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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6aaa1f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69375 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69375) diff --git a/old/69375-0.txt b/old/69375-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4587006..0000000 --- a/old/69375-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13078 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The automobile owner's guide, by Frank -B. Scholl - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The automobile owner's guide - -Author: Frank B. Scholl - -Release Date: November 18, 2022 [eBook #69375] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S -GUIDE *** - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Text printed in italics and bold face have been transcribed _between - underscores_ and =between equal signs= resspectively. Single - superscript characters are preceded by ^, multiple superscript - characters by ^{...}. Small capitals have been replaced with ALL - CAPITALS. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - THE AUTOMOBILE - OWNER’S GUIDE - - - - - THE AUTOMOBILE - OWNER’S GUIDE - - BY - FRANK B. SCHOLL - - [Illustration] - - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - NEW YORK LONDON - 1920 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - - -PREFACE - - -The automobile has taken its place as one of the most successful and -useful inventions of the day. It is equaled only by the internal -combustion gas engine, which is a factor in making it practical and -efficient. - -Gasoline-propelled vehicles have become one of man’s greatest aids in -business efficiency, but nevertheless it is very important that we -consider the facts, that the adoption of the automobile by man for -business, commerce and pleasure is on a very large scale, and that the -production by manufacturers is so great that very little thought is -given to proper care, which is an ever-present factor in economical -operation and a fair return for the investment. - -The purpose of this book is to serve as a practical guide for those who -own, operate, or contemplate purchasing an automobile. - -The contents of this book cover the entire field that would be of -value to the owner or chauffeur in making his own repairs. The parts -and expressions are given in their simplest form; technical terms, -tables and scales have been entirely eliminated, as they mean little or -nothing to the average owner, and are of value only to the mechanical -engineer and draftsman. - -The illustrations, drawings and diagrams are intended only for the -purpose of bringing out points that are more readily understood and -explained in this manner. No attempt has been made to conform to -proportionate exactness or scale accurateness. - -Since there are many different makes of cars, motors, and equipment, -the functional action of all is practically the same, therefore we -use for illustration only those which are used by the majority of -manufacturers. - -While, as a general rule, you will find all automobiles efficient and -reliable, troubles and conditions are bound to arise that are somewhat -puzzling; therefore, to assist the owner, we have written a chapter on -trouble hints conveniently arranged in three columns, headed troubles, -cause, and remedy. - -The entire book is worked out along such lines, and so arranged, that -a man or a boy with a common school education can easily master it and -become an efficient mechanic. - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -After twelve years’ experience with the automobile, I find that -only one-third of the present-day owners understand the mechanical -operation, care and proper upkeep of their cars; the other two-thirds -know little or nothing of their cars, and are unable to locate -or detect trouble, or make the slightest adjustment necessary to -remedy it. This fact remains as the chief cause of the present high -depreciation in cars, and the loss of millions of dollars annually to -automobile owners. - -After two years of observation and close investigation, I find the -vast majority of the present owners are eager to acquire mechanical -knowledge, but they have not accomplished their aim, chiefly because -the available books to attain that end are too technical, dry, and -overdescriptive for the average owner and beginner in mechanics. - -The automobile is not an individually constructed piece of machinery, -but a combination of individual inventions, each adapted to a -functional purpose, which is necessary to the harmony of successful -operation. A great many of these mechanical achievements are of -delicate construction, and very apt to get out of adjustment. This, -however, is not always the case, as grease, dirt and foreign matter -with which the various parts come in contact often prevent them from -operating properly. - -Therefore a little common knowledge of operation and a little care -will enable an owner to operate his car successfully, thereby avoiding -unnecessary trouble, damage and expense. - -One of the chief aims of the writer is to make this book interesting -and thorough, in order to hold the reader until he understands the -entire contents, after which he should be able to make any necessary -repairs and adjustments, or to hold a position as automobile mechanic. - -In order to accomplish the foregoing and prevent a student from -becoming discouraged we use functional principle as the base for -explanation whenever possible. - -The instructions set forth in this book are not taken merely from -theory, but have been put into successful operation by the writer, -who for several years sold cars in outlying districts where garage -facilities were limited, and where it was necessary to make a -mechanic of every purchaser in order to sustain the high reputation -of the car sold. Later on his plan of instructions was used in an -automobile school where he was chief instructor, and still later they -were developed into a note system which he used in establishing an -automobile school in the city of Toledo, Ohio. - -The students turned out by this school were very efficient and -successful, and finished the course in less than one-half the time -usually required for the average automobile course. - -This book was written during the twenty months that the writer spent in -the U. S. Army, from the note system used in his automobile school. - - F. B. S. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE v - - INTRODUCTION vii - - - INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. - - HISTORY OF THE GASOLINE ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION 1 - - Purchasing a new car 3 - - Purchasing a used car 4 - - Selecting and testing a used car 5 - - Driving instructions 6 - - Road rules for city and country 9 - - What to do in case of accident 10 - - - CHAPTER I. - - GASOLINE ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS 12 - - The engine block castings, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, - bearings, crank shaft, cam shaft and fly-wheel. - - - CHAPTER II. - - VALVE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 21 - - Valve construction. Types and operation of the valves in an - 8-cylinder V-type engine. Valve locations and valve grinding. - Valve care. - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE 4-CYLINDERED GASOLINE ENGINE 29 - - Explaining the cycle. The 4-, 6-, 8-, 12-cylindered engine -- - The Knight sleeve valve engine -- S. A. E. Horse Power Scale -- - Displacement-Engine charts -- Lubrication oils and greases -- - Lubrication systems -- Care -- Cleaning -- and adjusting of - lubrication systems. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 45 - - The Stromberg plain tube Model M carburetor. Principle of action - -- Installation -- Adjustment and maintenance -- Stromberg Model - L adjustment. - - - CHAPTER V. - - NITRO SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR 60 - - Principle of action, action of venturi, adjustment and general - care. - - The Schebler Model R carburetor, action and adjustment points. - - - CHAPTER VI. - - STEWART CARBURETOR 65 - - Principle of operation -- Adjustment and maintenance. - - - CHAPTER VII. - - CARTER CARBURETOR 70 - - Operating principle -- Adjustment and care. - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR 72 - - Operation -- Instructions for installing, adjustment and - maintenance. - - - CHAPTER IX. - - KEROSENE CARBURETORS 76 - - Operating principle -- Installation and adjustment. - - - CHAPTER X. - - HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS 79 - - Action -- Advantage and design. - - - CHAPTER XI. - - COOLING SYSTEMS 82 - - Purpose of cooling system -- Circulating systems -- The force - pump circulating system -- Overheating -- Radiator cleaning -- - Freezing -- Freezing solutions -- Radiator repairing -- The air - cooling system. - - - CHAPTER XII. - - MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION 86 - - Purpose -- Advantage -- Type -- Assembly and Maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - VACUUM SYSTEMS 89 - - Operating principle -- Purpose of the air vent -- Failure to - feed gasoline to carburetor -- Removing top -- Cleaning - gasoline strainer screen -- Operating principle and general - maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS 95 - - Voltage -- Amperage -- Ohms -- Current -- Circuit -- Low Tension - Current -- High Tension Current -- Induction Coil -- Commutator - -- Insulation -- Shunt or choking coil -- Fuse -- Condenser -- - Dynamo -- Voltaic cell -- Accumulator -- Storage battery -- - Electrolyte -- Hydrometer -- Ammeter -- Circuit breaker -- - Switch -- Generator -- Regulator -- Contact-breaker -- - Non-vibrating coil -- Distributors. - - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE MAGNETO 101 - - Parts -- Assemblage -- Operating principle. - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO, TYPE ZR 105 - - Operating principle -- Primary or low tension circuit -- - Secondary or high tension circuit -- Timing magneto gears -- - Timing magneto with engine -- The condenser -- Safety spark gap - -- Interrupter timing range -- Cutting out ignition -- Caution - -- Care -- Maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING 111 - - Magneto cleaning -- Magneto repairing -- Magneto assembling -- - Magneto timing to engine. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 114 - - Wiring ignition distributor -- Ignition coil -- Breaker box and - distributor head assembly -- Condenser -- Breaker contacts -- - Breaker cam -- Distributor head -- Automatic spark advance - mechanism -- Manual spark control -- Timing the distributor -- - General care. - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS 126 - - Type CC system -- Operating principle -- Setting or timing -- - Adjustment -- Oiling -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XX. - - ATWATER KENT BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM 132 - - Type K-2-Operating principle -- Operation of contact maker -- - Contactless distributor -- Wiring diagram of current flowage -- - Setting and timing the unisparker -- Timing with engine -- - Automatic spark advance -- Contact point adjustment -- Oiling - diagram -- Condenser -- Testing for ignition trouble. - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK, AND HIGH FREQUENCY DUPLEX IGNITION - SYSTEMS 141 - - Operation of contact maker -- Current induction -- Duplex system - -- Duplex switch -- Duplex switch action -- Wiring diagram -- - Adjustment of contact points -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS 147 - - The generator -- The regulator -- The automatic cut-out -- One - unit system -- Two unit system -- Three unit system -- The - starting motor -- Lubrication -- Maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND STARTING SYSTEMS 154 - - Wiring diagram Bijur system -- Operation of Bijur system -- - Starting motor -- Operation of starting motor -- Wiring circuits - -- Fuse -- Ground fuse -- Lamp controller -- Oiling -- Battery - testing -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - NORTH EAST STARTER USED ON DODGE BROTHERS’ CARS 161 - - Model G starter-generator operation -- Wiring diagram -- - Starter-generator action -- Mounting -- Drive -- Charging rate - adjustment -- Fuse -- Locating trouble -- Starting switch and - reverse current cut-out -- Running with battery disconnected. - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 167 - - Motoring the generator -- Cranking the engine -- Generating - electrical energy -- Diagram of motor generator operation -- - Lubrication -- Ignition switch -- Circuit breaker -- Ignition - coil -- Distributor -- Contact breaker and timer -- Care. - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - STORAGE BATTERY 180 - - Construction -- Chemical action -- Cells -- Electrolyte solution - -- Battery charging -- Care and maintenance -- Hydrometer - testing -- Battery idle -- Battery freezing -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - SPARK PLUGS AND CARE 186 - - Type -- Construction -- Connections -- Assembling -- Repairing -- - Cleaning -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE 189 - - Clutch operation -- Gear shifting -- Change speeds -- Cone - clutch -- Cone clutch care -- Cone clutch adjustment -- Multiple - disc clutch -- Borg and Beck clutch -- Borg and Beck clutch - adjustment -- Disc clutch cleaning, wet plate, dry plate -- Cone - clutch leather -- Cone clutch leather patterns -- Cutting -- - General care. - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 198 - - Operation of -- Planetary type -- Progressive type -- Selective - type -- Gear shifts -- Unit-power-plant -- Transmission cleaning - -- Lubrication -- Care. - - - CHAPTER XXX. - - UNIVERSAL JOINTS 204 - - Universal joints -- Slip joints -- Operation -- Construction - diagram -- Tightening -- Lubrication -- Care. - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - - DIFFERENTIAL GEARS 207 - - Bevel gear action -- Construction -- Adjusting -- Gearless - differential -- Action -- Adjustment -- Advantage -- Worm gear - drive differential -- Operation -- Adjustment -- Lubrication -- - General care. - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - - AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 212 - - Dead axles -- The semi-floating axle -- Adjustment -- - Lubrication -- The full-floating axle -- Construction -- - Adjustment -- Lubrication -- The I-beam front axle -- The - spindle -- Steering knuckle -- Care of all types. - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - - BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 218 - - Brake adjustment -- Brake re-lining -- Brake care -- Brake - cleaning. - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - - SPRINGS AND SPRING CARE TESTS 223 - - Spring types -- Spring lubrication -- Weekly spring care -- - Bi-monthly spring care -- Spring wrapping. - - - CHAPTER XXXV. - - ALIGNMENT 229 - - Wheel alignment -- Lengthwise -- Crosswise -- Axle alignment -- - Lengthwise -- Alignment tests -- Mechanical alignment -- - Lengthening wheelbase. - - - CHAPTER XXXVI. - - STEERING GEARS, TYPE AND CONSTRUCTION 232 - - Operation of worm and sector type -- Adjustment of worm and - sector type -- Worm and nut type -- Adjustment of worm and nut - type -- Rack and pinion type -- Connections -- Drag link -- - General care. - - - CHAPTER XXXVII. - - BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE 236 - - Plain bearings -- Bushings -- Roller bearings -- Flexible roller - bearings -- Radial ball bearings -- Thrust ball bearings -- End - thrust -- Double thrust -- Cleaning -- Care -- Maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XXXVIII. - - CAR ARRANGEMENT 243 - - Showing location and names of parts -- Adjustment -- General - care. - - - CHAPTER XXXIX. - - OVERHAULING THE CAR 247 - - Instructions showing how to go about it -- And how to give the - car a thorough overhauling. - - - CHAPTER XL. - - REPAIR EQUIPMENT 251 - - Road repair necessities -- Shop repair necessities. - - - CHAPTER XLI. - - CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE 253 - - Body construction -- Body washing -- Running gear washing -- - Engine cleaning -- Cleaning upholstering -- Rug cleaning -- - Windshield cleaning -- Sedan or closed body cleaning -- Tire - cleaning -- Rim cleaning -- Light lens cleaning -- Caution. - - - CHAPTER XLII. - - TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY AND CARE 256 - - Tire care -- Tire chains -- Cross chains -- Tube care -- Tube - repairing -- Tire and tube storage. - - - CHAPTER XLIII. - - ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 259 - - General overhauling and tuning hints. - - - CHAPTER XLIV. - - AUTOMOBILE PAINTING 262 - - - CHAPTER XLV. - - CARBON REMOVING 263 - - TROUBLE HINTS 264 - - - FORD SUPPLEMENT. - - I The car -- its operation and care 269 - - II The Ford Engine 277 - - III The Ford Cooling System 287 - - IV The Gasoline System 290 - - V The Ford Ignition System 295 - - VI The Ford Transmission 301 - - VII The Rear Axle Assembly 307 - - VIII The Ford Muffler 310 - - IX The Ford Running Gear 311 - - X The Ford Lubrication System 316 - - XI Care of Tires 320 - - XII Points of Maintenance 323 - - XIII The Ford One Ton Truck 325 - - XIV The F. A. Starting and Lighting System Installed on Sedans - and Coupés 328 - - INDEX 335 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIGURE PAGE - - 1. Typical Four-Cylinder Block 13 - - 2. Cylinder Block with Head Removed 13 - - 3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed) 14 - - 4. Typical Cylinder Piston 15 - - 5. Typical Piston Ring 15 - - 6. Typical Connecting Rod 16 - - 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft 17 - - 8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft 17 - - 9. Cam Shaft 18 - - 10. Flywheel 19 - - 11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement 22 - - 12. Poppet Valve 23 - - 13. Valve Types, Location and Operation 24 - - 14. Valve Timing Marks 25 - - 15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks -- 4-Cylinder 27 - - 16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks -- 8-Cylinder 28 - - 17. 4-Stroke Cycle 29 - - 18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine 31 - - 19. Power Stroke Diagram 32 - - 20. Buick Engine -- Parts Assembly 36 - - 21. Buick Engine -- Location Inside Parts Assembly 37 - - 22. Buick Motor -- End View 38 - - 23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine 39 - - 24. Splash Oiling 41 - - 25. Plunger Pump Oiling System 42 - - 26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor -- Sectional View 46 - - 27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Air Bleeder Action 47 - - 28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Accelerating Well 49 - - 29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Idling Operation 51 - - 30. Stromberg Carburetor -- Throttle ¹⁄₅ Open 52 - - 31. Stromberg Carburetor -- Throttle Wide Open 53 - - 32. Stromberg Model M -- Adjustment Points 55 - - 33. Stromberg Model “L” -- Adjustment Points 58 - - 34. Sunderman Carburetor 60 - - 35. Sunderman Carburetor 61 - - 36. Sunderman Carburetor 62 - - 37. Sunderman Carburetor 63 - - 38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled 64 - - 39. Stewart Carburetor 66 - - 40. Carter Carburetor 70 - - 41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A -- Sectional View 72 - - 42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A -- Adjustment Points 73 - - 43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor 76 - - 44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment 77 - - 45. Hot Spot Manifold 79 - - 46. Holley Vapor Manifold -- Ford Cars 80 - - 47. Thermo-Syphon Cooling System 82 - - 48. Muffler -- Three Compartment 86 - - 49. Muffler 87 - - 50. Vacuum System -- Top Arrangement 89 - - 51. Vacuum System Installation 90 - - 52. Vacuum System Diagram -- Stewart Warner 91 - - 53. Vacuum System -- Inside View of Parts 94 - - 54. Coil Diagram 96 - - 55. Dynamo -- Diagram of Action 98 - - 56. Magnets -- Pole Blocks 101 - - 57. Armature Core -- Wound Armature 102 - - 58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current Direction 102 - - 59. Breaker -- Slip Ring -- Distributor 103 - - 60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor -- Housing Removed 106 - - 61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4 107 - - 62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System -- on Dodge Car 115 - - 63. North-East Distributor -- Model O -- Ignition 116 - - 64. North East Breaker-Box 118 - - 65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism -- North East 121 - - 66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram -- Type C. C. 127 - - 67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Type C. C. 128 - - 68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block 128 - - 69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor 129 - - 70. Atwater Kent Type C. C. Wiring Diagram 130 - - 71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type - K-2 System 133 - - 72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type - K-2 System 133 - - 73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type - K-2 System 134 - - 74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type - K-2 System 134 - - 75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block 135 - - 76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2 136 - - 77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring 137 - - 78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism -- A-K Type - K-2 138 - - 79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Oiling Diagram -- A-K Type - K-2 139 - - 80. Philbrin Contact Maker -- Point Adjustment 141 - - 81. Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade 142 - - 82. Switch Case 143 - - 83. Duplex High Frequency Switch 144 - - 84. Philbrin Wiring Diagram 145 - - 85. Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine 149 - - 86. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action 151 - - 87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action 152 - - 88. Wiring Diagram Model N -- Hupmobile 153 - - 89. Wiring Diagram -- Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six 155 - - 90. Wiring Diagram -- Jeffrey Four 158 - - 91. Hydrometer Syringe 159 - - 91¹⁄₂. Dodge Wiring Diagram 162 - - 92. North East Model G Starter Generator 164 - - 93. Delco Motor Generator -- Showing Parts 168 - - 94. Delco Motor Generator -- Diagram of Operation 170 - - 95. Delco Ignition Switch Plate 173 - - 96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker -- Mounted 173 - - 97. Delco Ignition Coil 175 - - 98. Delco Wiring Diagram -- Buick Cars 176 - - 99. Delco Ignition Distributor 177 - - 100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer 178 - - 101. Storage Battery, Sectional View 180 - - 102. Storage Battery, Sectional View 182 - - 103. Hydrometer Syringe 183 - - 104. Spark Plug 187 - - 105. Cone Clutch and Brake 190 - - 106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmission 192 - - 107. Borg and Beck Clutch 193 - - 108. Cone Clutch Leathers -- Pattern -- Cutting 196 - - 109. Friction Transmission 199 - - 110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts 200 - - 111. Sliding Gear Transmission -- Sectional View 201 - - 112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly -- Unit Power Plant 203 - - 113. Slip Joint and Universal 204 - - 114. Universal Joint Construction Diagram 205 - - 115. Differential Action Diagram 207 - - 116. Differential Assembly 208 - - 117. Differential Adjusting Points 209 - - 118. Allen Gearless Differential 210 - - 119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle 213 - - 120. Full-Floating Axle -- Wheel-End Arrangement 214 - - 121. Full-Floating Axle 214 - - 122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts 215 - - 123. I-Beam Front Axle 216 - - 124. Brake -- Types and Adjustment 219 - - 125. Brake -- Showing Toggle Arrangement 220 - - 126. Transmission Brake -- Equalizer 220 - - 127. Brake -- Arrangement and Adjustment -- “Buick” 221 - - 128. ¹⁄₂-Elliptical Front Spring 226 - - 129. Full-Elliptic Spring 226 - - 130. ³⁄₄-Elliptical Rear Spring 227 - - 131. Platform Spring 227 - - 132. Cantilever Spring, Front 228 - - 133. Cantilever Spring, Rear 228 - - 134. Wheel Alignment Diagram 230 - - 135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear 233 - - 136. Worm and Nut Steering Gear 234 - - 137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear 234 - - 138. Steering Wheel 235 - - 139. Plain Bearings or Bushings 236 - - 140. Shims 237 - - 141. Bock Roller Bearing 237 - - 142. Hyatt Roller Bearing 238 - - 143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing 239 - - 144. Double Row Thrust Bearing 241 - - 145. End Thrust Bearing 241 - - 146. Car Arrangement 245 - - 147. Ford Motor -- Sectional View 278 - - 148. Ford Motor -- Valve and Cylinder Assembly 279 - - 149. Ford Fuel System 290 - - 150. Ford Transmission Assembly 303 - - 151. Ford Rear Axle System 308 - - 152. Ford Brake 309 - - 153. Ford Spindle 311 - - 154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart 317 - - - - -THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE - - - - -INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER - -HISTORY OF THE GAS ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION - - -A great many experiments were conducted with the explosive type of -motor between 1840 and 1860. These motors were very heavy and crude -affairs and furnished little or no power. They were either abandoned -or given up by those conducting the experiments, and had all but -disappeared in the later 50’s. The chief difficulties that they could -not overcome were, the finding of a suitable and combustible fuel, a -way to distribute it to the explosion chambers in proper proportion, -and a device to ignite it at the proper time. Many of these early -inventions used coal tar gases and gunpowder as fuel. - -The first designs for an internal combustion engine of the four -stroke cycle type were devised in 1862 by M. Beau de Rochas. These -designs were taken in hand by a German by the name of Otto, and many -experiments were conducted by him and two other Germans, Daimler -and Benz, which resulted in a fairly successful engine. The Otto -Gas Engine Co., of Deutz, Germany, was then formed with Daimler as -general manager. Experiments were carried on which resulted in many -improvements, such as valve adjusting and electrical spark ignition. -Many other smaller improvements were worked out which overcame many of -the difficulties of the former and cruder devices. - -The first gas engines were all of the single cylinder type, very -heavily constructed and produced from three to five horse power. In -1886, Daimler conceived the idea of constructing the multiple type -of engine with water-jacketed cylinders. Benz also completed a very -successful motor in the late fall of 1886, which embodied the water -cooling idea. The practical beginning of the gas engine as a factor -in vehicle propulsion began in the fall of 1886, when Daimler applied -his motor to a two-wheeled contrivance, which greatly resembled our -present-day motorcycle. While this machine ran, it was not considered a -very great success. Benz in the early part of 1887, connected his motor -to a three-wheeled vehicle with which he was able to travel at the rate -of three miles per hour. - -The real beginning of the present-day automobile took place in Paris, -France, in 1890, when M. Panhard secured the patent rights from Daimler -to use his engine. He then built a four-wheeled vehicle, which carried -some of the ideas of present-day construction, such as a steering -device and brakes. To this he applied his engine and was able to travel -at the rate of six miles per hour. In 1891 Peugeot Frères completed -their vehicle and installed a Benz engine. This vehicle or car, as -it was then called by the French government on account of its being -mechanically driven, was able to make from seven to eight miles per -hour. - -The perfecting of the automobile was hampered very much between the -years 1891 and 1898 by stringent laws that had been enacted by the -French government, which all but prohibited the driving of a car on the -public thoroughfare. - -The first American-made automobile of the gas propelled type was -completed in the year 1892 by Charles Duryea. This car embodied -many of our present-day ideas but was very lightly constructed and -under-powered. - -In 1893 another car made its appearance in America. This car was built -by Edward T. Haynes and was the beginning of the present-day Haynes’ -line of famous cars. - -The first automobile club was organized in Paris, France, in the year -1894 with the Marquis de Dion as president. The purpose of this club -was to secure a reformation of the laws that had been enacted when the -automobile made its first appearance on the public thorough-fare, and -to make laws and rules to govern automobile racing. - -At that time it was necessary when driving on a public highway to -have some one run seventy-five feet in advance of a car waving a red -flag, and to shout a warning at street intersections. These stringent -laws, however, were repealed by the government through influential aid -brought to bear on it by the automobile club assisted by the rapid -progress of the automobile industry. - - -PURCHASING A NEW CAR - -THINGS TO BE CONSIDERED TO MAKE THE INVESTMENT SAFE - -When you are going to buy a new car go about it in this manner and -protect your investment. - -First.--Choose the car that suits you best in regard to cost, -operation, and appearance. - -Second.--Inquire as to the financial status of the manufacturer. If -there is anything wrong with the car, or the management of the company, -it will show up here. - -Third.--Orphaned cars may run as well and give as good service as -anybody could ask for, but when a company fails or discontinues to -manufacture a model, the car immediately loses from one-third to -one-half of its actual value. That is, providing you wish to trade it -in or sell it as a used car. - -Fourth.--What kind of service does the agency in your vicinity give? -Do they take any interest in the cars they sell after they are in the -hands of the purchaser? - -Fifth.--The amount of interest taken in your purchase by the agent or -service station usually determines the amount of depreciation at the -end of the season. - -Sixth.--If you are purchasing your first car some little adjustments -will be required, and conditions will arise that require understanding -and attention. You, therefore, must acquire either a functional and -mechanical knowledge of the operation, or depend on the agent or -service station for help. - -Seventh.--You will probably say that you can get along without such -help. You probably can, but what will be the results? Will you be -required to stand a loss in the long run resulting from excessive -repair bills and depreciation which could have been prevented to a -great extent? - -Eighth.--Remember that an agent can fool you when you are buying, but -that you cannot fool him if you wish to sell or trade in. - -Ninth.--Remember that this book, _The Automobile Owners’ Guide_, was -written to assist you in just such cases as we have presented, and that -by spending a little time in study you can acquire a working knowledge -of your car, and become independent of the service station and the -agent, which will result in a big saving in both repair bills and -depreciation. - - -PURCHASING A USED CAR - -HOW TO ESTIMATE ITS VALUE - -The question is often asked, Does it pay to invest money in a -second-hand car? The answer may be either yes or no, and depends -entirely upon the condition of the car. - -For example, A and B purchase a new car at the same time. A is rather -conservative. He is also a careful driver and gives his car the best of -attention. B is a careless driver and pays little or no attention to -adjustments and lubrication. - -A has seen to proper lubrication and has kept the parts properly -adjusted and tightened up, and his careful driving has kept the -alignment in perfect condition. His car at the end of the first season -requires a little overhauling which will put it in as good condition as -it was when it was new as far as service is concerned, and it is worth -85 to 90 per cent of its original value. - -B has not seen to proper lubrication and has allowed his motor to -overheat. The cylinders and pistons are scored and worn, and the valves -are warped and do not seat properly. He drove into deep ruts and -chuck-holes, and bumped into curbs and posts while turning around. His -axles and wheels are out of line; the frame and all the running parts -which it supports are out of alignment. Overhauling will not put this -car in A-1 condition, and it is not worth more than 30 per cent. of the -original cost price. It would be a poor investment at any price to an -owner who is buying it for his own use. - -=Selecting and Testing a Used Car.=--First.--If you are buying from -a dealer who trades in cars, judge his statement of the condition of -a car according to his ability as a mechanic and according to his -reputation for accuracy. If you are buying from a reputable used -car dealer his word can usually be taken as a correct statement of -conditions as his business depends upon the accuracy of his statements -and he knows the condition of a car before he buys it. - -Second.--See the former owner. Get his statement of the condition of -the car and the care it has had, and judge it by his appearance, and -the general appearance of his home and property. - -Third.--If the car is listed as _Rebuilt_ or _Overhauled_, see if the -oil-pan, differential, and transmission covers have been removed. If -this has been done the old grease will either have been cleaned off -or show marks of the removal. If these marks are found the proper -adjustments and replacements have probably been made. - -Fourth.--Don’t judge the mechanical condition of a car by its outward -appearance. - -Fifth.--Examine the tires and figure the cost of replacement if any are -found in poor condition. - -Sixth.--Jack up the front axle and test the wheels for loose or worn -bearings. - -Seventh.--Grasp the wheel at the top and bottom and wiggle it to -determine whether the spindle bolts or steering device connections are -worn. - -Eighth.--Jack up the rear axle, set the gear shift-lever into -high-speed, move the wheel in and out from the bottom to discover worn -bearings, and move the wheel, forward and backward, to determine the -amount of back-lash in the differential and universal joints. - -Ninth.--Test the compression of the cylinders while the engine is cold -using the hand crank. If one cylinder is found weak, a leak exists and -the escaping compression can be heard. - -Tenth.--Run the motor until it is warm. If any weakness in compression -is noticeable the cylinders are probably scored, or the rings may be -worn. The valves may also be warped, thereby preventing them from -seating properly. - -Eleventh.--Examine the shoulders of the cross-members supporting the -engine, radiator, or transmission to see if they are cracked or broken. - -Twelfth.--The battery may have deteriorated through improper attention. -Test the solution with a hydrometer. If it is found well up, it can be -passed as O. K. - -Thirteenth.--Don’t judge the condition of the car by the model, as a -two or three-year-old model may be in better mechanical condition than -a six-month or year-old model. - - -DRIVING INSTRUCTIONS - -A new driver should remain cool and take things in a natural way as a -matter of course. There is nothing to get nervous or excited about when -learning to drive a car. Any one can master the art of driving quickly -by remaining cool and optimistic. - -First.--Acquire some definite knowledge of the operation of the engine -and its accompanying devices. - -Second.--Have some one explain the operation of the accelerator, spark, -and throttle levers. - -Third.--Study the relative action of the clutch and gear-shifting -pedal. - -Fourth.--The new driver takes the wheel and assumes a natural and calm -position with the muscles relaxed. - -Fifth.--He adjusts the motor control levers. The throttle lever is -advanced one-fourth its sliding distance on the quadrant. The spark -lever is set to one-half the sliding distance on the quadrant. - -Sixth.--Push the ignition-switch button, IN, or ON, and press the -starter button, letting it up as soon as the engine begins to fire. - -Seventh.--Not all gear-shifts are marked, consequently it is a good -idea to let the new driver feel out the different speed changes. This -is accomplished by pushing out the clutch and placing the shift-lever -into one of the four slots. Now let up the clutch pedal until it starts -to move the car, continue the feeling-out process until the reverse -speed gear is located, and at this point impress on him that first -and reverse speeds, are always opposite each other, lengthwise either -on the right or left side of neutral, while second speed is always -crosswise opposite reverse, and high-speed is opposite first on the -other side of neutral. - -Eighth.--Starting the car with engine running, advance the spark-lever -three-fourths the distance on the quadrant, advance the throttle until -the engine is turning over nicely (not racing). Place one hand on the -steering-wheel and with the other grasp the gear-shift-lever, push in -the clutch pedal, hold it for five seconds, in order that the clutch -brake may stop rotation. Place the shift-lever into the first-speed -slot and let up on the clutch pedal. The car should be driven four or -five hundred feet on this speed until the driver acquires the “nack” of -steering. - -Ninth.--To shift to second speed advance the gas throttle until the car -gathers a smooth rolling motion, press in the clutch pedal and allow -three to five seconds for the brake to retard the speed of the clutch, -then shift the lever to second speed and release the clutch pedal -easily. - -Tenth.--To shift into high-speed retard the throttle lever a trifle (to -prevent the engine from racing), throw out the clutch and shift the -lever into the high-speed slot. Perform these operations slowly but -without hesitation. - -Eleventh.--To shift to reverse speed go through the same operation that -you followed when first was used, except that the shift-lever is placed -in the reverse slot. - -Twelfth.--The reverse speed-gear is never engaged unless the car is at -a “stand-still,” as this gear turns in an opposite direction. - -Thirteenth.--Always test the emergency brake lever and the speed -shift-lever, to be sure that they are in a neutral position before -starting the engine. - -Fourteenth.--Remember that in case of emergency the car can be stopped -quickly by pushing in both foot-pedals. Pressure on the clutch pedal -disconnects the engine from the car, while pressure on the “foot” or -service brake pedal, slows up the motion of the car and will bring it -quickly to a stand-still. - -Fifteenth.--Always push the clutch out when using the service brake to -check the rolling motion of the car. - -Sixteenth.--When you wish to stop the car and motor kick out the clutch -and hold it in this position while you stop the rolling motion of the -car with the service brake and shift the gears to neutral. Then set the -emergency brake and turn off the switch to stop the motor. - -If the engine cannot take the car up a steep grade in low speed (due to -defective motor or gravity fuel feed) stop, engage reverse speed, turn -off the ignition switch, and let the car back down to level or a place -where you can turn around, and back up the hill. The reverse speed is -geared from one and a half to two times lower than first speed. - -Nineteen.--To stop the back wheels from skidding turn the front wheels -in the direction which the back wheels are sliding and release the -brakes. Turning away or applying the brakes adds momentum to the -sliding motion. - -Twenty.--If for any reason you must or cannot avoid driving into the -ditch unless the ditch is very shallow, turn the car directly toward -the opposite bank. The front or rear springs will lodge in the bank -and prevent the car from rolling over and crushing the occupants, and -the car can be drawn out more easily from this position. - - -ROAD RULES FOR CITY AND COUNTRY - -1.--Be courteous to all whom you meet and give your assistance if -necessary. - -2.--When encountering a bad stretch of road, with the track on your -side, don’t drive in and force another machine coming towards you to -get out of the track. WAIT. - -3.--Never block a track. In case you wish to stop and talk to some one, -drive to one side. - -4.--Keep on the right hand side of the road at all times, whether -moving or standing, except as prescribed in Paragraph 5. - -5.--In passing vehicles traveling in the same direction, always pass on -the left and blow the horn. - -6.--In passing a vehicle that has just stopped, slow down and sound the -horn. - -7.--In changing your direction, or stopping, always give the -appropriate hand signal. - -8.--Hand signals, straight up or up on 45° angle, STOP. Straight out or -horizontal, TURNING TO THE LEFT. Down at an angle of 45°, TURNING TO -THE RIGHT. - -9.--The distance between vehicles outside of towns and cities, 20 -yards; between vehicles passing through towns and cities, 5 yards; -between vehicles halted at the curb, 2 yards. - -10.--Bring all vehicles under easy control at street and road -intersections. - -11.--A maximum driving speed should not exceed 7 miles in business -sections of cities, 15 miles in residential sections, 25 miles on -country roads. - -12.--Form the habit of slowing down and looking both ways before -crossing tracks. - -13.--Always pass a street car on the right side. - -14.--Always stop 8 feet from a street car when passengers are getting -off, unless there is a safety zone, then drive slowly. - -15.--Never drive over the side-walk line while waiting for signal of -traffic officer. - -16.--Notify traffic officer which way you wish to turn with hand signal. - -17.--Always stop and wait for an opening when driving from a side -street or road into a main thoroughfare. - -18.--Make square turns at all street corners unless otherwise directed -by traffic officer. - -19.--If you wish to turn from one street into another wait until -the traffic officer gives the straight ahead signal, then give the -appropriate signal to those in the rear. - -20.--Always drive near the curb when you wish to turn to the right, and -to the right of the center line of the street when you wish to turn to -the left. - -21.--Drive straight ahead at 42nd St. and 5th Ave., N. Y., and at -Market and Broad St., Newark, N. J. These corners handle more traffic -than any two corners in the United States. No turns are made at either -corner. - -22.--Exercise care not to injure road ways. - -23.--Do not damage improved roads by the use of chains when unnecessary. - -24.--In case the car is not provided with chains, rope wrapped around -the tires will make a good substitute. - -25.--In case of fire, do not try to put it out with water as the -gasoline will only float and spread the fire. Use a fire extinguisher -or smother with sand or with a blanket. - - -WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENT - -1.--In case of injury to person or property stop car and render such -assistance as may be needed. - -2.--Secure the name of person injured or of owners of said property. - -3.--Secure names and addresses of witnesses to the accident. - -4.--Draw diagram of streets as shown in Fig. A. Show relative -positions of the colliding vehicles and the object of pedestrian just -before the accident. - -5.--Label streets and every object depicted and add measurements and -line showing course followed by vehicles, etc., and any explanatory -statements which would aid an understanding of the occurrence. - -[Illustration: - - Main St. - - Side St. - -Fig. A. Street Intersection] - -6.--File this report at police headquarters. - - - - -CHAPTER I - -GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS - - -We will use for purposes of illustration the common four-cylinder, -four cycle, cast en bloc, “L”-head type of motor, as this type is used -probably by 90% of the automobile manufacturers. The block of this type -of motor is cast with an overlapping shoulder at the upper left hand -side which contains a compartment adjoining the combustion chamber in -which the intake and exhaust valves seat, and the casting is made, in -the shape of the Capital letter L turned upside down. This arrangement -allows both valves to seat in one chamber and to operate from one cam -shaft. - -The operation of each cylinder is identically the same whether you have -a one or a many cylindered motor, consequently when you have gained a -working knowledge of one cylinder, others are a mere addition. This may -sound confusing when the eight or twelve cylindered motor is mentioned, -but is more readily understood when we consider the fact that an eight -or twelve cylindered motor is nothing more than two fours or two sixes, -set to a single crank-case or base in V-shape to allow the connecting -rods of each motor to operate on a single crank shaft. This arrangement -also allows all the valves to operate from a single cam shaft, thereby -making the motor very rigid and compact, which is an absolute necessity -considering the small space that is allowed for the motor in our -present-day designs. - -Fig. 1. The casting or block, which is the foundation of the whole -motor or engine, usually has a removable head which allows for easy -access to the pistons and valves. The block is cast with a passage or -compartment through the head and around the cylinders through which -water circulates for cooling the adjoining surfaces of the cylinders. -This alleviates the danger from expansion and contraction caused by -the tremendous heat generated in and about the combustion chambers. -This block also contains the cylinders and valve seats. The pistons -and valves are fitted to their respective positions as construction -progresses. - -[Illustration: - - Exhaust Pt. - - Intake Pt. - - Re. Plate - - Det. Head - - Cyl. Block - - Upper Crankcase - - Lower Crankcase - -Fig. 1. Typical Four-cylinder Block] - -Fig. 2. The block with head removed shows the smooth flush surface of -the block face and the location of the cylinders in which the pistons -operate or slide, with each power impulse or explosion. When the piston -is at its upper extreme it comes within a sixteenth of an inch of -being flush with the top of the block, while the valves (also shown in -Fig. 2) rest on ground-in seats, in their respective chambers, and are -operated by a stem which extends downward from the head through a guide -bushing in the block to the cam shaft. - -[Illustration: - - Pistons - - Water Vents - - Intake Valve - - Exhaust Valve - -Fig. 2. Cylinder Block With Head Removed] - -The location of the water vents is also shown, through which water is -circulated to prevent the cylinders from overheating which would cause -the pistons to “stick” from expansion. - -Fig. 3. The top or head of the motor is removed, exposing the -combustion chambers. These chambers must be absolutely air-tight as -the charge of gas drawn in through the inlet valve is compressed here -before the explosion takes place, and low compression means a weak -explosion, which causes the motor to run with an uneven-jumpy motion, -and with an apparent great loss of power. A copper fiber insert gasket -is placed between the top of the block and the head before it is bolted -down. This gasket prevents any of the compression from escaping through -unevenness of the contact surfaces, as metal surfaces are prone to warp -when exposed to intense heat. It is necessary to turn the bolts in the -head down occasionally, as the heat causes expansion. The following -contraction, which loosens them, results in a loss of compression and a -faulty operation of the motor. - -[Illustration: - - Combustion Chamber - - Spark Plug Vent - - Water Circulating Vent - - Bolt Holes - -Fig. 3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)] - -The spark-plug vents through the head are usually located directly -over the piston although in some cases they are over the valve head -and in some motors which are cast without a removable head they may be -at one side of the combustion chamber. The location of the spark-plug -does not materially affect the force of the explosion, although when -it is located directly over the piston a longer plug may be used, as -the pistons do not come up flush with the top of the block, and a -spark-plug extended well into the combustion chamber will not become -corroded with carbon or burnt oil as is usually the case with a plug -which does not extend beyond the upper wall surface of the combustion -chamber. - -Fig. 4. The plunger or piston is turned down to fit snugly within the -cylinder and is cast hollow, with two shoulders extending from the -inside wall. - -[Illustration: - - Head - - Ring - - Wrist Pin - - Oil Ring - - Ring Groove - - Bushing - - Wrist Pin - - Set Screw - - Ring Groove - - Set Screw - - Bushing - - Wrist Pin - -Fig. 4. Typical Cylinder Piston] - -Fig. 4A shows a split piston. Three grooves are cut into it near the -head to receive the piston rings. The width and depth of these grooves -vary according to the size of the piston. A hole is bored through the -piston and shoulders about half way from each end. The bushing or plain -bearing shown in Fig. 4B is pressed into this hole and forms a bearing -for the wrist pin also shown in Fig. 4B. Wrist pins are usually made -of a much softer metal than the bearing, and are subjected to severe -duty, which often causes them to wear and produce a sharp knock; this -may be remedied by pressing out the pin, giving it a quarter turn, and -replacing it in that position. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Typical Piston Ring] - -Fig. 5 shows a split joint piston ring. Piston rings are usually made -from a high grade gray iron, which fits into the grooves in the piston -and springs out against the cylinder walls, thereby preventing the -compressed charge of gas from escaping down the cylinder, between the -wall and the piston. Fig. 5A shows a piston equipped with leak-proof -rings; this type of piston ring has overlapping joints, and gives -excellent service, especially when used on a motor which has seen -considerable service. Fig. 5B illustrates how piston rings may line up, -or become worn from long use, or from faulty lubrication. This trouble -may be easily detected by turning the motor over slowly. The escaping -charge can usually be heard and the strength required to turn the motor -will be found much less uniform on the defective cylinder. - -The motor should be overhauled at least once every year, and by -applying new rings to the pistons at this time new life and snappiness -may be perceived at once. - -The connecting rod shown in Fig. 6 has a detachable or split bearing -on the large end, and takes its bearing on the crank pin of the crank -shaft. The small or upper end may have either a hinge joint or press -fit to the wrist pin. This rod serves as a connection and delivers -the power stroke from the piston to the crank shaft. These rods are -required to stand very hard jars caused by the explosion taking place -over the piston head. The bearings are provided with shims between the -upper and lower half for adjusting. Piston or connecting rod bearings -must be kept perfectly adjusted to prevent the bearings from cracking -or splitting which will cause the rod to break and which may cause -considerable damage to the crank case. - -[Illustration: - - Wrist Pin Bearing - - Upper Half Crank Pin Bearing - - Lower Half Bearing End Overlaps - - Shims - - Bushing - - Rod - - Shims - - Bolts - -Fig. 6. Typical Connecting Rod] - -Fig. 7 shows a counter balanced crank shaft. This type of crank-shaft -is provided with weights which balance the shaft and carry the momentum -gathered in the revolution. - -[Illustration: - - Rear Main Bearing - - Weight - - Center Main Bearing - - Front Main Bearing - - Fly Wheel Attached to this Ring - - Timing Gear Attached Here - - Crank Pin - - Crank Pins - -Fig. 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft] - -[Illustration: - - Main Bearings - -Fig. 8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft] - -Fig. 8 shows the plain type of crank shaft with the timing gear -attached to the front end and the fly-wheel attached to the rear end. -The crank shaft shown is carried or held by five main bearings, which -is an exception, as the majority of motor manufacturers use only three -main bearings to support the crank shaft, while in some of the smaller -motors only two are used. These bearings are always of the split -type, the seat for the upper half is cast into the upper part of the -crank-case, and the lower half is usually attached to the upper half by -four bolts which pass through the flange at each side of the bearing. -Small shims of different sizes are employed between the flanges of -each half of the bearing in order to secure a perfect adjustment which -is very essential, as these bearings are subjected to heavy strains -and severe duty. A shim may be removed occasionally as the bearing -begins to show wear. A worn main bearing can be detected by placing the -metal end of a screw-driver or hammer on the crank-case opposite the -bearing and the other end to the ear. If the bearing is loose or worn a -dull bump or thud will be heard. This looseness should be taken up by -removing a shim of the proper thickness. - -[Illustration: - - Cam Gear - - Bearings - - Cams - - Cams - -Fig. 9. Cam Shaft] - -Main bearings run loose for any length of time will be found very hard -to adjust as the jar which they are subjected to invariably pounds -them off center which makes readjustment a very difficult task to -accomplish with lasting effect. New main bearings in a motor should -always be scraped to secure a perfect fit. A loose piston or connecting -rod bearing will produce a sharp knock which can easily be determined -from the dull thud produced by a loose main bearing. (Fig. 9.) The -cam shaft revolves on bearings and is usually located at the base of -the cylinders on the left hand side looking toward the radiator and -carries a set of cams for each cylinder. The cam pushes the valve open, -and holds it in this position, while the piston travels the required -number of degrees of the cycle or stroke. - -The cam shaft is driven from the crank shaft usually through a set of -timing gears, and operated at one-half the speed of the crank shaft in -a four cycle motor, as a valve is only lifted once, while the crank -shaft makes two revolutions or four strokes. The cam-shaft bearings, -and the timing gears are usually self-lubricating and require very -little attention. Timing of the cam shaft is a rather difficult matter -and will be treated in a following chapter under the head of valve -timing. - -[Illustration: - - Start Gear - - Key-Seat - - Shaft-Seat - - Cone Clutch Seat - - Disc Clutch Small Disc Bolt on Here - -Fig. 10. Flywheel] - -The oil pan or reservoir forms the lower half or base of the crank -case. The lubricating oil is carried here at a level which will allow -the piston rods to dip into it at each revolution of the crank shaft. -The timing gears receive their lubrication from the supply carried in -the reservoir by means of a plunger or piston pump which is operated -from the cam shaft. The balance of the motor is usually lubricated by -a splash system taken up in a later chapter on lubrication. The oil -is carried at a level between two points marked, high and low, on a -glass or float gauge which is located on the crank case. A gasket made -of paper or fiber is used between the union or connection of the oil -reservoir and the upper half of the crank case to prevent the oil from -working out through the connection. - -Fig. 10 represents the flywheel. The flywheel is usually keyed to -the crank shaft directly behind the rear main bearing. This wheel is -proportionate in weight to the revolving speed of the motor, which -it keeps in balance by gathering the force of the power stroke. The -momentum gathered by it in this stroke carries the pistons through the -three succeeding strokes called the exhaust, intake, and compression -strokes. The flywheel also serves as a connection between the -power-plant and the running gear of the car, as a part of the clutch is -located on it, and the connection takes place either in the rim or on -the flange. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION - - -The proper and accurate functional operation of the valves is as -necessary to successful motor operation as the proper adjustment of -a hairspring is to a watch, for if a hairspring becomes impaired in -any way, a watch will not keep correct time. This is the case in a -motor when a valve becomes impaired. The valves in a motor, therefore, -must be considered the most vital part conducive to successful and -economical operation of the motor. - -The valves are manufactured from a high grade tungsten or carbon steel, -and are designed to withstand the intense heat which the heads located -in the combustion chambers are subjected to, without warping. A perfect -seat is required to prevent leaking, which will cause low compression -and a weak power impulse, thus reducing the power and harmony of -successful operation. - -The poppet valve is used by about ninety-five per cent. of motor -manufacturers. This type of valve is mechanically operated from the -cam shaft at one-half the crank shaft speed, as a valve is lifted only -once in every four strokes, or two revolutions of the crank shaft. The -reduction in speed is accomplished by using a gear on the cam shaft, -twice the size of that on the crank shaft. - -The heads and chambers must be kept free from carbon which forms -and bakes into a shale and has a tendency to crack and chip as the -temperature changes in the combustion chambers. These chips are -blown about in the cylinders until they lodge or are trapped by the -descending valves. It then forms a pit on the seat and prevents the -valves from seating properly. This leaves an open space which attracts -more carbon, and the entire functional action of the valve is soon -impaired, necessitating regrinding in order that it may properly seat -again. - -Carbon is generated from a poor gas mixture or from excessive use of -lubricating oil and may be considered the chief cause of improper -functional action of the valves. - - -VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION 8-CYLINDERED V-TYPE ENGINE - -[Illustration: - - Valve Head - - Removable Plates - - Cam Shaft - - Valve Head - - Valve Seat - - Valve Seat - - Tappet for Adjusting Valves - - Tappet for Adjusting Valves - -Fig. 11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement] - -Fig. 11 shows the location of the cam shaft, valves, and tappet -adjustment, on a V-shaped engine. The cylinders of this type of engine -are arranged in two blocks, consisting of four cylinders in each, -set directly opposite each other on an angle of 90°. The connecting -rods from opposite cylinders are yoked and take their bearing on the -same crank pin. This arrangement allows the intake and exhaust valves -of each opposite cylinder to operate from a single cam shaft, or in -other words the entire sixteen valves are operated by a single cam -shaft carrying eight cams. Consequently an eight or twelve cylindered -engine is identical in regard to valve timing to either a four or six -cylindered engine. - -[Illustration: - - Valve Head - - „ Seat - - „ Guide - - „ Stem - - „ Spring - - Sp. Seat - - Cap Screw - - Tappet - - Lock Nut - - Guide Bushing - - Push Block - - Roller - - Cam - -Fig. 12. Poppet Valve] - -Fig. 12 shows a poppet valve. This type of valve has only one -adjustment, called the tappet. The adjustment is made by turning the -cap-screw out of the push block until the head comes into contact with -the valve stem. The lock nut on the cap screw is then turned down -tightly to the push block to hold the adjustment. A strong spring is -placed on the valve stem which causes it to close quickly and remain -closed until it comes into contact with the cam. - -Valves are set and operate in three different positions as shown in -Fig. 13. The exhaust valve in this case seats on the floor of the -combustion chamber and is operated by the stem which extends through -the casting to the tappet, while the intake valve seats on the upper -wall of the combustion chamber and is operated from over head by a -push-rod extending from the tappet to a rocker-arm. When both valves -are operated from above and seat on the upper wall of the combustion -chamber the motor is referred to as the overhead valve type of motor. -In the majority of motors both valves seat on the floor of the valve -chamber. - -[Illustration: - - Rocker Arm - - Valve Stem - - Valve Open - - Valve Seat - - Combustion Chamber - - Tappets - - Cam - - Cam Shaft - - Overhead Type Valve - - Push Rod - - Poppet-Type Valve - -Fig. 13. Valve Types, Location and Operation] - -=Valve Timing.