constantly branching, and -almost infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They -are formed of a spiral thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder -formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem, -so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the -wire unmoved. Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than this -labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee under the -microscope. I have frequently detected myself taking long pauses, in -making dissections of the honey-bee, as my attention would be fixed -in admiration of this beautiful breathing apparatus. In the bee these -tubes expand into large lung-like sacks (Fig. 2, _f_), one each side of -the body. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2. - -_Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified.--After Duncan._] - -Doubtless some of my readers have associated the quick movements -and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their -well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we see the -relation between this intricate system of air-tubes--their lungs--and -the quick, busy life which has been proverbial of them since the -earliest time. The class Insecta also includes the spiders, scorpions, -with their caudal sting so venomous, and mites, which have in lieu -of the tubes, lung-like sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged -worms--those dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical -centipedes or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of being -poisonous and deadly. - -The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing Crustacea, with -their branchiæ or gills, nor the worms, which have 110 lungs or gills -but their skin, if we except some marine forms, which have simple -dermal appendages, which, answer to branchiæ. - -ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true Insects. The first -term is appropriate, as all have in the imago or last stage, six legs. -Nor is the second term less applicable, as the word insect comes from -the Latin and means to cut in, and in no other articulates does the -ring structure appear 80 marked upon merely a superficial examination. -More than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike -all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body (Fig. -2), namely: the head (Fig. 2, _a_), which contains the antennæ (Fig. -2, _d_), the horn-like appendages common to all insects; eyes (Fig. -2, _e_) and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig. 2, _b_), which bears the -legs (Fig. 2, _g_), and wings, when they are present; and lastly, the -abdomen (Fig. 2, _c_), which, though usually memberless, contains -the ovipositor, and when present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a -more striking metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched -they are worm-like and called larvæ (Fig. 12), which means masked; -afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would hardly be supposed -to be animals at all. They are then known as pupæ, or as in case of -bees as nymphs (Fig. 13). At last there comes forth the imago with -compound eyes, antennæ and wings. In some insects the transformations -are said to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ -little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We see in -our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of insects with -incomplete transformations. In such cases there is a marked resemblance -from the egg to the adult. - -As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which have only -two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no antennæ, eight -legs, and no transformations (if we except the partial transformations -of the mites), as also the myriapods, which have no marked divisions of -the body, and no compound eyes--which are always present in the mature -insect--many legs and no transformations, do not belong to the order -Insects. - -SUB-ORDER OF THE HONEY BEE. - -The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from two Greek -words meaning membrane and wings), which also includes the wasps, -ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This group contains insects which -possess a tongue by which they may suck (Fig. 20, _a_), and strong -jaws (Fig. 21) for biting. Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of -flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four -wings, and undergo complete transformations. - -There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of one sub-order -will show a marked likeness to those of another. This is known as -mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully striking between very distant -groups. Darwin and Wallace suppose it is a developed peculiarity, -not always possessed by the species, and comes through the laws of -variation, and natural selection to serve the purpose of protection. -Now, right here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the -other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and -the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and desired to know -whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or some other species. Now, this -insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had only two -wings, had no jaws, while its antennæ were closer together in front -and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the -sub-order Diptera, or two-wing flies. I have received several similar -insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are several families, -as the Œstridæ or bot-flies, the Syrphidæ--a very useful family, as -the larvæ or maggots live on plant-lice--whose members are often seen -sipping sweets from flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees--the -one referred to above belonged to this family--and the Bombyliidæ, -which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like wild and -domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on the larvæ of various of -our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must steal into the nests -of the latter to lay her eggs. So in these cases, there is seeming -evidence that the mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as -they steal in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs. -Possibly, too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen them -enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to do the same, -found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters each with a poisoned tip. - -Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the highest of -insects, others claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and moths a -first place, while others, and with the best of reasons, claim for -Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth is admired for the glory -of its coloring and elegance of its form, the beetle for the luster -and brilliancy of its elytra or wing-covers; but these insects only -revel in nature's wealth, and live and die without labor or purpose. -Hymenoptera usually less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive -in color, are yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with -a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be found -among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor the ants are still -better political economists, as they have a specially endowed class -in the community who are the soldiers, and thus are the defenders of -each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take their -inhabitants captive and reduce them to abject slavery--requiring them -to perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the -community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating -species have been observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as -some ascend trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain -below, and carry these branches through their tunnels to their -under-ground homes. - -The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay their eggs in -other insects, that their offspring may have fresh meat not only at -birth, but so long as they need food, as the insect fed upon generally -lives till the young parasite, which is working to disembowel it, -is full-grown. Thus this steak is ever fresh as life itself. These -parasitic insects show wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in -discovering this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies--a family of these -parasites--boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid beech -or maple wood, and upon examination I found the prospective victim -further on in direct line with the insect auger, which was to intrude -the fatal egg. I have also watched ichneumon-flies depositing eggs in -leaf-rolling caterpillars, so surrounded with tough hickory leaves -that the fly had to pierce several thicknesses to place the egg in its -snugly-ensconced victim. Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars -in a box, I reared, of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. And -is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number -of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to receive them, so -that there may be no danger of famine and starvation, for true it is -that while small caterpillars will receive but one egg, large ones may -receive several. How strange, too, the habits of the saw-fly, with its -wondrous instruments more perfect than any saws of human workmanship, -and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten their eggs to -the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the abnormal growth of food for -the still unhatched young. The providing and caring for their young, -which are at first helpless, is peculiar among insects, with slight -exception, to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered -a mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call -it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits--that -_must_ go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious of communities known -among animals, of whatever branch--all these, no less than the compact -structure, small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more -than warrant that grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and -Packard, in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects. As we -shall detail the structure and habits of the highest of the high--the -bees--in the following pages, I am sure no one will think to degrade -the rank of these wonders of the animal kingdom. - -FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidæ, of Leach, which includes not -only the hive bee, but all insects which feed their helpless young, or -larvæ, entirely on pollen, or honey and pollen. - -The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed antennæ (Fig. -2, _d_) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males, and only -twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 21) are -very strong, and often toothed; the tongue or ligula (Fig. 20, _a_), -as also the second jaws or maxillæ (Fig. 20, _c_), one each side the -tongue, are long, though in some cases much shorter than in others, -and frequently the tongue when not in use is folded back, once or -more, under the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff -spine on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or -the third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, except -the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior -legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior -legs. All of this family except one parasitic genus, have the first -joint or tarsus of the posterior foot, much widened, and this together -with the broad tibia (Fig. 2, _h_) is hollowed out (Fig. 22, _p_), -forming quite a basin or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the -species; and generally, this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff -hairs. These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course -on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A few of the -Apidæ--thieves by nature--cuckoo-like, steal unbidden into the nests of -others, usually bumble-bees, and here lay their eggs. As their young -are fed and fostered by another, they gather no pollen, and hence like -drone bees need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these -lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes, by -eating their food, and in some cases, it is said, being unable like -the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children from the nest, they -show an equal if not greater depravity by eating them, not waiting -for starvation to get them out of the way. These parasites illustrate -mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster mothers of -their own young, that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish -them. Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would refuse -ingress to these merciless vagrants. - -The larvæ (Fig. 12) of all insects of this family are -maggot-like--wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before -stated, feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, all -during their babyhood--the larvæ state--the time when all insects are -most ravenous, and the only time when many insects take food, the -time when all growth in size, except such enlargement as is required -by egg-development, occurs, these infant bees have to be fed by their -mothers or elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak -jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at -this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like many -maggots--such as the Hessian-fly larvæ--absorb much of their food -through the body walls. From the mouth leads the intestine, which has -no anal opening. So there are no excreta other than gas and vapor. What -commendation for their food, _all_ capable of nourishment, and thus all -assimilated. - -To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipona, of -Mexico and South America, which store honey not only in the hexagonal -brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. They, like the unkept -hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are exceedingly numerous in -each colony, and it has thus been thought that there were more than -one queen. They are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess -a prospective commercial importance in these days of artificial -comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus is -triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, to the -front wings. They are also smaller than our common bees, and have wings -that do not reach to the tip of their abdomens. - -Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have the wings -longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. These, unlike the -Melipona, are not confined to the New World, but are met in Africa, -India and Australasia. These build their combs in tall trees, fastening -them to the branches much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be -mentioned. - -Of course insects of the genus Bombus--our common bumble-bees--belong -to this family. Here the tongue is very long, the bee large, the -sting curved, with the barbs very short and few. Only the queen -survives the winter. In spring she forms her nest under some sod or -board, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass -of bee-bread--probably a mixture of honey and pollen--she deposits -several eggs in the mass. The larvæ so soon as hatched out, eat out -thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, and not -unlike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the bees issue -from these cells the same are strengthened by wax. Later in the season -these coarse wax cells become very numerous. Some may be made as cells -and not termed as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much -pollen, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. At -first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still later -males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two sizes of queen -bumble-bees, the large and the small. The small appear early in the -season, and the large late. A student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham, -who last year had a colony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season, -thinks this an error. He believes that the individuals of the Bombus -nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens, like those -of bees, are smaller before mating and active laying. May not this be -another case like that of the two kinds of worker-bees which deceived -even Huber, an error consequent upon lack of careful and prolonged -observation? - -In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble the bumble-bees, -we have a fine example of a boring insect. With its strong mandibles or -jaws it cuts long tunnels, often one or two feet long in the hardest -wood. These burrows are divided by chip partitions into cells, and in -each cell is left the bee-bread and an egg. - -The mason-bee--well named--constructs cells of earth and gravel, which -by aid of its spittle it has power to cement, so that they are harder -than brick. - -The tailor or leaf-cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, make wonderful -cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. These are always -mathematical in form, usually circular and oblong, and are cut--by the -insect's making scissors of its jaws--from various leaves, the rose -being a favorite. I have found these cells made almost wholly of the -petals or flower leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing -these leaf-sections in concentric layers, letting them over-lap. The -oblong sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular -pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot-guns, and -are used at the ends or for partitions where several cells are placed -together. When complete, the single cells are in form and size much -like a revolver cartridge. When several are placed together, which is -usually the case, they are arranged end to end, and in size and form -are quite like a small stick of candy, though not more than one-third -as long. These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the -earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in the -folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had chanced to -leave stationary for some days. These leaf-cutters have rows of hairs -underneath, with which they carry pollen. I have noticed them each -summer for some years swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called -woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a -single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the foliage -of the same vines quite badly. - -I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia, which are also -called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of blue and green possess a -luster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals themselves. These -rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds -and shrubs, and in burrows which they dig in the hard earth. In early -summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are frequently -seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or -digging holes, and will hardly escape identification by the observing -apiarist, as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They -are smaller; yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general form, -are very like those of the equally quick and active, yet more soberly -attired, workers of the apiary. - -Other bees--the numerous species of the genus Nomada, and of Apathus, -are the black sheep in the family Apidæ. These tramps, already referred -to, like the English cuckoo and our American cow-blackbird, steal in -upon the unwary, and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way -appropriating food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus these -insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers in these -violated homes. And these same foster-mothers show by their tender -care of these merciless intruders, that they are miserably fooled, for -they carefully guard and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn -practice this same nefarious trickery. - -I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful bee -family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis, of this State, -I was struck with the fine collection of wild bees which each had made. -Yet, unknowingly, they had incorporated many that were not bees. Of -course, many apiarists will wish to make such collections and also to -study our wild bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope, -too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the valuable -and intensely interesting study of these wonders of nature. I am glad, -too, to open to the reader a page from the book of nature so replete -with attractions as is the above. Nor do I think I have taken too much -space in revealing the strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully -varied habits, of this highest of insect families, at the head of -which. Stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3. - - A.--_Anterior Wing of a Bee._ 1, 2, 3.--_Sub-costal or Cubital Cells._ - B.--_Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing._ -] - -THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs on the -posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal cells (1, 2, 3, -Fig. 3)--the second row from the costal or anterior edge--on the front -or primary wings. On the inner side of the posterior basal tarsus, -opposite the pollen baskets, in the neuters or workers, are rows of -hairs (Fig. 23) which are probably used in collecting pollen. In the -males, which do no work except to fertilize the queens, the large -compound eyes meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (Fig. -4), while in the workers (Fig. 5) and queens these simple eyes, called -ocelli (Fig. 5), are above, and the compound eyes (Fig. 5) wide apart. -The queens and drones have weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. -21, _b_), short tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the -broad tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 16, _p_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 4. - -_Head of Drone, magnified._ - -_Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. - -_Head of Worker, magnified._ - -_Antennæ. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes._] - -There is some doubt as to the number of species of this genus, it is -certain that the Apis Ligustica of Spinola, or Italian bee, the Apis -fascial a of Latreille, or Egyptian bee, are only varieties of the Apis -mellifica, which also includes the German or black bee. - -Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata of India -and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands, Apis Indica of -India and China, and Apis florea of India, Ceylon, China and Borneo, -as distinct species. He thinks, also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis -nigrocincta are distinct, but thinks they may be varieties of Apis -Indica. Some regard Apis unicolor as a distinct species, but it is -probably a variety of Apis dorsata. As Apis mellifica has not been -found in India, and is a native of Europe, Western Asia and Africa, -it seems quite probable that several of the above may turn out to be -only varieties of Apis mellifica. If there are only color and size to -distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits, then we may suspect, -with good reason, the validity of the above arrangement. If there -is structural difference, as Mr. Wallace says there is, in the male -dorsata, then we may call them different species. The Italian certainly -has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to -separate them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the -East Indies are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large, suspends -its combs to the branches of trees--in rare cases our own bees have -been known to do the same--is said to be cross, to have a very long -tongue, to be larger than our common bee, and to make larger cells. - -Apis florea is small, only half as large as Apis mellifica, of -different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed. - -It would be very interesting, and perhaps profitable, to import these -various species, and see how marked is the difference between them -and ours. Such work can be best accomplished through our National -Association. Very likely, as we come to know these far-off bees as we -know the German and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size, -habits of comb-building, and lengthened organs, are only peculiarities -developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall sweep them -all into the one species. Apis mellifica, to be regarded as we now -regard the Italian and Egyptian, as only varieties. - -It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been native to -the American continent. Without doubt there were no bees of this genus -here till introduced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as -we find that all the continents and islands of the Eastern hemisphere -abound with representatives. It is one more illustration of the -strange, inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution -of animals. - -SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES. - -The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to the Apis -mellifica. The character of this species will appear in the next -chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and physiology. As before -stated, this species is native exclusively to the Eastern hemisphere, -though it has been introduced wherever civilized man has taken up his -abode. - - -VARIETIES or THE HONEY-BEE. - -GERMAN OR BLACK BEE. - -The German or black bee is the variety best known, as through all -the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name German refers -to locality, while the name black is a misnomer, as the bee is a -gray-black. The queen, and in a less degree the drones, are darker, -while the legs and under surface of the former are brown, or copper -color, and of the latter light-gray. The tongue of the black worker -I have found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by -myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian worker, -and generally less hairy. The black bees have been known no longer than -the Italians, as we find the latter were known both to Aristotle, the -fourth century B. C, and to Virgil, the great Roman poet, who sung of -the variegated golden bee, the first century B. C.; and we can only -account for the wider distribution of the German bee by considering -the more vigorous pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only -over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all -Christendom. - -LIGURIAN OR ITALIAN BEE. - -The Italian bee (see frontis-plate) is characterized as a variety, -not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but also by -possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as -distinct from the German race by Spinola, in 1805, who gave the name -Ligurian bee, which name prevails; in Europe. The name comes from a -province of Northern Italy, north of the Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of -Genoa. This region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and -thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and in warmer, -more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race, our beautiful -Italians. - -In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, which he -had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed as a military -captain in Italy. He published his experience in 1848, which was read -by Dzierzon, who became interested, and through him the Italian became -generally introduced into Germany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon's -first importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England by -Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already referred to. -The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported the Italians from -Dzierzon's apiary into America; and in 1860, Mr. S. P. Parsons brought -the first colonies that were imported direct from Italy. - -The Italian worker (see frontis-plate) is quickly distinguished by -the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdomen. If the colony is -pure, every bee will show three of these golden girdles. The two first -segments or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border, -and also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this -orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much -as in the German race. Underneath, the abdomen, except for a greater -or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while the same -color appears more or less strongly marked on the legs. The workers, -too, have longer ligulæ or tongues (Fig. 20) than do the German race, -and their tongues are also a little more hairy. They are also more -active, and less inclined to sting. The queen has the entire base of -her abdomen, and sometimes nearly the whole of it, orange yellow. The -variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking. -Sometimes very dark queens are imported right from the Ligurian hills, -yet all the workers will wear the badge of purity--the three golden -bands. - -The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the rings and patches -of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, quite indistinct. But -the underside of the body is always, so far as I have observed, mainly -yellow. - -THE FASCIATA OR EGYPTIAN RACE. - -The word fasciata means banded, as the Egyptian bee is very broadly -banded with yellow. I have never seen these bees, but from descriptions -by Latreille, Kirby, and Bevan, I understand that all the bees are -rather smaller, more slim, and much more yellow than the Italians. -Herr Vogel states that they gather no propolis, but that each colony -contains a number of small drone-laying queens. These bees were -probably the ones which, with the kine of the ancient goodly land of -promise, gave the rich pabulum, that gave the reputation: "flowing with -milk and honey." They are thus the oldest of domesticated bees. These, -too, are said to have been moved in rude boats or rafts up and down -the Nile, as the flower pasturage seemed to require. The bees are said -to be very active, to be proof against the cold, and have also been -reputed very cross. - -OTHER VARIETIES. - -There are several other doubtful varieties which are receiving some -attention from the German apiarists, and are honored with attention -at the great meetings of Austria and Germany, as we learn from the -bee-publications of those countries. The Cyprian bee, from the Isle of -Cyprus, as its name indicates, is yellow, and probably an offspring -from the Italian or Egyptian. So far as we can learn, it has no merits -which will make it preferred to the Italian. Some say it is more -beautiful, others that it is less amiable. Other varieties, which are -not probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath, the -Carniolan or Krainer and the Herzegovinian. They are not considered -superior to the German and Italian. - -A variety of our Italian which has rows of white hairs unusually -distinct, is being sold in the United States under the name of Albinos. -That they are a distinct race is not at all likely. In fact, I have -noticed among our Italian stocks every year, the so-called Albinos. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY. - -It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, to give in -this connection a complete history of entomology so far as it relates -to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take much space, and as there is -quite a full history in books that I shall recommend to those who are -eager to know more of this interesting department of natural history, I -will not go into details. - -Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. C. About -three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth Georgic, gave to the -world the views then extant on this subject, gathered largely from -the writings of Aristotle. The poetry will ever be remarkable for its -beauty and elegance--would that as much could be said for the subject -matter, which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A -little later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his -observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much -that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. Pliny, the Elder, -who wrote in the first century A. D., helped to continue the erroneous -opinions which previous authors had given, and not content with this, -he added opinions of his own, which were not only without foundation, -but were often the perfection of absurdity. - -After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no progress in -natural history; even for two centuries after the revival of learning, -we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch entomologist, in -the middle of the 17th century, wrote a general history of insects, -also, "The Natural History of Bees." He and his English cotemporary, -Ray, showed their ability as naturalists by founding their systems -on the insect transformations. They also revived the study and -practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by -Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. Ray -also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was much aided by -Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, so justly noted for his -discovery of the circulation of the blood, announced his celebrated -dictum, "Omnia ex ovo,"--all life from eggs--which was completely -established by the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the -middle of the 18th century, the great Linnæus--"the brilliant Star -of the North"--published his "System Naturæ," and threw a flood of -light on the whole subject of natural history. His division of insects -was founded upon presence, or absence, and characteristics, of wings. -This, like Swammerdam's basis, was too narrow, yet his conclusions were -remarkably correct. Linnæus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and -especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and -animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as, Apis mellifica. -He was also the first to introduce classes and orders, as we now -understand them. When we consider the amount and character of the work -of the great Swede we can but place him among the first, if not as the -first, of naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnæus (also written Linné) -was Geoffroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera. In the last -half of the century appeared the great work of a master in entomology, -DeGeer, who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings -and jaws, and thus discovered another of nature's keys to aid him -in unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says: "He united in himself -the highest merit of almost every department of entomology." As a -scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant historian -of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all praise. What a -spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and of public usefulness, is such -an ability to observe, as was possessed by the great DeGeer. - -Contemporary with Linnæus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of France, whose -experiments and researches are of special interest to apiarists. -Perhaps no entomologist has done more to reveal the natural history -of bees. Especially to be commended are his method of experimenting, -his patience in investigation, the elegance and felicity of his word -pictures, and, above all, _his devotion to truth_. We shall have -occasion to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the -great shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages. Bonnet, -of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also did valuable work, -in which the lover of bees has a special interest. Bonnet is specially -noted for his discovery and elucidation of parthenogenesis--that -anomalous mode of reproduction--as it occurs among the Aphides -or plant-lice, though he did not discover that our bees, in the -production of drones, illustrate the same doctrine. Though the author -of no system, he gave much aid to Réaumur in his systematic labors. - -At this same period systematic entomology received great aid from -Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected and explained the -development of a caterpillar. His descriptions and illustrations are -wonderful, and will proclaim his ability as long as entomology is -studied, and they, to quote Bonnet, "demonstrate the existence of God." - -We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius--a student of -Linnæus--who published his works from 1775 to 1798, and thus was -revolutionizing systematic entomology at the same time that we of -America were revolutionizing government. He made the mouth organs -the basis of his classification, and thus followed in the path which -DeGeer had marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter -while Fabricius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders are no -improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct, as were his old -master's. In his description of genera--where he pretended to follow -nature--he has rendered valuable service In leading scientists to study -parts, before little regarded, and thus to better establish affinities, -he did a most valuable work. His work is a standard, and should be -thoroughly studied by all entomologists. - -Just at the close of the last century, appeared the greatest "Roman -of them all," the great Latreille, of France, whose name we have so -frequently used in the classification of the honey-bee. His is called -the Elective System, as he used wings, mouth-parts, transformations, -in fact, all the organs--the entire structure. He gave us our Family -Apidæ, our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several -of the species of this genus. In our study of this great man's work, we -constantly marvel at his extensive researches and remarkable talents. -Lamark, of this time, except that he could see no God in nature, did -very admirable work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon's time, and the -learned Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of workers -in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise; yet -the work has been to rub up and garnish, rather than to create. So I -will close this brief history with a notice of authors who are very -serviceable to such as may desire to glean farther of the treasures -of systematic entomology; only remarking that at the end of the next -chapter I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable -in developing the anatomy and physiology of insects, especially of bees. - -VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. - -For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on Insects--two -volumes. In this the descriptions and illustrations are very full and -perfect, making it easy to study the families, and even genera, of all -the sub-orders. This work and the following are out of print, but can -be got with little trouble at second-hand book-stores. - -Kirby and Spence--Introduction to Entomology--is a very complete work. -It treats of the classification, structure, habits, general economy of -insects, and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work, -and a great acquisition to any library. - -Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable work, and -being American, is specially to be recommended. - -The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. C. V. Riley, -will also be found of great value and interest. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. - - -In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of insects; then -the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology of the honey-bee. - - -ANATOMY OF INSECTS. - -In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked portions -(Fig. 2): the head (Figs. 4 and 5), which contains the mouth-organs, -the eyes, both the compound and when present the simple, and the -antennæ; the thorax, which is composed of three rings, and gives -support to the one or two pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of -legs; and the abdomen, which is composed of a variable number of rings, -and gives support to the external sex-organs, and when present to the -sting. Within the thorax there are little more than muscles, as the -concentrated strength of insects, which enables them to fly with such -rapidity, dwells in this confined space. Within the abdomen, on the -other hand, are the sex-organs, by far the greater and more important -portions of the alimentary canal, and other important organs. - -ORGANS OF THE HEAD. - -Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 6) are most prominent. These consist -of an upper lip--labrum--and under lip--labium--and two pairs of jaws -which move sidewise; the stronger, horny jaws, called mandibles, and -the more membranous, but usually longer, maxillæ. The labrum (Fig. 6, -_l_) is well described in the name upper lip. It is attached, usually, -by a movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called clypeus -(Fig. 6, _c_), and this latter to the broad epicranium (Fig. 6, _o_), -which contains the antennæ, the compound, and, when present, the simple -eyes. - -The labium (Fig. 15) is not described by the name under lip, as its -base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the tongue. The base -is usually broad, and is called the mentum, and from this extends the -tongue (Fig. 15, _a_) or ligula. On either side, near the junction of -the ligula and mentum, arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called -the labial palpus (Fig. 6, _k k_), or, together, the labial palpi. -Just within the angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the -paraglossæ (Fig. 15, _d_), one on either side. These are often wanting. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. - -Head of Bee much magnified. - - _o_--Epicranium - _e e_--Compound eyes. - _a a_--Antennæ, - _c_--Clypeus. - _l_--Labrum. - _m_--Jaws. - _m x_--2d Jaws. - _k k_--Labial palpi, - _t_--Ligula. -] - -The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 6, _m, m_) arise one on either side just -below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. These work sidewise -instead of up and down as in higher animals, are frequently very hard -and sharp, and sometimes armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary -tooth (Fig. 21, _b_) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees. - -Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little farther back, are -the second jaws or maxillæ (Fig. 6, _m x_), less dense and firm than -the mandibles, but far more complex. They arise by a small joint, the -cardo, next this is a larger joint, the stipes, from this extends on -the inside the broad lacinia (Fig. 20, _c_) or blade, usually fringed -with hairs on its inner edge, towards the mouth; while on the outside -of the stipes are inserted the--from one to several jointed--maxillary -palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two joints, and in -some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in some of the beetles, -there is a third member running from the stipes between the palpus and -lacinia called the galea. The maxillæ also move sidewise, and probably -aid in holding and turning the food while it is crushed by the harder -jaws, though in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the food. - -These mouth parts are very variable in form in different insects. In -butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they are transformed -into a tube, which in the last two groups forms a hard, strong beak -or piercer, well exemplified in the mosquito and bed-bug. In all the -other insects we find them much as in the bees, with the separate -parts varying greatly in form, to agree with the habits and character -of their possessors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these -varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the insect, and -no wonder, too, that in their use they were so successful in forming a -natural classification. - -Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these parts and -studying their form and relations for himself. By getting his children -interested in the same, he will have conferred upon them one of the -rarest of blessings. - -To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully pin it -to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between the eyes. Now -separate the parts by two needle points, made by inserting a needle -for half its length into a pine stick the shape of a pipe-stem, leaving -the point projecting for an inch or more. With one of these in each -hand commence operations. The head may be either side up. Much may be -learned in dissecting large insects, even with no glass; but in all -cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will be of great -value. The best lens is one of Tolles', sold by Mr. Stoddard, of the -Boston optical works. These are very excellent and thus high priced, -costing $14.00. Gray's triplet hand-lenses are very good, are cheap, -and can be procured for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle should -have a hole through it to permit of mounting it above the object, so -that it will hold itself. Tolles' lenses are easily mounted, in a stand -which any one can contrive and make in twenty minutes. I value my -Tolles' lens even more highly than my large compound microscope, which -cost $150. Were I obliged to part with either, the latter would go. - -I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting, which they -enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would much rather that my -boy would become interested in such study, than to have him possessor -of infinite gold rings, or even a huge gold watch, with a tremendous -charm. Let such pleasing recreation gain the attention of our boys, -and they will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with -anxiety and fear. - -The antennæ (Fig. 6, _a, a_) are the horn-like jointed organs situated -between or below and in front of the large compound eyes of all -insects. They are sometimes short, as in the house-fly, and sometimes -very long, as in the grasshoppers. They are either straight, curved or -elbowed (Fig. 6). In form, too, they are very various, as thread-like, -tapering, toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. It is known -that a nerve passes into the antennæ, but their exact function is -little understood. That they serve as most delicate touch organs no -apiarist can doubt. That they serve as organs of smell or hearing is -not proved. That insects are conscious of sounds I think no observing -person can doubt. It is proved by the call of the katy-did, the cicada -and the cricket. What apiarist, too, has not noticed the effect of -various sounds made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive. How -contagious the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the -pleasant tone of a new swarm as they commence to enter their new home. -Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations, as we recognize -pitch, or whether they just distinguish the tremor, I think no one -knows. There is some reason to believe that their delicate touch-organs -may enable them to discriminate between vibrations, even more acutely, -than can we by use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a -colony of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If insects -can appreciate with great delicacy the different vibratory conditions -of the air by an excessive development of the sense of touch, then -undoubtedly the antennæ may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that -insects could only detect atmospheric vibrations. So, too, thought -Linnæus and Bonnet. Siebold thinks, as the antennæ receive but one -nerve, and are plainly touch-organs, they cannot be organs of hearing. -Kirby has noticed that some moths turn their antennæ towards the -direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that antennæ are -organs of hearing. Grote, for a similar reason, thinks that the densely -feathered antennæ of the males of various night moths, serve both for -smell and hearing. Prof. A. M. Mayer and Mr. C. Johnson (see American -Naturalist, vol. 8, p. 574) have by various ingenious experiments, -proved conclusively, that the delicate, beautifully feathered antennæ -of the male mosquito are organs of hearing. - -That insects have a very refined sense of smell is beyond question. How -quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass, the scavenger the filth, and -the bee the precious nectar. - -I have reared female moths in my study, and have been greatly -surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to find my room -swarming with males. These bridegrooms entered an open window in the -second-story of a brick building. How delicate must have been the sense -by which they were led to make the visit, and thus made to grace my -cabinet. Bees, too, have been known to dash against a shutter behind -which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of their perception -of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are carried by the air, -and must reach the insect through this medium. Is it not probable, that -the various breathing mouths of insects are also so many noses, and -that their delicate lining membranes abounding with, nerve filaments, -are the great odor sentinels? This view was maintained by both Lehman -and Cuvier, and explains this delicate perception of scents, as the -breathing mouths are large and numerous, and most so in insects like -bees and moths, which are most sensitive to odors. How quickly the -bees notice the scent of a strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor -of the venom. I have known a bee to sting a glove, and in a trice the -glove would be as a pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Sometimes -the bees will dart for many feet, guided by this odor. Yet the odor -is very pungent, as I have frequently smelt the poison before I felt -the sting. I have tried the experiments of Huber and Lubbock, and know -that such insects as bees and ants will take no note of food after the -loss of their antennæ. But we must remember that this is a capital -operation. With loss of antennæ, insects lose control of their motions, -and in many ways show great disturbance. Is it not probable then that -removing the antennæ destroys the desire for food, as does amputation -with ourselves? Kirby believes with Huber, that there is a scent organ. -Huber's experiments on which he based this opinion are, as usual, very -interesting. He presented a coarse hair dipped in oil of turpentine--a -substance very repugnant to bees--to various parts of a bee engrossed -in sipping honey. The bee made no objection, even though it touched the -ligula, until it approached the mouth above the mentum, when she became -much disturbed. He also filled a bee's mouth with paste, which soon -hardened, after which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near it. -This was not so conclusive, as the bee may have been so disturbed as -to lose its appetite. I have experimented a good deal, and am inclined -to the following opinion: The antennæ are very delicate touch-organs -or feelers, and are so important in their function and connection that -removal produces a severe shock, but further we know but little about -their function, if they have other, and from the very nature of the -problem we will find it very difficult of solution. - -The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are always present in -mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes, which may or may not -be present. When present there are usually three, which if we join by -lines, we will describe a triangle, in the vertices of whose angles -are the ocelli. Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely but -one. - -The simple eyes (Fig. 4, _f f f_) are circular, and possess a cornea, -lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight. - -From the experiments of Réaumur and Swammerdam, which consisted in -covering the eyes with varnish, they concluded that vision with -these simple eyes is very indistinct, though by them the insect can -distinguish light. Some have thought that these simple eyes were for -vision at slight distances. Larvæ, like spiders and myriapods, have -only simple eyes. - -The compound eyes (Fig. 2, _e_) are simply a cluster of simple eyes, -are situated one on either side of the head, and vary much in form and -size. Between or below these are inserted the antennæ. Sometimes these -last are inserted in a notch of the eyes, and in a few cases actually -divide each eye into two eyes. - -The eyes may meet above as in drones (Fig. 4), most two-wing flies -and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably separated, as in the -worker-bees (Fig. 5). The separate facets or simple eyes, of each -compound eye, are hexagonal, or six-sided, and in the microscope -look not unlike a section of honey-comb. The number of these is -prodigious--Leeuwenhoek actually counted 12,000 in the eye of a -dragon-fly--while some butterflies have, over 17,000. The compound -eyes are motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical shape, they -give quite a range of vision. It is not likely that they are capable -of adjustment to accord with different distances, and it has been -supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to their hives, and -the awkward work they make in finding a hive when moved only for a -short distance, that their eyes are best suited to long vision. - -Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments with -strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors. Honey was -placed on a blue strip, beside several others of various colors. In -the absence of the bees he changed the position of this strip, and -upon their return the bees went to the blue strip rather than to the -old position. Our practical apiarists have long been aware of this -fact, and have conformed their practice to the knowledge, in giving -a variety of colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted -that bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but, for slight -distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which would occur -if position alone was guide. - -APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX. - -The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of the thorax. -The wings are usually four, though the Diptera have but two, and some -insects--as the worker ants--have none. The front or primary wings -(Fig. 3, _A_) are usually larger than the secondary or hind wings -(Fig. 3, _B_), and thus the mesathoracic or middle ring of the thorax, -to which they are attached, is usually larger than the metathorax or -third ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of veins (Fig. 3), -covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs or veins are variable -in number, while towards the extremity of the wing are more or less -cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into more or less -cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and quite important in -classifying. Especially useful are the cells in the second row, from -the frontal or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-costal -cells. Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (Fig. 3, _A_, -1, 2, 3), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs or veins -consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one forming an air tube, the -outer one carrying blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings we -often find hooks, to attach it to the front wings (Fig. 3, _B_, _a_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. - -_Thorax of Bee magnified three times._ - -_a, a, a_--Muscles. _b, b_--Crust.] - -The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly located in the -thorax (Fig. 7, _a, a, a_), whose strength, as well as the rapidity of -the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid are really beyond -computation. Think of a tiny fly outstripping the fleetest horse in the -chase, and then marvel at this wondrous mechanism. - -The legs (Fig. 2, _g, g, g_) are six in number in all mature insects, -two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. These are long or -short, weak or strong, according to the habit of the insect. Each leg -consists of the following joints or parts: The coxæ (Fig. 24), which -move like a ball and socket joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities -of the body-rings. Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter, -the large, broad femur (Fig. 2, _g′_, 1), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 2, -_g′_, 2), frequently bearing strong spines at or near its end, called -tibial spurs, and followed by the from one to five-jointed tarsi (Fig. -2, _g′_, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3). All these parts move freely upon each other, -and will vary in form to agree with their use. At the end of the last -tarsal joint are two hooked claws (Fig. 2, _g′_, 4), between which are -the pulvilli, which are not air-pumps as usually described, but rather -glands, which secrete a sticky substance which enables insects to stick -to a smooth wall, even though it be above them. The legs, in fact the -whole crust, is more or less dense and hard, owing to the deposit -within the structure of a hard substance known as chitine. - -INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. - -The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I have noticed -quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the thorax. They vary in form -and position to accord with their use. The mechanism of contraction is -the same as in higher animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary -muscles, when highly magnified, show the striæ or cross-lines the same -as do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beautiful as -microscopic objects. The separate muscles are not bound together by -a membrane as in higher animals. In insects the muscles are widely -distributed, though, as we should expect, they are concentrated in -the thorax and head. In insects of swiftest flight, like the bee, the -thorax (Fig. 7, _a, a, a_) is almost entirely composed of muscles; the -œsophagus, which carries the food to the stomach, being very small. -At the base of the jaws, too, the muscles are large and firm. The -number of muscles is astounding. Lyonnet counted over 3,000 in a single -caterpillar, nearly eight times as many as are found in the human body. -The strength, too, of insects is prodigious. There must be quality -in muscles, for muscles as large as those of the elephant, and as -strong as those of the flea, would not need the fulcrum which the old -philosopher demanded, in order to move the world. Fleas have been made -to draw miniature cannon, chains, and even wagons many hundred times -heavier than themselves. - -The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known, except -in position. As in our bodies, some are knotted or have ganglia, and -some are not. - -The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral side of the -body (Fig. 8), separates near the head, and after passing around the -œsophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the ganglia, which serves as -a brain. The minute nerves extend everywhere, and in squeezing out the -viscera of an insect are easily visible. - -The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. The heart -is a long tube situated along the back, and receives the blood at -valvular openings along its sides which only permit the fluid to pass -in, when by contraction it is forced towards the head and emptied into -the general cavity. Thus the heart only serves to keep the blood in -motion. According to the best authorities, there are no special vessels -to carry the blood to various organs. Nor are they necessary, as this -nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary canal, and thus easily -receives nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis, everywhere surrounds -the tracheæ or air-tubes--the insect's lungs--and thus receives that -most needful of all food, oxygen, and gives the baneful carbonic acid, -everywhere touches the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital -operations of the animal require. - -The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or -corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher animals, and -which give our blood its red color. The function of these discs is to -carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried everywhere through the body by -the ubiquitous air-tubes of insects, we see the discs are not needed. -Except these semi-fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished as -are other organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely fluid, in -all normal conditions, and contains not the organs themselves or any -part of them, but only the elements, which are absorbed by the tissue -and converted into the organs, or, to be scientific, are assimilated. -As the blood of insects is nearly destitute of these discs, it is -almost wholly fluid, and is almost wholly made up of nutritious -substance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8. - -_Nervous System of the Drone magnified four times._] - -The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already been -referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spiracles or breathing -mouths, which vary in number. These are armed with a complex valvular -arrangement which excludes dust or other noxious particles. These -spiracles are lined with a delicate membrane which abounds with nerves, -which were referred to in speaking of them as smelling organs. From -these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 2, _f, f′_), which -breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect organism. In -the more active insects--as in bees--the main tracheæ, one on each -side of the abdomen, are expanded into large air-sacks (Fig. 2, _f_). -Insects often show a respiratory motion, which in bees is often very -marked. Newport has shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration -gauges the heat in the hive, and thus we see why bees, in times of -severe cold, which they essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, -consume much food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and are liable -to disease. Newport found that in cases of severe cold there would be -quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer which he suspended in the -hive amidst the cluster. In the larva state, many insects breathe by -fringe-like gills. The larval mosquito has gills in form of hairy -tufts, while in the larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum, -or last part of the intestine. This insect, by a muscular effort, draws -the water slowly in at the anus, when it bathes these singularly-placed -branchiæ, and then makes it serve a further turn by forcibly expelling -it, when the insect is sent darting ahead. Thus this curious apparatus -not only furnishes oxygen, but also a mode of motion. In the pupa; of -insects there is little or no motion, yet important organic changes are -taking place--the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva, -is soon to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal -imago. So oxygen, the most essential--the _sine qua non_--of all animal -food, is still needed. The bees are too wise to seal the brood-cell -with impervious wax, but rather add the porous capping, made of wax and -pollen. The pupæ no less than the larvæ of some two-wing flies, which -live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the vivifying -air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupæ of the mosquito, -awaiting in its liquid home the glad time when it shall unfold its tiny -wings and pipe its war-note, has a similar arrangement to secure the -gaseous pabulum. - -The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, as in our -own class of animals, varies very much in length and complexity, as -the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As in mammals and birds, -the length, with some striking exceptions, varies with the food. -Carnivorous or flesh-eating insects have a short alimentary canal, -while in those that feed on vegetable food it is much longer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9. - -_Alimentary Canal._ - - _o_--Honey stomach. _b_--True stomach. - _c_--Urinary tubes. _d_--Intestine. -] - -The mouth I have already described. Following this is the throat or -pharynx, then the œsophagus or gullet, which may expand, as in the -bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach (Fig. 9, _o_), may have an -attached crop like the chicken, or may run as a uniform tube as in -our bodies, to the true stomach (Fig. 9, _b_). Following this is the -intestine--separated by some into an ileum and a rectum--which ends -in a vent or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in larvæ -that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this is a -viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly into -the gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in building their -structures. With it and mud some wasps make mortar; with it and wood, -others their paper cells with it and wax, the bee fashions the ribbons -that are to form the beautiful comb. - -Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which secrete a -viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes the passage of food. - -The true stomach (Fig. 9, _b_) is very muscular, and often a gizzard, -as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with teeth. The -interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting the gastric juice -which is to liquify the food, that it may be absorbed, or pass through -the walls of the canal into the blood. Attached to the lower portion of -the stomach are numerous urinary tubes (Fig. 9, _c_) though Cuvier, and -even Kirby, call these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the mucous -glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas. - -The intestine when short, as in larvæ and most carnivora, is -straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen, while in -most plant eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its course. Strange -as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are beautiful in -form, and of others pleasant to the taste. In some caterpillars -they are barrel-shaped, artistically fluted, of brilliant hue, -and if fossilized, would be greatly admired, as have been the -coprolites--fossil feces of quadrupeds--if set as gems in jewelry. As -it is, they would form no mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as -the Aphides or plant-lice, the excrement, as well as the fluid that -escapes in some species from special tubes called the nectaries, is -very sweet, and in absence of floral nectar, will often be appropriated -by bees and conveyed to the hives. Imagination would make this a bitter -draught, so here, as elsewhere in life, the bitter and sweet are -mingled. In those insects that suck their food, as bees, butterflies, -moths, two-wing flies and bugs, the feces are watery or liquid, while -in case of solid food the excrement is solid. - -SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS. - -I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby gives as -distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though Newport gives -them as one and the same. . In many insects these seem absent. I have -also spoken of the mucous glands, the urinary tubules, etc. Besides -these, there are other secretions which serve for purposes of defense: -In the queen and workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison -intruded with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at -the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacks (Fig. 25, _c_), and -extruded through the sting, as occasion requires. I know of no insects -that poison while they bite, except it be mosquitoes, gnats, etc., and -in these cases no special secreting organ has been discovered. Perhaps -the beak itself secretes an irritating substance. A few exceedingly -beautiful caterpillars are covered with branching spines, which -sting about like a nettle. We have two such species. They are green, -and of rare attraction, so that to capture them is worth the slight -inconvenience arising from their irritating punctures. Some insects, -like bugs, secrete a disgusting fluid or gas which affords protection, -as by its stench it renders these filthy bugs so offensive that even a -hungry bird or half-famished insect passes them by on the other side. -Some insects secrete a gas which is stored in a sack at the posterior -end of the body, and shot forth with an explosion in case that danger -threatens thus by noise and smoke it startles its enemy, which beats a -retreat. I have heard the little bombardier beetle at such times, even -at considerable distances. The frightful reports about the terrible -horn of the tomato-worm larva are mere nonsense. A more harmless animal -does not exist. My little boy of four years, and girl of only two, used -to bring them to me last summer, and fondle them as admiringly as would -their father upon receiving them from the delighted children. - -If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that need be -feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage even they, are -seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon. - -SEX ORGANS OF INSECTS. - -The male organs consist first of the testes (Fig. 10, a) which are -double organs. There may be from one, as in the drone bee, to several, -as in some beetles, on each side the abdominal cavity. In these -vesicles grow the sperm cells or spermatozoa, which, when liberated, -pass through a long convoluted tube, the vas-deferens (Fig. 10, _b, -b_), into the seminal sack (Fig. 10, c, c), where, in connection with -mucous, they are stored. In most insects there are glandular sacks -(Fig. 10, d) joined to these seminal receptacles, which in the male -bee or drone are very large. The sperm cells mingled with these viscid -secretions, as they appear in the seminal receptacle, ready for use, -form the seminal fluid. Extending from these seminal receptacles is the -ejaculatory duct (Fig. 10, _e, f, g_), which in copulation carries the -male fluid to the penis (Fig. 10, _d_), through which it passes to the -spermatheca of the female. Beside this latter organ are the sheath, the -claspers when present, and in the male bee those large yellow sacks -(Fig. 10, _i_), which are often seen to dart forth as the drone is held -in the warm hand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. - -_Male Organs of Drone, much magnified._ - - _a_--Testes. _e_--Common duct. - _b, b_--Vasa deferentia. _f, g_--Ejaculatory sack. - _c, c_--Seminal sacks. _h_--Penis. - _d_--Glandular sacks. _i_--Yellow saccules. -] - -[Illustration: Fig. 11. - -_Queen Organs, greatly magnified._ - - _a, a_--Ovaries. _d_--Sting. - _b_--Oviducts. _e_--Spermatheca. - _c_--Oviduct. -] - -The female organs (Fig. 11) consist of the ovaries (Fig. 11, _a, a_), -which are situated one on either side of the abdominal cavity. From -these extend the two oviducts, (Fig. 11, _b_), which unite into -the common oviduct (Fig. 11, _c_) through which the eggs pass in -deposition. In many insects there is beside this oviduct, and connected -with it, a sack (Fig. 11, _e_) called the spermatheca, which receives -the male fluid in copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, -must ever after do the work of impregnation. - -This sack was discovered and its use suggested by Malpighi as early -as 1686, but its function was not fully demonstrated till 1792, when -the great anatomist, John Hunter, showed that in copulation this was -filled. The ovaries are multitubular organs. In some insects there are -but very few tubes--two or three; while in the queen bee there are -more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova or eggs _grow_, as do -the sperm cells in the vesicles of the testes. The number of eggs is -variable. Some insects, as the mud-wasps, produce very few, while the -queen white-ant extrudes millions. The end of the oviduct, called the -ovipositor, is wonderful in its variations. Sometimes it consists of -concentric rings, like a spy-glass which may be pushed out or drawn in; -sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or saws of wonderful finish, -to prepare for eggs; or again of a tube which may also serve as a sting. - -Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at least that -the female only meets the male but once. My pupil, Clement S. Strang, -who made a special study of the structure and habits of bugs during the -past season, noticed that the squash-bugs mated many times. It would be -interesting to know whether these females possessed the spermatheca. In -some cases, as we shall see in the sequel, the male is killed by the -copulatory act. I think this curious fatality is limited to few species. - -To study viscera, which of course requires very careful dissection, -we need more apparatus than has been yet described. Here a good -lens is indispensable. A small dissecting knife, a delicate pair of -forceps, and some small, sharp-pointed dissecting scissors--those of -the renowned Swammerdam were so fine at the point that it required -a lens to sharpen them--which may also serve to clip the wings of -queens--are requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in alcohol -will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out and the muscle -hardened. Placing them in hot water will do nearly as well, in which -case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the fat. This may be applied -with a camel's-hair brush. By dissecting under water the loose portions -will float off, and render effective work more easy. Swammerdam, who -had that most valuable requisite to a naturalist, unlimited patience, -not only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, fine -as a hair, he injected the various tubes as the alimentary canal and -air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in upon those wondrous -beauties and marvels of God's own handiwork--nature's grand exposition? -Father, why would not a set of dissecting instruments be a most -suitable gift to your son? You might thus sow the seed which would -germinate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth-stone. Messrs. -Editors, why do not you, among your apiarian supplies, keep boxes of -these instruments, and thus aid to light the torch of genius and hasten -apiarian research? - -TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. - -What in all the realm of nature is so worthy to awaken delight and -admiration as the astonishing changes which insects undergo? Just -think of the sluggish, repulsive caterpillar, dragging its heavy form -over clod or bush, or mining in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand -of nature's great magician, first into the motionless chrysalis, -decked with green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on -the finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous -butterfly; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out-rivals -even the birds among the life-jewels of nature, and is made fit to -revel in all her decorative wealth. The little fly, too, with wings -dyed in rainbow-hues, flitting like, a fairy from leaf to flower, was -but yesterday the repulsive maggot, reveling in the veriest filth of -decaying nature. The grub to-day drags its slimy shape through the -slums of earth, on which it fattens; to-morrow it will glitter as -the brilliant setting in the bracelets and ear-drops of the gay and -thoughtless belle. - -There are four separate stages in the development of insects: The egg -state, the larva, the pupa, and the imago. - -THE EGG. - -This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its yolk and -its surrounding white or albumen, like the eggs of all mammals, and -farther, the delicate shell, which is familiar in the eggs of birds and -reptiles. Eggs of insects are often beautiful in form and color, and -not infrequently ribbed and fluted as by a master-hand. The form of -eggs is very various--spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong, straight -and curved (Fig. 26, _b_). All insects seem to be guided by a wonderful -knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the placing of eggs on or -near the peculiar food of the larva. Even though in many cases such -food is no part of the aliment of the imago insect. The fly has the -refined habits of the epicure, from whose cup it daintily sips, yet its -eggs are placed in the horse-droppings of stable and pasture. - -Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and their consummation -is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar changes can be easily and most -profitably studied by breaking and examining a hen's egg each -successive day of incubation. As with the egg of our own species and -of all higher animals, so, too, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the -essential part--the white is only food, so to speak--soon segments or -divides into a great many cells, these soon unite into a membrane--the -blastoderm--and this is the initial animal. This blastoderm soon -forms a single sack, and not a double sack, one above the other, as -in our own vertebrate branch. This sack, looking like a miniature bag -of grain, grows, by absorption, becomes articulated, and by budding -out is soon provided with the various members. As in higher animals, -these changes are consequent upon heat, and usually, not always, upon -the incorporations within the eggs of the germ cells from the male, -which enter the eggs at openings called micropyles. The time it takes -the embryo inside the egg to develop is gauged by heat, and will, -therefore, vary with the season and temperature, though in different -species it varies from days to months. The number of eggs, too, which -an insect may produce, is subject to wide variation. Some insects -produce but one, two or three, while others, like the queen bee and -white ant, lay thousands, and in case of the ant, millions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12. - -_Larva of Bee._] - -THE LARVA OF INSECTS. - -From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot, caterpillar, -and very erroneously worm. These are worm-shaped (Fig. 12), usually -have strong jaws, simple eyes, and the body plainly marked into ring -divisions. Often as in case of some grubs, larval bees and maggots, -there are no legs. In most grubs there are six legs, two to each of -the three rings succeeding the head. Besides these, caterpillars have -usually ten prop-legs farther back on the body, though a few--the -loopers or measuring caterpillars--have only four or six, while the -larvæ of the saw-flies have from twelve to sixteen of the false or -prop-legs. The alimentary canal of larval insects is usually short, -direct and quite simple, while the sex-organs are slightly if at all -developed. The larvæ of insects are voracious eaters--indeed, their -only work seems to be to eat and grow fat. As the entire growth occurs -at this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more excusable. I -have often been astonished at the amount of food that the insects in -my breeding cases would consume. The length of time which insects -remain as larvæ is very variable. The maggot revels in decaying meat -but two or three days; the larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly -a week; the apple-tree borer gnaws away for three years; while the -seventeen-year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years, -groping in darkness, and feeding on roots, only to come forth for a few -days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely, here is patience -exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The name larva, meaning masked, was -given to this stage by Linnæus, as the mature form of the insect is -hidden, and cannot be even divined by the unlearned. - -THE PUPA OF INSECTS. - -In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting after -its long meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive days--the -joyous honey-moon--soon to come. In this stage the insect may look -like a seed; as in the coarctate pupa of diptera, so familiar in -the "flax-seed" state of the Hessian-fly, or in the pupa of the -cheese-maggot or the meat-fly. This same form, with more or less -modification, prevails in butterfly pupæ, called, because of their -golden spots, chrysalids, and in the pupæ of moths. Other pupæ, as in -case of bees (Fig. 13, _g_) and beetles, look not unlike the mature -insect with its antennæ, legs, and wings closely bound to the body by -a thin membrane, hence the name which Linné gave--referring to this -condition--as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling clothes, -the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it needed holding -together. Aristotle called pupæ nymphs--a name now given to this stage -in bees--which name was adopted by many entomologists of the seventeeth -and eighteenth centuries. Inside the pupa skin great changes are in -progress, for either by modifying the larval organs or developing -parts entirely new, by use of the accumulated material stored by the -larva during its prolonged banquet, the wonderful transformation -from the sluggish, worm-like larva to the active, bird-like imago is -accomplished. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13. - -_Pupa or Nymph of Bee, slightly magnified._] - -Sometimes the pupa is surrounded by a silken cocoon, either thick, as -the cocoon of some moths, or thin, as are the cocoons of bees. These -cocoons are spun by the larvæ as their last toil before assuming -the restful pupa state. The length of time in the pupa-stage is -very various, lasting from a few days to as many months. Sometimes -insects which are two-brooded remain as pupa but a few days in summer, -while in winter they are months passing the quiescent period. Our -cabbage-butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the -Hessian-fly and codling-moth, remain through the long, cold months as -larvæ. How wonderful is this! The first brood of larvæ change to pupæ -at once, the last brood, though the weather be just as hot, wait over -inside the cocoon till the warm days of coming spring. - -THE IMAGO STAGE. - -This term refers to the last or winged form, and was given by Linné -because the image of the insect is now real and not masked as when in -the larva state. Now the insect has its full-formed legs and wings, its -compound eyes, complex mouth-parts, and the fully developed sex-organs. -In fact, the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to reproduce -itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in merry marriage mood -for a brief space, when the male flees this life to be quickly followed -by the female, she only waiting to place her eggs where the prospective -infants may find suitable food. Some insects not only place their eggs, -but feed and care for their young, as is true of ants, wasps and bees. -Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive females -perform all, or most of the labor in caring for the young. The life -of the imago also varies much as to duration. Some live but for a -day, others make merry for several days, while a few species live for -months. Very few imagos survive the whole year. - -INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATIONS. - -Some insects, like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers and locusts, are -quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg. The only -apparent difference is the smaller size and the absence or incomplete -development of the wings in the larvæ and pupæ. The habits and -structure from first to last seem to be much the same. Here, as before, -the full development of the sex-organs occurs only in the imago. - - -ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. - -With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of the physiology -of insects in general, we shall now find it easy to learn the special -anatomy and physiology of the highest insects of the order. - -THREE KINDS OF BEES IN EACH FAMILY. - -As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the economy of -the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which is true of many -other bees, and also of ants and many wasps, is the presence in each -family of three distinct kinds, which differ in form, color, structure, -size, habits and function. Thus we have the queen, a number of drones, -and a far greater number of workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn and Kirby -also speak of a fourth kind blacker than the usual workers. These are -accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Von Berlepsch, ordinary -workers, more deeply colored by loss of hair, dampness, or some other -atmospheric condition. American apiarists are too familiar with these -black bees, for after our severe winters they prevail in the colony, -and, as remarked by the noted Baron, "_They quickly_ disappear." Munn -also tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarming -seasons. I am at a great loss to know what he refers to, unless it be -the pollen masses of the asclepias or milk-weed, which sometimes fasten -to our bees and become a severe burden. - -THE QUEEN BEE. - -The queen (Fig. 14), although referred to as the mother bee, was called -the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as late as the last century, -though in the ancient "Bee Master's Farewell," by John Hall, published -in London in 1796, I find an admirable description of the queen bee, -with her function correctly stated. Réaumur as quoted by "Wildman on -Bees," published in London in 1770, says "this third sort has a grave -and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is mother of all the -others." - -Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who, though blind, -through the aid of his devoted wife and intelligent servant, Frances -Burnens, developed so many interesting facts, demonstrated the fact of -the queen's maternity. This author's work, second edition, published in -Edinburgh, in 1808, gives a full history of his wonderful observations -and experiments, and must ever rank with Langstroth as a classic, -worthy of study by all. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. - -_Queen Bee, magnified._] - -The queen, then, is the mother bee, in other words, a fully developed -female. Her ovaries (Fig. 11, _a, a_) are very large, nearly filling -her long abdomen. The tubes already described as composing them are -very numerous, while the spermatheca (Fig. 11, _e_) is plainly visible. -This is muscular, receives abundant nerves, and thus, without doubt, -may or may not be compressed to force the sperm cells in contact -with the eggs as they pass by the duet. Leuckart estimates that the -spermatheca will hold more than 25,000,000 spermatozoa. - -The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs, is the chief -structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as these are the -characteristic marks of females among all animals. But she has other -peculiarities worthy of mention She is longer than either drones or -workers, being more than seven-eighths of an inch in length, and, -with her long tapering abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. -The queen's mouth organs, too, are developed to a less degree than -are those of the worker-bees. Her jaws (Fig. 21, _b_) or mandibles -are weaker, with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or ligula (Fig. -15, _a_), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 15, _b_) and maxillæ are -considerably shorter. Her eyes, like the same in the worker-bee (Fig. -5), are smaller than those of the drones, and do not meet above. So the -three ocelli are situated above and between. The queen's wings, too, -(Fig. 14) are relatively shorter than those either of the workers or -drones, for instead of attaining to the end of the body, they reach but -little beyond the third joint of the abdomen. The queen, though she has -the characteristic posterior tibia and basal tarsus (Fig. 16, _p_), in -respect to breadth, has not the cavity and surrounding hairs, which -form the pollen baskets of the workers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. - -_Labium of Queen._ - - _a_--Ligula. _b_--Labial palpi. - _d, d_--Paraglossæ. -] - -The queen possesses a sting (Fig. 11, _d_) which is longer than that of -the workers, and resembles that of the bumble-bees in being curved, and -that of bumble-bees and wasps in having few and short barbs--the little -projections which point back like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, -in case of the workers, prevent the withdrawing of the instrument, -when once fairly inserted. While there are seven quite prominent barbs -on each shaft of the worker's sting, there are only three on those of -the queen, and these are very short, and, as in a worker's sting, they -are successively shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. -Aristotle says that the queen will seldom use her sting, which I have -found true. I have often tried to provoke a queen's anger, but never -with any evidence of success. Neighbour (page 14, note) gives three -cases where queens used their stings, in one of which cases she was -disabled from farther egg-laying. She stings with slight effect. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. - -_Part of Leg of Queen, magnified._ - - _t_--Tibia. - _p_--Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. - _t s_--Tarsal joints. -] - -The queen, like the neuters, is developed from an impregnated egg, -which, of course, could only come from a queen that had previously -mated. These eggs are not placed in a horizontal cell, but in one -specially prepared for their reception (Fig. 26, _i_). These queen -cells are usually built on the edge of the comb, or around an opening -in it, which is necessitated from their size and form, as usually the -combs are too close together to permit their location elsewhere. These -cells extend either vertically or diagonally downward, are composed of -was mixed with pollen, and in size and form much resemble a pea-nut. -The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by the queen or workers. -Huber, who though blind had wondrous eyes, also witnessed the act. I -have frequently seen eggs in these cells, and without exception in -the exact position in which the queen always places her eggs in the -other cells. John Hall, in the old work already referred to, whose -descriptions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully accurate, and -indicate great care, candor, and conscientious truthfulness, asserts -that the queen is five times as long laying a royal egg as she is the -others. From the character of his work, and its early publication, -I can but think that he had witnessed this rare sight. Some candid -apiarists of our own time and country--E. Gallup among the rest--claim -to have witnessed the act. The eggs are so well glued, and are so -delicate, that, with Neighbour, I doubt the possibility of a removal. -The opponents to this view base their belief on a supposed discord -between the queen and neuters. This antagonism is inferred, and I -have but little faith in the inference, or the argument from it. I -know that when royal cells are to be torn down, and inchoate queens -destroyed, the workers aid the queen in this destruction. I have also -seen queens pass by unguarded queen-cells, and yet respect them. I have -also seen several young queens dwelling amicably together in the same -hive. Is it not probable that the bees are united in whatever is to -be accomplished, and that when queens are to be destroyed all spring -to the work, and when they are to live all regard them as sacred? It -is true that the actions of bees are controlled and influenced by -the surrounding conditions or circumstances, but I have yet to see -satisfactory proof of the old theory that these conditions impress -differently the queen and the workers. The conditions which lead to -the building of queen-cells and the peopling of the same are--loss of -queen, when a worker larva from one to four days old will be surrounded -by a cell inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her spermatheca -having become emptied; great number of worker-bees in the hive; -restricted quarters; the queen not having place to deposit eggs, or the -workers little or no room to store honey and lack of ventilation, so -that the hive becomes too close. These last three conditions are most -likely to occur at times of great honey secretion. - -A queen may be developed from an egg, or from a worker larva less -than three days old. Mr. Doolittle has known queens to be reared from -worker larvæ taken at four-and-a-half days from hatching. In this -latter case, the cells adjacent to the one containing the selected -larva are removed, and the larva surrounded by a royal cell. The -development of the queen larva is much like that of the worker, soon to -be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and is fed richer and more -plenteous food, called royal jelly. This peculiar food, as also its use -and abundance in the cell, was first described by Schirach, a Saxon -clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in 1771. According to Hunter, this -royal pabulum is richer in nitrogen than that of the common larvæ. It -is thick, like rich cream; slightly yellow, and so abundant that the -queen larva not only floats in it during all its period of growth, but -quite a large amount remains after her queenship vacates the cell. We -often find this royal jelly in incomplete queen-cells, without larvæ. -Mr. Quinby suggests that this is stored for future use. - -What a mysterious circumstance is this: These royal scions simply -receive a more abundant and sumptuous diet, and occupy a more ample -habitation--for I have more than once confirmed the statement of Mr. -Quinby, that the direction of the cell is immaterial--and yet what -a marvelous transformation. Not only are the ovaries developed and -filled with eggs, but the mouth-organs, the wing's, the legs, and -the sting, aye, and the size, form and habits are all wondrously -changed. That the development of parts should be accelerated, and the -size increased is not so surprising--as in breeding other insects -I have frequently found that kind and amount of food, would hasten -or retard growth, and might even cause a dwarfed imago--but that it -should so essentially modify the structure, is certainly a rare and -unique circumstance, hardly to be found except here and in related -animals. Bevan has suggested that fertile workers', while larvæ, -have received some of this royal jelly, from their position near a -developing queen. Langstroth supposes that they receive some royal -jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I had previously thought -this reasonable, and probably true. But these pests of the apiarist, -and especially of the breeder, almost always, so far as I have -observed, make their appearance in colonies long queenless, and I have -noticed a case similar to that given by Quinby, where these occurred -in a nucleus where no queen had been developed. May it not be true, -that a desire for eggs stimulates growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs -in the ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit. The common -high-holder, Colaptes auratus--a bird belonging to the woodpecker -family, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but let cruel hands rob -her of these promises of future loved ones--and wondrous to relate, -she continues to lay more than a score. One thus treated, here on -the College campus, actually laid more than thirty eggs. So we see -that animal desires may influence and move organs that are generally -independent of the will. - -The larval queen is longer and more rapid of development than the other -larvæ. When developed from the egg--as in case of normal swarming--the -larva feeds for five days, when the cell is capped by the workers. -The infant queen then spins her cocoon, which occupies about one day. -The end of the cocoon is left open. Some one has suggested that this -is an act of thoughtful generosity on the part of the queen larva, -thus to render her own destruction more easy, should the welfare of -the colony demand it, as now a sister queen may safely give the fatal -sting. The queen now spends nearly three days in absolute repose. Such -rest is common to all cocoon-spinning larvæ. The spinning, which is -done by a rapid motion to and fro of the head, always carrying the -delicate thread, much like the moving shuttle of the weaver, seems to -bring exhaustion and need of repose. She now assumes the nymph or pupa -state (Fig. 26, _i_). At the end of the sixteenth day she comes forth a -queen. Huber states that when a queen emerges, the bees are thrown into -a joyous excitement, so that he noted a rise in the temperature of the -hive from 92° F. to 104° F. I have never tested this matter accurately, -but I have failed to notice any marked demonstration on the natal day -of her lady-ship the queen, or extra respect paid her as a virgin. When -queens are started from worker larvæ, they will issue as images in ten -or twelve days from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle -writes me that he has known them to issue in eight and one-half days. - -As the queen's development is probably due to superior quality and -increased quantity of food, it would stand to reason that queens -started from eggs are preferable; the more so, as under normal -circumstances, I believe, they are almost always thus started. The best -experience sustains this position. As the proper food and temperature -could best be secured in a full colony--and here again the natural -economy of the hive adds to our argument--we should infer that the -best queens would be reared in strong colonies, or at least kept in -such colonies till the cells were capped. Experience also confirms -this view. As the quantity and quality of food, and the general -activity of the bees is directly connected with the full nourishment -of the queen-larva, and as these are only at the maximum in times of -active gathering--the time when queen-rearing is naturally started by -the bees--we should also conclude that queens reared at such seasons -are superior. My experience--and I have carefully observed in this -connection--most emphatically sustains this view. - -Five or six days after issuing from the cell--Neighbour says the third -day--if the day is pleasant, the queen goes forth on her "marriage -flight" otherwise she will improve the first pleasant day thereafter -for this purpose. Huber was the first to prove that impregnation -always takes place on the wing. Bonnet also proved that the same -is true of ants, though in this case millions of queens and drones -often swarm out at once. I have myself witnessed several of these -wholesale matrimonial excursions among ants. I have also frequently -taken bumble-bees in copulo while on the wing. I have also noticed -both ants and bumble-bees to fall while united probably borne down by -the expiring males. That butterflies! moths, dragon-flies, etc., mate -on the wing is a matter of common observation. That it is possible to -impregnate queens when confined, I think very doubtful. The queens will -caress the drones, but the latter seem not to heed their advances. That -this ever has been done I also question, though many think they have -positive proof that it has occurred. Yet, as there are so many chances -to be mistaken, and as experience and observation are so excessive -against the possibility, I think that these may be cases of hasty or -inaccurate judgment. Many, very many, with myself, have followed Huber -in clipping the queen's wing, only to produce a sterile or drone-laying -queen. Prof Leuckart believes that successful mating demands that the -large air-sacks (Fig. 2, _f_) of the drones shall be filled, which he -thinks is only possible during flight. The demeanor of the drones leads -me to think, that the excitement of flight, like the warmth of the -hand, is necessary to induce the sexual impulse. - -I presume, that in all the future, Huber's statement that the queen -must take wing to be impregnated, will remain unrefuted. Yet it will do -no harm to keep trying. Success may come. Mating, too, in green-houses -or rooms is also impracticable. I have given this thorough trial. The -drones are incorrigible cowards, and their inordinate fear seems even -to overcome the sexual desires. - -If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will go forth -again and again till she succeeds. Huber stated that after twenty-one -days the case is hopeless. Bevan states that if impregnated from the -fifteenth to the twenty-first she will be largely a drone-laying queen. -That such absolute dates can be fixed in either of the above cases is -very questionable. Yet, all experienced breeders know that queens kept -through the winter as virgins are sure to remain so. It is quite likely -that the long inactivity of the spermatheca wholly or in part paralyzes -it, so that queens that are late in mating cannot impregnate the eggs -as she desires. This would accord with what we know of muscular -organs. Berlepsch believed that a queen that commenced laying as a -virgin could never lay impregnated eggs, even though she afterwards -mated. Langstroth thought that he had observed to the contrary. - -If the queen be observed after a successful "wedding tour," she will -be seen to bear the marks of success in the pendant drone appendages, -consisting of the penis, the yellow cul-de-sacks, and the hanging -thread-like ducts. - -It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has met a drone, ever -leaves the hive again except that she leaves with a swarm. Some of the -observing apiarists think that an old queen may be again impregnated. -The fact that queens, with clipped wings, are as long fertile as -others, makes me think that cases which have led to such conclusions -are capable of other explanation. - -If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drones, or if for any reason -she fails to mate, her eggs will only produce male bees. This strange -anomaly--development of the eggs without impregnation--was discovered -and proved by Dzierzon, in 1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, as a student of -practical and scientific apiculture, must rank with the great Huber, is -a Roman Catholic priest of Carlesmarkt, Germany. This doctrine--called -parthenogenesis, which means produced from a virgin--is still doubted -by some quite able bee-keepers, though the proofs are irrefragable: -1st. Unmated queens will lay eggs that will develop, but drones always -result. 2d. Old queens often become drone-layers, but examination shows -that the spermatheca is void of seminal fluid. Such an examination -was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great German anatomist, in 1813, -and later by Leuckart and Leidy. I have myself made several such -examinations. The spermatheca can easily be seen by the unaided vision, -and by crushing it on a glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass -cover, the difference between the contained fluid in the virgin and -impregnated queen is very patent, even with a low power. In the latter -it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more distended. By use -of a high power, the active spermatozoa or germ-cells become visible. -3d. Eggs in drone-cells are found by the microscopist to be void of the -sperm-cells, which are always found in all other fresh-laid eggs. This -most convincing, and interesting observation, was first made by Von -Siebold, at the suggestion of Berlepsch. It is quite difficult to show -this. Leuckart tried before Von Siebold, at Berlepsch's apiary, but -failed. I have also tried to discover these germ-cells in worker-eggs, -but as yet have been unsuccessful. Siebold has noted the same facts in -eggs of wasps. 4th. Dr. Dönhoff, of Germany, in 1855, took an egg from -a drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation produced a worker-bee. -Such an operation, to be successful, must be performed as soon as the -egg is laid. - -Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been found -by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, and of some of the -lower moths, in the production of both males and females. While the -great Bonnet first discovered what may be noticed on any summer day, -all about us, even on the house-plants at our very windows, that -parthenogenesis is best illustrated by the aphides or plant lice. In -the fall males and females appear, which mate, when the female lays -eggs, which in the spring produce only females; these again produce -only females, and thus on, for several generations, till with the -cold of autumn come again the males and females. Bonnet observed -seven successive generations of productive virgins. Duval noted -nine generations in seven months, while Kyber observed production -exclusively by parthenogenesis in a heated room for four years. So, we -see, that this strange and almost incredible method of increase, is not -rare in the great insect world. - -About two days after she is impregnated, the queen, under normal -circumstances, commences to lay, usually worker-eggs, and as the -condition of the hive seldom impels to swarming the same summer, so -that no drones are required, she usually lays no others the first -season. - -It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays quite -a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe this in their -nuclei. This continues for only a few days. This does not seem strange. -The act of forcing the sperm-cells from the spermatheca is muscular and -voluntary, and that these muscles should not always act promptly at -first, is not strange, nor is it unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested -that the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells -the pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the spermatheca. Mr. -Quinby also favored this view. I greatly question this theory. All -observing apiarists have known eggs to be laid in worker-cells, ere the -cell was hardly commenced, when there could be no pressure. In case of -queen-cells, too, if the queen does lay the eggs--as I believe--these -would be unimpregnated, as the cell is very large. I know the queen -sometimes passes from drone to worker-cells very abruptly while laying, -as I have witnessed such a procedure--the same that so greatly rejoiced -the late Baron of Berlepsch, after weary hours of watching--but -that she can thus control at the instant this process of adding or -withholding the sperm-cells, certainly seems not so strange as that -the spermatheca, hardly bigger than a pin-head, could supply these -cells for months, yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly -dart against the horse's legs, and as surely leave the tiny yellow egg, -can doubt but that insects possess very sensitive oviducts, and can -extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. That a queen may force single -eggs, at will, past the mouth of the spermatheca, and at the same time -add or withhold the sperm-cells, is, I think, without question, true. -What gives added force to this view, is the fact that other bees, -wasps and ants exercise the same volition, and can have no aid from -cell-pressure, as all the eggs are laid in receptacles of the same -size. But the Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to be a friend of Dzierzon, -has fully decided the matter. He has shown that old drone cells are as -small as new worker-cells, and yet each harbors its own brood. Very -small queens, too, make no mistakes. With no drone-cells, the queen -will sometimes lay drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will -then be reared. And will, if she must, though with great reluctance, -lay worker-eggs in drone-cells. - -Before laying an egg, the queen takes a look into the cell, probably -to see if all is right. If the cell contains any honey, pollen, or -an egg, she usually passes it by, though when crowded, a queen will -sometimes, _especially if young_, insert two or three eggs in a cell, -and sometimes, in such cases, she drops them, when the bees show -their dislike of waste, and appreciation of good living, by making a -breakfast of them. If the queen finds the cell to her liking, she -turns about, inserts her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is -glued, in position (Fig. 26, _b_) to the bottom of the cell. - -The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees of the colony, -possesses a surprising longevity. It is not surprising for her to -attain the age of three years in the full possession of her powers, -while they have been known to do good work for five years. Queens, -often at the expiration of one, two, three or four years, depending on -their vigor and excellence, either cease to be fertile, or else become -impotent to lay impregnated eggs--the spermatheca having become emptied -of its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually supersede the -queen; that is they destroy the old queen, ere all the worker-eggs are -gone, and take of the few remaining ones to start queen-cells, and thus -rear young, fertile and vigorous queens. - -It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine-looking queen, with -full-formed ovaries, and large spermatheca, well-filled with male -fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the eggs will hatch. Readers -of the bee-publications know that I have frequently received such for -dissection. The first I ever got was a remarkably fine-looking Italian, -received from the late Dr. Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I -have examined seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high-power -objective. We can only say that the egg is at fault, as frequently -transpires with higher animals, even to the highest. These females are -barren; through some fault with the ovaries, the eggs grown therein -are sterile. To detect just what is the trouble with the egg is a very -difficult problem, if it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to -determine the ultimate cause, but without success. - -The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus keep the -colony populous; and this she does with an energy that is fairly -startling. A good queen in her best estate will lay two or three -thousand eggs a day. I have seen a queen in my observing hive, lay -for some time at the rate of four eggs per minute, and have proved by -actual computation of brood cells, that a queen may lay over three -thousand eggs in a day. Langstroth and Berlepsch both saw queens lay at -the rate of six eggs a minute. - -The latter had a queen that laid three thousand and twenty-one eggs -in 24 hours, by actual count, and in 20 days she laid fifty-seven -thousand. This queen continued prolific for five years, and must have -laid, says the Baron, at a low estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs. -Dzierzon says queens may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these authors -have not exaggerated. Yet, with even these figures as an advertisement, -the queen bee cannot boast of superlative fecundity, as the queen -white-ant--an insect closely related to the bees in habits, though -not in structure, as the white-ants are lace-wings and belong to the -sub-order Neuroptera, which includes our day-flies, dragon-flies, -etc.--is known to lay over 80,000 eggs daily. Yet this poor helpless -thing, whose abdomen is the size of a man's thumb, and composed almost -wholly of eggs, while the rest of her body is not larger than the -same in our common ants, has no other amusement; she cannot walk; she -cannot even feed herself or care for her eggs. What wonder then that -she should attempt big things in the way of egg-laying? She has nothing -else to do, or to feel proud of. - -Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different breeds of -fowls. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly demand hives of -India rubber to accommodate them, keeping their hives gushing with -bees and profitable activity while others are so inferior, that the -colonies make a poor, sickly effort to survive at all, and usually -succumb early, before those adverse circumstances which are ever -waiting to confront all life on the globe. The activity of the queen, -too, is governed largely by the activity of the workers. The queen will -either lay sparingly, or stop altogether, in the interims of storing -honey, while, on the other hand, she is stimulated to lay to her utmost -capacity, when all is life and activity in the hive. - -It would seem that the queen either reasons from conditions, is taught -by instinct, or else that without her volition the general activity -of the worker-bees stimulates the ovaries, how, we know not, to grow -more eggs. We know that such a stimulus is born of desire, in case of -the high-holder, already referred to. That the queen may have control -of the activity of her ovaries, either directly or indirectly, through -reflex nervous action induced by the general excitement of the bees, -which always follows active storing, is not only possible, but quite -likely. - -The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and admired -sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined by obsequious -courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of loving caresses, -and whose will is law in this bee-hive kingdom, controlling all the -activities inside the hive, and leading the colony whithersoever they -may go, is unquestionably mere fiction. In the hive, as in the world, -individuals are valued for what they are worth. The queen, as the most -important individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal -or loss noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is -threatened; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is despatched -with the same absence of emotion that characterizes the destruction of -the drones when they have become supernumeraries. It is very doubtful -if emotion or sentimentality are ever moving forces among the lower -animals. There are probably certain natural principles that govern -in the economy of the hive, and aught that conspires against, or -tends to intercept the action of these principles, becomes an enemy -to the bees. All are interested, and doubtless more united than is -generally believed, in a desire to promote the free action of these -principles. No doubt the principle of antagonism among the various bees -has been overrated. Even, the drones, when they are being killed off -in the autumn, make a sickly show of defense, as much as to say, the -welfare of the colony demands that such worthless vagrants should be -exterminated; "so mote it be;" go ahead. The statement, too, that there -is often serious antagonism between the queen and workers, as to the -destruction or preservation of inchoate queens, yet in the cell, is a -matter which may well be investigated. It is most probable that what -tends most for the prosperity of the colony is well understood by all, -and without doubt there is harmonious action among all the denizens of -the hive, to foster that which will advance the general welfare, or to -make war on whatever may tend to interfere with it. If the course of -any of the bees seems wavering and inconsistent, we may rest assured -that circumstances have changed, and that could we perceive the bearing -of all the surrounding conditions, all would appear consistent and -harmonious. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. - -_Drone Bee, magnified._] - -THE DRONES. - -These are the male bees, and are generally found in the hive only -from May to November: though they may remain all winter, and are not -infrequently absent during the summer. Their presence or absence -depends on the present and prospective condition of the colony. If they -are needed, or likely to be needed, then they are present. There are -in nature several hundred in each colony. The number may and should -be greatly reduced by the apiarist. These (Fig. 17) are shorter than -the queen, being less than three-fourths of an inch in length, are -more robust and bulky than either the queen or workers, and are easily -recognized when flying by their loud, startling hum. As in other -societies, the least useful make the most noise. This loud hum is -caused by the less rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Their -flight is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers. Their -ligula, labial palpi, and maxillæ--like the same in the queen bee--are -short, while their jaws (Fig. 21, _a_) possess the rudimentary tooth, -and are much the same in form as those of the queen, but are heavier, -though not so strong as those of the workers. Their eyes (Fig. 4) -are very prominent, meet above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown -forward. Their posterior legs are convex on the outside (Fig. 18), so, -like the queens, they have no pollen baskets. The drones are without -the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special sex-organs -(Fig. 10) are not unlike those of other insects, and have already been -sufficiently described. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. - -_Part of Leg of Drone, magnified._ - - _t_--Tibia. - _p_--Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. - _t s_--Joints of Tarsus, - _c_--Claws. -] - -It was discovered by Dzierzon, in 1845, that the drones hatch from -unimpregnated eggs. This strange phenomenon, seemingly so incredible, -is as has been shown in speaking of the queen, easily proved and beyond -question. These eggs may come from an unimpregnated queen, a fertile -worker--which will soon be further described--or from an impregnated -queen, which may voluntarily prevent impregnation. Such eggs may be -placed in the larger horizontal cells (Fig. 28, _a_), in manner already -described. As stated by Bevan, the drone feeds six and a half days as -a larva, before the cell is capped. The capping of the drone-cells is -very convex, and projects beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, -so that the drone brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from -the darker color--the wax being thicker and less pure--the capping of -both drone and worker brood-cells enable us easily to distinguish them -from honey-cells. In twenty-four days from the laying of the egg, the -drones come forth from the cells. Of course variation of temperature, -and other conditions, as variable amount of diet, may slightly retard -or advance the development of any brood, in the different stages. The -drones--in fact all bees--when they first emerge from the cells, are -gray, soft, and appear generally unsophisticated. - -Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to state. It -is probable, judging from analogy, that they live till accident, the -worker bees, or the performance of their natural function causes their -death. The worker-bees are liable to kill off the drones, which they -do by constantly biting and worrying them. They may also destroy the -drone-brood. It is not very rare to see workers carrying out immature -drones even in mid-summer. At the same time, too, they may destroy -inchoate queens. Such action is prompted by a sudden check in the -yield of honey, and with the drones is most common at the close of -the season. The bees seem very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs -of the times presage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to -the increase of colonies. On the other hand, unlimited honey, rapid -increase of brood, crowded quarters--whatever the age of the queen--is -sure to bring many of the male bees. While any circumstances that -indicate a future need of drones will prevent their destruction even in -late autumn. - -The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the queen, though -when present they may add animal heat. That their nutrition is active, -is suggested by the fact, that upon dissection, we always find their -capacious stomachs filled with honey. - -Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before stated, while -on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the heat of warm sunshiny -days. After mating, the drone organs adhere to the queen, and may be -seen hanging to her for some hours. The copulatory act is fatal to the -drones. By holding a drone in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs -is often produced, and always followed by immediate death. As the -queen only meets a single drone, and that only once, it might be asked -why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds of drones to an -apiary or colony, whereas a score would suffice as well. Nature takes -cognizance of the importance of the queen, and as she goes forth amidst -the myriad dangers of the outer world, it is safest and best that her -stay abroad be not protracted; that the experience be not repeated, -and especially, that her meeting a drone be _not delayed_. Hence the -superabundance of drones--especially under natural conditions, isolated -in forest homes, where ravenous birds are ever on the alert for insect -game--is most wise and provident. Nature is never "penny wise and pound -foolish." In our apiaries the need is wanting, and the condition, as it -exists in nature, is not enforced. - -The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production of the drones, -has led to the theory that from a pure queen, however mated, must ever -come a pure drone. My own experience and observation, which I believe -are those of all apiarists, has confirmed this theory. Yet, if the -impure mating of our cows, horses, and fowls, renders the females of -mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and taught by many who would -seem most competent to judge--though I must say I am somewhat skeptical -in the matter--then we must look closely as to our bees, for certainly, -if a mammal, and especially a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then -we may expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it -exists, must come simply from the presence in the female generative -organs of the germ-cells, or spermatozoa, and in mammals, too, there -is little more than this, for though they are viviparous, so that the -union and contact of the offspring and mother seems very intimate, -during fœtal development, yet there is no intermingling of the blood, -for a membrane ever separates that of the mother from that of the -fœtus, and only the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the -other. To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation, -is like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling the -breath of her progeny after birth. I can only say, that I believe this -whole matter is still involved in doubt, and still needs more careful, -scientific and prolonged observation. - -THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES. - -These, called "the bees," by Aristotle, and even by Wildman and Bevan, -are by far the most numerous individuals of the hive--there being from -15,000 to 40,000 in every good colony. It is possible for a colony to -be even much more populous than this. These are also the smallest bees -of the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an inch -in length (Fig. 19). - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. - -_Worker-Bee, magnified._] - -The workers--as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle. Jurine, of -Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, sought for and -found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive ovaries--are undeveloped -females. Rarely, and probably very rarely, except that a colony is long -or often queenless, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are -so far developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always -be drone eggs. Such workers--known as fertile--were first noticed by -Riem, while Huber actually saw one in the act of egg-laying. Except -in the power to produce eggs, they seem not unlike the other workers. -Huber supposed that these were reared in cells contiguous to royal -cells, and thus received royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by -Mr. Quinby, that these occur in colonies where queen-larvæ were never -reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch thought -that these bees, while larvæ, were fed, though too sparingly, with the -royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and hence the accelerated -development. Such may be the true explanation. Yet if, as some -apiarists aver, these appear where no brood has been fed, and so must -be common workers, changed after leaving the cell, as the result of a -felt need, then we must conclude that development and growth--as with -the high-holder--spring from desire. The generative organs are very -sensitive, and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, and we may yet -have much to learn as to the delicate forces which will move them to -growth and activity. Though these fertile workers are a poor substitute -for a queen, as they are incapable of producing any but drones, and are -surely the harbingers of death and extinction to the colony, yet they -seem to satisfy the workers, for they will not brook the presence of a -queen when a fertile worker is in the hive, nor will they suffer the -existence in the hive of a queen-cell, even though capped. They seem -to be satisfied, though they have very slight reason to be so. These -fertile workers lay indifferently in large or small cells--often place -several eggs in a single cell, and show their incapacity in various -ways. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20. - -_Tongue of a Worker-Bee, much magnified._] - - _a_--Ligula. _c, c_--Maxillæ. - _b, b_--Labial palpi. _d_--Paraglossæ. - -[The average length of a black worker's tongue, as compared with this -from an Italian, would be from base to _a_.] - -The workers, as might be surmised by the importance and variety of -their functions, are structurally very peculiar Their tongues (Fig. 20, -_a_), labial palpi (Fig. 20, _b, b_), and maxillæ (Fig. 20, _c, c_), -are very much elongated, while the former is very hairy, and doubles -under the throat when not in use. The length of the ligula enables them -to reach into flowers with long tubes, and by aid of the hairs they lap -up the nectar. When the tongue is big with its adhering load of sweet, -it is doubled back, enclosed by the labial palpi and maxillæ, and then -extended, thus losing its load of nectar, which at the same time is -sucked into the large honey-stomach. The bees, at will, can force the -honey back from the honey-stomach, when it is stored in the honey-cells -or given to the other bees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21. - - _a_--Jaw of drone. - _b_--Jaw of queen. - _c_--Jaw of worker. -] - -The jaws (Fig. 21, _c_) are very strong, without the rudimentary tooth, -while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when the jaws are -closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these are well formed to cut -comb, knead wax, and perform their various functions. Their eyes (Fig. -5) are like those of the queen, while their wings, like those of the -drones, attain the end of the body. These organs (Fig. 3), as in all -insects with rapid flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or -less rapid vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes -their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high pitch of anger, -and the slow motion and mellow note of content and joy. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22. - -_Part of Posterior Leg of Worker, outside, much magnified._ - - _t_--Tibia. - _b_--Rim of hairs. - _p_--Pollen basket. - _t s_--Joint of tarsi, - _c_--Claws. -] - -On the outside of the posterior tibia and basal tarsus is a cavity, -made more deep by its rim of hairs, known as the pollen basket (Fig. -22, _p_). In these pollen baskets is compacted the pollen, which is -gathered by the mouth organs, and carried back by the four anterior -legs. Opposite the pollen baskets are regular rows of golden hairs -(Fig. 23, _e_), which probably aid in storing and compacting the pollen -balls. - -On the anterior legs of the workers, between the femur and tibia, is a -curious notch (Fig. 24, _C_), covered by a spur (Fig. 24, _B_). For -several years this has caused speculation among my students, and has -attracted the attention of observing apiarists. Some have supposed that -it aided bees in reaching deeper down into tubular flowers, others that -it was used in scraping off pollen, and still others that it enabled -bees to hold on when clustering. The first two functions may belong to -this, though other honey and pollen-gathering bees do not possess it. -The latter function is performed by the claws at the end of the tarsi. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. - -_Part of Worker's Posterior Leg, inside, much magnified._ - - _e_--Rows of hairs. - _t_--Tibia. - _c_--Claws. -] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. - -_Anterior Leg of Worker, magnified._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 25. - -_Worker's Sting, magnified._ - - _a_--Tube. - _b b_--Barbed spears drawn out of tube and turned back, - _c_--Poison sack. - _d_--Muscles. -] - -The workers, too, possess an organ of defense (Fig. 25), which they -are quick to use if occasion requires. This is not curved as in the -queen, but straight. The gland which secretes the poison is double, -and the sack (Fig. 25, _c_), in which it is stored, is as large as -a flax-seed. The sting proper, is a triple organ, consisting of -three sharp spears, very smooth and of exquisite polish. The most -highly-wrought steel instruments, under a high magnifier, look rough -and unfinished, while the parts of the sting show no such inequalities. -One of these spears (Fig. 25, _a_) is canaliculate--that is, it forms -an imperfect tube--and in this canal work the other two (Fig. 25, _b, -b_), which fill the vacant space, and thus the three make a complete -tube, and through this tube, which connects with the poison sack, -passes the poison. The slender spears which work in the tube are -marvelously sharp, and project beyond it when used, and are worked -alternately by small but powerful muscles (Fig. 25, _d_), so they may -pass through buckskin, or even the thick scarf-skin of the hand. These -are also barbed at the end with teeth, seven of which are prominent, -which extend out and back like the barb of a fish-hook. Hence the -sting cannot be withdrawn, if it penetrates any firm substance, and -so when used, it is drawn from the bee, and carries with it a portion -of the alimentary canal, thus costing the poor bee its life. Darwin -suggests that bees and wasps were developed from the saw-flies, and -that the barbs on the sting are the old-time saws, transformed into the -spear-like barbs. He does not explain why these are so much shorter -and more obscure in the queen, and in other bees and wasps. The -honey-stomach or crop in the workers (Fig. 9, _o_) is well developed, -though no larger than those in the drones. Whether it is more complex -in structure, I do not know. - -The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can only come from a -queen that has met a drone, and is always laid in the small, horizontal -cell. These eggs are in no wise different, so far as we can see, from -those which are laid in the drone or queen-cells. All are cylindrical -and slightly curved (Fig. 26, _b, c_) and are fastened by one end to -the bottom of the cell, and a little to one side of the centre. As -already shown, these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen as she -extrudes them, preparatory to fastening them in the cells. These eggs, -though so small--one-sixteenth of an inch long--may be easily seen by -holding the comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With -experience, they are detected almost at once, but I have often found -it quite difficult to make the novice see them, though very plainly -visible to my experienced eye. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26. - -_Egg and Brood._ - - _b_ and _c_--Eggs. - _d, e, f_ and _g_--Various sizes of larvæ. - _h_--Pupa. - _i_--Pupa of queen, in queen-cell. - _k, k_--Caps. -] - -The egg hatches in three days. The larva (Fig. 26, _d, e, f, g_), -incorrectly called grub, maggot--and even caterpillar, by Hunter--is -white, footless, and lies coiled up in the cell till near maturity. It -is fed a whitish fluid, though this seems to be given grudgingly, as -it never seems to have more than it wishes to eat, so it is fed quite -frequently by the mature workers. It would seem that the workers fear -an excessive development, which, as we have seen, is most mischievous -and ruinous, and work to prevent the same, by a mean and meager diet. -The food is composed of pollen and honey. Certainly of pollen, for, -as I have repeatedly proved, without pollen, no brood will be reared. -Probably some honey is incorporated, as sugar is an essential in the -nutrition of all animals, and we could hardly account for the excessive -amount of honey consumed, while breeding, by the extra amount consumed -by the bees, consequent upon the added exercise required in caring -for the brood. M. Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say water is also an -element of this food. But bees often breed very rapidly when they do -not leave the hive at all, and so water, other than that contained in -the honey, etc., cannot be added. This makes it a question if water is -ever added. The time when bees seem to need water, and so repair to the -rill and the pond, is during the heat of summer, when they are most -busy. May this not be quaffed to slake their own thirst? - -In six days the cell is capped over by the worker-bees. This cap is -composed of pollen and wax, so it is darker, more porous, and more -easily broken than the caps of the honey-cells; it is also more convex -(Fig. 26, _k_). The larva, now full grown, having lapped up all the -food placed before it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so -excessively thin that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce -the size of the cells. These always remain in the cell, after the -bees, escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength. -Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen years, seem to -serve as well for brood as when first used. In three days the insect -assumes the pupa state (Fig. 26, _h_). In all insects the spinning of -the cocoon seems an exhaustive process, for so far as I have observed, -and that is quite at length, this act is succeeded by a variable period -of repose. The pupa is also called a nymph. By cutting open cells it is -easy to determine just the date of forming the cocoon, and of changing -to the pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature bee with all its -appendages bound close about it, though the color is still whitish: - -In twenty-one days the bee emerges from the cell. The old writers were -quite mistaken in thinking that the advent of these was an occasion -of joy and excitement among the bees. All apiarists have noticed how -utterly unmoved the bees are, as they push over and crowd by these -new-comers in the most heedless and discourteous manner imaginable. -Wildman tells of seeing the workers gathering pollen and honey the same -day that they came forth from the cells. This idea is quickly disproved -if we Italianize black-bees. We know that for some days these young -bees do not leave the hive at all, except in case of swarming, when -bees even too young to fly will essay to go with the crowd. These -young bees, like the young drones and queens, are much lighter for the -first few days. - -The worker-bees never attain a great age. Those reared in autumn may -live for eight or nine months, and if in queenless stocks, where little -labor is performed, even longer; while those reared in spring will wear -out in three, and when most busy, will often die in from thirty to -forty-five days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there -is a limit to the number which may exist in a colony. As a good queen -will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand eggs daily, and as -the workers live from one to three months, it might seem that forty -thousand was too small a figure for the number of workers. Without -doubt a greater number is possible. That it is rare is not surprising, -when we remember the numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever -attend the individuals of these populous communities. - -The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual labor of the -hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in small pellets (Fig. 27, -_a, a_) under the over-lapping rings under the abdomen. I have found -these wax-scales on both old and young. According to Fritz Müller, the -admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South America, the -bees of the genus melipona secrete the wax on the back. - -The young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larvæ and -cap the cells. The older bees--for, as readily seen in Italianizing, -the young bees do not go forth for the first one or two weeks--gather -the honey, collect the pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called, -bring in the propolis or bee glue, which is used to close openings, and -as a cement, supply the hive with water(?), defend the hive from all -improper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is past, -kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy inchoate -queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances demand it, and lead -forth a portion of the bees when the conditions impel them to swarm. - -When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as house-keepers -and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. The young bees, on the -other hand, will not go forth to glean, even though there be no old -bees to do this necessary part of bee-duties. An indirect function of -all the bees is to supply animal heat, as the very life of the bees -require that the temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate -considerably above freezing. In the chemical processes attendant upon -nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown by Newport, -may be considerably augmented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced -respiration. The bees, too, by a rapid vibration of their wings, have -the power to ventilate their hives, and thus reduce the temperature, -when the weather is hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and -temper the cold of winter. - -[Illustration: _Under Surface of Bee, showing Wax between Segments._] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -SWARMING OR NATURAL METHOD OF INCREASE. - - -The natural method by which an increase of colonies among bees is -secured, is of great interest, and though it has been closely observed, -and assiduously studied for a long period, and has given rise to -theories as often absurd as sound, yet, even now, it is a fertile -field for investigation, and will repay any who may come with the true -spirit of inquiry, for there is much concerning it which is involved -in mystery. Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why is the swarming -spirit so excessive at times and so restrained at other seasons? These -and other questions we are too apt to refer to erratic tendencies of -the bees, when there is no question but that they follow naturally upon -certain conditions, perhaps intricate and obscure, which it is the -province of the investigator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold -the principles which govern these, as all other actions of the bees? - -In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become populous, and -storing very active, the queen, as if conscious that a home could -be overcrowded, and foreseeing such danger, commences to deposit -drone-eggs in drone-cells, which the worker-bees, perhaps moved by -like considerations, begin to construct, if they are not already in -existence. In fact, drone comb is almost sure of construction at such -times. No sooner is the drone brood well under way, than the large, -awkward, queen-cells are commenced, often to the number of ten or -fifteen, though there may be not more than three or four. In these, -eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, and soon, often before -the cells are even capped--and _very rarely_ before a cell is built, if -the bees are crowded, the hives unshaded, the ventilation insufficient, -or the honey-yield very bountiful--some bright day, usually about ten -o'clock, after an unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, -a large part of the worker-bees--being off duty for the day, and -having previously loaded their honey-sacks--rush forth from the hive -as if alarmed by the cry of fire, the queen among the number, though -she is by no means among the first, and frequently is quite late in -her exit. The bees, thus started on their quest for a new home, after -many uproarious gyrations about the old one, dart forth to alight upon -some bush, limb, or fence, though in one case I have known the first -swarm of bees to leave at once, for parts unknown, without even waiting -to cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one to three -hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and leave for their -new home, which they have probably already sought out. - -Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the hive, while -others claim that scouts are in search of one while the bees are -clustered. The fact that bees take a right-line to their new home, -and fly too rapidly to look as they go, would argue that a home is -preêmpted, at least, before the cluster is dissolved. The fact that -the cluster remains sometimes for hours--even over night--and at other -times for a brief period, would lead us to infer that the bees cluster, -in waiting for a new home to be found. Yet, why do bees sometimes -alight after flying a long distance, as did a first swarm the past -season, upon our College grounds? Was their journey long, so that they -must needs stop to rest, or were they flying at random, not knowing -whither they were going? - -If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees, and perhaps -rarely, when she is among them, they will, after having clustered, -return to their old home. The youngest bees will remain in the old -hive, to which those bees, if there are any such, which are abroad -in quest of stores will return. The presence of young bees on the -ground--those with flight too feeble to join the rovers--will always -mark the previous home of the emigrants. Soon, in seven or eight days, -perhaps rarely a little later, the first queen will come forth from her -cell, and in two or three days she will or may lead a new colony forth, -but before she does this, the peculiar note, known as the piping of the -queen, may be heard. This piping sounds like peep, peep, is shrill and -clear, and can be plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor -would it be mistaken. It is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made by -a queen still within the cell. - -Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen was that of -hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned was either of enmity or -fear. Never will an after-swarm leave, unless preceded by this peculiar -note. - -At successive periods of one or two days, one, two, or even three more -colonies may issue from the old home. These last swarms will all be -heralded by the piping of the queen. They will be less particular as -to the time of day when they issue, as they have been known to leave -before sun-rise, and even after sun-set. The well-known apiarist, Mr. -A. F. Moon, once knew a swarm to issue by moon-light. They will, too, -as a rule, cluster farther from the hive. The after swarms are preceded -by the queen, and in case swarming is delayed, may be attended by a -plurality of queens. Berlepsch and Langstroth both saw eight queens -issue with a swarm, while, others report even more. These virgin queens -fly very rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active and definite in -their course than will first swarms. - -The cutting short of swarming preparations before the second, third, or -even the first swarm issues, is by no means a rare occurrence. This is -effected by the bees' destroying the queen-cells, and sometimes by a -general extermination of the drones, and is generally to be explained -by a cessation of the honey yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily -recognized, as they are torn open from the side, and not cut back from -the end. - -Swarming out at other times, especially in late winter and spring, is -sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is due to famine, mice, or some -other disturbing circumstance, which makes the hive intolerable to the -bees. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND FUNCTION. - - -Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the useful -products which they give us; and next to the silk-moths in the -importance of these products. They seem the more remarkable and -important, in that so few insects yield articles of commercial value. -True, the cochineal insect, a species of bark-louse, gives us an -important coloring material; the lac insect, of the same family, gives -us the important element of our best glue--shellac; the blister-beetles -afford an article prized by the physician, while we are indebted to -one of the gall-flies for a valuable element of ink But the honey-bee -affords not only a delicious article of food, but also another article -of no mean commercial rank--namely, wax. We will proceed to examine the -various products which come from bees. - - -HONEY. - -Of course the first product of bees, not only to attract attention, but -also in importance, is honey. And what is honey? We can only say that -it is a sweet substance gathered from flowers and other sources, by the -bees. We cannot, therefore, give its chemical composition, which would -be as varied as the sources from which it comes. We cannot even call -it a sugar, for it may be, and always is composed of various sugars, -and thus it is easy to understand why honey varies so much in richness, -color, flavor, and effects on digestion. In fact, it is very doubtful -if honey is a manufactured article at all. It seems most likely -that the bees only collect it as it is distilled by myriad leaves -and flowers, and store it up, that it may minister to their and our -necessities. To be sure, some writers contend that it undergoes some -change while in the bee's stomach; but the rapidity with which they -store, and the seeming entire similarity between honey and sugar fed -to them, and the same immediately extracted from the comb, has led me -to believe that the transforming power of the stomach is very slight, -if, indeed, it exists at all. To be sure, I have fed sugar, giving bees -empty combs at night-fall, and found the flavor of honey early the -next morning. In this case, honey might have been already in the bees' -stomachs, or might have been carried from other portions of the hive. -The method of collecting the honey has already been described. The -principles of lapping and suction are both involved in the operation. - -When the stomach is full, the bee repairs to the hive, and regurgitates -its precious load, either giving it to the bees or storing it in the -cells. Mr. Doolittle claims that the bees that gather, give all their -honey to the other bees, which latter store it in the cells. This honey -remains for some time uncapped that it may ripen, by which process the -water is partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker. If the -honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, it will generally -granulate, if the temperature be reduced below 70°. This is probably -owing to the presence of the cane-sugar, and is a good indication, as -it denotes superior quality. Some honey, as that from the South, and -some from California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some kinds -of our own honey crystallize much more readily than others. But that -granulation is a test that honey is pure, is untrue; that it is a sign -of superior excellence, I think quite probable. - -When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no sweets, the -bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently essay to rob -other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider mills, or suck -up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark lice, thus adding, may -be, unwholesome food to their usually delicious and refined stores. -It is a curious fact that the queen never lays her maximum number of -eggs except when storing is going on. In fact, in the interims of -honey-gathering, egg-laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The -queen seems discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable -means of support. - -Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey, the storing is so -rapid that the hive becomes so filled that the queen is unable to -lay her full quota of eggs; in fact, I have seen the brood very much -reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly depleted the colony. -This might be called ruinous prosperity. The natural use of the honey -is to furnish the mature bees with food, and when mixed with pollen, to -form the diet of the young bees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27. - -_Under-side Abdomen, magnified._ - - _a, a, etc._--Wax pellets. - -_Wax-Scales in situ, magnified._ - - _w_--Wax-scale. -] - - -WAX. - -The product of the bees, second in importance, is wax. This is a solid, -unctious substance, and is, as shown by its chemical composition, a -fat-like material, though not as some authors assert, the fat of bees. -As already observed, this is a secretion formed in pellets, the shape -of an irregular pentagon (Fig. 27, _w_), underneath the abdomen. These -pellets are light-colored, very thin and fragile, and are secreted by -and molded upon the membrane towards the body from the wax-pockets. -Neighbour speaks of the wax oozing through pores from the stomach. This -is not the case, but, as with the synovial fluid about our own joints, -is formed by the secreting membrane, and does not pass through holes, -as water through a sieve. There are four of these wax-pockets on each -side, and thus there may be eight wax-scales on a bee at one time. This -wax can be secreted by the bees, when fed on pure sugar, as shown by -Huber, which experiment I have verified. I removed all honey and comb -from my observing-hive, left the bees for twenty-four hours to digest -all food which might be in their stomachs, then fed pure sugar, which -was better than honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that -not only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected right -from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The bees commenced -at once to build comb, and continued for several days, so long as I -kept them confined. This is, as we should suppose; sugar contains -hydrogen and oxygen in proportion to form water, while the third -element, carbon, is in the same or about the same proportion as the -oxygen. Now, the fats usually contain little oxygen, and a good deal -of carbon and hydrogen. Thus, the sugar by losing some of its oxygen -would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was found true in the -days of slavery in the South, that the negroes of Louisiana, during the -gathering of the cane, would become very fat. They ate much sugar; they -gained much fat. Now, wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the -animal fat of bees, as often asserted--in fact it contains much less -hydrogen, as will be seen by the following formula from Hess: - - Oxygen 7.50 - Carbon 79.30 - Hydrogen 13.20 - ---but it is a special secretion for a special purpose, and from its -composition, we should conclude that it might be secreted from a purely -saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the conclusion. It has been -found that bees require about twenty pounds of honey to secrete one of -wax. - -That nitrogenous food is necessary, as claimed by Langstroth and -Neighbour, is not true. Yet, in the active season, when muscular -exertion is great, nitrogenous food must be imperatively necessary to -supply the waste, and give tone to the body. Some may be desirable even -in the quiet of winter. Now, as secretion of wax demands a healthy -condition of the bee, it indirectly requires some nitrogenous food. - -It is asserted, that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in compact -clusters or festoons, in absolute repose. Such quiet would certainly -seem conducive to most active secretion. The same food could not go -to form wax, and at the same time supply the waste of tissue which -ever follows upon muscular activity. The cow, put to hard toil, could -not give so much milk. But I find, upon examination, that the bees, -even the most aged, while gathering in the honey season, yield up -the wax-scales, the same as those within the hive. During the active -storing of the past season, especially when comb-building was in -rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee taken from the flowers -contained the wax-scales of varying sizes in the wax-pockets. By the -activity of the bees, these are not infrequently loosed from their -position, and fall to the bottom of the hive. - -It is probable that wax secretion is not forced upon the bees, but -only takes place as required. So the bees, unless wax is demanded, may -perform other duties. Whether this secretion is a matter of the bee's -will, or whether it is excited by the surrounding conditions without -any thought, are questions yet to be settled. - -These wax-scales are loosened by the claws, and carried to the mouth -by the anterior legs, where they are mixed with saliva, and after the -proper kneading by the jaws, in which process it assumes a bright -yellow hue--but loses none of its translucency--it is formed into that -wonderful and exquisite structure, the comb. - -Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the wall of a new cell being only -about 1-180 of an inch in thickness, and so formed as to combine the -greatest strength with the least expense of material and room. It has -been a subject of admiration since the earliest time. That the form is -a matter of necessity, as some claim--the result of pressure--and not -of bee-skill, is not true. The hexagonal form is assumed at the very -start of the cells, when there can be no pressure. The wasp builds the -same form, though unaided. The assertion that the cells, even the drone -and worker-cells, are absolutely uniform and perfect, is also untrue, -as a little inspection will convince any one. The late Prof. Wyman -proved that an exact hexagonal cell does not exist. He showed that the -size varies; so that in a distance of ten worker-cells, there may be a -variation of one diameter. And this in natural, not distorted cells. -This variation of one-fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but a -variation of one-tenth of an inch is common. The sides, as also the -angles, are not constant. The rhombic faces forming the bases of the -cells also vary. - -The bees change from worker (Fig. 28, _c_) to drone-cells (Fig. 28, -_a_), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not by any system -(Fig. 28, _b_), but simply by enlarging or contracting. It usually -takes about four rows to complete the transformation, though the number -of deformed cells varies from two to eight. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28. - -_Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases, and Gross-sections of Cells illustrated._ - -_Honey-Comb._ - - _a_--Drone-cells, - _b_--Deformed cells. - _c_--Worker-cells. - _d d_--Queen-cells. -] - -The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of interest. -The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 28, _e_) whose three faces are -rhombs, and whose apex forms the very centre of the floor of the cell. -From the six free or non-adjacent edges of the three rhombs extend the -lateral walls or faces of the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is -a point where the contiguous faces of three cells on the opposite side -meet, and form the angles of the bases of three cells on the opposite -side of the comb. Thus, the base of each cell forms one-third of the -base of each of three opposite cells. One side thus braces the other, -and adds much to the strength of the comb. Each cell, then, is in form -of a hexagonal prism, terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid. - -The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry forward -several cells on each side of each comb, constantly adding to the -number, by additions to the edge. Huber first observed the process of -comb-building, noticing the bees abstract the wax-scales, carry them -to the mouth, add the frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the -yellow ribbons which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to -the comb already commenced. - -The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 28, _c_) averages little more -than one-fifth of an inch--Réaumur says two and three-fifths lines or -twelfths of an inch. While the drone-cells (Fig. 28, _a_) are a little -more than one-fourth of an inch, or, according to Réaumur, three and -one-third lines. But this distinguished author was quite wrong when he -said: "These are the invariable dimensions of all cells that ever were -or ever will be made." The depth of the worker-cells is a little less -than half an inch; the drone-cells are slightly extended so as to be -a little more than half an inch deep. These cells are often drawn out -so as to be an inch long, when used solely as honey receptacles. The -capping of the brood-cells is dark, porous, and convex, while that of -the honey is white and concave. - -The character of the cells, as to size, that is whether they are drone -or worker, seems to be determined by the relative abundance of bees -and honey. If the bees are abundant and honey needed, or if there is -no queen to lay eggs, drone-comb (Fig. 28, _a_) is invariably built, -while if there are few bees, and of course little honey needed, then -worker-comb (Fig. 28, _c_) is almost as invariably formed. - -All comb when first formed is clear and transparent. The fact that -it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been long used as -brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the innumerable thin cocoons -which line the cells. These may be separated by dissolving the wax; -which may be done by putting it in boiling alcohol. Such comb need -not be discarded, for if composed of worker-cells, it is still very -valuable for breeding purposes, and should not be destroyed till the -cells are too small for longer service, which, will not occur till -after many years of use. The function, then, of the wax, is to make -comb, and caps for the honey-cells, and, combined with pollen, to form -queen-cells (Fig. 28, _d_) and caps for the brood-cells. (See Appendix, -page 301). - - -POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD. - -An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees tied little -pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This fanciful conjecture -probably arose from seeing the pollen balls on the bees' legs. - -Even such scientists as Réaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam, and many apiarists -of the last century, thought they saw in these pollen-balls the source -of wax. But Huber, John Hunter, Duchet, Wildman, and others, noticed -the presence and function of the wax-pellets already described, and -were aware that the pollen served a different purpose. - -This substance, like honey, is not secreted, nor manufactured by the -bees, only collected. The bees usually obtain it from the stamens of -flowers. But if they gain access to flour when there is no bloom, they -will take this in lieu of pollen, in which case the former term used -above becomes a misnomer, though usually the bee-bread consists almost -wholly of pollen. - -As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen-baskets -(Fig. 22, _p_) of the posterior legs, to which it is conveyed by the -other legs, and compressed into little oval masses. The motions in this -conveyance are exceedingly rapid. The bees not infrequently come to the -hives, not only with replete pollen-baskets, but with their whole under -surface thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also show that the same bee -may have her sucking stomach distended with honey. Thus the bees make -the most of their opportunities. It is a curious fact, noticed even -by Aristotle, that the bees, during any trip, gather only a single -kind of pollen, or only gather from one species of bloom. Hence, while -different bees may have different colors of pollen, the pellets of -bee-bread on any single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is -possible that the material is more easily collected and compacted when -homogeneous. - -The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker cells, and is -unloaded by a scraping motion of the posterior legs, the pollen baskets -being first lowered into the cells. The bee thus freed, leaves the -wheat-like masses thus deposited to be packed by other bees. The cells, -which may or may not have the same color of pollen throughout, are -never filled quite to the top, and not infrequently the same cell may -contain both pollen and honey. Such a condition is easily ascertained -by holding the comb between the eye and the sun. If there is no -pollen it will be wholly translucent; otherwise there will be opaque -patches. A little experience will make this determination easy, even -if the comb is old. It is often stated that queenless colonies gather -no pollen, but this is not true, though very likely they gather less -than they otherwise would. It is probable that pollen, at least when -honey is added, contains all the essential elements of animal food. It -certainly contains the very important principle, which is not found in -honey--nitrogenous material. - -The function of bee-bread is to help furnish the brood with proper -food. In fact, brood-rearing would be impossible without it. And though -it is certainly not essential to the nourishment of the bees when in -repose, it still may be so, and unquestionably is, in time of active -labor. - - -PROPOLIS. - -This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the bees collect -pollen, and not made nor secreted. It is the product of various -resinous buds, and may be seen to glisten on the opening buds of the -hickory and horse-chestnut, where it frequently serves the entomologist -by capturing small insects. From such sources, from the oozing gum of -various trees, from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about -unused hives, that have previously seen service, do the bees secure -their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to collect -their glue from the varnish, led to the custom of rapping on the hives -to inform the bees, in case of a death in the family, that they might -join as mourners. This custom still prevails, as I understand, in some -parts of the South. This substance has great adhesive force, and -though soft and pliable when warm, becomes very hard and unyielding -when cold. - -The use of this substance is to cement the combs to their supports, -to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up all crevices -except the place of exit, which they often contract, and even to -cover any foreign substance that cannot be removed. Intruding snails -have thus been imprisoned inside the hive. Réaumur found a snail thus -encased; Maraldi, a slug similarly entombed; while I have myself -observed a bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of wings, hair, -etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also encased in this unique -style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by the bees. - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY. - -For those who wish to pursue these interesting subjects more at length, -I would recommend the following authors as specially desirable: Kirby -and Spence, Introduction to Entomology; Duncan's Transformations of -Insects; Packard's Guide to the Study of Insects (American); F. Huber's -New Observations on the Natural History of Bees; Bevan on the Honey -Bee; Langstroth on the Honey Bee (American); Neighbour on The Apiary. - -I have often been asked to recommend such treatises, and I heartily -commend all of the above. The first and fourth are now out of print, -but can be had by leaving orders at second-hand book-stores. - - - - - PART SECOND. - - THE APIARY; - - Its Care and Management. - - _Motto:--"Keep all Colonies Strong!"_ - - - - - INTRODUCTION TO PART II. - - -STARTING AN APIARY. - -In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important to make a -good beginning. This demands preparation on the part of the apiarist, -procuring of bees, and location of his apiary. - - -PREPARATION. - -Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper should -inform himself in the art. - - -READ A GOOD MANUAL. - -To do this, he should procure some good manual, and thoroughly study, -especially the practical part of the business; and if accustomed to -read, think and study, should carefully read the whole work. Otherwise, -he will avoid confusion by only studying the methods of practice, -leaving the principles and science, to strengthen, and be strengthened -by, his experience. Unless a student, he had better not take a journal -till he begins the actual work, as so much unclassified information, -without any experience to correct, arrange, and select, will but -mystify. For the same reason, he may well be content with reading a -single work, till experience, and a thorough study of this one, makes -him more able to discriminate; and the same reasoning will preclude his -taking more than one bee-periodical, until he has had at least a year's -actual experience. - - -VISIT SOME APIARIST. - -In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in visiting -the nearest successful and intelligent apiarist. If successful, such an -one will have a reputation; if intelligent, he will take the journals, -and will show by his conversation that he knows of the methods and -views of his brother apiarists, and above all, he will not think he -knows it all, and that his is the only way to success. Learn all you -can of such, an one, but always let your own judgment and common sense -sit as umpire, that you make no plans or decisions that your judgment -does not fully sustain. - - -TAKE A COLLEGE COURSE. - -It will be _most wise_ to take a course in some College, if this is -practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly discussed. Here you will -not only get the best training as to your chosen business, as you will -study, see and handle, and thus will have the very best aids to decide -as to methods, system and apparatus, but will also receive that general -culture, which will greatly enhance life's pleasures and usefulness, -and which ever proves the best capital in any vocation. - - -DECIDE ON A PLAN. - -After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to decide -as to location, hives, style of honey to raise, and general system -of management. But here, as in all the arts, all our work should be -preceded by a well-digested plan of operations. As with the farmer and -gardener, only he who works to a plan can hope for the best success. -Of course, such plans will vary, as we grow in wisdom and experience. -A good maxim to govern all plans is, "go slow." A good rule, which -will insure the above, "Pay as you go." Make the apiary pay for all -improvements in advance. Demand that each year's credits exceed its -debits; and that you may surely accomplish this, keep an accurate -account of all your receipts and expenses. This will be a great aid in -arranging the plans for each successive year's operations. - -Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping changes. "Prove -all things, and hold fast that which is good." - - -HOW TO PROCURE OUR FIRST COLONIES. - -To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, it is always best -to get them near at hand. We thus avoid the shock of transportation, -can see the bees before we purchase, and in case there is any seeming -mistake, can easily gain a personal explanation, and secure a speedy -adjustment of any real wrong. - - -KIND OF BEES TO PURCHASE. - -At the same price always take Italians, as undoutedly they are best. If -black bees can be secured for three, or even for two dollars less per -colony, by all means take them, as they can be Italianized at a profit -for the difference in cost, and, in the operation, the young apiarist -will gain valuable experience. - -Our motto, too, will demand that we only purchase strong colonies. If, -as recommended, the purchaser sees the colonies before the bargain is -closed, it will be easy to know that the colonies are strong. If the -bees, as they come rushing out, remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or -bring to mind the gush and rush at the nozzle of the fireman's hose, -then buy. In the hives of such colonies, all combs will be covered with -bees, and in the honey season, brood will be abundant. - - -IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES. - -As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the style of -hive to be used. Now, if bees can be procured in such hives, they will -be worth just as much more than though in any other hive, as it costs -to make the hive and transfer the bees. This will be certainly as much -as three dollars. _No apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment, -two styles of hives in his apiary._ Therefore, unless you find bees -in such hives as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in box -hives and transfer (see Chapter VII.) to your own hives, as such bees -can always be bought at reduced rates. In case the person from whom -you purchase will take the hives back at a fair rate, after you have -transferred the bees to your own hives, then purchase in any style of -movable comb hive, as it is easier to transfer from a movable comb -hive, than from a box hive. - - -WHEN TO PURCHASE. - -It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April or May--of -course you only purchase strong stocks--if in the latitude of New York -or Chicago--it will be earlier further south--you can afford to pay -more, as you will secure the increase both of honey and bees. If you -desire to purchase in autumn, that you may gain by the experience of -wintering, either demand that the one of whom you purchase insure the -safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce the selling price, -at least one-third, from his rates the next April. Otherwise the novice -had better wait and purchase in spring. If you are to transfer at once, -it is almost imperative that you buy in spring, as it is vexatious, -especially for the novice, to transfer when the hives are crowded with -brood and honey. - - -HOW MUCH TO PAY. - -Of course the market, which will ever be governed by supply and demand, -must guide you. But to aid you, I will append what at present would be -a reasonable schedule of prices almost anywhere in the United States: -For box hives, crowded with black bees--Italians would rarely be found -in such hives--five dollars per colony is a fair price. For black bees -in hives such as you desire to use, eight dollars would be reasonable. -For pure Italians in such hives, ten dollars is not too much. - -If the person of whom you purchase, will take back the movable hives -after you transfer the bees, you can afford to pay five dollars for -black bees, and seven dollars for pure Italians. If you purchase in the -fall, require 33⅓ per cent, discount on these rates. - - -WHERE TO LOCATE. - -If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be fixed by your -principal business or profession. And here I may state, that if we may -judge from reports which come from nearly every section of the United -States, from Maine to Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly -go amiss anywhere in our goodly land. - -If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select first with -reference to society and climate, after which it will be well to secure -a succession of natural honey-plants (Chap. XVI.), by virtue of your -locality. It will also be well to look for reasonable prospects of a -good home market, as good home markets are, and must ever be, the most -desirable. It will be desirable, too, that your neighborhood is not -overstocked with bees. It is a well-established fact, that apiarists -with few colonies receive relatively larger profits than those with -large apiaries. While this may be owing in part to better care, much -doubtless depends on the fact that there is not an undue proportion of -bees to the number of honey-plants, and consequent secretion of nectar. -To have the undisputed monopoly of an area reaching at least four -miles in every direction from your apiary, is unquestionably a great -advantage. - -If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your dangers from -possible misfortune may be lessened, then a small farm--especially -a fruit farm--in some locality where fruit-raising is successfully -practiced, will be very desirable. You thus add others of the luxuries -of life to the products of your business, and at the same time may -create additional pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your -other business. In this case, your location becomes a more complex -matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention. Some of -Michigan's most successful apiarists are also noted as successful -pomologists. - -For position and arrangement of apiary see Chapter VI. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -HIVES AND BOXES - - -An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course demanded; -and here let me state with emphasis, _that none of the standard hives -are now covered by patents, so let no one buy rights_. Success by -the skillful apiarist with almost any hive is possible. Yet, without -question, some hives are far superior to others, and for certain uses, -and with certain persons, some hives are far preferable to others, -though all may be meritorious. As a change in hives, after one is once -engaged in apiculture, involves much time, labor and expense, this -becomes an important question, and one worthy earnest consideration by -the prospective apiarist. I shall give it a first place, and a thorough -consideration, in this discussion of practical apiculture. - - -BOX-HIVES. - -I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks, and studies--and -success in apiculture can be promised to no other--will ever be content -to use the old box-hives. In fact, thought and intelligence, which -imply an eagerness to investigate, are essential elements in the -apiarist's character. And to such an one a box-hive would be valued -just in proportion to the amount of kindling-wood it contained. A very -serious fault with one of our principal bee-books, which otherwise is -mainly excellent in subject matter and treatment, is the fact that it -presumes its readers to be box-hive men. As well make emperors, kings, -and chivalry the basis of good government, in an essay written for -American readers. I shall entirely ignore box-hives in the following -discussions, for I believe no sensible, intelligent apiarists, such -as read books, will tolerate them, and that, supposing they would, it -would be an expensive mistake, which I have no right to encourage, in -fact, am bound to discourage, not only for the benefit of individuals, -but also for the art itself. - -To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect the whole -interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able to exchange combs -from one hive to another, to regulate the movements of the 'bees: -by destroying queen-cells, by giving or withholding drone-comb, -by extracting the honey, by introducing queens, and by many other -manipulations to be explained, which are only practicable with a -movable-frame hive. - - -MOVABLE-COMB HIVES. - -There are, at present, two types of the movable-comb hive in use among -us, each of which is unquestionably valuable, as each has advocates -among our most intelligent, successful and extensive apiarists. Each, -too, has been superseded by the other, to the satisfaction of the -person making the change. The kind most used consists of a box, in -which hang the frames which hold the combs. The adjacent frames are so -far separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the proper -distance apart. In the other kind, the frames are wider than the comb, -and when in position are close together, and of themselves form two -sides of a box. When in use, these frames are surrounded by a second -box, without a bottom, which, with them, rests on a bottom board. Each -of these kinds is represented by various forms, sizes, etc., where the -details are varied to suit the apiarist's notion. Yet, I believe that -all hives in present use, worthy of recommendation, fall within one or -the other of the above named types. - - -THE LANGSTROTH HIVE. - -This (Fig. 29) is the hive most in use among Americans and Britons, -if not among all who practice improved apiculture. It is stated -that the late Major Munn was first to invent this style of hive. He -states (see Bevan, p. 37) that he first used it in 1834. But, as -suggested by Neighbour in his valuable hand-book, the invention was -of no avail to apiarists, as it was either unknown, or else ignored -by practical men. This invention also originated independently with -Rev. L. L. Langstroth, who brought it forth in 1851, so perfect, that -it needed scarce any improvement; and for this gift, as well as his -able researches in apiculture, as given in his invaluable book, "The -Honey-Bee," he has conferred a benefit upon our art which cannot be -over-estimated, and for which we, as apiarists, cannot be too grateful. -It was his book--one of my old teachers, for which I have no word of -chiding--that led me to some of the most delightful investigations of -my life. It was his invention--the Langstroth hive--that enabled me -to make those investigations. For one, I shall always revere the name -of Langstroth, as a great leader in scientific apiculture, both in -America and throughout the world. His name must ever stand beside that -of Dzierzon and the elder Huber. Surely this hive, which left the hands -of the great master in so perfect a form, that even the details remain -unchanged by many of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear his name. -Thus, though I prefer and use the size of frame first used, I believe, -by Mr. Gallup, still I use the Langstroth hive. (See Appendix, page -287). - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - - -CHARACTER OF THE HIVE. - -The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, which, would exclude -doors, drawers, and traps of all kinds. The body should be made of -good pine or white-wood lumber, one inch thick, thoroughly seasoned, -and planed on both sides. It should be simply a plain box (Fig. 30), -without top or bottom, and of a size and form to suit the apiarist. -The size will depend upon our purpose. If we desire no comb-honey, or -desire comb-honey in frames, the hive may contain 4,000 cubic inches. -If we desire honey in boxes, it should not contain over 2,000, and may -be even smaller. If the hive is to be a two-story one--that is, one -hive above a similar hive below (Fig. 29)--I prefer that it should -be eighteen inches long, twelve inches wide, and twelve inches deep, -inside measure. If simply small frames or boxes are to be used above, -I would have the hive at least two feet long. A three-fourths inch -rabbet should be cut from the top of the sides or ends as the apiarist -prefers, on the inside (Fig. 30, _c_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 30] - -The rabbet may equal a little more than one-half the thickness of -the board. Heavy tin strips (Fig. 33), three-fourths of an inch -wide, should be tacked to the side below the rabbet, so as to reach -one-fourth of an inch above the shoulder. These are to bear the frames, -and are convenient, as they prevent the frames from becoming glued to -the hive. We are thus able to loosen the frames without jarring the -bees. I would not have hives without such tin rabbets, though some -apiarists, among whom is Mr. James Heddon, of this State, whose rank -as a successful apiarist is very high, do not like them. The objection -to them is cost, and liability of the frames to move when the hive is -moved. But with their use we are not compelled to pry the frames loose, -and are not so likely to irritate the bees, while making an examination -of the contents of the hive, which arguments are conclusive with me. - -Any one who is not a skilled mechanic, especially if he has not a -buzz-saw, had better join the sides of his hives after the style of -making common dry-goods boxes (Fig. 30). In this case, the sides not -rabbeted should project by, else the corners will have to be stopped up -where they were rabbeted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31. - -_Bevel-Gauge._] - -The mechanic may prefer to bevel the ends of the boards, and unite -them by a miter-joint (Fig. 33). This looks a little better, otherwise -is not superior to the other method. It is difficult to form accurate -joints--_and as everything about the hive should be_ ACCURATE _and_ -UNIFORM--this style is not to be recommended to the general apiarist. -To miter with a hand-saw unless one is very skillful, requires a -perfect miter-box, and, even then, much care is required to secure -perfect joints. With a buzz-saw this is easier. We have only to make a -carrier as follows: Take two boards (Fig. 31. _a, b_), each one foot -in length, and dove-tail them together, as though with two others -you meant to make a square box. Be sure that they form a perfect -right-angle. Then bevel the ends opposite the angle, and unite these -with a third board (Fig. 31, c), firmly nailed to the others. We -thus have a triangular pyramid. Through one of the shorter faces make -longitudinal slits (Fig. 31, _d_), so that this can be bolted firmly -to the saw-table. In use, the longer face will reach the saw, and from -thence will slant up and back. Along the back edge of this a narrow -board (Fig. 31, _e_) should be nailed, which will project an inch above -it. This will keep the board to be beveled in line with the carrier, -and will retain the right angles. Of course the boards for the hive -must be perfect rectangles, and of just the right length and width, -before the bevels are cut. - -Such a carrier (Fig. 31) I ordered for my Barnes' saw, from a -cabinet-maker. It was made of hard wood, all three joints dove-tailed, -and nicely finished, at a cost of $1.50. - -In sawing the ends and sides of the hive, whether by hand or with a -buzz-saw, use should be made of a guide, so that _perfect uniformity_ -will be secured. - - -THE BOTTOM BOARD. - -For a bottom board or stand (Fig. 32), we should have a single one-inch -board (Fig. 32, _b_) just as wide as the hive, and four inches longer, -if the bees are to enter at the end of the hive, and as long, and four -inches wider, if the bees are to enter at the side. This is nailed -to two pieces of two by four, or two by two scantling (Fig. 32, _a, -a_). Thus the hive rests two or four inches from the ground. These -scantlings should extend at one end eight inches beyond the board, and -these projections be beveled from the edge of the board, to the lower -outer corner of the scantling. Upon these beveled edges nail a board -(Fig. 32, _d_), which shall reach from the edge of the bottom board to -the ground. We thus have the alighting-board, whose upper edge should -be beveled, so as to fit closely to the bottom board. If the hives are -to be carried into a cellar to winter, this alighting-board (Fig. 31, -_d_) had better be separate, otherwise it is more convenient to have it -attached. It may be made separate at first, or may be easily separated -by sawing off the beveled portion of the scantlings. - -Should the apiarist desire his bees to enter at the side of the hive, -the scantling (Fig. 32, _a, a_) should run the other way, and the -alighting-board (Fig. 32, _d_) should be longer, and changed to the -side. I have tried both, and see no difference, so the matter may be -controlled by the taste of the apiarist. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -For an opening to the hive (Fig. 32, _c_), I would bevel the middle of -the edge of the bottom board, next to the inclined board. At the edge, -this bevel should be three-quarters of an inch deep and four inches -wide. It may decrease in both width and depth as it runs back, till -at a distance of four inches, it is one-half an inch wide and five -thirty-seconds of an inch deep. This may terminate the opening, though -the shoulder at the end may be beveled off, if desired. - -With this bottom board the bees are near the ground, and with the -slanting board in front, even the most tired and heavily-laden will -not fail to gain the hive, as they come in with their load of stores. -In spring, too, many bees are saved, as they come in on windy days, -by low hives and an alighting-board. _No hive should be more than -four inches from the ground_, and no hive should be without the -slanting alighting-board. With this opening, too, the entrance can be -contracted in case of robbing, or entirely closed when desired, by -simply moving the hive back. - -Some apiarists cut an opening in the side of the hive, and regulate -the size by tin slides or triangular blocks (Fig. 29); others form an -opening by sliding the hive forward beyond the bottom board--which I -would do with the above in hot weather when storing was very rapid--but -for simplicity, cheapness and convenience, I have yet to see an opening -superior to the above. I think, too, I am a competent judge, as I have -at least a half-dozen styles in present use. - -I strongly urge, too, that only this one opening be used. Auger holes -about the hive, and entrances on two sides, are worse than useless. By -enlarging this opening, we secure ample ventilation, even in sultry -August, and when we contract the entrance, no bees are lost by finding -the usual door closed. - -Some of our best bee-keepers, as Messrs. Heddon, Baldridge, etc., -prefer that the bottom board be nailed to the hive (Fig. 39). I have -such hives; have had for years, but strongly object to them. They -will not permit a quick clearing of the bottom board, when we give -a cleansing flight in winter, or when we commence operations in -spring, which, especially if there is a quart or more of dead bees, -is very desirable. Nor with their use can we contract the opening -in cold weather, or to stop robbing, without the blocks (Fig. 29), -tins or other traps. _Simplicity should be the motto in hive-making._ -The arguments in favor of such fastening are: Convenience in moving -colonies, and in feeding, as we have not to fasten the bottoms when we -desire to ship our bees, and to feed we have only to pour our liquids -into the hives. - -Of course, such points are not essential--only matters of convenience. -Let each one decide for himself, which experience will enable him to do. - - -THE COVER OF THE HIVE. - -The cover (Fig. 33, _a_) should be about six inches high, and like the -lid of a trunk. The length and breadth may be the same as the body of -the hive, and fit on with beveled edges (Fig. 33), the body having -the outer edge beveled, and the cover the inner. If we thus join the -cover and hive with a mitered-joint, we must not be satisfied with -anything less than perfection, else in case of storms, the rain will -beat into our hives, which should never be permitted. Such covers can -be fastened to the hives with hinges, or by hooks and staples. But -unless the apiarist is skilled in the use of tools, or hires a mechanic -to make his hives, it will be more satisfactory to make the cover just -large enough (Fig. 29) to shut over and rest on shoulders formed either -by nailing inch strips around the body of the hive, one inch from the -top, or else inside the cover (Fig. 29). If it is preferred to have a -two-story hive, with the upper story (Fig. 33, _b_) just like the lower -(Fig. 33, _c_), this (Fig. 53) may join the lower by a miter-joint, -while a cover (Fig. 33, _a_) two inches high, may join this with a -similar joint. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -If the upper story shuts over the lower and rests on a shoulder (Fig. -29) it may still be made to take the same sized frame, by nailing -pieces one-half an inch square to the corners, whose length shall equal -the distance from the rabbet in the lower story to the bottom board. -Now nail to these upright pieces, parallel to the rabbeted faces below, -a three-eighths inch board as wide as the pieces are long. The top of -these thin boards will take the place of the rabbet in the lower story. -This style, which is adopted in the two-story hives as made by Mr. -Langstroth (Fig. 29), will permit in the upper story the same frames -as used in the lower story, while two more can be inserted. Upon this -upper story a shallow cover will rest. Such covers, if desired, may -be made roof-like (Fig. 34), by cutting end pieces, (Fig 34, b) in -form of the gable of a house. In this case there will be two slanting -boards (Fig. 34, _a, a_), instead of one that is horizontal, to carry -off the rain. The slanting boards should project at the ends (Fig. 34, -_d_), for convenience in handling. In such covers we need thin, narrow -ridge-boards (Fig. 34, _c_), to keep all perfectly dry. These covers -look neat, are not so apt to check, and will dry much quicker after a -rain. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.] - -If we secure comb-honey in crates, and winter out-doors--in which case -we shall need to protect in the Northern States--it will be convenient -to have a box of the same general form as the main body of the hive, -from six to eight inches deep, just large enough to set over the body -of the hive and rest on shoulder-strips, and without top or bottom; -this to have such a cover as just described. Such is the arrangement -of Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, which, on the score of simplicity -and convenience, has much to recommend it. - -In the above I have said nothing about porticos (Fig. 29). If hives are -shaded as they should be, these are useless, and I believe that in no -case will they pay. To be sure, they are nice for spider-webs, and a -shady place in which bees may cluster; but such are inconvenient places -to study the wondrous fabrics of the spider, even were he a friend of -the bees, and the most successful apiarist will not force his bees to -hang in idle clusters about the hive. - - -THE FRAMES. - -The form and size of frames, though not quite as various as the persons -who use them, are still very different. Some prefer large frames. I -first used one ten by eighteen inches, and afterward a shallow frame -about seven by eighteen (Fig. 29). The advantage claimed for large -frames is that there are less to handle, and time is saved; yet may -not smaller frames be handled so much more dexterously, especially if -they are to be handled through all the long day, as to compensate, -in part at least, for the number? The advantage of the shallow frame -is, as claimed, that the bees will go into boxes more readily; yet -they are not considered so safe for out-door wintering. This is the -style recommended and used by Mr. Langstroth, which fact may account -for its popularity in the United States. Another frame in common use, -is one about one foot square. I use one eleven inches square. The -reasons that I prefer this form are, that the comb seldom breaks from -the frame, the frames are convenient for nuclei, and save the expense -of constructing extra nucleus hives, and that these frames permit the -most compact arrangement for winter and spring, and thus enable us to -economize heat. By use of a division board, we can, by using eight -of these frames, occupy just a cubic foot of space in spring, and by -repeated experiments I have found that a hive so constructed that the -bees always cover the combs during the early cold weather, always gives -the best results. As the honey season comes on more can be added, till -we have reached twelve, as many, I think, as will ever be needed for -brood. This was the size of frame preferred by Mr. Gallup, and is the -one used by Messrs. Davis and Doolittle, and many others of our most -successful apiarists. That this size is imperative is, of course, not -true; that it combines as many desirable points as any other, I think, -is true. For apiarists who are not very strong, especially for ladies, -it is beyond question superior to all others. - - -HOW TO CONSTRUCT THE FRAMES. - -In this description, I shall suppose that the frames desired are of the -form and size (Fig. 35) which I use. It will be easy, for any who may -desire, to change the form at pleasure. For the top-bar (Fig. 35, _a_) -of the frame, use a triangular strip twelve and three-quarter inches -long, with each face of the triangle one inch across. Seven-eighths -of an inch from each end of this, form a shoulder, by sawing from one -angle to within one-fourth of an inch of the opposite face, so that -when the piece is split out from the end, these projections shall be -just one-fourth of an inch thick throughout. For the side pieces (Fig. -35, _b, b_), take strips eleven inches long, seven-eighths of an inch -wide, and one-fourth of an inch thick. Tack with small brads the end of -two of these strips firmly to the shoulder of the top-bar, taking pains -that the end touches squarely against the projection. Now tack to the -opposite ends or bottoms, the ends of a similar strip (Fig. 35, _d_) -eleven and a half inches long. We shall thus have a square frame. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.] - -If comb-foundation is to be used, and certainly it will be by the -enterprising apiarist, then the top-bar (Fig. 36, _a_) should be -twelve and three-quarters inches by one-quarter by one inch, with a -rectangular, instead of a triangular, projection below (Fig. 36, _b_), -which should be one-fourth by one-eighth inch, the longest direction -up and down. This should be entirely to one side of the centre, so -that when the foundation (Fig. 36, _c_) is pressed against this piece -it will hang exactly from the centre of the top-bar. If preferred, the -bottom of the frame (Fig. 36, _e_) need not be more than half as wide -or thick as described above. - -The timber should be thoroughly seasoned, and of the best pine or -white-wood. Care should be taken that the frame be made so as to hang -vertically, when suspended on the rabbets of the hive. To secure this -very important point--true frames that will always hang true--they -should always be made around a guide. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. - -_Frame, also Cross-Section of Top-Bar._] - - -A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMES. - -This may be made as follows: Take a rectangular board (Fig. 37) eleven -and a quarter by thirteen and a half inches. On both ends of one face -of this, nail hard-wood pieces (Fig. 37, _e, e_) one inch square and -eleven inches long, so that one end (Fig. 37, _g, g_) shall lack -one-fourth inch of reaching the edge of the board. On the other face of -the board, nail a strip (Fig. 37, _c_) four inches wide and eleven and -a quarter inches long, at right-angles to it, and in such position that -the ends shall just reach to the edges of the board. Midway between the -one inch square pieces, screw on another hard-wood strip (Fig. 37, _d_) -one inch square and four inches long, parallel with and three-fourths -of an inch from the edge. To the bottom of this, screw a semi-oval -piece of hoop-steel (Fig. 37, _b, b_), which shall bend around and -press against the square strips. The ends of this should not reach -quite to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring, fasten, -by rivets, an inch strap (Fig. 37, _a_), which shall be straight when -thus riveted. These dimensions are for frames eleven inches square, -inside measure, and must be varied for other sizes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.] - -To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames between the -steel springs (Fig. 37, _b, b_) and the square strips (Fig. 37, _e, -e_); then lay on our top-bar and nail, after which we invert the block -and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the top-bar. Now press down on the -strap (Fig. 37, _a_), which will loosen the frame, when it may be -removed, all complete and true. Such a gauge not only insures perfect -frames, but demands that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy. -And some such arrangement should always be used in making the frames. - -The projecting ends of the top-bar will rest on the tins (Fig. 33), -and thus the frame can be easily loosened at any time without jarring -the bees, as the frames will not be glued fast, as they would in case -they rested on the wooden rabbets. The danger of killing bees is also -abolished by use of the tins. - -When the frames are in the hive there should be at least a -three-sixteenths inch space between the sides and bottom of the -frames, and the sides and bottom of the hive. Even doubling this would -do no harm; though a much wider space would very likely receive comb, -and be troublesome. Frames that fit close in the hive, or that reach to -the bottom, are very inconvenient and undesirable. To secure against -this, our lumber must be thoroughly seasoned, else when shrinkage takes -place our frames may touch the bottom-board. - -The distance between the frames may be one-fourth of an inch, though -a slight variation either way does no harm. Some men, of very precise -habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the side of the frames, at top -and bottom, which project just a quarter of an inch, so as to maintain -this unvarying distance; or staples in the bottom of the hive to secure -the same end. Mr. Langstroth so arranged his frames, and Mr. Palmer, -of Hart, Michigan, whose neatness is only surpassed by his success, -does the same thing. I have had hives with these extra attachments, but -found them no special advantage. I think we can regulate the distance -with the eye, so as to meet every practical demand, and thus save the -expense and trouble which the above attachments cost. - - -COVER FOR FRAMES. - -Nothing that I have ever tried is equal to a quilt for this purpose. -It is a good absorbent of moisture, preserves the heat in spring and -winter, and can be used in summer without jarring or crushing the bees. -This should be a real quilt, made of firm unbleached factory, duck, -or cambric--I have used the first with entire satisfaction for four -years--enclosing a thick layer of batting, and hemmed about the edges. -My wife quilts and hems them on a machine. The quilting is in squares, -and all is made in less than fifteen minutes. The quilt should be a -little larger than the top of the hive, so that after all possible -shrinkage, it will still cover closely. Thus, when this is put on, no -bees can ever get above it. When we use the feeder, it may be covered -by the quilt, and a flap cut in the latter, just above the hole in the -feeder, enables us to feed without disturbing the bees, though I place -the feeder at the end of the chamber, wherein are the bees, and have -only to double the quilt back when I feed. The only objection that I -know to the quilt is, that the bees will fasten propolis, and even -comb, between it and the frames, and this looks bad. A little care -'will make this a small objection. Mr. Langstroth used a board above -the frames, which Mr. Heddon uses even now. Perhaps Mr. Heddon never -used the quilts. Perhaps his love of order and neatness caused him to -discard them. Still, I feel to thank Mr. A. I. Root for calling my -attention to quilts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.] - - -DIVISION BOARD. - -A close-fitting division board (Fig. 38) for contracting the chamber, -is very important, and though unappreciated by many excellent -apiarists, still no hive is complete without it. I find it especially -valuable in winter and spring, and useful at all seasons. This is -made the same form as the frames, though all below the top-bar--which -consists of a strip thirteen inches long by one inch by three-eighths, -and is nailed firmly to the board below--is a solid inch board (Fig. -38, _b_), which is exactly one foot square, so that it fits closely to -the inside of the hive. If desired, the edges (Fig. 38, _e, e_) can be -beveled, as seen in the figure. When this is inserted in the hive it -entirely separates the chamber into two chambers, so that an insect -much smaller than a bee could not pass from the one to the other. Mr. -A. I. Root makes one of cloth, chaff, etc. Yet, I think few apiarists -would bother with so much machinery. Mr. W. L. Porter, Secretary of the -Michigan Association, makes the board a little loose, and then inserts -a rubber strip in a groove sawed in the edges. This keeps the board -snug, and makes its insertion easy, even though heat may shrink or damp -may swell either the board or hive. I have not tried this, but like the -suggestion. - -The use of the division board is to contract the chamber in winter, _to -vary it so as to keep combs covered in spring_, to convert the hive -into a nucleus hive, and to contract the chamber in the upper-story of -a two-story hive, when first adding frames to secure surplus comb-honey. - - -THE HUBER HIVE. - -The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged several of his -leaf or unicomb hives together, so that the frames would open like the -leaves of a book; though it has been stated that the Grecians had, in -early times, something similar. - -In 1866, Mr. T. F. Bingham, then of New York, improved upon the Huber -hive, securing a patent on his triangular frame hive. This, so far as I -can judge, was the Huber hive made practical. - -In 1868, Mr. M. S. Snow, then of New York, now of Minnesota, procured -a patent on his hive, which was essentially the same as the hives now -known as the Quinby and Bingham hives. - -Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive, which is -essentially the same as the above, only differing in details. No patent -was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great heart and boundless generosity -endeared him to all acquaintances. Those who knew him best, never -tire of praising the unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we -except Mr. Langstroth, no man has probably done so much to promote -the interest and growth of improved apiculture in the United States. -His hive, his book, his views of wintering, his introduction of the -bellows-smoker--a gift to apiarists--all speak his praise as a man and -an apiarist. - -The fact that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great favorite with -those who have used it, and is pronounced by so capable a judge as Mr. -Heddon, to be the best movable-comb hive in existence, that Mr. Quinby -preferred this style or type of hive, that the Quinby form is used -by the Hetherington brothers. Captain J. E., the prince of American -apiarists, and O. J., whose neatness, precision, and mechanical skill -are enough to awaken envy; that the Russell hive is but a modification -of the same type, are surely enough to awaken curiosity and bespeak a -description. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39. - -_Frame, Bottom-Board and Frame-Support of Quinby Hive._] - -The Quinby hive (Fig. 39), as used by the Hetherington brothers, -consists of a series of rectangular frames (Fig. 39) twelve by -seventeen inches, outside measure. The ends of these frames are one -and a half inches wide and half an inch thick. The top and bottom one -inch wide and half an inch thick. The outer half of the ends projects -one-fourth of an inch beyond the top and bottom. This projection is -lined with sheet iron, which is inserted in a groove which runs one -inch into each end of the end-pieces and are tacked by the same nails -that fasten the end-bars to the top and bottom-bars. This iron at the -end of the bar bends in at right-angles (Fig. 39, _a, a_), and extends -one-fourth of an inch parallel with the top and bottom-bars. Thus, when -these frames stand side by side, the ends are close, while half-inch -openings extend between the top and bottom-bars of adjacent frames. -The bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from the bottom-board. -Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with the position of the back -end-bars of the frames is an inch strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 39, _b, -b_) sixteen inches in length. One-third of this strip, from the front -edge back, is bent over so it lies not quite in contact with the second -third, while the posterior third receives the tacks which hold it to -the bottom-board. Now, when in use this iron flange receives the hooks -on the corners of the frames, so that the frames are held firmly, and -can only be moved back and sidewise. In looking at the bees we can -separate the combs at once, at any place. The chamber can be enlarged -or diminished simply by adding or withdrawing frames. As the hooks are -on all four corners of the frames, the frames can be either end back, -or either side up. Boards with the iron hooks close the sides of the -brood cavity, while a quilt covers the frames. - -The entrance (Fig. 39, _e_) is cut in the bottom-board as already -explained, except that the lateral edges are kept parallel. A strip of -sheet-iron (Fig. 39, _d_) is tacked across this, on which rest the ends -of the front end-bars of the frames which stand above, and underneath -which pass the bees as they come to and go from the hive. A box, -without bottom and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from -four to six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames. -This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side and top -storing in sections or boxes in summer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40. - -_Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive._] - -The Bingham hive (Fig. 40) is not only remarkably simple, but is as -remarkable for its shallow depth; the frames being only five inches -high. These have no bottom-bar. The end-bars are one and a half inches -wide, and the top-bar square. The nails that hold the end-bars pass -into the end of the top-bar, which is usually placed diagonally, so -that an edge, not a face, is below; though some are made with a face -below (Fig. 40, _f_), to be used when comb is transferred. The frames -are held together by two wires, one at each end. Each wire (Fig. 40, -_a_) is a little longer than twice the width of the hive when the -maximum number of frames are used. The ends of each wire are united -and placed about nails (Fig. 40, _b, b_) in the ends of the boards -(Fig. 40, _c, c_) which form the sides of the brood-chamber. A small -stick (Fig. 40, _a_) spreads these wires, and brings the frames close -together. A box without bottom and with movable cover, is placed about -the frames. This is large enough and high enough to permit of chaff -packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be made like the -one already described. Mr. Bingham does not bevel the bottom-board, -but places lath under three sides of the brood-chamber, the lath being -nailed to the bottom-board--and then uses the blocks to contract the -entrance (Fig. 40, _g_). - -The advantages of this hive are, simplicity, great space above for -surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed one hive above -another to any height desired, while the frames may be reversed, end -for end, or bottom for top, or the whole brood-chamber turned up-side -down. Thus, by doubling, we may have a depth of ten inches for winter. - -The objection which I have found in the similar Russell hive, is danger -of killing bees in rapid handling. In the Russell hive the side-bars -are halved together, and held in place by ingeniously contrived wire -hooks. There are no bottom-bars. I have used none of these except -the Russell. They can be manipulated with rapidity, if we care not -how many bees we crush. It hurts me to kill a bee, and so I find the -Langstroth style more quickly manipulated. Mr. Snow, too, who was the -first to make the above style of hive, has discarded it in favor of the -Langstroth. His objection to the above, is the fact that the various -combs are not sure to be so built as to be interchangeable. Yet that -such apiarists as those above named prefer these Huber hives, after -long use of the other style, is certainly not without significance. - - * * * * * - -APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB-HONEY. - -Although I feel sure that extracted-honey will grow more and more into -favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful comb, which, from its -exquisite flavor and attractive appearance, has always been, and always -will be, admired and desired. So, no hive is complete without its -arrangement of boxes, section-frames, and crates, all constructed with -the view of securing this delectable comb-honey in the form that will -be most irresistible. - - -BOXES. - -These are for surplus comb-honey in the most salable form. They may be -of any size that best suits the taste of the apiarist, and the pulse of -the market. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.] - -It is well that the sides of these be of glass. Such (Fig. 41) may be -made as follows: For top and bottom procure soft-wood boards one-fourth -of an inch thick and of the size desired, one for the bottom and the -other for the top of the box. Take four pieces half an inch square -and as long as the desired height of the honey-box. In two adjacent -sides of these saw grooves in which may slip common glass. These -are for corner pieces. Now tack with small brads the corners of the -bottom-board to the ends of these pieces, then slide in the glass, -and in similar way tack the top-board to the other ends. Through the -bottom-board holes may be bored so that the bees may enter. A similar -box is made by A. H. Russell, of Adrian, Mich., except that tin forms -the corners. These may be made to take from one to three combs, and are -certainly very attractive. If made small and set in a crate so that all -could be removed at once, they would leave little to be desired. The -Isham box (Fig. 42) is essentially like the Russell; only the tin at -the corners is fastened differently. Surely, all great minds do run in -the same channel. Another form (Fig. 43) which I find very desirable, -and which I used in California (where they were introduced by Mr. -Harbison) more than ten years ago, is made as follows: Dress off common -lath so that they are smooth, cut off two lengths the desired height of -the box, and one the desired width; tack this last piece to the ends of -the other two, and to the other end tack a similar strip only half as -wide. We now have a square frame. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - -Place such frames side by side till a box is made of the desired -length. To hold these together, we have now only to tack on either -side one or two pieces of tin, putting a tack into each section, thus -forming a compact box without ends. The end frames should have a whole -piece of lath for the bottom, and grooves should be cut in the bottom -and top laths, so that a glass may be put in the ends. Of course there -is ample chance for the bees to enter from below. Now, by placing -small pieces of comb, or artificial comb foundation, which ranks as a -discovery with the movable-frame hive and honey-extractor, on the top -of each frame (Fig. 43), the bees will be led to construct a separate -comb in each frame, and each frame may be sold by the retail dealer -separately, by simply drawing the tacks from the tins. Barker and -Dicer, of Marshall, Michigan, make a very neat sectional honey-box, -which is quite like the above, except that paper pasted over the frames -takes the place of the tins. These, too, have wood separators as used -and sold by the gentlemen named. The honey-boxes may be placed directly -on the frames, or in case the queen makes trouble by entering them to -deposit eggs--a trouble which I have seldom met, perhaps because I -give her enough to do below--we can plaice strips one-fourth of an inch -square between the frames and boxes. In case we work extensively for -box honey, we should have a rack or crate so made that we can remove -all the boxes at once; in which case to examine the bees we would not -have to remove all the boxes separately. - - -SMALL FRAMES OR SECTIONS. - -Honey in boxes, unless they consist of sections as just described, -cannot compete with honey in small frames, in our present markets, and -without doubt they will fall more and more into disfavor. In fact, -there is no apparatus for securing comb-honey that promises so well as -these sections. That they are just the thing to enable us to tickle the -market is shown by their rapid growth in popular favor. Three years -ago I predicted, at one of our State Conventions, that they would soon -replace boxes, and was laughed at. Nearly all who then laughed, now -use these sections. They are cheap, and with their use we can get more -honey, and in a form that will make it irresistible. - - -REQUISITES OF GOOD SECTIONS - -The wood should be _white_, the size small, from four to six inches -square, the sections capable of being glassed, at least on the faces, -not too much cut off from brood-chamber, cheap, easily made, and so -arranged as to be put on or taken off the hive _en masse_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.] - - -DESCRIPTION. - -The style of section which I think will soon replace all others, is -easily made, as follows: For a section four inches square take a strip -of _clean, white_ veneer--cut from basswood, poplar or white-wood--such -as is used to make berry-boxes, two inches wide and twenty inches long; -for larger sections make it proportionally longer. Make a shallow cut -every four inches at right-angles to the sides--though they will do -this, if asked to, at the factory. Now with a chisel (Fig. 44) four -inches long, with one-eighth inch projections at right-angles to -the main blade, cut out sections on the opposite edges of the main -strip--which will leave openings one-eighth inch by four inches, -between the first and second shallow cut and the third and fourth. We -now bend this around a square block (Fig. 45) which will just fill -it, letting the ends over-lap, and drive through these over-lapping -sections one or two small wrought brads on to an iron, (Fig. 45, _b_) -set into the block, by which they will be clinched. Or, by using glue, -we may dispense with the block. Now, if your market requires glassed -sections, or if you wish to insert dividers, either tin or wood, glue -posts one-fourth of an inch square, four in each section along the -uncut sides one-eighth inch from the edges. The ends of these will just -come flush with the gouged edges above and below. Now, by use of tins -such as are used to fasten window-glass, these can be glassed, or if -desired, each one can receive a tin or wooden separator. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.] - -If this gluing in of the pieces is thought too troublesome, we may -still achieve the same end by using tin separators in our crates, and -then glass our sections by cutting a square glass, just the size of the -section, outside measure, and with heavy white paper paste two of these -glass to the sections. This makes each section perfectly close, and -is the method devised by Southard and Ranney for practice the coming -season. A paste made of dextrine, tragacanth, or even flour, will -answer to fasten the strips of paper, which need not be more than one -inch wide. A little carbolic acid, or salicylic acid in solution, will -keep the paste from souring. - -Every apiarist can make these sections for himself, and thus save -freight and profits of making. They are neat, very cheap--costing but -two mills each--and are made strong by use of the glued posts. They -are also light. Very soon our customers will object to buying wood -and glass, if our unglassed sections of comb-honey are kept in close -glassed crates. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.] - -The Hetherington brothers make a very neat section, as follows: The top -and bottom are each two inches wide, of one-quarter inch white pine. -These receive a groove one-eighth inch from the ends, which receives -the sides, one inch wide and one-eighth inch thick, which is pressed -through to a central position and glued. This section is five and a -half inches square. They use wooden dividers (Fig. 46, _a_) one-eighth -of an inch thick, as long as the section, but one inch less in height, -so that below and above is a half-inch space, which permits the bees to -pass readily from one section to another. These are held by a half-inch -strip of tin (Fig. 46, _b, b_), which passes through a groove (Fig. 46, -_c_) in the ends of the dividers, and reaches half an inch farther; -then turns at right-angles and ends in a point (Fig. 46, _b_), which, -when in use, sticks into the top or bottom pieces; and so the four -points hold the dividers in place. When ready to sell, they insert -half-inch glass in the grooves each side the narrow side-pieces, and -with tins fasten glass on the faces, and have a very handsome section. -I think this preferable to the Russell or Isham box or section, as the -one-inch strip of wood covers the part of the comb where it is fastened -to the sides, which is never attractive, while the rest is all glassed. -Such sections were praised in New York and Cincinnati last season as -very fine and neat; equal, if not superior, to all others. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.] - -A. I. Root prefers sections made as are children's toy-blocks, the -sides fastened by a sort of mortise and tennon arrangement (Fig. 47). I -have received from Mr. James Heddon a similar section, but neater and -more finished, which is made in Vermont. These are too complex to be -made without machinery, are no better for their fancy corners--in fact, -they are not as strong as is desirable--and, as we cannot afford to -purchase our apparatus when we can as well make it ourselves, I cannot -recommend them for general use. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.] - -The Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger sections (Fig. 48) are essentially the -same. The top and bottom are a little more narrow than the sides, and -are nailed to them. The Wheeler sections-invented and patented by Mr. -Geo. T. Wheeler, Mexico, New York, in 1870--are remarkable for being -the first (Fig. 52, _K_) to be used with tin separators (Fig. 52, _M_). -Instead of making the bottoms one-quarter of an inch narrower for a -passage, Mr. Wheeler made an opening in the bottom, as does Mr. Russell. - - -HOW TO PLACE SECTIONS IN POSITION. - -There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and has, as it well -may, earnest advocates--one by use of crates, the other by frames. - - -SECTIONS IN FRAMES. - -I prefer this method, perhaps because I have used it most. These frames -(Fig. 49) are made the same size as the frames in the brood-chamber, -except that they are made of strips two inches wide, and one-fourth of -an inch thick, though the bottom-bar is a quarter of an inch narrower, -so that when two frames are side by side, there is one-fourth of an -inch space between the bottom bars, though the top and side pieces are -close together. The sections are of such a size (Fig. 50, _K_) that -four, or six, or nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames. -Nailed to one side of each large frame are two tin strips (Fig. 50, -_t, t′_) as long as the frame, and as wide into one inch as are the -sections. These are tacked half an inch from the top and the bottom of -the large frames, and so are opposite the sections, thus permitting the -bees to pass readily from one tier of sections to another, as do the -narrower top and bottom-bars of the sections, from those below to those -above. I learned of such an arrangement of sections from A. I. Root. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.] - -Captain Hetherington tells me that Mr. Quinby used them years ago. The -tin arrangement, though unlike Mr. Wheeler's (Fig. 52, _M_), would -be readily suggested by it. It is more trouble to make these frames -if we have the tins set in so as just to come flush with the edge -of the end-bars of the frames, but then the frames would hang close -together, and would not be so stuck together with propolis. These may -be hung in the second story of a two-story hive, and just so many as -to fill the same--my hives will take nine--or they can be put below, -beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in case he hangs these below, -inserts a perforated division-board, so that the queen will not enter -the sections and lay eggs. I used them very successfully last summer -without division-boards, and neither brood nor pollen were placed in -a single cell. Perhaps wider tins would prevent this should it occur. -In long hives--the "New Idea"--which I find very satisfactory, after -several years' trial, especially for extracted honey--I have used these -frames of sections, and with the best success. The Italians entered -them at once, and filled them even more quickly than other bees filled -the sections in the upper story. In fact, one great advantage of these -sections in the frames is the Obvious and ample passage-ways, inviting -the bees to enter them. But in our desire to make ample and inviting -openings, caution is required that we do not over-do the matter, and -invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we have Charybdis and -Scylla, and must, by study, learn to so steer between, as to avoid both -dangers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.] - - -SECTIONS IN RACKS. - -These are to use in lieu of large frames, to hold sections, and are -very convenient when we wish to set the sections only one deep above -the brood-chamber. Though, if desired, we can place one rack above -another, and so have sections two, and even three deep. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.] - -Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, use a very neat rack (Fig. 51), in -which they use the thin veneer sections which we recommend as superior -to all others for the general apiarist. They have used these with -excellent success, but without separators, which they wish to insert. -Perhaps by taking out the board partitions (Fig. 51, _B, B_), and -putting tin separators the other way across, they would accomplish -their object. In this case, the ends of the adjacent sections would not -be separated, and the width of the rack would just accommodate two, -three, or four sections, to be governed by size of hive and sections. -The sheet-iron rests (Fig. 51, _H, H, H_) which, with their bent edges, -just raise the rack one-fourth of an inch from the brood frames, would -then run the other way, and give the requisite strength. Thus, the -tins would not be liable to bend, as they would if run the shorter way -of the rack. The end-board, too (Fig. 51. _A_), would be a side-board, -and the strips (Fig. 51, _G, G_), with the intervening glass, would be -at the ends. - -The Wheeler rack (Fig. 52) simply holds the sections, while each -section is glassed separately. - -Captain Hetherington sets a rack of sections above the frames, and -stands sections one above the other on the side for side storing. -Mr. Doolittle makes a rack by placing frames, such as I have -described--except they are only half as high, and hold but two -sections--side by side, where they are held by tacking a stick on top -across each end of the row. He also places two tiers, two deep, at each -end of the brood-chamber, if he desires to give so much room. - -All apiarists who desire to work for comb honey which will sell, will -certainly use the sections, and either adjust them by use of frames or -crates. - - -FOOT-POWER SAW. - -Every apiarist who keeps upwards of fifty colonies of bees, and makes -apiculture a specialty, will find a foot power saw a very valuable -apparatus. - -I have now used the admirable combined foot-power saw of W. F. & John -Barnes for a year, and find that it grows in value each month. It -permits rapid work, insures uniformity, and enables the apiarist to -give a finish to his work that would rival that of the cabinet-maker. - -Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and set the saws, -and should never run the machine when not in perfect order. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY. - - -As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to give the -best results, and as this costs some money and more labor, it should -be done once for all. As plan and execution in this direction must -needs precede even the purchase of bees, this subject deserves an early -consideration. Hence, we will proceed to consider position, arrangement -of grounds, and preparation for each individual colony. - - -POSITION. - -Of course, it is of first importance that the apiary be near at hand. -In city or village this is imperative. In the country or at suburban -homes, we have more choice, but close proximity to the house is of -much importance. In a city, it may be necessary to follow friend -Muth's example, and locate on the house-tops, where, despite the -inconvenience, we may achieve success. The lay of the ground is not -important, though if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope -in any direction, but better any way than toward the north. - - -ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS. - -Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove offers inviting -shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp. Such a grove could soon -be formed of basswood and tulip trees, which, as we shall see, are -very desirable, as their bloom offers plenteous and most delicious -honey. Even Virgil urges shade of palm and olive, also that we screen -the bees from winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on -the windward side. Such a screen may be formed of a tall board fence, -which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to protect against -thieves. Yet these are gloomy and forbidding, and will be eschewed by -the apiarist who has an eye to æsthetics. Ever-green screens, either -of Norway spruce, Austrian or other pine, or arbor vitæ, each or all, -are not only very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and -add greatly to the beauty of the grounds. If the apiary is large, a -small, neat, inexpensive house, in the centre of the apiary grounds, is -indispensable. This will serve in winter as a shop for making hives, -frames, etc., and as a store-house for honey, while in summer it will -be used for extracting, transferring, storing, bottling, etc. In -building this, it will be well to construct a frost-proof, _thoroughly -drained_, dark, and well-ventilated cellar. To secure the thorough -ventilation, pass a tube, which may be made of tile, from near the -bottom, through the earth to the surface; and another, from near the -bottom, to the chimney or stove-pipe above. - - -PREPARATION FOR EACH COLONY. - -Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony. Bees are forced -to cluster outside the hive, where the hives are subjected to the full -force of the sun's rays. By the intense heat, the temperature inside -becomes like that of an oven, and the wonder is that they do not desert -entirely. I have known hives, thus unprotected, to be covered by bees, -idling outside, when by simply shading the hives, all would go merrily -to work. The combs, too, and foundation especially, are liable, in -unshaded hives, to melt and fall down, which is very damaging to the -bees, and very vexatious to the apiarist. The remedy for all this is to -always have the hives so situated that they will be entirely shaded all -through the heat of the day. This might be done by constructing a shed -or house, but these are expensive and inconvenient, and, therefore, to -be discarded. Perhaps the Coe house-apiary (Chap. XVIII) may prove an -exception; but, as yet, we have no reliable assurance of the fact. - -If the apiarist has a convenient grove, this may be trimmed high, so -as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement. So arrange the -hives that while they are shaded through all the heat of the day, they -will receive the sun's rays early and late, and thus the bees will -work more hours. I always face my hives to the east. If no grove is at -command, the hives maybe placed on the north of a Concord grape-vine, -or other vigorous variety, as the apiarist may prefer. This should be -trained to a trellis, which may be made by setting two posts, either -of cedar or oak. Let these extend four or five feet above the ground, -and be three or four feet apart. Connect them at intervals of eighteen -inches with three galvanized wires, the last one being at the top of -the posts. Thus we can have shade and grapes, and can see for ourselves -that bees do not injure grapes. If preferred, we may use ever-greens -for this purpose, which can be kept low, and trimmed square and close -on the north. These can be got at once, and are superior in that they -furnish ample shade at all seasons. Norway spruce is the best. These -should be at least six feet apart. A. I. Root's idea of having the -vines of each succeeding row divide the spaces of the previous row, -in quincunx order, is very good; though I should prefer the rows in -this case to be four, instead of three feet apart, especially with -ever-greens. Until protecting shade can be thus permanently secured, -boards should be arranged for temporary protection. Many apiarists -economize by using fruit trees for this purpose, which, from their -spreading tops, answer very well. - -Mr. A. I. Root's idea of having sawdust under and about the hives is, -I think, a good one. The hives of the Michigan Agricultural College -(Fig. 53) are protected by ever-greens, trimmed close on the north -side. A space four feet by six, north of the shrubs, was then dug out -to a depth of four inches, and filled with sawdust (Fig. 53, _f_), -underlying which were old bricks, so that nothing would grow up through -the sawdust. The sawdust thus extends one foot back, or west of the -hive, three feet north, and the same distance to the east or front side -of the hive. This makes it neat about the hive, and largely removes -the danger of losing the queen in handling the bees; as should she -fall outside the hive, the sharp-sighted apiarist would be very likely -indeed to see her. - -Mr. J. H. Nellis, the able Secretary of the North-Eastern Bee-Keepers' -Association, objects to sawdust, as he thinks it rots too quickly, and -blows about badly. He would use sand or gravel instead. I have tried -both gravel and sawdust, and prefer the latter, as explained above. -By having the sawdust a little below the general surface, and adding -a little once in four or five years, it keeps all nice and agreeable. -After the ever-greens are well started, all the space between the -sawdust areas should be in grass, and kept neatly mown. This takes but -a little time, and makes the apiary always pleasant and inviting. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -TO TRANSFER BEES. - - -As you may have purchased your bees in box hives, and so, of course, -will desire to transfer them immediately into movable-frame hives, or, -as already suggested, you may wish to transfer from one movable-frame -to another, I will now proceed to describe the process. - -The best time to transfer is early in the season, when there is but -little honey in the hives, though it may be done at any time, if -sufficient caution is used: still it should never be done except on -warm days, when the bees are actively engaged in storing. After the -bees are busy at work, approach the old hive, blow a little smoke into -the entrance to quiet the bees, then carry the hive off a few feet, -and turn it bottom up. Place a box over the hive--it will make no -difference whether it fits it close or not, if the bees are so smoked -as to be thoroughly alarmed--and with a stick rap on the lower hive for -about twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey and go with the -queen into the upper hive and cluster. If towards the last we carefully -set the box off once or twice, and vigorously shake the hive, and then -replace the box, we will hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it -more complete. I got this suggestion from Mr. Baldridge. A few young -bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do no harm. Now -put the box on the old stand, leaving the edge raised so that the bees -which were out may enter, and so all the bees can get air. If other -bees do not trouble, as they usually will not if busily gathering, we -can proceed in the open air. If they do we must go into some room. -I have frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen, and often in -a barn. Now knock the old hive apart, cut the combs from the sides, -and get the combs out of the old hive with just as little breakage as -possible. Mr. Baldridge, if transferring in spring, saws the combs -and cross-sticks loose from the sides, turns the hive into the natural -position, then strikes against the top of the hive with a hammer till -the fastenings are broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the combs -are all free and in convenient shape for rapid work. - -We now need a barrel, set on end, on which we place a board fifteen to -twenty inches square, covered with several thicknesses of cloth. Some -apiarists think the cloth useless, but it serves, I think, to prevent -injury to comb, brood or honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and -a frame on the comb, and cut out the comb the size of the inside of the -frame, taking pains to save all the brood. Now crowd the frame over -the comb, so that the latter will be in the same position that it was -when in the old hive; that is, so the honey will be above--the position -is not very important--then fasten the comb in the frame, by winding -about all one or two small wires or pieces of wrapping twine. To raise -the frame and comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till the -frame is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and proceed with -the others in the same way till we have all the worker-comb--that with -small cells--fastened in. To secure the pieces, which we shall find -abundant at the end, take thin pieces of wood, one-half inch wide and a -trifle longer than the frame is deep, place these in pairs either side -the comb, extending up and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure -till the bees shall fasten them, and secure the strips by winding with -small wire, just above and below the frame, or else tack them to the -frame with small tacks. - -Captain Hetherington has invented and practices a very neat method of -fastening comb into frames. In constructing his frames, he bores small -holes through the top, side, and bottom-bars of his frames, about two -inches apart; these holes are just large enough to permit the passage -of the long spines of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has -but to stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it securely. -He can also use all the pieces, and still make a neat and secure frame -of comb. He finds this arrangement convenient, too, in strengthening -insecure combs. In answer to my inquiry, this gentleman said it paid -well to bore such holes in all his frames, which are eleven by sixteen -inches, inside measure. I discarded such frames because of the -liability of the comb to fall out. - -Mr. Baldridge makes wads of comb, or comb-cappings, which he finds -good, and by pressing these against the edges of the comb he wishes to -fasten, he fastens them to the frames, quickly and securely. - -Having fastened all the worker-comb that we can into the frames--of -course all the other, and all bright drone-comb, will be preserved for -use as guide-comb--and placed the frames in the new hive--these should -be put together if they contain brood, especially if the colony is not -very strong, and the empty frames to one side--we then place our hive -on the stand, pushing it forward so that the bees can enter anywhere -along the alighting-board, and then shake all the bees from the box, -and any young bees that may have clustered on any part of the old hive, -or on the floor or ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately -in front. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all the busier -for having passed "from the old house into the new." In two or three -days, remove the wires or strings and sticks, when we shall find the -combs all fastened and smoothed off, and the bees as busily engaged as -though their present home had always been the seat of their labors. -In case we practice the methods of either Captain Hetherington or Mr. -Baldridge, there will be nothing to remove, and we need only go and -congratulate the bees in view of their new and improved home. - -Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the matter is -much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly smoking the bees, we -have but to lift the frames, and shake or brush the bees into the new -hive. For a brush, a chicken or turkey wing, or a large wing or tail -feather from a turkey, goose or peacock, serves admirably. Now, cut out -the comb in the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten -as already suggested. After the combs are all transferred, shake all -remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has already been placed -on the stand previously occupied by the old hive. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -FEEDING AND FEEDERS. - - -As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are storing that -the queen deposits to the full extent of her capability, and that -brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when storing ceases, general -indolence characterizes the hive. Hence, if we would achieve the -best success, we must keep the workers active, even before gathering -commences, as also in the interims of honey secretion by the flowers; -and to do this we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloom in -the spring, and whenever the neuters are forced to idleness during any -part of the season, by the absence of honey-producing flowers. For a -number of years, I have tried experiments in this direction by feeding -a portion of my colonies early in the season, and in the intervals -of honey-gathering, and always with marked results in favor of the -practice. - -Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will receive ample reward -by practicing stimulative feeding early in the season; then his hive -at the dawn of the white clover era will be redundant with bees, well -filled with brood, and in just the trim to receive a bountiful harvest -of this most delicious nectar. - -Feeding, too, is often necessary to secure sufficient stores for -winter--for no apiarist, worthy the name, will suffer his faithful, -willing subjects to starve, when so little care and expense will -prevent it. - - -HOW MUCH TO FEED. - -If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be great. A -half pound a day, or even less, will be all that is necessary to -encourage the bees to active preparation for the good time coming. For -information in regard to supplying stores for winter see Chapter XVII. - - -WHAT TO FEED. - -For this purpose I would feed coffee A sugar, reduced to the -consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over from the -previous year. The price of the latter will decide which is the -most profitable. Honey, too, that has been drained or forced out of -cappings, etc., is good, and only good to feed. Many advise feeding the -poorer grades of sugar in spring. My own experience makes me question -the policy of ever using such feed for bees. The policy, too, of -feeding glucose I much question. In all feeding, unless extracted honey -is what we are using, we cannot exercise too great care that such feed -is not carried to the surplus boxes. Only let our customers once taste -sugar in their comb-honey, and not only is our own reputation gone, but -the whole fraternity is injured. In case we wish to have our combs in -the sections filled or capped, we must feed extracted honey, which may -often be done with great advantage. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54. - -_Division-Board Feeder._ - -Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, etc.] - - -HOW TO FEED. - -The requisites of a good feeder are: Cheapness, a form to admit quick -feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so arranged that we can feed -without in any way disturbing the bees. The feeder (Fig. 54) which I -have used with the best satisfaction, is a modified division-board, -the top-bar of which (Fig. 54, _b_) is two inches wide. From the upper -central portion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece, the size of -an oyster-can, is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig 54, _g_), after the -top of the latter has been removed. A vertical piece of wood (Fig. 54, -_d_) is fitted into the can so as to separate a space about one inch -square, on one side from the balance of the chamber. This piece does -not reach quite to the bottom of the can, there being a one-eighth -inch space beneath. In the top-bar there is an opening (Fig. 54, _e_) -just above the smaller space below. In the larger space is a wooden -float (Fig. 54, _f_) full of holes. On one side, opposite the larger -chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (Fig. 54, _c_) is cut -off, so that the bees can pass between the can and top-bar on to the -float, where they can sip the feed. The feed is turned into the hole -in the top-bar (Fig. 54, _e_), and without touching a bee, passes down -under the vertical strip (Fig. 54, _d_) and raises the float (Fig. 54, -_f_). The can may be tacked to the board at the ends near the top. -Two or three tacks through the can into the vertical piece (Fig. 54, -_d_) will hold the latter firmly in place; or the top-bar may press on -the vertical piece so that it cannot move. Crowding a narrow piece of -woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing a similar strip -around the beveled edge of the division-board makes all snug. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55. - -_Shuck's Boss Bee-Feeder._ - -_Simplicity Bee-Feeder._] - -One of our students suggests the name "Perfection" for this feeder. -The feeder is placed at the end of the brood-chamber (page 137), and -the top-bar covered by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold the -quilt over, when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the hole in the -top-bar. If a honey-board is used, there must be a hole in this just -above the hole in the division-board feeder. In either case, no bees -can escape, the heat is confined, and our division-board feeder is but -little more expensive than a division-board alone. - -Some apiarists prefer a quart tin can with finely perforated cover. -This is filled with liquid, the cover put on, and the whole quickly -inverted and set above a hole in the quilt. Owing to the pressure of -the air, the liquid will not descend so rapidly that the bees cannot -sip it up. - -Many other styles of feeders are in use, as the "Simplicity" and -"Boss," but I have yet to see one that in all respects equals the one -figured and described above. - -The best time to feed is just at night-fall. In this case the feed will -be carried away before the next day, and the danger to weak colonies -from robbing is not so great. - -In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be close above -the bees to economize the heat. In all feeding, care is requisite that -we may not spill the feed about the apiary, as this may, and very -generally will, induce robbing. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -QUEEN REARING. - - -Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and that the full -number of bees is forty thousand, or even more--though the bees are -liable to so many accidents, and as the queen does not always lay to -her full capacity, it is quite probable that this is about an average -number--it will be seen that each day that a colony is without a queen -there is a loss equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of -the colony, and this is a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of -any day is its special loss, augmented by the several losses of the -previous days. Now, as queens are liable to die, to become impotent, -and as the act of increasing colonies demands the absence of queens, -unless the apiarist has extra ones at his command, it is imperative, -would we secure the best results, to ever have at hand extra queens. So -the young apiarist must early learn - - -HOW TO REAR QUEENS. - -As queens may be needed by the last of May, preparations looking -to the early rearing of queens must commence early. When preparing -the colonies for winter the previous autumn, be sure to place some -drone-comb somewhere near the centre of the colony that has given the -best results the previous season. In March, and certainly by the first -of April, see that all colonies have plenty of bee-bread. If necessary, -place unbolted flour, that of rye or oats is best, in shallow troughs -near the hives. It may be well to give the whole apiary the benefit of -such feeding before the flowers yield pollen. Yet, I have found that -here in Central Michigan, bees can usually gather pollen by the first -week of April, which I think is as early as they should be allowed to -fly, and, in fact, as early as they will fly with sufficient regularity -to make it pay to feed the meal. I much question, after some years of -experiment, if it ever pays to give the bees a substitute for pollen. - -The colony under consideration, should be given frames containing -bee-bread which was stored the previous year. At the same time, March -or April, commence stimulative feeding. If you have another colony -equally good with the first, also give that the pollen, and commence -giving it honey or syrup, but only worker-comb should be in the -brood-chamber. This will prevent the close in-breeding which would -of necessity occur if both queens and drones were reared in the same -colony; and which, though regarded as deleterious in the breeding of -all animals, should be practiced in case one single queen is of decided -superiority to all others of the apiary. - -Very likely in April, drone-eggs will be laid in drone-comb. I have had -drones flying on the first of May. As soon as the drones commence to -hatch out, remove the queen and all eggs and uncapped brood from some -good, strong colony, and replace it with eggs or brood just hatched -from the colony that is being fed, or if two equally good colonies have -been stimulated, from the one in which no drone-comb was placed. The -queen which has been removed may be used in making a new colony, in -manner soon to be described under "dividing or increasing the number -of colonies." This queenless colony will immediately commence forming -queen-cells (Fig. 56). Sometimes these are formed to the number of -fifteen or twenty, and they are started, too, in a full, vigorous -colony, in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off -edges of the comb, or cutting holes in the same where there are eggs -or larvæ; just hatched, will almost always insure the starting of -queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed, too, that our queens -are started from eggs or from larvæ but just hatched, as we have given -the bees no other, and so are fed the royal pabulum from the first. -Thus, we have met every possible requisite to secure the most superior -queens. By removal of the queen we also secure a large number of cells, -while if we waited for the bees to start the cells preparatory to -natural swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable conditions -named above, we shall probably fail to secure so many cells, and may -have to wait longer than we can afford. - -Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no others, or -who has only pure Italians, will still find that it pays to practice -this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier, or the breeder of -our larger domestic animals, so, too, the apiarist is ever observing -some individuals of marked superiority, and he who carefully selects -such queens to breed from, will be the one whose profits will make him -rejoice, and whose apiary will be worthy of all commendation. As will -be patent to all, by the above process we exercise a care in breeding -which is not surpassed by the best breeders of horses and cattle, and -which no wise apiarist will ever neglect. - -After we have removed all the queen-cells, in manner soon to be -described, we can again supply eggs, or newly-hatched larvæ--always -from those queens which close observation has shown to be the most -vigorous and prolific in the apiary--and thus keep the same queenless -colony or colonies, engaged in starting queen-cells till we have all we -desire. Yet we must not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition -of capped brood, which we may take from any hive as most convenient. -I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should not be started -after the first of September, as I have observed that late queens are -not only less prolific, but shorter lived. In nature, late queens are -rarely produced, and if it is true that they are inferior, it might -be explained in the fact, that the ovaries remain so long inactive. -As queens that are long unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, mated -queens long inactive are enfeebled. - -In a week the cells are capped, and the apiarist is ready to form his - - -NUCLEI. - -A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees--a hive and colony on -a small scale, for the purpose of rearing and keeping queens. We want -the queens, but can afford to each nucleus only a few bees. The nucleus -hive, if we use frames not more than one foot square, need be nothing -more than an ordinary hive, with chamber confined by a division-board -to the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large, then it may -be thought best to construct special nucleus hives. These are small -hives, need not be more than six inches each way, that is, in length, -breadth, and thickness, and made to contain from four to six frames -of corresponding size. These frames are filled with comb. I have for -the last two or three years used the first named style of nucleus hive, -and have found it advantageous to have a few long hives made, each to -contain five chambers, while each chamber is entirely separate from -the one next to it, is five inches wide, and is covered by a separate, -close-fitting board, and the whole by a common cover. The entrance for -the two end chambers is at the ends near the same side of the hive. -The middle chamber has its entrance at the middle of the side near -which are the end entrances, while the other two chambers open on -the opposite side, as far apart as is possible. The outside might be -painted different colors to correspond with the divisions, if thought -necessary, especially on the side with two openings. Yet I have never -taken this precaution, nor have I been troubled much by losing queens. -They have almost invariably entered their own apartments when returning -from their wedding tour. These hives I use to keep queens during the -summer. Except the apiarist engages in queen-rearing extensively as -a business, I doubt the propriety of building such special nucleus -hives. The usual hives are good property to have in the apiary, will -soon be needed, and may be economically used for all nuclei. In spring -I make use of my hives which are prepared for prospective summer use, -for my nuclei. Now go to different hives of the apiary, and take out -three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has brood, and -so on, till there are as many nuclei prepared as you have queen-cells -to dispose of The bees should be left adhering to the frames of comb, -only _we must be certain that the queen is not among them_, as this -would take the queen from where she is most needed, and would lead to -the sure destruction of one queen-cell. To be sure of this, never take -such frames till _you have seen the queen_, that you may be sure she is -left behind. I usually shake off into the nucleus the bees from one or -two more frames, so that, even after the old bees have returned, there -will still be a sufficient number of young bees left in the nucleus to -keep the temperature at a proper height. If any desire the nuclei with -smaller frames, these frames must of course be filled with comb, and -then we can shake bees immediately into the nuclei, as given above, -till they shall have sufficient to preserve a proper temperature. In -this case the queen-cell should be inserted just before the bees are -added; in the other case, either before or after. Such special articles -about the apiary are costly and inconvenient. I believe that I should -use hives even with the largest frames for nuclei. In this case we -should need to give more bees. To insert the queen-cell--for we are -now to give one to each nucleus, so we can never form more nuclei than -we have capped queen-cells--we first cut them out, commencing to cut -on either side the base of the cell, at least one-half inch distant, -_we must not in the least compress the cell_, then cutting up and out -for two inches, then across opposite the cell. This leaves the cell -attached to a wedge-shaped piece of comb (Fig. 56), whose apes is next -the cell. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.] - -A similar cut in the middle frame of the nucleus, which in case of the -regular frames is the one containing brood, will furnish an opening -to receive the wedge containing the cell. The comb should also be cut -away beneath (Fig. 56), so that the cell cannot be compressed. After -all the nuclei have received their cells and bees, they have only -to be set in a shady place and watched to see that sufficient bees -remain. Should too many leave, give them more by removing the cover -and shaking a frame loaded with bees over the nucleus; keep the opening -nearly closed, and cover the bees with a quilt. The main caution in -all this _is to be sure not to get any old queen in a nucleus_. In -two or three days the queens will hatch, and in a week longer will -have become fertilized, and that, too, in case of the first queens, -by selected drones, for as yet there are no other in the apiary, and -the apiarist will possess from ten to thirty-five queens, which will -prove his best stock in trade. I cannot over-estimate the advantage of -ever having extra queens. To secure pure mating later, we must cut all -drone-comb from inferior colonies, so that they shall rear no drones. -If drone larvæ are in uncapped cells, they may be killed by sprinkling -the comb with cold water. By giving the jet of water some force they -may be washed out, or we may throw them out with the extractor, then -use the comb for starters in our sections. By keeping empty frames, and -empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept active; yet with so few -bees, one cannot expect very much from the nuclei. After cutting all -the queen-cells from our old hive, we can again insert eggs, as above -suggested, and obtain another lot of cells, or, if we have a sufficient -number, we can leave a single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be -the happy possessor of a queen, and just as flourishing as if the even -tenor of its ways had not been disturbed. - - -SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN'S WING? - -In the above operation, as in many other manipulations of the hive, -we shall often gain sight of the queen, and can, if we desire, clip -her wing, if she has met the drone, that in no case she shall lead the -colony away to parts unknown. This does not injure the queen, as some -have claimed. General Adair once stated that such treatment injured the -queen, as it cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by -so excellent a naturalist as Dr. Packard. Yet we are sure that this is -all a mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as we have seen, go to -the wings to carry nourishment to these members. With the wing goes the -necessity of nourishment and the need of the tubes. As well say that -the amputation of the human leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution, -as it would cut off the supply of blood. - -Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of the queen's -wings for years. Yet, these queens show no diminution of vigor: we -should suppose they would be even more vigorous, as useless organs -are always nourished at the expense of the organism, and if entirely -useless, are seldom long continued by nature. The ants set us an -example in this matter, as they bite the wings off their queens, after -mating has transpired. They mean that the queen ant shall remain -at home _nolens volens_, and why shall not we require the same of -the queen bee? Were it not for the necessity of swarming in nature, -we should doubtless have been anticipated in this matter by nature -herself. Still, if the queen essays to go with a swarm, and if the -apiarist is not at hand, she will very likely be lost, never regaining -the hive; but in this case the bees will be saved, as _they will_ -return without fail. I always mean to be so watchful, keeping my hives -shaded, giving ample room, and dividing or increasing, as to prevent -natural swarming. But in lieu of such caution I see no objection to -clipping the queen's wing, and would advise it. - -Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year, the secondary the -second year, the other primary the third, and if age of the queen -permits, the remaining wing the fourth year. Yet, such data, with other -matters of interest and importance, better be kept on a slate or card, -and firmly attached to the hive, or else kept in a record, opposite the -number of the hive. The time required to find the queen is sufficient -argument against the "queen-wing record.". It is not an argument -against the once clipping of the queen's wings, for, in the nucleus -hives, queens are readily found, and even in full colonies this is not -very difficult, especially if we heed the dictates of interest and keep -Italians. It will be best, even though we have to look up black queens, -in full colonies. The loss of one good colony, or the vexatious trouble -of separating two or three swarms which had clustered together, would -soon vanquish this argument of time. - -To clip the queen's wing, take hold of her wings with the left thumb -and index finger--never grasp her body, _especially her abdomen_, as -this will be very apt to injure her--raise her off the comb, then -turn from the bees, place her gently on a board or any convenient -object--even the knee will do--she will thus stand on her feet, and -not trouble by constantly passing her legs up by her wings, where they, -too, would be in danger of being cut off. Now, take a small pair of -scissors, and with the right hand open them, carefully pass one blade -under one of the front wings, shut the blades, and all is over. Some -apiarists complain that queens thus handled often receive a foreign -scent, and are destroyed by the bees. I have clipped hundreds, and -never lost one. I believe that the above method will not be open to -this objection. Should the experience of any one prove to the contrary, -the drawing on of a kid glove, or even the fingers of one, might remove -the difficulty. - - -FERTILE WORKERS. - -We have already referred to (pp. 77 and 90) and described fertile -workers. As these can only produce unimpregnated eggs, they are, of -course, valueless, and unless superseded by a queen, will soon cause -the destruction of the colony. As their presence often prevents the -acceptance of cells or a queen, by the common workers, they are a -serious pest. - -The absence of worker brood, and the abundant and careless deposition -of eggs--some cells being skipped, while others have received several -eggs--are pretty sure indications of their presence. - -To rid a colony of these, unite it with some colony with a good queen, -after which the colony may be divided if very strong. Simply exchanging -places of a colony with a fertile worker, and a good strong colony, -will often cause the destruction of the wrong-doer. In this case, -brood should be given to the colony which had the fertile worker, -that they may rear a queen; or better, a queen-cell or queen should -be given them. Caging a queen in a hive, with a fertile worker, for -thirty-six hours, will often cause the bees to accept her. Shaking the -bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will often rid them of the -counterfeit queen, after which they will receive a queen-cell or a -queen. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -INCREASE OF COLONIES. - - -No subject will be of more interest to the beginner, than that of -increasing stocks. He has one or two, he desires as many score, or, if -very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a Hetherington or a Harbison, as -many thousand. This is a subject, too, that may well engage the thought -and study of men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many -veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining an increase -of stocks. - -Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail methods, let me state -and enforce, that it is always safest, and generally wisest, especially -for the beginner, to be content with doubling, and certainly, with -tripling, his number of colonies each season. Especially let all -remember the motto, "Keep all colonies strong." - -There are two ways to increase: The natural, known as swarming, already -described under natural history of the bee; and artificial, improperly -styled artificial swarming. This is also called, and very properly, -too, "dividing." - - -SWARMING. - -To prevent anxiety and constant watching, and to secure a more equable -division of bees, and, as I know, more honey, it is better to provide -against swarming entirely by use of means which will appear in the -sequel. But as this requires some experience, and, as often, through -neglect, either necessary or culpable, swarms may issue, every apiarist -should be ever ready with both means and knowledge for immediate -action. Of course, the hives were all made the previous winter, _and -will never be wanting_. Neglect to provide hives before the swarming -season, is convincing proof that the wrong pursuit has been chosen. - -If, as we have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the matter -becomes very simple, in fact, so much simplified that were there no -other argument, this would be sufficient to recommend the practice of -cutting the queen's wing. Now, if several swarms cluster together, we -have not to separate them, they will separate of themselves and return -to their old home. To migrate without the queen means death, and life -is sweet even to bees, and is not to be willingly given up except for -home and kindred. Neither has the apiarist to climb trees, to secure -his bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice-work or pickets of -his fence, from the very top of a tall, slender, fragile fruit tree, -or other most inconvenient places. Nor will he even be tempted to pay -his money for patent hivers. He knows his bees will return to their -old quarters, so he is not perturbed by the fear of loss, or plans -to capture the unapproachable. It requires no effort "to possess his -soul in patience." If he wishes no increase, he steps out, takes the -queen by the remaining wings, as she emerges from the hive, soon after -the bees commence their hilarious leave-taking, puts her in a cage, -opens the hive, destroys, or, if he wishes to use them, cuts out the -queen cells as already described (page 167), gives more room--either -by adding boxes or taking out some of the frames of brood, as they may -well be spared, places the cage enclosing the queen under the quilt, -and leaves the bees to return at their pleasure. At night-fall the -queen is liberated, and very likely the swarming fever subdued for the -season. - -If it is desired to hive the absconding swarm with a nucleus colony, -exchange the places of the old hive containing the caged queen, and the -nucleus, to which the swarm will then come. Remove queen-cells from the -old hives as before, give some of the combs of brood to the nucleus, -which is now a full colony, and empty frames, with comb or foundation -starters, or, if you have them, empty combs to both, liberate the -queen at night and all is well, and the apiarist rejoices in a new -colony. If the apiarist has neglected to form nuclei, and so has no -extra queens--_and this is a neglect_--and wishes to hive his swarm -separately, he places his caged queen in an empty hive, with which he -replaces the old hive till the bees return, then this new hive, with -queen and bees, and, still better, with a frame or two of brood, -honey, etc., in the middle, which were taken from the old hive, is -set on a new stand. The old hive, with all the queen-cells except the -largest and finest one removed, is set back, so that the apiarist has -forestalled the issue of after-swarms, except that other queen-cells -are afterward started, which is not likely to happen. The old queen -is liberated as before, and we are in the way of soon having two good -colonies. Some apiarists cage the queen and let the bees return, then -divide the colony as soon to be described. - -Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase of colonies, -cage the old queen, destroy cells, and exchange this hive--after -taking out three or four frames of brood to strengthen nuclei--with -one that recently swarmed. Thus a colony that recently sent out a -swarm, but retained their queen, has probably, from the decrease of -bees, loss of brood and removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming -fever, and if we give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will -accept the bees from a new swarm, and spend their future energies in -storing honey. Southard and Ranney have been very successful in the -practice of this method. If building of drone-comb in the empty frames -which replaced the brood-frames removed, should vex the apiarist--Dr. -Southard says they had no such trouble--it could be prevented by giving -worker-foundation. If the swarming fever is not broken up, we shall -only have to repeat the operation again in a few days. - - -HIVING SWARMS. - -But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or from taste, or -other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire to "deform her royal -highness." Then the apiarist must possess the means to save the -would-be rovers. The means are good hives in readiness, some kind of -a brush--a turkey-wing will do--and a bag or basket, with ever open -top, which should be at least eighteen inches in diameter, and this -receptacle so made that it may be attached to the end of a pole, and -two such poles, one very long and the other of medium length. - -Now, let us attend to the method: As soon as the cluster commences to -form, place the hive on the ground near by, leaving the entrance widely -open, which with our bottom-board only requires that we draw the hive -forward an inch Or more over the alighting-board. As soon as the bees -are fully clustered, we must manage as best we can to empty the whole -cluster in front of the hive. As the bees are full of honey we need -have little fear of stings. Should the bees be on a twig that could be -sacrificed, this might be easily out off with either a knife or saw, -and so carefully as hardly to disturb the bees; then carry and shake -the bees in front of the hive, when with joyful hum they will at once -proceed to enter. If the twig must not be cut, shake them all into the -basket, and empty before the hive. Should they be on a tree trunk, or -a fence, then brush them with the wing into the basket, and proceed as -before. If they are high up on a tree, take the pole and basket, and -perhaps a ladder will also be necessary. - -Always let ingenuity have its perfect work, not forgetting that the -object to be gained is to get just as many of the bees as is possible -on the alighting-board in front of the hive. Carelessness as to the -quantity might involve the loss of the queen, which would be serious. -The bees to ill not remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should a -cluster form where it is impossible to brush or shake them off, they -can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it above them and -blowing smoke among them. As soon as they are nearly all in--a few -may be flying around, but if the queen is in the new hive, they will -go back to their old home, or find the new one--which Mr. Betsinger -says they will always do, if it is not far removed--remove the hive to -its permanent stand. All washes are more than useless. It is better -that the hive be clean and pure. With such, if they are shaded, bees -will generally be satisfied. But assurance will be made doubly sure by -giving them a frame of brood, in all stages of growth, from the old -hive. This may be inserted before the work of hiving is commenced. Mr. -Betsinger thinks this will cause them to leave; but I think he will -not be sustained by the experience of other apiarists. He certainly -is not by mine. I never knew but one colony to leave uncapped brood; -I have often known them to swarm out of an empty hive once or twice, -and to be returned, after brood had been placed in the hive, when they -accepted the changed conditions, and went at once to work. This seems -reasonable, too, in view of the attachment of bees for their nest of -brood, as also from analogy. How eager the ant to convey her larvæ and -pupæ--the so-called eggs--to a place of safety, when the nest has been -invaded and danger threatens. Bees doubtless have the same desire to -protect their young, and as they cannot carry them away to a new home, -they remain to care for them in one that may not be quite to their -taste. - -If it is not desired to increase, the bees may be given to a colony -which has previously swarmed, after removing from the latter all -queen-cells, and adding to the room by giving boxes and removing some -frames of brood to strengthen nuclei. This plan is practiced by Dr. -Southard. We may even return the bees to their old home by taking the -same precautionary measures, with a good hope that storing and not -swarming will engage their attention in future; and if we exchange -their position with that of a nucleus, we shall be still more likely -to succeed in overcoming the desire to swarm; though some seasons, -usually when honey is being gathered each day for long intervals, but -not in large quantities, the desire and determination of some colonies -to swarm is implacable. Room, ventilation, changed position of hive, -each and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify the -propensity, by giving the swarm a new home, and make an effort - - -TO PREVENT SECOND SWARMS. - -As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on hand extra -queens. Now, if he does not desire to form nuclei (as already -explained), and thus use these queen cells, he will at once cut them -_all_ out, and destroy them, and give the old colony a fertile queen. -The method of introduction will be given hereafter, though in such -cases there is very little danger incurred by giving them a queen at -once. And by thoroughly smoking the bees, and sprinkling with sweetened -water, and daubing the new queen with honey, we may be almost sure of -success. If desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming nuclei, -in manner before described. In this way we save our colony from being -without a fertile queen for at least thirteen, days, and that, too, -in the very height of the honey season, when time is money. If extra -queens are wanting, we have only to look carefully through the old hive -and remove all but one of the queen-cells. A little care will certainly -make sure work, as, after swarming, the old hive is so thinned of bees, -that only carelessness will overlook queen-cells in such a quest. - - -TO PREVENT SWARMING. - -As yet we can only partly avert swarming. Mr. Quinby offered a large -reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and never had to make the -payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it, and partially succeeded, by granting -much space to the bees, so that they should not be impelled to vacate -for lack of room.' The Quinby hive already described, by the large -capability of the brood-chamber, and ample opportunity for top and -side-storing, looks to the same end. But we may safely say that a -perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the bee-keeping -public. The best aids toward non-swarming are shade, ventilation, -and roomy hives. But as we shall see in the sequel, much room in the -brood-chamber, unless we work for extracted honey--by which means we -may greatly repress the swarming fever--prevents our obtaining honey -in a desirable style. If we add sections, unless the connection is -quite free--in which case the queen is apt to enter them and greatly -vex us--we must crowd some to send the bees into the sections. Such -crowding is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by abrading the -combs of capped honey in the brood-chamber, as suggested to me by Mr. -M. M. Baldridge--causing the honey to run down from the combs--sent the -bees crowding to the sections, and thus deferred or prevented swarming. - -It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is very rapid, -and then by rapidly feeding the extracted honey in the interims of -honey secretion, we might prevent swarming, secure very rapid breeding, -and still get our honey in sections. Too few experiments, to be at all -decisive, have led me to look favorably in this direction. - -The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure honey without -increase, as practiced and advised by some even of our distinguished -apiarists, seems to me a _very questionable practice_, to which I -cannot even lend my approval by so much as detailing the method. I -would rather advise: keeping a, queen, and the workers all at work _in -every_ hive, if possible, all the time. - - -HOW TO MULTIPLY COLONIES WITH THE BEST RESULTS. - -We have already seen the evils of natural swarming, for, even though no -stock is too much reduced in numbers, no colony lost by not receiving -prompt attention, no Sunday quiet disturbed, and no time wasted in -anxious watching, yet, at best, the old colony is queenless for about -two weeks, _a state of things which no apiarist can or should afford_. -The true policy then is to practice artificial swarming, as just -described, where we save time by cutting the queen's-wing, and save -loss by permitting no colony to remain queenless, or still better to - - -DIVIDE. - -This method will secure uniform colonies, will increase our number -of colonies just to our liking, will save time, and that, too, when -time is most valuable, and is in every respect safer and preferable to -swarming. I have practiced dividing ever since I have kept bees, and -_never without the best results_. - - -HOW TO DIVIDE. - -By the process already described, we have secured a goodly number of -fine queens, which will be in readiness at the needed time. Now, as -soon as the white clover harvest is well commenced, early in June, we -may commence operations. If we have but one colony to divide, it is -well to wait till they become pretty populous, but not till they swarm. -Take one of our waiting hives, which now holds a nucleus with fertile -queen, and remove the same close along side the colony we wish to -divide. This must only be done on warm days when the bees are active, -and better be done, while the bees are busy, in the middle of the -day. Remove the division-board of the new hive, and then remove five -combs, well loaded with brood, and of course containing some honey, -from the old colony, bees and all, to the new hive. Also take the -remaining frames and shake the bees into the new hive. _Only be sure -that the queen still remains in the old hive._ Fill both the hives -with empty frames--if the frames are filled with empty comb it will be -still better, if not it will pay to give starters or full frames of -foundation--and return the new hive to its former position. The old -bees will return to the old colony, while the young ones will remain -peaceably with the new queen. The old colony will now contain at least -seven frames of brood, honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, -so that they will work on as though naught had transpired, though -perhaps moved to a little harder effort by the added space and five -empty frames. The empty frames may be all placed at one end, or placed -between the others, though not so as to divide brood. - -The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc., three from -the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young fertile queen, plenty -of bees, those of the previous nucleus and the young bees from the old -colony, and will work with a surprising vigor, often even eclipsing the -old colony. - -If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make the new -colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take one frame of -brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two from each of three, -and carry them, bees and all, and place with the nucleus. _Only, be -sure that no queen is removed._ Fill all the hives with empty combs, -or foundation instead of frames, as before. In this way we increase -without in the least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a -colony every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size -of our apiary, and can thus always, so my experience says, prevent -swarming. - -By taking only brood that is all capped, we can safely add one or two -frames to each nucleus every week, without adding any bees, as there -would be no danger of loss by chilling the brood. In this way, as we -remove no bees, we have to spend no time in looking for the queen, and -may build up our nuclei into full stocks, and keep back the swarming -impulse with great facility. - -These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and so I will not -complicate the subject by detailing others. The only objection that -can be urged against them, and even this does not apply to the last, -is that we must seek out the queen in each hive, or at least be sure -that we do not remove her, though this is by no means so tedious if we -have Italians, as of course we all will. I might give other methods -which would render unnecessary this caution, but they are to my mind -inferior, and not to be recommended. If we proceed as above described, -the bees will seldom prepare to swarm at all, and if they do they will -be discovered in the act, by such frequent examinations, and the work -may be cut short by at once dividing such colonies as first explained, -and destroying their queen-cells, or, if desired, using them for -forming new nuclei. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING. - - -The history and description of Italians (see Frontis-plate) have -already been considered (p. 41), so it only remains to discuss the -subject in a practical light. - -The superiority of the Italians seems at present a mooted question. -A few among the able apiarists in our country take the ground that a -thorough balancing of qualities will make as favorable a showing for -the German, as for the Italian bees. I think, too, that the late Baron -of Berlepsch held to the same view. - -I think I am capable of acting as judge on this subject. I have never -sold a half-dozen queens in my life, and so have not been unconsciously -influenced by self-interest. In fact, I have never had, if I except -two years, any direct interest in bees at all, and all my work and -experiments had only the promotion and spread of truth as the ultimatum. - -Again, I have kept both blacks and Italians side by side, and carefully -observed and noted results during eight years of my experience. I have -carefully collected data as to increase of brood, rapidity of storing, -early and late habits in the day and season, kinds of flowers visited, -amiability, etc., and I believe that to say that they are not superior -to black bees, is like saying that a Duchess among short-horns is in no -wise superior to the lean, bony kine of Texas; or that our Essex and -Berkshire swine are no whit better than the cadaverous lank breeds, -with infinite noses, that, happily, are now so rare among us. The -Italians are _far_ superior to the German bees in many respects, and -more--though I am acquainted with all the works on apiculture printed -in our language, and have an extensive acquaintance with the leading -apiarists of our country from Maine to California, yet I know of -scarcely a baker's dozen that have had opportunity to form a correct -judgment, that do not give strong preference to the Italians. That -these men are honest, is beyond question; that those who disagree -with us are equally so, there is no doubt. The black bees are in some -respects superior to the Italians, and if a bee-keeper's methods cause -him to give these points undue importance, in forming his judgments, -then his conclusions may be wrong. Faulty management, too, may lead to -wrong conclusions. - -The Italians certainly possess the following points of superiority: - -First. They possess longer tongues (Fig. 20), and so can gather from -flowers which are useless to the black bee. This point has already -been sufficiently considered (p. 42). How much value hangs upon this -structural peculiarity, I am unable to state. I have frequently -seen Italians working on red clover. I never saw a black bee thus -employed. It is easy to see that this might be, at certain times and -certain seasons, a very material aid. How much of the superior storing -qualities of the Italians is due to this lengthened ligula, I am unable -to say. - -Second. They are more active, and with the same opportunities will -collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter of observation, which -I have tested over and over again. Yet I will give the figures of -another: Mr. Doolittle secured from two colonies, 309 lbs. and 301 -lbs., respectively, of _box honey_, during the past season. These -surprising figures, the best he could give, were from his best Italian -stocks. Similar testimony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the sea, -and from hosts of our own apiarists. - -Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only true of the day, -but of the season. On cool days in spring, I have seen the dandelions -swarming with Italians, while not a black bee was to be seen. On May -7th, 1877, I walked less than one-half a mile, and counted sixty-eight -bees gathering from dandelions, yet only two were black bees. This -might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to spring -dwindling. Yet, with the proper management, to be described while -considering the subject of wintering, we think this no objection, but a -great advantage. - -Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against robbers. -Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their hard-earned stores -soon find that they have "dared to beard the lion in his den." This is -so patent, that even the advocates of black bees are ready to concede -it. - -Fifth. They are almost proof against the ravages of the bee-moth's -larvæ. This is also universally conceded. - -Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is probably in part -due to the greater and more constant activity of the neuters. This -is observable at all seasons, but very striking when building up in -spring. No one who will take the pains to note the increase of brood -will long remain in doubt on this point. - -Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is desirable to -have the bees very quiet. - -Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which is a great advantage. -In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is frequently desirable -to find the queen. In full colonies I would rather find three Italian -queens than one black one. Where time is money, this becomes a matter -of much importance. - -Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb while being -handled, which some might regard a doubtful compliment, though I -consider it a desirable quality. - -Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other bees. They -will find honey when the blacks gather none, and the time for robbing -is when there is no gathering. This may explain the above peculiarity. - -Eleventh. And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for preference, -did it stand alone, the Italian bees are _far more amiable_. Years ago -I got rid of my black bees, because they were so cross. Two years ago I -got two or three colonies, that my students might see the difference, -but to my regret; for, as we removed the honey in the autumn, they -seemed perfectly furious, like demons, seeking whom they might devour, -and this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous Italians -were safely handled, even without smoke. The experiment at least -satisfied a large class of students as to superiority. Mr. Quinby -speaks in his book of their being cross, and Captain Hetherington tells -me, that if not much handled, they are more cross than the blacks. -From my own experience, I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even -more cross than are the pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly as -desirable as the pure Italians. - -I have kept these two races side by side for years, I have studied them -most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the above eleven points of -excellence is too strongly stated. - -The black bees will go into close boxes more readily than Italians, but -if we use the sectional frames, and on other grounds we can afford to -use no other, we shall find, with the more ample connection between the -brood-chamber and sections, that even here, as Mr. Doolittle and many -others have shown, the Italians still give the best returns. - -I have some reasons to think that the blacks are more hardy, and have -found many apiarists who agree with me. Yet, others of wide experience, -think that there is no difference, while still others think the -Italians more hardy. - -The Italian bees are said to dwindle worse in spring, which, as they -are more active, is quite probable. As I have never had a case of -serious spring dwindling, I cannot speak from experience. If the -bee-keeper prevents early spring flying, which is very detrimental to -either black or Italian bees, this point will have no weight, even if -well taken. - - -ALL SHOULD KEEP ONLY ITALIANS. - -The advantages of the Italians, which have been considered thus fully, -are more than sufficient to warrant the exclusion of all other bees -from the apiary. Truly, no one need to be urged to a course, that adds -to the ease, profit, and agreeableness of his vocation. - - -HOW TO ITALIANIZE. - -From what has been already explained regarding the natural history of -bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to change our bees, is -to change our queens. Hence, to Italianize a colony, we have only to -procure and introduce an Italian queen. - - -HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN. - -In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony composed -wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to introduce a queen in the -manner explained in the section on artificial swarming. To introduce a -queen to a colony composed of old bees more care is required. First, -we should seek out the old queen and destroy her, then cage our -Italian queen in a wire cage, which may be made by winding a strip of -wire-cloth, three and one-half inches wide, and containing fifteen -to twenty meshes to the inch, about the finger. Let it lap each way -one-half inch, then cut it off. Ravel out the half inch on each side, -and weave in the ends of the wires, forming a tube the size of the -finger. We now have only to put the queen in the tube, and pinch the -ends together, and the queen is caged. The cage containing the queen -should be inserted between two adjacent combs containing honey, each of -which will touch it. The queen can thus sip honey as she needs it. If -we fear the queen may not be able to sip the honey through the meshes -of the wire, we may dip a piece of clean sponge in honey and insert it -in the upper end of the cage before we compress this end. This will -furnish the queen with the needed food. In forty-eight hours we again -open the hive, after a thorough smoking, also the cage, which is easily -done by pressing the upper end, at right-angles to the direction of the -pressure when we closed it. In doing this do not remove the cage. Now -keep watch, and if, as the bees enter the cage or as the queen emerges, -the bees attack her, secure her immediately and re-cage her for another -forty-eight hours. I usually let some honey drip on the queen as soon -as the cage is opened. Some think this renders the bees more amiable. I -have introduced many queens in this manner, and have very rarely been -unsuccessful. - -Mr. Dadant stops the cage with a plug of wood, and when he goes to -liberate the queen replaces the wooden stop with one of comb, and -leaves the bees to liberate the queen by eating out the comb. I have -tried this, but with no better success than I have had with the above -method, while with this plan the queen is surely lost if the bees do -not receive her kindly. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at one -end, which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of the cage -reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the queen is thus held -by cage and comb till the bees liberate her. I have never tried this -plan. When bees are not storing, especially if robbers are abundant, -it is more difficult to succeed, and at such time the utmost caution -will occasionally fail of success if the bees are old. - -A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can almost always be safely -given at once to the colony, after destroying the old queen. - -A queen cell is usually received with favor. If we adopt this course we -must be careful to destroy all other queen-cells that may be formed; -and if the one we supply is destroyed, wait seven days, then destroy -all their queen-cells, and they are sure to accept a cell. But to save -time I should always introduce a queen. - -If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very great value, -we might make a new colony, all of young bees, as already described. -Smoke them well, sprinkle with sweetened water, daub the queen with -honey, and introduce immediately. This method would involve really no -risk. If the apiarist was still afraid, he could make assurance still -more sure by taking combs of brood where the young bees were rapidly -escaping from the cells; there would soon be enough young bees to -cluster about the queen, and soon enough bees for a good colony. This -plan would not be advisable except in warm weather, and care is also -required to protect from robbers. The colony might be set in the cellar -for a few days, in which case it would be safe even in early spring. - -By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may commence the -next spring, and, as described in the section explaining the formation -of artificial swarms, we may control our rearing of drones, queens, and -all, and ere another autumn have only the beautiful, pure, amiable, -and active Italians. I have done this several times, and with the most -perfect satisfaction. I think by making this change in blood, we add -certainly two dollars to the value of each colony, and I know of no -other way to make money so easily and pleasantly. - - -TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEEN. - -Send to some reliable breeder, and ask for a queen worth at least five -dollars. It is the mania now to rear and sell cheap queens. These are -reared--must be reared--without care, and will, I fear, prove very -cheap. It is a question, if any more sure way could be devised to -injure our stocks than the dollar queen business, which is now so -popular. It is quite probable that much of the superiority of Italian -bees is owing to the care and careful selection in breeding. Such -careful selection in-breeding, either with black or Italian bees, is -what will augment the value of our apiaries. - -The tendency of the dollar queen business is to disseminate the -inferior queens, many of which will appear in every apiary. These -should be killed, not sold. Yet, many an apiarist will think even the -poorest queens are worth a dollar. My friend, Mrs. Baker, bought a -dollar "Albino" queen last season which was not worth a cent. Yet it -cost only a dollar, and, of course, no satisfaction could be secured or -even asked for. I think it behooves apiarists to think of this matter, -and see if dollar queens are not very dear. I have thrown away three -dollars on them, and have concluded to pay more and buy cheaper in -future. - -I believe our breeders should be encouraged to give us the best; to -study the art of breeding, and never send out an inferior queen. In -this way we may hope to keep up the character of our apiaries, and the -reputation of Italians. Else we are safer under the old system where -"natural selection" retained the best, by the "survival of the fittest." - - -REARING AND SHIPPING QUEENS. - -I have already explained the matter of queen-rearing. After many -inquiries, and some experience, I much doubt if any apiarist can afford -to rear queens, such as apiarists wish to buy, for less than four or -five dollars. Only the best should be sold, and no pains should be -spared by the breeder to secure such queens. - - -TO SHIP QUEENS. - -This is a very simple matter. We have only to secure a square block -two inches each way, and one and a half inches deep--a hole bored -into a two-inch plank to within a quarter of an inch of the bottom -serves admirably. In this should be inserted a piece of capped -honey, which has been _entirely_ cleaned by bees. Bees will speedily -perform this work, if the comb containing the honey is placed on the -alighting-board. This must be fastened into the shipping-box, which -is easily done, by pinning it with a slender wooden pin, which passes -through holes previously bored in the box. We now cover the open -chamber with fine wire-cloth, put in our queen and fifteen or twenty -bees, and she is ready to ship. _Any uncapped honey to daub the queen -is almost sure to prove fatal._ - -Mr. A. I. Root furnishes a cage already provisioned with sugar -(Fig. 57), which is very neat and safe. I have received queens from -Tennessee, which were fed exclusively on candy, and came in excellent -condition. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.] - - -TO MOVE COLONIES. - -Should we desire to purchase Italian or other colonies, the only -requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover for ventilation, -secure fastening of the frames so they cannot possibly move, and combs -old enough so that they shall not break down and fall out. I would -never advise moving bees in winter, though it has often been done with -entire safety. I should wish the bees to have a flight very soon after -such disturbance. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -EXTRACTING, AND THE EXTRACTOR. - - -The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the queen has no -room to lay her eggs, especially if there is any neglect to give other -room for storing. Honey, too, in brood-combs is unsalable, because the -combs are dark, and the size undesirable. Comb, too, is very valuable, -and should never be taken from the bees, except when desired to render -the honey more marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very efficient -auxiliary in the - - -HONEY EXTRACTOR. - -No doubt some have expected and claimed too much for this machine. It -is equally true, that some have blundered quite as seriously in an -opposite direction. For, since Mr. Langstroth gave the movable frame -to the world, the apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any -inventor as to him who gave us the Mell Extractor, Herr von Hruschka, -of Germany. Even if there was no sale for extracted honey--aye, more, -even if it must be thrown away, which will never be necessary, as it -may always be fed to the bees with profit, even then I would pronounce -the extractor an invaluable aid to every bee-keeper. - -The principle which makes this machine effective is that of centrifugal -force, and it was suggested to Major von Hruschka, by noticing that -a piece of comb which was twirled by his boy at the end of a string, -was emptied of its honey. Herr von Hruschka's machine was essentially -like those now so common, though in lightness and convenience there has -been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a wooden tub, with -a vertical axle in the centre, which revolved in a socket fastened to -the bottom of the vessel, while from the top of the tub, fastenings -extended to the axle, which projected for a distance above. The axle -was thus held exactly in the centre of the tub. Attached to the axle -was a frame or rack to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against -a wire-cloth. The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the -uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwinding a string, -which had been previously wound about the top of the axle, after the -style of top-spinning. Replace the wooden tub with one of tin, and the -string with gearing, and it will be seen that we have essentially the -neat extractor of to-day. As the machine is of foreign invention, it -is not covered by a patent, and may be made by any one without let or -hindrance. A good machine may be bought for eight dollars. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.] - - -WHAT STYLE TO BUY. - -The machine should be as light as is consistent with strength. It is -best that the can be stationary, and that only a light frame be made to -revolve with the comb. It is desirable that the machine should run with -gearing, not only for ease, but also to insure or allow an even motion, -so that we need not throw even drone larvæ from the brood-cells. The -arrangement for exit of the honey should permit a speedy and perfect -shut-off. A molasses gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I should -also prefer that the can hold considerable honey--thirty or forty -pounds--before it would be necessary to let the honey flow from it. - -In case of small frames, like the ones I have described as most -desirable to my mind, I should prefer that the rack might hold four -frames. Mr. O. J. Hetherington has found that winding the rack with -fine wire, serves better than wire-cloth to resist the combs, while -permitting the honey to pass. The rack should set so low in the can -that no honey would ever be thrown over the top to daub the person -using the machine. I think that a wire basket, with a tin bottom, and -made to hook on to the comb-rack (Fig. 58, _a, a_) which will hold -pieces of comb not in frames, a desirable improvement to an extractor. -Such baskets are appended to the admirable extractor (Fig. 58) made by -Mr. B. O. Everett, of Toledo, Ohio, which, though essentially like the -extractor of Mr. A. I. Root, has substantial improvements, and is the -cheapest, and I think the best extractor, that I have used or seen. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.] - -I have tried machines where the sides of the rack (Fig. 59) inclined -down and in, for the purpose of holding pieces of comb, but found them -unsatisfactory. The combs would not be sustained. Yet, if the frames -were long and narrow, so that the end of the frame would have to rest -on the bottom of the rack, instead of hanging as it does in the hive, -such an incline might be of use to prevent the top of the frame from -falling in, before we commence to turn the machine. - -The inside, if metal, which is lighter and to be preferred to wood, -as it does not sour or absorb the honey, should be either of tin or -galvanized iron, so as not to rust. A cover to protect the honey from -dust, when not in use, is very desirable. The cloth cover, gathered -around the edge by a rubber, as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent -for this purpose. As no capped honey could be extracted, it is -necessary to uncap it, which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To -do this, nothing is better than the new Bingham & Hetherington honey -knife (Fig. 60). After a thorough trial of this knife, here at the -College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any other that we have -used, though we have several of the principal knives made in the United -States. It is, perhaps, sometimes desirable to have a curved point -(Fig. 61), though this is not at all essential. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.] - - -USE OF THE EXTRACTOR. - -Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, it is -nevertheless a fact, that the queen often remains idle, or extrudes -her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are no empty cells. The -honey yield is so great that the workers occupy every available space, -and sometimes even they become unwilling idlers, simply because of -necessity. Seldom a year has passed but that I have noticed some of my -most prolific queens thus checked in duty. It is probable that just the -proper arrangement and best management of frames for surplus would make -such occasions rare; yet, I have seen the brood-chamber in two-story -hives, with common frames above--the very best arrangement to promote -storing above the brood-chamber--so crowded as to force the queen -either to idleness or to egg-laying in the upper frames. This fact, -as also the redundant brood, and excessive storing that follows upon -extracting from the brood-chamber, make me emphatic upon this point, -notwithstanding the fact that some men of wide experience and great -intelligence, think me wrong. - -The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey-extracted -honey--in poor seasons, when he could get very little, if any, in -sections or boxes. - -By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the apiarist can secure -nearly if not quite double the amount of honey, that he could get in -combs. - -The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the fall, which, -if left in the hive, may cause disease and death. - -By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from our surplus -brood-combs in the fall, and thus have a salable article, and have the -empty combs, which are invaluable for use the next spring. We now have -in our apiary one hundred and fifty such empty combs. - -If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket attachment, -at the bottom as I have suggested, the uncapped sections can be -emptied in the fall, if desired, and pieces of drone-comb cut from the -brood-chamber, which are so admirable for starters in the sections, can -be emptied of their honey at any season. - -By use of the extractor, we can furnish at one-half the price we ask -for comb-honey, an article which is equal, if not superior, to the best -comb-honey, and which, were it not for appearance alone, would soon -drive the latter from the market. - - -WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR. - -If extracted honey can be sold for fifteen, or even twelve cents, the -extractor may be used profitably the summer through; otherwise use it -sufficiently often that there may always be empty worker-cells in the -brood-chamber. - -It is often required with us during the three great honey harvests--the -white clover, basswood, and that of fall flowers. I have always -extracted the honey so frequently as to avoid much uncapping. If the -honey was thin, I would keep it in a dry warm room, or apply a mild -heat, that it might thicken, and escape danger from fermentation. Yet, -so many have sustained a loss by extracting prematurely, that I urge -all never to extract till after the bees have sealed the cells. The -labor of uncapping, with the excellent honey knives now at our command, -is so light, that we can afford to run no risk that the honey produced -at our apiaries shall sour and become worthless. - -If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to the fluid state with no -injury, by healing, though the temperature should never rise above 200° -F. This can best be done by placing the vessel containing the honey -in another containing water, though if the second vessel be set on a -stove, a tin basin or pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel -from touching the bottom, else the honey would burn. As before stated, -the best honey is always sure to crystallize, but it may be prevented -by keeping it in a temperature which is constantly above 80° F. If -canned honey is set on top a furnace in which a fire is kept burning, -it will remain liquid indefinitely. - -To render the honey free from small pieces of comb, or other -impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth or wire sieve--I -purposely refrain from the use of the word strainer, as we should -neither use the word strained, nor allow it to be used, in connection -with extracted honey--or else draw it off into a barrel, with a faucet -or molasses gate near the lower end, and after all particles of solid -matter have risen to the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom. -In case of very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory as the -first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is thinner, and will -of course pass more readily through common toweling or fine wire-cloth. - -Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want of empty cells. -Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and the honey from all the -brood-combs not needed for winter. The honey, too, should be thrown -from pieces of drone-comb which are cut from the brood-frames, and from -the uncapped comb in sections at the close of the season. - - -HOW TO EXTRACT. - -The apiarist should possess one or two light boxes, of sufficient size -to hold all the frames from a single hive. These should have convenient -handles, and a close-fitting cover, which will slide easily either -way. These will be more easily used if they rest on legs, which will -raise their tops say three feet from the ground. Now, go to two or -three colonies, take enough combs, and of the right kind for a colony. -The bees may be shaken off or brushed off with a large feather. If the -bees are troublesome, close the box as soon as each comb is placed -inside. Extract the honey from these, using care not to turn so hard -as to throw out the brood. If necessary, with a thin knife pare off -the caps, and after throwing the honey from one side, turn the comb -around, and extract it from the other. If combs are of very different -weights, it will be better for the extractor to use those of nearly -equal weights on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. Now -take these combs to another colony, whose combs shall be replaced by -them. Then close the hive, extract this second set of combs, and thus -proceed till the honey has all been extracted. At the close, the one or -two colonies from which the first combs were taken shall receive pay -from the last set extracted, and thus, with much saving of time, little -disturbance of bees, and the least invitation to robbing, in case there -is no gathering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary. - - -TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY. - -Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be run into them -from the extractor. The honey should be thick, and the vessels may be -sealed or corked, and boxed at once. - -If large quantities of honey are extracted, it may be most conveniently -kept in barrels. These should be first-class, and ought to be waxed -before using them, to make assurance doubly sure against any leakage. -To wax the barrels, we may use beeswax, but paraffine is cheaper, -and just as efficient. Three or four quarts of the hot paraffine or -wax should be turned into the barrel, the bung driven in tight, the -barrel twirled in every position, after which the bung is loosened by -a blow with the hammer, and the residue of the wax turned out. Economy -requires that the barrels be warm when waxed, so that only a thin coat -will be appropriated. - -Large tin cans, waxed and soldered at the openings after being filled, -are cheap, and may be the most desirable receptacles for extracted -honey. - -Extracted honey should always be kept in dry apartments. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -HANDLING BEES. - - -But some one asks the question, shall we not receive those merciless -stings, or be introduced to what "Josh" calls the "business end of the -bee?" Perhaps there is no more causeless, or more common dread, in -existence, than this of bees' stings. When bees are gathering, they -will never sting unless provoked. When at the hives--especially if -Italians--they will rarely make an attack. The common belief, too, that -some persons are more liable to attack than others, is, I think, put -too strong. With the best opportunity to judge, with our hundreds of -students, I think I may safely say that one is almost always as liable -to attack as another, except that he is more quiet, or does not greet -the usually amiable passer-by, with those terrific thrusts, which would -vanquish even a practiced pugilist. Occasionally a person _may_ have -a peculiar odor about his person that angers bees and invites their -darting tilts, with drawn swords, venom-tipped, yet, though I take my -large classes each season, at frequent intervals, to see and handle -the bees, each for himself, I still await the first proof of the fact, -that one person is more liable to be stung than another, providing each -carries himself with that composed and dignified bearing, that is so -pleasing to the bees. True, some people, filled with dread, and the -belief that bees regard them with special hate and malice, are so ready -for the battle, that they commence the strife with nervous head-shakes -and beating of the air, and thus force the bees to battle, _nolens -volens_. I believe that only such are regarded with special aversion by -the bees. Hence, I believe that no one need be stung. - -Bees should never be jarred, nor irritated by quick motions. Those with -nervous temperaments--and I plead very guilty on this point--need not -give up, but at first better protect their faces, and perhaps even -their hands, till time and experience show them that fear is vain; then -they will divest themselves of all such useless encumbrances. Bees -are more cross when they are gathering no honey, and at such times, -black bees and hybrids, especially, are so irritable that even the -experienced apiarist will wish a veil. - - -THE BEST BEE-VEIL. - -This should be made of black tarlatan, sewed up like a bag, a half -yard long, without top or bottom, and with a diameter of the rim of a -common straw-hat. Gather the top with braid, so that it will just slip -over the crown of the hat--else, sew it to the edge of the rim of some -cheap, cool hat, in fact, I prefer this style--and gather the bottom -with rubber cord or rubber tape, so that it may be drawn over the hat -rim, and then over the head, as we adjust the hat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.] - -Some prefer to dispense with the rubber cord at the bottom (Fig. 62), -and have the veil long so as to be gathered in by the coat or dress. If -the black tarlatan troubles by coloring the shirt or collar, the lower -part may be made of white netting. When in use, the rubber cord draws -the lower part close about the neck, or the lower part tucks within the -coat or vest (Fig. 62), and we are safe. This kind of a veil is cool, -does not impede vision at all, and can be made by any woman at a cost -of less than twenty cents. Common buckskin or sheep-skin gloves can be -used, as it will scarcely pay to get special gloves for the purpose, -for the most timid person--I speak from experience--will soon consider -gloves an unnecessary nuisance. - -Special rubber gloves are sold by those who keep on hand apiarian -supplies. - -Some apiarists think that dark clothing is specially obnoxious to bees. - -For ladies, my friend, Mrs. Baker, recommends a dress which, by use -of the rubber skirt-lift or other device, can be instantly raised or -lowered. This will be convenient in the apiary, and tidy anywhere. The -Gabrielle style is preferred, and of a length just to reach the floor. -It should be belted at the waist, and cut down from the neck in front, -one-third the length of the waist, to permit the tucking in of the -veil. The under-waist should fasten close about the neck. The sleeves -should be quite long to allow free use of the arms, and gathered in -with a rubber cord at the wrist, which will hug the rubber gauntlets -or arm, and prevent bees from crawling up the sleeves. The pantalets -should be straight and full, and should also have the rubber cord in -the hem to draw them close about the top of the shoes. - -Mrs. Baker also places great stress on the wet "head-cap," which she -believes the men even would find a great comfort. This is a simple, -close-fitting cap, made of two thicknesses of coarse toweling. The head -is wet with cold water, and the cap wet in the same, wrung out, and -placed on the head. - -Mrs. Baker would have the dress neat and clean, and so trimmed that -the lady apiarist would ever be ready to greet her brother or sister -apiarists. In such a dress there is no danger of stings, and with it -there is that show of neatness and taste, without which no pursuit -could attract the attention, or at least the patronage, of our refined -women. - - -TO QUIET BEES. - -In harvest seasons, the bees, especially if Italians, can almost always -be handled without their showing resentment. But at other times, and -whenever they object to necessary familiarity, we have only to cause -them to fill with honey to render them harmless, unless we pinch them. -This can be done by closing the hive so that the bees cannot get out, -and then rapping on the hive for four or five minutes. Those within -will fill with honey, those without will be tamed by surprise, and -all will be quiet. Sprinkling the bees with sweetened water will also -tend to render them amiable, and will make them more ready to unite, -to receive a queen, and less apt to sting. Still another method, more -convenient, is to smoke the bees. A little smoke blown among the bees -will scarcely ever fail to quiet them, though I have known black bees -in autumn, to be very slow to yield. Dry cotton cloth, closely wound -and sewed or tied, or better, pieces of dry, rotten wood, are excellent -for the purpose of smoking. These are easily handled, and will burn for -a long time. But best of all is a - - -BELLOWS-SMOKER. - -This is a tin tube attached to a bellows. Cloth or rotten wood can be -burned in the tube, and will remain burning a long time. The smoke can -be directed at pleasure, the bellows easily worked, and the smoker used -without any disagreeable effects or danger from fire. It can be got -from any dealer in bee apparatus, and only costs from $1.25 to $2.00. I -most heartily recommend it to all. - -There are two smokers in use, which I have found very valuable, and -both of which are worthy of recommendation. - - -THE QUINBY SMOKER. - -This smoker (Fig. 63, _a_) was a gift to bee-keepers by the late Mr. -Quinby, and not patented; though I supposed it was, and so stated -in a former edition of this work. Though a similar device had been -previously used in Europe, without doubt Mr. Quinby was not aware -of the fact, and as he was the person to bring it to the notice of -bee-keepers, and to make it so perfect as to challenge the attention -and win the favor of apiarists _instanter_, he is certainly worthy of -great praise, and deserving of hearty gratitude. This smoker, until a -better one appeared, was a very valuable and desirable instrument. Its -faults were, lack of strength, too small a fire-tube, too little draft -when not in use, so that the fire would go out, and too great liability -to fall over on the side, when the fire was sure to be extinguished. -Many of these defects, however, have been corrected, and other -improvements made in a new smoker, called the Improved Quinby (Fig. 63, -_b_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.] - - -THE BINGHAM SMOKER. - -This smoker (Fig. 64) not only meets all the requirements, which are -wanting in the old Quinby smoker, but shows by its whole construction, -that it has not only as a whole, but in every part, been subject to the -severest test, and the closest, thought and study. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.] - -At first sight this seems an improved copy of Mr. Quinby's smoker, and -so I first thought, though I only saw it in Mr. Bingham's hand at a -Convention. I have since used it, examined it in every part, and have -to say that it is not a Quinby smoker. The bellows, the valve, the -cut-off, and even the form, are all peculiar. The special point to be -commended, and, I suppose, the only one patentable, is the cut-off -between the bellows and fire-tube, so that the fire seldom goes out, -while even hard-wood, as suggested by the inventor, forms an excellent -and ever-ready fuel. The valve for the entrance of air to the bellows, -permits rapid work, the spring is of the best clock-spring material, -the leather perfect, not split sheep-skin, while the whole construction -of the bellows, and the plan of the fire-screen and cut-off draft, show -much thought and ingenuity. I am thus full in this description, that I -may not only benefit my readers, all of whom will want a smoker, but -also out of gratitude to Mr. Bingham, who has conferred such a favor -on American apiarists. There are three sizes, which may be bought for -$1.00, $1.50 and $1.75, respectively, including postage. - -Mr. Bingham, to protect himself, and preserve the quality of his -invention, has procured a patent. This, provided he has only patented -his own invention, is certainly his right, which I think honesty -requires us all to respect. Like Mr. Langstroth, he has given us a -valuable instrument; let us see that he is not defrauded out of the -justly earned reward for his invention. - -Brother apiarists, let us cease this unjust clamor against patents -and patentees. If a man procures a patent on a worthless thing, let -him alone, and where is the damage? If a man procures a patent on a -valuable and desirable invention, then buy it, or pay for the right to -make it, and thus keep the Eighth and Tenth Commandments (Exodus, 20th -chap., 8th and 10th verses). Let us never buy an article unless we know -it is valuable and desirable for us, no matter how stoutly importuned; -but for honesty's sake, and that we may encourage more inventions, let -us respect a man's patent as we would any other property. If we are -in doubt as to the correctness of some person's claim, let us not be -forced to pay a bonus, but first write to some candid editor or other -authority, and if we find a man has a right to the article, then pay -as we would any other debt. I should be very suspicious of any man's -honesty who was not willing to respect such rights. - - -TO SMOKE BEES. - -Approach the hive, blow a little smoke in at the entrance, then open -from above, and blow in smoke as required. If at any time the bees seem -irritable, a few puffs from the smoker will subdue them. Thus, any -person may handle his bees with perfect freedom and safety. If at any -time the fire-chamber and escape-pipe become filled with soot, they can -easily be cleaned by revolving an iron or hard-wood stick inside of -them. - - -TO CURE STINGS. - -In case a person is stung, he should step back a little for a moment, -as the pungent odor of the venom is likely to anger the bees and induce -further stinging. The sting should be withdrawn, and if the pain is -such as to prove troublesome, apply a little ammonia. The venom is an -acid, and is neutralized by the alkali. Pressing over the sting with -the barrel of a watch-key is also said to be of some use in staying the -progress of the poison in the circulation of the blood. In case horses -are badly stung, as sometimes happens, they should be taken as speedily -as possible into a barn (a man, too, may escape angry bees by entering -a building), where the bees will seldom follow, then wash the horses in -soda water, and cover with blankets wet in cold water. - - -THE SWEAT THEORY. - -It is often stated that sweaty horses and people are obnoxious to the -bees, and hence, almost sure targets for their barbed arrows. In warm -weather I perspire most profusely, yet am scarcely ever stung, since -I have learned to control my nerves. I once kept my bees in the front -yard--they looked beautiful on the green lawn--within two rods of a -main thoroughfare, and not infrequently let my horse, covered with -sweat upon my return from a drive, crop the grass, while cooling off, -right in the same yard. Of course, there was some danger, but I never -knew my horse to get stung. Why, then, the theory? May not the more -frequent stings be consequent upon the warm, nervous condition of the -individual? The man is more ready to strike and jerk, the horse to -stamp and switch. The switching of the horse's tail, like the whisker -trap of a full beard, will anger even a good-natured bee. I should -dread the motions more than the sweat, though it may be true that there -is a peculiarity in the odor from either the sensible or insensible -perspiration of some persons, that angers the bees and provokes the use -of their terrible weapons. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -COMB FOUNDATION. - - -Every apiarist of experience knows that empty combs in frames, -comb-guides in the sections, to tempt the bees and to insure the proper -position of the full combs, in fact, combs of almost any kind or shape, -are of great importance. So every skillful apiarist is very careful -to save all drone-comb that is cut out of the brood-chamber--where it -is worse than useless, as it brings with it myriads of those useless -gormands, the drones--to kill the eggs, remove the brood, or extract -the honey, and to transfer it to the sections. He is equally careful -to keep all his worker-comb, so long as the cells are of proper size -to domicile full-sized larvæ, and never to sell any comb, or even -comb-honey, unless a much greater price makes it desirable. - -No wonder, then, if comb is so desirable, that German thought and -Yankee ingenuity have devised means of giving the bees at least a start -in this important, yet expensive work of comb-building, and hence the -origin of another great aid to the apiarist--comb foundation (Fig. 65). - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.] - - -HISTORY. - -For more than twenty years the Germans have used impressed sheets of -wax as a foundation for comb, as it was first made by Herr Mehring, in -1857. These sheets are four or five times as thick as the partition at -the centre of natural comb, which is very thin, only 1-180 of an inch -thick. This is pressed between metal plates so accurately formed that -the wax receives rhomboidal impressions which are a _fac simile_ of the -basal wall or partition between the opposite cells of natural comb. The -thickness of this sheet is no objection, as it is found that the bees -almost always thin it down to the natural thickness, and probably use -the shavings to form the walls. - - -AMERICAN FOUNDATION. - -Mr. Wagner secured a patent on foundation in 1861, but as the article -was already in use in Germany, the patent was, as we understand, of no -legal value, and certainly, as it did nothing to bring this desirable -article into use, it had no virtual value. Mr. Wagner was also the -first to suggest the idea of rollers. In Langstroth's work, edition -of 1859, p. 373, occurs the following, in reference to printing or -stamping combs: "Mr. Wagner suggests forming these outlines with a -simple instrument somewhat like a wheel cake cutter. When a large -number are to be made, a machine might easily be constructed which -would stamp them with great rapidity." In 1866, the King Brothers, of -New York, in accordance with the above suggestion, invented the first -machine with rollers, the _product_ of which they tried but failed to -get patented. These stamped rollers were less than two inches long. -This machine was useless, and failed to bring foundation into general -use. - -In 1874, Mr. Frederick Weiss, a poor German, invented the machine which -brought the foundation into general use. His machine had lengthened -rollers--they being six inches long--and shallow grooves between the -pyramidal projections, so that there was a very shallow cell raised -from the basal impression as left by the German plates. This was the -machine on which was made the beautiful and practical foundation sent -out by "John Long," in 1874 and 1875, and which proved to the American -apiarists that foundation machines, and foundation, too, were to be a -success. I used some of this early foundation, and have been no more -successful with that made by the machines of to-day. To Frederick -Weiss, then, are Americans and the world indebted for this invaluable -aid to the apiarist. Yet, the poor old man has, I fear, received very -meager profits from this great invention, while some writers ignore -his services entirely, not granting him the poor meed of the honor. -Since that time many machines have been made, without even a thank you, -as I believe, to this old man, Weiss. Does not this show that patents, -or something--a higher morality, if you please--is necessary, that -men may secure justice? True, faulty foundation, and faulty machines -were already in use, but it was the inventive skill of Mr. Weiss that -made foundation cheap and excellent, and thus popularized it with the -American apiarists. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.] - -These Weiss machines turn out the comb-foundation not only of -exquisite mold, but with such rapidity that it can be made cheap -and practicable. Heretofore these machines have been sold at an -enormous profit. Last November, 1877, I expostulated with one of the -manufacturers of American machines, because of the high price, saying, -as I looked at one of the machines: These ought to be sold for thirty -or forty dollars, instead of one hundred dollars. He replied that such -machines--with rollers, not plates--that gave the foundation the exact -figure of natural comb, were only made, he thought, by the person who -made his machines, and thus convinced me that said person should be -rewarded, _amply rewarded_, for his invention. But as I have since -learned that this is only the Weiss machine, and does no more perfect -work, I now think Mr. Weiss should receive the super-extra profits. -Even with machines at one hundred dollars, foundation was profitable, -as I with many others have found. But with the present price--forty -dollars, which I think, judging from the simplicity of the machine, -advertised at that price (Fig. 66), must be reduced still lower--we can -hardly conceive what an immense business this is soon to become. - - -HOW FOUNDATION IS MADE. - -The process of making the foundation is very simple. Thin sheets of -wax, as thin as is consistent with strength, are simply passed between -the rollers, which are so made as to stamp worker or drone foundation, -as may be desired. The rollers are well covered with starch-water to -secure against adhesion. Two men can roll out about four hundred pounds -per day. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.] - - -TO SECURE THE WAX SHEETS. - -To make the thin sheets of wax, Mr. A. I. Root takes sheets or plates -of galvanized iron with a wooden handle. These are cooled by dipping in -ice-water, and then are dipped two, or three times if the wax is very -hot, in the melted wax, which is maintained at the proper temperature -by keeping it in a double-walled vessel, with hot water in the outer -chamber. Such a boiler, too, prevents burning of the wax, which would -ruin it, while it is being melted. After dipping the plates in the wax, -they are again dipped, when dripping has ceased, into the cold water, -after which the sheets of wax are cleaved off, the plates brushed, -wiped, cooled, and dipped again. The boiler used in melting the wax -has the gate with a fine wire sieve attached near the top, so that -the wax as it is drawn off into the second boiler, will be thoroughly -cleansed. Mr. Root states that two men and a boy will thus make four -hundred pounds of wax sheets in a day. - -Others use wooden plates on which to mold the sheets, while the -Hetherington brothers prefer, and are very successful with a wooden -cylinder, which is made to revolve in the melted wax, and is so hinged, -that it can be speedily raised above or lowered into the liquid. - -For cutting foundation, nothing is so admirable as the Carlin cutter -(Fig. 67, _a_), which is like the wheel glass-cutters sold in the -shops, except that a larger wheel of tin takes the place of the one of -hardened steel. Mr. A. I. Root has suggested a grooved board (Fig. 67, -_b_) to go with the above, the distance between the grooves being equal -to the desired width of the strips of comb foundation to be cut. - - -USE OF FOUNDATION. - -I have used foundation, as have many other more extensive apiarists, -with perfect success in the section-boxes. The bees have so thinned it -that even epicures could not tell comb-honey with such foundation, from -that wholly made by the bees. Yet, I forbear recommending it for such -use. When such men as Hetherington, Moore, Ellwood, and L. C. Root, -protest against a course, it is well to pause before we adopt it; so, -while I have used foundation, I think with some small advantage in -sections and boxes for three years, I shall still pronounce against it. - -It will not be well to have the word artificial hitched on to our -comb-honey. I think it exceedingly wise to maintain inviolate in the -public mind the idea that comb-honey is _par excellence_, a natural -product. And as Captain Hetherington aptly suggests, this argument is -all the more weighty, in view of the filthy condition of much of our -commercial beeswax. - -Again, our bees may not always thin the foundation, and we risk our -reputation in selling it in comb-honey, and an unquestioned reputation -is too valuable to be endangered in this way, especially as in these -days of adulteration, we may not know how much paraffine, etc., there -is in our foundation, unless we make it ourselves. - -Lastly, there is no great advantage in its use in the sections, as -drone-comb is better, and with caution and care this can be secured -in ample quantities to furnish very generous starters for all our -sections. This will readily adhere, if the edge be dipped into melted -beeswax, and applied to the sections. - -If any one should still be disposed to make such use of foundation, -they should only purchase of very reliable parties, that they may -be sure to use only such wax as is genuine, _yellow_, clean, and -_certainly unmixed with paraffine_, or any of the commercial products -which were first used to adulterate the wax. _Only pure, clean, -unbleached wax should be used in making foundation._ We should be _very -careful_ not to put on the market any comb-honey where the foundation -had not been properly thinned by the bees. Perhaps a very fine needle -would enable one to determine this point without injury to the honey. - -But the most promising use of foundation, to which there can be no -objection, is in the brood-chamber. It is astonishing to see how -rapidly the bees will extend the cells, and how readily the queen will -stock them with eggs if of the right size, five cells to the inch. -_The foundation should always be the right size either for worker -or drone-comb._ Of course the latter size would never be used in -the brood-chamber. The advantage of foundation is, first, to insure -worker-comb, and thus worker-brood, and second, to furnish wax, so that -the bees may be free to gather honey. We proved in our apiary the past -two seasons, that by use of foundation, and a little care in pruning -out the drone-comb, we could limit or even exclude drones from our -hives, and we have but to examine the capacious and constantly crowded -stomachs of these idlers, to appreciate the advantage of such a course. -Bees may occasionally tear down worker-cells and build drone-cells in -their place; but such action, I believe, is not sufficiently extensive -to ever cause anxiety. I am also certain that bees that have to -secrete wax to form comb, do much less gathering. Wax secretion seems -voluntary, and when rapid seems to require quiet and great consumption -of food. If we make two artificial colonies equally strong, supply the -one with combs, and withhold them from the other, we will find that -this last sends much fewer bees to the fields, while all the bees are -more or less engaged in wax secretion. Thus the other colony gains -much more rapidly in honey, first, because more bees are storing; -second, because less food is consumed. This is undoubtedly the reason -why extracted-honey can be secured in far greater abundance than can -comb-honey. - -The foundation if used the full depth of the frame, stretches so that -many cells are so enlarged as to be used for drone-brood. This demands, -if we use the sheets unstrengthened, that they only be used as guides, -not reaching more than one-third of the depth of the frame. Strips not -less than four inches wide will not sag to do any harm. The foundation, -too, should not quite reach the sides of the frame, as by expansion it -is liable to warp and bend. Captain J. E. Hetherington has invented a -cure for this stretching and warping, by strengthening the foundation. -To do this, he runs several fine copper wires into the foundation as it -passes through the machine. - -I understand, too, that Mr. M. Metcalf, of this State, has a similar -device now being patented. - -This is a valuable suggestion, as it permits full-sized sheets of -foundation to be inserted in the frames. I presume that very soon all -worker-foundation will contain such wires. - - -TO FASTEN THE FOUNDATION. - -In the thin sections, the foundation can best be fastened by use of -the melted wax. To accomplish this, I have used a block made thus: Saw -a fifteen-sixteenths inch board so that it will just exactly fill a -section. Screw this to a second board, which is one-half inch broader -each way, so that the larger under board will project one-quarter of -an inch each side the top board. Now set the section over the top -board, place the foundation, cut a trifle shorter than the inside of -the section, within, close to the top and one side of the section, and -cause it to adhere by running on a little of the melted wax, which, by -use of a kerosene lamp or stove, may be kept melted. If the basin is -double-walled, with water in the outer chamber and wax in the inner, it -is much safer, as then the wax will never burn. - -If the tops of the sections are thick, they may be grooved, and by -crowding the foundation into the groove, and, if necessary, pressing it -with a thin wedge, it will be securely held. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.] - -This last method will work nicely in case of fastening into the -brood-frames. But I have found that I could fasten them rapidly -and very securely by simply pressing them against the rectangular -projection from the top-bar already described (page 134). In this case -a block (Fig, 68, _a_) should reach up into the frame from the side -which is nearest to the rectangular projection--it will be remembered -that the projection (Fig. 36) is a little to one side of the centre -of the top-bar, so that the foundation shall hang exactly in the -centre--so far that its upper surface would be exactly level with the -upper surface of the rectangular projection. This block, like the one -described above, has shoulders (Fig. 68, _f_), so that it will always -reach just the proper distance into the frame. It is also rabbeted at -the edge where the projection of the top-bar of the frame will rest, -(Fig. 68, _b_), so that the projection has a solid support, and will -not split off with pressure. We now set our frame on this block, lay -on our foundation, cut the size we desire, which, unless strengthened, -will be as long as the frame, and about four inches wide. The -foundation will rest firmly on the projection and block, and touch the -top-bar, at every point. We now take a board as thick as the projection -is deep, and as wide (Fig. 69, _d_) as the frame is long, which may -be trimmed off, so as to have a convenient handle (Fig. 69, _e_), -and by wetting the edge of this (Fig. 69, _d_) either in water, or, -better, starch-water, and pressing with it on the foundation above the -projection, the foundation will be made to adhere firmly to the latter, -when the frame may be raised with the block, taken off, and another -fastened as before. I have practiced this plan for two years, and have -had admirable success. I have very rarely known the foundation to drop, -though it must be remembered that our hives are shaded, and our frames -small. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.] - -The above methods are successful, but probably will receive valuable -modifications at the hands of the ingenius apiarists of our land. Study -in this direction will unquestionably pay, as the use of this material -is going to be very extensive, and any improvements will be hailed with -joy by the bee-keeping fraternity. - - -SAVE THE WAX. - -As foundation is becoming so popular, and is destined to come into -general use, it behooves us all to be very careful that no old comb -goes to waste. Soiled drone-comb, old, worthless worker-comb, and all -fragments that cannot be used in the hives, together with cappings, -after the honey is drained out through a coarse bag or colander--which -process may be hastened by a moderate heat, not sufficient to melt the -wax, and frequent stirring--should be melted, cleansed, and molded -into cakes of wax, soon to be again stamped, not by the bees, but by -wondrous art. - - -METHODS. - -A slow and wasteful method is to melt in a vessel of heated water, -and to purify by turning off the top, or allowing to cool, when the -impurities at the bottom are scraped off, and the process repeated till -all impurities are eliminated. - -A better method to separate the wax is to put it into a strong, rather -coarse bag, then sink this in water and boil. At intervals the comb in -the bag should be pressed and stirred. The wax will collect on top of -the water. - -To prevent the bag from burning, it should be kept from touching the -bottom of the vessel by inverting a basin in the bottom of the latter, -or else by using a double-walled vessel. The process should be repeated -till the wax is perfectly cleansed. - -But, as wax is to become so important, and as the above methods are -slow, wasteful, and apt to give a poor quality of wax, specialists, -and even amateurs who keep as many as ten or twenty colonies of -bees, may well procure a wax extractor (Fig. 70). This is also a -foreign invention, the first being made by Prof. Gerster, of Berne, -Switzerland. These cost from five to seven dollars, are made of tin, -are very convenient and admirable, and can be procured of any dealer in -apiarian supplies. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.] - -By this invention, all the wax, even of the oldest combs, can be -secured, in beautiful condition, and as it is perfectly neat, there -is no danger of provoking the "best woman in the world," as we are in -danger of doing by use of either of the above methods--for what is more -untidy and perplexing than to have wax boil over on the stove, and -perhaps get on to the floor, and be generally scattered about. - -All pieces of comb should be put into a close box, and if any larvæ are -in it, the comb should be melted so frequently that it would not smell -badly. By taking pains, both in collecting and melting, the apiarist -will be surprised at the close of the season, as he views his numerous -and beautiful cakes of comb, and rejoice as bethinks how little trouble -it has all cost. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -MARKETING HONEY. - - -No subject merits more attention by the apiarist than that of marketing -honey. There is no question but that the supply is going to continually -increase, hence, to sustain the price we must stimulate the demand, and -by doing this we shall not only supply the people with a food element -which is necessary to health, but we shall also supersede in part the -commercial syrups, which are so adulterated as not only to be crowded -with filth the most revolting, but are often even teeming with poison. -(Report of Michigan Board of Health for 1874, pp. 75-79.) To bring, -then, to our neighbor's table the pure, wholesome, delicious nectar, -right from the hive, is philanthropy, whether he realizes it or not. - -Nor is it difficult to stimulate the demand. I have given special -attention to this topic for the last few years, and am free to say, -that not a tithe of the honey is consumed in our country that might and -should be. - - -HOW TO INVIGORATE THE MARKETS. - -First. See that no honey goes to market from your apiary that is not -in the most inviting form possible. Grade _all the honey thoroughly_, -and expect prices to correspond with the grade. See that every package -and vessel is not only attractive, but so arranged as not to make the -dealer any trouble or cause him any vexation. One leaky can or crate -may do great injury. - -Second. See that every grocer in your vicinity has honey constantly on -hand. Do all you can to build up a home market. The advice to sell to -only one or two dealers is wrong and pernicious. Whether we are to buy -or sell, we shall find almost always that it will be most satisfactory -to deal with men whom we know, and who are close at hand. Only when -you outgrow your home market should you ship to distant places. This -course will limit the supply in the large cities, and thus raise the -prices in the great marts, whose prices fix those in the country. Be -sure to keep honey constantly in the markets. - -Third. Insist that each grocer makes the honey _very_ conspicuous. If -necessary, supply large, fine labels, with your own name almost as -prominent as is that of the article. - -Fourth. Deliver the honey in small lots, so that it will be sure to -be kept in inviting form, and, if possible, attend to the delivery -yourself, that you may know that all is done "decently and in order." - -Fifth. Instruct your grocers that they may make the honey show to the -best effect, and thus captivate the purchaser through the sight alone. - -Sixth. _Call local conventions_, that all in the community may know and -practice the best methods, so that the markets may not be demoralized -by poor, unsalable honey. - -Of course, the method of preparation will depend largely, and vary -greatly, upon the style of honey to be sold, so we will consider these -kinds separately. - - -EXTRACTED HONEY. - -As before intimated, extracted honey has all the flavor, and is in -every way equal, if not superior--comb itself is innutritious, and very -indigestible--to comb-honey. When people once know its excellence--know -that it is not "strained"--let us, as apiarists, strive in every way -to kill that word--then the demand for this article will be vastly -increased, to the advantage both of the consumer and the apiarist. - -Explain to each grocer what we mean by the word extracted, and ask -him to spread wide the name and character of the honey. Leave cups -of the honey with the editors and men of influence, and get them to -discuss its origin and merits. I speak from experience, when I say that -in these ways the reputation and demand for extracted honey can be -increased to a surprising degree, and with astonishing rapidity. - - -HOW TO TEMPT THE CONSUMER. - -First. Have it chiefly in small cups--jelly cups are best. Many -persons will pay twenty-five cents for an article, when if it cost -fifty cents they would not think of purchasing. - -Second. Only put it in such vessels as jelly cups or glass fruit jars, -etc., that will be useful in every household when the honey is gone, -that the buyer may feel that the vessel is clear gain. - -Third. Explain to the grocer that if kept above the temperature of -70° or 80° F., it will not granulate, that granulation is a pledge -of purity and superiority, and show him how easy it is to reduce the -crystals, and ask him to explain this to his customers. If necessary, -liquify some of the granulated honey in his presence. - -Lastly. If you do not deliver the honey yourself, be sure that the -vessels will not leak in transit. It is best, in case jelly cups are -used, that they be filled at the grocery. And don't forget the large -label, which gives the kind of honey, grade, and producer's name. - - -COMB-HONEY. - -This, from its wondrous beauty, especially when light-colored and -immaculate, will always be a coveted article for the table, and will -ever, with proper care, bring the highest price paid for honey. So it -will always be best to work for this, even though we may not be able to -procure it in such ample profusion as we may the extracted. He who has -all kinds, will be able to satisfy every demand, and will most surely -meet with success. - - -RULES TO BE OBSERVED. - -This, too, should be chiefly in small sections (Fig. 50), for, as -before stated, such are the packages that surely sell. Sections from -four to six inches square will just fill a plate nicely, and look very -tempting to the proud house-wife, especially if some epicurean friends -are to be entertained. - -The sections should surely be in place at the dawn of the white clover -season, so that the apiarist may secure the most of this irresistible -nectar, chaste as if capped by the very snow itself. They should be -taken away as soon as capped, as delay makes them highways of travel -for the bees, which always mar their beauty. - -When removed, if demanded, glass the sections, but before this, we -should place them in hives one upon another, or special boxes made -tight, with a close cover, in which to store either brood-frames in -winter or sections at any season, and sulphur them. This is quickly and -easily done by use of the smoker. Get the fire in the smoker well to -burning, add the sulphur, then place this in the top hive, or top of -the special box. The sulphurous fumes will descend and deal out death -to all moth larvæ. _This should always be done_ before shipping the -honey, if we regard our reputations as precious. It is well to do this -immediately upon removal, and also two weeks after, so as to destroy -the moth larvæ not hatched when the sections are removed. - -If separators have been used, these sections are in good condition to -be glassed, and are also in nice shape to ship even without glass, as -they may stand side by side and not mar the comb. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.] - -The shipping-crate (Fig. 71) should be strong, neat and cheap, with -handles as seen in Fig. 71--such handles are also convenient in -the ends of the hives, and can be cut in an instant by having the -circular-saw set to wabble. With handles the crate is more convenient, -and is more sure to be set on its bottom. The crate should also be -glassed, as the sight of the comb will say: "Handle with care." - -Mr. Heddon also makes a larger crate (Fig. 72), which is neat and -cheap. Muth's crate is like Heddon's, only smaller. - -It is well, too, to wrap the sections in paper, as thus breakage of one -will not mean general ruin. However, this would be unnecessary in case -the sections were of veneer and glassed, as before described. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.] - -In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it will pay him -to furnish his own boxes. These should be made of white-wood, very -neat, and glassed in front to show the honey, and the cover so fixed -that unglassed sections--and these, probably, will soon become the most -popular--cannot be punched or fingered. Be sure, too, that the label, -with kind of honey, grade, and name of apiarist, be so plain that "he -who runs may read." - -Comb-honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of autumn, or the -cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms, or the comb will break -from the section when handled. By keeping it quite warm for some days -previous to shipment, it may be sent to market even in winter, but must -be handled very carefully, and must make a quick transit. - -Above all, _let "taste and neatness" ever be your motto_. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -HONEY PLANTS. - - -As bees do not make honey, but only gather it, and as honey is mainly -derived from certain flowers, it of course follows that the apiarist's -success will depend largely upon the abundance of honey-secreting -plants in the vicinity of his apiary. True it is that certain bark -and plant lice secrete a kind of liquid sweet--honey of doubtful -reputation--which, in the dearth of anything better, the bees seem -glad to appropriate. I have thus seen the bees thick about a large -bark-louse which attacks the tulip tree, and thus often destroys one -of our best honey trees. This is an undescribed species of the genus -_Lecanium_. I have also seen them thick about three species of plant -lice. One, the _Pemphigus imbricator_, Fitch, works on the beech -tree. Its abdomen is thickly covered with long wool, and it makes a -comical show as it wags this up and down upon the least disturbance. -The leaves of trees attacked by this louse, as also those beneath the -trees, are fairly gummed with a sweetish substance. I have found that -the bees avoid this substance, except at times of extreme drouth and -long protracted absence of honeyed bloom. It was the source of no -inconsiderable stores during the terribly parched autumn of Chicago's -great disaster. (See Appendix, page 286). - -Another species of _Pemphigus_ gives rise to certain solitary plum-like -galls, which appear on the upper surface of the red elm. These galls -are hollow, with a thin skin, and within the hollows are the lice, -which secrete an abundant sweet that often attracts the bees to a feast -of fat things, as the gall is torn apart, or cracks open, so that the -sweet exudes. This sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be -unwholesome to the bees. - -Another aphis, of a black hue, works on the branches of our willows, -which they often entirely cover, and thus greatly damage another tree -valuable for both honey and pollen. Were it not that they seldom are -so numerous two years in succession, they would certainly banish from -among us one of our most ornamental and valuable honey-producing -trees. These are fairly thronged in September and October, and not -unfrequently in spring and summer if the lice are abundant, by bees, -wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager to lap, up the -oozing sweets. This louse is doubtless the _Lachnus dentatus_, of Le -Baron, and the _Aphis salicti_, of Harris. - -Bees also get, in some regions, a sort of honey-dew, which enables them -to add to their stores with surprising rapidity. I remember one morning -while riding on horse-back along the Sacramento river, in California, I -broke off a willow twig beside the road when, to my surprise, I found -it was fairly decked with drops of honey. Upon further examination I -found the willow foliage was abundantly sprinkled by these delicious -drops. These shrubs were undisturbed by insects, nor were they under -trees. Here then was a real case of honey-dew, which must have been -distilled through the night by the leaves. I never saw any such -phenomenon in Michigan, yet others have. Dr. A. H. Atkins, an accurate -and conscientious observer, has noted this honey-dew more than once -here in Central Michigan. - -Bees also get some honey from oozing sap, some of questionable repute -from about cider mills, some from grapes and other fruit which have -been crushed, or eaten and torn by wasps and other insects. That bees -ever tear the grapes is a question of which I have failed to receive -any personal proof, though for years I have been carefully seeking -it. I have lived among the vineyards of California, and have often -watched bees about vines in Michigan, but never saw bees tear open -the grapes. I have laid crushed grapes in the apiary, when the bees -were not gathering, and were ravenous for stores, which, when covered -with sipping bees, were replaced with sound grape-clusters, which in -no instance were mutilated. I have thus been led to doubt if bees -ever attack sound grapes, though quick to improve the opportunities -which the oriole's beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer them. -Still, Prof. Riley feels sure that bees are sometimes thus guilty, -and Mr. Bidwell tells me he has frequently seen bees rend sound -grapes, which they did with their feet. Yet, if this is the case, it -is certainly of rare occurrence, and is more than compensated by the -great aid which the bees afford the fruit-grower in the great work of -cross-fertilization, which is imperatively necessary to his success, as -has been so well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin. It is true -that cross-fertilization of the flowers, which can only be accomplished -by insects, and early in the season by the honey-bee, is often, if -not always, necessary to a full yield of fruit and vegetables. I am -informed by Prof W. W. Tracy, that the gardeners in the vicinity of -Boston keep bees that they may perform this duty. Even then, if Mr. -Bidwell and Prof. Riley are right, and the bee does, rarely--for surely -this is very rare, if ever--destroy grapes, still they are, beyond any -possible question, invaluable aids to the pomologist. - -But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers. - - -WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY PLANTS? - -In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance for May is -the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In June white clover -yields largely of the most attractive honey, both as to appearance and -flavor. In July the incomparable basswood makes both bees and apiarist -jubilant. In August buckwheat offers a tribute, which we welcome, -though it be dark and pungent in flavor, while with us in Michigan, -August and September give us a profusion of bloom which yields to no -other in the richness of its capacity to secrete honey, and is not -cut-off till the autumn frosts--usually about September 15. - -Thousands of acres of golden rod, boneset, asters, and other autumn -flowers of our new northern counties, as yet have blushed unseen, -with fragrance wasted. This unoccupied territory, unsurpassed in its -capability for fruit production, covered with grand forests of maple -and basswood, and spread with the richest of autumn bloom, offers -opportunities to the practical apiarist rarely equaled except in -the Pacific States, and not even there, when other privileges are -considered. In these localities, two or three hundred pounds to the -colony is no surprise to the apiarist, while even four or five hundred -are not isolated cases. - -In the following table will be found a list of valuable honey-plants. -Those in the first column are annual, biennial or perennial; the -annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus: (); the biennial enclosed -in brackets thus: []; while those in the second column are shrubs or -trees; the names of shrubs being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of -commencement of bloom is, of course, not invariable. The one appended, -in case of plants which grow in our State, is about average for Central -Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in small capitals yield very -superior honey. Those with (_a_) are useful for other purposes than -honey secretion. All but those with a * are native or very common in -Michigan. Those written in the plural refer to more than one species. -Those followed by a † are very numerous in species. Of course I have -not named all, as that would include some hundreds which have been -observed at the college, taking nearly all of the two great orders -Compositæ and Rosaceæ. I have only aimed to give the most important, -omitting many foreign plants of notoriety, as I have had no personal -knowledge of them: - - ======================================== - DATE. | Annuals or Perennials. - ======================================== - April |Dandelion. - April and May |Strawberry. (_a_) - May and June |*White Sage, California - May and June |*Sumac, California. - May and June |*Coffee Berry, California - June to July |WHITE CLOVER. (_a_) - June to July |ALSIKE CLOVER. (_a_) - June to July |*[SWEET CLOVER.] - June to July |*Horehound. [Weed.] - June to July |Ox-eyed Daisy--Bad - June to July |Bush Honeysuckle. - June to August |*Sage. - June to August |Motherwort. - June to frost |*(Borage.) - June to frost |*(Cotton.) (_a_) - June to frost |Silk or Milk Weeds. - June to frost |(Mustard)† - June to frost |*(Rape.) (_a_) - June to frost |St. John's Wort. - June to frost |(MIGNONETTE.) (_a_) - July |(Corn.) (_a_) - July |*(Teasel.) (_a_) - July to August |*Catnip. (_a_) - July to August |Asparagus. (_a_) - July to August |*(Rocky M't. Bee Plant) - July to frost |Boneset. - July to frost |Bergamot. - July to frost |Figwort. - August |(Buckwheat.) (_a_) - August |(Snap-dragon.) - August to frost|(GOLDEN ROD.)† - August to frost|Asters.† - August to frost|Marsh Sun-Flowers. - August to frost|Tick-Seed. - August to frost|Beggar-Ticks. - August to frost|Spanish Needles. - - ======================================== - DATE. | Shrubs or Trees. - ======================================== - March and Ap'l |Red or Soft Maple.(_a_) - March and Ap'l |Poplar or Aspen. - March and Ap'l |Silver Maple. - March and Ap'l |*Judas Tree. - May |(Shad-bush.) - May |(Alder.) - May |Maples-Sugar Maple (_a_) - May |Crab Apple. - May |(Hawthorns.) - |{ Fruit Trees--Apple, - May. |{ Plum, Cherry, Pear, - |{ etc. (_a_) - May |Currant and Gooseberry. (_a_) - May |*(Wistaria Vine-South) - |{ (Chinese Wistaria - May |{ Vine--South.) - May and June |(Barberry.) - May and June |(Grape-vine.) (__a) - May and June |Tulip-tree. - May and June |(Sumac.) - June |Wild-Plum. - June |(Black Raspberry.) (_a_) - June |Locusts. - June |(RED RASPBERRY.) (_a_) - June |(Blackberry.) - June to July |*Sour-wood--South. - July |(Button Bush.) - July |BASSWOOD. (_a_) - July |(Virginia Creeper.) (_a_) - July to August |*Pepper-tree, Cal'a. - July to Sept |*(St. John's Worts.) - August |(Late Sumac.) - August to Sept.|*Red Gum, California. - - -DESCRIPTION WITH PRACTICAL REMARKS. - -As this subject of bee pasturage is of such prime importance, and as -the interest in the subject is so great and wide-spread, I feel that -details with illustrations will be more than warranted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.--_Maple._] - -We have abundant experience to show that forty or fifty colonies of -bees, take the seasons as they average, are all that a single place -will sustain to the greatest advantage. Then, how significant the -fact, that when the season is the best, full three times that number -of colonies will find ample resources to keep all employed. So this -subject of artificial pasturage becomes one well worthy close study and -observation. The subject, too, is a very important one in reference to -the location of the apiary. - -It is well to remember in this connection, that two or three miles -should be regarded as the limit of profitable gathering. That is, -apiaries of from fifty to one hundred or more colonies, should not be -nearer than four or five miles of each other. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.-_Willow._] - - -APRIL PLANTS. - -As we have already seen, the apiarist does not secure the best results, -even in the early spring, except the bees are encouraged by the -increase of their stores of pollen and honey; hence, in case we do -not practice stimulative feeding--and many will not--it becomes very -desirable to have some early bloom. Happily, in all sections of the -United States our desires are not in vain. - -Early in spring there are many scattering wild flowers, as the -blood-root (_Sanguinaria canadensis_), liver-leaf (_Hepatica -acutiloba_), and various others of the crowfoot family, as also many -species of cress, which belong to the mustard family, etc., all of -which are valuable and important. - -The maples (Fig. 73), which are all valuable honey plants, also -contribute to the early stores. Especially valuable are the silver -maples (_Acer dasycarpum_), and the red or soft maples (_Acer rubrum_), -as they bloom so very early, long before the leaves appear. The bees -work on these, here in Michigan, the first week of April, and often -in March. They are also magnificent shade trees, especially those -that have the weeping habit. Their early bloom is very pleasing, -their summer form and foliage beautiful, while their flaming tints -in autumn are indescribable. The foreign maples, sycamore, _Acer -pseudo-platanus_, and Norway, _Acer platanoides_, are also very -beautiful. Whether superior to ours as honey plants, I am unable to say. - -The willows, too (Fig. 74), rival the maples in the early period of -bloom. Some are very early, blossoming in March, while others, like the -white willow (_Salix alba_) (Fig. 74), bloom in May. The flowers on one -tree or bush of the willow are all pistillate, that is, have pistils, -but no stamens, while on others they are all staminate, having no -pistils. On the former, they can gather only honey, on the latter only -pollen. That the willow furnishes both honey and pollen is attested -by the fact that I saw both kinds of trees, the pistillate and the -staminate, thronged with bees the past season. The willow, too, from -its elegant form and silvery foliage, is one of our finest shade trees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--_Judas Tree_] - -In the south of Michigan, and thence southward to Kentucky, and even -beyond, the Judas tree, or red-bud, _Cercis canadensis_ (Fig. 75), -is not only worthy of cultivation as a honey plant, but is also -very attractive, and well deserving of attention for its ornamental -qualities alone. This blooms from March to May, according to the -latitude. - -The poplars--not the tulip--also bloom in April, and are freely visited -by the bees. The wood is immaculate, and i& used for toothpicks. Why -not use it for honey-boxes? - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.--_American Wistaria._] - - -MAY PLANTS. - -In May we have the grand sugar maple, _Acer saccharinum_ (Fig. 73), -incomparable for beauty, also all our various fruit trees, peach, -cherry, plum, apple, etc., in fact all the Rosaceæ family. Our -beautiful American Wistaria, _Wistaria frutescens_ (Fig. 76), the -very ornamental climber, or the still more lovely Chinese Wistaria, -_Wistaria sinensis_ (Fig. 77), which has longer racemes than the -native, and often blossoms twice in the season. These are the woody -twiners for the apiarist. The barberry, too, _Berberis vulgaris_ (Fig. -78), comes after fruit blossoms, and is thronged with bees in search -of nectar in spring, as with children in winter, in quest of the -beautiful scarlet berries, so pleasingly tart. - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.--_Chinese Wistaria._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.--_Barberry._] - -In California, the sumac, the coffee berry, and the famous white sage -(Fig. 79), keep the bees full of activity. - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.--_White Sage._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.--_White or Dutch Clover._] - - -JUNE PLANTS. - -With June comes the incomparable white or Dutch clover, _Trifolium -repens_ (Fig. 80), whose chaste and modest bloom betokens the -beautiful, luscious, and unrivalled sweets which are hidden in its -corolla tube. Also its sister, Alsike or Swedish, _Trifolium hybrida_ -(Fig. 81), which seems to resemble both the white and red clover. It is -a stronger grower than the white, and has a whitish blossom tinged with -pink. This forms excellent pasture and hay for cattle, sheep, etc., -and may well be sown by the apiarist. It will often pay apiarists to -furnish neighbor farmers with seed as an inducement to grow this par -excellent honey plant. Like white clover, it blooms all through June -into July. Both of these should be sown early in spring with timothy, -five or six pounds of seed to the acre, in the same manner that red -clover seed is sown. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81.--_Alsike Clover._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.--_Melilot Clover._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 83.--_Borage._] - -Sweet clover, yellow and white, _Melilotus officinalis_ (Fig. 82), and -_Melilotus alba_, are well named. They bloom from the middle of June to -the middle of July. Their perfume scents the air for long distances, -and the hum of bees that throng their flowers is like music to the -apiarist's ear. The honey, too, is just exquisite. These clovers are -biennial, not blooming the first season, and dying after they bloom the -second season. Another disagreeable fact, they have no value except for -honey. They are said to become pernicious weeds if allowed to spread. - -The other clovers--lucerne, yellow trefoil, scarlet trefoil, and -alfalfa--have not proved of any value with us, perhaps owing to -locality. - -Borage, _Borago officinalis_ (Fig. 83), an excellent bee plant, blooms -from June till frost, and is visited by bees even in very rainy -weather. It seems not to be a favorite, but is eagerly visited when all -others fail to yield nectar. - -[Illustration: Fig. 84.--_Mignonette._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 85.--_Okra._] - -Mignonette, _Reseda odorata_ (Fig. 84), blooms from the middle of June -till frost, is unparalleled for its sweet odor, furnishes nectar in -profusion, and is well worthy cultivation. It does not secrete well in -wet weather, but in favorable weather it is hardly equalled. - -Okra or gumbo, _Hibiscus esculentus_, (Fig. 85), also blooms in June. -It is as much sought after by the bees in quest of honey, as by the -cook in search of a savory vegetable, or one to give tone to soup. - -Sage, _Salvia officinalis_, horehound, _Marrubium vulgare_, motherwort, -_Leonurus cardiaca_, and catnip, _Nepeta cataria_, which latter does -not commence to bloom till July, all furnish nice white honey, remain -in bloom a long time, and are very desirable, as they are in bloom in -the honey dearth of July and August. They, like many others of the mint -family (Fig. 86), are thronged with bees during the season of bloom. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86.--_Mint._] - -The first and last are of commercial importance, and all may well be -introduced by apiarists, wherever there is any space or waste ground. - -The silk or milk-weed furnishes abundant nectar from June to frost, as -there are several species of the genus Asclepias, which is wide-spread -in our country. This is the plant which has large pollen masses which -often adhere to the legs of bees (Fig. 87), and sometimes so entrap -them as to cause their death. Prof. Riley once very graciously advised -planting them to kill bees. I say graciously, as I have watched these -very closely, and am sure they do little harm, and are rich in nectar. -Seldom a bee gets caught so as to hold it long, and when these awkward -masses are carried away with the bee, they are usually left at the door -of the hive, where I have often seen them in considerable numbers. The -river bank hard by our apiary is lined with these sweet-smelling herbs, -and we would like even more. - -[Illustration: Fig. 87.--_Pollen of Milk-weed._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 88.--_Black Mustard._] - -Black mustard, _Sinapis nigra_ (Fig. 88) white mustard, _Sinapis -alba_, and rape, _Brassica campestris_ (Fig. 89), all look much alike, -and are all admirable bee plants, as they furnish much and beautiful -honey. The first, if self-sown, blooms July 1st, the others June 1st; -the first about eight weeks after sowing, the others about four. The -mustards bloom for four weeks, rape for three. These are all specially -commendable, as they may be made to bloom during the honey dearth of -July and August, and are valuable plants to raise for the seed. Rape -seems to be very attractive to insects, as the flea beetles and the -blister beetles are often quite too much for it, though they do not -usually destroy the plants till after they have blossomed. I have -several times purchased what purported to be Chinese mustard, dwarf and -tall, but Prof. Beal, than whom there is no better authority, tells -me they are only the white and black, and certainly, they are no whit -better as bee plants. These plants, with buckwheat, the mints, borage -and mignonette, are specially interesting, as they cover, or may be -made to cover, the honey dearth from about July 20th to August 20th. - -[Illustration: Fig. 89.--_Rape._] - -The mustards and rape may be planted in drills about eight inches -apart, any time from May 1st to July 15th. Four quarts will sow an -acre. - -[Illustration: Fig. 90.--_Tulip_] - -In this month blooms the tulip tree, _Liriodendron tulipifera_ -(Fig. 90)--often called poplar in the South--which is not only an -excellent honey producer, but is one of our most stately and admirable -shade-trees. Now, too, bloom the sumacs, though one species blooms in -May, the wild plum, the raspberries, whose nectar is unsurpassed in -color and flavor, and the blackberry. Corn, too, is said by many to -yield largely of honey as well as pollen, and the teasel, _Dipsacus -fullonum_ (Fig. 91), is said, not only by Mr. Doolittle, but by English -and German apiarists, to yield richly of beautiful honey. This last, -too, has commercial importance. The blackberry opens its petals in -June, and also the fragrant locust, which, from its rapid growth, -beautiful form and handsome foliage, would rank among our first shade -trees, except that it is so tardy in spreading its canopy of green, and -so liable to ruinous attack by the borers, which last peculiarity it -shares with the incomparable maples. Washing the trunks of the trees in -June and July with soft soap, will in great part remove this trouble. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91.--_Teasel._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 92.--_Cotton._] - -Now, too, our brothers of the South reap a rich harvest from the -great staple, cotton (Fig. 92), which commences to bloom early in -June, and remains in blossom even to October. This belongs to the -same family--Mallow--as the hollyhock, and like it, blooms and fruits -through the season. - - -JULY PLANTS. - -Early in this month opens the far-famed basswood or linden, _Tilia -Americana_ (Fig. 93), which, for the profusion and quality of its honey -has no superior. The tree, too, from its great spreading top and fine -foliage, is magnificent for shade. Five of these trees are within two -rods of my study window, and their grateful fragrance, and beautiful -form and shade, have often been the subject of remark by visitors. - -[Illustration: Fig. 93.--_Basswood._] - -Figwort, _Scrophularia nodosa_ (Fig. 94), often called rattle-weed, as -the seeds will rattle in the pod, and carpenter's square, as it has -a square stalk, is an insignificant looking weed, with inconspicuous -flowers, that afford abundant nectar from the middle of July till -frost. I have received almost as many for identification as I have of -the asters and golden-rods. Prof. Beal remarked to me a year or two -since, that it hardly seemed possible that it could be so valuable. -We cannot always rightly estimate by appearances alone. It is a very -valuable plant to be scattered in waste places. - -[Illustration: Fig. 94.--_Figwort._] - -That beautiful and valuable honey plant, from Minnesota, Colorado, and -the Rocky Mountains, cleome, or the Rocky Mountain bee-plant, _Cleome -integrifolia_ (Fig. 96), if self-sown, or sown early in spring, blooms -by the middle of July, and lasts for long weeks. Nor can anything be -more gay than these brilliant flowers, alive with bees all through the -long fall. This should be planted in fall or spring, in drills two feet -apart, the plants six inches apart in the drills. The seeds, which grow -in pods, are very numerous, and are said to be valuable for chickens. -Now, too, commence to bloom the numerous eupatoriums, or bonesets, or -thoroughworts (Fig. 97), which fill the marshes of our country, and -the hives as well, with their rich golden nectar--precursors of that -profusion of bloom of this composite order, whose many species are -even now budding in preparation for the sea of flowers which will deck -the marsh-lands of August and September. Wild bergamot, too, _Monarda -fistulosa_, which, like the thistles, is of importance to the apiarist, -blooms in July. - -[Illustration: Fig. 95.--_Button Bush._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 96.--_Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant._] - -The little shrub of our marshes, appropriately named button-bush, -_Cephalanthus occidentalis_, (Fig. 95), also shares the attention -of the bees with the linden; while apiarists of the South find the -sour-wood, or sorrel tree, _Oxydendrum arboreum_, a valuable honey -tree. This belongs to the Heath family, which includes the far-famed -heather bloom of England. It also includes our whortleberry, cranberry, -blueberry, and one plant which has no enviable reputation, as -furnishing honey, which is very poisonous, even fatal to those who eat, -the mountain laurel, _Kalmia latifolia_. Yet, a near relative of the -South _Andromeda nitida_, is said to furnish beautiful and wholesome -honey in great quantities. The Virginia creeper also blooms in July. -I wish I could say that this beautiful vine, transplendent in autumn, -is a favorite with the honey-bee. Though it often, nay always, swarms -with wild bees when in blossom, yet I never saw a honey-bee visit the -ample bloom amidst its rich, green, vigorous foliage. Now, too, the -St. John's wort, _Hypericum_, with its many species, both shrubby and -herbaceous, offers bountiful contributions to the delicious stores of -the honey-bee. The catnip, too, _Nepeta cataria_, and our cultivated -asparagus--which if uncut in spring will bloom in June--so delectable -for the table, and so elegant for trimming table meats and for banquets -in autumn, come now to offer their nectarian gifts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 97.--_Boneset._] - - -AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER PLANTS. - -The cultivated buckwheat, _Fagopyrum esculentum_, (Fig. 98), usually -blooms in August, as it is sown the first of July--three pecks per -acre is the amount to sow--but by sowing the first of June, it may be -made to bloom the middle of July, when there is generally, in most -localities, an absence of nectar-secreting flowers. The honey is -inferior in color and flavor, though some people prefer this to all -other honey. The silver-leaf buckwheat blooms longer, has more numerous -flowers, and thus yields more grain than the common variety. - -Now, too, come the numerous golden-rods. The species of this genus, -_Solidago_ (Fig. 99), in the Eastern United States, number nearly -two-score, and occupy all kinds of soils, and are at home on upland, -prairie and morass. They yield abundantly of rich, golden honey, with -flavor that is unsurpassed by any other. Fortunate the apiarist who can -boast of a thicket of Solidagoes in his locality. - -[Illustration: Fig. 98.--_Buckwheat._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 99.--_Golden-Rod._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 100.--_Aster._] - -The many plants usually styled sun-flowers, because of their -resemblance to our cultivated plants of that name, which deck the -hill-side, meadow and marsh-land, now unfurl their showy involucres, -and open their modest corollas, to invite the myriad insects to sip -the precious nectar which each of the clustered flowers secretes. Our -cultivated sun-flowers, I think, are indifferent honey plants, though -some think them big with beauty, and their seeds are relished by -poultry. But the asters (Fig. 100), so wide-spread, the beggar-ticks, -_Bidens_, and Spanish-needles of our marshes, the tick-seed, -_Coreopsis_, also, of the low, marshy places, with hundreds more of -the great family Compositæ, are replete with precious nectar, and with -favorable seasons make the apiarist who dwells in their midst jubilant, -as he watches the bees, which fairly flood the hives with their rich -and delicious honey. In all of this great family, the flowers are small -and inconspicuous, clustered in compact heads, and when the plants are -showy with bloom, like the sun-flowers, the brilliancy is due to the -involucre, or bracts which serve as a frill to decorate the more modest -flowers. - -I have thus mentioned the most valuable honey plants of our country. -Of course there are many omissions. Let all apiarists, by constant -observation, help to fill up the list. - - -BOOK ON BOTANY. - -I am often asked what books are best to make apiarists botanists. I am -glad to answer this question, as the study of botany will not only be -valuable discipline, but will also furnish abundant pleasure, and more, -give important practical information. Gray's Lessons, and Manual of -Botany, in one volume, published by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., -New York, is the most desirable treatise on this subject. - - -PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS. - -It will pay well for the apiarist to decorate his grounds with soft and -silver maples, for their beauty and early bloom. If his soil is rich, -sugar maples and lindens may well serve a similar purpose. The Judas -tree, too, and tulip trees, both North and South, may well be made to -ornament the apiarist's home. For vines, obtain the wistarias. - -Sow and encourage the sowing of Alsike clover and silver-leaf buckwheat -in your neighborhood. Be sure that your wife, children and bees, can -often repair to a large bed of the new giant or grandiflora mignonette, -and remember that it, with cleome and borage, blooms till frost. -Study the bee plants of your region, and then study the above table, -and provide for a succession, remembering that the mustards, rape -and buckwheat may be made to bloom almost at pleasure, by sowing -at the proper time. Don't forget that borage and the mustards seem -comparatively indifferent to wet weather. Be sure that all waste places -are stocked with motherwort, catnip, asters, etc. (See Appendix, page -289). - -The above dates are only true for the most part in Michigan and -Northern Ohio, and for more Southern latitudes must be varied, which by -comparison of a few, as the fruit trees, becomes no difficult matter. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -WINTERING BEES. - - -This is a subject, of course, of paramount importance to the apiarist, -as this is the rock on which some of even the most successful have -recently split. Yet I come fearlessly to consider this question, -as from all the multitude of disasters I see no occasion for -discouragement. If the problem of successful wintering has not been -solved already, it surely will be, and that speedily. So important -an interest was never yet vanquished by misfortune, and there is -no reason to think that history is now going to be reversed. Even -the worst aspect of the case--in favor of which I think, though in -opposition to such excellent apiarists as Marvin, Heddon, etc., that -there is no proof, and but few suggestions even--that these calamities -are the effects of an epidemic, would be all powerless to dishearten -men trained to reason from effect to cause. Even an epidemic--which -would by no means skip by the largest, finest apiaries, owned and -controlled by the wisest, most careful, and most thoughtful, as has -been the case in the late "winters of our discontent," nor only choose -winters of excessive cold, or following great drouth and absence of -honey secretion in which to work its havoc--would surely yield to man's -invention. - - -THE CAUSE OF DISASTROUS WINTERING. - -Epidemic, then, being set aside as no factor in the solution, to what -shall we ascribe such wide-spread disasters? I fully believe, and -to no branch of this subject have I given more thought, study, and -observation, that all the losses may be traced either to unwholesome -food, failure in late breeding of the previous year, extremes of -temperature, or to protracted cold with excessive dampness. I know from -actual and wide-spread observation, that the severe loss of 1870 and -1871 was attended in this part of Michigan with unsuitable honey in the -hive. The previous autumn was unprecedentedly dry. Flowers were rare, -and storing was largely from insect secretion, and consequently the -stores were unwholesome. I tasted of honey from many hives only to find -it most nauseating. I fully believe that had the honey been thoroughly -extracted the previous autumn, and the bees fed good honey or sugar, no -loss would have been experienced. At least it is significant that all -who did so, escaped, even where their neighbors all failed. Nor less -so the fact that when I discovered eight of my twelve colonies dead, -and four more just alive, I cleaned the remaining ones all out, and to -one no worse nor better than the others I gave good capped honey stored -early the previous summer, while the others were left with their old -stores, that one lived and gave the best record I have ever known, the -succeeding season, while all the others died. - -Again, suppose that after the basswood season in July, there is no -storing of honey, either from want of space, or from lack of bloom. In -this case brood-rearing ceases. Yet if the weather is dry and warm, -as of course it will be in August and September, the bees continue to -wander about, death comes apace, and by autumn the bees are reduced -in numbers, old in days, and illy prepared to brave the winter and -perform the duties of spring. I fully believe that if all the colonies -of our State and country had been kept breeding by proper use of the -extractor, and feeding, even till into October, we should have had a -different record, especially as to spring dwindling, and consequent -death. In the autumn of 1872 I kept my bees breeding till the first of -October. The following winter I had no loss, while my neighbors lost -all of their bees. - -Extremes of heat and cold are also detrimental to the bees. If the -temperature of the hive becomes too high the bees become restless, fat -more than they ought, and if confined to their hives are distended with -their fœces, become diseased, besmear their comb and hives, and die. If -when they become thus disturbed, they could have a purifying flight, -all would be well. - -Again, if the temperature becomes extremely low, the bees to keep up -the animal heat must take more food; they are uneasy, exhale much -moisture, which may settle and freeze on the outer combs about the -cluster, preventing the bees from getting the needed food, and thus in -this case both dysentery and starvation confront the bees. That able -and far-seeing apiarist the lamented M. Quinby, was one of the first to -discover this fact; and here as elsewhere gave advice that if heeded, -would have saved great loss and sore disappointment. - -I have little doubt, in fact I know from actual investigation, that in -the past severe winters, those bees which under confinement have been -subject to severe extremes, are the ones that have invariably perished. -Had the bees been kept in a uniform temperature ranging from 35° to 45° -F., the record would have been materially changed. - -Excessive moisture, too, especially in cases of protracted cold, is -always to be avoided. Bees, like all other animals, are constantly -giving off moisture, which of course will be accelerated if the bees -become disturbed, and are thus led to consume more food. This moisture -not only acts as explained above, but also induces fungous growths. The -mouldy comb is not wholesome, though it may never cause death. Hence -another necessity of sufficient warmth to drive this moisture from -the hive and some means to absorb it without opening the hive above -and permitting a current, which will disturb the bees, and cause the -greater consumption of honey. - - -THE REQUISITE TO SAFE WINTERING--GOOD FOOD. - -To winter safely, then, demands that the bees have thirty pounds -by weight not guess--I have known three cases when guessing meant -starvation--of good capped honey (coffee A sugar is just as good). If -desired this may be fed as previously explained, which should be done -so early that all will be capped during the warm days of October. Let -us be wary how we trust even crystallized glucose. It might be safe -during a warm winter, when the bees would have frequent flights, yet -prove disastrous in a cold winter. Let us use it cautiously till its -merits are assured. I prefer, too, that some of the comb in the centre -of the hive has empty cells, to give a better chance to cluster, and -that all the combs have a small hole through the centre, that the bees -may pass freely through. This hole may simply be cut with a knife, or -a tin tube the size of one's finger may be driven through the comb, -and left in if desired, in which case the comb should be pushed out -of the tube, and the tube be no longer than the comb is thick. This -perforatory work I always do early in October, when I extract all -uncapped honey, take out all frames after I have given them the 30 -lbs., _by weight_, of honey, confine the space with a division-board, -cover with the quilt and chaff, and then leave undisturbed till the -cold of November calls for further care. - - -SECURE LATE BREEDING. - -Keep the bees breeding till the first of October. Except in years of -excessive drouth, this will occur in many parts of Michigan without -extra care. Failure may result from the presence of worthless queens. -Any queens which seem not to be prolific should be superseded whenever -the fact becomes evident. _I regard this as most important._ Few know -how much is lost by tolerating feeble, impotent queens in the apiary, -whose ability can only keep the colonies alive. Never keep such queens -about. Here, then, is another reason for always keeping extra queens -on hand. Even with excellent queens, a failure in the honey yield -may cause breeding to cease. In such cases, we have only to feed as -directed under the head of feeding. - - -TO SECURE AND MAINTAIN THE PROPER TEMPERATURE. - -We ought also to provide against extremes of temperature. It is -desirable to keep the temperature between 35° and 50° F. through the -entire winter, from November to April. If no cellar or house is at -hand, this maybe accomplished as follows: Some pleasant dry day in late -October or early November, raise the stand and place straw beneath; -then surround the hive with a box a foot outside the hive, with movable -top and open on the east; or else have a long wooden tube, opposite -the entrance, to permit flight. This tube should be six or eight -inches square, to permit easy examination in winter. The same end may -be gained by driving stakes and putting boards around. When we crowd -between the box and the hive either straw, chaff, or shavings. After -placing a good thickness of straw above the hive, lay on the cover -of the box, or cover with boards. This preserves against changes of -temperature during the winter, and also permits the bees to fly if it -becomes necessary from a protracted period of warm winter weather. I -have thus kept all my bees safely during two of the disastrous winters. - -As there is at present no plan of wintering, which promises to serve -so well for all our apiarists, in view of its cheapness, ease, -convenience, and universal efficiency, I will describe in detail the -box now in use at the College, which costs only one dollar per hive, -and which is convenient to store away in summer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 101.] - - -BOX FOR PACKING. - -The sides of this (Fig. 101, _a, a_), facing east and west are three -and a half feet long, two feet high on the south end, and two and a -half feet on the north. They are in one piece, which is secured by -nailing the boards which form them to cleats, which are one inch from -the ends. The north end (Fig. 101, _b_) is three feet by two and a -half feet, the south (Fig. 101, _b_), three feet by two, and made the -same as are the sides. The slanting top of the sides (Fig. 101, _a, -a_) is made by using for the upper board, the strip formed by sawing -diagonally from corner to corner a board six inches wide and three -feet long. The cover (Fig. 101, _g_), which is removed in the figure, -is large enough to cover the top and project one inch at both ends. It -should be battened, and held in one piece by cleats (Fig. 101, _h_) -four inches wide, nailed on to the ends. These will drop over the ends -of the box, and thus hold the cover in place, and prevent rain and snow -from driving in. When in place this slanting cover permits the rain -to run off easily, and will dry quickly after a storm. By a single -nail at each corner the four sides may be tacked together about the -hives, when they can be packed in with straw (Fig. 101), which should -be carefully done if the day is cold, so as not to disquiet the bees. -At the centre and bottom of the east side (Fig. 101, _c_), cut out a -square eight inches each way, and between this and the hive place a -bottomless tube (the top of this tube is represented as removed in -figure to show entrance to hive), before putting around the straw and -adding the cover. This box should be put in place before the bleak -cold days of November, and retained in position till the stormy winds -of April are passed by. This permits the bees to fly when very warm -weather comes in winter or spring, and requires no attention from the -apiarist. By placing two or three hives close together in autumn--_yet -never move the colonies more than three or four feet_ at any one time, -as such removals involve the loss of many bees--one box may be made to -cover all, and at less expense. Late in April these may be removed and -packed away, and the straw carried away, or removed a short distance -and burned. - - -CHAFF HIVES. - -Messrs. Townley, Butler, Root, and others, prefer chaff hives, which -are simply double-walled hives, with the four or five inch chambers -filled with chaff. The objection to these I take to be: First, Danger -that so limited a space would not answer in severe seasons; Second, -That such cumbrous hives would be inconvenient to handle in summer; -and, Third, A matter of expense. That they would in part supply the -place of shade, is, perhaps, in their favor, while Mr. A. I. Root -thinks they are not expensive. - - -WINTERING IN CELLAR OR HOUSE. - -With large apiaries the above method is expensive, and specialists -may prefer a cellar or special depository, which I think are quite as -safe, though they demand attention and perhaps labor in winter. After -my experience in the winter of 1874 and 1875, losing all my bees by -keeping them in a house with double walls filled in with sawdust, in -which the thermometer indicated a temperature below zero for several -weeks, in which time my strongest colonies literally starved to death -in the manner already described, I hesitate to recommend a house above -ground for Michigan, though with very numerous colonies it might -do. Such a house must, if it answer the purpose, keep an equable -temperature, at least 3° and not more than 10° above freezing, be -perfectly dark, and ventilated with tubes above and below, so arranged -as to be closed or opened at pleasure, and not admit a ray of light. - -A cellar in which we are sure of our ability to control the -temperature, needs to be also dry, dark, and quiet, and ventilated as -described above. As already stated, the ventilator to bring air may -well be made of tile, and pass through the earth for some feet and then -open at the bottom of the cellar. If possible, the ventilator that -carries the foul air off should be connected with a stove pipe in a -room above, with its lower end reaching to the bottom of the cellar. -The College apiary cellar is grouted throughout, which makes it more -dry and neat. Of course it should be thoroughly drained. - -The colonies should be put into the depository when the hives are dry, -_before cold weather_, and should remain till April; though in January -and March, if there are days that are warm, they should be taken out -and the bees permitted to fly, though not unless they seem uneasy and -soil the entrance to their hives. _Always_ when taken out they should -be placed on their old stands, so that no bees may be lost. Towards -night, when all are quiet, return them to the cellar. I would not -remove bees till towards night, as it is better that they have a good -flight, and then become quiet. When moved out it is _very_ desirable -to brush away all dead bees which is an argument in favor of a movable -bottom-board. In moving the hives, great care should be exercised not -to jar them. It were better if the bees should not know that they were -being moved at all. - -That the moisture may be absorbed, I cover the bees with a quilt, made -of coarse factory cloth, enclosing a layer of cotton batting. Above -this I fill in with straw which is packed in so closely that the cover -may be removed without the straw falling out. If desirable the straw -may be cut--or chaff may be used--and may be confined in a bag made of -factory, so that it resembles a pillow. I now use these and like them. -This is not only an excellent absorbent, but preserves the heat, and -may well remain, till the following June. - -I have found it advantageous, when preparing my bees for winter, in -October, to contract the chamber by use of a division board. This is -very desirable if wintered out doors, and with frames a foot square is -very easily accomplished. By use of eight frames the space (one cubic -foot) is very compact, and serves to economize the heat, not only in -winter, but in spring. By thus using a division board with only three -frames, I have been very successful in wintering nuclei. We have only -to guard against low temperature. - -Perhaps I ought to say that all colonies should be strong in autumn; -but I have said before, never have weak colonies. Yet for fear some -have been negligent. I remark that weak colonies should be united in -preparing for winter. To do this, approximate the colonies each day -four or five feet till they are side by side. Now remove the poorest -queen, then smoke thoroughly, sprinkle both colonies with sweetened -water scented with essence of peppermint, putting a sufficient number -of the best frames and all the bees into one of the hives, and then set -this midway between the position of the hives at the commencement of -the uniting. The bees will unite peaceably, and make a strong colony. -Uniting colonies may pay at other seasons. It may seem rash to some, -yet I fully believe that if the above suggestions are carried out in -full, I may guarantee successful wintering. But if we do lose our -bees--with all our hives, combs and honey, we can buy colonies in the -spring, with a perfect certainty of making 200 or 300 per cent, on -our investment. Even with the worst condition of things, we are still -ahead, in way of profit, of most other vocations. - - -BURYING BEES. - -Another way to winter safely and very economically, is to bury the -bees. If this is practiced the ground should either be sandy or _well -drained_. If we can choose a side-hill it should be done. Beneath the -hives and around them, straw should be placed. I should advise leaving -the entrance well open, yet secure against mice. _The hives should all -be placed beneath the surface_ level of the earth, then form a mound -above them sufficient to preserve against extreme warmth or cold. A -trench about the mound to carry the water off quickly is desirable. In -this arrangement the ground acts as a moderator. Five colonies thus -treated the past winter, (1877-8) lost all told less than one-half gill -of bees. As this method has not been so long tried, as the others, I -would suggest caution. Try it with a few colonies, till you are assured -as to the best arrangement, and of its efficacy. I am inclined to think -that it is next to a good snow-bank, as a winter repository. - - -SPRING DWINDLING. - -As already suggested, this is not to be feared if we keep our bees -breeding till late autumn. It may be further prevented by forbidding -late autumn flights, frequent flights in winter, when the weather is -warm, and too early flying in spring. These may all be curtailed or -prevented by the packing system as described above, as thus prepared -the bees will not feel the warmth, and so will remain quiet in the -hive. Nine colonies which I have packed have been remarkably quiet, -and are in excellent condition this, February 25th, while two others -unpacked have flown day after day, much, I fear, to their injury. I -would leave bees in the packing till near May, and in the cellar or -ground, till early flowers bloom, that we may secure against too rapid -demise of bees in spring. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -THE HOUSE APIARY. - - -DESCRIPTION. - -This is a double-walled house, which may be rectangular or octagonal in -form. The outer wall should be of brick, and made as thin as possible. -Inside of this there should be wooden strips two-inches thick, which -should receive a layer of paper-sheeting inside, which may be held by -nailing strips two-inches wide immediately inside the first mentioned -strips. These last strips should receive lath, after which all should -be plastered. This may cost more than a purely wooden structure, but -it will be more nearly frost-proof than any other kind of wall, and in -the end will be the cheapest. There will be two dead air-chambers, each -two inches deep, one between the paper and brick, the other between the -paper and the plaster. The entire wall will be at least eight inches -thick. If desired, it may be made less thick by using one-inch strips, -though for our very severe winters the above is none too thick. The -doors and windows should be double and should all shut closely against -rubber. The outer ones should consist of glass, and should be so hung -as to swing out, and in hot weather should be replaced with door, and -window-screens, of coarse, painted, wire gauze. A small window just -above each colony of bees is quite desirable. - -Somewhere in the walls there should be a ventilating tube--a brick flue -would be very good--which should open into the room just above the -floor. Above it might open into the attic, which should be well aired. -Ventilators such as are so common on barns might be used. - -The pipe for admitting air, should, as in the cellar before described, -pass through the ground and enter the floor from below. A good cellar, -well ventilated and thoroughly dry will be convenient, and should not -be neglected. I would have the building but one story, with joists -in ceiling above eight inches thick. Above these I would sheet with -building paper, fastened by nailing strips two inches deep on top, -above which I would ceil with matched boards. I should lath and plaster -below the joists. The hives, which are to be kept constantly in this -house, may rest on two rows of shelves, one at the floor, the other -three feet high, and should be arranged for both top and side storing -in the small section frames. Indeed, the hive need only consist of -the two rabbeted side-boards (Fig. 30, _c_), and a division-board -with quilt. The entrances of course pass through the wall. An -alighting-board, so hinged as to be let down in summer, but tightly -closed over the entrance during very severe winter weather, I should -think would be very desirable. Between the double windows, which it -will be remembered shut closely against rubber, sacks of chaff may be -placed in winter, if found necessary to keep the proper temperature. -With few colonies this might be very necessary. The adjacent entrances -should vary in color, so that young queens would not go astray, when -they returned from their "Marriage flight." - - -ARE THEY DESIRABLE? - -As yet, I think this question cannot be answered. Some who have tried -them, among whom are Messrs. Russell and Heddon, of this State, -pronounce against them. Perhaps they have faulty houses, perhaps they -have had too brief an experience to judge correctly. Others, among whom -are Messrs. A. I. Root, Burch, and Nellis, have tried them, and are -loud in their favor. I think these first trials are hardly conclusive, -as perfection seldom comes in any system with the first experience. -That the early use of these houses has met with so much favor, seems -to argue that with more experience, and greater perfection, they may -become popular. Yet I would urge people to be slow to adopt these -costly houses, as enough will do so to thoroughly test the matter; -when, if they prove a desideratum, all can build; whereas, if they -prove worthless, we shall not have to regret money squandered, in the -adoption of what was of doubtful value. - - -THE CASE AS IT NOW STANDS. - -The desirable points as they now appear, are: First. The bees are in -condition to winter with no trouble or anxiety. Second. The bees -are handled in the house, and as they fly at once to the windows, -where they can be suffered to escape, they are very easily and safely -handled, even with little or no protection. Third. As we can extract, -manipulate honey boxes, etc., right in the same house, it is desirable -on the score of convenience. Fourth. As the bees are protected from -the sudden rise of the out-door temperature, they will be kept from -frequent flights during the cold, forbidding days of fall, winter and -spring, and will thus be more secure against spring dwindling. Fifth. -As the bees are so independent of out-door heat, because of the thick -walls, with intervening-air-spaces, they are found less inclined to -swarm. Sixth. We can lock our house, and know that thieves cannot steal -our hard-earned property. - -The objections to them are: First. The bees leave the hives while being -handled, crawl about the house, from which it is difficult to dislodge -them, especially the young bees. This objection may disappear with -improved houses and practice. Second. In very severe winters, like that -of 1874 and 1875, they may not offer sufficient protection, yet they -would be much safer than chaff hives, as there would be many colonies -all mutually helping each other to maintain the requisite temperature, -and the walls might be even thicker than specified above, without -any serious inconvenience. Third. Some think it pleasanter and more -desirable to handle bees out-doors, where all is unconfined. Fourth. -The cost of the house; yet this is only for once in a life-time, and -saves providing shade, sawdust, packing-boxes, complex hives, etc. - -So, we see the question is too complex to be settled except by careful -experiment, and this, too, for a series of years. There are so many now -in use in the various States, that the question must soon be settled. I -predict that these structures will grow more and more into favor. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST. - - -There are various dangers that are likely to vex the apiarist, and even -to stand in the way of successful apiculture.--Yet, with knowledge, -most, if not all of these evils may be wholly vanquished. Among these -are: Robbing among the bees, disease, and depredations from other -animals. - - -ROBBING. - -This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inexperienced. -Bees only rob at such times as the general scarcity of nectar forbids -honest gains. When the question comes: Famine or theft, like many -another, they are not slow to choose the latter. It is often induced by -working with the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered -about or left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be feared in -spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both honey and bees, and -thus are unable to protect their own meager stores. The remedies for -this evil are not far to seek: - -First. Strong colonies are _very rarely_ molested, and are almost sure -to defend themselves against marauders; hence, it is only the weaklings -of the apiarist's flock that are in danger. Therefore, regard for our -motto, "Keep all colonies strong," will secure against harm from this -cause. - -Second. Italians, as before stated, are fully able, and quite as ready, -to protect their rights against neighboring tramps. Woe be to the -thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred rights of the home of -our beautiful Italians. For such temerity is almost sure to cost the -intruder its life. - -But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and those too of black bees, are -still easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing of the entrance so -that but a single bee can pass through, is all sufficient. With the -hive we have recommended, this is easily accomplished by simply moving -the hive back. - -Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to move them -into the cellar for a few days. This is a further advantage, as less -food is eaten, and the strength of the individual bees is conserved by -the quiet, and as there is no nectar in the fields no loss is suffered. - -In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey gathering, we cannot -be too careful to keep all honey from the bees unless placed in the -hives. The hives, too, should not be kept open long at a time. Neat, -quick work should be the watch-word. During times when robbers are -essaying to practice their nefarious designs, the bees are likely to be -more than usually irritable, and likely to resent intrusion; hence the -importance of more than usual caution, if it is desired to introduce a -queen. - - -DISEASE. - -The common dysentery--indicated by the bees soiling their hives, as -they void their feces within instead of without--which has been so -free, of late, to work havoc in our apiaries, is, without doubt, I -think, consequent upon wrong management on the part of the apiarist, as -already suggested in Chapter XVII. As the methods to prevent this have -already been sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible - - -FOUL BROOD. - -This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle--though this is -doubtful, as a stench attends common dysentery--though it has occurred -in our State as well as in States about us, is not familiar to me, I -having never seen but one case, and that on Kelly's Island, in the -summer of 1875, where I found it had reduced the colonies on that -Island to two. No bee malady can compare with this in malignancy. By -it Dzierzon once lost his whole apiary of 500 colonies.--Mr. E. Rood, -first President of the Michigan Association, has lost his bees two or -three times by this same terrible plague. - -The symptoms are as follows: Decline in the prosperity of the colony, -because of failure to rear brood. The brood seems to putrefy, becomes -"brown and salvy," and gives off a stench, which is by no means -agreeable, while later, the caps are concave instead of convex, and -have a little hole through them. - -There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fearful plague. -Like the fell "Pebrine," which came so near exterminating the "silk -worm," and a most lucrative and extensive industry in Europe, it, as -conclusively shown by Drs. Preusz and Shönfeld, of Germany, is the -result of fungous or vegetable growth. Shönfeld not only infected -healthy bee larvæ, but those of other insects, both by means of the -putrescent foul brood, and by taking the spores. - -Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so infinitesimally -small as often to elude the sharp detection of the expert microscopist. -Most of the terrible, contagious diseases that human flesh is heir to, -like typhus, diphtheria, cholera, small pox, &c., &c., are now thought -to be due to microscopic germs, and hence to be spread from home to -home, and from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary that the spores, -the minute seeds, either by contact or by some sustaining air current, -be brought to new soil of flesh blood or other tissue--their garden -spot--when they at once spring into growth, and thus lick up the very -vitality of their victims. The huge mushroom will grow in a night. So -too, these other plants--the disease germs--will develop with marvelous -rapidity; and hence the horrors of yellow fever, scarlatina, and -cholera. - -To cure such diseases, the fungi must be killed. To prevent their -spread, the spores must be destroyed, or else confined. But as these -are so small, so light, and so invisible--easily borne and wafted by -the slightest zephyr of summer, this is often a matter of the utmost -difficulty. - -In "Foul Brood" these germs feed on the larvæ of the bees, and thus -convert life and vigor into death and decay. If we can kill this -miniature forest of the hive, and destroy the spores, we shall -extirpate the terrible plague. - - -REMEDIES. - -If we can find a substance that will prove fatal to the fungi, -and yet not injure the bees, the problem is solved. Our German -scientists--those masters in scientific research and discovery, have -found this valuable fungicide in salicylic acid, an extract from the -same willows that give us pollen and nectar. This cheap white powder is -easily soluble in alcohol, and when mixed with borax in water. - -Mr. Hilbert, one of the most thoughtful of German bee-keepers, was -the first to effect a radical cure of foul brood in his apiary by -the use of this substance. He dissolved fifty grains of the acid in -five hundred grains of pure spirits. One drop of this in a grain of -distilled water is the mixture he applied. Mr. C. F. Muth, from whom -the above facts as to Herr Hilbert are gathered, suggests a variation -in the mixture. - -Mr. Muth suggests an improvement, which takes advantage of the fact -that the acid, which alone is very insoluble in water, is, when -mixed with borax, soluble. His recipe is as follows: One hundred and -twenty-eight grains of salicylic acid, one hundred and twenty-eight -grains of soda borax, and sixteen ounces distilled water. There is no -reason why water without distillation should not do as well. - -This remedy is applied as follows: First uncap all the brood, then -throw the fluid over the comb in a fine spray. This will not injure the -bees, but will prove fatal to the fungi. - -If the bees are removed to an empty hive, and given no comb for three -or four days, till they have digested all the honey in their stomachs, -and then prevented visiting the affected hive, they are said to be -out of danger. It would seem that the spores are in the honey, and -by taking that, the contagion is administered to the young bees. The -honey may be purified from these noxious germs, by subjecting it to -the boiling temperature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to -the spores of fungoid life. By immersing the combs in a salicylic acid -solution, or sprinkling them with the same, they would be rendered -sterile, and could be used without much fear of spreading contagion. -The disease is probably spread by robber bees visiting affected hives, -and carrying with them in the honey the fatal germs. - -I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and water is very -superior, and I much prefer it for either general or special use to -gum Arabic. Yet it soon sours--which means that it is nourishing these -fungoid plants--and thus becomes disagreeable. I have found that a -very little salicylic acid will render it sterile, and thus preserve it -indefinitely. - - -ENEMIES OF BEES. - -Swift was no mean entomologist, as shown in the following stanza: - - "The little fleas that do us tease, - Have lesser fleas to bite them, - And these again have lesser fleas, - And so ad infinitum." - -Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave the attacks of -reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they are beset with perils -at home, and perils abroad, perils by night and perils by day. - -[Illustration: Fig. 102.] - - -THE BEE MOTH--_Galleria Cereana_, Fabr. - -This insect belongs to the family of snout moths, Pyralidæ. This snout -is not the tongue, but the palpi, which fact was not known by Mr. -Langstroth, who is usually so accurate, as he essayed to correct Dr. -Harris, who stated correctly, that the tongue, the ligula, was "very -short and hardly visible." This family includes the destructive hop -moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its members are very -readily recognized by their unusually long palpi, the so-called snouts. - -[Illustration: Fig, 103.] - -The eggs of the bee moth are white, globular and very small. These -are usually pushed into crevices by the female moth as she extrudes -them, which she can easily do by aid of her spy-glass-like ovipositor. -They may be laid in the hive, in the crevice underneath it or about -the entrance.--Soon these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty looking -caterpillars, with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed. To -better protect themselves from the bees, they wrap themselves in a -silken tube (Fig. 102) which they have power to spin. They remain in -this tunnel of silk during all their growth, enlarging it as they eat. -By looking closely, the presence of these larvæ may be known by this -robe of glistening silk, as it extends in branching outlines (Fig. 103) -along the surface of the comb. A more speedy detection, even, than the -defaced comb, comes from the particles of comb, intermingled with the -powder-like droppings of the caterpillars, which will always be seen on -the bottom-board in case the moth-larvæ are at work. Soon, in three or -four weeks, the larvæ are full grown (Fig, 104). Now the six jointed, -and the ten prop-legs--making sixteen in all, the usual number of -caterpillars--are plainly visible. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 105.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 106.] - -These larvæ are about an inch long, and show, by their plump -appearance, that they at least, can digest comb. They now spin their -cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very numerous, -singly (Fig. 105, _a_) or in clusters (Fig. 105, _b_) on the comb, or -even in the drone-cells (Fig. 105, _c_) in which they become pupæ, and -in two weeks, even less, sometimes, during the extreme heat of summer, -the moths again appear. In winter, they may remain as pupæ for months. -The moths or millers--sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers--are -of an obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards, that they -are very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are about -three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (Fig. 106) nearly one and -one-fourth inches. The females (Fig. 107) are darker than the males -(Fig. 107), possess a longer snout, and are usually a little larger. -The wings, when the moths are quiet (Fig. 107) are flat on the back for -a narrow space, then slope very abruptly. They rest by day, yet, when -disturbed, will dart forth with great swiftness, so Réaumur styled them -"nimble-footed." They are active by night, when they essay to enter the -hive and deposit their one or two hundred eggs. If the females are held -in the hand they will often extrude their eggs; in fact, they have been -known to do this even after the head and thorax were severed from the -abdomen, and still more strange, while the latter was being dissected. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107.] - -It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first moths -occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I have seen these moths -in every month from May to September, and as I have proved by actual -observation that they may pass from egg to moth in less than six weeks, -I think under favorable conditions there may be even three broods a -year. It is true that the varied conditions of temperature--as the moth -larvæ may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few bees, or one crowded -with bee life--will have much to do with the rapidity of development. -Circumstances may so retard growth and development that there may not -be more than two, and possibly, in extreme cases, more than one brood -in a season. - -It is stated by Mr Quinby that a freezing temperature will kill these -insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks that a deserted hive -is safe, neither of which assertions are correct. I have seen hives, -whose bees were killed by the severe winter, crowded with moth pupæ or -chrysalids the succeeding summer. I have subjected both larvæ and pupæ -to the freezing temperature without injuring them. I believe, in very -mild winters, the moth and the chrysalids might be so protected as to -escape unharmed, even outside the hive. It is probable too, that the -insects may pass the winter in any one of the various stages. - - -HISTORY. - -These moths were known to writers of antiquity, as even Aristotle tells -of their injuries. They are wholly of oriental origin, and are often -referred to by European writers as a terrible pest. Dr. Kirtland, the -able scientist, the first President of our American Bee Convention, -whose decease we have just had to mourn, once said in a letter to Mr. -Langstroth, that the moth was first introduced into America in 1805, -though bees had been introduced long before. They first seemed to be -very destructive. It is quite probable, as has been suggested, that the -bees had to learn to fear and repel them; for, unquestionably, bees do -grow in wisdom.--In fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited -knowledge, which once had to be acquired by the animal. Surely bees -and other animals learn to battle new enemies, and vary their habits -with changed conditions, and they also transmit this knowledge and -their acquired habits to their offspring, as illustrated by setter -and pointer dogs. In time, may not this account for all those varied -actions, usually ascribed to instinct? At least, I believe the bee to -be a creature of no small intelligence. - - -REMEDIES. - -In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth. Once -a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even disquiet the -intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call it a blessed evil, as -it will destroy the bees of the heedless, and thus prevent injury to -the markets by their unsalable honey, while to the attentive bee-keeper -it will work no injury at all. Neglect and ignorance are the moth -breeders. - -As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured by moths, and strong -colonies never. As the enterprising apiarist will only possess these, -it is clear that he is free from danger. The intelligent apiarist will -also provide, not only against weak, but queenless colonies as well, -which from their abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth -invasion. Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not to court -death, to make no effort to delay it. - -In working with bees, an occasional web will be seen glistening -in the comb, which should be picked out with a knife till the -manufacturer--the ruthless larva--is found, when it should be crushed. -Any larva seen about the bottom board, seeking a place to spin its -cocoon, or any pupæ, either on comb or in crack, should also be killed. -If, through carelessness, a colony has become hopelessly victimized -by these filthy, stinking, wax devourers, then the bees and any combs -not attacked should be transferred to another hive, after which the -old hive should be sulphured by use of the smoker, as before described -(page 216), then by giving one or two each of the remaining combs to -strong colonies, after killing any pupæ that may be on them, they will -be cleaned and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony brood, if it -has any vigor remaining, and if necessary a good queen, it will soon be -rejoicing in strength and prosperity. - -We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and frames of comb -(page 216), and so need not speak further of them. - -BEE KILLER--_Asilus Missouriensis_, Riley. - -This is a two-winged fly, of the predacious family Asilidæ, which -attacks, and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon its fluids. It -is confined to the southern part of our country. - -The fly (Fig. 108) has a long, pointed abdomen, strong wings, and is -very powerful. I have seen an allied species attack and overcome the -powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I took them both with my net, and now -have them pinned, as they were captured, in our College cabinet. These -flies delight in the warm sunshine, are very quick on the wing, and are -thus not easily captured. It is to be hoped that they will not become -very numerous. If they should, I hardly know how they could be kept -from their evil work. Frightening them, or catching with a net might -be tried, yet these methods would irritate the bees, and need to be -tried before they are recommended. I have received specimens of this -fly from nearly every Southern State. There are very similar flies -North, belonging to the same genus, but as yet we have no account of -their attacking bees, though such a habit might easily be acquired, and -attacks here would not be surprising. - -[Illustration: Fig. 108.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 109. - -_Imago._ _Larva._] - - -BEE-LOUSE--_Branla Cœca_, Nitsch. - -This louse (Fig. 109) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of the uniques -among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite, and serves as -a very good connecting link between insects and spiders, or, still -better, between the Diptera, where it belongs, and the Hemiptera, which -contains the bugs and most of the lice. It assumes the semi-pupa -state almost as soon as hatched, and strangest of all, is, considering -the size of the bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its -nourishment, enormously large. Two or three, and sometimes even more, -(the new Encyclopedia Britannica says 50 or 100), are often found on -a single bee. When we consider their great size we cannot wonder that -they very soon devitalize the bees. - -These, as yet, have done little damage, except in the south of -Continental Europe. The fact that they have not become naturalized -in the northern part of the Continent, England or America, would go -to show that there is something inimical to their welfare in our -climate, especially as they are constantly being introduced, coming as -hangers-on to our imported bees. Within a year I have received them -from no less than three sources--twice from New York and once from -Pennsylvania--each time taken from bees just received from Italy. The -only way that I could suggest to rid bees of them would be to make the -entrance to the hive small, so that as the bees enter, they would be -scraped off. - - -IMPORTANT SUGGESTION. - -In view of the serious nature of this pest and the difficulty in the -way of its extinction, I would urge importers, and people receiving -imported queens, to be very careful to see that these lice, which, -from their size, are so easily discovered, are surely removed before -any queen harboring them is introduced. This advice is especially -important, in view of the similarity in climate of our own beautiful -South, to the sunny slopes of France and Italy. Very likely the lice -could not flourish in our Southern States, but there would be great -cause to fear the results of its introduction into our Eldorado, the -genial States of the West. In California, they might be even worse than -the drouth, as they might come as a permanent, not a temporary evil. - - -BEE HAWK--_Libellula_. - -This large, fine lace wing is a neuropterous insect. It works in the -Southern States and is called Mosquito-hawk.--Insects of the same -genus are called dragon flies, devil's, darning-needles, &c. These are -exceedingly predacious. In fact, the whole sub-order is insectivorous. -From its four netted, veined wings, we can tell it at once from -the asilus before mentioned, which has but two wings. The Bee or -Mosquito-hawk is resplendent with metallic green, while the Bee Killer -is of sober gray. The Mosquito Hawk is not inaptly named, as it not -only preys on other insects, swooping down upon them with the dexterity -of a hawk, but its graceful gyrations, as it sports in the warm -sunshine at noonday, are not unlike those of our graceful hawks and -falcons. These insects are found most abundant near water, as they lay -their eggs in water, where the larvæ live and feed upon other animals. -The larvæ are peculiar in breathing by gills in their rectum. The same -water that bathes these organs and furnishes oxygen, is sent out in a -jet, and thus sends the insect darting along. The larvæ also possess -enormous jaws, which formidable weapons are masked till it is desired -to use them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped or unhinged and the -terrible jaws open and close upon the unsuspecting victim, which has -but a brief time to bewail its temerity. - -A writer from Georgia, in _Gleanings_, volume 6, page 35, states that -these destroyers are easily scared away, or brought down by boys with -whips, who soon become as expert in capturing the insects, as are the -latter in seizing the bees. The insects are very wild and wary, and I -should suppose this method would be very efficient. - -[Illustration: Fig. 110.] - - -TACHINA FLY. - -From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain that there is a -two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina (Fig. 110), that works -on bees. I have never seen these, though I have repeatedly requested -those who have, to send them to me. My friend, Mr. J. L. Davis, put -some sick looking bees into a cage, and hatched the flies which he -told me looked not unlike a small house fly. It is the habit of these -flies, which belong to the same family as our house flies, which they -much resemble, to lay their eggs on other insects. Their young, upon -hatching, burrow into the insect that is being victimized, and grow -by eating it. It would be difficult to cope with this evil, should it -become of great magnitude. We may well hope that this habit of eating -bees is an exceptional one with it. - - -SPIDERS. - -These sometimes spread their nets so as to capture bees. If -porticos--which are, I think, worse than a useless expense--are -omitted, there will very seldom be any cause for complaints against the -spiders, which on the whole are friends. As the bee-keeper who would -permit spiders to worry his bees would not read books, I will discuss -this subject no further. - - -ANTS. - -These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and seldom, if -ever, I think, do any harm. Should the apiarist feel nervous, he can -very readily brush them away, or destroy them by use of any of the -fly poisons which are kept in the markets. As these poisons are made -attractive by adding sweets, we must be careful to preclude the bees -from gaining access to them. As we should use them in spring, and as we -then need to keep the quilt or honey-board close above the bees, and -as the ants cluster above the brood chamber, it is not difficult to -practice poisoning. One year I tried Paris green with perfect success. - - -WASPS. - -I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South, as in Europe, we -hear of such depredations. I have received wasps, sent by our southern -brothers, which were caught destroying bees. The wasps are very -predacious, and do immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect -pests. I have seen wasps carry off "currant-worms" with a celerity that -was most refreshing. - -As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much damage--even if -they ever do any--any great damage which may occur would doubtless come -from the social paper-makers. In this case, we have only to find the -nests and apply the torch, or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun to the nest -and shoot. This should be done at night-fall when the wasps have all -gathered home. Let us not forget that the wasps do much good, and so -not practice wholesale slaughter unless we have strong evidence against -them. - -THE KING BIRD--_Tyrannus Carolinensis_. - -This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly-catchers, a -very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly insectivorous, and -do immense good by destroying our insect pests. The king bird is the -only one of them in the United States that deserves censure. Another, -the chimney swallow of Europe, has the same evil habit. Our chimney -swallow has no evil ways. I am sure, from personal observation, that -these birds capture and eat the workers, as well as drones; and I dare -say, they would pay no more respect to the finest Italian Queen. Yet, -in view of the good that these birds do, unless they are far more -numerous and troublesome than I have ever observed them to be, I should -certainly be slow to recommend the death warrant. - - -THE TOADS. - -The same may be said of the toads, which may often be seen sitting -demurely at the entrance of the hives, and lapping up the full-laden -bees with the lightning-like movement of their tongues, in a manner -which can but be regarded with interest, even by him who suffers loss. -Mr. Moon, the well known apiarist, made this an objection to low hives; -yet, the advantage of such hives far more than compensates, and with a -bottom-board, such as described in the chapter on hives, we shall find -that the toads do very little damage. - - -MICE. - -These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the apiary. They -enter the hives in winter, mutilate the comb, irritate, perhaps -destroy, the bees, and create a very offensive stench. They often -greatly injure comb which is outside the hive, destroy smokers, by -eating the leather off the bellows, and if they get at the seeds of -honey plants, they never retreat till they make a complete work of -destruction. - -In the house and cellar, these plagues should be, by use of eat or -trap, completely exterminated. If we winter on the summer stands, the -entrance should be so contracted that mice cannot enter the hive. In -case of packing as I have recommended, I should prefer a more ample -opening, which may be safely secured by taking a piece of wire cloth -or perforated tin, and tacking it over the entrance, letting it come -within one-fourth of an inch of the bottom-board. This will give more -air, and still preclude the entrance of these miserable vermin. (See -Appendix, page 293). - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -CALENDAR AND AXIOMS. - - -WORK FOR DIFFERENT MONTHS.[1] - -[Footnote 1: These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where -the fruit trees blossom about the first of May. By noting these -flowers, the dates can be easily changed to suit any locality] - -Though every live apiarist will take one, at least, of the three -excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our country, in -which the necessary work of each month will be detailed, yet it may be -well to give some brief hints in this place. - - -JANUARY. - -During this month the bees will need little attention.--Should the -bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy, which will not happen -if the requisite precautions are taken, and there come a warm day, it -were well to set them on their summer stands, that they may enjoy a -purifying flight. At night when all are again quiet return them to the -cellar.--While out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if there -are many dead bees. This is the time, too, to read, visit, study and -plan for the ensuing season's work. - - -FEBRUARY. - -No advice is necessary further than that given for January, though if -the bees have a good fly in January, they will scarcely need attention -in this month. The presence of snow on the ground need not deter the -apiarist from giving his bees a flight, providing the day is warm and -still. It is better to let them alone if they are quiet. - - -MARCH. - -Bees should still be kept housed, and those outside still retain about -them the packing of straw, shavings, &c. Frequent flights do no good, -and wear out the bees. Colonies that are uneasy, and besmear their -hives should be set out, and allowed a good flight and then returned. - -The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens and drones -should now be fed, to stimulate breeding. By careful pruning, too, -we may and should prevent the rearing of drones in any but the best -colonies. If from lack of care the previous autumn, any of our stocks -are short of stores, now is when it will be felt. In such cases feed -either honey, sugar, syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath -the quilt. - - -APRIL. - -Early in this month the bees may all be set out. It will be best to -feed all, and give all access to flour, when they will work at it, -though usually they can get pollen as soon as they can fly out to -advantage. Keep the brood chamber contracted so that the frames will -all be covered, and cover well above the bees to economize heat. - - -MAY. - -Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till bloom -appears. Give room for storing. Extract if necessary, and keep close -watch, that you may anticipate and forestall any attempt to swarm. Now, -too, is the best time to transfer. - - -JUNE. - -Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens. Divide the -colonies, as may be desired, especially enough to prevent attempts at -swarming. Extract if necessary or best; adjust frames or sections, if -comb honey is desired, and be sure to keep all the white clover honey, -in whatever form taken, separate from all other. Now is the best time -to Italianize. - - -JULY. - -The work this month is about the same as that of June.--Supersede all -poor and feeble queens. Keep the basswood honey by itself, and remove -boxes or frames as soon as full. Be sure that queens and workers have -plenty of room to do their best, and suffer not the hot sun to strike -the hives. - - -AUGUST. - -Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between basswood and fall -bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give plenty of room for queen and -workers as fall storing commences. - - -SEPTEMBER. - -Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing ceases, which -usually occurs about the middle of this month; feed sparingly till the -first of October. If robbing occurs, contract the entrance of the hive -robbed. If it is desired to feed honey or sugar for winter, it should -be done the last of this month. - - -OCTOBER. - -Prepare colonies for winter. See that all have at least thirty pounds, -by weight, of good, capped honey, and that all are strong in bees. -Contract the chamber, by using division board, and cover well with the -quilt. Be sure that one or two central frames of comb contain many -empty cells, and that all have a central hole through which the bees -can pass. - - -NOVEMBER. - -Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar or depository, -or pack about those left out on the summer stands. - - -DECEMBER. - -Now is the time to make hives, honey-boxes, &c., for the coming year. -Also labels for hives. These may just contain the name of the colony, -in which case the full record will be kept in a book; or the label may -be made to contain a full register as to time of formation, age of -queen, &c., &c. Slates are also used for the same purpose. - -I know from experience that any who heed all of the above may succeed -in bee-keeping,--may win a double success:--Receive pleasure and make -money. I feel sure that many experienced apiarists will find advice -that it may pay to follow. It is probable that errors abound, and -certain that much remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that -what they do not know is greatly in excess of what they do know. - - -AXIOMS. - -The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just as true to-day -as they were when written by that noted author: - -There are a few _first principles_ in bee-keeping which ought to be as -familiar to the Apiarist as the letters of the alphabet. - -First. Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack. - -Second. Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing them to accept of -liquid sweets. - -Third. Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming on their hives, -fill themselves with honey and lose all disposition to sting, unless -they are hurt. - -Fourth. Bees dislike any _quick_ movements about their hives, -especially any motion which _jars_ their combs. - -Fifth. In districts where forage is abundant only for a short period, -the largest yield of honey will be secured by a _very_ moderate -increase of stocks. - -Sixth. A moderate increase of colonies in any one season, will, in -the long run, prove to be the easiest, safest, and cheapest mode of -managing bees. - -Seventh. Queenless colonies, unless supplied with a queen, will -inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee-moth, or by -robber-bees. - -Eighth. The formation of new colonies should ordinarily be confined -to the season when bees are accumulating honey; and if this, or any -other operation, must be performed when forage is scarce, the greatest -precautions should be used to prevent robbing. - -The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in Oettl's -Golden Rule: KEEP YOUR STOCKS STRONG. If you cannot succeed in doing -this, the more money you invest in bees, the heavier will be your -losses; while, if your stocks are strong, you will show that you are -a _bee-master_, as well as & bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on -generous returns from your industrious subjects. - -_"Keep all colonies strong."_ - - - - -APPENDIX. - - -HISTORY OF MOVABLE FRAMES. - -Movable frames have revolutionized bee-keeping, and so out-rank the -reaper and mower, and equal the cotton-gin. Few inventions have exerted -so powerful an influence upon the art which they serve. Their history -will ever be a subject of exceeding interest to bee-keepers, and their -inventor worthy the highest regard as the greatest benefactor of our -art. In writing their history, I have no personal interest or bias, and -am only impelled by a love of truth and justice. I am the more eager -to write this history, as some of our apiarists, and they among the -best informed and most influential (_American Bee Journal_, vol. 14, -p. 380), are misinformed in the premises. In obtaining the data for -this account, I am under many obligations to our great American master -in apiculture. Rev. L. L. Langstroth, whose thorough knowledge and -extensive library have been wholly at my command. - -We are informed by George Wheeler, in his "Journey into Greece," -published in 1682, page 411, that the Greeks had partial control of -the combs. "The tops" of the willow hives "are covered with broad flat -sticks. Along each of these sticks the bees fasten their combs; so that -a comb may be taken out whole." - -Swammerdam had no control of the comb, nor had Réaumur. The latter used -narrow hives, which contained but two combs; but these were stationary. -Huber was the first to construct a hive which gave him control of the -combs and access to the interior of the hive. In August, 1879, Huber -wrote to Bonnet as follows: "I took several small fir boxes, a foot -square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them together by hinges, so -that they could be opened and shut like the leaves of a book. When -using a hive of this description, we took care to fix a comb in each -frame, and then introduced all the bees."--(Edinburgh edition of Huber, -p. 4). Although Morlot and others attempted to improve this hive, it -never gained favor with practical apiarists. - -[Illustration: Fig. 111.] - -The first person to adjust frames in a case appears to have been Mr. W. -Augustus Munn, of England. I have in my possession a letter from Mr. -Munn, dated November 9th, 1863, in which he states that the hive "had -been in use since 1834." The first printed description of any of his -hives appeared in the "Gardener's Chronicle" for 1843. This article -was written by a lady, and signed "E. M. W." Its premature publication -made it impossible for Mr. Munn to secure a patent in Great Britain. -In 1843 he secured a patent in France. The hive patented is fully -described in his "Description of the Bar and Frame Hive," published in -London, in 1844. There is also a figure (Fig. 111). I copy from the -work which is before me, pp. 7 and 8: "An oblong box is formed, about -thirty inches long, sixteen inches high, and twelve inches broad. One -of the long sides is constructed to open with hinges, and to hang on -a level with the bottom. As many grooves half an inch broad, half an -inch deep, and about 9½ inches long, are formed 1⅛ inches apart on -the inside of the bottom of the box, as its length will admit. At the -top are corresponding grooves to those made in the bottom of the box. -The bee-frames are made of half inch mahogany, being 12 inches high, -9 inches long, and not more than half an inch broad, sliding into the -fifteen grooves formed on the bottom, and kept securely in their places -by the upper grooves," and by propolis, the author might well have -added. American apiarists need not be told that such a hive would be -wholly impracticable. Without bees in it, the changes of weather would -make the sliding of the frames very difficult; with the bees inside, -the removal of the frames would be practically impossible. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112.] - -In 1851 Mr. Munn issued a second edition of his book, in the preface of -which I find the following: "Having materially simplified the bar-frame -hive, by forming the 'oblong bar-frames' into 'triangular frames,' and -making them lift out of the top, instead of the back of the bee-box, -I have republished the pamphlet." The triangular hive (Fig. 112) is -described and figured, and is the same as found illustrated in Munn's -"Bevan on the Honey Bee." This hive, although a possible improvement on -the other, is costly, intricate, and still very impracticable. In the -price-list of J. Pettitt, Dover, England, 1864, I find this hive priced -at £3 3s., or about $15.00. From the figure we learn that there were -some wide spaces about the frames. These would of course be filled with -comb, and render the hives entirely unsuitable for common use. That -this hive lacked the essential requisites to success is evident from -words penned by the inventor in 1863: "The hive matters little if the -pasturage is good." And it is easy to see from the complex arrangement -of the frames, and the wide spaces about them, that as Mr. Munn said, -referring to his hive, "When left to themselves the bees shut up the -shop." Had invention stopped with Major Munn's hive, we should to-day -be using the old box hive, and sighing in vain for a better. Neighbour -well says (3d edition, p. 129): "Probably the reason of the invention's -failure was the expensiveness of the Major's fittings, which make the -hive appear more like some astronomical instrument, than a box for -bees. Be this as it may, there was no such thing as a frame hive in use -in England till 1860." - -It would seem strange, that after going so far Major Munn should have -failed to give bee-keepers a hive of value. Yet with his view that -smoke injured the bees and brood (2d edition, p. 21), we can readily -see, that with his hive and black bees, a man would need the skin -of a rhinoceros, and nerves of brass, to do much by way of actual -manipulation for practical purposes. It has been truly said that "The -Huber hive can be used with far greater ease and safety, by a novice, -than can Munn's." - -It will be seen by reference to "Bee Culture with Movable Frames," -published by Pastor George Kleine, Hanover, Germany, in 1853, p. 5, -that a druggist by the name of Schmidt, in a work which he published -in Freiburg, in 1851, entitled, "The New Bee Homes," describes a hive -with the Huber leaves having prolonged tops which hung on rabbets, much -as do our frames. These Huber leaves were close-fitting, and so not -practical. Kleine regarded this as inferior to the Huber hive, in that -the combs must be taken out from above. With a side opening he thinks -it would be a material improvement. It is evident from Kleine's work, -that he knew nothing either of Munn or his hive. - -In 1847, Jacob Shaw, Jr., then of Hinckley, Ohio, published in the -_Scientific American_, March 5th, 1847, p. 187, the description of a -hive devised by him. A person who has seen the hive tells me that as -described and first used, this hive had close-fitting frames, which -rested in a double-walled tin box. By turning hot water into the -chamber, the frames would be loosened. We do not wonder that, as Mr. -Shaw deposed, he only made one hive, and that he could only persuade -one colony of the several which he tried, to accept the situation, and -that this one soon perished. He got no surplus, and wisely set the hive -aside. - -In 1847, the well known agricultural writer, Solon Robinson, suggested -in an article published in the _Albany Cultivator_; a tin hive made -up of unicomb apartments which should set close side by side, and be -connected by inter-communicating holes. Of course, such a hive would -only succeed in the imagination. - -M. Debeauvoys published, in 1847, the 2d edition of "Guide de -l'Apiculteur," at Angers, France, in which he described a movable comb -hive, to meet the practical wants of French bee-keepers. This hive -was not only no improvement on that of Huber, but even less easy of -manipulation. The top-bar and uprights of the frames were close-fitting -to the top and sides of the hive. Says M. Hamet, editor of the French -bee paper, in his work, "Cours Pratique D'Apiculture," 1859 edition: -"The removal of the frames is more difficult than from the Huber -hive, and it has never been accepted by the practical bee-keepers of -France." Mr. Chas. Dadant describes this hive, which he once made -and used, in the _American Bee Journal_, vol. 7, p. 197. He says of -it: "The hive worked well when new and empty; but after the bees had -glued the frames, it was difficult to remove them without breaking -the combs. It would have been entirely impossible to remove them at -all, without separating the ends of the hive from the frames with a -chisel. This hive, which had gained 2,500 proselytes in France, was -very soon abandoned by all, and the disciples of Debeauvoys returned -to the old-fashioned straw hive." He adds, further, that these hives -were disastrous to French bee culture. Once misled by movable frames, -they ever afterwards refused them even for trial. Of course Mr. S. -S. Fisher, once commissioner of patents, and an expert, could see -nothing in this hive, or any of the inventor's modifications of it, to -invalidate the Langstroth patent. How grateful all American apiarists -should be, that Mr. Langstroth's invention was of a different type. - -As already stated, bars were used centuries ago in Greece. Della Rocca, -in a work published in 1790, also describes bars as used by him. -Schirach used slats across the top of a box with rear-opening doors, as -early as 1771. In Key's work, "Ancient Bee Master's Farewell," London, -1796, p. 42, such hives are described, and beautifully illustrated, -plate 1, figs. 2 and 3. Bevan, London, 1838, describes on p. 82 a -similar hive, with the bars set in rabbets, which is figured on p. 83. - -In 1835, Dzierzon, who has been to Germany what Langstroth has to -America, commenced bee-culture. Three years later he adopted the bar -hive, and although these bar hives were previously of little value -to practical apiculture, in his hands they became a most valuable -instrument. To remove the combs, the great German master had to cut -them loose from the sides of the hives. Yet from his great skill in -handling them, his studious habits, and invaluable researches, which -gave to the world the knowledge of parthenogenesis among bees, his hive -and system marked a new era in German apiculture. - -In 1851, our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of what foreign -apiarian inventors had done, save what he could find in Huber, and -edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive now in common use among the -advanced apiarists of America. It is this hive, the greatest apiarian -invention ever made, that has placed American apiculture in advance -of that of all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America -could say with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, that the improved hives -were without value except to the amateur, and inferior for practical -purposes? Our apiarists not native to our shores, like the late Adam -Grimm and Mr. Chas. Dadant, always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was -the inventor of this hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness. -Well did the late Mr. S. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly -and truth-loving editor of the early volumes of the _American Bee -Journal_, himself of German origin, say: "When Mr. Langstroth took -up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done, and saw wherein -he had failed--failing, possibly, only because he aimed at nothing -more than constructing an observing hive, suitable for his purposes. -Mr. Langstroth's object was other and _higher_. He aimed at making -frames movable, interchangeable, and _practically_ serviceable in bee -culture." And how true what follows: "_Nobody_ before Mr. Langstroth -ever succeeded in devising a mode of making and using a movable frame -that was of any practical value in bee culture." No man in the world, -beside Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant with this whole subject as -was Mr. Wagner. His extensive library and thorough knowledge made him -a competent judge. Now that the invention is public property, men will -cease to falsify and even perjure themselves, to rob an old man, whose -words, writings, and whole life, shine with untarnished ingenuousness. -And very soon all will unite with the great majority of intelligent -American apiarists of to-day, in rendering to this benefactor of -our art, the credit; though he has been hopelessly deprived of the -pecuniary benefits of his great invention. - -Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention of frames -contained in a case, when he made his invention, in 1851, does not -profess to have been the first to have invented them. Every page of his -book shows his transparent honesty, and desire to give all due credit -to other writers and inventors. He does claim, and very justly, to -have invented the first practical frame hive, the one described in his -patent, applied for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his -book. - -While the name of the late Baron Von Berlepsch will always stand in the -front rank of apiarists, he never gave the world any description of a -movable frame hive, until Mr. Langstroth had applied for a patent, and -not until the Langstroth hive was largely in use. - -It has been claimed that Mr. Andrew Harbison invented and used in his -father's apiary, previous to 1851, the Langstroth hive. In the _Dollar -Newspaper_ for January 21, 1857, a brother, Mr. W. C. Harbison, who -also lived with his father at the time the invention is said to have -been made, says: "I will venture the prediction that both Quinby's -hive and mine will ere long be cast aside, to give place to a hive -constructed in such a manner that the apiarian can have access to -every part of the hive at pleasure, without injury to the colony. -In this particular both Mr. Quinby and myself have _singly failed_. -The invention of such a hive was reserved for Mr. Langstroth." It is -significant that J. S. Harbison, another brother, who was also with his -father at the time, in his "Bee Culture," San Francisco, 1861, speaks -of the Langstroth hive, p. 149, but not of that of his brother. It -has also been claimed that W. A. Flanders, Martin Metcalf, and Edward -Townley, each invented this hive prior to Mr! Langstroth's invention. -Yet, each of these gentlemen wrote a book, in which no mention is -made of such an invention. Well might Mr. Langstroth say, "I can well -understand what Job meant when he said, 'O! that my enemy had written -a book.'" It is also stated that Mr. A. F. Moon was a prior inventor -of this hive. Mr. Moon's own testimony, that he not only abandoned his -invention, being unable to secure straight combs, but _even forgot all -about it_, till it was discovered in an old rubbish pile, shows that he -did nothing that would, in court, overthrow Mr. Langstroth's claims, or -that in the least conferred any benefit upon bee-keepers. Mr. Maxwell, -of Mansfield, Ohio, was another who is said to have anticipated Mr. -Langstroth. Yet Mr. Maxwell's own son swears that he helped his father -make all his hives, and that his father never used a movable frame -till after 1851. Solon Robinson thought his brother. Dr. Robinson, of -Jamaica Plains, near Boston, made and used movable frame hives prior -to 1852. The wife of Dr. Robinson testified that her husband bought a -right to use the Langstroth hive, and with it made his first movable -frames. - -Every claim, both at home and abroad, to the invention of a practical -movable frame hive, prior to that of Mr. Langstroth, when examined, -is found to have no substantial foundation. All previous hives were -plainly inferior to the improved Huber hive as described in Bevan, p. -106. It is a sad blot upon American apiculture, that he who raised -it to the proud height which it occupies to-day, should have been -shamefully defrauded of the just reward for his great invention. But -it gives me the greatest pleasure to state, that by no possible word -could I gather that Mr. Langstroth feels any bitterness towards those -who seem wilfully to have stolen his invention, while with a mantle -of charity, great as is his noble heart, he covers the thousands who -either thought he had no valid claim, or else that the purchase of a -right from others, entitled them to his invention. As an inventor and -writer on apiculture, Mr. Langstroth will ever be held in grateful -memory. How earnestly will American apiarists desire that he may be -spared to us until he completes his autobiography, that we may learn -how he arrived at his great discovery, and may study the methods by -which he gleaned so many rich and valuable truths. - - * * * * * - - -LECANIUM TULIPIFERÆ--Cook. - -In the summer of 1870, this louse, which, so far as I know, has never -yet been described, and for which I propose the above very appropriate -name, tulipiferæ--the Lecanium of the tulip tree--was very common on -the tulip trees about the College lawns. So destructive were they that -some of the trees were killed outright, others were much injured, and -had not the lice for some unknown reason ceased to thrive, we should -soon have missed from our grounds one of our most attractive trees. - -Since the date above given, I have received these insects, through the -several editors of our excellent bee papers, from many of the States, -especially those bordering the Ohio River. In Tennessee they seem very -common, as they are often noticed in abundance on the fine stately -tulip trees of that goodly State--in the South this tulip tree is -called the poplar, which is very incorrect, as it is in no way related -to the latter. The poplar belongs to the willow family; the tulip to -the magnolia, which families are wide apart. In Pennsylvania the louse -has been noticed on the cucumber tree--Magnolia acuminata. - -Wherever the tulip-tree lice have been observed sucking the sap and -vitality from the trees, there the bees have also been seen, lapping -up a sweet juicy exudation, which is secreted by the lice. In 1870 I -observed that our tulip trees were alive with bees and wasps, even -as late as August, though the trees are in blossom only in June. -Examination showed that the exuding sweets from these lice were what -attracted the bees. This was observed with some anxiety, as the -secretion gives off a very nauseating odor. - -The oozing secretions from this and other lice, not only of the -bark-louse family (Coccidæ), but of the plant-louse family (Aphidæ), -are often referred to as honey-dew. Would it not be better to speak of -these as insect secretions, and reserve the name honey-dew for sweet -secretions from plants, other than those which come from the flowers? - - -NATURAL HISTORY OF THE LECANIUM TULIPIFERÆ. - -The fully developed insect, like all bark lice, is in the form of a -scale (Fig. 113, 1), closely applied to the limb or twig on which it -works. This insect, like most of its genus, is brown, very convex -above, (Fig. 113, 1), and concave beneath, (Fig. 113, 2). On the under -side is a cotton-like secretion, which serves to enfold the eggs. -Underneath the species in question are two transverse parallel lines of -this white down, (Fig. 113, 2). One of them, probably the anterior, is -nearly marginal, and is interrupted in the middle; while the other is -nearly central, and in place of the interruption at the middle, it has -a V-shaped projection back or away from the other line. The form of the -scale is quadrangular, and not unlike that of a turtle, (Fig. 113, 1). -When fully developed it is a little more than 3-16 of an inch long, and -a little more than ⅔ as wide. - -Here at Lansing, the small, yellow, oval eggs appear late in August. -In Tennessee they would be found under the scales in their cotton -wrappings many days earlier. The eggs are 1-40 of an inch long, and -1-65 of an inch wide. These eggs, which are very numerous, hatch in -the locality of their development, and the young or larval lice, quite -in contrast with their dried, inert, motionless parents, are spry -and active. They are oval, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), yellow; and 1-23 of -an inch long, and 1-40 of an inch wide. The eyes, antenna (Fig. 113, -5), and legs, (Fig. 113, 6), are plainly visible when magnified 30 -or 40 diameters. The 9-jointed abdomen is deeply emarginate, or cut -into posteriorly, (Fig. 113, 3), and on each side of this slit is a -projecting stylet or hair, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), while from between the -eyes, on the under side of the head, extends the long recurved beak, -(Fig. 113, 4). The larvæ soon leave the scales, crawl about the tree, -and finally fasten by inserting their long slender beaks, when they so -pump up the sap that they grow with surprising rapidity. In a few weeks -their legs and antennæ seem to disappear as they become relatively so -small, and the scale-like form is assumed. In the following summer the -scale is full-formed and the eggs are developed. Soon the scale, which -is but the carcass of the once active louse, drops from the tree, and -the work of destruction is left to the young lice, a responsibility -which they seem quite ready to assume. - -[Illustration: Fig. 113.] - -In my observations I have detected no males. Judging from others of the -bark-lice, these must possess wings, and will never assume the scale -form, though Prof. P. K Uhler writes me that the males of some bark -lice are apterous. - - -REMEDIES. - -If valued shade or honey trees are attacked by these insatiate -destroyers, they could probably be saved by discreet pruning--cutting -off the affected branches before serious injury was done, or by -syringing the trees with a solution of whale oil, soap--or even common -soft soap would do--just as the young lice are leaving the scales. It -would be still better to have the solution hot. Whitman's Fountain Pump -is admirable for making such applications. - -Fig. 1 is slightly magnified; the others are largely magnified. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Fig. 114.] - - -MOTHERWORT AS A HONEY PLANT. - -(_Leonurus cardiaca L._) - -Perhaps none of our common herbs promises better, as a honey plant, -than the one in question. It is a very hardy perennial, and once -introduced in waste places, it is sure to hold its own, until it -becomes desirable to extirpate it, when, at man's bidding, it quickly -lets go its hold, so that it is not a dangerous plant to introduce. -The blossoms appear at this place about June 25th, and persist for a -full month, and during the entire time are crowded with bees, whatever -may be the character of the weather, whether wet or dry, warm or cool, -whether the plant is in the midst of honey plants or isolated. We are -thus assured that the plant is constantly secreting nectar, and is also -a favorite with bees. Rape, mustards and borage seem indifferent to the -weather, but are not favorites with the bees. Motherwort, then, has -three admirable qualities: It is long in bloom, the flowers afford fine -honey at all times, and it is a favorite with the bees. If it could be -made to bloom about three weeks later, coming in just after basswood, -it would have nearly all the desired qualities. I think that we might -bring this about by mowing the plants in May. I am led to this opinion -from the fact that some plants which we set back by transplanting in -May, are still in bloom this August 10th, and are now alive with, bees, -dividing their attention with the beautiful cleome, which, is now in -full bloom, and fairly noisy with bees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115.] - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. - -The stalk is square (Fig. 114), branching, and when cultivated, attains -a height of some four feet; though, as it grows in waste places, it -is seldom more than three feet. The branches, and also the leaves, -are opposite (Figs. 114 and 115), and in the axiles of the latter are -whorls of blossoms (Figs. 115 and 116), which succeed each other from -below to the top of the branching stems. The corolla is like that of -all the mints, while the calyx has five teeth, which are sharp and -spine-like in the nutlets as they appear at the base of the leaves -(Fig. 115). As they near the top, the whorls of blossoms and succeeding -seeds are successively nearer together, and finally become very crowded -at the apex (Fig. 116). The leaves are long and palmately lobed (Fig. -115). The small blossom is purple. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116.] - - -THE SOUR-WOOD TREE. - -The sorrel tree (_Oxydendrum arboreum_) (Fig. 117), so called because -of the acidity of the leaves, is a native of the South, but has -been grown even as far north as New York. It often attains no mean -dimensions in its native home along the Alleghanies, often reaching -upward more than fifty feet, and acquiring a diameter of twelve or -fifteen inches. - -[Illustration: Fig. 117.] - -The flowers are arranged in racemes, are more drooping than represented -in the figure, are white, and with the beautiful foliage make an -ornamental tree of high rank. The bark is rough, and the wood so soft -as to be worthless, either as fuel or for use in the arts. As a honey -tree, it is very highly esteemed; in fact, it is the linden of the -South. - - -THE JAPAN MEDLAR. - -I have received from J. M. Putnam, of New Orleans, La., flowers of the -_Mespilus Japonica_, or Japan plum. He states that it bears a most -delicious fruit, blooms from August till January, unless cut off by a -severe frost, and is proof against ordinary frosts. He states that it -furnishes abundance of delicious honey, and that, too, when his bees -were gathering from no other source. - -The _Mespilus Germanica_ grows in England, and is much praised for its -fruit. From Mr. Putnam's account, the _M. Japonica_ is unprecedented -in its length of bloom. We think two months a long time. We pay high -tribute to mignonette, cleome and borage, when we tell of four months -of bloom; but this is mild praise when compared with this Japan plum, -which flowers from August first till January. - -The flowers are in a dense panicle, and were still fragrant after their -long journey. The leaf is lanceolate, and very thick, some like the wax -plant. I should say it was an evergreen. The apiarists of the South are -to be congratulated on this valuable acquisition to their bee forage. I -hope it will thrive North as well as South. - - * * * * * - - -THE STINGING-BUG.--_Phymata Erosa_, Fabr. - -This insect is very widely distributed throughout the United States. -I have received it from Maryland to Missouri on the South, and from -Michigan to Minnesota on the North. The insect will lie concealed among -the flowers, and upon occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm's -length, and suck out its blood and life. - -This is a Hemipteran, or true bug, and belongs to the family _Phymatidæ -Uhr_. It is the _Phymata Erosa_, Fabr., the specific name erosa -referring to its jagged appearance. It is also called the "stinging -bug," in reference to its habit of repelling intrusion by a painful -thrust with its sharp, strong; beak. - -[Illustration: Fig. 118.--_Side view, natural size._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 119.--_Magnified twice._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 120.--_Beak, much magnified._] - -The "stinging bug" (Fig. 118) is somewhat jagged in appearance, about -three-eighths of an inch long, and generally of a yellow color; though -this latter seems quite variable. Frequently there is a distinct -greenish hue. Beneath the abdomen, and on the back of the head, thorax -and abdomen, it is more or less specked with brown; while across the -dorsal aspect of the broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of brown -(Fig. 119 _d, d_). Sometimes this stripe is almost wanting, sometimes -a mere patch, while rarely the whole abdomen, is very slightly marked, -and as often we find it almost wholly brown above and below. The legs -(Fig. 119, 6), beak and antennæ (Fig. 119, _a_) are greenish yellow. -The beak (Fig. 120) has three joints (Fig. 120, _a, b, c_) and a sharp -point (Fig. 120, _d_). - -[Illustration: Fig. 121.--_Antenna, much magnified._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 122.--_Anterior Leg, magnified--exterior view._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 123.--_Interior view._] - -This beak is not only the great weapon of offense, but also the organ -through which the food is sucked. By the use of this, the insect has -gained the soubriquet of stinging bug. This compact jointed beak is -peculiar to all true bugs, and by observing it alone, we are able to -distinguish all the very varied forms of this group. The antenna (Fig. -121) is; four-jointed. The first joint (Fig. 121, _a_) is short, the -second and third (Fig. 121, _b_ and _c_) are long and slim, while the -terminal one (Fig. 121, _d_) is much enlarged. This enlarged joint -is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as described -by Latreille. But the most curious structural peculiarity of this -insect, and the chief character of the genus Phymata, is the enlarged -anterior legs (Figs. 122, 123 and 124). These, were they only to aid -in locomotion, would seem like awkward, clumsy organs, but when we -learn that they are used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but -appreciate and admire their modified form. The femur (Fig. 122, _b_) -and the tarsus (Fig. 122, _a_) are toothed, while the latter is greatly -enlarged. From the interior lower aspect of the femur (Fig. 123) is the -small tibia, while on the lower edge of the tarsus (Fig. 123, d) is a -cavity in which rests the single claw. The other four legs (Fig. 125) -are much as usual. - -[Illustration: Fig. 124.--_Claw, extended._] - -[Illustration: Fig. 125.--_Middle Leg, much magnified._] - -This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous, lying in wait, -often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to capture and destroy -unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, butterflies, moths, and -even bees and wasps. We have already noticed how well prepared it is -for this work by its jaw-like anterior legs, and its sharp, strong, -sword-like beak. - -It is often caught on the golden rod. This plant, from its very -color, tends to conceal the hug, and from the very character of the -plant--being attractive as a honey plant to bees--the slow bug is -enabled to catch the spry and active honey-bee. - -As Prof. Uhler well says of the "stinging-bug": "It is very useful in -destroying caterpillars and other vegetable-feeding insects, but is not -very discriminating in its tastes, and would as soon seize the useful -honey-bee as the pernicious saw-fly." And he might have added that it -is equally indifferent to the virtues of our friendly insects like the -parasitic and predaceous species. - -We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its destruction -would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely scattered as are the -flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest its case, at least until -its destructiveness becomes more serious than at present. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Fig. 126.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 127.] - - -THE SOUTHERN BEE-KILLERS. - -_Mallophora orcina and Mallophora bomboides._ - -I have received from several of our enterprising bee-keepers of the -South--Tennessee, Georgia and Florida--the above insects, with the -information that they dart forth from some convenient perch, and with -swift and sure aim, grasp a bee, bear it to some bush, when they -leisurely suck out all but the mere crust, and cast away the remains. -The bee which is thus victimized, is readily known by the small hole -in the back, through which the juices were pumped out. - -The insects plainly belong to the family Asilidæ, the same that -includes the Missouri bee-killer, _Asilus Missouriensis_, the Nebraska -bee-killer, _Promachus bastardi_, and other predatory insects, several -of which, I regret to say, have the same evil habit of killing and -devouring our friends of the hive. - -The characters of this family, as given by Loew, one of the greatest -authorities on Diptera, or two-winged flies, are prolonged basal cells -of the wings, third longitudinal vein bifurcate, third joint of antenna -simple, under lip forming a horny sheath, empodium, a projection below -and beneath the claws (Fig. 131, _c_), a horny bristle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 128.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 131.] - -The insects in question belong to Loew's third group, Asilina, as the -antennæ end in a bristle (Fig. 128), while the second longitudinal vein -of the wing (Fig. 129, _b_) runs into the first (Fig. 129, _a_). - -The genus is _Mallophora_. The venation of the wings much resembles -that of the genus _Promachus_, the same that contains the Nebraska -bee-killer, though the form of these insects is very different. The -Nebraska bee-killer is long and slim like the _Asilus Missouriensis_ -(see Fig. 108), while the one in question is much like the neuter -bumble-bee in form. - -In _Mallophora_ and _Promachus_, the venation is as represented in Fig. -129, where, as will be seen, the second vein (Fig. 129, _b_) forks, -while in the genus Asilus (Fig. 130) the third vein is forked, -though in all three genera the third joint of the antennæ (Fig. 128) -ends in a prolonged bristle. - -One of the most common of these pests, which I am informed by Dr. -Hagen, is _Mallophora orcina_, Wied, (Fig. 126) is one inch long, and -expands one and three-fourths inches (Fig. 127). The head (Fig. 128) -is broad, the eyes black and prominent, the antennæ three-jointed, the -last joint terminating in a bristle, while the beak is very large, -strong, and like the eyes and antennæ, coal black. This is mostly -concealed by the light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick about the -mouth and between the eyes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 129,] - -The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow hairs. The -abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with yellow hairs except the -tip, which is black. Beneath, the insect is clear black, though there -are scattering hairs of a grayish yellow color on the black legs. The -pulvilli, or feet pads (Fig. 131, _b_) are two in number, bright yellow -in color, surmounted by strong black claws (Fig. 131, _a_), while below -and between is the sharp spine (Fig, 131, _c_), technically known as -the empodium. - -I cannot give the distinctions which mark the sexes, nor can I throw -any light upon the larval condition of the insect. - -The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking. Their -flight is like the wind, and perched near the hive, they rush upon the -unwary bee returning to the hive with its full load of nectar, and -grasping it with their hard strong legs, they bear it to some perch -near by, when they pierce the crust, suck out the juices, and drop the -carcass, and are then ready to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee -shows the cause of its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not -always killed at once by this rude onslaught, but often can crawl some -distance away from where it falls, before it expires. - -Another insect nearly as common is the _Mallophora bomboides_, Wied. -This fly might be called a larger edition of the one just described, -as in form, habits and appearance, it closely resembles the other. -It belongs to the same genus, possessing all the generic characters -already pointed out. It is very difficult to capture them, as they are -so quick and active. - -[Illustration: Fig. 130.] - -This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and expands two and a -half inches. The head and thorax are much as in the other species. The -wings are very long and strong, and, as in the other species, are of a -smoky brown color. The abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to -side on the tinder surface, while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant -on the legs and whole under portion of the body. The color is a lighter -yellow than in the other species. These insects are powerfully built, -and if they become numerous, must prove a formidable enemy to the bees. - -Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia, though it -closely resembles the two just described, is of a different genus. It -is the _Laphria thoracica_ of Fabricius. In this genus the third vein -is forked, and the third joint of the antenna is without the bristle, -though it is elongated and tapering. The insect is black, with yellow -hair covering the upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly -black both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on the -femurs and tibia. This insect belongs to the same family as the others, -and has the same habits. It is found North as well as South. - - -HONEY-COMB CORAL. - -A very common fossil found in many parts of the Eastern and Northern -United States, is, from its appearance, often called petrified -honey-comb. We have many such specimens in our museum. In some cases -the cells are hardly larger than a pin-head; in others a quarter of an -inch in diameter. - -[Illustration: Fig. 132.] - -These (Fig. 132) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led to believe, -though the resemblance is so striking that no wonder that the public -generally are deceived. These specimens are fossil coral, which the -paleontologist places in the genus Favosites; favosus being a common -species in our State. They are very abundant in the lime rock in -northern Michigan, and are very properly denominated honey-stone coral. -The animals of which these were once the skeletons, so to speak, are -not insects at all, though often called so by men of considerable -information. It would be no greater blunder to call an oyster or a clam -an insect. - -The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the Upper -Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and disappeared in the -early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till the Devonian age, and -no Hymenoptera--bees, wasps, etc.--till after the Carboniferous. So -the old-time Favosites reared its limestone columns and helped to -build islands and continents untold ages--millions upon millions of -years--before any flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious -nectar. In some specimens of this honey-stone coral (Fig. 133), there -are to be seen banks of cells, much resembling the paper cells of some -of our wasps. This might be called wasp-stone coral, except that both -styles were wrought by the self-same animals. - -[Illustration: Fig. 133.] - - - - -GENERAL INDEX. - - - PAGE - - A B C of Bee Culture 22 - Abdomen of Insects 48 - Air Tubes 28 - Albino Bees 43 - Alighting-Board 127 - separate from bottom-board 127 - Alsike Clover--see clover 228 - American Bee Journal 19 - Amateurs 11 - Anatomy and Physiology 48 - of bees 71 - of insects 48 - internal 56 - Antenna 51 - Ants 271 - remedies for 271 - function 51 - Apiary, - where to locate 120 - grounds 152 - house--see house apiary 255 - position of 152 - Apiary Grounds 152 - arrangement of 152 - improvement of 153 - screens for 152 - shade for 153 - Apiculture, - adaptation to women 15 - as an avocation 15 - fascination of 12 - for amateurs 11, 15 - for specialists 11 - inducements to 12 - adaptation to women 15 - excellence for amateurs 15 - improves the mind 17 - recreation 12 - yields delicious food 17 - profits of 13 - requisites to 18 - conventions 19 - enthusiasm 24 - experience 18 - mental effort 18 - persistence 24 - prompt attention 23 - publications 19 - study and thought 18 - visits to other apiarists 18 - work 11 - unsuited to whom 12 - Apidæ Family 34 - animals of 35 - instincts of 34 - Apis Genus 38 - animals of 40 - characters of 38 - Apis Mellifica 41 - Aristotle 44 - Articulate Branch 27 - animals of 27 - Artificial Colonies 177 - advantages of 177 - how made 177 - one from one 177 - one from several 178 - Axioms 277 - - Barberry 225 - figure 226 - Barnes' Saw 151 - Basswood 237 - figure of 237 - Bees, - as fertilizers 220 - burying 254 - how to procure 118 - injuring fruit 220 - kind to purchase 119 - kinds in each colony 71 - place in the animal kingdom 27 - quieted 197 - by jarring 198 - by smoking 198 - value of 120 - when to purchase 119 - who may keep 11 - why keep 12 - Bee-Bread--see pollen 111 - Bee Dress for Ladies 197 - Bee Enemies 262 - ants 271 - bee-hawk 269 - bee-killer 267 - bee-louse 268 - bee-moth 262 - king-bird 272 - mice 272 - spiders 271 - tachina fly 270 - toads 272 - wasps 271 - Bee Gloves 197 - Bee Glue--see propolis 112 - Bee Hawk 269 - remedy for 270 - Bee-Keepers' Axioms 277 - Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 - Bee-Killer 267 - figure of 268 - remedies for 268 - Bee-Louse 268 - figure of 268 - remedy for 269 - Bee-Moth 262 - cocoons of 264 - figure of 264 - eggs of 263 - figure of 264, 265 - larva of 263 - figure of 264 - remedies 266 - silk tube of 263 - figure of 262, 263 - Bee Plants--see plants 220 - necessary to success 218 - list of 221 - Bee Veil 196 - figure of 196 - Bees Angered 195, 201 - by quick movements 195, 201 - by sweat 201 - Bees Subdued 197 - Beeswax 106 - from what 106 - how separated 211 - Beggar-Ticks 244 - Bergamot 238 - Bevan on the Honey-Bee 22 - Bevel-Gauge 126 - figure of 126 - Bevel Joints 126 - Bibliography 44, 113 - Bingham Hive 140 - figure of 140 - Bingham Smoker 199 - figure of 199 - Black Bees--see German bees 41 - Blackberries 236 - Blood of Insects 57 - Body of Insects 48 - parts of 48 - Bombus 35 - Boneset 288 - figure of 241 - Bonnet 45 - Books for the Apiarist 21 - A B C of Bee Culture 22 - Bevan's Honey-Bee 22, 113 - foreign 22 - Gray's Botany 244 - Huber 113 - Hunter's Manual 23 - King's Text-Book 52 - Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21 - Neighbour's Apiary 23, 118 - Quinby's Mysteries 22 - Books for the Entomologist 47, 113 - Duncan's Transformations of Insects 113 - Kirby & Spence 47 - Packard 47, 113 - Westwood 47 - Reports 47 - Fitch 47 - Harris 47 - Riley 47 - Borage 231 - figure of 230 - Bottom-board 127 - figure of 128 - immovable 129 - Box Hives 122 - Boxes 142 - Barker & Dicer 143 - crate for 144 - figure of 142, 143 - Harbison 142 - figure of 143 - Isham 142 - figure of 143 - position of 144 - Russell 142 - special support for 142 - use 142 - Box Honey 142 - when to secure 215 - where to keep 216 - Branch 27 - articulata 27 - of the honey-bee 27 - Breathing of Insects 59 - Breathing-mouths 59 - Buckwheat 242 - figure of 242 - Button-ball 238 - figure of 240 - - Cages - for introducing queen 184 - for shipping queen 186 - figure of 187 - Calendar 274 - Carpenter Bees 36 - Catnip 232, 240 - Chaff Hives 251 - Chrysalids 69 - Circulatory System 57 - Class 28 - insecta 28 - of the honey-bee 28 - Cleome--see Rocky M't'n bee plant 238 - Clover 228 - Alsike 228 - figure of 229 - sweet 228 - figure of 230 - white 228 - figure of 228 - Clustering Outside the Hive 153 - cause of 153 - how prevented 153 - adding room 176 - extracting 188 - shading 153 - Cocoons 69 - of bees 98 - College Course 118 - Colonies, - always strong 119 - how moved 187 - Columella 44 - Comb 108 - cells in 110 - worker 110 - drone 110 - figure of 109 - for guide 208 - how fastened 157, 158 - how made 108, 110 - transparency of 110 - use of 110 - what determines kind 110 - Comb Foundation 203 - American 204 - figure of 203 - history of 203 - how cut 207 - how fastened 209 - how made 206 - use of 207 - Comb Foundation Machine 205 - figure of 205 - inventor of 205 - Comb Honey 215 - apparatus to secure 141 - care of 216 - in boxes 142 - in frames 144 - in what form 144, 215 - marketing 215 - when to secure 215 - Conventions 19 - Corn 235 - Cotton 236 - figure of 236 - Cover for Frames 129 - Cover for Hives 129 - figure of 130, 131 - Crates, - section 149 - market 216 - Cyprian Bee 43 - - De Geer 45 - Digestive Organs 60 - Diseases 259 - dysentery 247, 259 - foul brood 259 - Dissection 50, 65 - Dissecting Instruments 51, 65 - lenses 51, 65 - needle points 51 - dividers--see separators 146 - Dividing Colonies--see artificial - colonies 171, 177 - Division-board 137 - figure of 137 - use of 138 - Dollar Queens 186 - Dorsata Bee 40 - Dress for Ladies 197 - Drones 86 - development of 87 - eggs of 87 - eyes of 86 - function of 83 - influence of, on drone progeny 89 - jaws of 86 - figure of 92 - leg of 86 - figure of 87 - longevity of 88 - number of 86 - tongue of 86 - when in hive 86, 88 - why so numerous 89 - Dysentery 247, 259 - - Egg 67 - of insects 67 - of bee 96 - Egyptian Bee 43 - Empty Cells 188 - importance of 188 - how to secure 188 - Entrance to Hive 128 - Epicranium 48 - Extractor, - of honey 188 - figure of 189 - Everett's 190 - history of 188 - how to use 194 - knives for 191 - figure of 191 - rack for 189 - figure of 190 - use of 191 - when to use 192 - wire comb baskets for 189 - figure of 189 - of wax 212 - figure of 213 - Extracted Honey 214 - market for 214 - Extracting Honey 191 - how done 194 - why done 191 - when done 192 - Eyes of Insects 53 - compound 54 - simple 54 - - Fabricius 46 - Family 34 - apidæ 34 - of the honey-bee 34 - Feeder 160 - figure of 160, 161 - Feeding 159 - amount to feed 159 - use of 159 - what to feed 160 - honey 160 - sugar 160 - flour 163 - Female Organs 64 - Fertile Workers 77 - Fertilization of Flowers by Bees 220 - Figwort 238 - figure of 238 - Fitch's Report 47 - Foot-power Saw 151 - Foul Brood 259 - cause 260 - cure for 200 - symptoms of 259 - Foundation 203 - figure of 203 - history of 203 - use of 203, 207 - how cut 207 - how fastened 209 - how made 206 - Frames 132 - arrangement for surplus 147 - block for making 134 - figure of 135 - cover for 136 - figure of 133, 134 - form of 132 - Gallup 133 - gauge for construction 135 - figure of 135 - inventor of 123 - Langstroth 132 - number of 132 - section 148 - small--see sections 144 - space about 136 - space between 136 - Fruit trees 225 - - Gallup Frame 133 - Geoffroy 45 - Genus, - apis 38 - of the honey-bee 38 - German or Black Bee 31 - Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 - Gloves 197 - Golden-rod 242 - figure of 243 - Grapes Injured by Bees 220 - Grape Vines for Shade 153 - Gunther 12 - - Handling Bees 195 - Harris' Injurious Insects 47 - Harvey 44 - Head of Insects 48 - organs of 43 - Heart of Insects 57 - Hexapods--see Insects 30 - Hives 122 - alighting-board of 127 - Bingham 140 - figure of 140 - bottom-board of 127 - figure of 128 - box not good 122 - chaff 251 - cover of 129 - division-board for 137 - entrance to 128 - figure of 124, 130, 155 - frames for 132 - Huber 138 - joints of 126 - square 126 - figure of 125 - bevel 126 - figure of 130 - Langstroth 123 - figure of 124 - lumber for 124 - movable comb 123 - movable frame 122 - near the ground 128 - nucleus 165 - position of 154 - figure of 115 - Quinby 139 - figure of 139 - rabbet of 125 - size of 124 - Honey 104 - collected, not secreted 104 - defined 104 - extracted 193 - for food 17 - granulated, how dissolved 193 - how collected 105 - how deposited 105 - how transported 105 - marketing of 213 - natural use of 106 - source of 105 - bark lice 105, 218 - honey-dew 105, 219 - plants 105, 210 - plant lice 105, 218 - other sources 105, 219 - Honey-Comb--see comb 108 - Honey Extractor--see extractor 188 - figure of 189 - importance of 188 - requisites of 189 - use of 191 - when to use 192 - Honey Knives 191 - figure of 191 - Honey Plants--see plants 218 - for April 223 - for May 225 - for July 237 - for June 228 - for August 242 - importance of 218 - list of 221 - House Apiary 255 - advantages of 256 - are they desirable? 256 - objections to 257 - Huber 71 - Huber Hive 138 - kinds of 133 - Hunter's Manual 23 - Hymenopterous Insects 31 - the highest 32 - parasitic 32 - - Imago 70 - Insecta 28 - animals of 30 - class 28 - Insects, or Hexapods 30 - abdomen of 30 - head of 30 - imago of 30 - larva of 30 - pupa of 30 - thorax of 30 - transformations of 66 - transformations, complete 66 - transformations, incomplete 70 - Introduction of Cell 185 - figure of 167 - Introduction of Queen 183 - Intestines 61 - Italian Bees 41, 180 - description of 42, 181 - figure of Frontispiece - history of 41 - superiority of 181 - - Jaws 50 - figure of 92 - Judas Tree 225 - figure of 224 - - King Bird 27? - King's Text-Book 22 - Kirby & Spence's Entomology 47, 113 - - Labium 48 - Labrum 48 - Ladies' Bee Dress 197 - Langstroth, Rev. L. L. 123 - Langstroth Frame 132 - figure of 124 - Langstroth Hive 123 - figure of 124 - Langstroth on the Honey-Bee 21 - Larva 68 - Latreille 45 - Leaf-Cutting Bee 36 - Legs of Insects 90 - Linnæus 45 - Ligula 49 - figure of 91 - Location of Apiary 120 - Locust Trees 236 - Lyonnet 46 - - Male Organs 62 - figure of 63 - Mandibles 50 - figure of 92 - Maple 224, 225 - figure of 222 - Market--for honey 213 - crate for 216 - figures of 216, 217 - for comb 215 - for extracted 214 - how to stimulate 213 - rules for 215 - Mason Bees 36, 37 - Maxillæ 50 - Megachile 36 - Melipona 35 - Mice 272 - remedy for 272 - Mignonette 231 - figure of 231 - Milk-Weed 232 - pollen masses of 233 - figure of 233 - Mimicry 31 - Mouth Parts 48 - figure of 49 - variation of 50 - Movable-Comb Hives 123 - two types 123 - Moving Colonies 187 - Multiplying Colonies 171 - Muscles of Insects 56 - Mustard 233 - figure of 233 - - Natural History of the Honey-Bee 27 - Natural Method of Increase 171 - Natural Swarms 171 - means to save 173 - implements required 173 - not desirable 171 - second swarms prevented 175 - Neighbour, The Apiary 23 - Nerves of Insects 57 - figure of 58 - Neuters 90 - cocoon of 98 - development of 96 - eggs of 96 - eyes of 92 - figure of 90 - function of 99 - old workers 99 - young workers 99 - honey stomach of 92 - figure of 60 - jaws of 92 - figure of 92 - larva of 97 - figure of 97 - longevity of 99 - number of 90 - pollen baskets of 93 - figure of 93 - pupa of 98 - figure of 97 - size of 90 - sting of 95 - figure of 95 - tarsi of 93 - figure of 93, 94 - tibia of 93 - tongue of 92 - figure of 91 - wings of 92 - figure of 38 - Nymphs 69 - - Order 30 - of insects 30 - of the honey-bee 30 - Osmia 37 - Ovaries 64 - figure of 64 - - Packard's Entomology 47 - Palpi 49 - Papers 19 - American Bee Journal 19 - Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 - Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 - Paraglossæ 49 - Parasitic Insects 32 - Parasitic Bees 37 - Parthenogenesis 80 - in bees 80 - in other insects 81 - Plants 220 - asters 243 - figure of 243 - April 223 - August 242 - barberry 225 - figure of 226 - basswood 237 - figure of 237 - beggar-ticks 244 - bergamot 238 - blackberry 236 - boneset 238 - figure of 241 - buckwheat 243 - figure of 243 - button-ball 238 - figure of 240 - catnip 232, 240 - clover 228 - Alsike 228 - figure of 229 - sweet 228 - figure of 230 - white 228 - figure of 228 - coffee berry 226 - corn 235 - cotton 236 - figure of 236 - figwort 238 - figure of 238 - fruit trees 225 - golden-rod 242 - figure of 243 - Judas tree 225 - figure of 224 - July 237 - June 228 - list of 221 - locust 236 - maples 221, 225 - figure of 222 - milk-weed 232 - pollen-masses 232 - figure of 233 - mints 232 - figure of 232 - mignonette 231 - figure of 231 - mustard 233 - figure of 233 - okra 232 - figure of 231 - poplar 225 - rape 234 - figure of 234 - Rocky Mountain bee 238 - figure of 239 - sage 232 - white 226 - figure of 227 - sour-wood 240 - Spanish needles 244 - St. John's wort 240 - sumac 226 - teasel 235 - figure of 236 - tick-seed 244 - tulip tree 234 - figure of 235 - willow 224 - figure of 223 - wistaria 225 - American 225 - figure of 225 - Chinese 225 - figure of 226 - Pliny 44 - Poison from Sting 12 - innoculation of 12 - Poison Sack 95 - Pollen 111 - function of 112 - how carried 111 - nature of 111 - source of 111 - where deposited 112 - Preparation for Apiculture 117 - college course 118 - plan 118 - read 117 - visit 117 - Products of Bees 104 - comb 108 - figure of 109 - honey 104 - pollen or bee-bread 111 - propolis or bee-glue 112 - wax 106 - Products of Insects 104 - Propolis or Bee-Glue 112 - function of 113 - nature of 112 - source of 112 - Publications 19 - American Bee Journal 19 - Bee-Keepers' Magazine 21 - Gleanings in Bee Culture 20 - Pupa 68 - figure of 69 - - Queen 71 - brood from eggs 78, 164 - cages 184 - cell 75 - figure of 109, 167 - introduction of 167 - figure of 167 - when started 164 - where built 164 - figure of 109 - clipping wing of 168 - how done 169 - not injurious 168 - why done 169 - cocoon of 77 - development of 75 - eggs of 80, 81 - how impregnated 81 - Wagner's theory 81 - fecundity of 83, 84 - figure of 72 - food of larvæ 76 - function of 83 - how procured 185 - importance of 163 - impregnation of 78 - only on the wing 79 - introduction of 183 - laying of 82 - longevity of 83 - must have empty cells 188 - never to be wanting 163, 176 - never to be poor 186 - no sovereign 85 - ovaries of 72 - figure of 64 - oviduct of 64 - piping of 102 - rearing of 78, 163, 186 - sex of 71 - shipping 186 - size of 72 - spermatheca of 72 - sterility of 83 - sting of 71 - tongue of 73 - figure of 73 - wings of 73 - Queen Cells 75 - figure of 109, 167 - how secured 164 - introduction of 167 - figure of 167 - Queen Rearing 163, 186 - Queen Shipping 186 - cage for 186 - figure of 187 - Queen White Ant 84 - fecundity of 84 - Quilt 136 - Quinby, M. 138 - Quinby Hive 139 - figure of 139 - Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-keeping 22 - Quinby Smoker 198 - figure of 199 - - Rabbets for Hive 125 - of tin 125 - Races of the Honey-Bee 41 - Egyptian 43 - German or black 41 - Italian or Ligurian 41 - history of 41 - characters of 42 - superiority of 181 - other 43 - Ray 44 - Réaumur 45 - Respiration 59 - Riley's Reports 47 - Robbing 258 - how checked 258 - how prevented 259 - when to fear 258 - Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 238 - figure of 239 - Royal Jelly 76 - Russell Hive 141 - - Salicylic Acid 261 - use of 261 - Sage 232 - white 226 - figure of 227 - Sawdust 154 - Saws 151 - Barnes' 151 - foot-power 151 - Second Swarms 102 - Secretion 62 - Secretory Organs 61 - Sections 147 - dove-tail 147 - figure of 146 - Hetherington 146 - glassing 146 - Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger 147 - figure of 147 - veneer 144 - glassing 145 - Section Block 145 - figure of 145 - Section Frame 147 - figure of 148 - where placed 148 - Section Rack 149 - Doolittle 151 - figure of 150, 151 - Southard & Ranney's 150 - use of 149 - Wheeler 151 - Senses of Insects 51 - hearing 51 - seeing 54 - smelling 52 - feeling 51 - Separators 146, 150 - figure of 146 - tin 148 - figure of 149, 150 - wooden 146 - figure of 146 - Shade for Hives 153 - ever-greens 154 - grape-vines 153 - houses 153 - use of 153 - prevents idleness 153 - prevents melting of comb 153 - Smokers 198 - bellows 198 - how used 201 - Bingham 199 - figure of 199 - Quinby 193 - figure of 199 - Sour-wood 240 - Spanish Needles 244 - Specialists 11 - Species of the Honey-Bee 41 - Spermatheca 65 - Spiders 271 - Spiracles 59 - Spring Dwindling 254 - Starting an Apiary 117 - Sting 95 - figure of 95 - Stingless Bees 35 - Stings 201 - cure of 201 - St. John's Wort 240 - Stomach 60 - sucking 60 - true 60 - Sub-Order 31 - Hymenoptera 31 - of the honey-bee 31 - Sumac 226 - Sun-Flower 243 - Swammerdam 44 - Swarming 101, 171 - after-swarms 103 - clustering 103 - drone-brood started 101 - old colony--how known 102 - preparation for 101 - drone-brood 101 - queen cells 101 - prevented 176 - when to expect 176 - Swarms 172 - hiving 173 - easy method 172 - second 172 - how prevented 172 - - Tachina Fly 270 - figure of 270 - Tailor-Bee 36 - Teasel 235 - figure of 236 - Thorax of Insects 48 - appendages of 55 - Tick-Seed 244 - Toads 272 - Tongue 49 - Trachea 28, 59 - figure of 28 - Transferring 156 - method of 160 - when easiest 156 - Transformations of Insects 66 - incomplete 70 - Trigona 35 - Tulip Tree 234 - figure of 235 - - Uniting 253 - when advisable 253 - - Varieties of the Honey-Bee--see races 41 - Veil 196 - figure of 196 - Virgil 44 - - Wagner 19 - Wagner's Theory 81 - Wasps 271 - remedies for 272 - Water for Bees 98 - Wax 106 - composition of 107 - function of 108 - how secured 211 - importance of 211 - source of 106 - Wax Extractor 212 - figure of 212 - Wax Pockets 106 - figure of 106 - Weiss' Foundation Machine 204 - figure of 205 - Westwood on Insects 47 - Willow 224 - figure of 223 - Wings 65 - clipping 168 - figure of 38 - of drone 86 - of queen 73 - of worker 92 - figure of 38 - Wintering 246 - requisites to safe 248 - absorbents above bees 253 - chaff hives 261 - chamber contracted 253 - colonies prepared 248 - depositories for 252 - cellar 232 - house 252 - house apiary 255 - good food 248 - late breeding 249 - packing-box 250 - figure of 250 - protected if left out 250 - why disastrous 246 - excessive moisture 248 - extremes of temperature 247 - spring dwindling 254 - too early cessation of storing 247 - unwholesome food 247 - Women as Bee-Keepers 15 - Workers--see Neuters 90 - fertile 77, 90 - Wistaria 225 - American 225 - figure of 225 - Chinese 225 - figure of 226 - - Xylocopa 36 - - -INDEX TO APPENDIX. - - - Bark Louse 286 - of Tulip Tree 286 - Bee Enemies 286, 293 - Berlepsch 284 - - Debeauvoys' Hive 282 - Della Rocca 283 - Dzierzon 283 - Dzierzon Hive 283 - - Fossil Honey Comb 301 - figures of 301, 302 - - Grecian Hives 278 - - Harbison Hive 284 - History of Movable Frames 278 - Hives 278 - Berlepsch 284 - Debeauvoys 282 - Della Rocca 283 - Dzierzon 283 - Harbison 284 - Huber 278 - Langstroth 283 - Munn 279 - figures of 279, 280 - Schirach 283 - Schmidt 281 - Shaw 282 - - Insects 286, 293 - Laphria thoracica 300 - Lecanium tulipiferæ 286 - Mallophora bomboides 297 - Mallophora orcina 297 - Phymata erosa 293 - - Japan Medlar 293 - - Kleine 281 - - Langstroth Hive 283 - Laphria thoracica 300 - Lecanium tulipiferæ 286 - figure of 288 - - Mallophora bomboides 297 - " orcina 297 - Motherwort 289 - figures of 289, 290, 291 - Munn Hive 279 - figures of 279, 280 - - Phymata erosa 293 - figures of 294, 295, 296 - Plants 289 - Japan medlar 293 - Motherwort 289 - Sour-wood 293 - - Réaumur 278 - - Schmidt's Hive 281 - Schirach's hive 283 - Shaw's Hive 282 - Sourwood 292 - figure of 292 - Southern Bee-killers 297 - figures of 297, 298 - Stinging Bug 293 - figures of 294, 295, 296 - Swammerdam 278 - - Triangular Hive 280 - figure of 280 - - - =COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.= - - =NOTICES BY THE PRESS.= - -Needs no recommendation--recommends itself.--_Western Rural_, Chicago. - -This work is exceedingly valuable--indeed indispensable to -apiarists.--_Voice of Masonry._ - -Treating the art in all its different branches in a clear, concise and -interesting manner.--_The Canadian Entomologist._ - -It is the fullest, most practical, and most satisfactory treatise on -the subject now before the public.--_Country Gentleman._ - -It contains the latest developments of science connected with -bee-culture and honey production.--_Chicago Evening Journal._ - -It contains the latest scientific discoveries in apiarian management -and bee-keeping apparatus.--_Prairie Farmer, Chicago._ - -The latest, fullest, most practical and satisfactory treatise on the -subject, now before the public.--_Lambton_, (Canada) _Advocate_. - -Every point connected with the subject is handled in a clear, -exhaustive, yet pithy and practical manner.--_Rural New Yorker._ - -It is both a practical and scientific discussion, and nothing that -could interest the bee-raiser is left unsaid.--_Chicago Inter-Ocean._ - -The most thorough work on the apiary ever published, and the only one -illustrating the various bee plants.--_Lansing_ (Mich.) _Republican_. - -Prof. Cook is an entomologist, a botanist, a ready writer, a passionate -lover of the honey-bee, and his new work savors of all these -qualities.--_Standard_, New Bedford, Mass. - -I feel like thanking God that we have such a man as Prof. Cook to take -hold of the subject of bee-culture in the masterly way in which he has -done it.--_Gleanings in Bee Culture._ - -It is a book which does credit to our calling; one that every -bee-keeper may welcome as a fit exponent of the science which gives -pleasure to all who are engaged in it.--_American Bee Journal._ - -The honey-bee comes with the perfume of summer flowers, and one of -its best friends, A. J. Cook, has written its history and habits in a -handsomely illustrated volume.--_American Poultry Journal._ - -It is just what might have been expected from the distinguished -author--a work acceptable to the ordinary bee-man, and a delight to the -student of scientific apiculture.--_Bee Keepers' Magazine._ - -Cook's new "Manual of the Apiary," comes with high encomiums from -America; and certainly it appears to have cut the ground from under -future book makers, for some time to come.--_British Bee Journal._ - -It is the most complete and practical treatise on bee-culture in Europe -or America. The arrangement is successive, and every topic is lucidly -treated in the Professor's blithesome, light-hearted, pithy, suggestive -style.--_Post and Tribune_, Detroit, Mich. - -The typography and general execution of the work is handsome and neat, -and altogether we have a work that may be safely recommended as the -Manual of the Apiarist--the book, par excellence, to which all may -revert with both pleasure and profit, for instruction in the management -of the apiary.--_Michigan Farmer._ - -It must rank with Henderson's manuals, and share with them the praise -of being an indispensable adjunct to every specialist's library. It is -a scientific, practical book, a book of "how to do" and "why to do," -tersely written, yet fully expressed; a book to the credit of American -literature.--_Scientific Farmer_, Boston. - -[Finger] It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper -and superbly illustrated. Price, bound in cloth, =$1.25;= in paper, -=$1.00,= postpaid. Per dozen: cloth, $12.00; paper, $9.50. - - =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,= - - =972 and 974 West Madison Street, CHICAGO.= - - - [Illustration] - - =THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL,= - - =Is an elegant fifty-two paged Illustrated Monthly,= - - DEVOTED EXCLUSIVELY TO BEE-CULTURE, - -=At $1.50 per annum, in advance; Sample Copy. 10c.= - - _Capt. J. E. Hetherington Cherry Valley, N. Y., says: The readers of - the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL and its Present management are, I think, fit - Subjects for congratulation. You certainly give us a good paper, and - none of us hesitate to recommend it to the extent of saying that no - bee-keeper, great or small, can afford to do without it._ - -I find the Bee Journal an excellent companion and adviser.--L. M. -Wainwright, Noblesville, Ind. - -The Bee Journal is the largest and best bee paper published.--D. L. -Franklin, Boone Co., N. Y. - -It has saved me $56.25 in hives alone, to say nothing of the other -information.--R. Matthews, Pontiac, Ill. - -You have worked up the American Bee Journal almost to -perfection.--Orion Siggins, West Hickory, Pa. - -I would not do without the American Bee Journal for three times its -price.--J. E. Kearns, Waterloo, Pa. - -I have learned more from it, of how to handle bees, than from all other -sources.--R. Corbett, Malden, Ill. - -I consider the Bee Journal the _best_ bee publication--having read them -all.--J. E. Hunter, Jones Co., Iowa. - -The Journal grows better every month. No bee man should be without -it.--John Barfoot, New Canton, Ill. - -I do not see how any one can do with out it. I have had bees for 40 -years.--A. M. Burnett, Valley Mills, Texas. - -The Bee Journal comes loaded with good things. I can not see how it -is possible to make it so much better every month.--T. J. Ward, St. -Mary's, Ind. - -If you keep on improving the Bee Journal as you have within the past -year, it must soon become the _ne plus ultra_ of bee literature the -World over.--O. W. Speer, Easton, Pa. - -I am among the many who are glad that the American Bee Journal fell -into the hands of those who have no hobbies to ride nor axes to grind. -I only express the views of many others.--F. A. Snell, Milledgeville, -Ill. - - _PUBLISHED ON THE FIRST DAY OF EVERY MONTH, BY_ - - =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, 972 & 974 W. Madison St., Chicago.= - - - =THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL= - - =APPRECIATIVE NOTICES.= - -It is the most valuable publication on bee-culture in America.--_Sun_, -Anoka, Minn. - -It is authority in all matters pertaining to -bee-culture.--_Republican_, Mason City, Iowa. - -It stands at the head of American publications devoted to -bee-culture.--_Patriot_, Springfield, Mo. - -It is a complete guide to those interested in -bee-culture.--_Everybody's Ledger_, Lewiston, Pa. - -It is most valuable, and will always find a hearty welcome in every -apiary.--_Herald_, Los Angeles, Cal. - -The American Bee Journal; is a publication of great value to all honey -producers.--_Daily News_, Danville, Va. - -We recommend the American Bee Journal, as the ablest bee paper in the -United States.--_Farmers' Home Journal._ - -It is progressive, interesting and valuable to every one who keeps -bees, and is ably edited.--_Agriculturist_, Quincy, Ill. - -It is full of useful suggestions and instructive articles to every one -interested in honey producing.--_Democrat_, Allegan, Mich. - -It is full to overflowing with matters pertaining to the successful -management of the little honey producers--a thoroughly live -periodical.--_Standard_, New Bedford, Mass. - -The Journal surpasses itself; each issue improves upon the last, in -the bright, cheerful appearance and instructive influence of its whole -composition.--W. Williamson, Lexington, Ky. - -The American Bee Journal is increasing in influence with each number. -It is a valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper, and should be taken and -read by all interested in bee-culture.--_Standard_, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. - -I hail the coming of the Bee Journal with joy. It is the greatest light -we have on bee-culture, bringing ideas, not only from the editor, but -from all the other experienced bee men of the land.--L. A. Taber, -Holyoke, Mass. - -In its department of journalism, the American Bee Journal stands -without a rival. Devoted exclusively to bee-culture and the production -of pure honey, its columns are filled with such matter as a keeper of -bees can read and profit by. Its table of contents is as full as it is -interesting.--_Gazette_, Lewiston, Pa. - -The American Bee Journal ought to be taken by all bee-keepers; it is -neatly printed and replete in useful information about bees and honey. -It fully describes the habits of those busy extractors of sweets from -flowers and herbs, whose products, with the yield from our cows, makes -our land literally flow with "milk and honey."--_Maryland Farmer._ - -The Bee Journal is pre-eminently above all its competitors. It is -full of fire, enterprise and vim; it discusses the various questions -pertaining to bee-culture with spirit and energetic thought; it is -an honor to its Editor and to the interest which sustains it. It has -no individual axe to grind, but is the fearless champion of all that -is useful and good; steadfast, unwavering, honest; never vacillating -or swerving; but true, as the needle to the pole, to the interest of -bee-keepers. It should be supported by every one interested in bees or -honey.--American Grocer. - - - =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,= - - =972 and 974 West Madison St., CHICAGO.= - - - =Ha! Ha! Ha! Just What I Want!= - -[Illustration] - -The Michigan Bee-Keepers' Association, having all the Smokers before -it, "pronounced Bingham's Patent Smoker the best." - -J P Moore, of Binghamton, New York, after using one some time, said: -"My Smoker troubles are all over, and the bee-keepers owe you a debt of -gratitude." - -Professor Cook, of Michigan Agricultural College, says: "It is the best -in the market." - -R. M. Argo, Lowell, Kentucky, says: "It is all that any bee-keeper -could desire." - -Paul L. Viallon, Bayou Goula, Louisiana, writes, April 6th, 1878: "Your -Smokers are far superior to any ever invented; and we bee-keepers owe -you a vote of thanks for your Ingenious invention. Many may try to -improve on yours, but I am positive none will make a better one." - -This is the first and only bellows Smoker ever made which would burn -stove-wood. It burns anything combustible, and needs no care except -to be refilled once in one or two hours. Works easy, and will throw a -stream of smoke ten feet. It will not go out or wear out. It will save -time, stings and money, and perhaps a valuable horse. - -The inventor is the only party having a right to manufacture said -Smoker, and it is safe to buy of him. - - Large size, 2½ inch, by mail =$1.75= - Standard size, 2 inch, by mail =$1.50= - Small size, 1¾ inch, " =$1.00= - -Address, =T. F. BINGHAM, Otsego, Allegan Co., Mich.= - - * * * * * - -=BINGHAM & HETHERINGTON'S HONEY KNIFE.= - -[Illustration] - -These knives are peculiarly constructed, and of the best steel, finish -and temper. To secure the credit of our invention and enable us to -furnish them cheaply, and of standard excellence to bee-keepers, we -have had them patented. - -In use, if the combs are held upright the caps are carried away from -the combs so they never touch them after being cut off. If the combs -are laid on a table to uncap, the movable cap-catcher gathers the wide -sheet of caps in a roll, and easily carries all that the largest combs -contain without dropping one upon the comb after being cut off. The -blade is two inches wide; but as only the edge rests on the combs, they -uncap the most delicate combs without tearing, and work as easily as if -only one-fourth inch wide. - - Sent singly, per express, for =$1.00,= - With Movable Cap-catcher, =$1.25.= - -As knives are not carried in the mail, we make 10 per cent, reduction -from _regular retail rates_ to clubs and others who send the money for -three or more, to be sent in one package. [Finger] Send for circular. -Address, - -=BINGHAM & HETHERINGTON'S, Otsego, Mich.= - - * * * * * - -Lansing, Mich., Feb. 11, 1879.--After a thorough trial of your honey -knife here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any -other that we have used, though we have several of the principal knives -made in the United States. - - A. J. Cook. - -Middlefield, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1879.--I have been using your two-inch -uncapping knife the past season. For rapidity and ease in operating, -they far excel any knife I have ever used. Its shape and beveled edges -make it perfect for uncapping uneven and crooked combs. It works -equally well with either right or left stroke. We uncapped hundreds of -combs in piece boxes, and both my associates and myself have come to -the conclusion that they facilitate the labor fully one-half, and are -perfection itself, leaving nothing to be desired. - - A. G. Murphy. - -Cherry Valley, N. Y., Jan. 5, 1879.--I received the knives all right, -and on account of their superiority I feel that you, and bee-keepers as -well, are entitled to a report on them. For my own use I much prefer -them to any knife I have ever uncapped with, for the reason that I -can uncap much more honey. A better test is in the hands of three or -four of my men who used them for several consecutive days, and without -exception pronounced them the best knives I owned. One even went so -far as to insist that he could uncap one-third; faster than with any -other knife I had, and when uncapping prize boxes he satisfactorily -demonstrated it. You may send me half a dozen for my own apiaries. - - J. E. Hetherington. - -The Michigan Bee-Keepers' Association especially recommends the Bingham -& Hetherington Honey Knife and the Bingham Smoker. - - -=Muth's All-Metal Honey Extractor.= - -Patented Sept. 24th, 1878. - -[Illustration] - -Every bee-keeper is aware of the advantages afforded by a judicious -use of the Honey Extractor. The inventions of the movable comb frames -by Rev. L. L. Langstroth, and that of the Honey Extractor by Major v. -Hruschka, are the greatest achievements in the apiary. They have made -it possible to multiply our practical results tenfold, and to put a -system to bee-culture. - -Quite a number of different styles of extractors have been made since -their first invention, about 10 or 12 years ago. Mine differs from -others by the slanting sides of the comb basket, arranged above a -receptacle for honey in the same tin can, and with a substantial -gearing which requires not more than the strength of a child to work -the machine all day with ease; frames of different sizes, but smaller -than the comb-basket, and pieces of comb without a frame, are placed -against the slanting sides, and without being fastened, emptied of -their contents completely, and, to the uninitiated, in an incredulous -short time. - -The cells having a downward tendency, empty more readily, both in -top and bottom of frames, than when in a vertical position, as every -practical test will show, and the flying of honey, in the shape of a -fine spray, over the top of the can is prevented. - -There is a receptacle for 60 lbs. or more of honey in the extractor, -according to the depth of the comb-basket, which can be made of any -size desired--for instance, for Langstroth's and Quinby's frames, the -comb-basket is 18½ inches deep, and the receiver holds about 65 lbs. -of honey. If the American frame is the largest to be extracted, the -comb-basket is only 12 inches deep, while the extractor holds about 140 -lbs. of honey before it touches the revolving basket and needs to be -drawn off by the iron faucet at the bottom. - -My standard size of comb-basket is 12¼ × 18½ inches, and admits the -Langstroth, Quinby and American frames. When ordering, please state the -largest size of frames used. - -When, after the honey season, a number of small frames are unfinished, -six of them can be piled against each side of the comb-basket for -extraction; or, short comb-holders, which are sent with each Extractor, -may be hung on each side, and only four sections emptied at one time. - -Extracting two large frames at one time is much the handiest -arrangement, and generally satisfies the most ambitious; but the -Extractor can be made large enough to hold four frames, at an -additional cost of $2.50. A close-fitting cover keeps dust, flies and -bees out when extracting is over. I was obliged to cover my improvement -with a patent, merely to protect my interest. - -My Extractor is second to none for all practical purposes, and one of -the cheapest in the market in consideration of material and workmanship. - -=Muth's Uncapping Knife,= - -[Illustration: IS THIN-BLADED, OF THE BEST STEEL, HANDY FOR THE -PURPOSES INTENDED AND CHEAP.] - - =PRICE FOR EXTRACTOR AND KNIFE, $12.00.= - - For further particulars, address - - =C. F. MUTH, Cincinnati, O.= - - - =BARNES' PATENT= - - =FOOT-POWER MACHINERY.= - - _Fifteen Different Machines,_ - -With which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon Makers, and Jobbers in -Miscellaneous work, can compete as to _Quality_ and _Price_ with -steam-power machinery. - -WILL SEND MACHINES ON TRIAL IF DESIRED. - -_Every Bee-Keeper should have an outfit from these Machines for -hive-making._ - -[Illustration] - -We give the following letter from Mr. W. P. Hogarty, of Wyandotte, -Kans., to show their usefulness. He says: "If any criticise your -circular saw, you can tell them I use it, and with one hand, made all -my bee hives for ninety-five stands of bees, including frames and -section brace, and I feel perfectly able to do the work for one hundred -and fifty stands." * * * "In order that you may know the amount of -work on each of my hives, will say, they are two feet long, by two -feet high, by about two feet wide. They are double walled and double -bottomed, with two inch intervening; and in addition to the nine -frames, there are fifteen cases, each case containing two honey boxes -and two division boards, and three boxes to contain chaff for winter -protection. You will see there is an immense amount of sawing to be -done, but I have found your saw equal to the task required of it." - -We will send our illustrated catalogue FREE on application. Say where -you read this, and address - - W. F. & JOHN BARNES, - - _Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill._ - - - - - NEW LANGSTROTH BEE HIVE, - - WITH MANIPULATING SIDE. - -This Improvement in the old Langstroth Hive Is exceedingly valuable, -as it allows the closest watching of a colony with the greatest ease -and comfort. By turning the thumb-screw (L) and opening the movable -side (which takes but an instant), frames can be examined, by removing -the loose side-board (M), the bottom-board may be cleaned--giving the -advantages claimed for a loose bottom-board, without its disadvantages. - -This Hive is a combination the Langstroth Hive and North Star Hive--as -pated June 5, 1877--and, no doubt, will gain universal approbation as -soon as its advantages are known. - -The New Langstroth hive is peculiarly adapted for the production of -comb honey--its Honey Rack is the best in use, and is adapted to the -use of the Prize Boxes. It holds 18 Prize Boxes, with the separators -between them, marked B B in the cut. The wedge (A) holds all with a -vise-like grasp. The outer boxes are glassed as they stand on the hive -(C C C). By removing the wedge (A) any box may be instantly removed, -examined, returned, or replaced by an empty one--the spaces between the -rows readily admitting the fingers for that purpose. - -=SAMPLE NEW LANGSTROTH HIVE=--Nailed, Not Painted. - - No. 1.--Brood Chamber, 10 frames, portico, 7½-inch cap--no - surplus arrangement $2 00 - - No. 2.--Same as No. 1, with Comb-Honey Back, complete, same as - shown by the above cuts 3 00 - - No. 3.--Same as No. 1, but having 20 frames, and Comb-Honey - Back--a complete 3-story hive 3 75 - - No. 4.--Brood Chamber, 10 frames, and 7-inch story, with 7 - cases containing Prize Boxes and tin Separators, for - surplus Honey, with 2-inch cap 3 00 - - No. 5.--Same as No. 4--but having 10 extra frames--a complete - 3-story hive 3 75 - - No. 6.--Brood Chamber, with 10 extra frames, for extracting, - and 2-inch cap, 3 00 - -[Finger] _If painted, add $1.00 each._ [Finger2] - -=MATERIAL FOR NEW LANGSTROTH HIVES.= - -CUT, READY TO NAIL-(14⅛ × 18⅜ inches inside). - - In lots of 5 No. 1--(one-story), $1 25 - " 10 " " 1 20 - " 25 " " 1 10 - " 50 " " 1 05 - " 100 " " 1 00 - - In lots of 5 No. 6--(two-story), $1 80 - " 10 " " 1 70 - " 25 " " 1 60 - " 50 " " 1 53 - " 100 " " 1 50 - -=MATERIAL FOR LANGSTROTH FRAMES.= - -CUT, READY TO NAIL--(9⅛ × 17⅝ inches outside). - - 100 frames $1 50 - 1,000 frames $14 00 - 6,000 frames, per 1,000 $12 00 - -[Finger] For sale at wholesale and retail. Address - -=SPERRY & CHANDLER, 974 W. Madison St., CHICAGO,= - -_Or at the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL OFFICE._ - - -[Illustration] - -PRICES TO SUIT THE TIMES. LANGSTROTH AND MODEST HIVES FOR THE MILLION! - - HONEY BOXES AND SECTIONS, - - Plain and dove-tailed, are large specialties. - -=COMB FOUNDATION,= - -We are producing in large quantities, and of superior quality. Our -facilities are such that we can supply in any quantity desired on short -notice, and all favoring us with their orders shall have prompt and -satisfactory attention. - -=WAX TO BE MADE INTO FOUNDATION.= - -Lots of 100 lbs. and upwards sent us, with 12½c. per lb., freight -prepaid, will be made up and cut to any size, and delivered on board -cars here. - -=ITALIAN QUEENS!= - -The superiority of the Queens reared in our apiaries is so well -established, we shall not here detail their merits; but to those -wishing honey-producing stock, combined with prolificness, we will say -they are not beaten. - - Dowagiac, Michigan, November 20, 1878. - -In regard to your bees, if you were my enemy, and I had anything to -say about your stock, I should say the truth, that I count yours worth -more than twice that or any of the numerous strains that I have tested. -They converted me to yellow bees,, notwithstanding that they are not -near as yellow as those I had formerly. I advise you not to buy, or -take as a gift, any other blood; but just stand right where you are, -and perfect the strain by carefully breeding out any imperfections -that may show themselves, and breeding in all the good qualities your -bees now possess. I shall do the same, purchasing of none but you. I -have hybrids crossed by your stock, that are quiet, good-natured, and -splendid comb-builders and storers. - - Yours truly. JAMES HEDDON. - -_Extractors, Smokers, Bee Veils,_ - -and everything needed in the apiary, supplied at the lowest living -rates. Order your goods early, remembering that large yields of honey -are only obtained by having everything ready for securing it. - -=J. OATMAN & SONS, Dundee, Ill.= - - - =THE BEST IS THE CHEAPEST!= - - COFFINBERRY'S - - =EXCELSIOR HONEY EXTRACTOR!= - - From Eight to Fourteen Dollars. - -Having made several improvements in the EXCELSIOR EXTRACTOR for 1879, -it is now offered to the Bee-Keepers of America as the MOST PERFECT -MACHINE IN THE MARKET. The universal favor with which the EXCELSIOR -EXTRACTOR was received in 1878, has induced other manufacturers to -adopt several of its improvements. My experience and experiments of -last season, with the assistance and suggestions of skillful workmen, -have enabled me to perfect an Extractor that =cannot be excelled, and -can only be equaled by being closely imitated=. - -The Excelsior is made entirely of metal, and is consequently very -light, strong and durable, with lugs at the bottom for firmly attaching -to the floor if desired. - -The strong over-motion gearing, so necessary to ease in running and -speedy operating, was designed and is manufactured expressly for the -Excelsior. A child ten years of age can operate the machine as rapidly -as it can be supplied with combs. - -The top or cross-band, to which is attached the gearing, is wrought -iron, three inches broad, with the ends turned down in such manner as -to thoroughly brace and strengthen the can, and holding the basket -firmly in an upright position. - -The Comb Basket having vertical sides, insures the extracting power -alike for top and bottom of frames. The sides of the basket being -movable and interchangeable, greatly facilitate the operation of -dusting before and thoroughly cleaning after use if desired. - -The basket can be taken from or replaced in the can in a moment, there -being no rusty screws to take out or nuts to remove. - -At the bottom of the can, and below the basket, is a cone or metal -standard, in the top of which revolves the bottom pivot of the basket, -thereby giving room for sixty or seventy pounds of honey without -touching the basket or pivot below. - -Nos. 3, 4 and 5 have strainers covering the canal leading to the -faucet, which obviate the delay of several hours in waiting for the -honey to settle, and the tedious and wasteful process of skimming. The -faucet being below the bottom level of the honey, renders unnecessary -the usual tipping and wrenching incident to drawing off the honey. -These also have close-fitting metal covers, which entirely exclude -dust, dirt, flies and bees when not in use. - -The baskets of Nos. 4 and 5 have no center rod running from top to -bottom, which will be found very convenient by those who uncap both -sides of the comb before putting in the basket, as they can be turned -without removal. - -The strong iron handles placed at the sides, a little above the center, -are completely side-braced, and add much to convenience in handling. - -The wire baskets are very neat specimens of skillful workmanship, -thoroughly braced at every point where experience has proven it to be -most requisite, and nothing has been omitted that could add to its -efficiency. - -The No. 4, for =three= frames, has a triangular basket, movable sides, -no center rod, runs smoothly regardless of number of frames, and is -fast superseding the demand for four-sided baskets. - -=A LOWER PRICED MACHINE.= - -A cheaper machine being called for by those having but few colonies, -and not making a specialty of bee-keeping, I have made a special size -to take the Langstroth frame, and one for the American, to sell at -=$8.00= each. These have no covers or strainer, and are smaller than -the $12.00 and $14.00 sizes, but for the frames named are equal to the -others for effective work, and are the =best cheap Extractors made=. - -=Sizes and Prices:= - - No. 1.--For 2 Langstroth frames, 10 × 18 inches $8 00 - " 2.--For 2 American frames, 13 × 13 inches 8 00 - " 3.--For 2 frames, 13 × 20 inches, or less - (which embraces all standard sizes) 12 00 - " 4.--For 3 " " " " 12 00 - " 5.--For 4 " " " " 14 00 - -[Finger] A liberal discount to dealers in Bee-Keepers' supplies and to -parties ordering in quantity. Address, =C. C. COFFINBERRY, Chicago, -Ill.,= - -Or =American Bee Journal, Chicago, Ill.=, where samples can be seen. - - - REV. A. SALISBURY. JOHN M. HAYES. - - =SALISBURY & HAYES,= - - [Illustration] - - Propagators of - - FINE QUEENS AND BEES, - - From Imported and Home-bred Mothers. - - =Manufacturers of Comb Foundation,= - - HIVES, - - =Surplus Honey Boxes,= - - _QUEEN SHIPPING CAGES, &c._ - - =Dealers in ALL NECESSARY APIARY SUPPLIES.= - - All work executed in good style, and prices to suit the times. - - [Finger] Send for Circular. - - =SALISBURY & HAYES,= - - _Camargo, Douglas County, Ill._ - - * * * * * - - FRIENDS! If you are in any way interested in - - Bees or Honey! - - We will with pleasure send you a sample copy of our - - MONTHLY GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE, - - With a Descriptive Price-List of the latest improvements in - - HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS, ARTIFICIAL COMB, - - =SECTION HONEY BOXES,= - - All books and journals, and everything pertaining to bee culture. - - * * * * * - - NOTHING PATENTED - - * * * * * - - Simply send your address on a postal card, written plainly, to - - =A. I. ROOT, Medina, Ohio.= - - - [Illustration] - - HALLOCK & CHANDLER - - DESIGNERS AND ENGRAVER - - ON WOOD - - 89 Madison Street, - - Corner of Dearborn, Chicago. - -[Finger] Mr. Chandler, of the above firm, being a practical bee-keeper, -will personally supervise the execution of all designs and engravings -for bee-keepers and dealers in apiarian supplies. - -[Finger] _Prices Moderate and Satisfaction Guaranteed._ [Finger2] - - * * * * * - - =Italian Bees and Queens,= - - COMB FOUNDATION, - - =HIVES, HONEY EXTRACTORS,= - - _SURPLUS HONEY BOXES OF EVERY STYLE,_ - - =FOOT-POWER SAWS,= - - BEE SMOKERS, SEEDS FOR HONEY PLANTS, CASES AND RACKS FOR HIVES, - SHIPPING CRATES. HONEY KNIVES, QUEEN CAGES, - - =AND EVERYTHING USEFUL IN AN APIARY.= - - [Finger] Our Illustrated Catalogue of Implements for the Apiary, - SENT FREE. - - Address, =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,= =972 and 974 West Madison St., - Chicago.= - - - =PUBLICATIONS FOR THE APIARY,= - - FOR SALE AT THE OFFICE OF - - _The American Bee Journal,_ - - =974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill.= - - * * * * * - -=COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.= - -This is a new edition of Prof. Cook's Manual of the Apiary, entirely -re-written, greatly enlarged and superbly illustrated. - -Being new, it is fully up with the times on every conceivable subject -that interests the apiarist. It is not only instructive, but intensely -interesting. - -It comprises a full delineation of the anatomy and physiology of the -Honey-Bee, illustrated with costly wood engravings, full descriptions -of honey-producing plants, trees and shrubs, &c., splendidly -illustrated--and last, though not least, detailed instructions for the -successful accomplishment of all the various manipulations necessary in -the apiary. - -This work is a masterly production, and one that no bee-keeper, however -limited his means, can afford to do without. - -It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper, -and superbly illustrated throughout. Price, bound in cloth, $1.25, -postpaid; in paper binding, $1.00, postpaid. - - -=THE HIVE AND HONEY-BEE, by L. L. Langstroth.= - -This is a standard volume, well illustrated and nicely printed. Price, -$2.00. - - -=MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING, by M. Quinby.= - -The author has treated the subject of Bee-Keeping in a manner that -cannot fail to interest all who read this work. Price, $1.50. - - -=THE DZIERZON THEORY; being a full elucidation of Scientific -Bee-Keeping.= - -This "theory" presents in the form of distinct propositions, the -fundamental principles of bee-culture, and in this work the late Baron -of Berlepsch furnishes a condensed statement of the facts and arguments -by which these propositions are demonstrated. It is of untold value to -beginners and all others who desire to study the subject of apiculture. -It is just what thousands want. - -It contains 60 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, -postpaid, 20 cents, or three copies for 50 cents. - - -=HONEY, AS FOOD AND MEDICINE, by the Editor of the American Bee -Journal.= - -This is a pamphlet of 24 pages, discoursing upon the Ancient History -of Bees and Honey; the nature, quality, sources, and preparation of -Honey for the Market; Honey, as an article of Food, giving recipes for -making Honey Cakes, Cookies, Puddings, Foam, Wines, &c.; and Honey -as Medicine, followed by many useful Recipes. It is intended for -consumers, and should be scattered by thousands all over the country, -and thus assist in creating a demand for honey.--Prices: Single copies, -10 cents postpaid; 15 copies for $1.00 by mail, postpaid; 100 copies, -with name and address of honey-producer printed on them, $5.00 by mail, -postpaid; 250 copies, by express, at 4 cents each; 500 or more copies, -by express, at 3 cents each. It is published in German also at the same -prices. - - -=WINTERING BEES; How to do it Successfully.= - -This contains all the Prize Essays on this important subject that were -read before the Centennial Bee-Keepers' Association. The prize ($25 in -gold) was awarded to Prof. Cook's Essay, which is reported in full in -this pamphlet. - -It contains 30 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, 15 -cents, or five copies for 50 cents. - - -=SPECIAL EDITION of the Journal.= - -Containing the Official Report of the Proceedings of the National -Convention, hold in New York, Oct., 16-18, 1877, with all the Essays -and Discussions,--together with a description of the implements for the -Apiary, on exhibition at the American Institute Fair.--Price 10 cents. - -[Finger] _Send by Postal Money Order, Draft or Registered Letter at our -risk._ - - =THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,= - - _974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill,_ - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Minor typos corrected. Discrepancies between the table of Contents' -section titles and that displayed in the Chapter were corrected. The -Illustrations list ended at number 110 but the volume has 133 numbered -illustrations. So, a copy of the list for numbers 111 to 133 was -appended from the Seventh Edition. - - - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF THE APIARY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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