=--Valve timing is usually accomplished by setting the -first, or exhaust valve cam, to correspond with a mark on the flywheel -and cylinder (shown in Fig. 14). - -This is accomplished by lining up the ¹⁄₄, or ¹⁄₆ D-C mark on the -flywheel rim with the center mark on the cylinder block, and means -that ¹⁄₄, or ¹⁄₆, pistons are on upper dead center of the compression -stroke, the flywheel is then turned a trifle until the marks E-C, -or Ex-C, is at upper dead center and in line with the mark on the -cylinder block. This means that the exhaust valve closes at this point. -The cam shaft is then turned in the running direction and the cam shaft -gear meshed at the valve closing or seating point. This is all that is -necessary as the other cams take up correct operation when any one cam -is set properly. - -Another method of valve timing used by some motor manufacturers is -shown in Fig. 14. It is simply necessary in this case to line up the -prick punch marks on the timing gears--after getting the first position -on upper D-C of the compression stroke--to acquire correct valve time. -No definite or average scale can be given for valve timing, as all -different types of motors are timed differently. These instructions -must be secured from the manufacturer when the motor is not marked. - -[Illustration: - - Cylinder Marks - - Camshaft Gear - - 1-4 Pistons on Upper Dead Center - - FLY-WHEEL MARKS - - Running Direction of Fly Wheel - - MARKS LINED UP Timing Gear Punch Marks - - Crankshaft Gear - -Fig. 14. Valve Timing Marks] - -=Valve Grinding.=--A valve-grinding compound can be purchased at any -garage or service station or one may be compounded by mixing emery -dust with a heavy lubricating oil until a thin paste is formed. The -valve spring is released next by forcing up the tension with a screw -driver or valve lifter. A small H-shaped washer is drawn from a groove -near the end of the stem, which frees the valve; it can then be pushed -up and raised through the guide. A small spring is placed over the -valve stem. This spring should be strong enough to raise the valve -one-half inch above the seat. A thin film of the grinding compound is -evenly applied to the seating face of the valve head, a screw driver -or ratchet fork is set in the groove on the head of the valve, and the -handle rolled between the palms of the hands, covering about one-third -of the distance around the valve seat; the valve is let up after the -motion has been repeated four or five times, and repeated at another -angle until the entire surface of the valve is smoothly ground and -allows the valve to seat perfectly. - -=Valves.=--The sleeve valve type of motor was invented several years -ago by Charles A. Knight. He met with some difficulty in having it -manufactured in this country because the lubrication system was thought -to be inadequate and the poppet valve was then at the height of its -popularity with the manufacturer of engines. - -Knight took his engine to Europe and made some slight improvements -on it. It was then taken over and manufactured by one of the large -automobile manufacturing companies of that continent and is now being -used by many of the celebrated automobile manufacturers of every -country. - -The principle of operation does not differ in any respect from the -ordinary type of four cycle motor, except, that instead of having the -poppet type of valves it has a set of sleeves which slide up and down -on the piston. The sleeves are operated from an eccentric shaft by a -short connecting rod and carry ports which are timed to line up with -the ports of the intake and exhaust manifold ports at the proper time -in the cycle of operation. - -Fig. 15 shows the method of timing the sleeves on the four cylinder -engine. First, turn the motor over in the running direction until the -marks (I-4-T-C) on the flywheel are in alignment with the marks on the -cylinder casting. Turn the eccentric shaft in the running direction -until the marks A, B, C, shown in Fig. 15 are lined up, and then apply -the chain. - -[Illustration: - - Timer - Shaft - Sprocket - - Crank Shaft Sprocket - -Fig. 15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks--4-Cylinder] - -To check up on the timing, back the flywheel up an inch or two and -insert a thin piece of tissue paper into the exhaust port and turn -the engine in the running direction until the paper is pinched, which -signifies that the valve is closed. The marks on the flywheel, timing -gears, and the crank case should be in alignment. Fig. 16 shows a -diagram of the timing marks on the eight cylinder Knight engine. The -method of timing this engine is as follows: (1) Turn the engine over -until the marks I-4-R-H--D-C align with the marks on the crank case. -(2) Turn the eccentric shaft and sprocket until the arrows shown in -Fig. 16 are in line with the guide marks on the front end of the chain -housing. Then put on the chain and check up the timing, using the thin -piece of tissue paper. - -[Illustration: - - Eccentric Shaft - Sprocket Hub - - Mark on - Eccentric Shaft - Sprocket - - Guide Mark on - Crank Case - - Crank Shaft - Sprocket - -Fig. 16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks--8-Cylinder] - - -VALVE CONSTRUCTION - -If the sleeve rods are removed for some reason, the bearings should be -fitted very loosely to the eccentric shaft when they are put back. A -looseness of about .008 of an inch is permissible. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE - - -The four-cycle or Otto stroke type of gasoline engine should rightly be -called the four-stroke-cycle engine, as it requires four strokes and -two revolutions of the crank shaft to complete one cycle of operation. - -This type of motor is used almost universally by the manufacturers -of pleasure cars due to its reliability, and to the ability it has -to furnish continuous power at all speeds with the minimum amount of -vibration. - -[Illustration: - - Firing - Stroke - - Exhaust - Stroke - - Intake - Stroke - - Compression - Stroke - - 1 - - 2 - - 3 - - 4 - -Fig. 17. 4-Stroke Cycle. 1--Cylinder in Action] - -Fig. 17 shows a diagram of one cylinder in the four strokes of the -cycle, and the distance traveled by the crank shaft during each stroke. -No. 1 begins with a charge of compressed vapor gas in the cylinder and -is called the firing or power stroke. The ignition system (explained -in a later chapter) furnishes a spark at from five to fifteen degrees -early or before the piston reaches top dead center. Although the stroke -theoretically starts before the piston reaches its highest point of -ascent, the actual pressure or force of the explosion is not exerted -until the piston has crossed dead center. This is due to the fact that -the piston travels very rapidly, and that it requires a small fraction -of a second for spark to ignite the compressed charge of gas. It may, -therefore, be easily seen that, if the spark did not occur until the -piston is on or has crossed dead center, the piston would have traveled -part of the distance of the stroke, and as it is moving away from the -highest point of compression the pressure is reduced by allowing more -volume space which causes a weak explosion and a short power stroke. -The intake and exhaust valves are closed through the duration of the -power stroke. - -No. 2. The exhaust stroke begins from fifteen to thirty degrees early, -or before the piston reaches lower dead center on the firing stroke. -The exhaust valve opens at the start of this stroke allowing the -pressure of the burnt or inert gas to escape before the piston begins -to ascend on the upward part of the stroke, and closes seven to ten -degrees late to allow the combustion chamber to clear out before the -next stroke begins. - -No. 3. The intake or suction stroke begins with the piston descending -from its highest level to its lowest level. The intake valve opens ten -or twenty degrees late, and as the piston is traveling on its descent, -considerable vacuum pressure has formed which draws suddenly when the -valve opens and starts the gas from the carburetor in full volume. The -entire length of this stroke creates a vacuum which draws a full charge -of vaporized gas into the cylinder through the open intake valve. The -intake valve closes from ten to twenty degrees late in order that the -full drawing force of the vacuum may be utilized while the piston is -crossing lower center. - -No. 4. The compression stroke begins at the end of the intake stroke -with both valves closed. The piston ascends from its lowest extreme to -its highest level, compressing the charge of gas which was drawn into -the cylinder on the intake or suction stroke; and at the completion -of this stroke the cylinder is again in position to start No. 1, the -firing stroke, and begin a new cycle of operation. The cam shaft is -driven from the crank shaft through a set of gears or a silent chain, -and operates at one-half the speed of the crank shaft as a valve is -lifted once through the cycle of operation, or two revolutions of the -crankshaft. - -[Illustration: - - 1 - - 2 - - 3 - - 4 - - Firing - Val. Closed - - Compressing - Val. Closed - - Exhausting - Ex. Val. Open - - Intake - In. Val. Open - -Fig. 18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine] - -Fig. 18 shows the operation of a four-cylindered motor as it would -appear if the cylinder block were removed. The timing or firing order -of the motor shown in this diagram is 1-2-4-3. No. 1 cylinder is always -nearest the radiator and on the left in this diagram. No. 1 cylinder is -firing. The intake and exhaust valve remain closed while this stroke -is taking place. This causes the entire force of the explosion to be -exerted on the head of the receding piston. The cylinders, as may -be seen in the diagram, are timed to fire in succession, one stroke -behind each other. While No. 1 cylinder is on the firing stroke, No. -2 cylinder is compressing with both valves closed and will fire and -deliver another power impulse as soon as No. 1 cylinder completes and -reaches the lowest extreme of its firing stroke. No. 3 cylinder, being -fourth in the firing order, has just completed the firing stroke and is -starting the exhaust stroke which forces the burnt and inert gases out -of the cylinder through the open exhaust valve. No. 4 cylinder which -is third in the firing order has just completed the exhaust stroke and -is about to start the intake or suction stroke with the exhaust valve -open. This diagram should be studied and memorized as it is often -necessary to remove the wires which may easily be replaced if the -firing order is known, or found by watching the action of the exhaust -valves and made to conform with the distributor of the ignition system. -(Note the running direction of the distributor brush and connect the -wires up in that direction.) For the firing order given above connect -No. 4 wire to No. 3 distributor post, and No. 3 wire to No. 4 post, as -this cylinder fires last. - -[Illustration: - - 1-CYL. - - 2-CYL. - - 4-CYL. - - 8-CYL. - -Fig. 19. Power Stroke Diagram] - -Fig. 19 shows a diagram of the power stroke impulse delivered to the -cycle in a one, two, four, and eight cylindered motor. A complete cycle -consists of 360 degrees, and as there are four strokes to the cycle an -even division would give a stroke of ninety degrees, which is not the -case, however, owing to the fact that the valves do not open and close -at the theoretical beginning and ending point of each stroke which is -upper dead center and lower dead center. The firing or power impulse -stroke begins at approximately five to seven degrees before the piston -reaches upper dead center on the compression stroke and ends from -fifteen to thirty degrees before the piston or cycle of rotation of the -crankshaft reaches lower dead center. This results in a power impulse -of less than ninety degrees, which varies accordingly with valve -timing in the different makes of motors. Consequently we have a power -stroke of a little less than ninety degrees in a one-cylinder motor; -two power strokes of a little less than 180 degrees in a two cylinder -motor, while the power impulse of the four-cylinder motor very nearly -completes the cycle. In the six, eight, and twelve cylinder motor the -power strokes overlap, thereby delivering continuous power of very -nearly equal strength. - -=Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors.=--The operation of the twin -cylindered motor varies very little from the single four or six. It -is simply a case where two, four, or two six cylindered motors are -set to a single crank case at an angle which will allow the piston or -connecting rods from the opposite cylinders to operate on a single -crank shaft. When the cylinders are set directly opposite each other -the connecting rods are yoked and take their bearing on a single crank -pin of the crank shaft. This, however, is not always the case, for in -some motors the connecting rods take their bearing side by side on the -crank pin. The cylinders in this case are set to the crank case in a -staggered position to allow the connecting rods from each cylinder to -operate in line with the crank shaft. - -The cylinder blocks are usually set to the crank case at an angle of -ninety degrees and are timed to furnish the power impulse or stroke -opposite each other in the cycle of operation. The advantage of this -formation is that two power strokes are delivered in one cycle of -operation, which increases the power momentum and reduces the jar or -shock of the explosion causing a sweet running vibrationless motor. - -The valves are usually operated by a single cam shaft located on the -upper inside wall of the crank case. Valve timing is accomplished by -following the marks on the flywheel or lining up the prick punch marks -on the gears, as shown in Chapter II on valves. - -When a magneto is used to furnish the current for ignition on an eight -cylinder motor it has to be operated at the same speed as the crank -shaft, as a cylinder is fired at each revolution of the crank shaft and -an interruption of the current is required at the breaker points to -produce the secondary or high tension current at the spark plug gaps. - -Twelve cylindered motors are usually equipped with two distributors -or a dual system, or two magnetos driven separately through a set of -timing gears. - -=Knight or Sleeve Valve Motor.=--The Knight or sleeve valve motor -operates on the same plan as the ordinary type of motor except that -the valves form a sleeve and slide over the piston. The sleeves are -operated by an eccentric shaft and are provided with ports which are -timed to conform with the ports of the intake and exhaust manifolds at -the proper time. - - MOTOR HORSEPOWER - - S. A. E. SCALE - - FOUR-CYCLE HORSEPOWER RATING - - ------+-------+-------+-------+------ - Bore | 1 cyl.| 2 cyl.| 4 cyl.| 6 cyl. - 2³⁄₄ | 3.00 | 6.00 |12.00 |18.00 - 2⁷⁄₈ | 3.00 | 6.50 |13.00 |20.00 - 3.00 | 3.50 | 7.00 |14.50 |21.50 - 3¹⁄₄ | 4.00 | 8.50 |17.00 |25.50 - 3¹⁄₂ | 5.00 |10.00 |20.00 |29.50 - 3³⁄₄ | 5.50 |11.00 |22.50 |34.00 - 4.00 | 6.50 |13.00 |25.50 |38.50 - 4¹⁄₄ | 7.00 |14.50 |29.00 |43.50 - 4¹⁄₂ | 8.00 |16.00 |32.50 |48.50 - 4³⁄₄ | 9.00 |18.00 |36.00 |54.00 - 5.00 |10.00 |20.00 |40.00 |60.00 - 5¹⁄₄ |11.00 |22.00 |44.00 |66.00 - 5¹⁄₂ |12.00 |24.00 |48.00 |73.00 - 5³⁄₄ |13.00 |26.50 |53.00 |79.50 - 6.00 |14.50 |29.00 |57.50 |86.50 - ------+-------+-------+-------+------ - - This scale gives the nearest equivalent to the whole or half - horsepower, as is required by State where licenses are paid at so - much per horsepower. - - D² times N - Formula--S. A. E. ------------ equals horsepower. - 2.5 - -For sleeve valve timing see Chapter II on Valves. - - -DISPLACEMENT - -There are probably few men operating cars to-day who fully understand -what is meant by the term displacement, often used in referring -to automobile races. It is one of the main factors or points in -determining the class in which a car is qualified to enter under the -laws that govern races. In looking over a race program, you will note -that there are usually two or more classes, one of which is open, and -another with a limited piston displacement, which gives the smaller -cars a competing chance in their class. - -Consequently piston displacement is merely the volume displaced by -all the piston in moving the full length of the stroke. The volume of -a single cylinder is equal to the area of the bore multiplied by the -length of the stroke, and the total displacement of a four cylinder -motor will be four times this and that of a six cylinder motor, six -times this. - -Piston displacement: - - D² times S times N times 3.14 - ----------------------------- - 4 - - Where D equals bore in inches - S „ stroke in inches - N „ number of cylinders - - Example: Required to find the piston displacement of a 3¹⁄₂ × 5 inch - four-cylindered motor. D equals 3.5 S equals 5. and N equals 4. - -Piston Displacement - - 3.5² times 5 times 4 times 3.14 - ------------------------------- - 4 - - 3.5 times 3.5 times 5 times 4 times 3.14 - ---------------------------------------- - 4 - -equals 173.58 cubic inches. - -[Illustration: - - IGNITION COIL - DELCO GENERATOR - - DISTRIBUTOR - - CONTROL LEVER - - PEDALS - FAN - - BRAKE LEVER - FAN BELT - - STARTER SLIDING GEAR CASE - - UNIVERSAL HOUSING - STARTING CRANK SHAFT - - TRANSMISSION END PLATE - TIMING GEAR CASE - - TRANSMISSION - TIMING GEAR HOUSING - - CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING RETAINER GREASE CUP - WATER PUMP - - MOTOR ARM - FLY WHEEL HOUSING - LOWER CRANK CASE - DRAIN COCK - -Fig. 20. Buick Engine--Parts Assembly] - -[Illustration: - - VALVE KEY - VALVE ROCKER ARM PIN - OIL FILLER WING PLUG - VALVE ROCKER ARM - - VALVE SPRING CAP - VALVE ROCKER ARM WICK - WATER OUTLET - - VALVE SPRING - SPARK PLUG - - VALVE - FAN - - VALVE GAGE - VALVE PUSH ROD - - WATER JACKET - - COMBUSTION SPACE - WATER INLET - - VALVE LIFTER - VALVE LIFTER GUIDE - - PISTON PIN - - PISTON - VALVE LIFTER CLAMP - - OIL PUMP DRIVING GEAR - FAN BRACKET STUD - - FAN BELT - - CONNECTING ROD - - CRANK SHAFT - TIMING GEARS - - CONNECTING ROD BEARING - FAN PULLEY - - CAM SHAFT - - CRANK SHAFT BEARING - CAM SHAFT BEARING - - STARTING NUT - - OIL PUMP - GEAR COVER - - UPPER CRANK CASE - - FLY WHEEL - TIMING GEAR HOUSING - - FLY WHEEL HOUSING - CHECK VALVE - WATER PUMP - - DRAIN PLUG - OIL DIPPER - SPLASH OIL TROUGH - VALVE ROLLER - - LOWER CRANK CASE - CRANK CASE OIL PIPE - -Fig. 21. Buick Engine--Location Inside Parts Assembly] - -[Illustration: - - ROCKER ARM - OIL WICK - - WING PLUG - VALVE STEM - - ROCKER ARM COVER - VALVE SPRING - - ADJUSTING BALL - VALVE CAGE NUT - - LOCK NUT - - VALVE CAGE - - WATER JACKET - - VALVE - - SPARK PLUG COVER - - EXHAUST MANIFOLD - - COMBUSTION SPACE - - INTAKE MANIFOLD - - PUSH ROD - - HOT AIR CHAMBER - - VALVE PUSH ROD COVER - WRIST PIN - - CYLINDER - - VALVE LIFTER CAP - PISTON - - VALVE LIFTER GUIDE CLAMP - - VALVE LIFTER SPRING - - VALVE LIFTER GUIDE - - VALVE LIFTER - - CAM ROLLER PIN - - CAM ROLLER - - CONNECTING ROD - - CAM SHAFT - - CRANK CASE - - CRANK SHAFT - -Fig. 22. Buick Motor--End View] - -[Illustration: - - Fan Belt Adjustment - - Split Collar with Locking Cup - - Valve Tappet Adjustment - - Cam Shaft End Thrust Adjustment - - Shims for Adjustment of Connecting Rods - - Oil Passage to Connecting Rod - - Oil Pipe to Piston Ring - - Oil Pump Filter Screen - - Oil Sump Filter Screen - - Oil Pump - - Felt Gasket - - Oil Drain Plugs - -Fig. 23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine] - - -LUBRICATION SYSTEMS, OILS, AND GREASES - -Special attention should be given to regular lubrication, as this, more -than any one thing, not only determines the life but also the economic -up-keep of the car. - -Whenever you hear an owner say that his car is a gas eater, or that -it uses twice or three times as much oil as his neighbor’s, which is -the same model and make, you know at once that he, or some one who has -used the car before him, either did not give sufficient attention to -lubrication, or used a poor grade of oil. It is almost impossible to -impress the importance of the foregoing facts upon the minds of the -average motorist, and we have, as a direct result, a loss of millions -of dollars annually through depreciation. - -The manufacturers of automobiles and gasoline engines have earnestly -striven to overcome this negligence by providing their products with -automatically fed oiling systems which alleviate some of the former -troubles. These systems, however, also require some attention to -function properly. - -=Grease.=--A medium grade of light hard oil grease is best adapted for -use in grease cups, universal joints, and for packing wheel bearings -and steering gear housings. The transmission and differential operate -more successfully when a lighter grade of grease is used, such as a -graphite compound, or a heavy oil known as 600 W. - -=Oils.=--Great care should always be exercised in purchasing -lubricants. None but the best grades should be considered under any -circumstances. The cheaper grades of oil will always prove to be the -most expensive in the end. The ordinary farm machinery oils should -never be used in any case as an engine lubricant, for in most cases -they contain acids, alkalies, and foreign matter which will deteriorate -and destroy the bearings of the motor. - -An oil to give the best satisfaction must be a purely mineral or -vegetable composition which will flow freely at a temperature of 33° -Fahrenheit and also stand a temperature of 400° Fahrenheit without -burning. Always choose an oil which is light in color as the darker oil -usually contains much carbon. - -=Lubrication= (Lat. _Lubricus_, meaning slippery).---Lubrication is -provided on all types of automobile engines, and at various other -places where moving parts come in contact or operate upon each other. - -Three different types of lubricating systems are found in common use. - -Fig. 24 shows the splash system. The oil is placed into the crank case -and maintained at a level between two points, marked high and low, on a -float or glass gauge at the lower left-hand side of the crank case. The -oil is usually poured directly into the crank case through a breather -pipe provided to prevent excessive vacuum pressure. - -The lower end of the connecting rod carries a spoon or paddle which -dips into the oil at each revolution and splashes it to the cylinder -walls and various bearing surfaces within the motor. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. Splash Oiling] - -=Care of the Splash System.=--This type of oiling system does not -require any adjustments, or special care, except that the oil level be -constantly kept between the high and low level marked on the gauge. - -=Cleaning the Splash System.=--Lubricating oils lose their -effectiveness and become thin and watery after a certain period of use -due to a fluid deposit called residue which remains in the combustion -chambers after the charge of gas has been fired. This fluid generally -works its way into the crank case, thinning the oil. - -The crank case should, therefore, be drained, cleaned, and refilled -with fresh oil every fifth week or thousand miles that the car is -driven. This will prevent much wear and give a quiet and satisfactory -running motor. Draining and washing out the crank case is accomplished -by removing a drain plug at the bottom of the crank case. The old oil -is drained off and thrown away. Kerosene is then poured into the crank -case through the breather pipe until it flows out of the drain clear in -color. The plug is then replaced and the crank case replenished with -fresh oil until the three-quarter from low level is reached on the -gauge. The oil level should be carried as near this point as possible -to obtain the most satisfactory result. - -Fig. 25 shows the plunger or piston pump pressure system usually -used in conjunction with the splash system. The oil is carried in a -reservoir at the bottom of the crank case and is drawn through a fine -meshed screen by the oil pump, which is of the plunger type operated -off the cam shaft. It forces the oil through copper tubes in the three -main bearings. The front and center bearings have an outlet which -furnishes the oil to the gears in front and to the troughs in which the -connecting rods dip. The troughs have holes drilled to keep the level -of the oil, the surplus being returned to the reservoir. - -[Illustration: - - PLUNGER PUMP AND STRAINER - OIL PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT - FRONT BEARING LINE - - REAR BEARING LINE - CENTER BEARING LINE - OIL FLOAT LEVEL - -Fig. 25. Plunger Pump Oiling System] - -There is a pipe line running from the pump to the gear case with a -screw adjustment to regulate the oil pressure by turning either in or -out. There is a pipe line running to a gauge on the dash which gives -the pressure at all times. The cam shaft and cylinder walls get the -oil by the splash from the connecting rods. The bottom rings of the -pistons wash the oil back into the crank case. The overflow from the -front bearings falls into a small compartment immediately under the -crank shaft gear where it is picked up by this gear and carried to the -other gears and the bearings of the water pump shaft. A small oil throw -washer on the pump shaft prevents any surplus oil from being carried -out on the shaft or the hub of the fan drive pulley. Any overflow from -the gear compartment is carried immediately to the splash pan where it -provides for the splash lubrication of the connecting rod bearings and -the cylinder walls. The dippers on the connecting rod bearings should -go ¹⁄₄ in. beneath the surface of the oil. The upward stroke of the oil -pump plunger draws the oil through the lower ball check into the pump -body and the downward stroke discharges it through the upper ball check -into the body of the plunger which is hollow and has outlets on either -side. This allows the oil to flow from the plunger into the by-pass in -the oil pump body and then into the lines running to the main crank -shaft bearings. The next upward stroke forces the oil through the lines -to the main bearings. - -The oil pressure regulator is located on the body of the pump and -connects to the by-pass. It consists of a hollow sleeve screwed into -the body of the pump which has a small ball check held by a short -coiled spring the tension of which determines the oil pressure. The -tension and the pressure may be increased by turning the nut to the -right. The nut should not be given more than one turn at a time in -either direction as it is very sensitive. A loose main bearing will -allow more oil to pass through it. Consequently the pressure registered -on the oil gauge will be reduced. This will come about gradually. It -is not advisable to attempt to adjust the oil pressure without first -noting the condition of the main crank shaft bearings. - -The most common cause of failure to operate is the collection of -dust and dirt on the sleeve at the lower end of the pump or from an -accumulation of sediment back of the ball check. This needs to be -cleaned from time to time. - -=Force and Gravity Oiling System.=--The force and gravity oiling -system operates in much the same manner as the plunger pump system, -except that the oil is pumped into an elevated tank from which it -flows through lines by gravity to the various bearings. Oil pumps, -however, differ in construction and some manufacturers use eccentric, -centrifugal, and gear pumps. Oil pumps are very simple in construction -and action and can be readily understood by recalling their functional -action. - -Oil pumps rarely give any trouble, and if they fail to function -properly, dirt should be immediately suspected, and the ball valves and -pipes inspected and cleaned. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION - - -A carburetor is a metering device whose function is to mechanically -blend liquid fuel with a certain amount of air to produce as nearly a -homogeneous mixture as possible, and in such proportions as will result -in as perfect an explosive mixture as can be obtained. - -If a gas is used as a fuel it is of course not so difficult to obtain -a homogeneous mixture due to the intimacy with which a gas will -mechanically mix with air. This intimacy is a result of the minuteness -of the molecules of both the gas and the air. With a liquid fuel, such -as gasoline, however, it is quite different, especially with low test -gasoline. If it were possible to completely transfer the liquid fuel -into its vapor the latter would act as a gas and would, therefore, -mix with the air to form a homogeneous mixture. It should be, and is, -therefore, the aim of the carburetor designer to produce an instrument -which will atomize the fuel and break it up into small particles so -that every minute particle of the fuel will be surrounded by a correct -proportion of air when it is discharged into the intake manifold of the -motor. To facilitate the vaporization of these minute particles of fuel -it is advisable to preheat the air taken into the carburetor, thereby -furnishing the necessary heat units required to vaporize the fuel by -virtue of its physical property known as its latent heat of evaporation. - -There is a range of proportions of air to vapor, for a given fuel, -between which combustion will obtain. This range extends from that -proportion known as the upper limit of combustion to that known as the -lower limit of combustion. The upper limit is reached when the ratio of -air to vapor is a maximum at which combustion will take place; that -is to say, any addition of air in excess of this maximum will render -the mixture non-combustible. The lower limit is reached when the ratio -of air to vapor is a minimum at which combustion will take place, any -decrease of air below this minimum producing a non-combustible mixture. -It should be remembered that the limits of combustion of any fuel with -air are dependent upon the temperature and pressure. - -[Illustration: - - Carburetor Flange - Throttle Valve - - Throttle Stem or Shaft - - Large Venturi - Idle Discharge Jet - - Idle Adjustment Needle - - High Speed Adjustment Needle - - Small Venturi - - Float Needle - - Air Bleeder - - Mixture Control Valve or Choker - - Float - - Accelerating Well - - Idling Tube - - Strainer - - Float Needle Seat - - High Speead Needle Seat - - Strainer Body - - Gasoline Connection - - Drain Plug - -Fig. 26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor--Sectional View] - -Under given temperature and pressure the rate at which the combustible -mixture will burn depends upon the ratio of air to vapor. This rate -of burning is known as the rate of propagation, and it is apparent -that it is desirable to obtain a mixture whose rate of propagation is -a maximum, because the force of the explosion will depend upon the -rapidity with which the entire mixture is completely ignited. - -The limits of combustion of gasoline (.70 sp. gr.) can be taken -approximately as follows: lower limit, 7 parts air (by weight) to 1 -part gasoline, upper limit, 20 parts air to 1 part gasoline. - -=The Stromberg Plain Tube Model M Carburetor.=--A plain tube carburetor -is one in which both the air and the gasoline openings are fixed in -size, and in which the gasoline is metered automatically, without the -aid of moving parts by the suction of air velocity past the jets. - -Fig. 26 shows a longitudinal section of a type M plain tube carburetor, -and shows the location of the gasoline when the motor is at rest. -The various parts are indicated by names and arrows. An elementary -requirement of a carburetor is that as a metering device it shall -properly proportion the gasoline and air throughout the entire -operating range. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Air Bleeder -Action] - -In the carburetor under discussion this mixture proportioning is -properly maintained by the use of what is termed the air bleed jet. -Fig. 27 shows the principle of the action of the air bleeder. The -gasoline leaves the float chamber, passes the point of the high speed -adjusting needle, and rises through a vertical channel “B.” Air is -taken in through the air bleeder “C,” and discharged into the gasoline -channel before the latter reaches the jet holes in the small venturi -tube “E.” The result is that the air thus taken in breaks up the flow -of gasoline and produces a finely divided emulsion. Upon reaching the -jet holes of the small venturi tube this emulsion is discharged into -the high velocity air stream in the form of a finely divided mist. If -the reader will recall how thoroughly a soap bubble divides itself when -it bursts, he will readily appreciate how completely the air bleed jet -will atomize the fuel. - -Before explaining the operation of the accelerating well it is -advisable to know the reason for its existence. Suppose we had a large -tube such as the intake manifold of a motor through which air and -particles of gasoline were flowing due to a certain suction at one end. -What would be the result if we suddenly increased the suction? It would -be this: Due to the fact that air is so much lighter than gasoline, -the air would respond almost instantly to the increased suction and -its flow would be accelerated very suddenly, whereas the particles of -gasoline, owing to that characteristic known as inertia, would not -respond so rapidly, and due to its heavier weight its flow would not -accelerate as much as the air. This would mean that the air would rush -ahead of the gasoline particles, and the proportion of air to gasoline -would be greater until the inertia forces had been overcome and the -gasoline particles responded completely to the increased suction. This -very thing will take place in a carburetor unless provision is made -for it. That is to say a sudden opening of the throttle will tend -toward producing a very lean mixture at the motor due to the lagging -of the gasoline explained above. A lean mixture at this time, when -acceleration is desired, would obviously be detrimental to the result -wanted. It is at this particular time that additional gasoline is most -desirable in order to compensate for the lagging gasoline and maintain -the proper mixture at the motor. In the Stromberg carburetor this is -accomplished by means of the accelerating well shown in Fig. 28. The -operation is as follows: The action is based upon the principle of -the ordinary U tube. If a U tube contains a liquid, and if pressure -is applied to one arm of the tube, or what is the same, if suction is -applied to the other arm, it is self-evident that the level of the -liquid will rise in the arm on which the suction is applied and will -drop in the other arm. So it is in the construction of the accelerating -well. Referring to the illustration, Fig. 28, the space “F” forms the -one arm of the U tube, and the space “B” the other arm. These spaces -communicate with each other through the holes “G” thus forming a -modified form of U tube. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Accelerating Well] - -When the motor is idling or retarding in speed, the accelerating well -or space “F” fills with gasoline. Now when the throttle is opened, -thereby increasing the suction in the venturi tube, the following -takes place: atmospheric pressure at the bleeder “C” exerts itself -on the gasoline in the space “F” forcing the liquid down to join the -regular flow from “H” and passing up the space “B” and out into the -high velocity air stream through the small venturi tube. While the -well acts the flow of gasoline is more than double the normal rate of -flow, thereby compensating for the lagging of the gasoline referred to -previously. - -Upon close observation it will be noticed that there is a series of -small holes down the wall of the well. Referring to the analogy of -the U tube, these holes directly connect the two arms of the U tube. -It is obvious that the smaller and fewer these holes, the faster will -the well empty, due to the U tube suction, and the larger and more -these holes, the slower will the well empty. It is therefore apparent -that the rate of discharge of the well can be regulated as required by -different motors, different grades of gasoline, different altitudes, -etc., by inserting wells of different drillings. The action of the well -is also dependent upon the size of the hole in the bleeder “C” because -it is the relative area of this hole in the bleeder as compared to the -area of the holes in the well which determine the rate at which the -well will empty. - -The foregoing characteristics of the model M carburetor have dealt more -with the open throttle or high speed operation. We shall now consider -the operation when the motor is idling. Earlier types of carburetors, -when high test and very volatile gasoline was employed, were designed -with a mixing chamber in which the gasoline, after being discharged -from the nozzle, would mix with the air and evaporate very freely. -Present day gasoline, however, is considerably heavier and very much -less volatile, and we therefore cannot depend upon its volatility to -accomplish its vaporization. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Idling Operation] - -Fig. 29 shows the arrangement and idling operation of the model M -Stromberg carburetor. Concentric and inside of the passage “B” is -located the idling tube “J.” When the motor is idling, that is, when -the throttle is practically closed, the action which takes place is -as follows: the gasoline leaves the float chamber, passes through -the passage “H” into the idling tube through the hole “I,” thence up -through the idling tube “J” to the idling jet “L.” Air is drawn through -the hole “K” and mixes with the gasoline to form a finely divided -emulsion which passes on to the jet “L.” It will be noted that this jet -directs the gasoline-air emulsion into the manifold just above the lip -of the throttle valve. Inasmuch as this throttle valve is practically -closed the vacuum created at the entrance of the jet “L” is very high -and exceeds 8 pounds per square inch. It is obvious, therefore, with -this condition existing, that the gasoline will be drawn into the -manifold in a highly atomized condition. It is well to call attention -here to the fact that the low speed adjusting screw “F” operates a -needle valve which controls the amount of air which passes through the -hole “K,” and it is the position of this needle valve which determines -the idling mixture. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30. Stromberg Carburetor--Throttle ¹⁄₅ Open] - -As the throttle is slightly opened from the idling position a suction -is created in the throat of the small venturi tube as well as at the -idling jet. When idling the suction is greater at the idling jet, -and when the throttle is open the suction is greater at the small -venturi tube. At some intermediate position of the throttle there -is a time when the suction at the idling jet is equal to that at the -small venturi, and, therefore, at this particular time the gasoline -will follow both channels to the manifold. This condition which is -illustrated in Fig. 30 lasts but a very short while, because as the -throttle is opened wider the suction at the small venturi tube rapidly -becomes greater than that at the idling jet. The result is that the -idling tube and idling jet are thrown entirely out of action, the level -of the gasoline in the idling tube dropping as illustrated in Fig. 31, -where the throttle is shown to be wide open, in which case all of the -gasoline enters the manifold by way of the holes in the small venturi -tube. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31. Stromberg Carburetor--Throttle Wide Open] - -It will be remembered that at this position of the throttle the -accelerating well has emptied, and therefore there is a direct passage -for air from the bleeder to the gasoline in the main passage giving the -air bleed jet feature explained before. This is being mentioned again -in order to call attention to the fact that care should be taken not -to use too large a bleeder, because the air which enters through the -bleeder partly determines the mixture, and if the bleeder hole is too -large the mixture is very apt to be too lean at high speeds. - -Fig. 32 shows an exterior photograph of one of the type M Stromberg -carburetor. Before discussing the installation and adjusting of this -carburetor it will be well to say a few words concerning the use of the -venturi tube and its construction. - -The object in using the venturi tube in carburetor design is to produce -a maximum air velocity at the jet and at the same time not cause undue -restriction. This high air velocity creates the suction necessary -to properly atomize the gasoline. The use of the double venturi -tube construction has developed the best possible results. In this -construction the mouth of the smaller venturi tube is located at the -throat of the larger one, and with this arrangement the highest degree -of atomization is attainable, and at the same time the air restriction -is held down to a minimum. - -In order that any carburetor may do justice to what is claimed for it, -it is absolutely essential that the motor on which it is installed is -in good condition in other respects because, besides poor carburetion, -there are numerous things about an internal combustion engine which -will cause its poor operation. Therefore, assuming that the following -conditions exist, we can proceed with the installation of the -carburetor and after adjusting it we can expect very good results as to -the operation of the motor. - -1. The ignition should be properly timed so that with a retarded spark -the explosion takes place when the piston of the cylinder in which the -explosion occurs is at its upper dead center. - -2. The inlet and exhaust valves should be so timed that they open and -close at the proper time during the cycle. In this respect a motor is -usually timed when it comes from the manufacturer. - -3. The valves should be ground in so that they form a perfect seal -with the valve seat. Any accumulation of carbon on the upper part of -the exhaust should be removed so as to prevent the valve stem from -sticking in the guide and thereby not permitting the valve to close -upon its seat. - -4. Any undue wear of the valve stem guides should be corrected because -the clearance between the stem and the walls of the guide will permit -air to be drawn up into the motor thus ruining the mixture from the -carburetor. Similarly any leaky flange at any joint along the intake -system will produce the same detrimental result. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32. Stromberg Model M--Adjustment Points] - -5. All piston rings should be tight and leak proof in order to insure -good and even compression in all the cylinders. Without good and even -compression in all the cylinders it is impossible to obtain the maximum -power from the motor, and it is also impossible to obtain good idling -of the motor. - -6. It should be seen that the ignition system is delivering a spark to -each spark plug without missing. - -7. The spark plugs should be clean, and the accumulation of carbon on -the inside of the plug should not be sufficient to cause fouling or -short-circuiting of the plug. In the case of a short circuited plug it -is impossible to obtain a spark at the end of the high tension cable, -but this does not indicate that the plug is firing. For best results -the gap of the spark plug should never be less than .020″ nor more than -.032″. A good setting is at about .025″. - -The foregoing constitute some of the more important troubles to look -for when the motor is not performing satisfactorily. - -=Installation and Adjusting.=--We are finally ready to proceed with -instructions for installing and adjusting Model M carburetors. - -1. Try the throttle lever and the air horn lever by moving same with -the hand before the carburetor is installed, and be sure that the -butterfly valves are open to the limit when the respective levers come -in contact with their stops. Also be sure that when the throttle valve -is closed, the lower side of the butterfly is adjacent to the hole -through which the idling jet projects. - -2. Prepare a paper gasket about .020″ thick to fit the flange of the -carburetor. Shellac same and then attach the carburetor to the flange -of the intake manifold very securely by means of proper cap screws. - -The attaching of the gasoline line, hot-air stove, hot air flexible -tubing, and choke control need not be discussed in detail as these -installations are very simple. - -After having properly installed the carburetor on the motor, turn -both the high and low speed adjusting screws, A and B, completely -down clockwise so that the needle valves just touch their respective -seats. Then unscrew (anti-clockwise) the high speed adjusting screw -A about three turns off the seat, and turn the low speed adjusting -screw B anti-clockwise about one and one-half turns off the seat. -These settings are not to be considered as final adjustments of the -carburetor. They are merely to be taken as starting points because the -motor will run freely with these settings. - -After the motor has been started, permit it to run long enough to -become thoroughly warm then make the high speed adjustment. Advance -the spark to the position for normal running. Advance the gas throttle -until the motor is running at approximately 750 r. p. m. Then turn down -on the high speed screw A gradually notch by notch until a slowing down -of the motor is observed. Then turn up or open the screw anti-clockwise -until the motor runs at the highest rate of speed for that particular -setting of the throttle. - -To make the low speed adjustment B proceed as follows: Retard the spark -fully and close the throttle as far as possible without causing the -motor to come to a stop. If upon idling the motor tends to roll or load -it is an indication that the mixture is too rich and therefore the -low speed screw B should be turned away from the seat anti-clockwise, -thereby permitting more air to enter into the idling mixture. It is -safe to say that the best idling results will be obtained when the -screw B is not much more or less than one and one-half turns off the -seat. - -After satisfactory adjustments have been made with the motor vehicle -stationary, it is most important and advisable to take the vehicle out -on the road for further observation and finer adjustments. If upon -rather sudden opening of the throttle the motor backfires, it is an -indication that the high speed mixture is too lean, and in this case -the high speed screw A should be opened one notch at a time until the -tendency to backfire ceases. On the other hand if when running along -with throttle open, the motor rolls or loads, it is an indication that -the mixture is too rich, and this condition is overcome by turning the -high speed screw A down (clockwise) until this loading is eliminated. - - -STROMBERG MODEL L CARBURETOR - -There are three adjustments; the high speed, the extremely low speed or -idle, and the “economizer.” - -The high speed is controlled by the knurled nut “A” which locates the -position of the needle “E” past whose point is taken all the gasoline -at all speeds. Turning nut “A” to the right (clockwise) raises the -needle “E” and gives more gasoline, to the left, or anticlockwise, less. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33. Stromberg Model “L”--Adjustment Points] - -If an entirely new adjustment is necessary, use the following practice. -Put economizer “L” in the 5th notch (or farthest from float chamber) -as an indicator, turn nut “A” to the left, anticlockwise, until needle -“E” reaches its seat, as shown by nut “A” not moving when throttle is -opened and closed. When needle “E” is in its seat it can be felt to -stick slightly when nut “A” is lifted with the fingers. Find adjustment -of “A” where it just begins to move with the throttle opening, then -give 24 notches to the right or clockwise (the notches can be felt). -Then move the economizer pointer “L” back to the 0 notch (toward float -chamber). This will give a rich adjustment. After starting and warming -up the motor, thin out the mixture by turning “A” anticlockwise, and -find the point where the motor responds best to quick opening of the -throttle, and shows the best power. - -The gasoline for low speed is taken in above the throttle through a -jet at “K” and is regulated by dilution with air as controlled by the -low speed adjusting screw “B.” Screwing “B” in clockwise gives more -gasoline; outward, less. The best adjustment is usually ¹⁄₂ to 3 turns -outward from a seating position. Note that this is only an idling -adjustment and does not effect the mixture above 8 miles per hour. -When motor is idling properly there should be a steady hiss in the -carburetor; if there is a weak cylinder or manifold leak, or if the -idle adjustment is very much too rich, the hiss will be unsteady. - -The economizer device operates to lean out the mixture by lowering the -high speed needle “E” and nut “A” a slight but definitely regulated -amount at throttle positions corresponding to speeds from 5 to 40 miles -per hour. The amount of drop and consequent leaning is regulated by the -pointer “L.” - -After making the high speed adjustment for best power, with pointer “L” -in 0 notch, as above described, place throttle lever on steering wheel -to a position giving about 20 miles per hour road speed. Then move -pointer “L” clockwise (away from float chamber), one notch at a time, -till motor begins to slow down. Then come back one notch. - -The amount of economizer action needed depends upon the grade of -gasoline and upon the temperature. - -In the mid-west the best economizer adjustment will usually be the -third or fourth notch. With Pennsylvania gasoline and in the South, the -2nd notch; while on the Pacific coast no economizer is necessary unless -distillate (which should not be below 59 degrees Baume) is used. Also -fewer notches economizer action will be necessary in summer than in -winter. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -“NITRO”-SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR - - -[Illustration: Fig. 34. Sunderman Carburetor] - -Fig. 34 shows a through section of the new “Nitro”-Sunderman -carburetor. This is practically a new model presented to the automobile -industry for 1919 and 1920. It is claimed that it is an exact -fulfillment of the long sought method of accurate compensation. It is -of the single plain tube design with a single gasoline nozzle in the -shape of a mushroom placed in the center of the air passage. Around -this nozzle, however, rests the floating venturi which is a large end -and small center floating air tube seen in Fig. 35 which hurries the -air at low speeds and checks the rush at high velocities. Fig. 35 shows -the commencement of action at idling speeds, and as the gasoline for -idling comes from the same nozzle which furnishes the maximum power, -an air by-pass is provided to reduce the suction on the nozzle at low -speeds. The one single adjustment on this type of carburetor is shown -at (X) in Fig. 36, and is used only to control the passage of air -through the by-pass at idling or low speeds. In Fig. 34 the engine’s -demand has increased to a point where the suction is greater than the -weight of the venturi, which causes it to rise on the air stream, and -open up the air passage around the head of the nozzle. This allows the -compensation for the correct ratios of the air and gasoline mixtures. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35. Sunderman Carburetor] - -In Fig. 37 the venturi closes the air by-pass and under full suction, -gives the maximum area around the nozzle for leaner mixtures and full -volumetric. The unrestricted air passage in the plain tube type of -carburetor is here worked out to its fullest development. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. Sunderman Carburetor] - -=The Venturi.=--This is a stream line air passage tapered to a narrow -throat near the center which increases the velocities without offering -a restriction to the free air passage, and being of a very loose fit -in the carburetor, is allowed to float up and down on the air stream -around the nozzle over which it automatically centers at all times. -The venturi goes into action slowly as it is retarded by the action of -the air by-pass, but rises fast when the latter is cut off. It rides -on the air stream at a perfect balance and offers no resistance to -the air passage because of its stream line taper, and as the venturi -float is sensitive to a fine degree, it is ready for any change in the -motor suction and compensates accordingly. The jet tube running up into -the mushroom head contains a jet which is drilled for the particular -requirements of the motor on which the carburetor is installed. This -jet feeds into the mushroom head which is drilled with four small holes -which spread the gasoline by capillary action in a fine fan film to -all sides of the under surfaces of the slot. Here the ascending air -picks it off at right angles to its path in a very fine vapor. This -vapor is carried up the stream line venturi without cross currents and -is in a finely mixed state of flame-propagation. The heavier fuels are -readily broken up with this nozzle and straight kerosene has been used -with success. This carburetor does not require any other care than a -thorough cleaning out once or twice in a season. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37. Sunderman Carburetor] - - -THE SCHEBLER MODEL “R” CARBURETOR - -Fig. 38 shows a section view of operation and adjustment on the model -“R” Schebler carburetor. This carburetor is designed for use on both -four and six cylindered motors. It is of the single jet raised needle -type, automatic in action, the air valve controlling the needle valve -through a leverage arrangement. This leverage attachment automatically -proportions the amount of gasoline and air mixture at all speeds. This -type of carburetor has but two adjustments. The low speed adjustment -which is made by turning the air valve cap and an adjustment on the -air valve spring for changing its tension. (A) shows the air valve -adjusting cap. (B) is the dash control leverage attachment. (C) is the -air valve and jet valve connection. (D) is the boss that raises the jet -valve needle and lowers the spring tension on the air valve giving a -rich mixture in starting. The needle valve seats in E and controls the -nozzle spray. (F) is the air valve spring tension adjusting screw. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled] - -=Model R Adjustment.=--To adjust this carburetor turn the air valve -cap to the right until it stops, then to the left one complete turn, -start the motor with the throttle ¹⁄₄ open; after it is warmed up -turn the air valve cap to the left until the motor hits perfectly. -Advance throttle ³⁄₄ on quadrant. If the engine backfires turn screw -(F) up, increasing the tension on the air spring until acceleration is -satisfactory. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE STEWART CARBURETOR - - -Fig. 39 shows the Stewart carburetor used on Dodge Brothers cars, -which is of the float feed type in which a fine spray of gasoline -is drawn from an aspirating tube by a current of air induced by the -engine pistons. The supply of gasoline being regulated by a float -which actuates a needle valve controlling the outlet of the feed pipe. -This tube is also called the spray nozzle. This type of carburetor is -commonly used on automobile engines. - -It consists of a float chamber containing a float, functions of which -are described below, a mixing chamber in which the gasoline spray is -reduced to vapor and mixed with air (i. e., “carbureted” in proper -proportion). - -The float and valve maintain a constant or even supply of gasoline for -the carburetor. - -The gasoline flows from the filter Z into the float chamber C through -the inlet valve G, which is directly actuated by the float F, so that -it closes or opens as the float rises or falls. As the float rises the -valve is closed until the float reaches a certain predetermined level, -at which the valve is entirely closed. If the float falls below this -level because of a diminishing supply of gasoline in the float chamber, -the valve is automatically opened and sufficient fresh gasoline is -admitted to bring the level up to the proper point. From the foregoing -it will be seen that the float chamber in reality serves as a reservoir -of constant supply, in which any pressure to which the gasoline has -been subjected in order to force it from the tank is eliminated. When -the engine is running gasoline is, of course, being constantly drawn -off from the float chamber through the aspirating tube L, as will -be described later, to meet the requirements of the motor, but in -practice the resulting movement of the inlet valve is very slight and -hence the flow of gasoline into the float chamber is nearly constant. - -The gasoline inlet valve is also called the “needle valve.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 39. Stewart Carburetor] - -Between the float chamber C and the engine connection of the carburetor -is an enclosed space called the mixing chamber O. This compartment is -provided with a valve for the ingress of free air. - -Extending into the mixing chamber from a point below the surface of the -gasoline in the float chamber is a passage, L for gasoline, ending with -a nozzle, so constructed that gasoline drawn through it will come forth -in a very fine spray. This is called the aspirating tube, atomizer, or -more commonly, the spray nozzle. - -The air inlet AA to the mixing chamber on the carburetor used on the -Dodge is in the shape of a large tube extending from the carburetor to -a box on the exhaust manifold. Air supplied from this source is heated -in order that vaporization of gasoline may be more readily accomplished. - -A cold air regulator is interposed between this tube and the carburetor -proper so that in hot weather cool air may be admitted. This should -always be closed when the temperature of the atmosphere is below 60 F. - -The action of the carburetor is as follows: The suction created by -the downward stroke of the pistons draws air into the mixing chamber -through the air ducts (drilled holes HH). The same suction draws a -fine spray of gasoline through the aspirating tube L (spray nozzle) -into the same compartment, and the air, becoming impregnated with the -gasoline vapor thus produced, becomes a highly explosive gas. In order -that the proportion of air and gasoline vapor may be correct for all -motor speeds, provision is made by means of a valve A for the automatic -admission of larger quantities of both at high motor speeds. The -ducts are open at all times, but the valve is held to its seat by its -weight until the suction, increasing as the motor speed increases, is -sufficient to lift it and admit a greater volume of air. The valve A -is joined to the tube L, hence the latter is raised when the valve is -lifted and the ingress of proportionately larger quantities of gasoline -is made possible. This is accomplished by means of a metering pin P -normally stationary, projecting upward into the tube L. The higher the -tube rises the smaller is the section of the metering pin even with its -opening, and hence the greater is the quantity of gasoline which may be -taken into the tube. The carburetor thus automatically produces the -correct mixture and quantity for all motor speeds. - -The metering pin is subject to control from the dash, as will be -explained later, by means of a rack N, and pinion M. To change the -fixed running position of the pin, turn the stop screw to the right -or left. Turning this screw to the right lowers the position of the -metering pin and turning it to the left raises it. As the pin is -lowered more gasoline is admitted to the aspirating tube at a given -motor speed, thus enriching the mixture. - -A wider range of adjustment of the position of the metering pin may be -had by releasing the clamp of the pinion shaft lever and changing its -position with relation to the shaft. This should never be attempted by -any save experts in this class of work. - -The carburetor used on the Dodge Brothers car is so nearly automatic in -its action that it is not effected by climatic conditions, or changes -in altitude or temperature. It automatically adjusts itself to all -variations of atmosphere. It is, therefore, wise to see if the causes -of any troubles which may develop are not due to derangements elsewhere -than at the carburetor before attempting any changes of its adjustment. - -Make all adjustments with dash adjustment all the way in. - -The metering pin should not be tampered with unless absolutely -necessary. - -If replacement of this pin should become necessary, it may be -accomplished as follows: First, remove the cap nut at the bottom of the -rack and pinion housing. Next, turn pinion shaft slowly from right to -left (facing toward the carburetor) until the bottom of the metering -pin appears at the bottom of the pinion shaft housing. Continue to -turn the shaft slowly in the same direction, releasing the connection -to the dash control if necessary, until the rack to which the pin is -fastened drops out. The palm of the hand should be held to receive this -as the parts are very loosely assembled. The pinion shaft should be -retained at the exact position at which the rack is released. Install a -new metering pin, the way to do this will be obvious, and return the -rack to its proper mesh with the pinion. Replace dash attachment (if -detached), replace cap, adjust per instructions given on previous page. - -The loose assembling of the metering pin in the rack is for the purpose -of providing for freedom of movement of the metering pin and in order -that binding in the aspirating tube may be avoided. - -The gasoline filter is installed on the carburetor at a point where the -fuel pipe is connected. - -The pressure within the gasoline tank forces the fuel through the pipe, -through the filter screen (ZO in the filter) and thence out through the -opening to the carburetor. - -The filter cap CC may be removed by turning the flanged nut on the -bottom of carburetor to the left, thus releasing the inlet fitting. - -The filter screen or strainer should occasionally be cleaned. This may -be readily accomplished by removing the filter cap to which the screen -is attached. - -The filter should be screwed up tight when replaced. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE CARTER CARBURETOR - - -[Illustration: Fig. 40--Carter Carburetor] - -Fig. 40 shows the Carter carburetor which embodies a radically new -principle. It belongs to the multiple-jet type, but possesses this -striking difference, variations in fuel level are utilized to determine -the number of jets in action at any time. The variations in fuel level -occur in a vertical tube known as the “stand pipe.” They take place in -instant response to the slightest change in the suction exerted by the -engine. As this suction depends directly on the engine’s speed, it can -clearly be seen that this provides a marvelously sensitive means of -automatic control. A large number of exceedingly small jets are bored -spirally around the upper portion of this tube. As a result, the level -at which the fuel stands within it, determines the number of jets from -which delivery is being made at any instant and the gasoline supply -is always directly proportioned to the engine speed, however suddenly -changes in speed take place. Owing to the comparatively large number -of these jets, their exceedingly small size, and their correspondingly -short range of action, the flow of fuel is absolutely uninterrupted. - -The instrument is permanently adjusted for low and intermediate speeds -at the time of installation. An auxiliary air valve controlled from -dash or steering post forms the high speed adjustment as well as -affording a means of securing absolute uniformity of mixture under -widely varying conditions of weather, temperature, or altitude, -directly from the driver’s seat. A simple method of enabling each -cylinder to such a rich priming charge direct from the float chamber is -another valuable feature that obviates all need of priming and insures -easy starting in the coldest winter weather. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR MODEL “FORD A” - - -[Illustration: Fig. 41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A--Sectional View - - D--CHOKER OR SHUTTER IN AIR - BEND. - - BE--LEVERS CLOSING CHOKER, - OPERATED FROM STEERING - COLUMN AND FRONT OF - RADIATOR. - - H--LOW SPEED GASOLINE ADJUSTING - NEEDLE. - - I--HIGH SPEED GASOLINE ADJUSTING - NEEDLE. - - K--IDLE AND LOW SPEED BYPASS. - - M--ACCELERATION WELL. - - P--PILOT OPENING.] - -The Pilot tube principle is introduced for the first time in the -carburetor and this Pilot tube or improved type of gasoline nozzle is -so designed or built that it automatically furnishes a rich mixture for -acceleration and thins out this mixture after the normal motor speed -has been reached. This furnishes a very economical running mixture at -all motor speeds, together with a smooth and positive acceleration. - -The importance of this Pilot tube or nozzle principle cannot be over -emphasized, as it furnishes a flexible, powerful and economical -mixture, without the addition of any complicated parts. The Ford “A” -carburetor has no parts to wear or get out of adjustment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A--Adjustment -Points] - -Two gasoline needle adjustments are furnished. One for low speed and -idling and one for high speed. These adjustments have been found -advisable and necessary to properly handle the present heavy grades -of fuel and the variations in the motor due to wear, etc. Those -adjustments also insure the attaining of the widest range of motor -speed. - -A double choker is furnished, and with these controls the Ford can be -easily started under the most severe weather conditions and the mixture -controlled from the driver’s seat. - -With the Ford “A” carburetor a low speed of four to five miles an -hour can be secured without any loading or missing. Also, with this -carburetor the maximum speed and power of the motor are obtained. - - -INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING AND ADJUSTING THE SCHEBLER FORD “A” -CARBURETOR - -First, remove the Ford carburetor from the manifold, also the dash -board control, the hot air drum, and tubing, and the radiator choke -wire. Be sure to save the cotter pin used in the throttle control. - -Install the Schebler carburetor, using gasket and cap screws which are -furnished with the equipment. The gasoline connection is the same as -regularly furnished on the Ford equipment and no other connections are -necessary. Screw the connections on the Ford gasoline line onto the -connection furnished on the carburetor. Attach the hot air drum and -the tubing to the exhaust manifold and run the choke wire through the -radiator. - -Before adjusting carburetor, see that the spark plugs are clean and -set about .035, or nearly the thickness of a new dime. See that the -compression is good and equal on all four cylinders. See that the timer -is clean and in good shape, as an occasional miss is due to the roller -in the timer becoming worn. Also, be sure that there is no leak in the -intake manifold. - -The steering post control must be set so that the tubing is fastened -into set screw (A) and the control wire is fastened through the binding -post in lever (B) with steering post control or plunger pushed clear -in and the butterfly shutter (D) in the hot air horn or bend open, so -that when the plunger control is pulled out the wire (C) in the binding -post (B) on lever closes the shutter (D) almost completely. This will -furnish a rich mixture for starting and warming up the motor under -normal weather conditions. - -The wire running to the front of the radiator must be attached to lever -(E) so that when the motor is cold, the shutter (D) can be closed -tight, thus insuring positive starting. However, this wire must be -released immediately upon starting the motor or the motor will be -choked by excess of gasoline. - -To start the motor, open low speed needle (H) and high speed needle (I) -about four or five complete turns. You will note that the needles have -dials which indicate turning needle to the right cuts down the gasoline -supply. - -Pull out steering post control, open throttle about one-quarter way, -retard the spark, pull out radiator choke wire which will close shutter -and crank the motor. After motor is started, immediately release -radiator choke wire and gradually push in the steering post control or -plunger and let the motor run until it is warmed up. Then first adjust -the high speed needle (I) until the motor runs smoothly and evenly with -retarded spark. Close throttle part way and adjust idle needle until -motor runs smoothly at low speed. - -In order to get the desired low throttle running, use the throttle stop -screw (L) which will control the throttle opening and give you the -desired low speed running. - -A strainer is furnished on the carburetor which prevents dirt or -sediment getting into the bowl of the carburetor and choking up the -gasoline nozzle or causing flooding. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -KEROSENE CARBURETORS - - -Experiments have been carried on for quite some time pertaining to the -development of a more successful carburetor which will burn the heavier -fuels. The chief difficulty encountered is to find a more suitable way -to vaporize these low grade fuels. - -Kerosene can be used, only with an application of heat to the manifold -to aid in the evaporation of the heavier parts of this fuel. The -exhaust pipes are available for this source of heat, but as there is no -heat from this source until the engine is running, it is necessary to -start the engine on gasoline and switch over to the heavier fuels after -the warming-up process. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor] - -Fig. 43 shows the Holley kerosene carburetor which is adaptable to -any type of engine by making simple changes in the exhaust manifold -to include the heating coil tube. This carburetor will operate -successfully on any hydro-carbon fuel with a boiling point below -600° F. Two float chambers are provided to take care of the starting -and running fuels. The engine is started on the gasoline part of the -carburetor and after a short warming-up period the feed is switched to -the kerosene part of the device. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment] - -The principle upon which this device operates is to provide a primary -mixture by means of a needle valve and a very small aspirating jet -which gives a mixture that is too rich for combustion. This rich -mixture of atomized fuel is carried through a coil tube of very thin -wall thickness, which is exposed to the exhaust gases, directly in the -exhaust manifold. - -The temperature in this coil tube reaches as high as 500 degrees F. -The globules of the over rich mixture are broken up here and flow -directly into the mixing chamber, where additional air enters, diluting -the mixture to make it combustible. The opening of the air valve is -controlled by the suction of the engine and by the throttle valve. The -shifter valve for changing the operation from gasoline to kerosene is -conveniently arranged for dash control, when the engine becomes warm. A -primer is arranged in the manifold just above the carburetor and aids -in cold weather starting. - -Fig. 44 shows the installation of the Holley kerosene carburetor. In -this case it was necessary to add a compartment on the exhaust manifold -to contain and heat the coil tube. There are some details that must be -taken care of on installation. A small auxiliary tank must be provided -to hold the gasoline for starting, while a larger tank must be provided -to carry the main supply of kerosene. - -The adjustments of this type of carburetor is through a needle valve -located in each fuel chamber, and as it is impossible to give any set -adjustment that would apply to the many different types of motors, the -proper adjustment must be worked out. This is done by shifting to the -gasoline and turning the needle valve to the right and left and noting -the point at which the engine runs the smoothest. The needle valve is -then set at this point. The fuel shifter valve is turned to feed the -kerosene, and this adjustment is made in the same manner. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS - - -Heat added to the manifold is the probable solution of the present -low-test fuel supplied to the motorist. In the first place you may be -satisfied if your motor runs and does not give any noticeable loss of -power. But the question is, are you getting full power out of your -motor in accordance with the amount of fuel consumed? And are you -getting the proper amount of mileage out of each gallon? The answer to -both questions would probably be in the negative, if both questions -were taken up individually by owners. - -[Illustration: - - EXHAUST - - INTAKE - - EXHAUST - - GOVERNOR - - GOVERNOR - - CARBURETOR - -Fig. 45. Hot Spot Manifold] - -One of the best solutions, if not the best, is the new hot-spot -manifold used on the Liberty engine, which was designed for Army use. -Fig. 45 shows the hot-spot Liberty engine manifold. The intake manifold -is external but short, therefore does not offer much opportunity for -the liquid to condense. From the carburetor it rises up straight to -a point well above the valve ports and the cylinder blocks, and at -the top of the rise it touches the exhaust pipe and divides, the two -branches sweeping downward quite clear of the exhaust manifold to each -block of cylinders. About three inches of the intake passage is exposed -to the exhaust manifold top. - -The advantage of this design is that the heating element affects -practically only the liquid fuel and does not have much effect on the -fuel already vaporized. Naturally the liquid fuel is heavier than the -vapor, and as the mixture rushes up the manifold at a high rate of -speed and turns to the right or left, the heavier liquid particles are -thrown straight against the hot-spot, where they are boiled off in -vapor. - -Thus, although the total amount of heat supplied to the incoming charge -is small, vaporization is good, since pains have been taken to supply -the heat where it is needed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46. Holley Vapor Manifold--Ford Cars] - -Fig. 46 shows the Holley vapor manifold for Ford cars which is -intended to completely vaporize gasoline by applying heat at the -proper point. As will be noted by the arrows, the exhaust gases pass -down, striking a hot-spot at the top of the internal intake passage. -The exhaust gases flow along this passage and finally pass out at the -bottom. The heavier particles of fuel, after leaving the carburetor, -strike against the wall at point (A) and there are broken up by the -exhaust gases. Should any of the globules not be broken up at this -point, they will be vaporized when they strike the hot-spot at (B) as -this is directly in contact with the exhaust gases. It will be noted -that the heavier globules are subjected to a rising temperature. -Starting at (A) and finishing at (B) a control valve regulates the -amount of heat supplied to the intake manifold. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -COOLING SYSTEMS - -TYPE, OPERATION AND CARE - - -Cooling systems are provided on all types of gasoline engines. As the -heat generated by the constant explosions in the cylinders would soon -overheat and ruin the engine were it not cooled by some artificial -means. - -=Circulation Systems.=--There are two types of water circulating -systems. The Thermo Syphon, and the Force Pump circulating systems. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47. Thermo-Syphon Cooling System] - -Fig. 47 shows how the water circulates in the Thermo-Syphon system. It -acts on the principle that hot water seeks a higher level than cold -water, consequently when the water reaches a certain temperature, -approximately 180° F., circulation commences and the water flows from -the lowest radiator outlet pipe up through the water jackets into the -upper radiator water tank, and down through the thin tubes to the lower -tank to repeat the process. - -The heat is extracted from the water by its passage through the thin -metal tubing of the radiator to which are attached scientifically -worked out fins which assist in the rapid radiation of the heat. The -fan just back of the radiator sucks the air through the small tubes -which connect the upper and lower radiator tanks. The air is also -driven through between these tubes by the forward movement of the car. - -=The Force Pump Circulation System.=--The Force Pump circulating system -is constructed in the same manner as the Thermo Syphon Cooling System. -The only difference in the two systems is that a small pump is attached -to the lower radiator pipe to force the circulation of the water. - -The pump is usually of the centrifugal type and consists of a -fan-shaped wheel operated in a snugly fitted housing. The water enters -at the hub and is thrown out against the housing and is forced on by -the rapid action of the fan blades. Another type of pump is used by -some manufacturers which consist of two meshed gears of the same size, -which operate in a snugly fitted housing. These gears operate in a -direction toward each other, the water is carried forward or upward in -the space between the teeth, and is forced on when the teeth mesh and -fill the space. - -=Overheating.=--Overheating may be caused by carbonized cylinders, too -much driving on low speed, not enough or a poor grade of lubricating -oil, spark retarded too far, racing the engine, clogged muffler, poor -carburetor adjustment, a broken or slipping fan belt, jammed radiator -tube, leaky connection, or low water. - -=Radiator Cleaning.=--The entire circulation system should be -thoroughly cleaned occasionally. A good cleaning solution is made by -dissolving one-half pound of baking soda in three and one-half to four -gallons of soft water. The radiator is filled with the solution and -left to stand for twenty to thirty minutes. The hose is then removed -from the lower pipe, water is then turned into the radiator through -the filler spout until the system is thoroughly flushed out. - -=Freezing.=--Unless an anti-freezing solution is used through the -cold months you are bound to experience trouble. The circulation does -not commence properly until the water becomes heated. It is apt to -freeze at low temperatures before circulation commences. In case any -of the small tubes are plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze and -burst open if the driver attempts to get along without a non-freezing -solution. - -=Freezing Solution.=--Wood or denatured alcohol can be used to a good -advantage. The following table gives the freezing point of solutions -containing different percentages of alcohol. - - 20% solution freezes at 15° above zero. - 30% solution freezes at 8° below zero. - 50% solution freezes at 34° below zero. - -A solution composed of 60% of water, 10% of glycerine, and 30% of -alcohol is commonly used, its freezing point being 8° below zero. - -=Evaporation.=--On account of evaporation, fresh alcohol must be added -frequently in order to maintain the proper solution. - -=Radiator Repairs.=--A small leak may be temporarily repaired by -applying brown soap, or white lead, but the repair should be made -permanent with solder as soon as possible. A jammed radiator tube is -a more serious affair. While the stopping up of one tube does not -seriously interfere with circulation, it is bound to cause trouble -sooner or later, and the tube will freeze in cold weather. Cut the tube -an inch above and below the jam and insert a new piece soldering the -connection. If the entire radiator is badly jammed or broken, it will -probably be advisable to install a new one. - -=Air Cooling System.=--Air cooling has been developed to a point -where fairly good results are attained. This system has an advantage -over the circulating systems, in that the weight of the radiator and -water is done away with, and no trouble is experienced with stoppage -of circulation and leaky connection. This system, however, has its -drawbacks, in that it cannot be used successfully on the larger and -more compact engines. In order to allow the necessary large space for -radiation, the cylinders are heavily flanged and set separately. The -fan is placed in a much higher position than usual, in order that -the air current may strike the heads of the cylinders and circulate -downward. Compression is also lowered considerably to prevent heat -generation and pre-ignition. On account of the small size of the -cylinders and low compression, it is necessary to operate an air cooled -engine at a very high rate of speed to produce sufficient power for -automobile locomotion. - -The fan must be kept in good working condition, and care should be -exercised in not allowing the engine to run idle for any length of -time. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -The muffler was designed to silence the otherwise loud report of the -exploding charge of gas, which is released from the cylinders by the -sudden opening of the exhaust valves. - -While these devices are differently shaped and formed, the functional -purpose and action is practically the same in all designs. - -The burnt or inert gases are forced from the cylinders on the exhaust -stroke. It passes into the exhaust manifold which absorbs some of the -heat before it reaches the muffler. - -[Illustration: - - Hanger - - Tie Rod - - Split Clamp Nut - - Muffler Shell - - Spacer - - Spacer - - Nozzle - - Center Pipe - -Fig. 48. Muffler--Three Compartment] - -Fig. 48 shows a three compartment muffler. The burnt gases enter -compartment No. 1 from the exhaust pipe. This compartment is -sufficiently large to spread the volume which lessens the pressure and -force. It then enters the rear compartment No. 3, through the center -pipe; it expands again and passes through the perforated spacer plate, -enters compartment No. 2, and escapes through the nozzle in an even -silent flow. - -The muffler at all times produces a certain amount of back-pressure on -the engine which results in a slight loss of power. The back pressure -exerted by the majority of mufflers, however, is very slight and has a -tendency to counter balance or equalize the sudden shock delivered to -the bearings by the explosion over the piston head. - -The muffler may also become fouled by the use of too much or too heavy -a grade of lubricating oil, which will cause the expansion space and -the small holes in the spacer plates to become clogged with carbon -and soot. This carbon and soot soon bakes into a hard crust causing -much back pressure which results in a considerable loss of power. This -condition will become noticeable first by a loss of considerable power -caused by an overheated motor. If this condition is not remedied, the -exhaust manifold and pipe leading to the muffler will soon become -red-hot, causing much danger of a serious damage loss to the car from -fire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49. Muffler] - -=Muffler.=--To eliminate or remedy this condition, disconnect manifold -pipe from the muffler, remove the muffler from hangers, and disassemble -it by removing the nuts from the tie rods which release the end plates. -This will allow the compartment walls and spacer plates to be drawn -from the sleeve. Each compartment and spacer plate should be removed -sectionally, and its position carefully noted, in order that it may -be replaced correctly in re-assembling. The walls of the sleeve, and -the compartment end plates are scraped and rubbed with a piece of -sandpaper. A small round file may be used in cleaning the center pipe. -The spacer plates are scraped and sandpapered. The small holes in -the spacer plates may be opened by using the tapered end of a small -file. Fig. 49 shows a muffler of another design. The burnt gas enters -a compartment containing three saucer shaped spacers which retard and -break up the volume. It then passes through an open compartment and -enters reversed spacers through small holes near the sleeve wall. It -centers or forms slightly in volume and escapes to the next compartment -through a small hole in the center of the second spacer. This action of -forming and breaking is kept up until the outlet is reached. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -VACUUM SYSTEMS - -CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -The vacuum systems have proved to be one of the important inventions -pertaining to successful motor operation. They are self contained, -simple in construction and automatic in operation. They do away with -the troublesome power and hand pressure pumps and their connections. - -[Illustration: - - AIR VENT - - FROM INTAKE MANIFOLD - - FROM GASOLINE SUPPLY TANK - -Fig. 50. Vacuum System--Top Arrangement] - -Fig. 50 shows the top arrangement and connections. R is the air vent -over the atmospheric valve. The effect of this is the same as if the -whole tank were elevated, and is for the purpose of preventing an -overflow of gasoline, should the position of the car ever be such as -to raise the fuel supply tank higher than the vacuum tank. D shows the -pipe connection from the fuel supply tank. C shows the pipe connection -to the intake manifold. W shows a tap or vent through which gasoline -may be fed into the upper chamber, in case the fuel supply tank is -damaged or put out of commission. R shows the air vent connection from -the lower tank. - -Fig. 51 shows a general diagram of vacuum system installation. One of -the chief advantages is that it allows the carburetor to be placed -near the head of the motor and does away with the long manifold -connections required with the gravity feed systems. This also reduces -the frictional resistance, gives a richer mixture and greater volume of -flow. - -[Illustration: - - AIRVENT - - A--CONNECTION - BETWEEN INTAKE - MANIFOLD AND - VACUUM TANK - - C--CONNECTION - FROM VACUUM - TANK TO CARBURETOR - - B--CONNECTION - BETWEEN - MAIN GASOLINE - SUPPLY TANK AND - VACUUM TANK - -Fig. 51. Vacuum System Installation] - -Fig. 52 shows a sectional view of the Stewart Vacuum System and -explains the operative value of each part. A is the suction valve for -opening and closing the connection to the manifold through which a -vacuum is extended from the engine manifold to the gasoline tank. B is -the atmospheric valve, and permits or prevents an atmospheric condition -in the upper chamber. When the suction valve A is open and the suction -is drawing gasoline from the main supply tank, the atmospheric valve B -is closed. When the suction valve A is closed, the atmospheric valve -B must be open, as an atmospheric condition is necessary in the upper -tank in order to allow the gasoline to flow through the flapper valve -H into the lower chamber. C is a pipe connecting the tank to the -intake manifold of the engine. D is a pipe connecting the tank to the -main fuel supply tank. E is the valve control lever and has two coil -tension springs S attached to operate the short valve lever F. G is the -metallic air-containing float, which controls the action of the valves -through the spring and lever arrangement. H is the flapper valve at the -outlet of T, and it closes by suction when the vacuum valve A is open. -When the vacuum valve A closes, the atmospheric valve B opens and -relieves the suction in the upper tank, the flapper valve H opens and -allows the fuel to flow from the upper tank into the lower chamber. - -[Illustration: - - AIR VENT - - TO INTAKE - PASSAGE - - FROM - GASOLINE - TANK - - FLOAT VALVE - - UPPER - CHAMBER - - LOWER - CHAMBER - - TO CARBURETOR - -Fig. 52. Vacuum System Diagram--Stewart Warner] - -J is a plug in the bottom of the tank which can be removed to clean or -drain the tank. This plug can be removed and replaced with a pet-cock -for drawing off gasoline for priming or cleaning purposes. K is the -line to the carburetor. It is extended on the inside of the tank to -form a pocket for trapping water and sediment. L is a channel space -between the inner and outer shells and connects with the air vent R, -thus admitting an atmospheric condition to exist in the lower chamber -at all times, and thereby permitting an uninterrupted flow of gasoline -to the carburetor. R is an air vent over the atmospheric valve; the -effect of this valve is the same as if the whole tank was elevated. It -is also for the purpose of preventing an overflow of gasoline should -the position of the car ever be such as would raise the fuel supply -tank higher than the vacuum tank. Through this tube the lower or -reservoir chamber is continually open to atmospheric pressure. T is the -outlet at the bottom of the float chamber in which the flapper valve H -is located. U is the float stem guide. V is a strainer which prevents -foreign matter from passing into the vacuum chamber. W is a tap or vent -through which gasoline may be fed into the upper chamber if the fuel -tank is damaged or put out of commission. - -The simple and durable construction of this system makes it unlikely -that the car owner will ever need to make internal repairs. Before -attempting to repair this tank make sure that the trouble is not due to -some other cause. - -=Air Vent.=--A small amount of gasoline may escape through the air -vent occasionally. This will do no harm and no adjustment is needed. -However, if the vent tube continues to overflow, one of the following -conditions will be responsible: 1. The air hole in the main supply tank -is stopped up, or the hole is too small. Enlarge the hole or clean it -out. 2. If gasoline leaks from the system except from the vent tube, -it can only do so from one of the following causes: a. A leak may exist -in the outer wall of the tank. If so soldering it up will eliminate the -trouble. b. The carburetor connection on the bottom of the tank may be -loose. c. There may be a leak in the tubing at the head of the tank. d. -The cover of the tank may be loose. - -=Failure to Feed Gasoline to the Carburetor.=--This condition may be -due to other causes than the vacuum system. Do not tinker with it until -you are sure that the trouble is not elsewhere. Flood the carburetor. -If gasoline runs out of the float chamber you may be sure that the -vacuum system is performing its work properly. - -=To Remove Cover.=--To remove the cover for inspection, take out the -screws and run a knife blade carefully around the top to separate the -gasket without damaging it. Shellac the gasket before you replace it to -make the tank air-tight. - -=Faulty Feed.=--If faulty feed is traced to the vacuum tank, one of -the following conditions may be the cause. The float valve G may have -developed a leak. To repair, remove the top of the tank to which it -is attached. Dip the float into a pan of hot water. Bubbles will -show the leak. Punch two small holes, one at the top, and one at the -bottom, and blow the gasoline out. Then solder up the holes and the -leak. Use solder carefully in order not to add too much weight to the -float. A small particle of dirt may be lodged under the flapper valve. -This trouble can usually be remedied by tapping the side of the tank. -In order to determine whether or not the flapper valve is working -properly, plug up the air vent tube and remove the pipe extending from -the bottom of the tank to the carburetor. Start the engine and place a -finger over the opening (from which you removed the tube). If continual -suction is felt, it is evident that the flapper valve is being held -off its seat. If tapping the side of the tank will not remedy this -condition, remove the cover and withdraw the upper chamber. The valve -is attached to the pipe projecting from the bottom. - -=Strainer.=--Remove and clean the strainer screen located at V, Fig. -52, every five or six weeks. This screen collects all the dirt and -foreign matter in the gasoline, and often becomes stopped up. - -[Illustration: - - CONNECTION TO - GASOLINE TANK - - SUCTION TUBE - CONNECTION TO INTAKE - MANIFOLD - - STRAINER - - VENT TUBE - CONNECTION - - COVER - - ATMOSPHERIC - VALVE - - SUCTION VALVE - - VALVE LEVER - - INNER TANK - - SPRINGS - - OUTER TANK - - FLOAT LEVER - - FLOAT - - GUIDE - - FLAPPER VALVE - - DRAIN PLUG - - CONNECTION TO - CARBURETOR - -Fig. 53. Vacuum System--Inside View of Parts--Stewart Warner] - -=Filling the Vacuum Tank.=--To fill the tank after it has been cleaned -or repaired, leave the spark off, close the gas throttle, and crank the -engine over a few times with the starter or by hand. It takes less than -ten seconds to create sufficient vacuum to fill the tank. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS - - -Before taking up the study of automobile ignition systems and -electrical appliances, we will first devote a little time to study, -in order to become familiar with the different electrical parts, -functions, terms and names applied to the various units, and machines. - -In the first place electricity is not a juice or fluid that flows -through a wire, but is a generated electro-motive force that may be -held in storage or conducted from one place to another. It will not -flow without a round circuit and seeks ground return at the slightest -opportunity. It is designated in terms which express quality, quantity, -force and action. - -=Voltage.=--A volt is an electrical unit, expressing the force or -pressure of the current. The voltage of a system simply means the -difference of pressure exerted on the system measured in volts. - -=Ampere.=--An ampere is an electrical unit expressing the quality or -intensity of the current. - -=Ohm.=--An ohm is an electrical unit expressing resistance; or the -resistance of conductors to the flow of current. - -=Current.=--The current is the generated electro-motive force. - -=Circuit.=--Electricity will not flow unless there is a circuit or -ground return to its original source. - -=Low Tension Current.=--Low tension current is generated in the primary -winding or coil by placing it in a magnetic field. It will flow from -one point to another but has very little strength and will not jump -the gap at the spark plug. It is used for lighting purposes, or -conducted to an induction coil which transforms it into a high tension -alternating current. - -=High Tension Current.=--High tension current is generated in the -secondary coil by interruption of the primary current or by the rapid -magnetization and demagnetization of the core and primary coil. - -=Direct Current.=--Direct current is produced by placing a coil or wire -in a magnetic field. It is usually conducted to an induction coil where -it is transformed into a high tension alternating current. - -=Alternating Currents.=--Alternating currents are produced by the rapid -breaking down and building up of the primary current. An alternating -current flows forward from zero to its highest point of strength and -back again to zero. The alternating action takes place so rapidly that -a light can be connected in this circuit and it will burn steadily -without any noticeable fluctuation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54. Coil Diagram] - -=Induction Coil.=--An induction coil consists of a soft iron core; -a primary and secondary winding, and a set of platinum points. The -primary winding is wound directly over the core and consists of a few -turns of thick wire. The secondary wire is wound over the primary -and consists of a great many turns of thin wire. Fig. 54 shows the -functional action of an induction coil. Both of the coils are wound -on the soft iron core A-B. The primary current which is supplied in -this case by a cell or number of cells, C and D, is broken at frequent -intervals of time. The method of doing this is as follows: One terminal -of the primary coil is connected to the fixed platinum stud D, the -other terminal to a spring which carries a piece of soft iron, E. When -the spring is unbent it touches the stud D, and a current passes in -the primary. The core of soft iron becomes magnetized and attracts the -soft iron disc, E, thus breaking contact at D. The current is stopped -and the core immediately becomes unmagnetized, the spring flies back -and the contact is again made. The process is then repeated. When the -contact in the primary is broken the current flows in one direction in -the secondary coil, when it is made the current flows in the opposite -direction in the secondary. Thus an alternating current is set up in -the secondary current of great frequency. - -=Commutator.=--The commutator or timer as it is commonly called is used -only in connection with the induction coil to complete the circuit when -a spark is required at the plug in the cylinder. - -=Insulation.=--Insulating is the act of covering a conductor with a -non-conducting substance to prevent the spark from jumping or seeking -ground. - -=Choking Coil.=--A choking coil in simple form consists of a coil and -iron core to increase self-induction. It is used to reduce currents of -high pressure and is commonly called a bucking coil. - -=Fuse.=--A fuse is used to prevent conductors or coils from being -damaged by heat generated from high pressure currents. It consists of a -metal and glass tube which contains a fine wire. This wire being much -thinner than the wire of the cable, the heat naturally develops faster -at this point, and is soon high enough to melt the wire and break or -open the circuit, and thus any further damage to the insulation is -prevented. - -=Condenser.=--A condenser usually consists of a few strips of folded -tin foil insulated from each other with paraffined or oiled paper. It -absorbs, restricts and distributes high pressure currents and also -prevents excessive sparking at the contact points. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55. Dynamo--Diagram of Action] - -=Dynamo.=--A dynamo is a machine which converts mechanical energy -into electric energy, and must consist of at least two separate parts; -the field magnets to create the magnetic field, and the armature or -conductor in which the current is generated. One or the other of these -must be in motion in order to cut the lines of magnetic force crossing -the field. Fig. 55 shows the operation of the most common or simplest -type of alternating current producing machine, which is similar and -conforms in action to the high tension magneto and generator. Field -pieces magnetize the pole pieces N and S. A wire coil is placed in -the field at right angles to the magnetic lines of force turned to -the right. It takes up the position of the dotted lines and no lines -of force are cut, whereas in its original position, as many lines of -force as possible are cut. Turning the coil on its axles, a-b, causes -the lines of force cut by c-d, and e-f to vary from the highest number -of lines that it is possible to cut to zero and back again, thus -constantly changing the flowing direction of the current. The reversal -of the current takes place at the instant that the coil passes the -point where it cuts the greatest number of lines of force. The ends -of the coil are connected to a commutator on the shaft a, b. Steel -insulated brushes pick the current from the commutator ring and conduct -it to the brush post; an insulated wire conductor is attached to this -post and conducts the current to the place of use or storage. - -=Voltaic Cell.=--The source of energy of a voltaic cell is the chemical -action. (_See_ accumulator). - -=Accumulator.=--The standard accumulator or storage battery is -composed of three cells or hard rubber jars in which a number of -lead plates are immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid and water -known as electrolyte. The plates are stiff lead grids which hold a -paste made of various oxides of lead. Six plates in each cell are -joined to the positive terminal, and seven plates in each cell are -joined to the negative terminal. Thin wooden separators are inserted -between the plates to prevent them from touching one another. In the -forming process the material on the positive plates becomes converted -into brown peroxide of lead; the negative plates assume the form of -gray metallic lead. The material on both plates is known as active -material. When current is taken from the cells the sulphuric acid in -the electrolyte combines with the active material of the plates to form -sulphate of lead, and when the battery is recharged the lead sulphate -is again converted into the original active material and the acid set -free in the solution. - -=Storage Battery.=--For construction and action see Accumulator. For -care see chapter on storage batteries. - -=Electrolyte.=--A chemical solution used in voltaic cells consisting -of two parts sulphuric acid added to five to seven parts of water by -volume. - -=Hydrometer.=--A hydrometer is used to test the electrolyte solution -in the cells of storage batteries. It consists of a weighted float -and a graduated stem, and as sulphuric acid is heavier than water, -the specific gravity reading will be proportional to the amount of -acid. The hydrometer thus measures the relative amount of acid in the -electrolyte and consequently reveals the condition of the battery. - -=Ammeter.=--An ammeter is an electrical instrument which indicates -the amount of current that the generator is supplying to the storage -battery, or the amount of current that the storage battery is supplying -for ignition, lights and horn. - -=Circuit Breaker.=--The circuit breaker is a device which prevents -excessive discharging of the storage battery. All the current for -lights is conducted through the circuit breaker (Delco system). -Whenever an excessive current flows through the circuit breaker it -intermittently opens the circuit causing a clicking sound. This will -continue until the ground is removed or the switch is operated to -open the circuit on the grounded wire. When the ground is removed the -circuit is automatically restored, there being nothing to replace as is -the case with fuses. - -=Switch.=--A switch opens and closes the various circuits and is for -the purpose of controlling the light, ignition, generator and storage -battery circuits. - -=Generator.=--See chapter on electrical starting systems. - -=Regulation.=--(Delco). On account of the various speeds at which the -generator must operate it is necessary that the output be regulated so -that sufficient current is obtained at the low engine speeds without -excessive current at the higher speeds. The regulation in this case is -what is known as the third brush excitation in which the current for -magnetizing the frame is conducted through the auxiliary or third brush -on the generator commutator. With this arrangement the natural function -of the generator itself causes less current to flow through the shunt -field winding at the higher engine speeds. This weakens the magnetic -field in which the armature is rotating and decreases the output of the -generator. - -=Contact-breaker.=--See chapter on Atwater Kent ignition systems. - -=Coil, nonvibrating.=--See chapters on Atwater Kent ignition systems -and Philbrin electrical systems. - -=Distributors.=--See chapters on Magnetos and Atwater Kent ignition -systems. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -MAGNETO PARTS AND OPERATION - - -[Illustration: Fig. 56. Magnets--Pole Blocks] - -The purpose of the magneto is to furnish electrical current at regular -intervals, to jump the spark plug gaps and to ignite the gas which has -been compressed in the combustion chambers. The discovery was made -years ago that, by placing a coil of wire between two magnetic poles, -current would be present at once. But it is only while the wire coil is -in motion that the current will flow or circulate, and while there are -many theories why this takes place only while the coil is in motion, -none seem to explain the fact satisfactorily. The strength of the -current depends on the size of the magnetic field, and the number of -wraps of wire in the coil. Consequently the larger the coil the more -intense the current. Fig. 56 represents the magnets, of which there are -from three to six. The U-shaped pieces are made of steel which has been -case hardened and charged with electricity which causes them to become -magnetized. Magnets have two poles or axes, one of which is positive -from which the current flows, and one of which is negative to which -the current flows or passes. Fig. 56A shows the pole pieces which are -located on the inside of the lower or open end of the magnets. The pole -pieces are channel ground, leaving a round space or tunnel in which the -armature revolves. - -Fig. 57 shows the soft iron core which is shaped like the block letter -H, and wound with fine wire, making up the coil shown in Fig. 57A of -the wound armature. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57. Armature Core--Wound Armature] - -[Illustration: Fig. 58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current -Direction] - -Fig. 58 shows the primary and secondary winding. The primary or heavy -wire is wound on the core lengthwise, each strand being separated from -the other with rubber or tin foil insulation. The current passes from -the top of the left pole piece to the top of the core until it passed -out of range, crossing the upper gap between the two pole pieces. As -the top of the core leaves or breaks the contact flow of current, the -bottom of the core comes in contact range, leaving an open space which -breaks the current and changes the direction of flowage as shown in -Fig. 58A and 58B. This current is of a low tension nature, and will not -jump the gap at the spark plugs when the engine is running slow. The -secondary winding, shown in Fig. 58, is made up of many more windings -of a finer wire. The low tension or primary current is led through the -armature shaft to a contact breaker at the rear of the magneto. - -Fig. 59 shows the contact breaker, which consists of a housing in which -two platinum points are arranged, one point stationary, the other -attached to an arm on a pivot. The points are held together by spring -tension. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59. Breaker--Slip Ring--Distributor] - -A cam on the armature shaft comes into contact with the arm on which -the second point is located, forcing it from the stationary point, -thus breaking the low tension current which returns to the secondary -coil, the magnetizing and demagnetizing caused by the break in the low -tension current, and sets up a rapid alternating current. One end of -the secondary is led to a collector ring on the front of the magneto. -Fig. 59A shows the collector ring. A carbon brush collects the current -from the ring and conducts it to the distributor’s centrally located -arm. Fig. 59B shows the distributor. The centrally located arm is timed -to deliver the current, or comes into contact with one of the segments -or brushes and allows the current to flow from the segment to the gap -at the spark plug, where it jumps the gaps and ignites the gas in the -cylinders at the proper time. Then it returns through the ground (the -engine and the frame) to the magneto, where it passes back into the -secondary coil, passing through an insulated condenser consisting of -small plates of steel insulated from one another. This regulates the -flowage of the returning current, by reducing it through resistance, -and prevents the armature from heating. - -A safety spark gap is provided on some magnetos which causes the spark -to jump and lose some of its force through resistance when the plugs -become shorted. This also restricts the current and greatly aids the -condenser in performing its purpose. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO - -OPERATION, ADJUSTMENT AND CARE - - -Like all other types of high tension magnetos, the Bosch Type ZR. Ed. -16 explained in this chapter, generates its own current and is usually -employed as sole ignition on an engine. - -The timer and distributor are integral; and the rotation of the -armature, between the poles of strong permanent field magnets, sets up -or induces a current in the armature primary circuit, which is farther -augmented at every one hundred and eighty degrees of revolution of the -armature shaft, by the abrupt interruption of the primary circuit by -means of the magneto interruptor. At the opening of the primary circuit -the resulting discharge of current from this circuit induces a current -of high voltage in the armature secondary circuit. The high tension -current thus created is collected by a slip ring on the armature and -passes to the slip ring brush then to the various magneto distributor -terminals each of which is connected to a spark plug in its respective -cylinder. - -The operation of the instrument will be more clearly understood from a -study of the complete circuits, primary and secondary, which follows. - -=The Primary or Low Tension Circuit.=--The beginning of the armature -primary circuit is in metallic contact with the armature core, and the -end of the primary circuit is connected by means of the interruptor -fastening screw to the insulated contact block supporting the long -platinum contact on the magneto interruptor. The interruptor lever -carrying a short platinum contact, shown in Fig. 60 at C is mounted -on the interruptor disc, which in turn, is connected to the armature -core. The primary circuit is completed whenever the two platinum -contacts of the interruptor are brought together, and separated -whenever these contacts are separated. - -From the latter point the high tension current passes to the -distributor brush (shown at D) which is held in a brush holder on -the distributor gear, and consequently rotates with the distributor -gear. Metal segments are imbedded in the distributor plate and as -the distributor brush rotates it makes successive contacts with the -segments, passing the current onto the spark plug gaps through the high -tension cables which are attached to the segment terminal posts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor--Housing -Removed] - -Fig. 61 shows a circuit diagram of the Type ZR. Ed. 16. Bosch Magneto. -Note that the spark plugs must be connected up in accordance with -the firing order of the engine. The metal segments imbedded in the -distributor plate are connected with the terminal studs on the face of -the plate, and the latter are connected by cable to the spark plugs -in the various cylinders. In the cylinders the high tension current -produces a spark which produces ignition, and then returns through the -ground and the engine to the magneto armature, thus completing the -circuit. - -=Timing the Magneto.=--With the average four cycle engine the proper -operating results are obtained by timing the magneto as follows: -The crank shaft is rotated to bring the piston in No. 1 cylinder (in -automobile practice this is the cylinder nearest the radiator) exactly -on top dead center of the compression stroke. The timing control lever -on the housing is then placed in the fully retarded position. With this -done, the magneto distributor plate should be removed by withdrawing -the two holding screws, or by releasing the two holding springs as the -case may be. - -[Illustration: - - DISTRIBUTOR - - BRUSH - HOLDER - - SAFETY - SPARK GAP - - SLIPRING - - CONDENSER - - ARMATURE - - INTERRUPTER - - GROUND - - GROUND - -Fig. 61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4] - -The operation of the platinum contact points is controlled by the -action of the interruptor lever as it bears against the two steel -segments secured to the inner surface of the interruptor housing. - -In Fig. 60, A shows the distributor with the face plate removed to -show the position of the distributor segments which are connected to -the terminal posts on the back of the plate. B shows the interruptor -housing and cover removed from its position on the magneto. C shows the -complete assembly of the distributor and interruptor. Note that the -face plate of the distributor is fastened on with a set of screws while -the interruptor cover is held in position with a latch. - -=The Secondary or High Tension Current.=--The high tension current is -generated in the secondary circuit only when there is an interruption -of the primary circuit, the spark being produced at the instant the -platinum interruptor contact points separate. The armature secondary -circuit is a continuation of the armature primary circuit, the -beginning of the secondary circuit being connected to the primary, -while the end of the secondary is connected to the insulated current -collector ring mounted on the armature just inside the driving shaft -end plate of the magneto. The slip ring brush is held in contact -with the slip ring by a brush holder at the shaft end of the magneto -which receives the high tension current collected by the slip ring by -means of a connecting bar which passes under the arch of the magnets, -and passes the current to the center of the distributor plate, thus -exposing the distributor brush and gear. The cover of the interruptor -housing is also to be removed to permit observation of the interruptor -points. - -The armature should then be rotated by means of the exposed distributor -gear in the direction in which it is driven until the platinum contact -points are about to separate, which occurs when the interruptor lever -begins to bear against one of the steel segments of the interruptor -housing. Timing or installation is completed by replacing the -interruptor housing cover and distributor plate, and connecting the -cables between the magneto and the spark plugs. - -=Exact Magneto Timing.=--The foregoing will establish the desired -relationship between the magneto armature shaft and the engine crank -shaft. It should be noted, however, that while these instructions cover -the average engine, the exact magneto timing for individual engines is -best determined by trial. - -When specific instructions for magneto timing are given by the engine -manufacturer, it is recommended that such instructions be followed in -preference to those herein given. - -It must always be borne in mind that while making connections the -distributor brush travels in the opposite direction to the rotation of -the armature shaft. - -=The Condenser.=--The condenser consists of a set of metal discs, -insulated from one another with tin foil. It is carried at the -interruptor end of the magneto. It is connected in the primary current -and forms a shunt connection with the interruptor contact points, and -through resistance to the returning ground current prevents excessive -sparking at the interruptor contact points which would soon burn the -points and ruin the coils. - -=The Safety Spark Cap.=--A safety spark cap is provided to protect the -armature and other current carrying parts. Under normal conditions the -current will follow its path to the spark plug, but if for any reason -the resistance in the secondary wire is increased to a high point, as -when a cable becomes disconnected, or a spark gap too wide, the high -tension current will discharge across the safety spark gap. - -=Caution.=--The current should never be allowed to pass over the safety -spark gap for any length of time, and if the engine is operated on a -second or auxiliary ignition system, the magneto must be grounded in -order to prevent the production of high tension current. The snapping -sound by which the passage of current across the safety spark gap may -be noted should always lead to an immediate search for the cause of the -difficulty. - -=The Safety Spark Gap.=--The safety spark gap consists of a pointed -metal electrode projecting from the mounting flange of the slip ring -holder, inside the shaft end hood. The tip of the electrode extends to -within a short distance of the connecting bar, extending from the brush -holder to a magneto distributor plate center post. - -=Timing Range.=--The magneto interruptor housing is arranged so that it -may be rotated through an angle of thirty-four to thirty-seven degrees -with respect to the armature shaft. The movement of this housing in one -direction or another causes the interruptor lever to strike the steel -segments earlier or later in the revolution of the armature, the spark -occurring correspondingly earlier or later in the cylinder. The spark -can be advanced by means of moving the interruptor housing which is -connected to the spark lever on the steering gear, in the direction -opposite the rotation of the armature. The armature rotation is usually -indicated by an arrow on the cover at the driving end of the magneto. - -=Cutting Out Ignition.=--Since a high tension current is generated only -on the interruption of the primary circuit, it is evident that in order -to cut out the ignition, it is merely necessary to divert the primary -current to a path that is not affected by the action of the magneto -interruptor. This is accomplished as follows: An insulated grounding -terminal is provided on the cover of the magneto interruptor housing -with its inner end consisting of a spring with carbon contact pressing -against the head of an interruptor fastening screw. The outer end of -the grounding screw is connected by low tension cable to one side of -the switch, and the other side of the switch is grounded by connecting -a cable between it and the engine or frame. When the switch is open -the primary current follows its normal path across the interruptor -points, and is interrupted at each separation of these contact points. -However, when the switch is closed, the primary current passes from the -head of the interruptor fastening screw to the carbon contacts of the -grounding terminal, thence through the switch to the engine and back -to the magneto, and as the primary current remains uninterrupted when -following this path, no ignition current is produced. - -=Care and Maintenance.=--Aside from keeping the magneto clean -externally, practically the only care required is the oiling of the -bearings. Of these there are two sets supporting the armature, and a -single plain bearing supporting the shaft of the distributor gear. Any -good light oil may be used for this purpose (never cylinder oil), and -each of the bearings should receive not more than two or three drops -about every thousand miles. Apply the oil through the oil ducts at -each end of the armature shaft. The interruptor is intended to operate -without oil, as oil on the interruptor platinum points prevents good -contact, and causes sparking, burning, and misfiring. Care should be -taken to prevent oil entering these parts. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING - - -One point that cannot be over sufficiently emphasized is the warning -that only those who are thoroughly familiar with the magneto should -attempt to disassemble it. Therefore every part should be studied, -and its functional action fully understood before any repairs or -adjustments are undertaken. - -The manufacturers of magnetos have developed their product to a -point of high efficiency and dependability, and if they are properly -lubricated and washed occasionally to prevent gumming up, very little -trouble may be expected from this type of ignition system. - -=Magneto Cleaning.=--Magneto parts should be washed with gasoline as -it has the ability to remove grease and dirt and evaporates rapidly -leaving a perfectly dry surface. Care should be exercised to prevent -fire, for the present grade of gasoline does not evaporate as readily -as it did some time ago when refiners furnished a high test grade of -fuel and the surface of the armature and indentures of the magneto may -retain a pool or film which may be ignited by a short circuit, or from -the breaker box, and cause a fire which would ruin the magneto. There -is, however, little danger from fire if the gasoline is used sparingly, -and each part wiped dry before reassembling the magneto. - -It is considered a good point when the magneto has been taken apart to -be cleaned to go over every part with a cloth dampened in kerosene, -because gasoline leaves a very dry surface which is liable to rust. The -bearings especially are most easily affected in this way. - -The armature may be washed with a brush which has been dipped -into gasoline, but should not be immersed as that would soften the -insulation and cause it to rot. - -The way in which the parts come off should be carefully noted in -order to avoid trouble in reassembling, and the gears operating the -distributor should be carefully marked to assure correct timing, which -will result in a saving of time and trouble. - -When the magnets are removed, close the ends with a file or piece of -steel to prevent them from becoming demagnetized. - -=Magneto Repairing.=--As previously stated, it is not likely that a -magneto will require any further attention than the regular monthly -oiling. Two or three drops of light sewing machine oil should be -dropped into the oil wells which supply the bearings at each end of the -armature shaft. - -If any trouble arises that can be traced directly to the magneto, -examine the breaker box mechanism first; the locknut at the point -adjustment may have worked loose, and the points may be closed, or some -abnormal condition may exist that has caused the points to pit and -stick. - -Breaker point adjustment varies from the thickness of a sheet of -writing paper to one sixty-fourth of an inch; an adjustment anywhere -between these two points usually results in satisfactory operation. - -If the magneto does not function properly after the breaker box and -external wire connections have been examined, the trouble is probably -due to an internal short circuit, and repairs of this nature should -only be undertaken by an expert magneto mechanic. - -To remove the magneto, disconnect the high tension wires leading to -the spark plugs from the distributor terminal posts, tag and number -each wire to correspond with the number stamped below the post. If the -engine fires 1-2-4-3, number three wire will be attached to number four -terminal post. Then remove the ground wire and disconnect the universal -joint and remove the metal strap, or the set screws, from the base. - -=To Time the Magneto.=--Place the timing control lever in a fully -retarded position; remove the plates from the distributor housing to -expose the distributor brush and gear, then remove the cover from the -interruptor housing to permit observation of the points, and rotate the -armature in the direction which it is driven until the point begins to -open. At this point mesh the distributor gear so that the distributor -lever will just be touching one of the segments which connect to the -distributor terminal posts. - -=Timing the Magneto with the Engine.=--Rotate the crank shaft until No. -1 cylinder is up on dead center on the compression stroke; rotate the -armature, with the spark lever in full retard until the distributor arm -begins to make contact with No. 1 segment, and mesh the timing gear at -this point. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM - - -The N.-E. Model O Distributor Ignition System is used on Dodge Brothers -cars. This system provides high tension ignition for the engine by -transforming the low voltage of the starter generator or the battery -into a high voltage capable of jumping freely between the spark plug -electrodes. This is accomplished through the agency of an induction -coil, the primary winding of which, in series with an interruptor or -contact breaker, receives current under normal running conditions from -the starter generator. The starting and lighting battery, however, -supplies this current instead of the generator whenever the engine is -starting or running very slowly. - -At each interruption of the primary current there is set up in the -secondary winding of the coil a high tension current, and this current -flows from the coil through a high tension cable to the distributor -rotor from which point it is selectively conducted to the proper spark -plug. Upon reaching the spark gap in the plug, it jumps from the inner -electrode to the outer one, which is grounded, and then returns through -the engine frame to the grounded end of the secondary winding on the -ignition coil. The high tension spark thus produced in the cylinder -ignites the gas and so brings about the necessary combustion. - -=Wiring= (Fig. 62).--As will be evident upon reference to the -accompanying wiring diagram, the primary circuit of the ignition system -leads from the positive terminal of the battery through the charging -indicator to the ignition switch binding post marked “Bat.,” thence, -when the switch is turned on, through the switch to one of its binding -posts marked “Ign. Coil.” Continuing on from this point through the -ignition coil and the breaker contacts, it returns to the second switch -binding post marked “Ign. Coil,” where it passes through the switch -again. It then finally reaches the grounded negative terminal of the -battery through the grounded terminal of the switch and the car frame. - -[Illustration: =Circuit Diagram of the Model O Ignition System on the -Dodge Brothers Motor Car= - -Fig. 62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System--on Dodge Car] - -The ignition switch is so constructed that it produces a reversal of -polarity in the distributor circuit each time the switch is turned off -and then on again. For this reason there is no necessity of making a -distinction between the two wires leading from the distributor to the -two switch binding posts marked “Ign. Coil,” because the operation of -the system cannot be affected by the transposition of these wires. With -this one exception, however, the ignition circuit connections must -always be made exactly as indicated in the diagrams, if satisfactory -operation of the system is to be maintained. - -[Illustration: - - CHARGING - INDICATOR - - IGNITION AND - LIGHTING SWITCH - - SPARK PLUGS - - GROUNDED - THROUGH CASE - - CONTACT-STUD LOCK NUT - - STATIONARY CONTACT-STUD - - MANUAL CONTROL LEVER - - BREAKER-ARM - - GROUND - CONNECTION - - BREAKER-CAM - - STARTING SWITCH AND - REVERSE CURRENT - CUT-OUT - - BREAKER-CAM NUT - - CONDENSER - - BREAKER- - CONTACTS - - IGNITION - COIL - - BREAKER BOX - - DISTRIBUTOR - HEAD - - BATTERY - - SECONDARY COIL - - PRIMARY COIL - - SAFETY SPARK GAP - - GROUND CONNECTION - - GROUNDED - THROUGH CASE - -Fig. 63. North-East Distributor--Model O--Ignition] - -=Ignition Distributor.= (Fig. 63).--The model O ignition distributor is -mounted on the right-hand side of the Dodge Brothers engine where it is -held rigidly in position by means of four bolts. The horizontal shaft -of the distributor is connected directly to the engine pump shaft -through a flexible coupling, and runs, therefore, at engine speed. The -vertical distributor shaft is driven from the horizontal shaft by means -of spiral gears which reduce its speed to one-half that of the engine. - -The complete distributor unit consists essentially of three -self-contained assemblies: The ignition coil, the breaker box and -distributor base assembly which include the automatic spark advancing -mechanism. Each one of these three elements is so constructed as to -be readily detachable from the distributor unit independently of the -others. - -=Ignition Coil.=--The ignition coil, which is contained in a separate -housing, forming part of the distributor unit, is constructed for -12 volt service and operates directly on the starting and lighting -circuit. The coil housing is attached to the distributor base by means -of four screws and serves also as a cover for the automatic advance -compartment. The high tension terminal located on the coil housing -is designed to provide a safety spark gap, as well as to act as a -binding post for the high tension cable which connects the coil to the -distributor head. - -=Breaker Box and Distributor Head Assembly.= (Fig. 64).--The breaker -box and distributor head assembly is mounted in an upright position -near the center of the distributor base and is secured in place by a -large-headed screw in the vertical portion of the base. This screw -projects into the annular groove in the vertical shaft bearing sleeve, -thereby preventing the breaker box assembly from becoming detached from -the distributor base and yet at the same time permitting it to turn -freely from side to side. The short lug projecting downward from the -manual control lever on the breaker box extends into the round hole -near the middle of the distributor base and acts as a stop to limit the -travel of the breaker box. - -In case it should become necessary to remove the breaker box and -distributor head assembly, the distributor head should first be -detached from the breaker box and then, with the breaker box in the -position of full retard, the exact location of the distributor rotor -should be marked accurately on the edge of the box. This mark should -be made with special care, because it has to serve as the sole guide -for the correct position of the vertical shaft when the assembly is -put back in place again on the distributor base. Moreover, while the -breaker box assembly is separated from the base, the horizontal shaft -in the base must not be turned from the position it occupied at the -time when the location of the rotor was marked. If either of these -precautions is neglected, the correct relationship between the several -moving parts of the system will be likely to be disturbed to such -an extent that the complete retiming of the distributor will become -necessary. - -[Illustration: - - HIGH TENSION - DISTRIBUTOR TERMINALS - - DISTRIBUTOR-BRUSH - - DISTRIBUTOR-HEAD - - DISTRIBUTOR-ROTOR - - BREAKER-CAM NUT - - BREAKER-ARM - - LOCK WASHERS - - VERTICAL SHAFT - - BREAKER-CAM - - VERTICAL SHAFT - BEARING SLEEVE - - STATIONARY CONTACT-STUD - SUPPORT - - PRIMARY COIL - TERMINALS - - GREASE CUP - - COUPLING YOKE - - HIGH TENSION - COIL TERMINAL - - HORIZONTAL SHAFT - - ADVANCE PLATE - - COIL HOUSING - - VERTICAL SPIRAL GEAR - - ADVANCE WEIGHTS - - IGNITION COIL - - HORIZONTAL SPIRAL GEAR - -Fig. 64. North-East Breaker-Box] - -=Condenser.=--The condenser, shunted across the breaker contacts to -absorb the inductive surges that occur in the primary circuit at -each interruption, serves to intensify the effect produced in the -secondary circuit by these interruptions, and also to protect the -breaker contacts from injurious arcing. It is contained in a sealed -case which protects it against possible external injury, and is located -in the breaker box close to the breaker contacts where its maximum -effectiveness is obtained. - -Being very substantially constructed, the condenser ordinarily -requires no attention. If for any reason it should become -inoperative, the best course is always to replace it with a new one, -because condenser repairs are not economically practicable. The -entire condenser unit can be easily removed, whenever desired, by -disconnecting the two condenser leads from the breaker box binding -posts, and then unscrewing the two nuts on the under side of the -breaker box that hold the condenser case in place. - -=Breaker Contacts.=--The breaker arm, which carries one of the -two breaker contacts, is mounted on a pivot post from which it is -thoroughly insulated by a fiber bushing. The helical spring, which is -attached to the lug at the pivot end of the arm, holds it normally in -such a position that the breaker contacts are kept closed. But the -fiber block near the middle of the breaker arm lies in the path of the -breaker cam and is consequently struck by each lobe of the cam as the -vertical shaft revolves. Each of these blows from the cam cause the -breaker contacts to be forced apart, and thereby produce the necessary -interruptions in the primary circuit. The second contact is carried by -the stationary contact stud, which is adjustably mounted in an arched -support. With this stud properly adjusted the difference between the -contact points when they are fully separated by the cam, is twenty -thousandths of an inch (.020″). - -If it should ever become necessary to renew the breaker contacts, a -complete replacement of the entire breaker arm and the contact stud -assemblies will in general be found to be the most effectual method of -handling the work. The breaker arm can be removed by simply lifting -it off its pivot bearing after its pigtail has been disconnected from -the breaker box binding post. The spring attached to the breaker arm -lug will slip off of its own accord as soon as the arm is raised -sufficiently from its normal position. After the breaker arm has been -taken off, the stationary contact stud can be removed by releasing its -lock nut and unscrewing it from its support. To replace the breaker arm -it is merely necessary to insert the lug in the spring, and then, with -the spring held taut, to push the arm firmly down upon its pivot post -until it snaps into position. - -=Breaker Cam.=--The breaker cam, by which the interruptions in the -primary circuit are produced has four projections on its working -surface, so spaced that one of them strikes the breaker arm and causes -the breaker contacts to be abruptly separated each time a spark is -required. The cam is held in place on the upper end of the vertical -shaft by means of a slotted nut and set of special lock washers. It -should never be disturbed if avoidable, because its accurate setting is -absolutely essential to the correct operation of the entire system. If, -at any time, however, its position should become altered accidentally, -it must be carefully reset at once in accordance with the timing -directions given later on. - -The breaker cam and the distributor rotor are both mounted on the -vertical shaft and are rotated at exactly one-half engine speed. -Accordingly, since the engine is of the usual four-cycle type requiring -two revolutions of the crank shaft for one complete cycle of operation, -the distributor rotor and breaker can make one revolution during the -completion of each full cycle of the engine. - -=Distributor Head.=--The distributor head contains five high tension -terminals. The central terminal receives the current from the secondary -winding of the ignition coil and transmits it to the rotor arm by which -it is distributed to the four outer terminals. These outer terminals -are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively, corresponding to the firing order -of the engine, and are connected to the four spark plugs in accordance -with their markings. The distributor rotor in completing one full -revolution establishes contact successively between the rotor brush -and each one of these four outer distributor terminals, each contact -being made at the same moment that the primary circuit is interrupted -by the action of the breaker cam. Thus when the spark plug leads are -properly connected, the high tension current, as soon as produced in -the secondary circuit, is conducted to the spark plug of the proper -cylinder just at the moment when the gas in that particular cylinder is -ready for firing. If, therefore, the spark plug leads ever have to be -removed from the distributor head, they must always be attached again -carefully in the correct order. - -=Automatic Advance Mechanism.= (Fig. 65).--Combustion does not follow -instantaneously upon the occurrence of the spark, however, because a -small time interval is always needed for the gas in the cylinder to -ignite. Consequently, unless some means are provided for offsetting -the lag between spark and combustion, the explosion of the gas could -not always be made to take place at exactly the correct moment under -varying conditions of engine speed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism--North East] - -To compensate for this lag, therefore, there is incorporated in the -distributor a centrifugally actuated mechanism, which is capable of -automatically advancing or retarding the time of the spark in exact -accordance with the rate of speed at which the engine is running. - -The operating characteristics of the automatic advance are accurately -proportioned to conform throughout the entire speed range with the -requirements of the engine; and in order to insure the permanence of -this relationship the device is so constructed as to be practically -nonadjustable. - -=Manual Spark Control.=--Besides this automatic advance there is -also the usual manual control mechanism for changing the time of the -spark independently of the centrifugal device. This manual control -is for use principally for retarding the spark when starting or -idling the engine or for facilitating carburetor adjustments. During -normal operation of the engine, the spark lever on the steering wheel -quadrant should be advanced as far as permissible without causing the -engine to knock, and the actual regulation of the spark position be -left entirely to the automatic advance mechanism. The arrangement of -the manual control is such, provided the breaker cam is properly set, -that when the spark lever is in the position of full retard, and the -engine is running very slowly, the spark will occur in each cylinder -at 5 engine degrees after the piston has passed the upper dead center -of its compression stroke. With the spark lever advanced to the limit -of its travel on the quadrant, the spark will occur 15 degrees before -the upper dead center position has been reached by the piston on its -compression stroke. - -=Timing the Distributor.=--Whenever it becomes necessary to disconnect -the distributor shaft from the engine pump shaft the exact relative -positions of the two halves of the coupling joining these two shafts, -as well as the location of the distributor rotor, should be carefully -noted and marked. This is necessary in order to make possible the -reëstablishment of the correct relations between the distributor -shaft and the pump shaft when original conditions are being restored. -Moreover, care must be taken to avoid turning the engine while the -distributor is disconnected, because the proper timing relations can -only be retained by keeping the position of the pump shaft unchanged -during this time. - -Should it ever happen, however, that the distributor has been taken off -without the proper precautions having been observed, or that the timing -arrangement has been disturbed in any other fashion, it will thereupon -become necessary to make a complete readjustment of the timing -relations of the distributor and the engine. This is to be done always -after the distributor has been reconnected to the engine, the first -step being to ascertain definitely the relative position of the engine -pistons and valves. With this done, the positions of the breaker cam -and the distributor rotor are then to be reset as directed below. - -Since all the parts of the engine follow a regular sequence of -operation, only the position of the piston and valves in the No. 1 -cylinder need be considered in this process, and the three remaining -cylinders may be practically disregarded. There are numerous methods, -varying in their degree of accuracy, for locating the position of the -engine pistons, but the most dependable one is that of removing the -cylinder head so as to expose the pistons and valves to full view. With -the head thus removed, the engine should be cranked slowly by hand -until the No. 1 piston has risen to the top of its compression stroke -and has just started to descend on its combustion stroke. At this -moment the spark, when fully retarded, should normally occur in No. 1 -cylinder. - -Under circumstances where it is not convenient or desirable to remove -the cylinder head the following approximate method for determining the -location of No. 1 piston may be employed with a fair degree of success. -Open the cocks of the priming cups on all the cylinders, and crank -the engine slowly by hand until the No. 1 piston has just reached the -top of its compression stroke. This can be ascertained by holding the -thumb over the No. 1 priming cup and noting carefully the moment when -the compression ceases to increase. After locating the dead center -position of No. 1 piston in this way, turn the crank shaft a very -slight distance further until the No. 4 exhaust valve is just at the -point of closing. Under these conditions, provided the No. 4 exhaust -valve lifter is in correct adjustment, the No. 1 piston should be -approximately in the desired position of 5 engine degrees beyond dead -center. - -With the No. 1 piston thus carefully set in accordance with one of the -above methods, preferably the former, bring the distributor into the -position of full retard. To do this, disconnect the manual control -attachment and turn the break-box as far as it will go in the direction -in which the vertical shaft rotates. Then after making sure that the -ignition switch is turned off, remove the distributor-head and the -distributor rotor and the breaker box, and with a broad bladed screw -driver back off the breaker cam nut until the cam is free to turn on -its shaft. Next, replace the rotor temporarily, and turn the cam slowly -until the breaker contacts just begin to open when the rotor occupies -the position where it normally makes contact with the No. 1 distributor -terminal. This adjustment can be made to the best advantage by turning -the cam forward to separate the contacts then back again slowly until -the contacts just come together, at which point the cam should be -allowed to remain. - -After the proper setting has thus been obtained, remove the rotor again -and lock the cam securely in position by tightening the slotted nut -that holds it. Finally, replacing the rotor, rock the vertical shaft -backward and forward as far as the slack in the gears will permit, and -note carefully the action of the break contacts. The setting of the cam -must be so accurate that when the gears are rocked forward to take up -the slack, the contacts will be just held apart and yet when the gears -are rocked backward as far as the slack permits, the contacts will be -actually closed. - -A convenient method of verifying this adjustment is to turn on the -ignition current and connect an ordinary 14 or 16 volt 2. c. p. -lamp across the two binding posts of the breaker box. The lamp thus -attached, will serve as a sensitive indicator for representing the -action of the contact-points when the vertical shaft is rocked forward -and backward to take up the slack in the gears. The moment the contacts -begin to be separated, the lamp will light; but as soon as they are -allowed to come together the lamp will at once go out again. - -Should the test prove the first setting to be inaccurate, the cam -must be readjusted, and the test repeated several times if necessary -until the correct setting is finally obtained. Too much care cannot -be employed in making this adjustment, because even a very slight -inaccuracy in the setting of the cam will produce a considerably -magnified effect upon the operation of the engine. This is due to the -fact that the engine speed is twice as great as that of the vertical -shaft. - -=General Care.=--Under normal operating conditions the ignition system -requires very little care aside from the usual precautions against -moisture and dirt. There are, in fact, but three points of importance -that need attention during service: - - 1. Lubrication. - - 2. Cleaning and adjustment of the breaker contacts. - - 3. Inspection of the wiring and the spark plugs. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS - -CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -Atwater Kent ignition systems have been adopted of late by many -prominent automobile manufacturers as a means of distributing or -conveying electrical spark to the cylinders at the proper firing time. - -This type of quick break distributing system has proved very efficient -and dependable, and will usually outlast the life of the motor as there -are very few moving parts, which eliminates troubles caused by worn -parts getting out of adjustment. - -This type of ignition system operates in much the same manner as the -high tension magneto, and differs only in that the parts have been -taken from the compact magneto case and distributed in other locations -in separate units. As this type takes its current from the lighting and -starting battery, it does not contain an armature or field magnets to -manufacture the electrical force. - -Fig. 66 illustrates the principles of operation of the type CC Atwater -Kent closed circuit system, which consists of the unisparker containing -the contact maker and distributor. The only moving parts are located -in this unit. The coil consists of a soft iron core, with a primary -and secondary winding sealed in an insulated tube or container. A -resistance unit is located in the top and regulates the current -automatically. The system is controlled by a switch located on the -dash. The contact breaker shown in Fig. 67 consists of an exceedingly -light steel contact arm. One end rests on a hardened steel cam which -rotates one-half as fast as the crank shaft. This cam has as many -sides as the engine has cylinders. When the contact points are opened -by the movement of the cam the primary circuit is broken and produces -a discharge of secondary high tension current at one of the spark plug -gaps. - -[Illustration: - - CONTACT - MAKER - - TO PLUG - - TO PLUG - - DISTRIBUTOR - - CONDENSER - - TO PLUG - - CONTACT MAKER - GROUNDED - - SPARK PLUG - - BATTERY - GROUND - - PRIMARY - - BATTERY - - GROUND - - SWITCH - - SECONDARY - - GROUND - - REGULATING - RESISTANCE - -Fig. 66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram--Type CC] - -Fig. 68 shows the simple Atwater Kent contactless distributor. The high -tension distributor of the Atwater-Kent system forms the top of the -contact maker. Each spark plug wire terminates in an electrode, which -passes through the distributor cap. A rotating distributor block takes -the high tension current from the central terminal and distributes it -to the spark plugs in proper firing order. The distributor block or arm -does not make direct contact with the distributor posts. The current -jumps the small gap between the distributor block and the terminal -electrodes and does away with frictional wear resulting from actual -contact. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Type CC] - -[Illustration: Fig. 68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block] - -Fig. 69 shows the method of connecting the high tension wires to the -distributor; the insulation is removed, or the wire bared in a space -1¹⁄₄″ long. The removable terminal cover is pushed up on the wire as -shown at A, the bared end of the wire is then passed through the hole -in the secondary terminal as shown at B. The end of this wire is then -twisted back on itself, for two complete turns as shown at C, so that -the end will not project beyond the diameter of the insulation. The -wire will then be tightly held when the terminal covers are screwed -down as shown in Fig. D. Never use pliers to tighten these covers and -do not solder the wires to the terminal posts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor] - -=Adjustment.=--The only parts of this system that are adjustable are -the contact points. These need to be adjusted only for natural wear. Do -not adjust the points unless you are convinced, by trying everything -else, that it is the points that need attention. - -In making adjustments, note the following directions. The normal gap -between the points should not be less than .005″, or more than .008″, -the standard setting is .006″, which is about the thickness of two -ordinary sheets of writing paper. - -[Illustration: - - TO UNGROUNDED - TERMINAL OF BATTERY - - SWITCH - - COIL - - DISTRIBUTOR - - GROUND - - CONTACT - MAKER - -Fig. 70. Atwater Kent Type CC Wiring Diagram] - -The contact points are made of tungsten steel, the hardest known -metal. When contact points are working properly small particles of -tungsten steel will be carried from one point to the other, which -sometimes causes a roughness and a dark gray coloring of the surfaces. -This roughness does not in any way effect the proper working of the -points, owing to the fact that the rough surfaces fit into each other -perfectly. - -It should not be necessary to file or redress the points unless they -become burned, due to some abnormal condition or accident. The dark -gray appearance is the natural color of the tungsten steel. - -=Oilings.=--A very small amount of ordinary vaseline or grease applied -to the cam and a drop or two of oil applied to the cups every few -weeks, is all the lubrication necessary. Do not get oil on the contact -points, and wipe off any free oil or grease on the contact maker. - -The springs in this system are set at exactly the right tension. Do not -try to bend or tamper with them. - -The wiring of the type CC ignition system is very simple, as shown in -Fig. 70, and is known as the one wire with ground return method. Well -insulated primary wire is used for the primary circuit between the -coil and the ignition switch. The best quality of five-sixteenth inch -secondary wire is used to conduct the high tension current from the -coil to the distributor, and from the distributor to the spark plug. - -=Setting or Timing the Type CC System.=--The piston in number one -cylinder should be raised to high dead center, between the compression -and firing strokes, the clamp which holds the unisparker should be -loosened and the unisparker turned backward, or opposite the rotating -direction of the timer shaft until the contact points commence to open. -The spark occurs at the exact instant of the opening of the point. - -After completing the electrical connection the current can be turned -on, and the unisparker timed exactly from the spark at the plugs. For -this purpose the plugs should be removed from the engine and laid on -top of the cylinders. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM, TYPE K-2 - - -The operating principle of the Atwater Kent ignition system type K-2, -differs from type CC system in that it operates on the open circuit -plan, whereas the type CC system explained in the preceding chapter, -operates on the closed circuit plan. - -A-K ignition system type K-2 consists of three parts: - -No. 1. The unisparker combining the special contact maker, a condenser, -and a high tension distributor. - -No. 2. The coil, consisting of a simple primary and secondary winding, -and a condenser. These parts are all imbedded in a special insulating -compound. The coil has no vibrator or other moving parts. - -No. 3. The ignition switch. This switch controls the system by opening -and closing the primary current. - -=The Principle of the Atwater Kent System.=--The function of this -system is to produce a single hot spark for each power impulse of the -motor. It differs from other types of battery ignition systems in that -the contact points do not touch except during the brief instant of the -spark. The ignition circuit is, therefore, normally open, whence the -name “open circuit” results. The contact maker consists of a pair of -contact points, normally open, which are connected in series with a -battery, and the primary circuit of the non-vibrating induction coil. -The mechanism for operating the contacts consists of a notched shaft -having one notch for each cylinder, rotating at one-half the engine -speed, a lifter which is pulled forward by the rotation of the shaft, -and a coil spring which pulls the lifter back to its original position -after it has been drawn forward and released by the notched shaft; -hardened steel latch, against which the lifter strikes on its recoil -and which in turn operates the contact points. - -[Illustration: - - LATCH - - CONTACT SCREW - - NOTCHED SHAFT - - LIFTER - - CONTACT SPRING - - LIFTER SPRING - -Fig. 71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of Action--Type K-2 -System.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of -Action--Type K-2 System] - -[Illustration: Fig. 73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of -Action--Type K-2 System] - -[Illustration: Fig. 74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of -Action--Type K-2 System] - -=Operation of the Contact Maker.=--It will be noted in Fig. 71 that -the lifter is being pulled forward by the notched shaft. When pulled -forward as far as the shaft will carry it (Fig. 72), the lifter is -suddenly pulled back by the lifter spring. In returning, it strikes -against the latch, throwing this against the contact spring and closes -the contact for a brief instant. This movement is far too quick for -the naked eye to follow (Fig. 73). - -Fig. 74 shows the lifter ready to be pulled forward by the next notch. - -Note that the circuit is closed only during the brief instant of the -spark. No current can flow at any other time, not even if the switch is -left on when the motor is not running. No matter how slow or how fast -the notched shaft is turning, the lifter spring will always pull the -lifter back at exactly the same speed, so that the operation of the -contact, and therefore the spark, will always be the same no matter -how fast or how slow the engine is running. The brief instant that -the contact points touch, results in very little current consumption. -The high tension current from the coil is conveyed to the rotating -distributor block, which seats on the end of the unisparker shaft to -each of the spark plug terminals in the order of firing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block] - -The important advantage which the distributor possesses is the fact -that there are no sliding contacts or carbon brushes. The distributor -blade is so arranged that it passes close to the spark plug terminals -without quite touching (as shown in Fig. 75), thus permitting the spark -to jump the slight gap without any loss of current pressure. This also -eliminates all wear and trouble caused by sliding or rubbing contacts. - -Fig. 76 shows the wire connections and direction of current flowage. -The distributor blade is about to make contact with the terminal -leading to the spark plug in No. 2 cylinder. At the instant that -contact is made the breaker points in the contact maker shown in the -lower part of the diagram close, thus allowing a primary or low tension -current to flow between the contact maker, coil, and battery. The -sudden breaking of this current occurs when the points open again, -thereby creating a current of high tension voltage in the secondary -coil which is conducted to the center terminal of the distributor where -it is distributed to the spark plug terminals through the rotation -of the distributor blade. The high tension cables leading from the -distributor are heavily insulated, thus the current in seeking ground -return chooses the easiest path, by jumping the slight gap at the spark -plugs. - -[Illustration: - - DISTRIBUTOR - - GROUND - - COIL - - BATTERY - - CONTACT MAKER - -Fig. 76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2] - -=Setting and Timing the Unisparker.=--The type K-2 unisparker is -installed, so as to allow a small amount of angular movement or, in -other words, the socket into which the unisparker fits is provided -with a clamp which will permit it to be turned or locked in any given -position. - -=Timing.=--The piston in No. 1 cylinder is raised to high dead center -between the compression and power stroke. Then loosen the clamp which -holds the unisparker and turn the unisparker backward, or contrary to -the direction of rotation until a click is heard. This click happens -at the exact instant of the spark. Clamp the unisparker tight at this -point being careful not to change its position. Note that current for -this system is usually supplied by the starting and lighting battery. -When changing batteries be sure that the voltage of the battery is the -same as that marked on the coil. - -[Illustration: - - TO PLUGS - - TO PLUGS - - CONTACT-MAKER - - CONTACT MAKER - - SWITCH - - BAT. - - S & INT. - INT. - S. - - COIL - - INT. - INT. - SEC - - GROUND TO MOTOR - - GROUND TO MOTOR - - POS - NEG - - BATTERY - -Fig. 77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring--Cut 1, Under Hood Coil; Cut 2, Kick -Switch Coil] - -The external wiring of the A-K type K-2 is very simple, as shown in the -diagrams, Figs. 77 and 77A. Fig. 77 shows the wire connections, when -the reversing switch and under-hood coil is used. Fig. 77A shows the -connections, when using plate or kick switch coil. A well insulated -braided primary wire is used for the primary or battery circuit. See -that this wire is well protected against rubbing or abrasion wherever -it comes into contact with metal parts of the car. When the starting -and lighting battery is used to furnish the ignition current, two wires -should run directly to the battery terminals. - -The two types of Atwater Kent systems described are provided with -automatic spark advance mechanism. Provisions are also made for manual -lever control, by simply connecting the unisparker to the throttle -lever at the base of the steering gear. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance -Mechanism--A K Type K-2] - -Fig. 78 shows the automatic spark advance mechanism. It is located on -the underside of the contact maker base plate, and consists of a set -of weights which swing out from the center against spring tension, -and advances the unisparker on the shaft, according to the amount of -centrifugal action or speed of the shaft. When the shaft is not in -motion the springs draw the weights toward center, which automatically -shifts the unisparker on the shaft until the spark is in a fully -retarded position. - -=Contact Point Adjustment.=--The only adjustment aside from the initial -timing is in the contact points. They are adjustable only for natural -wear, and one adjustment should last at least six months. The contact -screw is provided with a number of shim washers against which it is -set up tight. When the points eventually become worn, they should be -dressed flat and smooth. A sufficient number of the washers should -be removed so that when the contact screw is set up tightly it will -maintain the proper gap between the points. The distance between the -contact points should be about the distance of a thin visiting card. -They should never touch when at rest. - -[Illustration: - - Oil lightly every - 1000 miles - - Oil - -Fig. 79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Oiling Diagram--A-K Type K-2] - -Fig. 79 shows an oiling diagram of the contact maker. The latch, -lifter, and lifter spring are not adjustable or subject to wear. They -should be well cleaned and oiled every five hundred miles. Use a light -oil and avoid getting it on the contact points. - -=The Condenser.=--The condenser of this system acts somewhat like a -shock absorber to the contact points. It absorbs the spark or arc and -makes the break in the primary current, clean and abrupt. The condenser -is very accessible, but should never be tampered with, as it does not -require any attention. - -=Testing for Ignition Trouble.=--If the engine misses without regard to -speed, test each cylinder separately by short circuiting the plug with -a screw driver, allowing a spark to jump. If all cylinders produce a -good regular spark the trouble is not with the ignition system. - -If any cylinder sparks regularly this will indicate that the ignition -system is in working order so far as the unisparker and coil are -concerned. The trouble is probably in the high tension wiring between -the distributor and plug, or in the plugs themselves. Examine the plugs -and wiring carefully. Leaky secondary wiring is frequently the cause -of missing and backfiring. - -Frequently, when high tension wires are run from the distributor to the -spark plugs through a metal tube, trouble is experienced with missing -and backfiring, which is due to induction between the various wires in -the tube. This is especially likely to happen if the main secondary -wire from the distributor to the coil runs through this tube with the -spark plug wires. - -Whenever possible the distributor wires should be separated by at least -one-half inch of space. They should be supported by bracket insulators, -rather than run through a tube. In no case should the main distributor -wire run through a conduit with other wires. - -If irregular sparking is noted at the spark plugs, examine the battery -and connections. - -If the trouble commences suddenly, it is probably due to a loose -connection in the wiring, if gradually, the battery may be weakening or -the contact points may require attention. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK IGNITION SYSTEM - -OPERATION, ADJUSTMENT AND CARE - - -The Philbrin ignition system consists of a specially designed contact -maker and interrupter, a distributor mounted on the same shaft, a -nonvibrating heat and moisture proof coil, an armored heat, moisture, -and puncture proof condenser, and a special Duplex switch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80. Philbrin Contact Maker--Point Adjustment] - -Fig. 80 shows an illustration of the Philbrin contact maker which -operates in this manner. The cam A strikes against the end of the -plunger B and forces the points together at C, and holds the contact -for approximately three and one-half degrees of the revolution of -the cam. The spark occurs simultaneously with the separation of the -contact points. The contact maker has but one adjustment; that of the -adjustable contact screw, which is in direct line with the contact -plunger. The contact points are brought together gradually by the -surface formation of the cam. When the point of ample saturation of the -coil is reached, the breaking of the contacts is instantaneous. The -duration of the spark is in proportion to the speed of the engine, but -breaking of the points is always instantaneous and entirely independent -of the engine’s speed thereby producing the required spark at all -speeds without any spark lag. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81. Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade] - -Fig. 81 shows the distributor blade mounted over the contact maker. The -distributor blade is so arranged that it clears the spark plug lead -terminals in the cover by a slight margin, and does not make actual -contact, thereby eliminating all friction due to such contacts. - -=Operation.=--Turning on the switch sets up a low tension current in -the coil and primary wire coil when the contact points close. The -sudden breaking of this current causes demagnetism of the core and the -primary coil to set up a high tension current in the secondary coil. -This current is led to the distributor blade and passes to the spark -plug terminals as the blade comes in contact range. - -The Philbrin high frequency system uses the same coil and distributor -as the single spark system. But as the circuits of the two systems are -entirely distinct and separate, they do not conflict with each other. -The high frequency system has its own condenser and interrupter located -in the switch case, and supplies a continuous flow of sparks. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82. Switch Case] - -Fig. 82 shows the interior of the switch case. This part of the -mechanism controls the interruption of the battery current. The current -is supplied to the interruptor through a polarity reverser, which -reverses the direction of the current each time the switch button is -turned. This equalizes the wear on the contact points. - -Attention is again called to the distributor blade shown in Fig. -82, which is used for both systems. Because of the shape of this -blade, there is a continuous flow of sparks after the explosive -spark has been delivered to one cylinder until the forward edge of -the distributor blade is within range of the distributing point of -the next terminal. By this action the first spark delivered to the -cylinder is an efficient one, and the follow up continues at intervals -of approximately one-thousandth of a second. These sparks are all -perfectly synchronous. - -The operation of the high frequency system does not differ in function -action from the single spark system explained on the foregoing page. -Either system may be had singly, or in duplex formation. Consequently -either the single or the double system may be encountered. When the -duplex system is used the driver has his choice and can use either -the high frequency or single spark system, by turning the rubber roll -switch on the distributor to the system indicated. - -This follow-up feature has been found particularly advantageous -for starting in cold weather, or where a poor grade of gasoline is -encountered, and in case of a poor carburetor adjustment or foul spark -plugs. The high frequency system also has the unique feature of keeping -the spark plugs clean without disintegrating the electroids, as is -often the case with the high tension magneto. - -[Illustration: Fig. 83. Duplex High Frequency Switch] - -Fig. 83 shows the Duplex switch. Ordinarily a storage battery is used -for one source of current, and a set of dry cells for the other. This -is so arranged that either source of current can be used with either -the single spark system or the high frequency system at will. One -source of current only can be used if so desired, that is, the storage -battery only or the dry cells alone. Where the source of current -is dry cells only, the single spark system is used as it is more -economical in current consumption. All of the switch contacts are of -the pressure plunger type, thereby eliminating the uncertainty of brush -contacts. Each switch is provided with a lock operating through the -hub of the lever. When the switch is locked in the off position it is -impossible to remove the cover without breaking it as the cover of the -switch locks to the back. - -Ratchet buttons select which one of the systems is to be used, by a -movement of 45°. This button operates only in a clock-wise direction. - -[Illustration: - - C-2 Circuit 2 - C-1 Circuit 1 - Bat.-1 Battery 1 - Bat.-2 Battery 2 - Sec.-Secondary - C-Circuit - Sec. Gr. Secondary Ground - - To Spark Plugs - - BAT. (SEC.) C - ( GR.) - - BAT.-2 - - BAT.-1 - - Coil - - C.R. - - Distributor - -Fig. 84. Philbrin Wiring Diagram] - -Fig. 84 shows a wiring diagram of the Philbrin system. The wire -connections come to the contact maker directly from the switch, instead -of from the coil. This provides for control of the current to the -contact maker in such a manner that if a short circuit occurs in either -of the systems, by turning a button it is entirely cut off and the -other system put into operation. - -Tungsten contact points are used on the single spark system as they are -not effected by the use of light oil. The contact points for the high -frequency system are platinum-iridium. They are mounted inside of the -switch case and need little or no attention. The contacts, due to the -reversed polarity, have an extremely long life and can be used without -attention until they are worn down to the base metal. The duel type -of system, however, may be purchased in separate units, and an owner -may choose either the high frequency system or the single spark system -separately if so desired. - -This type of ignition system is manufactured for four, six, eight, and -twelve cylindered cars. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS - -CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -A great many different types of mechanical, and compressed air starters -were devised and tried out as equipment by the manufacturers of -automobiles a few years ago. These devices were either mechanically -imperfect, or required considerable attention from the owner to keep -them in working order and have all but disappeared from the market, -being supplanted by the electrical starter, which has been perfected to -a high state of efficiency and dependability. - -The general principle of all electrical starters is much alike and -they usually operate in much the same manner. The electrical force or -current is produced by a generator driven from the engine. This current -is collected, or held in storage by chemical reproduction plates in a -storage battery. The battery, in turn, is connected to a small electric -motor carried at the side of the engine. - -=The Generator.=--The operating principle of current production of the -generator is practically the same as explained in the magneto, which -may also be termed a generator or dynamo. - -A generator consists of an iron frame, a set of magnetic field -windings, a wound armature with a commutator on the end, and a brush -which collects the current from the commutator. - -The current is induced in the armature by rotating it in a magnetic -field. The amount of voltage induced in the armature-coil depends on -its rotating speed, as the faster the armature turns, the greater -the number of magnetic field lines cut, and the greater the amount of -voltage induced in the armature coil. - -=The Regulator.=--The generator is provided with a regulator to control -the output rate of voltage when the engine is running at excess speeds. -This is necessary to prevent the higher charging rate from overcoming -the capacity of the storage battery. The regulating of the voltage -output may be accomplished by mechanical or electrical means. The -mechanical regulator usually consists of a governor which is timed to -release the armature from the drive shaft when the engine reaches a -certain rate of speed. The electrical regulator usually consists of a -reversed series of field winding which acts against the force of the -magnetic field, or of a bucking coil. - -=The Automatic Cut-out.=--All types of generators which supply current -to a storage battery are equipped with an automatic cut-out arrangement -which is entirely automatic in action and requires no attention. - -The function of the automatic cut-out is to prevent the current from -flowing back to the generator when the current production of the -generator is less than the charged strength of the storage battery. The -cut-out may be located anywhere on the conductor, between the storage -battery and the generator, and consists of a simple electro-magnet, -which is operated by the direction of current flowage. - -=One Unit System.=--The generator furnishes the current for ignition -and starting, and is also reversible to act as a starting motor. The -system is referred to as a one unit system. - -=Two Unit System.=--When the starting motor and the generator act -singly, and are contained in a separate casting, the system is referred -to as a two unit system. - -=Three Unit System.=--When the generator and starting motor are located -as a separate unit, and when the ignition current is supplied by a -magneto, this system is referred to as a three unit system. - -=The Starting Motor.=--The starting motor is constructed in the same -manner as the generator, and is simply a reversal of action. When -cranking, the current from the storage battery flows through the -motor winding and magnetizes the armature core. This acting upon the -magnetism of the frame causes the turning effort. - -=Lubrication.=--Regularly every two weeks, or every five hundred miles, -two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be dropped into the oil -wells supplying the armature bearings and usually located at each end -of the armature shaft. - -[Illustration: Fig. 85. Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine] - -=Care.=--Regularly every two weeks, inspect all connections as a full -volume of current will not flow over a loose or corroded connection. -Never allow any oil or dirt to collect on the motor or generator, as it -interferes with the terminal connection and misdirects the current, and -the instrument soon becomes inoperative. - -Fig. 85 shows the location of the two unit Bijur electrical starting -and generating system mounted on an engine. The starting motor is -bolted to the flywheel housing, and is provided with a square armature -shaft which carries a pinion which can be moved horizontally on the -shaft. This pinion meshes directly with teeth cut in the steel flywheel -ring. No intermediate gears or roller clutches are used. The control -lever connects through linkage to the shifting fork which shifts the -pinion on the square shaft of the motor. The same foot pedal linkage -operates the starting switch. Normally a spring holds the motor pinion -out of mesh with the flywheel teeth and also holds the starting switch -in the “off” position. - -=The Generator.=--The generator is bolted to an extension on the -crank case at the front side of the gas motor, and is driven by a -silent chain from the crank shaft. After the gas motor attains a speed -equivalent to a car speed of ten miles per hour on high speed, the -generator begins to generate, and will generate a current which is -highest at low speeds, and diminishes somewhat at higher speeds. - -The machines are both self-contained as there are no regulators or -automatic switches which require separate mounting. - -The automatic switch for opening and closing the circuit between the -generator and storage battery is mounted inside the generator. This -switch is properly adjusted before the generator leaves the factory, -and no further adjustments are necessary. - -Two wires lead from the generator. One of these is connected at the -starting motor to one of the heavy cables coming from the storage -battery, while the other generator wire is grounded on the chassis, -the chassis forming a part of the circuit. The generator polarity is -reversible and the connections at the machine may be made haphazard -and without regard to polarity. If connections are reversed at the -generator, no damage will result, as the machine will automatically -assume the correct polarity to charge the battery. - -Fig. 86 shows the position of the Bijur starting system, and the -relative neutral positions of starting pedal, motor pinion, and -starting switch, when the starting equipment is not in action. - -Fig. 86A shows the normal position of the various parts after the -starting pedal has been depressed and just before the starting motor -begins to operate. The pinion is now in full mesh with the flywheel -ring and further depressing the starter pedal will close the switch. - -[Illustration: - - FOOT PEDAL - - POSITION 1--OUT OF ACTION. STARTING - SWITCH OFF. PINION UP AGAINST MOTOR - HEAD. - - FLYWHEEL - - SHIFTING FORK - - STARTING SWITCH - - MOTOR SHAFT - - OIL HERE - - MOTOR - - OIL HERE - - COLLAR - - CLEVIS PIN - - SHIFTING ROD - - STOP - - SHIFTER SPRING - - RELEASE SPRING - - OIL DRAIN - KEEP THIS HOLE CLEAR - - PINION - - OIL HERE - - CRANK CASE - - POSITION 2--ABOUT TO CRANK. - GEARS HAVE MESHED BUT - SWITCH HAS NOT YET MADE CONTACT. - -Fig. 86. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action] - -Fig. 87 shows all the parts in their positions for cranking. The small -gap between the collar on the shifting rod and clevis pin permits the -switch rod to move and thus open the starting switch without moving the -motor pinion when the starting pedal is released. - -[Illustration: - - POSITION 3--CRANKING, NOTE - GAP BETWEEN COLLAR ON - SHIFTING ROD AND CLEVIS PIN. - SHIFTING FORK IS UP AGAINST - STOP AND SHIFTER SPRING IS - SLIGHTLY COMPRESSED. - - POSITION 2A--ABOUT TO CRANK. - GEARS NOT YET MESHED, TEETH - ARE BUTTING, BUT SWITCH HAS - MADE CONTACT. SHIFTER SPRING - STRONGLY COMPRESSED READY - TO DRAW PINION INTO MESH. - -Fig. 87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action] - -Fig. 87A shows the condition when on depressing the foot pedal, and -sliding the pinion on the motor shaft towards the flywheel the pinion -does not mesh with the flywheel, and the teeth butt. Depressing the -foot pedal will close the starting switch strongly compressing the -shifter spring. After the switch is closed the motor will begin to -rotate and allow the pinion to slip into mesh with the flywheel. The -motor will then crank in the normal way. - -[Illustration: - - HEAD LAMP - - MOTOR - - SWITCH TERMINAL - GROUNDED - - GENERATOR - - STARTING - SWITCH - - BATTERY - - IGNITION SWITCH - - INTERRUPTOR - AND - DISTRIBUTOR - - SPARK PLUGS - - REAR LAMP - - HORN - - COIL - - INSTRUMENT LAMP - - HEAD LAMP - - HORN BUTTON - - LIGHTING SWITCH - -Fig. 88. Wiring Diagram Model N--Hupmobile] - -Fig. 88 shows a complete diagram of the Model N Hupmobile wiring -system. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT - - -Fig. 89 shows a diagram of the Bijur lighting and starting system on -the Jeffrey “Chesterfield-six.” The generator supplies current for the -lights and charges a storage battery when the gas motor is running at -speeds equivalent to ten or more miles per hour on high gear. - -When the gas motor is running at speeds corresponding to less than -ten miles per hour, all currents for lamps are drawn from the storage -battery. - -The starting motor is in operation only during the period of starting, -and remains idle at all other times. The appliances shown in the -diagram constituting the equipment are a six volt constant voltage -generator, a six volt starting motor, starting switch, six volt hundred -ampere hour battery, lamp controller, and a high tension magneto. Due -to the reversible characteristics of the generator, no attention need -be paid to the polarity of the wiring when it is removed and again -replaced. - -The starting motor pinion meshes with teeth on the flywheel when the -starting switch mounted on the housing covering the motor pinion is -compressed. - -=Operation of System Shown in Diagram.=--After the gas motor reaches -a speed equivalent to a car speed of approximately ten miles per hour -on the third speed gear, the generator will generate and maintain a -constant voltage, or electrical pressure at higher speeds and will also -maintain this pressure constant at all loads. - -The current output from the generator at any time will depend upon the -condition of the storage battery. If a car has been left standing for -some time with the lights burning, the storage battery will become more -or less discharged and its voltage lowered. Under these conditions the -generator voltage or pressure will be higher than that of the battery, -forcing a comparatively high charging current into the battery. This -current may be from 5 to 20 amperes, and the battery will rapidly -approach the fully charged condition. - -[Illustration: - - ³⁄₈ LOOM - - N^o. 14 - - N^o. 10 - - ³⁄₈ LOOM - - N^o. 14 - - N^o. 10 - - ¹⁄₄ LOOM - - N^o. 14 - - RIGHT HEAD LIGHT - - TERMINAL POSTS - - FUSES 10 AMPERES - - NEGATIVE - - STORAGE - BATTERY - - GENERATOR - - MAGNETO - - POSITIVE - - SWITCH - - CYLINDERS - - BATT - - - LIGHTING - SWITCH - - N^o. 14 - - N^o. 14 - - BATT + - - TONNEAU LIGHT - - GROUND - - N^o. 10 - - GROUND FUSE - - MAGNETO SWITCH - - N^o. 18 DUPLEX - - N^o. 14 - - N^o. 10 - - DASH & EXTENSION - LIGHT - - AMMETER - - N^o. 0 - - HORN BUTTON - - REAR LIGHT - - HEAD LIGHT - - MOTOR - - STARTING SWITCH - - HORN - - 2⁵⁄₈ LOOM - -Fig. 89. Wiring Diagram--Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six] - -As a battery becomes charged its voltage increases reducing the -difference in pressure between the generator and battery and decreasing -the charging current to the battery. - - -ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING OPERATION - -Current from the generator passes through an ammeter and this meter -shows the current being supplied to the battery and the lights, or to -the battery only when no lights are in operation. - -=Starting Motor.=--The starting motor is provided with a square shaft -and carries a pinion which can be moved horizontally on this shaft. -This pinion meshes directly with teeth cut on the flywheel. - -The starting pedal located at the driver’s seat connects through -linkage to fork which shifts the link on the square shaft of the motor. -The same foot pedal linkage operates the starting switch. Normally a -spring holds the motor pinion out of mesh with the flywheel teeth, and -also holds the starting switch in an “off” position. - -=Operation of the Starter.=--Depressing the starter, one pedal operates -the starting switch and makes a preliminary contact which connects the -starting motor to the storage battery through a resistance located -inside of the starting switch. This resistance permits a small amount -of current to pass through the starting motor, causing its armatures -to rotate at relatively slow speed. This slow rotation insures proper -meshing of the pinion and flywheel teeth when they are brought into -engagement. Depressing the foot pedal also shifts the pinion on the -square shaft of the motor so as to bring it into contact with the teeth -on the flywheel. - -When the pinion is in full mesh with the teeth on the fly, the moving -contact in the starting switch has traveled to a position where the -resistance is cut out of the circuit, connecting the storage battery -directly to the starting motor. The starting motor will then spin the -gas motor. - -=Starting.=--First see that the necessary adjustments have been made, -then depress the starting foot pedal as far as it will go and hold it -firmly in place until the gas motor starts. The instant the gas motor -begins firing the foot pedal should be released. The starting pedal -should be pressed as far as it will go without any pausing on the -downward stroke. - -Fig. 90 shows diagram of operation and wiring of the Bijur electrical -system used on Jeffery 4-cylinder car. - -If the pinion and flywheel teeth do not mesh properly do not hold the -starting pedal down, release it and after a few seconds pause, depress -the pedal again. - -If the gas motor does not start firing promptly after spinning it with -the electric motor, do not continue to spin it, but see that the proper -adjustments for starting have been made and that there is gasoline in -the carburetor, and that the ignition is in working order. - -Continued spinning of the gas motor by the electric motor will not -damage the electrical equipment but constitutes a useless drain on the -storage battery and should be avoided. - -=Wiring.=--Fig. 90 shows the circuits for all electric appliances on -the Jeffrey-4 car. The various units are wired on the two-wire system. -The “out of focus” filaments in the head lamp bulbs are wired on the -three-wire system, the chassis acting as a neutral wire, one side of -the “out of focus” filament being grounded in the head lamps. The “in -focus” filaments are on the two-wire system. - -The dash lamp is on the tail lamp circuit and is so arranged that these -two lamps are always in operation when any combination of head lamp -filaments are in use. - -=Fuse Circuits.=--Each head lamp is separately fused, the current for -both filaments in each head lamp bulb passing through one fuse. - -[Illustration: - - GROUND TO OIL PIPE - - GROUNDED TO INSTRUMENT - ASSEMBLY - - RIGHT HEAD LIGHT - - GENERATOR - - DASH LAMP - - SWITCH - - INDICATOR - - CYLINDERS - 1 2 3 4 - - CONNECTIONS THROUGH SWITCH - IN “DIM” POSITION - - FUSE AND - JUNCTION BLOCK - - HORN - - CONNECTIONS THROUGH SWITCH - IN “ON” POSITION - - MAGNETO - - HORN BUTTON - - MOTOR - - STARTING SWITCH - - BATTERY - - WIRING FOR 6-CYLINDER MODEL - 661 IS THE SAME AS FOR 4-CYLINDER - MODEL 462, EXCEPT FOR HIGH TENSION - LEADS BETWEEN MAGNETO - AND SPARK PLUGS. - - LEFT HEAD LIGHT - - NOTE:--DOTTED LINES INDICATE PERMANENT - CONNECTIONS BETWEEN FUSE - CABINET, DASH LAMP, CURRENT INDICATOR - AND SWITCH. CONNECTIONS AS SHOWN - FACING FUSE CABINET. - - SWITCH GROUNDED - - REAR - -Fig. 90. Wiring Diagram--Jeffrey-Four] - -Separate fuses are provided for the electric horn circuit and for the -rear lamp circuit. The push button for operating the electric horn is -mounted on the center of the steering post. - -=Ground Fuse.=--A fuse is located in the ground circuit between the -lamp controller and the magneto top to ground. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91. Hydrometer Syringe] - -=Lamp Controller.=--A pair of wires from the terminals of the storage -battery connect to the five position lamp controller. All lighting -circuits connected to this controller which may be locked in any of the -five positions. - -Oiling should be practiced regularly every two weeks or every five -hundred miles. Two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be put in -each of the two oilers of the motor and in each of the two oilers of -the generator. Do not flood the bearings with oil. - -At the same time the starting motor shaft should be oiled. An oil hole -is provided in the top of the starting motor gear case and about ten -drops of cylinder oil should be used. - -Fig. 91 shows a hydrometer syringe used for determining the specific -gravity or density of the solutions in the battery cells. - -To take specific gravity readings unscrew the filler or vent plug and -insert the tube into the cell and release bulb slowly to draw the acid -solution into the chamber until the hydrometer floats. The enlarged -graduated stem shows a reading of 1.280 at the point where it emerges -from the solution. After testing, the solution must be returned to the -cell from which it was taken. Specific readings above 1200 show the -battery more than half charged. - -Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery completely discharged or run down. - -Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should be given a -long run to restore the battery. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -NORTH EAST STARTER SYSTEM USED ON DODGE BROTHERS’ CARS - - -The North East starter system shown in Fig. 91¹⁄₂ comprises the North -East Model G starter-generator and the combined starting switch and -reverse current cut-out. This equipment serves to start the engine and -provide current for the lamps and other electrical accessories as well -as for the ignition system. The battery as the source of current while -the engine is not in operation or is running slowly; but at all engine -speeds above 350 R. P. M. the starter-generator supplies current for -the entire electrical system. - -=Wiring.=--In the accompanying wiring diagrams the starting circuit -is represented by the very heavy cables; the charging circuit, where -it does not coincide with the starting circuit, by the cables of -medium weight, and the lighting and the ignition circuits by the light -cables. As will be seen from the diagrams, the starting circuit extends -from the positive terminal of the battery to the starting switch, -and thence, when the switch is closed, through the starter-generator -armature and field coils back to the negative terminal of the battery -by way of the grounded negative starter-generator terminal, the car -frame, and the battery ground connections. The charging circuit is -identical with the starting circuit except at the starting switch, -where instead of passing from one switch terminal to the other -through the switch contactor it extends through a parallel path which -includes the reverse current cut-out and the charging indicator. The -cable leading to the lighting and ignition switch is attached to the -positive terminal of the indicator. From this switch the lighting and -the ignition circuits become distinct, and each, after passing through -its proper course, reaches the car frame and returns through it to the -source of supply. - -[Illustration: - - Charging - Indicator - - Lighting & Ignition - Switch - - Dash - Lamp - - Horn - - Head Lamp - - Ground - - Tail - Lamp - - Ground - - Horn Button - - Starting Switch - and - Reverse Current - Cut-out - - Ground - - Ground - Connection - - Ground - - Head Lamp - - Battery - - Ground - - Starter-Generator - - Ground Connection - -Fig. 91¹⁄₂. Dodge Wiring Diagram] - -Without exception all the connections of the starting and lighting -system must be made as indicated in this diagram if entirely -satisfactory results are to be obtained from the equipment. - -=Starter-Generator= (Fig. 92).--The starter-generator is mounted on -the left side of the engine by means of an adjustable support and a -clamping strap. It runs at three times engine speed, operating directly -from the crank shaft through a silent chain drive. Being a single unit -machine, it employs but one armature with only one commutator, one set -of field windings and one set of brushes for the performance of all of -its functions both as a starter and as a generator. - -While starting the engine it acts as a cumulatively compounded motor; -but while serving as a generator it operates as a differentially -compounded machine with its output positively controlled through -the agency of a Third Brush Regulating system, supplemented by the -differential influence of the series field upon the shunt field. - -The machine is designed for 12 volt service and, when driven by the -engine, normally begins to deliver current to the battery as soon as -the car speed is brought up to approximately 10 miles per hour. From -this point on, the charging rate rises rapidly with increasing speed -until the standard maximum rate of 6 amperes is reached at a car speed -of 16 or 17 miles per hour. From this speed to 20 or 21 miles per -hour it remains practically constant, but above 21 miles per hour it -decreases gradually until at the upper speed limit of the engine it may -become as low as 3 amperes. - -This charging rate conforms throughout with the standard -recommendations of the battery manufacturers. The early maximum reached -by the starter-generator output provides amply for the demands of -current at ordinary driving speeds; while the tapering characteristic, -which comes into effect at high speeds, serves to protect the battery -from superfluous charging in instances where cars may be subjected to -continuous high speed service. - -[Illustration: - - FIELD COIL - - TIE ROD - - ARMATURE - - FIELD RING - - FUSE - - RETAINING PLATE - - CORK PACKING WASHER - - COMMUTATOR - - ARMATURE SHAFT - - BALL BEARING - - SPROCKET - - COMMUTATOR-END - HOUSING - - 3^{RD} BRUSH PLATE - ADJUSTING-STUD - - SPRING END-PLAY - WASHER - - BALL BEARING - LOCKING SLEEVE - - BEARING-CAP - - FELT - OILING-WASHERS - - BALL BEARING - - OIL SLINGER. - - CLAMP-SCREW - - 3^{RD} BRUSH PLATE - CLAMP - - CRIMPED SPACER - - COVER-BAND - - SPROCKET-END HOUSING - - BRUSH-HOLDER STUD - - BRUSH - - BRUSH HOLDER - -Fig. 92. North East Model G Starter-Generator] - -=Adjustment of Charging Rate.=--The third brush system is so -constructed as to permit the charging rate to be changed when desired -to a higher or to a lower value than that for which it is normally -adjusted. Such adjustments should not be attempted by the car owner -himself, and should never be made except in cases of actual necessity -where the normal charging rate does not meet the special service -conditions under which the equipment may be required to operate -permanently. In every instance where there is any reason to believe -that a modification of the rate would be beneficial, the car owner -should refer the equipment to the North East Electric Company or its -nearest branch or service station. - -=Fuse.=--The fuse is located on the commutator end of the -starter-generator. Its purpose is to protect the electrical system -if possible by rendering the starter-generator inoperative whenever -abnormal operating conditions may occur. Due to its protective function -the fuse is always the first point in the system to be inspected in -case the starter-generator ever failed to produce current. If the -fuse is found to be “blown” or missing, a new one should be applied -and the machine given a preliminary test before further search for -trouble is made. Should the generator fail to deliver current even -after a new fuse has been installed or should the new fuse “blow” when -the machine is in operation, the entire electrical system should then -be inspected thoroughly for possible faults such as open circuits, -improper connections or abnormal grounds. Under such circumstances the -difficulty should always be corrected before any further attempt is -made to operate the equipment. - -=Precautions Necessary for the Operation Without Battery in -Circuit.=--The third brush regulating system requires a closed -charging circuit for the successful performance of its duties. The -battery, therefore, forms an indispensable link in the system and its -presence in circuit is always essential to the proper operation of -the starter-generator. Should the machine ever have to be operated -with the battery disconnected or with the charging circuit otherwise -incomplete, the electrical system must be protected by rendering the -machine inoperative. This is to be done by removing the fuse from its -clips. - -When the starter-generator thus rendered incapable of producing -current, no ignition current will be available from the usual sources. -Under such circumstances, therefore, the engine cannot be operated -without some provisional source of ignition current. A battery of nine -or ten dry cells will serve satisfactorily as a temporary substitute -provided they are used for ignition only. - -=Starting Switch and Reverse Current Cut-out.=--The reverse current -cut-out is located in the same case with the starting switch. This -combined switch and cut-out is mounted near the center of the toe-board -where the switch push-rod button is within convenient reach from the -driver’s seat. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM--BUICK CARS - - -The motor generator which is located on the right side of the engine -is the principal part of the Delco System. This consists essentially -of a dynamo with two field windings, and two windings on the armature -with two commutators and corresponding sets of brushes, in order that -the machine may work both as a starting motor, and as a generator for -charging the battery and supplying the lights, horn and ignition. The -ignition apparatus is incorporated in the forward end of the motor -generator. This in no way affects the working of the generator, it -being mounted in this manner simply as a convenient and accessible -mounting. The motor generator has three distinct functions to perform -which are as follows: - - 1.--Motoring the generator. - 2.--Cranking the engine. - 3.--Generating electrical energy. - -Motoring the generator is accomplished when the ignition button on the -switch is pulled out. This allows current to come from the storage -battery through the ammeter on the combination switch, causing it to -show a discharge. The first reading of the meter will be much more -than the reading after the armature is turning freely. The current -discharging through the ammeter during this operation is the current -required to slowly revolve the armature and what is used for the -ignition. The ignition current flows only when the contacts are closed, -it being an intermittent current. The maximum ignition current is -obtained when the circuit is first closed and the resistance unit -on the front end of the coil is cold. The current at this time is -approximately 6 amperes, but soon decreases to approximately 3¹⁄₂ -amperes. Then as the engine is running it further decreases until at -1000 revolutions of the engine it is approximately 1 ampere. - -[Illustration: - - LEAD TO SWITCH. - - TO SHUNT FIELD. - - IGNITION COIL. - - RESISTANCE UNIT. - - TO THIRD BRUSH. - - TO POS. BATTERY. - - DIS. HEAD LOCATING TONGUE. - - TO NO 1 TERMINAL. - - TO NO 2 TERMINAL. - - BRUSH OPERATING ROD. - - OILER A. - - TO STARTING PEDAL. - - STARTING GEARS. - - A - - FIELD COIL. - - OILER B. - - DISTRIBUTOR - SHAFT GEAR. - - FLY WHEEL. - - PUMP SHAFT. - - ARMATURE. - - LUBRICATOR C. - - GENERATOR - CLUTCH. - - ROLLER BEARING. - - BALL BEARING. - - OIL DRAIN. - - ONE WAY CLUTCH BUILT IN - THIS GEAR. - - MOTOR COMMUTATOR. - - GENERATOR COMMUTATOR. - -Fig. 93. Delco Motor Generator--Showing Parts] - -This motoring of the generator is necessary in order that the starting -gears may be brought into mesh, and should trouble be experienced -in meshing these gears, do not try to force them, simply allow the -starting pedal to come back giving the gears time to change their -relative positions. - -A clicking sound will be heard during the motoring of the generator. -This is caused by the overrunning of the clutch in the forward end of -the generator which is shown in Fig. 93. - -The purpose of the generator clutch is to allow the armature to revolve -at a higher speed than the pump shaft during the cranking operation -and permitting the pump shaft to drive the armature when the engine is -running on its own power. A spiral gear is cut on the outer face of -this clutch for driving the distributor. This portion of the clutch -is connected by an Oldham coupling to the pump shaft. Therefore its -relation to the pump shaft is always the same and does not throw the -ignition out of time during the cranking operation. - -The cranking operation takes place when the starting pedal is fully -depressed. This causes the top motor brush to come in contact with the -motor commutator. As this brush arm lowers, it comes in contact with -the gear in the generator brush arm raising the generator brush from -its commutator. At the same time the current from the storage battery -flows through the heavy series field winding, motor brushes and motor -winding on the armature. The switching in this circuit is accomplished -by means of the top motor brush which is operated from the starting -pedal. (Shown in Fig. 94). - -This cranking operation requires a heavy current from the storage -battery, and if the lights are on during the cranking operation, the -heavy discharge from the battery causes the voltage of the battery -to decrease enough to cause the lights to grow dim. This is noticed -especially when the battery is nearly discharged; it also will be more -apparent with a stiff motor or with a loose or poor connection in the -battery circuit. It is on account of this heavy discharge current that -the cranking should not be continued any longer than is necessary, -although a fully charged battery will crank the engine for several -minutes. - -[Illustration: - - _BRUSH OPERATING ROD_ - - _MOTOR BRUSH_ - - _GENERATOR BRUSH_ - - _GENERATOR - COMMUTATOR_ - - _MOTOR COMMUTATOR_ - - _THIRD BRUSH_ - - _PLATE SLOTTED TO PERMIT - THIRD BRUSH ADJUSTMENT_ - -Fig. 94. Delco Motor Generator--Diagram of Operation] - -During the cranking operation the ammeter will show a discharge. This -is the current that is used both in the shunt field winding and the -ignition current; the ignition current, being an intermittent current -of comparatively low frequency, will cause the ammeter to vibrate -during the cranking operation. If the lights are on the meter will -show a heavier discharge. - -The main cranking current is not conducted through the ammeter, as this -is a very heavy current and it would be impossible to conduct this -heavy current through the ammeter and still have an ammeter that is -sensitive enough to indicate accurately the charging current and the -current for lights and ignition. - -As soon as the engine fires the starting pedal should be released -immediately, as the overrunning motor clutch is operating from the time -the engine fires until the starting gears are out of mesh. Since they -operate at a very high speed, if they are held in mesh for any length -of time, there is enough friction in this clutch to cause it to heat -and burn out the lubricant. There is no necessity for holding the gears -in mesh. - -The motor clutch operates between the flywheel and the armature pinion -for the purpose of getting a suitable gear reduction between the motor -generator and the flywheel. It also prevents the armature from being -driven at an excessively high speed during the short time the gears are -meshed after the engine is running on its own power. - -This clutch is lubricated by the grease cup A, shown in Fig. 93. This -forces grease through the hollow shaft to the inside of the clutch. -This cup should be given a turn or two every week. - -When the cranking operation is finished the top brush is raised off -the commutator when the starting pedal is released. This throws the -starting motor out of action (Fig. 94). The top brush comes in contact -with the generator commutator, and the armature is driven by the -extension of the pump shaft. - -At speeds above approximately 7 miles per hour the generator voltage -is higher than the voltage of the storage battery which causes -current to flow from the generator winding through the ammeter in the -charge direction to the storage battery. As the speed increases up to -approximately 20 miles per hour this charging current increases, but -at the higher speeds the charging current decreases. - -=Lubrication.=--There are five places to lubricate the Delco System: - - 1. The grease clutch for lubricating the motor clutch. - - 2. Hole at B (Fig. 93) for supplying cup grease for lubricating the - generator clutch and forward armature bearing. - - 3. The oiler C in the rear end cover for lubricating the bearing on - the armature shaft. This should receive a few drops of oil once a - week. - - 4. The oil hole in the distributor at A (Fig. 93) for lubricating the - top bearing of the distributor shaft. This should receive oil once a - week - - 5. This is the inside of the distributor head. This should be - lubricated with a small amount of vaseline, carefully applied two or - three times during the first 2000 miles running of the car, after - which it will require no attention. This is to secure a burnished - track for the rotor brush on the distributor head. This grease should - be sparingly applied and the head wiped clean from dust and dirt. - -The combination switch (Figs. 95 and 96) is for the purpose of -controlling the lights, ignition, and the circuit between the generator -and the storage battery. The button next to the ammeter controls both -the ignition and the circuit between the generator and the storage -battery, the latter circuit being shown in the heavier line as shown -on the circuit diagram (Fig. 98). The button next to this controls the -head lights. The next button controls the auxiliary lamps in the head -lights. The button on the left controls the cowl and tail lights. - -The circuit breaker is mounted on the combination switch as shown in -Fig. 96. This is a protective device, which takes the place of a fuse -block and fuses. It prevents the discharging of the battery or damage -to the switch or wiring to the lamps, in the event of any of the wires -leading to these becoming grounded. As long as the lamps are using the -normal amount of current the circuit breaker is not affected. But in -the event of any of the wires becoming grounded an abnormally heavy -current is conducted through the circuit breaker, thus producing a -strong magnetism which attracts the pole piece and opens the contacts. -This cuts off the flow of current which allows the contacts to close -again and the operation is repeated, causing the circuit breaker to -pass an intermittent current and give forth a vibrating sound. - -[Illustration: Fig. 95. Delco Ignition Switch Plate] - -[Illustration: - - Circuit Breaker - - Numbers of Lower Terminals - -Fig. 96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker--Mounted] - -It requires 25 amperes to start the circuit breaker vibrating, but -once vibrating a current of three to five amperes will cause it to -continue to operate. - -In case the circuit breaker vibrates repeatedly, do not attempt to -increase the tension of the spring, as the vibration is an indication -of a ground in the system. Remove the ground and the vibration will -stop. - -The ammeter on the right side of the combination switch is to indicate -the current that is going to or coming from the storage battery with -the exception of the cranking current. When the engine is not running -and current is being used for lights, the ammeter shows the amount of -current being used and the ammeter hand points to the discharge side, -as the current is being discharged from the battery. - -When the engine is running above generating speeds and no current is -being used for lights or horn, the ammeter will show charge. This -is the amount of current that is being charged into the battery. If -current is being used for lights, ignition and horn, in excess of the -amount that is being generated, the ammeter will show a discharge as -the excess current must be discharged from the battery, but at all -ordinary speeds the ammeter will read charge. - -The ignition coil is mounted on top of the motor generator as shown -in Fig. 94 and is what is generally known as the ignition transformer -coil. In addition to being a plain transformer coil it has incorporated -in it a condenser (which is necessary for all high tension ignition -systems) and has included on the front end an ignition resistance unit. - -The coil proper consists of a round core of a number of small iron -wires. Wound around this and insulated from it is the primary winding. -The circuit and arrangement of the different parts are shown in Fig. -97. The primary current is supplied through the combination switch -through the primary winding and resistance through the coil, to the -distributor contacts. This is very plainly shown in Fig. 98. It is the -interrupting of this primary current by the timer contacts together -with the action of the condenser which causes a rapid demagnetization -of the iron core of the coil that induces the high tension current -in the secondary winding. This secondary winding consists of several -thousand turns of very fine copper wire, the different layers of which -are well insulated from each other and from the primary winding. One -end of the secondary winding is grounded and the other end terminates -at the high tension terminal about midway on top of the coil. It is -from this terminal that the high tension current is conducted to the -distributor where it is distributed to the proper cylinders by the -rotor shown in Fig. 98. - -[Illustration: - - Connects - To Switch - - High Tension Wire - To Center Of Distributor - - Connects To - Distributor - - Primary - Winding - - Resistance - Unit - - Secondary - Winding - - Iron Core - - Condenser - - Coil Bracket Must Be Grounded - -Fig. 97. Delco Ignition Coil] - -The distributor and timer, together with the ignition coil, spark -plugs, and wiring, constitute the ignition system. - -The proper ignition of an internal combustion engine consists of -igniting the mixture in each cylinder at such a time that it will be -completely burned at the time the piston reaches dead center on the -compression stroke. A definite period of time is required from the time -the spark occurs at the spark plug until the mixture is completely -expanded. It is therefore apparent, that, as the speed of the engine -increases, the time the spark occurs must be advanced with respect to -the crank shaft, and it is for this reason that the Delco ignition -systems are fitted with an automatic spark control. - -[Illustration: - - CIRCUIT BREAKER - - AMMETER - - COWL LIGHT - - RESISTANCE UNIT - - SWITCH - - BRUSH SWITCHES - OPERATED BY - STARTING PEDAL - - CONDENSER - - IGNITION COIL - - TONNEAU - LIGHT - - HEAD - LIGHTS - - SERIES FIELD - - ROTOR FOR DISTRIBUTING - HIGH TENSION CURRENT - - MOTOR - - GENERATOR - - TAIL LIGHT - - STORAGE - BATTERY - - SHUNT - FIELD - - TO SPARK PLUGS - - DISTRIBUTOR - - ADVANCE - TUNGSTEN - TIMING - CONTACTS - - AUX - LIGHT - - HORN BUTTON - IN WHEEL - -Fig. 98. Delco Wiring Diagram--Buick Cars] - -The quality of the mixture and the amount of compression are also -factors in the time required for the burning to be complete. Thus a -rich mixture burns quicker than a lean one. For this reason the engine -will stand more advance with a half open throttle than with a wide open -throttle, and in order to secure the proper timing of the ignition due -to these variations and to retard the spark for starting, idling and -carburetor adjusting, the Delco distributor also has a manual control. - -[Illustration: - - Rotor Button - - Rotor - - Breaker Cam - - Timing Adjustment - - Automatic Weights - - Advance Lever - -Fig. 99. Delco Ignition Distributor] - -The automatic feature of this distributor is shown in Figs. 99 and -100. With the spark lever set at the running position on the steering -wheel (which is nearly all the way down on the quadrant), the automatic -feature gives the proper spark for all speeds excepting a wide open -throttle at low speeds, at which time the spark lever should be -slightly retarded. When the ignition is too far advanced it causes loss -of power and a knocking sound within the engine. With too late a spark -there is a loss of power which is usually not noticed except by an -experienced driver or one very familiar with the car and heating of the -engine and excessive consumption of fuel is the result. - -The timer contacts shown at D and C (Fig. 100) are two of the most -important points of an automobile. Very little attention will keep -these in perfect condition. These are tungsten metal, which is -extremely hard and requires a very high temperature to melt. Under -normal conditions they wear or burn very slightly and will very seldom -require attention; but in the event of abnormal voltage, such as would -be obtained by running with the battery removed, or with the ignition -resistance unit shorted out, or with a defective condenser, these -contacts burn very rapidly and in a short time will cause serious -ignition trouble. _The car should never be operated with the battery -removed._ - -[Illustration: - - 3 AUTOMATIC - WEIGHTS - - DISTRIBUTOR - CONTACT BREAKER - CAM - -Fig. 100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer] - -It is a very easy matter to check the resistance unit by observing -its heating when the ignition button is out and the contacts in the -distributor are closed. If it is shorted out it will not heat up, and -will cause missing at low speeds. - -A defective condenser such as will cause contact trouble will cause -serious missing of the ignition. Therefore, any of these troubles are -comparatively easy to locate and should be immediately remedied. - -These contacts should be so adjusted that when the fiber block B is -on top of one of the lobes of the cam, the contacts are opened the -thickness of the gauge on the distributor wrench. Adjust contacts -by turning contact screw C, and lock nut N. The contacts should be -dressed with fine emery cloth so that they meet squarely across the -entire face. - -The rotor distributes the high tension current from the center of the -distributor to the proper cylinder. Care must be taken to see that the -distributor head is properly located, otherwise the rotor brush will -not be in contact with the terminal at the time the spark occurs. - -The distributor head and rotor should be lubricated as described under -the heading “Lubrication.” The amount of ignition current required -for different speeds is described under the heading “Motoring the -Generator.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -STORAGE BATTERY - -CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -The modern storage battery does not produce or generate electrical -force. It was designed to carry an extra supply of current in storage -to operate lighting and starting systems, and in most cases the current -required for ignition is drawn from this supply. - -[Illustration: - - Terminal Post - - Cell Retainer Case - - Cell Jar - - Negative Plate - - Separator - - Positive Plate - -Fig. 101. Storage Battery, Sectional View] - -A storage battery is also called an accumulator, as it accumulates and -retains a charge of electrical current for future use. - -Fig. 101 illustrates a storage battery with a section of the cell -retainer case removed to show the location of the cells, their -respective order, terminal posts and connections. A section of the -cell jar, has also been removed to show the core, which consists of a -set of positive and negative plates. The positive plates are inserted -between the negative plates and are held in this position through their -respective connections to the positive and negative terminal posts. -The cell retainer-jars are made of zinc or rubber, and contain an acid -and water solution called electrolyte into which the core is entirely -immersed. - -=The Positive and Negative Plates.=--The plates are held from direct -contact with each other by a wood or rubber separator. These plates -are formed with small sectional compartments called grids, into which -a lead compound in paste form is pressed. The positive plates are made -of lead oxide (zinc), and are dark gray in color, while the negative -plates are made of pure lead, and are light gray in color. - -=Cells.=--The cells are connected up in series, that is, the positive -terminal post of one cell is connected to the negative terminal post -of the next cell, forming a direct path through the cell arrangement. -Each cell will retain a two-volt pressure until fully discharged. The -voltage of a battery is determined by adding the number of two-volt -cells that it contains. - -=Amperage.=--The standard type of storage battery shown in Fig. 102 is -composed of three two-volt cells which form a six-volt unit of sixty -ampere hours, which means that a fully charged battery will deliver -one ampere per hour for sixty hours. This, also, is about the rate of -amperage consumed by the modern battery ignition system. - -=Electrolyte Solution.=--The electrolyte solution is composed of a -mixture of one part of sulphuric acid added to four to six parts of -water. This solution is poured into the cell through the filler cap, -until the plates are covered from one-fourth to one-half inch in depth -as shown in Fig. 102. - -Care should always be exercised to keep the air vent in the filler -cap free from grease and dirt in order that the gases formed through -evaporation may escape. - -=Battery Charging.=--The cells are charged by passing a direct current -through them, which causes a chemical action to take place as the -current flows in, changing the nature of the positive and negative -plates, thereby retaining a current force equal to the difference of -the changed nature of the plates. The battery is entirely discharged -when the plates become alike in nature. - -[Illustration: - - Unscrew - this Cap - - Fill up to - this Point - - SOLUTION - - Don’t fill - above - this Point - - PLATE - -Fig. 102. Storage Battery, Sectional View] - -=Storage Battery Care and Maintenance.=--Regularly once every week -during the summer, and every two weeks during the winter, add water to -each of the three cells of the battery, until the tops of the plates -are covered. Use water only; never add acid of any kind. Water for -battery purposes should be distilled fresh rain or melted ice, and must -be free from alkali, iron, or other impurities. The battery should be -kept clean and free from dirt. Use only clean non-metallic vessels for -handling and storing water for battery purposes. - -The state of charge of a battery is indicated by the specific gravity -or density of the solution. Fig. 103 shows a hydrometer syringe used -for taking specific gravity readings. The filler or vent plug in the -top of the cell is removed and the rubber tube of the hydrometer -syringe inserted into the cell so that the end of the tube is below the -solution. Then squeeze the rubber bulb slowly, drawing the solution -into the acid chamber until the hydrometer floats. - -[Illustration: Fig. 103. Hydrometer Syringe] - -The reading on the graduator stem at the point where it emerges from -the solution is the specific gravity or density of the solution. - -Fig. 103 shows an enlarged section of the hydrometer floating so that -the reading of the graduated scale is 1.280 at the point where it -emerges from the solution. This is the specific gravity or density of -the solution. - -After testing, the solution must be returned to the cell from which it -was taken. - -Never take specific gravity readings immediately after adding water to -the cells. - -The specific gravity readings are expressed in “points,” thus the -difference between 1.275 and 1.300 is 25 points. - -When all the cells are in good condition the specific gravity will be -approximately the same in all cells and the difference should not be -greater than 25 to 30 points. - -With a fully charged battery the specific gravity of the solution will -be from 1.280 to 1.300. - -Specific gravity readings above 1.200 indicates that the battery is -more than half charged. - -Specific gravity readings below 1.200, but above 1.150 indicates -battery less than half charged. - -Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery discharged or run down. - -Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should be given a -long run with all lights turned off, to restore the battery. - -This condition may result from leaving a car standing for prolonged -periods with all lights in use and insufficient running of the gas -motor in between these periods to replace the current taken to supply -the lights. - -When the specific gravity shows the battery to be half discharged, -the lights should be used sparingly until the gravity rises to -approximately 1.275. - -If the specific gravity in one cell is much lower than that of -the others, and if successive readings show the difference to be -increasing, this indicates that the cell is not in good order. - -If one cell regularly requires more water than the others (continually -lowering the specific gravity), a leaky jar is indicated. Leaky jars -should be replaced immediately. - -If there is no leak and the specific gravity falls 50 to 75 points -below that of the other cells in the battery, an internal short circuit -is indicated and should be remedied. - -=Battery to Remain Idle.=--Where a battery is to remain out of active -service for a long period, it may be kept in good condition by giving -it a freshening charge at least once a month, by running the gas motor -idle. - -When a battery has been out of service for some time it should be given -a thorough charge before it is placed in service again. - -If the gas motor cannot be run to give a freshening charge, the battery -should be taken from the car and placed at a garage, which makes a -business of charging storage batteries. It can be charged at least once -a month. This charge should be 4 and ³⁄₄ to 5 amperes for twenty-four -hours. - -=Battery Freezing.=--In order to avoid freezing, a battery should be -kept in a fully charged condition, as a fully charged battery will not -freeze except at extreme temperatures. As a battery discharges the -specific gravity of the solution decreases, and the specific gravity of -a fully discharged battery will be approximately 1.120. Batteries of -this low gravity will freeze at 20° F. above zero, whereas, the density -of the solution in a battery approximately three-quarters charged will -be 1.260, and a solution of this density will not freeze until 60° F. -below zero. - -_See_ Accumulator. Chapter 14, Electrical Dictionary--Function and -Chemical Action. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -SPARK PLUGS AND CARE - - -Some definite knowledge of spark plug construction quality, and care, -will be found very useful to the average motorist in purchasing new -plugs, and keeping those in present use, in good condition. A good -plug properly constructed should outlast the life of the motor. When -purchasing new plugs, first examine the old plug and get one of the -same length. This is very important as spark plugs are made in as many -different lengths as required by high and low compression motors. High -compression motors have a small low walled combustion chamber, while -low compression motors usually have a spacious high wall chamber and -require a longer plug, whereas if the long plug is used in the high -compression motor it may be put out of commission by the ascending -piston. Next determine the size of the plug and the gauge of the -thread. The majority of motors use the ³⁄₄ inch plug, with the S. A. -E. thread, while a few still use the A. L. A. M. thread which is much -finer gauged. Another point to be remembered is that it is an unwise -expenditure to purchase cheap plugs because the intense heat and -pressure that they are subjected to and required to stand, demands that -they be made of the highest quality of material and workmanship. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104. Spark Plug] - -Fig. 104 shows the sectional construction of a spark plug costing -from one dollar to one dollar and fifty cents. No. 1, the terminal, -is designed to fit all connections. No. 2 nut which holds electroids -firmly in place. No. 3 represents round edged shoulders which prevent -the plug from short circuiting on the outside. No. 4 is a heavy -electroid which will not break or burn. No. 5 is an extra heavy -insulator which insures a good spark in case the outer porcelain -insulator becomes broken or cracked. No. 6 is a bushing which holds -the insulator firmly in place from the top. No. 7 is a high compression -washer which allows for upward expansion and makes an even seat -for the bushing which holds the insulator in position. No. 8 is a -massive porcelain insulator designed to withstand a high temperature -without cracking. No. 9 is a copper asbestos washer that allows for -the downward expansion of the insulator. No. 10 is the shell casting -which holds and protects the insulator. No. 11 are rounded corners -which will allow the plug to be screwed down flush without coming into -contact with the curved walls of the cup containers. No. 12 is a high -compression washer which prevents all leakage. No. 13 shows elastic -cement which strengthens the lower construction of the insulator and -prevents the compression from escaping through the center of the -insulator. No. 14 is a hardened polished steel tipped electroid. No. -15 is a bent polished steel electroid dipped on each side of the spark -in order to prevent oil from running down from the shell casting and -closing the spark gap. No. 16 represents an extended center electroid -which prevents any oil that may have lodged on it from stopping at the -spark gap. - -=Spark Plug Cleaning.=--To insure a smooth running motor and a good -spark, the spark plugs should be cleaned at thirty day intervals. It -is not always necessary to disassemble them at this time as the carbon -usually collects and bakes on the metal casting shell and can be -removed by running a thin knife blade or finger nail file around the -inner surface. However, when the insulator becomes pitted or carbon -burnt the plug should be disassembled and the insulator wiped clean -with a cloth dampened in kerosene. Never immerse the insulator in -kerosene, as this will loosen the cement around the center electroid -and cause the plug to leak compression. The shell may be immersed. It -is then wiped dry and the inside surfaces scraped or rubbed with a -piece of sand or emery paper to dislodge the carbon pits. After all -parts have been thoroughly dried the plug is reassembled, using new -washers. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE - - -The clutch used in automobile construction of the present day becomes a -necessary part of the equipment upon the adoption by manufacturers of -the progressive and selective types of sliding gear transmissions. - -When the engine is started the clutch is “in,” that is, in contact -with the flywheel, and all parts of the clutch revolve with it at the -same speed. The shaft on which the clutch is mounted extends into the -transmission gear case, but as the transmission gears are in a neutral -position, the movement of the car is not affected. - -When the car is to be started the clutch foot pedal (usually on the -left side of the steering column) is pressed down. This throws the part -attached to the drive shaft out of contact with the part attached to -the flywheel, and in its backward movement it comes into contact with -the clutch brake, as shown in Fig. 105, which stops it from revolving. -The hand gear control lever is shifted into the first speed slot or -position. The pressure on the foot pedal is then gradually released and -the clutch is carried in by spring tension, and the car moves off at -first speed. - -=Second Speed.=--The clutch is thrown “out” after a brief lapse of -three to five seconds has been allowed for the brake to slow up -rotation in order that the gears to be meshed will be rotating at the -same speed. The hand control lever is now shifted into the second speed -slot, and the clutch pedals released. - -=High Speed or Direct Drive.=--The clutch is thrown out and a few -seconds allowed for it to slow up. The hand control lever is shifted -into the high speed slot, which connects the drive or propeller shaft -directly to the clutch shaft and the car is driven at crank shaft speed -when the clutch is let in. - -=Reverse.=--The clutch is employed in the same manner. However, the -motion of the car, the clutch and all gears must be at a stand still -before the gear control lever is shifted to the reverse speed slot, as -the gears in the transmission operate in the opposite direction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 105. Cone Clutch and Brake] - - -OPERATION - -A clutch always consists of two parts, one part which is attached to -the flywheel, and another part which operates on or against the part -formed by the flywheel. - -While there are five to seven different types of clutches, but two -types are used by the majority of automobile manufacturers. The single -or multiple disc clutch is used almost exclusively in unit power plant -construction, while the cone type is used when the transmission is -carried in a separate unit. - -Fig. 105 shows the cone clutch with its three adjusting springs and -clutch brake. The cone is shown in a lighter color than the flywheel. -It has a funnel-shaped surface with a slant or angle of from thirty to -thirty-eight degrees. The slanted surface is faced with leather and -fits into the rim of the flywheel which has been ground to the same -slant. The cone clutch is not attached to the flywheel but forms a -part and revolves with it when the faces are in contact. The cone is -carried on a separate short shaft which extends into the transmission -case. This shaft carries a steel plate or disc at the front end to -which the cone which slides on the shaft is anchored by studs extending -from the plate through the cone. The studs usually number three or -four and carry a two to three inch spring on the outer end back of the -cone. The cone is backed out of contact with the flywheel face, against -the tension of these springs, in a toggle leverage connected to the -foot pedal. The clutch brake shown in Fig. 105 is adjustable and makes -contact with the rim of the cone retarding the rotation when the cone -is drawn out of contact with the flywheel. - -=Cone Clutch Care.=--The leather face of the cone should receive 5 to 7 -drops of Neat’s foot oil every thirty days. A grease cup will be found -on the cone which provides lubrication for the shaft on which the cone -slides. This should be given a half turn every second day. - -=Cone Clutch Adjustment.=--The three studs extending through the -cone, have a lock nut adjustment on the outer end, and the cone may -be adjusted up to make a stronger face contact by loosening the lock -nut and turning the inner nut to the right. This strengthens the -spring tension and causes the contact faces to set more firmly. This -adjustment, however, should take place only when clutch slipping is -noted. Only a little movement of the nuts is necessary, and all three -or four nuts should be taken up a like amount in order to prevent the -cone from running out of line or making uneven contact. - -Fig. 106 shows the multiple disc clutch used almost exclusively in -connection with the unit power plant. This type of clutch consists of -a set of plates attached and driven by the flywheel, and another set -of plates or thin discs attached to the drive shaft. The drive shaft -plates operate between the flywheel plates. The contact is frictional -and the plates are held together by spring tension. - -[Illustration: Fig. 106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and -Transmission] - - -BORG AND BECK CLUTCH - -The new Borg and Beck Clutch is provided with a thrust bearing at the -inner end of the clutch sleeve, which does away with the friction -between the parts, and eliminates the need of a clutch brake. - -The clutch is mounted in the customary way in a housing which contains -both the flywheel and the clutch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107. Borg and Beck Clutch] - -Referring to the sectional view, Fig. 107, the action of the clutch -is clear if it is kept in mind that among the rotatable parts only -the driven group, comprising of the disk A and the shaft B, can stand -still when the flywheel is running. All the other rotatable parts are -anchored to the flywheel, and must revolve and drive with the latter. -The clutch brake was formerly mounted at the inner end of the clutch -shaft, and has been replaced by the thrust bearing shown at C. - -When the clutch is disengaged there is no friction between the shaft -B, and the throw out sleeve D. The thrust bearing takes the rotating -drag of the clutch shaft, thereby eliminating the necessity for a brake -to check the spinning action. The friction and power action is readily -understood as, when the clutch is thrown in, all the rotating parts are -friction locked into a single combination and revolve as one with the -flywheel. - -The power of the release clutch spring E, acting through the -throwout-collar F, and the bell crank pivot G, drives the thrust shoes -outwardly with a lever wedge toggle combination of powers against the -overhanging, inward beveled face to the thrust ring H, since the parts -on which they are mounted are backed against the cover wall or rigid -end of the clutch casing. It therefore follows that the full part -shafting effect of the thrust is communicated to the thrust ring H, and -the latter, in being driven hard toward the flywheel, sets up between -itself and the inner casing wall a friction grip sufficiently powerful -to stop the slippage of the asbestos rings upon the polished faces of -the discs, thus giving the drive to the car. - -When the pedal is depressed to release the clutch, the retracing parts -telescope the coil of the spring E, until it occupies nearly a single -plane. The withdrawing parts also release the clutch shoes a sufficient -distance from the face of the thrust ring H to permit the latter, -together with its companion friction ring, to back away from the disc, -thus breaking the friction grip and permitting it to come to a stop, -while the flywheel and the parts of the clutch anchored to it are left -free to revolve idly. - -The release disc A is so light that its spinning does not continue -except for a very short time and does not offer any clashing action -on the gears. The full thrust of the spring transmitted through the -powerful lever toggle action to the friction grip parts is always -sufficient to lock the driving flywheel parts, and the driven disc, -into a fixed nonslipping relation for a full driving action; but it -is still always within control of the driver, through the foot lever, -to let the clutch into engagement by degrees, and thus by a gradual -increase of the friction grip, gradually overcome the starting slippage. - -=Adjustments.=--Taking up adjustments are provided by means of bolts -acting through adjustment slots in the cover. When the bolts are -loosened and shifted in their cover slots, they control and shift -with them an adjustment ring which brings all the shoes to new seats -against the nonslipping thrust ring and these seats being farther up -the inclines of the tapered ring, the ring is necessarily thrust much -farther toward the other friction parts, thus compensating the wear. - -The adjustment for throw-out can be controlled by taking up the -friction grip adjustment, the latter being identical with the take up -adjustment just described, as these too are taken care of by the same -mechanical means to make the adjustment on the clutch. - -=Disc Clutch Cleaning; Dry Plate.=--Dry plate clutches do not require -any oil, except that the grease cups (which provide lubrication for the -sleeve shaft and bearings) be filled weekly and given a half turn every -second day. The housing and plates should be cleaned whenever slipping -becomes noticeable. To do this remove the cover from the housing, -and the drain plug from the bottom, hold the clutch out, and squirt -kerosene over the plates with a dope gun. This will remove the grease -from the plates, and also any dirt or grit that may have lodged in the -bottom of the housing. - -=Disc Clutch Cleaning; Wet Plate.=--The wet plate clutch is cleaned in -the same manner as the dry plate, except that the plug is first removed -from the bottom of the housing and the oil drained off before using the -kerosene. After the plates and housing have been cleaned, replace the -drain plug and fill the housing up to the clutch shaft with a heavy -cylinder oil. - - -CONE CLUTCH CLEANING - -Cone clutches are always in perfect condition when leaving the factory -and should not require any further attention during the first season or -for eight to ten thousand miles of service. - -After that it is usually necessary to replace the leather, or reline -the cone, which makes it as good and as serviceable as when it was new. - -=New Clutch Leathers.=--New clutch leathers may be obtained from the -manufacturer, or from the service station, by giving the number and -model of the car. New clutch leathers obtained in this way are cut, -shaped, and have the ends cemented, and are ready to be slipped on -or off, over the cone and riveted into place. However, the leather -must first be soaked in water or Neat’s foot oil to make it soft and -pliable. This allows it to be driven or stretched over the cone. The -rivets must be counter-sunk to prevent the heads from extending above -the top surface of the leather, which would cause the clutch to “grab” -or jerk upon being engaged. - -[Illustration: Fig. 108. Cone Clutch Leathers--Pattern--Cutting] - -=Measuring and Cutting Clutch Leathers.=--Whenever possible it is -advisable to purchase clutch leathers cut and cemented, ready to -put on. But in case of emergency or when the proper size cannot -be obtained, a new leather may be cut from a piece of leather -three-sixteenth of an inch in thickness using the old leather as a -pattern. But in case the old leather is not available to serve as a -pattern, proceed in the following manner which is illustrated in Fig. -108, which shows how to make an exact pattern out of paper without -going into technicalities. Take a piece of heavy wrapping paper, forty -or fifty inches long and twenty inches wide, lay the cone on the left -hand edge about one inch from the bottom of the sheet, roll the cone -keeping the paper flat on the face until the starting edge meets the -sheet, hold the wrapped cone and draw a line around the inside of the -paper, letting the pencil rest against the edge of the large diameter -of the cone; repeat at the small end of the cone, then draw a line -parallel to the starting edge where it meets the sheet. This will give -you a pattern similar to that shown with the dotted lines in Fig. 108. - -Now secure a piece of unstretchable leather (belting is preferable). -This belting or leather should be slightly longer than the pattern -you have just completed and sufficiently wide to embrace the curve; -about twelve to fifteen inches wide for the average clutch will be -sufficient, and about three-sixteenths of an inch thick. - -Cut out the paper pattern and lay it on the leather belting as shown in -Fig. 108, and cut out with a sharp knife, leaving one-half inch over -at each end as a safety measure and for mitering the joints. Fit this -leather to the cone and cut the ends the exact size, miter the ends and -cement with a good leather cement. Be sure that you have the rough or -flesh side of the new facing on the outside; rivet it firmly in place -and smooth down the rough spots with a piece of coarse sand paper, -clean off all dirt, grease, and grit, especially the grit from the sand -paper, as this will grind and score the smooth surface of the flywheel -and cause clutch slipping. Paint the leather with Neat’s foot oil and -the clutch is ready to be assembled and adjusted. - -=Cone Clutch Cleaning.=--Cone clutches usually do not require any -special care or cleaning unless oil or grease, other than (Neat’s -foot or castor) are applied accidentally or by mistake to the leather -face. If this happens the grease must be thoroughly cleaned off of the -leather face with kerosene or gasoline otherwise the clutch will not -hold. After the clutch leather has been washed allow it to dry for -twenty minutes and apply a thin coat of Neat’s foot oil evenly on the -leather face before reassembling the clutch. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE - - -Transmission came into use with the application or adoption of the -internal combustion engine as a factor in motor car propulsion. - -As this type of engine develops its power by a rapid succession of -explosions in the combustion chambers, each explosion delivers an -impulse or power stroke to the piston, which in turn sets the crank -shaft and flywheel to revolving. The momentum gathered by the crank -shaft and flywheel may therefore be termed the power for duty, or in -other words, unless there is momentum or carrying motion at this point, -there will be little or no power for duty. - -This brings us up to a point where it is easy to see that a rapid -series of explosions are necessary to gain carrying momentum or power -to move a dead weight load. As this motional power could not be applied -to the load without serious damage to the gears and bearings, it -was necessary to invent a device to gradually transmit or apply the -power to the movable load by graduating the leverage. This resulted -in the development of the automobile transmission. The natural way of -doing this at first seemed to be by applying the power to the load by -frictional slippage. Many ingenious devices of this sort were tried out -without much success until the driving and driven disc type made its -appearance. - -Fig. 109 shows the driving and driven disc type of friction -transmission. This type of transmission is not being used by any of the -present day manufacturers of automobiles, but may still be found on -some of the three and four-year-old models still in operation. - -A, the drive shaft, is squared and slides backward a distance of three -inches through a squared sleeve extending from the hub of the flywheel. -The action of this shaft is controlled by a leverage arrangement to a -foot pedal. B, the steel plate driving disc, is attached to the end of -shaft A, and drives C, when held back against it by pressure on the -foot pedal. Disc C can be slid in any position on the jack or cross -shaft D, and is controlled by a leverage arrangement connected to a -hand lever. The various speeds are obtained by sliding disc C into -different positions and contacts on the left side of disc B. Reverse -speeds are obtained by sliding disc C over center where it forms -contact on the right side of B and is driven in an opposite direction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 109. Friction Transmission] - -=The Planetary Type of Transmission.=--The planetary type of -transmission made its appearance along about the same time as the -friction type. The power is transmitted to the load through a set of -reduction gears arranged in a drum. A king gear on the engine shaft -operates a set of small gears in the drum. These small gears reduce -the leverage speed and transmit the power to the drive shaft, a band -similar to that used on brakes is fitted to the face of the drum. When -this drum containing the reduction gears is not in use it turns at -crank shaft speed. The speed is used by pressing a foot pedal which -tightens the brake band and holds the drum stationary, thereby forcing -the smaller gears into action. - -Planetary transmissions are shown and fully explained in a later -chapter. (See Model T Ford Supplement.) - -=The Sliding Gear Transmission.=--This type of transmission has -proved very successful, and is used by 98 per cent of the present day -automobile manufacturers. This type of transmission made its first -appearance with a progressive gear shift, that is, it was necessary -to proceed through one speed or set of gears to engage the next. This -arrangement caused considerable confusion at times, as it was necessary -to reshift the gears back through these speeds to attain neutral, when -the car was brought to a stand still. - -[Illustration: - - Neutral - - 2nd. - - Rev. - - Rev. - - 2nd. - - Neut. - - 1st. - - 3rd. - - 3rd. - - 1st. - - Ball-and-Socket - Shift - - H or Gate Type - Gear Shift - -Fig. 110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts] - -[Illustration: Fig. 111. Sliding Gear Transmission--Sectional View] - -The control lever operated on a straight forward and backward direction -on a quadrant, having a notch for each speed change. This gear shifting -arrangement has also been abandoned by manufacturers in favor of the -selective gear shift which is arranged so that the driver may choose -any speed at will. Fig. 110 shows the control lever which operates in a -frame resembling the block letter H and the ball and socket shift which -operates in the same manner. Fig. 111 shows the complete assembly of -the selective sliding gear transmission. The sliding gears are arranged -on a separate core and are operated by an individual throw fork, which -seats in a groove on the shoulder of the gear. Low and reverse are -always opposite each other on the same core. High and intermediate are -located on another core, and are controlled by another individual -shifting fork. The gear box arrangement (Fig. A) shows the cast gear -box which contains the gears, shafts, and bearings, and a roomy -compartment below the gears in which grease is carried, as the gears in -this type of transmission always operate in an oil bath which prevents -excessive wear and causes them to operate noiselessly. Fig. B, the gear -case cover, contains the slotted sliding shafts, to which the gear -in shifting forks are attached. Fig. C shows the arrangement of the -gears in the case and explains their operation. Gear No. 1 is attached -to the extreme end of the engine shaft, and is continually engaged -with gear No. 4, which causes the counter shaft No. 11, containing -the stationery gears, to revolve whenever the engine shaft No. 9 is -in operation. The drive shaft No. 8 does not run straight through and -connect with No. 9, the engine shaft, but ends and takes its bearing in -the core of gear No. 1. Consequently, when the gears on the drive shaft -are slid into mesh with the gears on the counter shaft, variable speeds -are attained. Low speed is obtained by sliding gear No. 3 into mesh -with gear No. 6; second or intermediate is obtained by meshing gears -No. 2 and gear No. 5. - -High, or engine speed, is obtained by sliding gear No. 2 which is cored -and shouldered over the end of gear No. 1, making a direct connection -of the drive shaft No. 8, and the engine shaft No. 9, at this point. -Reverse is obtained by meshing gear No. 3 on the drive shaft with gear -No. 10, which is an extra or idle gear mounted on a stub shaft on the -rear of the gear case. Idle gear No. 10 is always in mesh with gear No. -7, on the counter shaft. - -Functional operation engine shafts always turn to the right or -clockwise, which causes the counter shaft to turn to the left or -anti-clockwise. This causes the drive shaft to turn to the right when -low or intermediate speed gears are engaged, driving the car forward. -Reverse, is obtained by the use of an extra gear in this way. Counter -shaft turning to the left turns idle gear to the right, and this gear -turning to the right, turns gear on the drive shaft to the left, and -causes the car to be driven in a backward direction. In the unit power -plant shown in Fig. 112, the operation and gear shifting are identical -with that of the separate gear case. The crank case of the motor is -either extended or another case attached to the motor which has a -compartment arranged to contain the clutch and transmission gears. This -arrangement results in compactness, and does away with the supports -required to carry the transmission separately. - -=Transmission Care.=--The transmission should be thoroughly cleaned and -refilled with fresh grease or heavy oil once in every thousand miles -that the car is driven to prevent excessive wear and much noise. To -clean, remove the plug at the bottom of the case, and the cover from -the top. After the old oil has drained out, replace the plug, fill -the case half full of kerosene, replace the cover, and let the motor -run for a few minutes with the gears in neutral. Drain the kerosene -off, and wash the case and gears off with a paint brush which has been -dipped into fresh kerosene. Then examine the gears for blunt burrs -and the bearings for looseness. If the gears are burred or chipped, -file, or grind them down to level. If the bearings are loose they will -have to be replaced, as the bearings used to carry both the counter -and drive shaft are seldom provided with means of adjusting. These -bearings, however, will not show wear for years if properly cared for. -Next, see that the gear case is free from grit and filings, replace the -drain plug, and fill the gear case to within one half inch from the -drive or propeller shaft with a light graphite grease or heavy oil, and -replace the cover using a new gasket. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly--Unit Power -Plant] - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - -UNIVERSAL JOINTS - - -[Illustration: - - Oil Plugs - - Slip Joint - - Oil-tight Washer - - Oil Plugs - - Slip Joint - - Oil-tight Washer - -Fig. 113. Slip Joint and Universal] - -Universal joints were designed to transmit power from one shaft to -another at constantly changing angles. An automobile engine cannot be -hung at the low level required to allow straight line drive, as it -would have to be carried from six to eight inches lower than it is in -present construction, and this would allow very little road clearance -if any. And as the rear axle receives the power transmitted to it at -a constantly changing level due to torque and spring action, it is -necessary to have a flexible coupling on the propeller shaft between -the engine and the rear axle to prevent the gears and bearings from -being damaged from distortion. - -Universal joints are made of the best steel or bronze, do not require -any adjusting, and will outlast the life of a car, providing they are -not driven at too great an angle, and are kept well lubricated. A metal -shell or leather boot is fitted to the joint to carry and provide -constant lubrication. This boot or container should be kept well-packed -with a heavy oil, (600-W steam oil, Whitemore’s compound or a light -graphite grease). - -[Illustration: - - _No 3001_ - - _No 3004_ - - _No 3003_ - - _No 3002_ - - _No 3006_ - - _No 3007_ - - _No 3008_ - - _No 3005_ - - _No 3009_ - - _No 3010_ - - _No 3011_ - -Fig. 114. Universal-Joint Construction Diagram] - -Remove the oil plug every thirty days and pack the housing. Use a dope -or oil gun to force in the lubricant. The housing should be subjected -to regular inspections quite frequently as the lubricant often escapes -from the end boot due to distortion and wear. - -Fig. 113 shows the rigid construction of a heavy duty universal joint -and slip joint. The ends of the shafts are yoked and fitted to a swivel -cross block; the leather boot follows the angle of the shaft and makes -the housing oil tight. - -Fig. 114 shows a sectional view of the “Standard” universal joint, -manufactured by the Universal Machine Co., of Bowling Green, Ohio. The -left-hand cut shows the forward section and tapered shaft seat. This -joint gives a combined universal action and slip on a two inch square. -All points are concentric and always in balance. The bearings are -provided with grooves and holes for lubrication. A metal and leather -boot is also provided for protection, and as a grease retainer. And -owing to the flange type there are but four bolts to remove in order to -disassemble this joint. - -The names of the various parts are given according to corresponding -numbers. - - 3001--Flange - - 3003--Adapter for same - - 3002--Socket - - 3006--Bronze caps - - 3007--Trunion head - - 3008--Metal boot - - 3009--Leather boot - - 3010-11--Boot clamps - - 3004--Oil plug - - 3005--Bolts - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI - -THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR - - -Differential gears were designed to allow for equalization of the power -strain transmitted to the rear axles. - -The rotary movement is transmitted to the axles joining the wheels by a -bevel gear, which if simple would drive both wheels at the same speed. -This is satisfactory on the “straight ahead” drive, but it is clear -that in turning a corner the car is describing a portion of a circle, -and the inner wheel having a smaller circumference to traverse, must -go at less speed than the outer. The differential gear was devised to -allow for this difference in power stresses. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115. Differential Action Diagram] - -It is perhaps the functional action more than the simple mechanism that -one finds the most confusion about. The diagram given in Fig. 115 shows -how the functional action is mechanically carried out. - -In the first place, each wheel, W, is fixed firmly to an independent -axle turned by pinions, D and E. These pinions are connected by -another, C. Now if D turns, E will rotate in the opposite direction due -to the action of C. If D and E are rotating in the same direction at -the same speed, C will merely lock with them and not rotate. If now, -D accelerates slightly, C will turn, slowly retarding E, while if E -accelerates, C will turn slowly in the opposite direction retarding D. -This is precisely what is required in turning a corner. Now fix these -in a box, driven as a whole by the bevel or ring gear B driven by the -driving pinion gear A. When the car is on the straight ahead drive D, -C, E are locked. C does not rotate and the three act as a single axle. -As the car turns, C turns slowly, acted upon by the outer wheel, and -gives the differential action. - -=The Worm Gear Drive.=--The worm gear drive differential action is -practically the same as the bevel gear action, the only difference -being that there is a worm gear on the end of the drive shaft which -engages with a helical toothed gear, which takes the place of the bevel -gear B. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116. Differential Assembly] - -Fig. 116 shows the differential gear assembly which is carried by a set -of bearings. These bearings are held in place by a set of shoulders, -or retainers which are built into the housing on each side of the -differential assembly. These bearings may be of either the radial, -roller, or ball type. However, when the ball or roller bearing is used -for carrying the differential, an end thrust bearing must be used in -conjunction to take the end thrust and for adjusting purposes. The -differential assembly shown is known as the bevel gear and pinion -drive. The pinion gear is keyed to the tapered end of the drive -shaft and usually does not carry an adjustment. The bevel gear mesh -adjustment is made by setting the bearing supporting the differential -assembly backward or forward. This adjustment, however, applies mostly -to the full floating axle, as the axle shaft in this case usually has a -square end which slides into the small bevel gear of the differential. -The shaft used in this type of axle may be drawn out through the wheel -and replaced without disassembling the axle or removing the weight from -the wheels. - -[Illustration: Fig 117. Differential Adjusting Points] - -When the Hotchkiss drive is employed in combination with the -semi-floating or three-quarters floating axle, three adjusting points -will be found. Fig. 117 shows the three points at which adjustments are -made. The short drive shaft carries the pinion gear at the rear end, -and a universal joint at the front end is supported by a set of radial -bearings inside of the front and rear ends of the housing. - -The adjustment on this shaft is made by turning the notched cone A1 to -the right, which pushes the bearings farther upon the bearing cones -and reduces the looseness. After the short shaft has been properly -adjusted, remove the lugs B, which fit into the notches of the -adjustment nuts, A2 and A3, and turn A2 to the left to loosen, now turn -A3 to the right until the bevel gear is meshing properly with pinion -gear, then replace the lugs, B, to hold the adjustment. It is only -necessary to make this adjustment when play occurs from natural wear, -which will happen probably once in every five to seven thousand miles. - -[Illustration: - - CASE - - CAM - - CAM FULCRUM PIN - - PAWL - - PAWL BLOCK - - LUG - - RETAINING PLATE - - RATCHET RING - -Fig. 118. Allen Gearless Differential] - -Fig. 118 shows a cross-section of the Allen gearless differential. The -main gearing is bolted to the casing. The wheel shafts are splined to -ratchet rings. The two lugs of the pawl block are secured in slots in -the casing so that the block turns with it. Eight pawls on the pawl -block drive, the ratchet rings two on each side operate for forward, -and two on each side for reverse. The pawls permit either ratchet -ring to overrun them and move freely in the direction of motion, so -long as it is moving faster than the pawl block. The lugs of the pawl -block have a little motion, about ³⁄₁₆″, in the slots, so that the -casing moves this distance before engaging them for forward or reverse -motion. This operates the rocking cams by their heads inserted in slots -in right angles to the lugs, having the effect of pressing on and -disengaging the forward or reverse pawls according to the direction of -the motion. - -When the car is running by its momentum with the clutch out, the action -is reversed and the ratchet rings drive the casing and driving gear -through the pawl block. - -The adjustment given above also applies to the setting of the Allen -differential. - -=Lubrication.=--_See_ Chapter on Axles. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII - -AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE - - -Two types of rear axles are being used by the manufacturers of -automobiles--the live axle, and the dead axle. The live axle which -carries the weight of the load and transmits the power of rotation to -the wheels, is built in two distinct designs called the semi-floating -axle, and the full-floating axle. The semi-floating design is -used extensively in manufacturing cars of light weight, while the -full-floating design is favored more by the manufacturers of cars of -medium and heavy weight. Both designs give equally satisfactory results. - -The dead axle carries the weight of the car and load in much the same -manner as a horse drawn vehicle. The power is conveyed to the loose -wheels on the axle, by means of a chain which operates on a sprocket -attached to the hub of the wheel, or by an internal gear drive arranged -and housed in the brake drums. - -=The Semi-floating Axle.=--In the semi-floating design of axle, the -axle shaft carries the weight and transmits the rotation power to the -wheel, which is keyed and locked to the outer end. The axle shaft is -provided with a bearing at each end which operates on the inside of a -closely fitted housing. The inside end of each axle shaft is bolted -directly to the differential. The housing is split or divided into -two halves, and bolts together in the center over the differential. -This design of axle gives excellent service, but has one disadvantage -in that it is somewhat difficult to disassemble, as the rear system -must be disconnected from the car to take the housing apart. Fig. 119 -shows a part sectional view of a semi-floating axle used by the Detroit -Taxicab Co. The wide series of S. K. F. ball bearings used on this -axle are self aligning, which prevents any binding action from shaft -deflection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle] - -=The Full-floating Axle.=--The full-floating design of axle serves -the same functional purpose as the semi-floating design, but is -constructed differently and operates on a widely different plan. In -the full-floating design of axle, the axle shaft does not support -any of the weight of the car or load, but serves simply as a member -to transmit the power rotation to the wheels. The wheels are mounted -on separate bearings, which operate on the outside of the outer end -of the housing. The inner ends of the axle shafts are squared, or -splined and slide into slots or seats in the differential gears. -The differential assembly is in a separate unit, and is floated on -bearings held by retainers extending from the forward end of the large -ball-shaped center of the housing. The outer end of the axle shaft -extends through the hub of the wheel, and has an umbrella-shaped plate -on the end which bolts to the outside face of the wheel, as shown in -Fig. 120, thus transmitting the power directly to the outside of the -wheel, without the axle shaft taking any bearing. The axle shaft may -be drawn out through the wheel, by removing the nuts which secure -the umbrella plate, without removing the weight of the car from the -wheels. The differential unit can also be removed without disassembling -the housing, by removing a large cover plate from the center of the -housing. Fig. 121 shows a typical full-floating axle, with a spiral -bevel gear drive. The wheels in this case are mounted on a set of -double series radial and thrust ball-bearings. The Hotchkiss type of -short shaft final drive is carried in the forward extended part of the -housing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 120. Full-Floating Axle--Wheel-End Arrangement] - -[Illustration: Fig. 121. Full-Floating Axle] - -Two types of front axles are used by the manufacturers of automobiles. -The I-beam type, which is a one piece drop forging, and the tubular -or hollow type, which is round and has the yoke fitted into the ends. -Both types operate on the same principle and plan, the only distinction -between the types is that one type has the I-beam cross member and the -other type has a pipe or tubular cross member. - -[Illustration: Fig. 122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts] - -The front axle consists of an I-beam or tubular cross member, which is -yoked at each end as shown at A, in Fig. 122. A steering knuckle B is -held between the ends of the yoke by C, a king pin, which allows the -knuckle to swing in a half circle. D, the spindle or short axle, is -provided with a set of radial thrust bearings. The wheel is adjusted -snugly to the bearings E by a castillated nut F. The adjustment is -held by a cotter pin which extends through the spindle and head of the -nut F. A short arm extends backward from each steering knuckle, shown -at G, in Fig. 122, and are connected together by an adjustable tie or -spread rod shown at H. A half circle ball arm extends from the knuckle -and circles over the axle. A rod or drag link forms the connection -between the ball arm and the steering arm of the steering gear. Fig. -123 shows the location of the parts assembled on a typical drop forged -I-beam front axle. A section of the hub has been removed to show the -location of the double row radial end thrust ball bearings. This type -of bearing is becoming very popular for automobile uses. - -=Adjustments of the Semi-floating Type of Axle.=--The short shaft -carried in the forward part of the housing has a center nut adjustment -between the universal joint and the pinion gear; moving this notched -nut to the right facing the rear axle draws the shaft backward and -meshes the teeth of the pinion gear deeper with the teeth of the ring -gear. After this adjustment is made, examine the teeth for even mesh; -it may be necessary to shift the differential unit to secure an even -bearing. (_See_ chapter on differential gears for detailed instructions -in regard to differential adjusting.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 123. I-Beam Front Axle] - -=Adjustments on the Full-floating Axle.=--The adjustments on the -full-floating axle are usually made by shifting the differential unit, -although a pinion gear adjustment is usually provided as described -above. - -=Care.=--The housing of both the semi-floating and the full-floating -axle should receive a fresh supply of medium fiber or graphite grease -every thousand miles. To grease, remove the plug on the large part of -the housing and force in grease with a dope gun until it begins to -bulge out of the hole. - -Wash out the housing every five thousand miles, and replace the -lubricant, as small metallic particles are worn off the gear teeth and -this grit, which is destructive to the gears and bearings, mixes with -the grease making it necessary to remove it that often. - -A grease cup will be found located at the outer end of each half of the -axle housing, which supplies the lubricant for the outer bearing. This -grease cup should be filled weekly with a medium cup grease and given a -half turn each day. - -=Care of Front Axle.=--Pack the space between the bearings in the hub -of the wheel every thousand miles. Use a heavy cup grease. The king -bolts which hold the steering knuckles between the ends of the yokes -are hollow and carry a grease cup on the head, which forces the grease -out through finely perforated holes, and lubricates the bushings on -which the pins take their bearing. This cup should be filled weekly and -given a half turn each day. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII - -BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE - - -An automobile is always equipped with two sets of brakes, as they are -required by law. The functional action of the brakes is to check the -motion of the car when the driver wishes to stop or reduce the rolling -speed. The service brake usually operates on the external surface, or -on the outside of the drum flange, and is connected to the right foot -pedal through a set of linkage. The emergency brake operates on the -internal surface of the drum, and connects through linkage to a hand -lever operating on a notched quadrant. The service brake is used in -ordinary driving to check the rolling motion and to stop the car. The -emergency brake is used to assist the service brake and to hold the -car, in case the driver wishes to allow it to stand on a grade. - -Fig. 124 shows a set of brakes assembled on the axle ready to receive -the horizontal flange of the brake drum. The brake drum is attached to -the wheel; consequently when a wheel has been removed and is about to -be replaced, the first operation consists of starting the drum flange -into the space between the lining of the external and internal bands; -care should always be exercised in making this adjustment, in order -not to burr the outer edge of the lining, as a brake with an uneven -frictional contact surface is of little value in checking the motion of -the car. - -In Fig. 124, A shows the position of the band on the inside of the -drum; B shows the contracting tension coil spring which holds the -bearing surfaces of the band in contact with the flat surface of the -cam when the brake is not in use; C shows the cam shaft, and the flat -surfaces of the double action cam, which expands the band and brings it -into even contact with the inner horizontal surface of drum flange, -thereby checking the motion of the wheel by frictionally grasping the -drum. - -The service brake shown in Fig. 124 is of the external contracting -type, which operates on, or frictionally grasps the outside horizontal -surface of the drum. D shows the lined band, which is held in a -stationary position from the rear; E shows the leverage arrangement -with its expanding coil spring, which holds the band free from the -drum, when the brake is not in use; F is the lever to which the pull -rod is connected; G is the lever on the internal brake cam shaft to -which the hand lever is connected by the pull rod. - -[Illustration: Fig. 124. Brake--Types and Adjustment] - -Fig. 125 shows a new type of internal expanding brake, which is being -used on many of the late models. The brake band in this case is -supported at three points and has an adjustment at the rear main point -of support. The cam has been done away with, and the band is expanded -by a leverage toggle arrangement which operates through a much larger -area, and is more dependable as there is no danger of its “sticking” or -turning over, as was often the case with the cam. - -Fig. 126 shows another type of service brake which may be encountered -on a few of the former models. This type of brake is usually located -on the propeller shaft at the rear end of the transmission case. This -type of brake operates in the same manner as the service brake at the -end of the axle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 125. Brake--Showing Toggle Arrangement] - -Fig. 126 shows an equalizer which allows for any difference that may -occur in making adjustments. - -[Illustration: Fig. 126. Transmission Brake--Equalizer] - -Fig. 127 shows the complete brake assembly, and the points of -adjustment on late Buick cars. - -=Brake Adjustment.=--All types of brakes are adjustable. The service -brake usually has two adjusting points, one at the drum, which is made -by turning the nut on the leverage pull pin, and another on the pull -rods. A long neck clevis, or a long butted turn buckle will always be -found on the pull rods, or on the rod leading to the equalizer. The -adjustment is made by turning either to the right to shorten, or take -up, and to the left to lengthen. The clevis is always threaded to the -right, while the turn buckle has a right and left thread which carries -each end of the rod into the butt when it is turned to the right. -The lock nuts must always be turned up tight to the butts after the -adjustment is made in order to hold it. - -[Illustration: - - BRAKE SHAFT - - SERVICE BRAKE PEDAL - - PULL RODS - - ADJUSTING TURNBUCKLE - - EMERGENCY BRAKE - LEVER - - INTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT - - EXTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT - - ADJUSTING THUMB SCREW - - ADJUSTMENT - - INTERNAL BRAKE BAND - - EXTERNAL BRAKE BAND - -Fig. 127. Brake--Arrangement and Adjustment--“Buick”] - -=Brake Care.=--A great deal depends upon the proper operation of the -brakes. They should be regularly inspected at least once a month for -loose adjustments and uncleanliness. The need of adjustment usually -occurs from natural wear, while an unclean frictional surface is -usually the result of oil or grease seepage through the outer axle -bearing. A felt washer is provided to prevent this from taking place, -but as these washers are subjected to considerable pressure, they often -become caked and hardened and lose their absorbing effectiveness. These -washers can be purchased at any accessory store for a few cents apiece, -and applied with very little trouble. - -=Cleaning the Surface of the Brake Bands.=--This is accomplished by -removing the wheel and washing the friction contact surface with -gasoline, after the surfaces have become thoroughly dry. Drop three or -four drops of castor or Neat’s foot oil on the contact surfaces of the -drum, and replace the wheel and spin it a few times before releasing -the jack. - -=Caution.=--After you have set the gears for starting, and before you -release the clutch pedal, always reach and make sure that the emergency -brake lever is in the neutral position. New drivers invariably forget -to do this, which results in severe strain on the bearings, and causes -them to get loose; the average brake band will not stand more than -fifteen to twenty minutes of continuous contact before it burns or -wears beyond the point of usefulness. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIV - -SPRING CARE TESTS - - -Information recently gathered from observation and interviews shows -that the average owner who operates and cares for his car, invariably -overlooks the springs and their connections while giving the car the -bi-monthly or monthly tightening-up and greasing, while the balance of -the car usually receives the required attention. - -This fact seems to be due mostly to an oversight, for the springs are -usually inspected while the car is motionless and at this time they -do not show defects readily, and have the appearance of being rigid, -inactive, and compact. - -=Weekly Spring Care.=--Weekly spring care should consist of filling -the grease cups (with a medium hard oil cup grease) and turning them -down until the grease makes its appearance at the outer edge of the -spring eye. This, under ordinary driving conditions, will be sufficient -lubrication for one week. But in cases where the car receives more than -ordinary use the grease cups should be given one-half turn every second -day. The shackle connections should then be wiped dry to prevent dust -and grit clinging and working into the bearing, which causes much wear -on even a sufficiently lubricated bearing surface. - -=Bi-monthly Spring Care.=--Special attention should be given at this -time to the U-shaped clips which connect the spring to the axle. A -loose clip means a broken spring at the first severe jolt, caused by -the rebound taking place between the clips. Therefore, tightly adjusted -clips will prevent action from taking place at the point between the -clips where the leaves are bolted together and will entirely eliminate -spring breakage. Tighten up the nut on the leave guide clip bolt to -prevent rattling. The shackles should be inspected for side play. To -determine whether there is side play, jack up the frame until the -weight is off the spring, then grasp it near the shackle and shake with -an in and out motion. If there is play a rattle thump will be heard. -To take out play, remove cotter pin and turn up castillated nut snugly -on the shackle pin. If the nut cannot be turned up a full notch, place -a thin washer over the end of the pin. The nut, however, should not be -turned up too tight as a certain amount of action is necessary. - -=Lubrication of the Spring Leaves.=--Lubrication of the spring leaves -should take place once every month. This point must be kept in mind -and adhered to, as a spring cannot produce the marked degree of action -necessary for smooth and easy riding, when the sliding surface is dry -and rusty. The leaves slide on each other when the spring opens and -closes, and if the sliding surface is not well lubricated the movement -will be greatly checked by the dry friction; these dry surfaces also -gather dampness which soon forms into dry-rust, which, in time entirely -retards action and results in a very hard riding car. - -It is not necessary to disassemble the spring at the monthly greasing -period, unless the spring has been neglected and rust has formed on the -sliding surfaces. In this case the sliding surface of each blade must -be cleaned with a piece of sand or emery paper. - -When the springs receive regular attention, it is only necessary to -jack up the frame until the wheels and axles are suspended, the weight -of which will usually open the leaves sufficiently to insert a film -of graphite grease with a thin case knife. In some cases where the -leaves are highly curved, it may be found necessary to drive a small -screwdriver in between them. However, great care should be exercised -in doing this, as the blades are highly tempered and spring out of -position very easily. - -=Wrapping Springs.=--Car owners in some parts of the country grease -their springs and wrap them with heavy cord or adhesive tape. While -this serves to keep the grease in and the dust and dirt out, it also -binds the leaves and prevents free action. If the car is to be driven -for any length of time on sandy or muddy roads, wrapping may be found -very beneficial. But use only a water-proof material (heavy oil paper -or canvas) to wrap with. Cut the material into one and one-fourth -inch strips, and wrap from the center toward the outer end to prevent -binding. - -The following shows the results of a spring care test conducted by the -writer. The cars were chosen at random and only those accepted which -had seen six months or more service. - -Eighteen owners were interviewed. Six of this number gave their springs -a thorough greasing and tightening up every two weeks, and not one -of this group made a complaint of any nature regarding breakage, -stiffness, or noise. - -Five of the remaining twelve, gave their springs occasional attention. -Their reports were not entirely unsatisfactory, but had a tendency -toward such troubles as rattles, squeaks, and stiffness in action. - -The remaining seven did not give their springs any attention whatever, -and all made unsatisfactory reports ranging from broken leaves, to side -play, jingles, squeaks and hard riding. - -Therefore the results of careful and regular attention may readily be -seen by the reports of the first six owners. All nuts and connections -were tightened, and the sliding surfaces of the leaves greased on an -average of once every two weeks. The springs gave satisfactory results, -and the cars retained that easy, soft, springy action, so noticeable in -a new car. - -The reports of the five who gave their springs occasional attention -would probably have been the same as the first six, had they given the -proper attention more frequently. But they usually waited until the -trouble became annoying, which caused wear on the spring eye, shackle -strap, and pin, on each occurrence making a good adjustment impossible. -The stiffness in action and squeaks were caused by dry fractional -surfaces between the leaves which prevented free action. - -=Types.=--There are five standard types of springs, and two or -three types of special design. The riding qualities of all types of -springs depend on their length and resiliency, which is taken into -consideration by the engineer and designer. Consequently there is not -much choice between the different types. - -[Illustration: Fig. 128. ¹⁄₂-Elliptical Front Spring] - -Fig. 128 shows the semi-elliptical type of spring used principally for -front suspension. The front end of this spring is bolted rigidly to the -downward end slope of the frame while the rear end carries a movable -shackle arrangement. - -[Illustration: Fig. 129. Full-Elliptic Spring] - -Fig. 129 shows the full elliptical type of spring which may be used -for either front or rear suspension. The ends may be fastened together -solidly with a yoke and eye arrangement, or shackled as shown in the -above cut. - -Fig. 130 shows a spring of the three-quarters elliptical type used in -rear suspension only. This type of spring carries a shackle arrangement -at the front and rear end which allows backward and forward motion to -take place very freely, consequently it is very necessary to use a very -substantial set of torque rods to keep the proper alignment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 130. ³⁄₄-Elliptical Rear Spring] - -Fig. 131 shows the three link or commonly termed platform type of -spring used only in rear suspension on the heavier models. - -[Illustration: Fig. 131. Platform Spring] - -Fig. 132 shows the front type of cantilever spring. The front end of -this type of spring is bolted to a seat on the front axle, while the -rear end may be fastened directly to the under side of the frame or -attached to a specially arranged casting seat at the side of the -frame. This type of spring is sometimes employed in multiple formation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 132. Cantilever Spring, Front] - -[Illustration: Fig. 133. Cantilever Spring, Rear] - -Fig. 133 shows the rear type of cantilever spring, which may employ -a shackle arrangement on one or both sides, while a hinged seat is -usually employed near the center or slightly over-center toward the -front end. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXV - -ALIGNMENT - - -Attention should be given quite frequently to wheel alignment, as the -life and service of tires depends almost entirely upon wheel alignment. - -When either of the front wheels become out of line, through a bent -spindle, worn spindle pin, loose or worn bearing the tire on this wheel -is subject to cross traction. That is, when the car moves forward, the -tire on the out of line wheel is forced to move forward by the other -three points of traction, and as it is not in line with the forward -movement the tire must push or drag crosswise at the traction point. -This results in the tread being worn or filed off in a very short time, -exposing the layers of fabric to dampness and wear which results in a -“blow-out” and ruined tire, which would probably have given several -thousand miles of service had proper attention been given to wheel -alignment. - -=Alignment Test.=--To test the alignment, first look at the lower -side of the springs where they rest on the axle seats. If one of the -springs has slipped on the seat through a loose clamp, the direction -and distance of the slip may be noted by the rust mark left by the -movement. Drive the axle back, leave the clamp loose, measure the -distance between the centers of the front and rear hub caps on the -unaffected side with a tape or string, move the tape to the affected -side and make the center distances the same, tighten the nuts on all -clamps using new spring or lock washers. - -=Lengthwise Wheel Alignment.=--Before lining up the wheels lengthwise, -jack each wheel separately and shake it to detect a loose bearing or -worn spindle pin which is usually the seat of the trouble. After the -defective part has been readjusted or replaced, test the alignment -as follows: Using a string or straight edge, which should be placed -or drawn across the front and rear tire, making four contacts as near -center as possible without interference from the hubs. The string or -straight edge is then moved to the other side of the car and three -contacts are made, one on the rear center of the front tire, and two -across the center of the rear tire. The spread rod should then be -adjusted to allow the front contact point to converge or lean from the -line toward the other front wheel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 134. Wheel-Alignment Diagram] - -=Mechanical Alignment.=--When a motor vehicle turns the inside wheel -has to describe a curve of smaller radius than the outside wheel. A -line drawn lengthwise through the steering arms, extending from the -spindles or knuckles, should meet at a point in the center of the rear -axle to determine the correct wheel base, otherwise the car will turn -in two angles, which causes the tire on the outside to slide crosswise -at the traction point. Fig. 134 shows the position of the wheels and -the direction they travel in describing two distinct curves in turning -to the left. The correct mechanical alignment and wheel base will be -seen in the diagram, A B. The front wheels have been turned to a 45 per -cent angle, e-e1 lines drawn through the spindles will meet at E, a -line drawn through the rear axle. E1 in this diagram shows the effect -on the steering of lengthening the wheel base of the car. In this case -the wheel base has been lengthened 10″ and the lines e and e1 meet at -different angles at a point on E1. The car tries to turn about two -distinct centers, as this is an impossibility, sliding of the tire -occurs. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVI - -STEERING GEARS, TYPE, CONSTRUCTION - -OPERATION AND CARE - - -The steering mechanism used in automobile construction is arranged to -operate independent of the axle, or in other words the wheels turn on a -pivot, or knuckle, held between the yoked ends of the axle. A spindle -or axle extends outward from each steering knuckle to accommodate the -wheels. A set of short arms extend to rear of the steering knuckles; an -adjustable spacer bar, commonly called a tie or spread rod, serves as -the connection between the arms. The arms incline slightly toward each -other; which causes the inside wheel to turn on a shorter angle than -the outside wheel when turning a corner. Another steering arm carrying -a ball at the outer end, describes a half circle over the axle, and -is attached to either the spread rod arm or the steering knuckle. An -adjustable rod, or drag-link, carrying a ball socket at each end serves -as the connection between the steering arm extending from steering gear -and the half circle arm of the knuckle. To adjust wheels see chapter on -“Wheels and Axle Alignment.” - -=Steering Gear Types.=--Three types of steering gears are commonly used -by automobile manufacturers. They are namely, the worm and sector, worm -and nut, and rack and pinion types. - -Fig. 135 shows the construction and operation of the worm and sector -type. The lower end of the steering shaft carries a worm gear which -meshes with the sector gear supported by a separate shaft. The sector -has a ball arm extending downward, which moves in a forward and -backward direction when the steering shaft is turned. - -[Illustration: - - Steering Wheel - - St. Column - - Worm - - Sector - - Spark - - Throttle - - Frame - -Fig. 135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear] - -=Adjusting the Worm and Sector Type of Steering Gear.=--An eccentric -bushing is provided to take up play between the worm and sector. This -adjustment is made by driving the notched cone to the right to take out -play, and to the left to slack up or take out stiffness. - -Fig. 136 shows the worm and nut type of steering gear. This type -of steering gear as well as the worm and sector, is called the -irreversible steering gear, which means that no reverse action takes -place, or is present at the steering wheel, should one of the front -wheels encounter a stone in the road, or drop into a deep rut. The -worm and nut type consists of a double armed and pivoted steering arm. -Each arm carries a ball. The drag link socket is attached to the ball -on the lower arm while the ball on the upper and shorter arm fits in a -socket in the nut through which the worm on the steering shaft passes. -This nut is threaded to fit the worm which passes through it and moves -up and down on the worm according to the direction which the steering -wheel is turned. The housing of this type of steering must be well -packed with a light cup or graphic grease to prevent the screw or worm -from binding, which will make steering difficult and tiresome. - -[Illustration: - - Steering Column - - Worm Screw - - Nut - - Pivot - - Frame - - Drag Link - - St. Arm - -Fig. 136. Worm and Nut Type Steering Gear] - -[Illustration: - - Steering Shaft - - Ball - - Gear - - Housing - - Sliding tooth Shaft - -Fig. 137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear] - -Fig. 137 shows the rack and pinion type of steering gear. This type of -steering gear is used on a few of the lighter weight cars and is not -as dependable owing to a reverse action through the steering mechanism -when an obstruction is encountered by one of the front wheels. This -type of steering device consists of a solid shaft with the steering -wheel keyed to the upper end. - -A small spur gear is keyed and locked to the lower end, and meshes -with a horizontal toothed shaft which slides inside of a housing. The -connection between the steering gear and the steering knuckles is made -by a short rod or drag link carrying a split ball seat on each end. -One end of the drag link socket is fitted to a ball on the end of the -horizontal toothed shaft, while the socket on the other end is fitted -to a ball on the upper end of the bolt which connects the tie rod and -knuckle. - -=Steering Gear Care.=--Steering gears should be closely adjusted. The -housing should be packed with a medium hard oil or graphite grease at -least once in every thousand miles that the car is driven. All bolts -and nuts connecting the different parts of the steering gear should be -regularly inspected and kept in a perfectly tight condition. - -[Illustration: Fig. 138. Steering Wheel] - -Fig. 138 shows the location of the spark and gas control levers which -usually operate on a quadrant on the upper side of the steering wheel. -The short lever always controls the spark, which may be advanced or -retarded by moving it. The long lever is attached to the carburetor, -and controls the speed of the motor by regulating the volume of gas -vapor supplied to the motor. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVII - -BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE - - -Three types of bearings are being used by the manufacturers of -automobiles and gasoline engines. They are, namely, the plain bearing -or bushing, the solid and flexible roller-bearing, and the double and -single row of self-aligning ball bearings. - -Bearings were designed to prevent wear and friction between parts, -which operate on, or against each other. - -Fig. 139 shows three types of plain bearings. A, the split type of -plain bearing, is used widely by the manufacturers of engines as -main bearings to support the crank shaft and at the large end of the -connecting rod. B is a cylindrical type of plain end bushing, used to -support light shafts in end walls. C is a center or sleeve type of -plain bushing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 139. Plain Bearings or Bushings] - -All three types of plain bearings described above will stand unusually -hard use, but must be kept well lubricated or run in an oil bath to -prevent frictional heating and excessive wear. Fig. 140 shows two -types of shims used between the retainer jaw of a split bearing, which -allows the wear to be taken up when the bearing gets loose and begins -to pound. The shims may be either solid or loose leafed, and are of -different thickness. The loose leafed shim has an outer casing, which -contains seven to ten metal sheets of paper-like thinness, which may -be removed to the exact thickness required for an accurately fitted -bearing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 140. Shims] - -[Illustration: Fig. 141. Bock Roller Bearing] - -Fig. 141 shows the Bock type of radial and end thrust roller bearing. -The end of each roller is provided with a section of a perfect sphere -which rolls in unison with the tapered rollers and makes the end -contact practically frictionless. The advantage claimed for this -type of bearing is that it embodies both the ball and roller bearing -strength and reduces the friction on the roller and thrust end to a -minimum. This type of bearing is used in the hub of the wheel, which -must be cleaned and well packed with a medium grease every thousand -miles. The bearing is best cleaned by dropping it into a container of -kerosene and scrubbing it with a stiff paint brush. Do not run the car -with the hub cap off. - -[Illustration: Fig. 142. Hyatt Roller Bearing] - -Fig. 142 shows the Hyatt flexible type of roller bearing. This type -consists of an inner and outer race and a cage which holds the flexible -rolls. The flexible rolls are spirally wound from a high grade sheet -alloy steel. The rolls are placed in the cage in alternative positions. -This arrangement of rollers has a tendency to work the grease back and -forth on the surfaces of the races. Another advantage claimed for this -type of bearing, is that the weight is more evenly distributed at the -point of contact, due to the fact that the wound rolls allow a certain -amount of resiliency, and accepts road shocks easily, which reduces the -amount of frictional wear to a minimum. This type of bearing requires -the same attention as the Bock, described above. - -[Illustration: Fig. 143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing] - -Fig. 143 shows a type of double row ball bearings. Ball bearings are -being used more extensively each year by the manufacturers of light and -heavy duty motor vehicles. The efficient reliability and ease of action -has proven to be the main factor in the development of this type of -bearing. One of the big features in considering ball bearings is that -a ball rolls equally well in any direction, and the slightest effort -will start it to rolling. It is a proven fact, that a ball is started -more easily than any other type of supportive element. This explains -why ball bearings of all types come nearest to being frictionless. Once -upon a time people believed that the ball in ball bearings carried the -load by point of contact, which is not true, as ball bearings carry the -load on a definite area. And in bearing construction, such as shown in -Fig. 143, where the inner and outer race curves around the balls and -increases the contact area, the contact capacity is greatly increased. -Thus a one-fourth inch S. K. F. ball showed a crushing resistance -of nine thousand and seven hundred pounds, while the one-half inch -ball showed a crushing strength of twenty-five thousand pounds. The -sectional view of a radial bearing, shown in Fig. 142, consists -essentially of four elements, which are the following: (a) The outer -ball race, (b) the two rows of balls, (c) the ball retainer, and (d) -the inner ball race. - -The inner surface of the outer race is spherically ground in the form -of a section of a sphere whose center is the center of the axis of -rotation. This provides that both rows of balls shall carry the load -at all times. This reduces the load carried by each ball to the least -amount. - -The ball retainer is made of a single piece, which provides for proper -spacing of the balls, and positively circulates the lubricant. The -retainer is open at the sides, which permits free access of lubricant, -and makes inspection easy. - -The inner ball race contains two grooves to accommodate the two rows of -balls, and the curvature of the outer race is slightly larger than that -of the balls. The fact that both inner and outer races are curved gives -an ample surface contact between the balls and the races. - -Fig. 144 shows a double thrust bearing. This type of bearing was -designed to take end thrust in both directions. It is used to stabilize -the shaft against lateral motion and to accept reversing thrust loads. -It is also automatically self-aligning. - -The assembly of balls and races forms a section of a sphere within a -steel casing. The inside of this casing is ground spherically to the -same radius as the spherical seats, thus permitting the assembled -bearing parts to adjust themselves to any shaft deflection. - -This type of double thrust bearing is so designed that the central -rotating disc, two rows of balls, and the aligning seats are combined -in a single unit within the casting. - -The unit construction of this type of bearing insures ease in -mounting, and eliminates much costly machine work usually encountered -in setting double thrust bearings, and renders the bearing practically -dirt, dust and fool-proof. If it becomes necessary to disassemble the -machine upon which these bearings are mounted, the user has every -assurance that the shafts can be relocated precisely in its original -position, with the minimum of time, labor and expense. This type of -bearing is also entirely free from adjustment, loose parts, costly -machine work, and the possible abuse at the hands of inexperienced -workman are entirely done away with. - -[Illustration: Fig. 144. Double Row Thrust Bearing] - -[Illustration: Fig. 145. End Thrust Bearing] - -Fig. 145 shows a thrust bearing designed to carry the load in one -direction, along the shaft, and consists of two hardened steel discs -provided with grooved ball-races, and a single row of balls held in -position between the races by means of a suitable retainer. - -=Cleaning Bearings.=--To clean bearings, use gasoline, kerosene, or a -weak solution of baking soda and soft water. Place the cleaning fluid -in a shallow receptacle, take a piece of wire and bend a hook on the -end, place the hook through the center of the bearing and rinse up and -down in the fluid, spinning it with the hand occasionally. If some of -the grease has dried or baked on the roll or roller guide or retainer -and refuses to be dislodged by this method, lay the bearing flat and -scrub with a brush which has been dipped into the cleaning fluid. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVIII - -CAR ARRANGEMENT, PARTS, ADJUSTMENT, CARE - - -1. Oil cup on shackle bolt or loop pin. Fill every week with medium cup -grease giving one half turn every second day. - -2. Right front spring. Loosen the small clips No. 47, clean off all -dirt and grease with a brush dipped in kerosene, and jack up the frame, -which will open the leaves. Force graphite between the leaves, let the -frame down and wipe off all the grease that is forced out, in order to -avoid the gathering of dust and grit (see chapter on Spring Care). - -3. Front lamp. Keep brackets and vibration rod well tightened. Wipe -lens with a damp cloth (inside and outside), and polish with tissue -paper. Adjust or focus both lamps so that the center rays will strike -side by side 45 feet ahead of the car. Push the light bulbs well into -the sockets, otherwise a dark spot will appear in the center. Test the -wire connection plugs occasionally for weak springs or sticking contact -pins. - -4. Radiator (see chapter on Cooling Systems). - -5. Radiator Cap. Grease or oil thread occasionally. - -6. Radiator connecting hose (see chapter on Cooling Systems). - -7. The fan. It usually operates on a ball and cone bearing, which must -be kept well adjusted and greased to prevent a clattering or rumbling -noise. - -8. The fan belt. This should be well tightened to prevent slipping, -which will cause over-heating. Apply belt dressing occasionally to -prevent dry-rot and cracking. - -9. Adjust the starter chain from time to time by setting down the idler -gear. - -10. Metal tube for carrying the high tension leads to the spark -plugs. Remove the wires from the tube when overhauling and tape worn -insulation. - -11. Spark plugs (see chapter on Spark Plug Care). - -12. The horn. Keep connection tight, clean gum and old grease off the -armature and adjust the brushes when it fails to work. - -13. Priming cups. Cover the threads with graphite or white lead and -screw them into the cylinder head tightly to prevent compression leaks. - -14. Horn bracket. Keep well tightened, to prevent vibration. - -15. Clutch pedal. It can usually be lengthened or shortened to -accommodate leg stretch, oil and grease bearings, and connecting joint -each week. - -16. Primer or choker, which operates the air valve on the carburetor. - -17. Steering column. - -18. Steering wheel (see chapter on Steering Gears). - -19. Horn shorting push button. - -20. Spark control lever. - -21. Gas throttle control. - -22. Transmission (see chapter on Transmission). - -23. Brake rods (see chapter on Brakes). - -24. Universal joint (see chapter on Universal Joints). - -25. The frame. - -26. Emergency brake leverage connection. - -27. Service brake leverage connection. - -28. Threaded clevis for lengthening or shortening brake rods. - -29. Crown fender. - -30. India rubber bumper. - -31. Brake band guide. - -32. Gasoline or fuel tank. - -33. Filler spout and cap. - -34. Spring shackle hinge. - -35. Tire carrier. - -36. Spare tire and demountable rim. - -[Illustration: Fig. 146. Car Arrangement] - -37. Radiator fastening stud. - -38. Starting crank ratchet. - -39. Spread rod with left and right threaded clevis at each end. - -40. The crank case. - -41. Crank case drainage plug. - -42. The flywheel and clutch. - -43. Box for carrying storage battery. - -44. Transmission drain plug. - -45. The muffler (see chapter on Muffler Care). - -46. Main drive shaft. - -47. Spring blade alignment clamp. - -48. Rear universal joint. - -49. Service brake lever. - -50. Demountable rim clamp bolt. - -51. Differential housing on rear axle. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIX - -OVERHAULING THE CAR - - -Before starting to dismantle the car for overhauling, see that all -the necessary tools are at hand and in good condition. Place them out -separately on a bench or board near the car. Then secure a number of -boxes to hold the parts of each unit in order that they may not become -intermixed. - -When overhauling is to take place, start at the front of the car and -work back. First, disconnect and remove the radiator and inspect the -tubes for dents or jams. If any of any consequence are found, pry the -fins up and down on the tubes clearing the affected part, which is -removed and replaced with a new piece of tubing and soldered in place. -Then turn a stream of water into the radiator and let it run for fully -an hour, or until it is fully flushed out. Next, inspect the hose -connections, as the rubber lining often becomes cracked and breaks away -from the fabric which retards the circulation, by filling the passage -with hanging shreds of rubber. Then plug up the lower entrance to the -water jackets and fill the jackets with a solution of 2 gal. of water -to ¹⁄₂ lb. of washing soda. Let this solution stand in the jackets for -one-half hour; then flush out with clean water. The carburetor and -manifolds should be removed and cleaned. The float, if cork, should be -allowed to dry. It is then given a coat of shellac and allowed to dry -before reassembling the carburetor. - -The engine should then be turned over slowly to test the compression on -each cylinder. If it is found to be strong on each cylinder, the piston -rings and cylinder wall may be passed as being in good condition. -In case you find one cylinder is not as strong as the others, the -trouble may be ascertained by inspection. It may be caused by a scored -cylinder wall, worn piston rings, leaky gasket, or pitted valve -seats. Next remove the head of the motor and remove the carbon with a -scraper and wash with kerosene. If the motor is not of the detachable -head type, remove the valve cup and use a round wire brush to loosen -the carbon. It is best in this case to burn out the carbon with -oxyacetylene flame. - -Next remove the valves and test the springs for shrinkage or weakness. -If any are found that do not conform in length, replace them with new -springs. Grind the valves (see previous Chapter on Valve Grinding). - -Next examine the water pump and pack the boxing with a wick or hemp -cylinder packing. - -=Cleaning the Lubricating System.=--Remove the plug in the bottom of -the crank case and drain out the oil. Replace the plug and pour 1 gal. -of kerosene into the crank case through the breather pipe and spin the -motor. Then remove the drain plug and allow the kerosene to drain out. -After it has quit running, turn the motor over a few times and allow -it to drain one-half hour. Replace the plug and fill the crank case -to the required level with fresh cylinder oil. Next, remove the plate -from the timing gear case and inspect the gears for wear and play. If -they are packed in grease, remove the old grease and wash out the case -with kerosene. If they receive their oil supply from the crank case -it will only be necessary to inspect them for wear. Then replace the -motor head, timing gear case plate and manifolds, using new gaskets and -new lock washers. Next clean the spark plugs and ignition systems (see -chapter on Spark Plugs and Ignition System). - -Then we proceed to the different types of clutches. The cone clutch -usually does not require cleaning, but in cases where it has been -exposed to grease or lubricating oil the leather face may be cleaned -with a cloth dampened in kerosene, after which a thin coating of Neat’s -foot oil is applied to the leather facing. The cone is then replaced -and the springs adjusted until it runs true. This is determined by -holding it out and spinning it. - -The wet and dry plate clutches are treated in much the same manner. -First drain out all the oil or grease and wash out the housing with -kerosene. Examine all parts for wear and adjust or replace loose parts. -Fill the housing up to the slip shaft with fresh oil or grease, that -is, providing it is a wet plate clutch. The dry plate clutch need only -be washed with kerosene to remove any grease or dirt that has lodged on -the plates. - -=Cleaning the Transmission.=--First drain off the oil and wash the -gear with a brush dipped in kerosene. Then inspect the bearings for -looseness. If you find one badly worn, replace the bearing at each end -of the shaft. Next, examine the gears. If they are blunt, burred or -chipped, smooth them off on an emery wheel or with a coarse file. Wash -out the case with kerosene and fill with a thick transmission oil or -grease until the fartherest up meshing point is covered to the depth of -from 1 to 1¹⁄₂ inches. Examine the slots or notches on the horizontal -sliding shafts in the cover of the case which holds the gears in or out -of mesh. If the slots are badly worn it will be necessary to replace -sliding shafts or it may be necessary to replace the springs which hold -the ball or pin to the shaft and slots. - -The universal joints are cleaned and freed of all grease and dirt. The -bushings and trunion head are inspected for looseness. If any exists a -new set of bushings will usually remedy the trouble. The housing should -then be packed with a medium or fairly heavy cup grease. - -Next we come to the differential which is treated in the same manner as -the transmission, except that the housing is packed with a much heavier -grease, and new felt washers are placed at the outer end of the housing -where the axle extends to the wheels. - -The rear system is then jacked up until both wheels clear the ground. -The brakes are then tested and adjusted (see chapter on Brakes), and -the rear wheels tested for looseness. If the axle is of the full -floating type looseness may be taken up by withdrawing the axle and -loosening the lock nut back of the cone and driving the notched cone -ring to the right (facing it) until the play is taken up. When -looseness is found in the semi-floating or three quarters floating axle -it is necessary to replace the outer bearing which is located inside of -the outer end of the housing tube. - -Next examine the springs (see chapter on Springs and Spring Tests). - -This brings us to the steering gear, which should be inspected, -tightened up, and freed from all play at the various joints and -connections, after which it should be well packed with grease. - -The front wheels should be jacked up and tested for loose or worn -bearings and spindle pins. The bearings can usually be adjusted while -the loose spindle pin or bushing should be replaced. After the bearings -have been adjusted or replaced, pack the space in the hubs between the -bearings with a medium hard oil or cup grease, which will sufficiently -lubricate the bearings for 2000 miles of service. - -The wheels and axles are then lined up (See chapter on Alignment). - -Next, take a piece of sharp wire and remove all the dirt, gum, and -hard grease from oil holes supplying clevis joints and plain bearings. -Take up all play which is liable to produce noise and rattles with new -bolts, pins and washers. Clean and fill all grease cups boring out the -stem heads with a piece of wire. - -(See chapter on Washing, Painting, and Top and Body Care.) - - - - -CHAPTER XL - -REPAIR EQUIPMENT - - -The necessary repair equipment should be divided into two sets, one to -be carried with the car, which we will call road repair necessities, -such as 25 ft. of ⁵⁄₈″ manilla hemp rope, which will probably come in -very handy and save the original cost many times in one year. Even with -good roads and the general tendency toward improvements, there still -remains a great many miles of bad road that becomes very troublesome -with their customary chuck holes and slippery brims, which often -lead a motorist to bring up in a ditch after a short rain storm. The -advantages of this rope are explained in this way; should you slide -into the ditch or get into a deep rut, the wheels will usually spin and -you are helplessly stuck. A pull from a passing motorist, or farmer, -will help you out of your difficulty. Should any part of your car -break, or give out, any passing motorist or farmer will give you a tow -to the nearest garage and thereby avoid delays. - -Therefore, we will head our list of road repairs with: 25 ft. of ⁵⁄₈″ -manilla hemp rope, 2 inner tubes, 1 blowout patch, 1 outer shoe, 1 -set of chains, 1 jack, 1 pump, 1 tire gauge, 1 tube repair outfit and -patches, an extra spark plug, several cores and terminals, a few feet -of primary and secondary wire, 1 box of assorted bolts, nuts, washers -and cotter pins, 1 qt. can of lubricating oil, 1 complete set of good -tools neatly packed in a small box and secured to the floor of the car -under the rear seat by fastening both ends of a strap to the floor and -placing a buckle in the center which will hold the box securely and -avoid all noise. - -Garage repair equipment should consist of the following: 1 set of tire -jacks, 1 small vulcanizing set and supplies, 1 can of medium cup -grease, 1 can or tank of lubricating oil, 1 small vise, 1 box of felt -washers, 1 box of assorted cotter pins, 1 box of assorted nuts, 1 box -of assorted lock washers, 1 box assorted cap screws and bolts, 1 set -of assorted files, 1 hack saw, 1 Stilson wrench, 1 dope gun, 1 air -pressure oil can, 1 valve lifter, several valve and assorted springs, 1 -box of auto soap, 1 sponge and a good chamois skin. - -This outfit should all be purchased at the same time and each supply -and tool packed or placed in respective places, so that it will not be -necessary to look far and wide when you wish to use some particular -tool. With this equipment, and some knowledge and patience, the average -man should be able to keep his car in excellent condition by doing his -own adjusting and repairing. - - - - -CHAPTER XLI - -CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE - - -=Body.=--The body is the carrying part of the car and usually consists -of an oak or ash frame covered with a thin sheet steel. It is bolted to -the frame of the car, and aside from washing and cleaning and keeping -the bolts tight to prevent squeaks, it requires no further care. - -=Body Washing.=--When about to wash the body, soak the dirt off with a -gentle open stream of cold water. That is, remove the nozzle from the -hose, and do not rub. Remove mud before it gets dry and hard whenever -possible. Grease can be removed with soap suds and a soft sponge. Use a -neutral auto soap, and rub as little as possible. Rinse thoroughly with -a gentle stream of cold water, and dry and polish with a clean piece of -chamois skin. If the body has a dull appearance after washing, due to -sun exposure or too frequent washing, apply a good body polish lightly -and polish until thoroughly dry with a clean piece of gauze or cheese -cloth. - -=Running Gear Washing.=--Scrape the caked grease and dirt off from the -brake drums and axles, and scrub lightly with a soft brush dipped in -soap suds. Rinse thoroughly with a gentle stream of cold water. Dry -with a piece of cloth or a chamois. Old pieces of chamois skin which -are too dirty to use on the body can be used to dry the running gear. -If the running gear takes on a dirty appearance after becoming dry, go -over it with a cloth dampened with body polish. Tighten up all bolts -and make all adjustments while the car is clean. - -=Engine Cleaning.=--Clean the engine with a paint brush dipped in -kerosene. Then go over it with a cloth dampened with kerosene. - -=Top Cleaning.=--The top should never be folded until it is thoroughly -cleaned and dried. Dust on the outside can be removed by washing it -with clear cold water and castile soap. Be sure to rinse it thoroughly -with clear water. The inside should be dusted out with a whisk broom. -Be careful when folding it and see that the cloth is not pinched -between the sockets and bows, and always put on the slip cover when it -is folded to keep out the dust and dirt. - -=Curtain Cleaning.=--Wash the curtains with castile soap. After they -are dry go over them with a cloth dampened in body polish. Always roll -the curtains; never fold them. - -=Cleaning Upholstering.=--If the car is upholstered with leather or -imitation leather, it should be washed with warm water and castile -soap, then wiped off thoroughly with a clean cloth dampened in clear -warm water. If the upholstering is with cloth it should be brushed -thoroughly with a stiff whisk broom, then gone over lightly with a -cloth dampened in water to which a few drops of washing ammonia has -been added. - -=Rug Cleaning.=--Clean the rugs with a vacuum cleaner, or stiff whisk -broom. - -=Windshield Cleaning.=--Add a few drops of ammonia or kerosene to a -pint of warm water; and wash the wind shield with this solution and -polish with a soft cloth or tissue paper. - -=Sedan or Closed Body Cleaning.=--Follow directions given for cleaning -upholstering and windshields. - -=Tire Rim Cleaning.=--Remove the tires twice each season. Drive the -dents out of the rims, rub off all rust with sand paper, and file off -all sharp edges and paint the rims with a metal filler. Allow the paint -to dry thoroughly before replacing the tire. Rust on the rims causes -rapid tire and tube deterioration. - -=Tire Cleaning.=--Rinse the mud and dirt off the tires, and wash them -with soap suds and a coarse sponge. Rinse with clear water. - -=Lens Cleaning.=--To clean the light lens follow the instructions given -above for cleaning windshields. - -Cover the car at night to prevent garage dust from settling into the -pores of the paint. This type of dust causes the varnish to check and -take on a dull dirty appearance, and is very hard to remove without the -use of soap. Use a neutral soap and rinse thoroughly with clear cold -water. - -A good serviceable throw-cover can be made from any kind of cheap light -goods, or by sewing several old sheets together. - -=Caution.=--Do not dust the car immediately after driving it in the -sun and never use a feather duster as this only pads the dust into the -varnish, and scratches it. - -A good dusting cloth is made by dampening a soft cloth with an oil -polish. The cloth should be left to dry in the sun for several hours -after being dampened with oil. - -Rinsing the body off with clear cold water and drying it with a chamois -skin is always preferable as it produces a clean appearance and -freshens the paint. - - - - -CHAPTER XLII - -TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY, AND CARE - - -Building a tire is like building a house or laying a cement sidewalk; -the foundation must be right or the job will not stand up. - -The foundation of a tire as every motorist knows consists of -alternative layers of rubber, fabric, or cord, covered with a tread -and breaker strip of rubber. The tread and breaker strip, however, -are not worth the space they occupy if they are placed over a poorly -constructed foundation of cheaply made fabric. Therefore, great care -should be exercised in choosing a tire of standard make which has been -tested, inspected, and guaranteed to be in perfect condition, and gives -a mileage guarantee. - -The cheaper grades of tires may be very deceiving in looks, but the -point remains, that beneath the tread and breaker strip there must be -something that is cheaper in quality than the material used in building -a standard tire or it could not be sold for less, as tire building -material sells at a market price obtainable to all; and the standard -tire is usually produced in large quantities at a small profit, which -may be seen by comparing the production records and the dividends paid -on capitalization. - -This point alone shows the wise economy in purchasing tires of standard -build and avoiding all so-called low priced tires as they usually cost -the motorist considerable more before the average mileage of a good -tire is obtained. - -Tires given close attention will usually give from one to two thousand -more miles of service than those that do not receive prompt attention. -Therefore, close inspection should be made frequently for cuts, rents, -stone bruises, or a break in the tread which exposes the underlying -fabric to wear and dampness. - -When a break is discovered in either the tread or breaker strip, it -should be slightly enlarged and well cleaned. A coat of raw rubber -cement is applied and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is -applied, and when this coat is fairly dry, fill the indenture with raw -rubber gum and cook for thirty minutes with a small vulcanizer. The -cement, rubber, and vulcanizer may be purchased at any accessory store -for a couple of dollars. - -=Tire Care.=--Always keep the garage floor clean and free from oil, -grease and gasoline, in order that the tires may not come in contact -with it or stand in it. All three are deadly enemies to rubber. This -is easily accomplished by spreading a thin layer of sawdust or bran on -the floor and dampening it. This not only makes floor cleaning easy but -also keeps the air moist and causes the dust to settle quickly. - -When a tire comes in contact with either grease, oil, or gasoline, it -should immediately be washed with warm water and castile soap. - -Mud must not be allowed to dry and bake on the tires as it causes the -rubber to loose its springy elastic qualities, and dry-rot or rubber -scurvy takes place immediately, and the tread begins to crack and -crumble. - -=Tire Chains.=--Use tire chains only when they are absolutely necessary -to overcome road conditions, as the use of chains under the most ideal -conditions results in a certain amount of damage to the tires, and -also causes destruction to improved roads. Chains are easily put on by -stretching them out at the rear of the car and rolling the car on them. -The clamps should be placed forward in order that the contact with the -road may serve to keep them closed. - -Adjust the chains to the tire loosely in order that the cross chains -may work around and distribute the wear evenly. - -=Cross Chains.=--Inspect the cross chains occasionally for wear and -sharp edges. - -Do not use springs across the front of the wheel to hold the chains, -as they prevent the cross chains from working around on the tire and -the opposite side chain is often drawn onto the tread, and as these -chains are not continuous, the link connections wear and cut the tread -exposing the underlying layers of fabric to dampness and wear. - -=Tube Care.=--When an extra tube is carried with the car shake some -tire talc or soap stone on it and wrap with tissue paper. It can then -be carried in a small box with the tools without being damaged from -vibration. - -=Tube Repairing.=--A tube should always be vulcanized to make the -repair permanent; but in case you must make a road repair and have not -a vulcanizer with you, an emergency repair can be made by sticking on a -patch. The surface of the tube and the patch is cleaned and roughened -with a fine file or piece of emery paper. A coat of cement is applied -next and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is applied and allowed -to dry until it becomes tacky. The patch is then pressed on the tube -and held under pressure fifteen or twenty minutes until the cement -is dry. This repair will serve for a short time but should be made -permanent at the first opportunity. - -=Tire Storage.=--When the car is to be stored for the winter, the tires -should be left on the wheels and deflated to thirty pounds pressure -(that is, after they have been relieved of the weight of the car), -except in cases where the garage is cold and very damp and subjected to -weather changes. In this case remove the tires and hang them up in a -cool dry place (store room or cellar). - -Always remove the old valve cores from the valve stems and replace -them with new ones before putting the tires back into service, as the -rubber plungers deteriorate very rapidly when inactive. Valve cores -can be purchased at any service station in a small tin container for -thirty-five to fifty cents per dozen. - - - - -CHAPTER XLIII - -ELECTRICAL SYSTEM - -TUNING HINTS - - -The average car owner usually fights shy of the electrical system. This -deserves attention when overhauling the car, as well as any other part -of the car, and a few simple precautions will go a long way toward -eliminating electrical troubles. - -The entire electrical system should be gone over. One of the most -important things demanding inspection is the wiring. It often happens -that the insulation becomes chafed or worn, through contact with other -parts of the car. It is, therefore, important to look over the wiring -very carefully. Where there is any doubt as to the insulation being -insufficient, new wires should be used. This eliminates the possibility -of there being an accidental ground, or short circuit, rendering a part -or the entire system inoperative. - -All terminals should be gone over to determine whether they are clean -and tight. This is especially true of the terminals on the storage -battery, and at the point where the battery is grounded to the frame of -the car if it is a single wire system. - -The connections between the storage battery and the starting motor -should be clean and free from corrosion. If these connections are not -tight and clean, improper performance of the starting motor is the -result. - -Apply a small amount of vaseline to the battery terminals for -protection of the metal from the action of the acid fumes and -prevention of corrosion. It is well to have the battery inspected by a -battery specialist and any necessary repairs taken care of. - -Distributor and relay points should be examined to see if they are -pitted or burned. If they are, they should be smoothed down with a fine -platinum file and adjusted to the proper gap. It is essential that the -contact points meet squarely. If this is not done burning and pitting -will result. - -The generator and starting motor commutator should be examined for -undue wear and high mica. It may be necessary in order to insure good -performance that the commutator be turned down in a lathe and the mica -undercut. - -The brushes should be properly seated by careful sanding. This is -especially necessary when the commutator is turned down. It is -desirable to have three-quarters of the brush face bearing on the -commutator. This can be determined by examination of the glazed area on -the brush after running a short time. - -Should the starter drive be of the bendix type, the threaded shaft and -pinion should be cleaned, and any grease which has hardened should be -removed. - -Lamps should be examined. Dim and burned out lamps should be replaced. - -All connections of the lighting and ignition switch should be -inspected. It should be noted whether the terminals are touching, -or nearly touching. If any wires are rubbing thus, entailing the -possibility of a short circuit or ground, they should be fixed. - -Electric cables that rub on sharp edges of the battery box will -soon wear through the insulation from vibration of the car and a -short circuit will occur that may be hard to find. Such parts of the -wire should be well protected with adhesive tape and should be also -frequently inspected. - -High tension currents are very hard to control, and a short or leakage -often occurs where the wire is cramped. The center wire works or wears -through the rubber insulation causing the current to jump to the -nearest metal part. This kind of trouble is especially hard to locate -as the outer surface of the braided insulation does not show the break. - -It is a good plan to examine the wiring for short circuits occasionally -in this manner. When putting the car in at night, close the garage -door and turn out the lights, running the motor at various speeds and -gently moving each wire. If there are any short or grounded circuits a -brilliant spark will jump at the defective point. - - - - -CHAPTER XLIV - -AUTOMOBILE PAINTING - - -Painting a car requires a great amount of patience. But a fairly good -job may be done by the average amateur painter, providing the work is -done carefully and exactly. However, this work should be undertaken -only in a warm, dry room where it is possible to keep an even -temperature. - -The old paint is first removed with a paint remover, or solution which -is applied to the surface and allowed to penetrate into the pores. -Another coat is then applied. The surface is then scraped with a putty -knife until it is smooth and free from the old paint. In some cases it -may be found necessary to use a blow torch to soften the old paint. - -After the old paint has been thoroughly removed, the rough spots should -be smoothed over with a piece of sand or emery paper, and all counter -sunk screw heads, joinings, and scratches filled with putty, to make an -even surface. The metal primer is applied and allowed to dry. A second -coat consisting of equal parts of white lead, turpentine and boiled -oil is next applied and allowed to dry. Three or four coats of color -are applied next and allowed to dry. Colors come in a paste form, and -may be turned into a paste by adding a little turpentine. Two coats -of color and an equal amount of rubbing varnish are next applied in -turn and rubbed with powdered pumice stone and water. The car is then -stripped and allowed to dry, and the job finished by applying a coat of -finishing varnish. - -All the foreign matter and grease is removed from the running gear. The -rough places are scraped and rubbed with a piece of emery paper. Two -coats of metal primer are applied and allowed to dry. A coat of color -varnish is applied which completes the job. - - - - -CHAPTER XLV - -CARBON REMOVING - - -It is necessary to remove the carbon deposits from the combustion -chambers and piston heads at frequent intervals in order to maintain an -economical and efficient motor. - -There are various methods and ways of doing this without removing the -casting or cylinder head; that is, providing regular attention is given -to prevent the deposit from baking and forming in a shale which can be -removed only by burning or scraping. - -There are a number of carbon removing compounds on the market which -give excellent satisfaction, although some of these compounds may prove -very harmful unless the directions are followed very carefully. - -A great many owners use kerosene once or twice a month. An ounce or two -may be poured into each cylinder while they are quite warm and allowed -to stand for several hours. The motor is then turned over a few times -which allows the kerosene to escape through the valves. The particles -of carbon are blown out through the muffler when the motor is started. -Others prefer to feed it into the motor through the carburetor. This -is done by speeding up the motor and feeding a little at a time into -the float chamber or air valve. Others use chloroform, turpentine, and -alcohol in the same way. - -The latest method is to take the car to a garage and have the carbon -burnt out occasionally with a carbon dioxide flame. This vaporizes and -consumes the carbon and blows it out in the form of soot. The flame of -an acetylene welding outfit may be used successfully. Great care must -be taken to prevent fire. The carburetor is removed and the fuel line -drained and tied out of range of the flame. - -TROUBLES - - --------------------+------------------------+------------------------ - TROUBLE |CAUSE |REMEDY - --------------------+------------------------+------------------------ - Motor misses |Worn piston rings |New oversize rings - Motor misses |Pitted valve seats |Grind in valve seats - Motor misses |Loose locknut, tappets |Adjust tappets - Motor misses |Gas. mixture too heavy |Adjust carburetor - Motor misses |Gas. mixture too thin |Adjust carburetor - Motor misses |Contact points worn |Adjust points - Motor misses |Loose cable connections |Connect to terminal - | |posts - Motor misses |Cracked piston head |Replace piston - Motor misses |Cracked water jacket |Weld, rebore cylinder - Motor heats |Poor circulation |Flush out radiator - Motor heats |Insufficient lubrication|Clean oiling system - Motor heats |Excessive carbon deposit|_See_ chapter on Carbon - | |Removing - Motor heats |Cracked piston ring |Replace rings - Motor heats |Scored cylinder wall |Rebore cylinder - Motor heats |Tight main bearings |Lubricate plentifully - Motor heats |Heavy gas mixture |Adjust carburetor - Motor heats |Cylinders missing |_See_ Motor Misses - Motor heats |Worn distributor contact|Replace spring on block - |spring | - Motor back-fires |Lean mixture |Adjust carburetor - Motor back-fires |Valve open |Reseat valve, adj. - | |tappet - Motor back-fires |Ignition off time |_See_ ignition systems - Motor fails to start|Lack of gasoline |Fill tank - Motor fails to start|Vacuum in fuel tank |Open air hole in cap - Motor fails to start|Lack of current |Close circuit - Motor fails to start|Short circuit |Tape conductor at point - Motor fails to start|Discharged battery |Test with hydrometer; - | |have recharged - Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel |Clean carburetor - Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel |Clean screen at fuel - | |entrance to vacuum - | |system - Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel |Clean pipe from vacuum - | | system to carburetor - Motor fails to start|Ignition fouled |Clean corrosion from - | | terminals - Motor fails to start|Breaker points stuck |Redress lightly with - | |finger nail file - Motor fails to start|Plugs improperly set |Close points to - | |thickness of a dime - Motor fails to start|Oil on points |Clean plugs and screw - | |down tightly - Motor fails to start|Cracked porcelain |New plug - Motor fails to start|Open valves |Grind or reset valves - Motor fails to start|Valves stuck |Polish stems - Motor fails to start|Weak valve springs |Replace springs - Motor fails to start|Open circuit |Close switch - Motor misses |Defective spark plug |Replace - Motor misses |Disconnected wires |Connect up tightly - Motor misses |Dirty plugs |Clean - Motor misses |Poor compression |Replace gasket - | |New piston rings - Motor vibrates |Loose frame connection |Draw bolts down - Motor vibrates |Pistons sticking |Increase lubrication - Motor vibrates |Pistons weight uneven |Balance evenly - Motor vibrates |Defective spark plug |Clean, replace plug - Motor kicks |Preignition |Time ignition system - Motor kicks |Carbon, combustion |Scrape out, burn out - |chamber | - Motor knock head |Wrist pin bearing loose |Give pin ¹⁄₄ turn - Motor knock head |Loose connecting rod |Tighten upper bearing - Motor knock head |Valve slap |Adjust tappet - Motor knock base |Connecting rod loose |Adjust remove shim - Motor knock base |Main bearing loose |Adjust remove shim - Motor rumble |Flywheel loose |Adjust reseat - Motor rumble |Fan bearing loose |Adjust grease - Motor tipping |Fan blade strikes |Adjust bend blade - |radiator | - Motor tapping |Tappet worn |Adjust tighten lock nut - Motor compression |Thread stretch |Tighten head bolts - poor | | - Motor compression |Gasket burned or blown |Replace, new gasket - poor | | - Motor compression |Valve seat pitted |Grind, reset valve - poor | | - Motor compression |Valve guide worn |Replace bushing - poor | | - Motor compression |Valve stem warped |New valve - poor | | - Motor compression |Piston rings lined up |Distribute openings - poor | | - Motor compression |Cylinder wall scored |Oversize rings; rebore - poor | | - Universal joint |Loose sleeve connection |Tighten flange bolts - noise | | - Universal joint |Insufficient lubrication|Remove boot and pack - noise | |with grease - Universal joint slap|Worn bushings |Turn bushings end for - | |end - Universal joint slap|Worn trunion |New bushings - Differential noise |Dry |Fill with graphite - | |grease or 600 W - Differential click |Chipped gear |Replace - Differential knock |Broken out tooth |Replace - Differential growl |Ring gear mesh too deep |Back up trifle on - (steady) | |adjustment - Differential growl |Ring gear mesh too |Set up adjustment - (uneven) |loosely | - Differential growl |Axle shaft sprung |Retrue, replace - (uneven) | | - Differential growl |Loose bearing retainer |Tighten nuts - (uneven) | | - Brakes fail to |Rusted clevis joints |Lubricate with heavy - release | |grease - Brakes fail to |Broken coil spring |Replace - release | | - Brakes fail to |Stretched coil spring |Replace - release | | - Brake clatter |Loose adjustment |Adjust - Brake clatter |Worn lining |Reline the outer band - Brake clatter |Loose release spring |Adjust - Brake squeak |Dry lining |Four or five drops of - | |oil - Brake squeak |Burned lining |Replace - Brakes fail to grip |Lining worn down to |Replace - |rivet heads | - Brakes fail to grip |Overly lubricated |Wash with kerosene - Brakes fail to grip |Lining worn slick |Wash with kerosene and - | |roughen with file - Brakes fail to grip |Lining burned hard |Replace - Brakes fail to grip |Stretched rivets |Draw down - Brake rod rattle |Worn clevis pin |Replace - Brake rod rattle |Spread clevis yoke |Drive ends together - Brake rod rattle |Loose lock-nut behind |Tighten down - |clevis | - Brake rod rattle |Brake rods strike each |Tape one rod at contact - |other |point - Brake rod rattle |Dry connections |Lubricate with small - | |lump of grease - Torque rod rattle |Loose connections |Adjust - Torque rod rattle |Loose coil spring |Adjust - Emergency brake |Loose joint bearing |Replace bushing - lever rattle | | - Emergency brake |Worn plunger spring |Replace - lever rattle | | - Gear shift lever |Worn ball socket |Lubricate with heavy - rattle | |grease - Gear shift lever |Worn ball |Dent in socket with - rattle | |punch - Gear shift lever |Worn alignment spring |Replace - rattle |blades | - Gear shift lever |Worn bearing |Place thin washer at end - rattle | |of joint - Steering wheel play |Open mesh |Set up sector - Steering wheel play |Loose bearing |Turn down cone - Steering wheel play |Worn gear tooth |Take up on eccentric - | |bushing - Steering wheel play |Loose drag link sockets |Turn in end plug - Steering wheel |Dry |Pack with grease - stiffness | | - Radiator heats |Poor circulation |Flush radiator - Radiator heats |Jammed tubes |Remove jam and solder in - | |new piece tube - Radiator heats |Sediment in bottom tank |Flush out with soda - | |solution - Radiator heats |Stopped up overflow |Run wire through - Radiator freezes |Too much radiation |Cover bottom half of - | |radiator with cardboard - Radiator freezes |Jammed tubes |Cut out section; solder - | |in new piece - Radiator freezes |Sediment in bottom tank |Flush out with soda - | |solution - Vacuum tank spouts |Dirt on vacuum valve |Clean valve - gas |seat | - Vacuum tank |Dirt on vacuum valve |Clean valve - overflows |seat | - Vacuum tank fails |Suction pipe from |Clean pipe - |manifold stopped up | - Vacuum tank fails |Vacuum valve stuck |Clean valve - | | - Vacuum tank fails |Entrance screen stopped |Remove fuel line and - |up |clean screen - Vacuum tank fails |Loose connection at |Tighten joint - |manifold | - Vacuum tank fails |Plugged fuel line |Run wire through - | | - Carburetor wheeze |Choke valve out too far |Push in after starting - |on dash | - Carburetor wheeze |Choke valve wire too |Lengthen and adjust - |short | - Carburetor wheeze |Butterfly loose on air |Adjust and tighten - |valve pivot | - Carburetor chokes |Dirty valve |Grind needle valves - Carburetor chokes |Sediment in bowl |Clean out bowl - Carburetor chokes |Heavy mixture |Open air valve slightly - Carburetor chokes |Water in gas |Clean out bowl - Carburetor snaps |Thin mixture |Cut down air - Carburetor snaps |Water in gas |Strain gas through - | |chamois - Carburetor snaps |Dirt in fuel line |Run wire through - Carburetor snaps |Dirt under needle valve |Remove; clean seat - Carburetor overflows|Dirt on needle valve |Remove; clean seat - |seat | - Carburetor overflows|Cork float (water- |Dry in sun and shellac - |logged) | - Carburetor overflows|Metal float punctured |Punch hole opposite - | |leak, blow out, solder - | |both - Carburetor backfires|Worn intake valve |Replace bushing - |bushing | - Carburetor backfires|Defective spark plug |Replace - Carburetor backfires|Pitted valve seat |Reseat - Magneto roar |Armature shaft bearings |Two drops of light oil - |dry |in bearing well - Magneto click |Dry bearing |Two drops of light oil - | |in bearing well - Magneto fires uneven|Breaker points out of |Adjust points - |adjustment | - Magneto fires uneven|Open safety spark gap |Adjust gap to ¹⁄₁₆″ - Magneto fires uneven|Condensor short |Take to service station - |circuited | - Magneto fires uneven|Distributor segments |Take to service station - |worn | - Magneto fires uneven|Distributor brush worn |Take to service station - Magneto fires uneven|Distributor insulation |Take to service station - |cracked | - Magneto fires uneven|Coil short circuited |Take to service station - Distributor arm |Worn center bushing |Replace bushing - wabbles | | - Distributor fails |Spring blade broken in |Replace blade - |head | - Distributor fails |Worn contact point in |Cut down insulation - |head | - Distributor fails |Oil on contact block |Clean with kerosene - |blade | - Distributor fails |Contact points welded |File smooth, adjust - Distributor fails |Loose on shaft |Reset and retime - Distributor fails |Coil shorted from |Dry out thoroughly - |dampness | - Distributor fails |Punctured condensor |Replace - Distributor fails |Secondary wire short |Replace or tape - |circuited | - Distributor fails |Secondary wire |Connect to proper - |disconnected in switch |terminal - Starting motor fails|Corroded terminals |Clean and grease - Starting motor fails|Brush loose |Tighten and adjust to - | |even contact - Starting motor fails|Terminal from battery |Clean and tape - |short circuited to frame| - Starting motor fails|Starting switch short |Cut off end of wire, - |circuited |make new connection - Starting motor fails|Bennidict spring broken |Replace - Starting motor fails|Battery discharged |Recharge battery - Generator fails to |Disconnected |Replace heavy wire - charge | | - Generator fails to |Short circuit in cut-out|Make new connection - charge |switch | - Generator fails to |Brush out of contact |Adjust contact - charge | | - Generator noise |Dry bearings |Lubricate with light oil - Battery discharges |Plate short circuited |Take to service station - too quickly | | - Battery discharges |Leaky cell |Take to service station - too quickly | | - Battery discharges |Weak solution |Take to service station - too quickly | | - Battery discharges |Deteriorated plates |Take to service station - too quickly | | - Battery discharges |Dry plates |Cover plates with - too quickly | |distilled water - Battery overcharges |Insufficient use of |Burn lights and use - |current |starter frequently - Battery heats |Overcharging |Burn lights and use - | |starter frequently - Horn fails |Wire short circuited |Replace or tape - Horn fails |Brush making poor |Adjust brush evenly - |contact | - Horn fails |Brush making heavy |Adjust brush lightly - |contact | - Horn fails |Drum too tightly |Adjust through funnel - |adjusted | - Squeaks |Body loose on frame |Tighten four retainer - | |bolts - Squeaks |Dry springs |Lubricate with graphite - | |grease - Squeaks |Fuel tank loose |Tighten bands - Squeaks |Radiator loose |Tighten studs - Squeaks |Drip pan loose |Compress coil springs - Squeaks |Fender irons loose |Tighten bolts - Squeaks |Upper steering shaft |Pack with heavy grease - |bearing dry | - Rattles |Loose spring alignment |Bush and tighten - |clamp | - Rattles |Spread rod clevis open |Draw up ends and grease - Rattles |Demountable rim lugs |Draw up or replace - |loose | - Rattles |Door hinge screws loose |Draw up - Rattles |Door lock worn |Bush slot - Lights jar out |Wires short circuited |Tape worn insulation - Lights jar out |Weak plunger spring in |Stretch spring - |contact plug | - Lights fail |Poor contact |Remove wire and tape - | |insulation - Lights fail |Poor contact |Remove plugs and adjust - | |firmly in sockets - Lights dim |Globes carboned |Replace - Lights burn with |Globe out of adjustment |Turn back into socket - black spot in center| |firmly - - - - -APPENDIX - - -I - -FORD--MODEL-T - -THE CAR, ITS OPERATION, AND CARE - -Given in Questions and Answers--This Supplement also Covers the 1-Ton -Truck - - -_Q._ What should be done before starting the car? - -_A._ Before trying to start the car fill the radiator (by removing -the cap at the top) with clean fresh water. If perfectly clean water -cannot be obtained, it is advisable to strain it through muslin or -other similar material to prevent foreign matter from getting in and -obstructing the small tubes of the radiator. The system will hold -approximately three gallons of water. It is important that the car -should not be run under its own power unless the water circulating -system has been filled. Pour in the water until you are sure that both -radiator and cylinder water jackets are full. The water will run out -of the overflow pipe onto the ground when the entire water system has -been properly filled. During the first few days that a new car is being -driven it is a good plan to examine the radiator frequently and see -that it is kept well filled. The water supply should be replenished as -often as it is found necessary to do so. Soft rain water, when it is to -be had in a clean state, is superior to hard water, which may contain -alkalies and other salts which tend to deposit sediment and clog the -radiator. - -_Q._ What about gasoline? - -_A._ The ten gallon gasoline tank should be filled nearly full and -the supply should never be allowed to get low. Strain the gas through -chamois skin to prevent water and other foreign matter from getting -into the tank. Dirt or water in the gasoline is sure to cause trouble. -When filling the tank be sure that there are no naked flames within -several feet, as the vapor is extremely volatile and travels rapidly. -Always be careful about lighting matches near where gasoline has been -spilled, as the air within a radius of several feet is permeated with -the highly explosive vapor. The small vent hole in the gasoline tank -cap should not be allowed to get plugged up, as this would prevent -proper flow of gasoline to the carburetor. The gasoline tank may be -drained by opening the pet cock in the sediment bulb at the bottom of -the tank. - -_Q._ How about the oiling system? - -_A._ Upon receipt of the car see that a supply of medium light -high-grade gas engine oil is poured into the crank case through the -breather pipe at the front of the engine (a metal cap covers it). Down -under the car in the flywheel casing (the reservoir which holds the -oil) you will find two pet cocks. Pour oil in slowly until it runs out -of the upper cock. Leave the cock open until it stops running, then -close it. After the engine has become thoroughly warmed up, the best -results will be obtained by carrying the oil at a level midway between -the two cocks, but under no circumstances should it be allowed to get -below the lower cock. All other parts of the car are properly oiled -when it leaves the factory. However, it will be well to see that all -grease cups are filled and that oil is supplied to the necessary parts. -(See chapter on Lubrication.) - -_Q._ How are spark and throttle levers used? - -_A._ Under the steering wheel are two small levers. The right hand -(throttle) lever controls the amount of mixture (gasoline and air) -which goes into the engine. When the engine is in operation, the -farther the lever is moved downward toward the driver (referred to as -“opening the throttle”) the faster the engine runs and the greater the -power furnished. The left hand lever controls the spark which ignites -the gas in the cylinders of the engine. The advancing of this lever -“advances the spark,” and it should be moved down notch by notch until -the motor seems to reach its maximum speed. If the lever is advanced -beyond this point a dull knock will be heard in the engine. (See -chapter on Ignition.) - -_Q._ Where should these levers be when the engine is ready to crank? - -_A._ The spark lever should usually be put in about the third or fourth -notch of the quadrant (the notched half circle on which the levers -operate). The throttle should usually be opened five or six notches. -A little experience will soon teach you where these levers should be -placed for proper starting. Care should be taken not to advance the -spark lever too far as the engine may “back-kick.” - -_Q._ What else is necessary before cranking the engine? - -_A._ First, see that the hand lever that comes up through the floor of -the car at the left of the driver, is pulled back as far as it will go. -The lever in this position holds the clutch in neutral and engages the -hub brake, thus preventing the car from moving forward when the engine -is started. Second, after inserting the switch key in the switch on -the coil box, throw the switch lever as far to the left as it will go, -to the point marked “magneto.” This switch connects the magneto to the -engine. The engine cannot be started until it is on; and the throwing -off of the switch stops the engine. The next step is to crank the -engine. - -_Q._ How is the engine cranked? - -_A._ By the lifting of the starting crank at the front of the car. -Take hold of the handle and push it toward the car until you feel the -crank ratchets engage, then lift upward with a quick swing. With a -little experience this operation will become an easy matter. Do not -as a usual thing crank downward against the compression, for then an -early explosion may drive the handle vigorously backward. This does not -mean, however, that it is advisable, when the car is hard to start, -to occasionally “spin” the engine with the starting handle but be -sure that the spark is retarded when spinning or cranking the engine -against compression, otherwise a sudden back-fire may injure the arm -of the operator. When the engine is cool it is advisable to prime the -carburetor by pulling on the small wire at the lower left-hand side of -the radiator while giving the engine two or three quarter turns with -the starting handle. - -_Q._ How is the engine best started in cold weather? - -_A._ As gasoline does not vaporize readily in cold weather, it is -naturally more difficult to start the motor under such conditions. The -usual method of starting the engine when cold is to turn the carburetor -dash adjustment one-quarter turn to the left in order to allow a richer -mixture of gasoline to be drawn into the cylinders. Then hold out the -priming rod which projects through the radiator while you turn the -crank from six to eight quarter turns in quick succession. Another -method of starting a cold troublesome motor is as follows: Before -you throw on the magneto switch, (1) close throttle lever. (2) Hold -out the priming rod while you crank several quick turns, then let go -of the priming rod, being careful that it goes back all the way. (3) -Place spark lever in about the third notch and advance throttle lever -several notches. (4) Throw on switch being sure to get it on the side -marked “magneto.” (5) Give crank one or two turns and the motor should -start. After starting the motor it is advisable to advance the spark -eight or ten notches on the quadrant and let the motor run until it is -thoroughly warmed up. - -If you start out with a cold motor you will not have much power and -are liable to “stall.” The advantage of turning on the switch last, or -after priming, is that when you throw on the switch and give the crank -one-quarter turn you have plenty of gas in the cylinders to keep the -motor running, thereby eliminating the trouble of the motor starting -and stopping. After motor is warmed up turn carburetor adjustment back -one-quarter turn. - -_Note._ Many drivers make a practice of stopping their engine by -walking around in front of the car and pulling out on the priming rod -which has the effect of shutting off the air suction and filling the -cylinders full of a very rich gasoline vapor. This should not be done -unless the car is going to stand over night or long enough to cool off. -If the motor is stopped in this way and then started when hot, starting -is apt to be difficult on account of the surplus gasoline in the -carburetor. - -_Q._ How do the foot pedals operate? - -_A._ The first one toward the left operates the clutch, and by it the -car is started and its operations largely controlled. When pressed -forward the clutch pedal engages the low speed gear. When halfway -forward the gears are in neutral (i. e., disconnected from the driving -mechanism of the rear wheels), and, with the hand lever thrown forward -the releasing of the pedal engages the high-speed clutch. The right -hand pedal operates the transmission brake. - -_Q._ What function does the hand lever perform? - -_A._ Its chief purpose is to hold the clutch in neutral position. If -it were not for this lever the driver would have to stop the engine -whenever he left the driver’s seat. He would also be unable to crank -the engine without the car starting forward with the first explosion. -When pulled back as far as it will go, the hand lever acts as an -emergency lever on the rear wheels, by expanding the brake shoes in the -rear wheel drums. Therefore the hand lever should be back as far as it -will go when cranking the engine or when the car is at rest. It should -be only in a vertical position, and not far enough backward to act as a -brake on the rear wheels when the car is to be reversed. When the car -is operating in high or low speed the hand lever should be all the way -forward. - -_Q._ How is the car started? - -_A._ Slightly accelerate the engine by opening the throttle. Place -the foot on the clutch pedal, and thereby hold the gears in a neutral -position while throwing the hand lever forward. Then to start the -car in motion, press the pedal forward into low speed and when under -sufficient headway (20 to 30 feet), allow the pedal to drop back -slowly into high speed, at the same time partially closing the throttle -which will allow the engine to pick up its load easily. With a little -practice the change of speeds will be easily accomplished, and without -any appreciable effect on the smooth running of the machine. - -_Q._ How is the car stopped? - -_A._ Partially close the throttle. Release the high speed by pressing -the clutch pedal forward into neutral. Apply the foot brake slowly -but firmly until the car comes to a dead stop. Do not remove the foot -from the clutch pedal without first pulling the hand lever back to -neutral position, or the engine will stall. To stop the motor, open -the throttle a trifle to accelerate the motor and then throw off the -switch. The engine will then stop with the cylinders full of gas, which -will naturally facilitate starting. - -Endeavor to so familiarize yourself with the operation of the car -that to disengage the clutch and apply the brake becomes practically -automatic, the natural thing to do in case of emergency. - -_Q._ How is the car reversed? - -_A._ It must be brought to a dead stop. With the engine running, -disengage the clutch with the hand lever and press the reverse pedal -forward with the left foot, the right foot being free to use on the -brake pedal if needed. Do not bring the hand lever back too far or you -will set the brakes on the rear wheels. Experienced drivers ordinarily -reverse the car by simply holding the clutch pedal in neutral with the -left foot, and operating the reverse pedal with the right. - -_Q._ How is the spark controlled? - -_A._ By the left hand lever under the steering wheel. Good operators -drive with the spark lever advanced just as far as the engine will -permit. But if the spark is advanced too far a dull knock will be -heard in the motor, due to the fact that the explosion occurs before -the piston in the engine has completed its compression stroke. The -best results are obtained when the spark occurs just at the time that -piston reaches its highest point of travel, the gas being then at its -highest point of compression. The spark should only be retarded when -the engine slows down on a heavy road or steep grade, but care should -be exercised not to retard the spark too far, for when the spark is -“late” instead of getting a powerful explosion, a slow burning of gas -with excessive heat will result. Learn to operate the spark as the -occasion demands. The greatest economy in gasoline consumption is -obtained by driving with the spark advanced sufficiently to obtain the -maximum speed. - -_Q._ How is speed of car controlled? - -_A._ The different speeds required to meet road conditions are obtained -by opening or closing the throttle. Practically all the running speeds -needed for ordinary travel are obtained on high gear, and it is seldom -necessary to use the low gear except to give the car momentum in -starting. The speed of the car may be temporarily slackened in driving -through crowded traffic, turning corners, etc., by “slipping the -clutch,” i. e., pressing the clutch pedal forward into neutral. - -_Q._ Is it advisable for owners to make their own adjustments? - -_A._ The Ford is the simplest of all cars. Most of the ordinary -adjustments an owner will soon learn to make for himself. But we -must strongly recommend that when it becomes necessary to employ the -services of a mechanic, the car be taken to a Ford mechanic--one of -our own representatives who thoroughly understands the car--and who -will have no motive for running up useless repair bills. The entire -Ford organization is interested in keeping every individual Ford car in -constant operation, at the lowest possible cost. We have known of much -damage done to many cars by unskilled repair men. - -_Q._ What attention does the car need? - -_A._ Remember that a new machine requires more careful attention during -the first few days it is being driven than after the parts have become -thoroughly “worked in.” The car which is driven slowly and carefully -when new usually gives the most satisfactory service in the end. Never -start out with your car until you are sure that it has plenty of oil -and water. Frequently inspect the running gear. See that no unnecessary -play exists in either front or rear wheels, and that all bolts and nuts -are tight. Make a practice of taking care of every repair or adjustment -as soon as its necessity is discovered. This attention requires but -little time and may avoid delay or possible accident on the road. We -aim to deliver the car in proper mechanical adjustment. Afterwards it -is plainly the duty of the driver to keep it in that condition. - - -II - -THE FORD ENGINE - - -_Q_. What is the principle of the gasoline driven engine? - -_A_. Gasoline when mixed with air and compressed is highly explosive. -An explosion is a violent expansion caused by instantaneous combustion -of confined gases. In the gasoline engine the mixture is drawn into -the cylinder, where it is compressed by an advancing piston and then -exploded by an electric spark, which sends the piston violently -downward, and through the connecting rod imparts a rotary motion to the -crank shaft. (See cut No. 147.) - -_Q_. What are functions of the pistons? - -_A_. On the downward stroke the suction of the piston draws the fresh -gas from the carburetor, through the inlet pipe and valve, into the -cylinder. The upward movement of the piston compresses the gas into a -very small space, between the top of the piston and the depression in -the cylinder head, known as the “combustion chamber.” (The compressed -gases inert a pressure of approximately 60 pounds to the square inch.) -At this point the electric spark, generated by the magneto, explodes -the gas-driving piston downward, thus producing the power which turns -the crank shaft. On the next stroke upward the piston drives the -exploded gas out through the exhaust valve and pipe to the muffler. The -accompanying cut shows clearly the relative positions of the pistons -and valves during the different strokes. - -_Q_. How is the connecting rod removed? - -_A_. It is a vanadium steel rod connecting piston and crank shaft. -Should the babbitt bearing become worn, or burned out through lack of -oil, a knocking in the engine will result, in which case the entire -connecting rod should be replaced. To make this replacement, (1) drain -oil from crank case; (2) take off cylinder head; (3) remove detachable -plate on bottom of crank case; (4) disconnect connecting rod from crank -shaft; (5) take piston and rod out through top of cylinder. - -[Illustration: - - Exhaust Valve - - Spark Plug - - Exhaust and Intake - Pipe Clamp - - Cylinder - Head Bolt - - Top Water Connection - - Intake Valve - - Water Chamber - - Comp. Chamber - - Reverse Pedal - - Piston Ring - - Cylinder - Head - - Fan - - Crank Handle - - Clutch Pedal - - Piston - - Exhaust - Manifold - - Grease Cup - - Brake Pedal - - Magneto Contact - - Fan Bracket - - Transmission Cover - - Magneto - Contact Point - - Intake Pipe - - Fan Bracket Bolt - - Bracket Pipe - - Triple Gear - - Fan Belt - - Adjusting Nut - - Large Time Gear - - Reverse Band - - Commutator - - Slow Speed Band - - Com. Wire Terminal - - Brake Band - - Starting Pin - - Driving Plate - - Drive Pulley - - Starting Crank - - Starting Crank Spring - - Cam Shaft - Front Bearing - - Starting Crank Sleeve - - Starting Crank Ratchet - - Clutch Spring - - Push Rod - - Small Time Gear - - Clutch Release Fork - - Cam Shaft Rear Bearing - - Crank Case Oil Tube - - Crank Shaft Front Bearing - - Clutch Release Ring - - Magneto - - Crank Shaft Rear Bearing - - Crank Shaft Center Bearing - - Valve Spring - - Clutch Shift - - Magneto Support - - Magneto Coil Support - - Crank Shaft - - Cam Shaft - - Clutch Finger - - Magneto Clamp - - Magneto Coil - - Connecting Rod - - Oil Level - - Flywheel - - Oil Cocks - - Oil Drain Plug - -Fig. 147. Ford Motor--Sectional View] - -_Q._ What is the valve arrangement? - -_A._ One intake and one exhaust valve are located in each cylinder. The -former admits the fresh gas drawn from the carburetor through the inlet -pipe, the latter permits the exploded gas to be driven out through the -exhaust pipe. The valves are alternately opened and closed (see Fig. -148) by the cams on the cam shaft striking against push rods which in -turn lift the valves from their seats. - -[Illustration: - - Intake Stroke - Exhaust Valve Closed - Intake Valve Open - - Exhaust Valve Closed - Intake Valve Closed - Explosion Stroke - - Compression Stroke - Intake Valve Closed - Exhaust Valve Closed - - Intake Valve Closed - Exhaust Valve Open - Exhaust Stroke - - Push Rod - - Large Time Gear - - Comm. Brush Assb. - - Zero Marks on Time Gear - - Small Time Gear - - Crank Shaft - - Cam Shaft - - Exhaust Cam - - Connecting Rod - - Intake Cam - -Fig. 148. Ford Motor--Valve and Cylinder Assembly] - -_Q._ What about valve timing? - -_A._ In timing the engine the points of opening and closing of the -valves are, of course, what should be considered. As the valves are -properly timed at the factory when the engine is built, the necessity -for retiming would occur only when such parts as the cam shaft, time -gears, or valves were removed in overhauling the engine. In fitting -the large time gear to the cam shaft it is important to see that the -first cam points in a direction opposite to the zero mark (see Fig. -148). The time gears must also mesh so that the tooth marked (0) on -the small time gear will come between the two teeth on the large gear -at the zero point. The time gears now being properly set, the exhaust -valve on No. 1 cylinder is open and the intake valve closed, the other -valves being in the position indicated in cut No. 148. The opening and -closing of the valves are as follows: The exhaust valve opens when the -piston reaches ⁵⁄₁₆″ of bottom center, the distance from the top of the -piston head to the top of the cylinder casting measuring 3³⁄₈″. The -exhaust valve will close on top center, the piston being ⁵⁄₁₆″ above -the cylinder casting. The intake valve opens ¹⁄₁₆″ after the top center -and closes ⁹⁄₁₆″ after bottom center, the distance from the top of the -piston to the top of the cylinder casting measuring 3¹⁄₈″ The clearance -between the push rod and the valve stem should never be greater than -¹⁄₃₂″ nor less than ¹⁄₆₄″. The correct clearance is naturally halfway -between these two measurements. The gap should be measured when the -push rod is on the heel of the cam. - -_Q._ What about the care of the valves? - -_A._ They seldom get out of order, but they do get dirty as a result -of carbon collecting on the valve seats. These carbon deposits, by -preventing proper closing of the valves, permit the gases under -compression to escape, resulting in loss of power and uneven running -of the motor. If, when turning the engine over slowly, there is lack -of resistance in one or more cylinders, it is probable that the valves -need regrinding. As the “life” of the engine depends largely upon the -proper seating of the valves, it is necessary that they be ground -occasionally. - -_Q._ How are valves removed for grinding? - -_A._ (1) Draining radiator; (2) remove cylinder head; (3) remove the -two valve covers on the right side of the engine; (4) raise the valve -spring with lifting tool and pull out the little pin under the valve -seat. The valve may then be lifted out by the head, preparatory to -grinding. - -_Q._ How are valves ground? - -_A._ For this work use a good grinding paste of ground glass and oil -procurable from auto supply houses. A convenient way is to put a small -amount in a suitable dish, adding a spoonful or two of kerosene and a -few drops of lubricating oil to make a thin paste. Place the mixture -sparingly on the bevel face of the valve. Put the valve in position on -the valve seat, and rotate it back and forth (about a quarter turn) a -few times with a Ford grinding tool. Then lift slightly from the seat, -change the position and continue the rotation, and keep on repeating -this operation until the bearing surface is bright and smooth. The -valve should not be turned through a complete rotation, as this is -apt to cause scratches running around the entire circumference of the -valve and seat. When the grinding is completed the valve should be -removed from the cylinder, thoroughly washed with kerosene, and the -valve seat wiped out thoroughly. Extreme care should be taken that no -abrasive substance gets into the cylinders or valve guides. This can be -avoided if the grinding paste is applied sparingly on the bevel face -of the valve. If the valve seat is worn badly or smeared, it is best -to have it reseated with a valve seating tool. This operation requires -considerable skill, and perhaps had better be done by an expert -mechanic. Care should be exercised against making too deep a cut, -necessitating the retiming of the valve. - -_Q._ What should be done when the valves and push rods are worn? - -_A._ When the valves and push rods become worn so as to leave too much -play between them, thus reducing the lift of the valves and diminishing -the power of the motor, it is best to replace the push rods with new -ones. The clearance between the push rod and the valve stem should -never be greater than ¹⁄₃₂″ nor less than ¹⁄₆₄″. If the clearance is -greater, the valve will open late and close early, resulting in uneven -running of the motor. If the clearance is less than ¹⁄₆₄″ there is -danger of the valve remaining partially open all the time. If replacing -the push rod does not give the proper clearance, the valve should also -be replaced. We do not recommend drawing out the valve stem, as the -operation required, and the price of a new part does not warrant the -time and expense necessary to properly do the work. - -_Q._ What about valve springs? - -_A._ When the valves fail to seat themselves properly, there is a -possibility that the springs may be weak or broken. A weak inlet spring -would probably not affect the running of the engine, but weakness -in the exhaust valve spring causes a very uneven action, which is -difficult to locate. The symptoms are a lag in the engine due to the -exhaust valve not closing instantaneously, and as a result a certain -per cent. of the charge under compression escapes, greatly diminishing -the force of the explosion. Weakness in a valve spring can usually be -detected by the following method: Remove the plate which encloses them -at the side of the cylinder and insert a screw driver between the coils -of the spring while the engine is running. If the extra tension thus -produced causes the engine to pick up speed, the spring is obviously -weak and should be replaced by a new one. - -_Q._ What causes “knocking” in the engine? - -_A._ There are several causes which may be enumerated as follows: -(1) carbon knock, which is by far the most common, resulting from -carbonizing of cylinders; (2) knock caused by a too advanced spark; -(3) connecting rod knock; (4) crank shaft main bearing knock; (5) -knock due to loose fitting piston or broken ring; (6) knock caused by -piston striking the cylinder head gasket. When the engine knocks from -any cause whatsoever, the matter should be promptly investigated by an -experienced mechanic and the difficulty corrected. - -_Q._ How may the different knocks be distinguished? - -_A._ (1) The carbon knock is a clear hollow sound most noticeable in -climbing sharp grades, particularly when the engine is heated. It is -also indicated by a sharp rap immediately on advancing the throttle. -(2) Too advanced spark will be indicated by a dull knock in the motor. -(3) The connecting rod knock sound is like the distant tapping of steel -with a small hammer, and is readily distinguished when the car is -allowed to run idly down grade or upon speeding the car to twenty-five -miles an hour, then suddenly closing the throttle, the tapping will -be very distinct. (4) The crank shaft main bearing knock can be -distinguished as a dull thud when the car is going up hill. (5) The -loose piston knock is heard only upon suddenly opening the throttle, -when the sound produced might be likened to a rattle. The remedies for -these knocks are treated under their proper divisions. - -_Q._ How is carbon removed from the combustion chamber? - -_A._ First, drain the water off by opening the pet cock at the bottom -of the radiator; then disconnect the wires at the top of the motor and -also the radiator connection attached to the radiator. Remove the 15 -cap screws which hold the cylinder head in place. Take off the cylinder -head and, with a putty knife or screw driver, scrape from the cylinder -and piston heads the carbonized matter, being careful to prevent the -specks of carbon from getting into the cylinders or bolt holes. In -replacing the cylinder head gasket turn the motor over so that No. 1 -and No. 4 pistons are at top center; place the gasket in position over -the pistons and then put the cylinder head in place. Be sure and draw -the cylinder head bolts down evenly (i. e., give each bolt a few turns -at a time). Do not tighten them on one end before drawing them up at -the other. - -_Q._ How are spark plugs cleaned? - -_A._ After removing the plug from the engine the points may be -cleaned with an old tooth brush dipped in gasoline. However, to do -the work thoroughly, the plug should be taken apart by securing the -large hexagon steel shell in a vise and loosening the pack nut which -holds the porcelain in place. The carbon deposits can then be easily -removed from the porcelain and shell with a small knife. Care should -be exercised not to scrape off the glazed surface of the porcelain, -otherwise it will be apt to carbonize quickly. The porcelain and other -parts should be finally washed in gasoline and wiped dry with a cloth. - -In assembling the plug care should be taken to see that the pack -nut is not tightened too much so as to crack the porcelain, and the -distance between the sparking points should be ¹⁄₃₂″, about the -thickness of a smooth dime. Dirty plugs usually result from an excess -of oil being carried in the crank case, or from using oil of poor -quality. - -_Q._ How is the power plant removed from the car? - -_A._ (1) Drain the water out of the radiator and disconnect the -radiator hose. (2) Disconnect the radiator stay rod which holds it -to the dash. (3) Take out the two bolts which fasten the radiator to -the frame and take radiator off. (4) Disconnect the dash at the two -supporting brackets which rest on the frame. (5) Loosen the steering -post bracket, fastened to the frame, when the dash and steering -gear may be removed as one assembly, the wires first having been -disconnected. (6) Take out the bolts holding the front radius rods in -the socket underneath the crank case. (7) Remove the four bolts at the -universal joint. (8) Remove pans on either side of cylinder casting and -turn off gasoline; disconnect feed pipe from carburetor. (9) Disconnect -exhaust manifold from exhaust pipe by uncovering large brass pack nut. -(10) Take out the two cap screws which hold the crank case to the front -frame. (11) Remove the bolts which hold the crank case arms to the -frame at the side. Then pass a rope through the opening between the -two middle cylinders and tie in a loose knot. Through the rope pass a -“2 by 4,” or stout iron pipe about ten feet long, and let a man hold -each end; let a third man take hold of the starting crank handle, when -the whole power plant can be lifted from the car to the work bench for -adjustment. - -_Q._ How are the connecting rod bearings adjusted? - -_A._ Connecting rod bearings may be adjusted, without taking out the -engine, by the following method: (1) Drain off the oil; (2) Remove -plate on bottom of crank case, exposing connecting rods; (3) Take off -the first connecting rod cap, and drawfile the ends a very little -at a time; (4) Replace cap, being careful to see that punch marks -correspond, and tighten bolts until it fits shaft snugly; (5) Test -tightness of bearing by turning engine over with the starting handle. -Experienced mechanics usually determine when the bearing is properly -fitted by lightly tapping each side of the cap with a hammer; (6) then -loosen the bearing and proceed to fit the other bearings in the same -manner; (7) after each bearing has been properly fitted and tested, -then tighten the cap bolts and the work is finished. - -Remember that there is a possibility of getting the bearings too tight, -and under such conditions the babbitt is apt to cut out quickly, unless -precaution is taken to run the motor slowly at the start. It is a good -plan after adjusting the bearings to jack up the rear wheels and let -the motor run slowly for about two hours (keeping it well supplied with -water and oil) before taking it out on the road. Whenever possible -these bearings should be fitted by an expert Ford mechanic. - -Worn connecting rods may be returned, prepaid, to the nearest agent -or branch house for exchange at a price of 75 cents each to cover -the cost of rebabbitting. It is not advisable for any owner or -repair shop to attempt the rebabbitting of connecting rods or main -bearings, for without a special jig in which to form the bearings, -satisfactory results will not be obtained. The constant tapping of -a loose connecting rod on the crank shaft will eventually produce -crystallization of the steel, resulting in broken crank shaft and -possibly other parts of the engine damaged. - -_Q._ How are the crank shaft main bearings adjusted? - -_A._ Should the stationary bearings in which the crank shaft revolves -become worn (evidenced by a pounding in the motor) and need replacing -or adjustment, proceed as follows: (1) After the engine has been taken -out of the car, remove crank case, transmission cover, cylinder head, -pistons, connecting rods, transmission and magnetic coils. Take off -the three babbitted caps and clean the bearing surfaces with gasoline. -Apply Persian blue or red lead to the crank shaft bearing surfaces, -which will enable you, in fitting the caps, to determine whether a -perfect bearing surface is obtained. - -(2) Place the rear cap in position and tighten it up as much as -possible without stripping the bolt threads. When the bearing has been -properly fitted, the crank will permit moving with one hand. If the -crank shaft cannot be turned with one hand, the contact between the -bearing surface is evidently too close, and the cap requires ohming -up, one or two brass lines usually being sufficient. In case the crank -shaft moves too easily with one hand, the shims should be removed and -the steel surface of the cap filed off, permitting it to set closer. - -(3) After removing the cap, observe whether the blue or red “spottings” -indicate a full bearing the length of the cap. If “spottings” do not -show a true bearing, the babbitt should be scraped and the cap refitted -until the proper results are obtained. - -(4) Lay the rear cap aside and proceed to adjust the center bearing in -the same manner. Repeat the operation with the front bearing, with the -other two bearings laid aside. - -(5) When the proper adjustment of each bearing has been obtained, clean -the babbitt surface carefully and place a little lubricating oil on the -bearings, also on the crank shaft; then draw the caps up as closely -as possible, the necessary shims, of course, being in place. Do not -be afraid of getting the cap bolts too tight, as the shim under the -cap and the oil between the bearing surfaces will prevent the metal -being drawn into the close contact. If oil is not put on the bearing -surfaces, the babbitt is apt to cut out when the motor is started up -before the oil in the crank case can get into the bearing. In replacing -the crank case and transmission cover on the motor, it is advisable to -use a new set of felt gaskets to prevent oil leaks. - - -III - -THE FORD COOLING SYSTEM - - -_Q._ How is the engine cooled? - -_A._ The heat generated by the constant explosions in the engine -would soon overheat and ruin the engine were it not cooled by some -artificial means. The Ford engine is cooled by the circulation of -water in jackets around the cylinders. The heat is extracted from the -water by its passage through the thin metal tubing of the radiator, to -which are attached scientifically worked out fins, which assist in the -rapid radiation of the heat. The fan, just back of the radiator, sucks -the air around the tubing through which the air is also driven by the -forward movement of the car. The belt should be inspected frequently -and tightened by means of the adjusting screw in the fan bracket when -necessary. It should not be too tight, however. Take up the slack till -the fan starts to bind when turned by hand. - -_Q._ How does the water circulate? - -_A._ The cooling apparatus of the Ford car is known as the -thermo-syphon system. It acts on the principle that hot water seeks -a higher level than cold water. Consequently when the water reaches -a certain heat, approximately 180 degrees Fahrenheit, circulation -commences and the water flows from the lower radiator outlet pipe up -through the water jackets, into the upper radiator water tank, and down -through the tubes to the lower tank, to repeat the process. - -_Q._ What are the causes of overheating? - -_A._ (1) Carbonized cylinders; (2) too much driving on low speed; (3) -spark retarded too far; (4) poor ignition; (5) not enough or poor grade -oil; (6) racing motor; (7) clogged muffler; (8) improper carburetor -adjustment; (9) fan not working properly on account of broken or -slipping belt; (10) improper circulation of water due to clogged or -jammed radiator tubes, leaky connections or low water. - -_Q._ What should be done when the radiator overheats? - -_A._ Keep the radiator full. Do not get alarmed if it boils -occasionally, especially in driving through mud and deep sand or up -long hills in extremely warm weather. Remember that the engine develops -the greatest efficiency when the water is heated nearly to the boiling -point. But if there is persistent overheating when the motor is working -under ordinary conditions, find the cause of the trouble and remedy -it. The chances are that the difficulty lies in improper driving or -carbonized cylinders. Perhaps twisting the fan blades at a greater -angle to produce more suction may bring desired results. By reference -to the proper division of this book each of the causes which contribute -to an overheated radiator is treated and remedies suggested. No trouble -can result from the filling of an overheated radiator with cold water, -providing the water system is not entirely empty, in which case the -motor should be allowed to cool before the cold water is introduced. - -_Q._ How about cleaning the radiator? - -_A._ The entire circulation system should be flushed out occasionally. -To do this properly, the radiator inlet and outlet hose should be -disconnected, and the radiator flushed out by allowing the water to -enter the filler neck at ordinary pressure, from whence it will flow -down through the tubes and out at the drain cock and hose. The water -jackets can be flushed out in the same manner. Simply allow the water -to enter into the cylinder head connections and to flow through the -water jackets and out at the side inlet connection. - -_Q._ Will the radiator freeze in winter? - -_A._ Yes; unless an anti-freezing solution is used in the circulating -system you are bound to experience trouble. As the circulation does -not commence until the water becomes heated, it is apt to freeze at -low temperature before it commences to circulate. In case any of the -radiator tubes happen to be plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze -and burst open if the driver undertakes to get along without using a -non-freezing solution. Wood or denatured alcohol can be used to good -advantage. The following table gives the freezing points of solutions -containing different percentages of alcohol: 20% solution freezes at -15 degrees above zero. 30% solution freezes at 8 degrees below zero. -50% solution freezes at 34 degrees below zero. A solution composed of -60% water, 10% glycerine and 30% alcohol is commonly used, its freezing -point being about 8 degrees below zero. On account of evaporation -fresh alcohol must be added frequently in order to maintain the proper -solution. - -_Q._ How are leaks and jams in the radiator repaired? - -_A._ A small leak may be temporarily repaired by applying brown soap or -white lead, but the repair should be made permanent with solder as soon -as possible. A jammed radiator tube is a more serious affair. While the -stopping of one tube does not seriously interfere with the circulation, -it is bound to cause trouble sooner or later, and the tube will freeze -in cold weather. Cut the tube an inch above and below the jam and -insert a new piece, soldering the connections. If the entire radiator -is badly jammed or broken it would probably be advisable to install a -new one. - - -IV - -THE GASOLINE SYSTEM - - -_Q._ How does the carburetor work? - -_A._ The carburetor is of the automatic float feed type, having but -one adjustment, the gasoline needle valve. The cross-section diagram -of carburetor (Fig. 149) shows how the gasoline enters the carburetor, -is vaporized by a current of air and passes through the inlet pipe to -the engine in the form of an explosive mixture. The gasoline, entering -the bowl of the carburetor, gradually raises the float to a point -where the inlet needle is forced upwards into its seat, thus cutting -off the flow of gasoline. As the gasoline in the bowl recedes, the -float lowers, allowing the needle to drop from its seat and the flow -of gasoline is resumed. It is plain to see that a constant level of -gasoline is maintained in the carburetor by the automatic action of -float and needle. The quantity of gasoline entering into the mixture is -governed by the needle valve (_see_ following page). The volume of gas -mixture entering the inlet pipe is controlled by opening and closing -the throttle, according to the speed desired by the driver. - -[Illustration: - - Gasoline Tank - - Inlet Pipe - - Needle Valve - - Needle Valve - Lock Screw - - Air Gate Lever - - Throttle Lever - - Clamp Screw - - Screen - (Gasoline Strainer) - - Air Current - - Throttle - Stop Screw - - Air Intake Gate - - Throttle Gate - - Stop Cock - - Cork Float - - Gasoline Inlet Needle - - Sediment Bulb - - Feed Pipe - - Carburetor - Drain Cock - - Sediment Bulb - Drain Cock - -Fig. 149. Ford Fuel System] - -_Q._ Why is carburetor adjustment placed on dash? - -_A._ For the convenience of the driver in adjusting the carburetor. -After the new car has become thoroughly worked in, the driver should -observe the angle of the carburetor adjustment rod at which the -engine runs most satisfactorily. In cold weather it will probably be -found necessary to turn the dash adjustment one-quarter turn to the -left, particularly in starting a cold engine. As gasoline vaporizes -readily in warm weather, the driver will find it economical to reduce -the quantity of gasoline in the mixture by turning the carburetor -adjustment to the right as far as possible without reducing the speed. -This is particularly true when taking long drives where conditions -permit a fair rate of speed to be maintained, and accounts for the -excellent gasoline mileage obtained by good drivers. - -_Q._ What is meant by a “lean” and a “rich” mixture? - -_A._ A lean mixture has too much air and not enough gasoline. A rich -mixture has too much gasoline and not enough air. A rich mixture will -not only quickly cover the cylinders, pistons and valves with soot, -but will tend to overheat the cylinders, and is likewise wasteful of -the fuel. It will often choke the engine and cause misfiring at slow -speeds, although at high speeds the engine will run perfectly. The -mixture should be kept as lean as possible without the sacrifice of -any of the power of the motor. A lean mixture will often result in -backfiring through the carburetor, for the reason that the gas burns -slowly in the cylinder, and is still burning when the inlet valve opens -again, which causes the gas in the intake to ignite. A rich mixture is -shown by heavy, black exhaust smoke with a disagreeable smell. Proper -mixture will cause very little smoke or odor. - -_Q._ How is the carburetor adjusted? - -_A._ The usual method of regulating the carburetor is to start the -motor, advancing the throttle lever to about the sixth notch, with the -spark retarded to about the fourth notch. The flow of gasoline should -now be cut off by screwing the needle valve down to the right until -the engine begins to misfire. Then gradually increase the gasoline -feed by opening the needle valve until the motor picks up and reaches -its highest speed and no trace of black smoke comes from the exhaust. -Whenever it is necessary to turn the adjusting needle down more than a -quarter turn below its normal position, the lock nut on the top of the -carburetor at the point through which the needle passes should first -be loosened, as otherwise it is impossible to tell when the needle is -turned down in its seat too far. Turning the needle down too tightly -will result in its becoming grooved and the seat enlarged. When those -parts are damaged it is difficult to maintain proper adjustment of the -carburetor. Having determined the point where the motor runs at its -maximum speed, the needle valve lock nut should be tightened to prevent -the adjustment being disturbed. For average running a lean mixture will -give better results than a rich one. - -_Q._ Why does water clog the carburetor? - -_A._ The presence of water in the carburetor or gasoline tank, even in -small amounts, will prevent easy starting and the motor will misfire -and stop. As water is heavier than gasoline it settles to the bottom of -the tank and into the sediment bulb along with other foreign matters. -As it is difficult nowadays to get gasoline absolutely free from -impurities, especially water, it is advisable to frequently drain the -sediment bulb under the gasoline tank. During cold weather the water -which accumulates in the sediment bulb is likely to freeze and prevent -the flow of gas through the pipe leading to the carburetor. Should -anything of this kind happen it is possible to open the gasoline line -by wrapping a cloth around the sediment bulb and keeping it saturated -with hot water for a short time. Then the water should be drained off. -In event of the water getting down into the carburetor and freezing, -the same treatment may be applied. - -_Q._ What makes the carburetor leak? - -_A._ The flow of gasoline entering the carburetor through the feed -pipe is automatically regulated by the float needle raising and -lowering in its seat. Should any particle of dirt become lodged in -the seat, which prevents the needle from closing, the gasoline will -overflow in the bowl of the carburetor and leak out upon the ground. - -_Q._ What should be done when there is dirt in the carburetor? - -_A._ The spraying nozzle of the carburetor having a very small opening, -a minute particle of dirt or other foreign matter will clog up the -orifice. The result is that the motor will begin to misfire and slow -down as soon as it has attained any considerable speed. This is -accounted for by the fact that at high speeds the increased suction -will draw the particles of dust, etc., into the nozzle. By opening the -valve needle half a turn and giving the throttle lever two or three -quick pulls the dirt or sediment will often be drawn through, when -the needle may be turned back to its original place. If this does not -accomplish the purpose, the carburetor should be drained. - -_Q._ If the engine runs too fast or chokes with throttle retarded, what -is to be done? - -_A._ If the engine runs too fast with throttle fully retarded, unscrew -the carburetor throttle lever adjusting screw until the engine idles -at suitable speed. If the motor chokes or stops when throttle is fully -retarded, the adjusting screw should be screwed until it strikes -the boss, preventing the throttle from closing too far. When proper -adjustment has been made, tighten lock screw so that adjustment will -not be disturbed. - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the hot air pipe? - -_A._ It takes the hot air from around the exhaust pipe and conducts -it to the carburetor where the heat facilitates the vaporizing of -the gasoline. It is usually advisable to remove this pipe in the hot -season, but it is an absolutely necessary feature during cold weather. - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the cork float? - -_A._ It automatically controls the flow of gasoline into the -carburetor. If it floats too low, starting will be difficult; if too -high, the carburetor will flood and leak. A cork float which has become -fuel soaked should be removed and replaced by a new one or thoroughly -dried and then given a couple of coats of shellac varnish to make it -waterproof. - -_Q._ Should priming rod be used in cranking when motor is warm? - -_A._ No. The carburetor does not ordinarily require priming when the -motor is warm, and cranking with the rod pulled out is apt to “flood” -the engine with an over rich mixture of gas, which does not readily -explode. This naturally causes difficulty in starting. If you should -accidentally flood the engine, turn the carburetor adjusting needle -down (to the right) until it seats; then turn the engine over a few -times with the starting crank in order to exhaust the rich gas. As soon -as the motor starts, turn back the needle to the left and readjust the -carburetor. - - -V - -THE FORD IGNITION SYSTEM - - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the ignition system? - -_A._ It furnishes the electric spark which explodes the charge in the -combustion chamber, thus producing the power which runs the engine. It -is important that the charge be correctly ignited at the proper time, -in order to obtain satisfactory results in running the car. In the -Ford car the ignition system is as simple as it is possible for human -invention to make it. - -_Q._ How does the magneto generate the current? - -_A._ In revolving at the same rate of speed as the motor, the -magnets on the flywheel passing the stationary coil spools create an -alternating low tension electric current in coils of wire which are -wound around spools fastened to the stationary part of the magneto, and -is carried from these coils to the magneto connection (wire) leading to -the coil box on the dash. - -_Q._ Should the coil vibrator adjustment be disturbed? - -_A._ The present style of coil unit is properly adjusted when it leaves -the factory and this adjustment should not be disturbed unless to -install new points or to reduce the gap between the points which may -have increased from wear. When adjustments are necessary they should, -whenever possible, be made by one of the Ford service stations who -have special equipment for testing and adjusting units and will gladly -furnish expert service. If the points are pitted they should be filed -flat with a fine double-faced file and the adjusting thumb nut turned -down so that with the spring held down the gap between the points will -be a trifle less than ¹⁄₃₂ of an inch. Then set the lock nut so that -the adjustment cannot be disturbed. Do not bend or hammer on the -vibrators, as this would affect the operation of the cushion spring of -the vibrator bridge and reduce the efficiency of the unit. - -_Q._ How is a weak unit detected? - -_A._ With the vibrators properly adjusted, if any particular cylinder -fails or seems to develop only a weak action, change the position of -the unit to determine if the fault is actually in the unit. The first -symptom of a defective unit is the buzzing of the vibrator with no -spark at the plug. Remember that a loose wire connection, faulty spark -plug, or worn commutator may cause irregularity in the running of the -motor. These are points to be considered before laying the blame on the -coil. - -_Q._ How may short circuit in commutator wiring be detected? - -_A._ Should the insulation of the primary wires (running from coil -to commutator) become worn to such an extent that the copper wire is -exposed, the current will leak out (i. e., short circuit) whenever -contact with the engine pan or other metal parts is made. A steady -buzzing of one of the coil units will indicate a “short” in the wiring. -When driving the car the engine will suddenly lag and pound on account -of the premature explosion. Be careful not to crank the engine downward -against compression when the car is in this condition, as the “short” -is apt to cause a vigorous kick back. - -_Q._ Does coil adjustment affect starting? - -_A._ Yes. When the vibrators are not properly adjusted more current -is required to make and break the contact between the points, and, as -a result, at cranking speeds you would not get a spark between the -spark plug points. Do not allow the contact points to become “ragged,” -otherwise they are apt to stick and cause unnecessary difficulty in -starting, and when running they are apt to produce an occasional “miss” -in the engine. - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the commutator? - -_A._ The commutator (or timer) determines the instant at which the -spark plugs must fire. It affects the “make and break” in the primary -circuit. The grounded wire in the magneto allows the current to -flow through the metal parts to the metal roller in the commutator. -Therefore, when the commutator roller in revolving, touches the -four commutator contact points, to each of which is attached a wire -connected with the coil unit, an electrical circuit is passed through -the entire system of primary wires. This circuit is only momentary, -however, as the roller passes over the contact point very rapidly and -sets up the circuit in each unit as the roller touches the contact -point connected with that unit. The commutator should be kept clean and -well oiled at all times. - -_Q._ What about the spark plug? - -_A._ One is located at the top of each cylinder and can be taken out -easily with the spark plug wrench included with every car, after the -wire connection is removed. The high voltage current flows out of the -secondary coils in the coil box and on reaching the contact points on -each spark plug it is forced to jump ¹⁄₃₂″ gap, thereby forming a spark -which ignites the gasoline charge in the cylinders. - -The spark plug should be kept clean (i. e., free from carbon) and -should be replaced if they persist in not working properly. There is -nothing to be gained by experimenting with different makes of plugs. -The make of plug with which Ford engines are equipped when they -leave the factory are best adapted to the requirements of our motor, -notwithstanding the opinion of various garage men to the contrary. All -wire connections to spark plugs, coil box and commutator should, of -course, at all times be kept in perfect contact. - -_Q._ What are the indications of ignition trouble? - -_A._ The uneven sputter and bang of the exhaust means that one or -more cylinders are exploding irregularly or not at all, and that the -trouble should be promptly located and overcome. Misfiring, if allowed -to continue, will in time injure the engine and the entire mechanism. -If you would be known as a good driver you will be satisfied only with -a soft, steady purr from the exhaust. If anything goes wrong, stop and -fix it if possible. Do not wait until you get home. - -_Q._ How can one tell which cylinder is missing? - -_A._ This is done by manipulating the vibrators on the spark coils. -Open the throttle until the engine is running at a good speed and -then hold down the two outside vibrators, No. 1 and No. 4, with the -fingers, so they cannot buzz. This cuts out the two corresponding -cylinders, No. 1 and No. 4, leaving only No. 2 and No. 3 running. If -they explode regularly it is obvious the trouble is in either No. 1 or -No. 4. Relieve No. 4 and hold down No. 2 and No. 3 and also No. 1; if -No. 4 cylinder explodes evenly it is evident the misfiring is in No. -1. In this manner all of the cylinders in turn can be tested until the -trouble is located. Examine both the spark plug and the vibrator of the -missing cylinder. - -_Q._ If the coil and plug are right, what? - -_A._ The trouble is probably due to an improperly seated valve, worn -commutator, or short circuit in the commutator wiring. Weakness in -the valves may be easily determined by lifting the starting crank -slowly the length of the stroke of each cylinder in turn, a strong or -weak compression in any particular valve being easily detected. It -sometimes happens that the cylinder head gasket (packing) becomes leaky -permitting the gas under compression to escape, a condition that can -be detected by running a little lubricating oil around the edge of the -gasket and noticing whether bubbles appear or not. - -_Q._ Does a worn commutator ever cause misfiring? - -_A._ Yes. If misfiring occurs when running at high speed, inspect the -commutator. The surface of the circle around which the roller travels -should be clean and smooth, so that the roller makes a perfect contact -at all points. If the roller fails to make a good contact on any of -the four points, its corresponding cylinder will not fire. Clean these -surfaces if dirty. In case the fiber, contact points, and roller of the -commutator are badly worn, the most satisfactory remedy is to replace -them with new parts. The trouble is probably caused by short circuited -commutator wires. The spring should be strong enough to make a firm -contact between the roller points if they are worn or dirty. - -_Q._ How is the commutator removed? - -_A._ Remove cotter pin from spark rod and detach latter from -commutator. Loosen the cap screw which goes through breather pipe on -top of time gear cover. This will release the spring which holds the -commutator case in place and this part can be readily removed. Unscrew -lock nut; withdraw steel brush cap and drive out the retaining pin. The -brush can then be removed from the cam shaft. - -In replacing the brush, care must be exercised to see that it is -reinstated so that the exhaust valve on the first cylinder is closed -when the brush points upward. This may be ascertained by removing the -valve door and observing the operation of No. 1 valve. - -_Q._ Does cold weather affect the commutator? - -_A._ It is a well known fact that in cold weather the best grades of -lubricating oil are apt to congeal to some extent. If this occurs -in the commutator it is very apt to prevent the roller from making -perfect contact with the contact points imbedded in the fiber. This, -of course, makes difficult starting, as the roller arm spring is not -stiff enough to brush away the film of oil which naturally forms over -the contact points. To overcome this, as well as any liability to the -contact points to rust, we recommend a mixture of 25% kerosene with the -commutator lubricating oil, which will thin it sufficiently to prevent -congealing, or freezing, as it is commonly called. You have probably -noticed in starting your car in cold weather that perhaps only one or -two cylinders will fire for the first minute or so, which indicates -that the timer is in the condition described above and as a consequence -a perfect contact is not being made on each of the four terminals. - -_Q._ How is the magneto removed? - -_A._ It is necessary to take the power plant out of the car in order -to remove the magneto. Then remove crank case and transmission cover. -Take out the four cap screws that hold the flywheel to the crank shaft. -You will then have access to the magnets and entire magneto mechanism. -In taking out these parts, or any parts of the car, the utmost care -should be taken to make sure that the parts are marked in order that -they may be replaced properly. - -_Q._ What is to be done when the magneto gets out of order? - -_A._ A Ford magneto is made of permanent magnets and there is very -little likelihood of their ever losing their strength unless acted -upon by some outside force. For instance, the attachments of a storage -battery to the magneto terminal will demagnetize the magnets. If -anything like this happens, it is not advisable to try to recharge -them, but rather install a complete set of new magnets. The new magnets -will be sent from the nearest agent or branch house, and will be placed -on a board in identically the same manner as they should be when -installed on the flywheel. Great care should be taken in assembling the -magnets and lining up the magneto so that the faces of the magnets are -separated from the surface of the coil spool just ¹⁄₃₂ of an inch. To -take out the old magnets, simply remove the cap screw and bronze screw -which hold each in place. The magneto is often blamed when the trouble -is a weak current caused by waste or other foreign matter accumulating -under the contact spring cover. Remove the three screws which hold the -binding post in place; remove binding post and spring and replace after -foreign substance has been removed. - - -VI - -THE FORD TRANSMISSION - - -_Q._ What is the function of the transmission? - -_A._ It is that part of the mechanism of an automobile which lies -between the engine shaft and the propeller shaft and by which one is -enabled to move at different speeds from the other. It is the speed -gear of the car. It sends the car forward at low and high speeds and by -it the car is reversed. - -_Q._ What is meant by the term “planetary transmission”? - -_A._ One in which the groups of gears always remain in mesh and revolve -around a main axis. The different sets of gears are brought into action -by stopping the revolution of the parts which support the gears. By -means of bands (similar to brake bands) the rotation of the different -parts is stopped. The planetary transmission is the simplest and most -direct means of speed control and is a distinct advantage to the Ford -car. - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the clutch? - -_A._ If the crank shaft of the engine ran without break straight -through to the differential and through it applied its power direct -to the rear wheels, the car would start forward immediately upon the -starting of the engine (were it possible to get it started under such -conditions). To overcome this difficulty the shaft is divided by means -of the clutch. The part of the shaft to which the running engine is -delivering its power is enabled to take hold of the unmoving part -gradually and start the car without jolt or jar. The forward part of -the shaft is referred to as the crank shaft, the rear part as the drive -shaft. - -_Q._ How is the clutch controlled? - -_A._ By the left pedal at the driver’s feet. If the clutch pedal, -when pushed forward into slow speed, has a tendency to stick and not -to come back readily into high, tighten up the slow speed band. Should -the machine have an inclination to creep forward when cranking, it -indicates that the clutch lever screw which bears on the clutch lever -cam has worn, and requires an extra turn to hold the clutch in neutral -position. When the clutch is released by pulling back the hand lever -the pedal should move forward the distance of 1³⁄₄″ in passing from -high speed to neutral. See that the hub brake shoe and connections are -in proper order so that the brake will act sufficiently to prevent the -car creeping very far ahead. Also be sure that the slow speed band does -not bind on account of being adjusted too tight. Do not use too heavy -a grade of oil in cold weather, as it will have a tendency to congeal -between the clutch discs and prevent proper action of the clutch. - -_Q._ How is the clutch adjusted? - -_A._ Remove the plate on the transmission cover under the floor boards -at the driver’s seat. Take out the cotter key on the first clutch -finger and give the set screw one-half to one complete turn to the -right with a screw driver. Do the same to the other finger set screw. -But be sure to give each the same number of turns and do not forget to -replace the cotter key. And after a considerable period of service the -wear in the clutch may be taken up by installing another pair of clutch -discs, rather than by turning the adjusting screw in too far. - -=Caution.= Let us warn you against placing any small tools or objects -over or in the transmission case without a good wire or cord attached -to them. It is almost impossible to recover them without taking off the -transmission cover. - -_Q._ How are the bands adjusted? - -_A._ The slow speed bands may be tightened by loosening the lock nut at -the right side of the transmission cover, and turning up the adjusting -screw to the right. To tighten the brake and reverse bands, remove -the transmission case cover door and turn the adjusting nuts on the -shaft to the right. See that the bands do not drag on the drums when -disengaged, as they exert a brake effect, and tend to overheat the -motor. However, the foot brake should be adjusted so that a sudden -pressure will stop the car immediately, or slide the rear wheels in -case of emergency. The bands, when worn to such an extent that they -will not take hold properly, should be relined, so that they will -engage smoothly without causing a jerky movement of the car. The lining -is inexpensive and may be had at any of the eight thousand Ford service -stations at small cost. - -[Illustration: - - Slow Speed Drum and Gear - - Triple Gear - - Brake Drum - - Reverse Drum - and Gear - - Clutch Disks - - Driven Gear - - Disk Drum - - Triple Gear Pin - - Clutch Push Ring - - Trans. Shaft - - Driving Plate - - Flywheel - - Group 1 - - Clutch Push Ring - - Clutch Finger - - Driving Plate - - Triple Gear - - Reverse Gear - - Slow Speed Gear - - Driven Gear - - Clutch Shift - - Clutch Spring - - Clutch Spring Support - - Group 5 - - Clutch Spring Support Pin - - Group 4 - - Group 3 - - Group 2 - -Fig. 150. Ford Transmission Assembly] - -_Q._ How are the bands removed? - -_A._ Take off the door on top of transmission cover. Turn the reverse -adjustment nut and the brake adjustment nut to the extreme ends of the -pedal shafts, then remove the slow speed adjusting screw. Remove the -bolts holding the transmission cover to the crank case and lift off -the cover assembly. Slip the band nearest the flywheel over the first -of the triple gears, then turn the band around so that the opening is -downward. The band may now be removed by lifting upward. The operation -is more easily accomplished if the three sets of triple gears are so -placed that one set is about ten degrees to the right of center at -top. Each band is removed by the same operation. It is necessary to -shove each band forward on to the triple gears as at this point only is -there sufficient clearance in the crank case to allow the ears of the -transmission bands to be turned downward. By reversing this operation -the bands may be installed. After being placed in their upright -position on the drums pass a cord around the ears of the three bands, -holding them in the center so that when putting the transmission cover -in place no trouble will be experienced in getting the pedal shafts to -rest in the notches in the band ears. The clutch release ring must be -placed in the rear groove of the clutch shaft. With the cover in place -remove the cord which held the bands in place while the cover was being -installed. - -_Q._ How is transmission assembled? - -_A._ Cut No. 150 shows the transmission parts in their relative -assembling positions and grouped in their different operations of -assembling. - -The first operation is the assembling of group No. 2, which is as -follows: Place the brake drum on table with the hub in a vertical -position. Place the slow speed plate over the hub with the gear -uppermost. Then place reverse plate over the slow speed plate so that -the reverse gear surrounds the slow speed gear. Fit the two keys in the -hub just above the slow speed gear. Put the driven gear in position -with the teeth downward so that they will come next to the slow speed -gear. Take the three triple gears and mesh them with the driven gear -according to the punch marks on the teeth, the reverse gear or smallest -of the triple gear assembly being downward. After making sure that the -triple gears are properly meshed tie them in place by passing a cord -around the outside of the three gears. Take the flywheel and place -it on the table with the face downward and the transmission shaft in -vertical position. Then invert the group which you have assembled over -the transmission shaft, setting it in position so that the triple gear -pins on the flywheel will pass through the triple gears. This will -bring the brake drum on top in a position to hold the clutch plates, -etc. The next step is to fit the clutch drum key in the transmission -shaft. Press the clutch disc drum over the shaft and put the set screw -in place to hold the drum. Put the large disc over the clutch drum, -then the small disc, alternating with large and small discs until the -entire set of discs are in position, ending up with a large disc on -top. If a small disc is on top it is liable to fall over the clutch -in changing the speed from high to low and as a result you would be -unable to change the speed back into high. Next put the clutch push -rings over the clutch drum, and on top of the discs, with the three -pins projecting upward (_see_ group No. 4, cut No. 149). You will note -the remaining parts are placed as they will be assembled. Next bolt the -driving plate in position so that the adjusting screws of the clutch -fingers will bear against the clutch push ring pins. Before proceeding -further it would be a good plan to test the transmission by moving the -plates with the hands. If the transmission is properly assembled the -flywheel will revolve freely while holding any of the drums stationary. -The clutch parts may be assembled on the driving plate hub as follows: -Slip the clutch shift over the hub so that the small end rests on the -ends of the clutch fingers. Next put on the clutch spring, placing the -clutch supports inside so that the flange will rest on the upper coil -of the spring and press into place, inserting the pin in the driving -plate hub through the holes in the side of the spring support. Then -turn the clutch spring support until the pin fits into the lugs on the -bottom of the support. The easiest method of compressing the spring -sufficiently to insert the pin is to loosen the tension of the clutch -finger by means of the adjusting screws. When tightening up the clutch -again the spring should be compressed to within a space of two or two -and one-sixteenth inches to insure against the clutch spring slipping. -Care should be exercised to see that the screws in the fingers are -adjusted so the spring is compressed evenly all around. - - -VII - -THE REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY - - -_Q._ How is the rear axle removed? - -_A._ Jack up car and remove rear wheels as instructed below. Take out -the four bolts connecting the universal ball cap to the transmission -case and cover. Disconnect brake rods. Remove nuts holding spring -perches to rear axle housing flanges. Raise frame at the rear end, and -the axle can be easily withdrawn. - -_Q._ How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive shaft? - -_A._ Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting and turn -shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out pin and joint can be -pulled or forced away from the shaft and out of the housing. - -_Q._ How are the rear axle and differential disassembled? - -_A._ With the universal joint disconnected, remove nuts in front end -of radius rods and the nuts on studs holding drive shaft tube to rear -axle housing. Remove bolts which hold the two halves of differential -together. If necessary to disassemble differential a very slight -mechanical knowledge will permit one to immediately discern how to do -it once it is exposed to view. Care must be exercised to get every pin, -bolt and key lock back in its correct position when reassembling. - -_Q._ How is the drive shaft pinion removed? - -_A._ The end of the drive shaft, to which the pinion is attached, is -tapered to fit the tapered hole in the pinion, which is keyed onto the -shaft, and then secured by a cotter pinned “castle” nut. Remove the -castle nut, and drive the pinion off. - -_Q._ How are the differential gears removed? - -_A._ The compensating gears are attached to the inner ends of the rear -axle shaft. They work upon the spider gears when turning a corner, -so that the axle shaft revolves independently, but when the car is -moving in a straight line the spider gears and compensating gears and -axle shaft move as an integral part. If you will examine the rear -axle shafts you will notice that the gears are keyed on, and held in -position by a ring which is in two halves and fits in a groove in the -rear axle shaft. To remove the compensating gears, force them down on -the shaft, that is, away from the end to which they are secured, drive -out the two halves of ring in the grooves in shaft with screw driver or -chisel, then force the gears off the end of the shafts. - -[Illustration: - - Universal Joint Knuckle (Male) - Joint Housing - Joint Coupling Ring - Universal Joint Knuckle (Female) - - Radius Rod Castle Nut - Radius Rod Lock Nut - Drive Shaft Front Bushing - Rear Radius Rod - Drive Shaft Tube - Drive Shaft - - Ball Race - Ball Thrust Collar - Drive Shaft Pinion - Driving Gear - Drive Gear Screws - Drive Shaft - Drive Shaft Tube - Ball Bearing - Ball Bearing Housing - Roller Bearing - Roller Bearing Sleeve - Castle Nut - Differential Pinion - Differential Spider - Differential Gear - Rear Axle Housing (Right) - Thrust Washers - - Rear Radius Rod - Rear Axle Brake Drum - Hub Brake Cam Shaft - Hub Brake Cam Shaft Lever - Radius Rod Bolt and Nut - Lock Wire - Thrust Washer (Steel) - Thrust Washer (Babbitt) - Thrust Washer (Steel) - Gear Case (Left) - - Mud Cap - Cotter Pin - Castle Nut - Hub Key - Hub - Hub Flange - Roller Bearing Sleeve - Roller Bearing - Axle Housing Cap - Axle Roller Bearing Steel Washer - Brake Shoe Support Bolt and Nut - Rear Axle Shaft - Rear Axle Roller Bearing Sleeve - Rear Axle Roller Bearing - Rear Axle Housing (Left) - - Gear Case (Right) - Differential Case Stud - Grease Plug - -Fig. 151. Ford Rear Axle System] - -_Q._ How is the rear axle shaft removed? - -_A._ Disconnect rear axle as directed above, then unbolt the -drive shaft assembly where it joins the rear axle housing at the -differential. Disconnect the two radius rods at the outer end of the -housing. Take out the bolts which hold the two halves of the rear axle -housing together at the center. Take the inner differential casing -apart and draw the axle shaft through the housing at the center. After -replacing the axle shaft be sure that the rear wheels are firmly wedged -on at the outer end of the axle shaft and the key in proper position. -When the car has been driven thirty days or so, make it a point to -remove the hub cap and set up the lock nut to overcome any play that -might have developed. It is extremely important that the rear wheels -are kept tight, otherwise the constant rocking back and forth against -the key may in time cause serious trouble. If the rear axle or wheel -is sprung by skidding against the curb, or other accident, it is false -economy to drive the car, as tires, gears and all other parts will -suffer. If the axle shaft is bent, it can, with proper facilities, be -straightened, but it is best to replace it. - -[Illustration: - - Axle Housing Cap - Hub Key - Lock Nut - Hub Brake Drum - - Coil Spring - Hub Brake Cam - Axle Shaft - Hub Brake Shoe - -Fig. 152. Ford Brake] - - -VIII - -THE FORD MUFFLER - - -_Q._ Why is the muffler necessary? - -_A._ The exhaust as it comes from the engine through the exhaust pipe -would create a constant and distracting noise were it not for the -muffler. From the comparatively small pipe, the exhaust is liberated -into the larger chambers of the muffler, where the force of the -exhaust is lessened by expansion and discharged out of the muffler -with practically no noise. The Ford muffler construction is such that -there is very little back pressure of the escaping gases, consequently -there is nothing to be gained by putting a cut-out on the exhaust pipe -between the engine and the muffler. - -_Q._ How is the muffler kept in order? - -_A._ It should be cleaned occasionally. Remove it and take off nuts on -ends of rods which hold it together, and disassemble. - -In reassembling muffler, be careful not to get the holes in the inner -shells on the same side or end. - -_Q._ How is the muffler disconnected? - -_A._ To disconnect the muffler it is not necessary to disconnect the -exhaust pipe from the motor (although it is a good plan and a simple -matter, necessitating only unscrewing the union). To disconnect muffler -from frame, unscrew union at formed end of pipe, drop it down so it -will clear the frame and slip it back off the tube. If the muffler from -any cause becomes materially damaged it will probably be cheaper to -replace it with a new one than to attempt to repair it. - - -IX - -THE RUNNING GEAR - - -_Q._ What care should the running gear have? - -_A._ In the first place it at all times should have proper lubrication -(_see_ chapter on Lubrication). Once in every thirty days the front and -rear axles should be carefully gone over to see that every moving part, -such as the bushings in spring connections, spring hangers, steering -knuckles and hub bearings, are thoroughly lubricated, and that all -nuts and connections are secured with center pins in place. The spring -clips, which attach the front spring to the frame, should be inspected -frequently to see that every thing is in perfect order. - -[Illustration: - - Spindle oiler - - Spindle Bolt - - Spindle Body Bushing - - Spindle Con. Rod Bolt - - Spindle Con. Rod Yoke - - Spindle Arm - - Spoke - - Felt Washer - - Hub Bolt - - Large Ball Race - - Hub Flange - - Hub - - Spindle - - Grease Chamber - - Ball Bearings - - Adjusting Cone - - Lock Nut - - Hub Cap - - Washer - - Ball Retainer - - Small Ball Race - - Clamp Bolt - - Spindle Arm Nut - - Spindle Body Bushing - - Spidle Bolt Nut - - Stationary Cone - - Ball Retainer - - Dust Ring - -Fig. 153. Ford Spindle] - -_Q._ How is the front axle removed? - -_A._ Jack up front of car so wheels can be removed. Disconnect steering -gear arm from the spindle connecting rod, disconnect radius rod at -ball joint, and remove two cotter pin bolts from spring shackle on each -side, so detaching front spring. - -To disconnect radius rod entirely, take the two bolts out of the ball -joint and remove lower half of cap. - -_Q._ In case of accident, how is the front axle straightened? - -_A._ Should the axle or spindle become bent, extreme care must be used -to straighten the parts accurately. Do not heat the forgings, as this -will distemper the steel, but straighten them cold. If convenient -it would be better to return such parts to the factory, where they -may be properly straightened in jigs designed for that purpose. It -is very essential that the wheels line up properly. The eye is not -sufficiently accurate to determine whether the parts have been properly -straightened, and excessive wear of the front tires will occur if -everything is not in perfect alignment. - -_Q._ What about the wheels? - -_A._ The wheels should be jacked up periodically and tested, not only -for smoothness of running, but for side play as well. If in spinning -a front wheel a sharp click is heard, now and then, and the wheel -is momentarily checked, it is probable that there is a chipped or -split ball in the bearing which should be removed, otherwise it may -necessitate the removal of the entire bearing. A wheel in perfect -adjustment should after spinning, come to rest with the tire valve -directly below the hub. Undue wear of the hub bearings, such as cones, -balls and races, is usually caused by lack of lubrication and excessive -friction, due to the adjusting cone being drawn up too tight. It is a -good plan to clean the bearing frequently and keep the hub well filled -with grease. - -_Q._ How are the wheels removed? - -_A._ _Front wheels._ Take off hub cap, remove cotter pin and unscrew -castle nut and spindle washer. The adjustable bearing cone can then be -taken out and the wheel removed. Care should be taken to see that the -cones and lock nuts are replaced on the same spindle from which they -were removed, otherwise there is a liability of stripping the threads -which are left on the left spindle and right on the opposite as you -stand facing the car. _Back wheels._ They should not be removed unless -absolutely necessary, in which case proceed as above. Then with a wheel -puller remove the wheel from the tapered shaft to which it is locked -with a key. In replacing rear wheels be sure that nut on axle shaft is -as tight as possible and cotter pin in place. The hub caps of the rear -wheels should be removed occasionally and the lock nuts which hold the -hub in place tightened. If these nuts are allowed to work loose, the -resulting play on the hub key may eventually twist off the axle shaft. - -_Q._ How does the setting of the front wheels differ from that of the -rear wheels? - -_A._ It will be observed that the front wheels are “dished”; that is, -the spokes are given a slight outward flare to enable them to meet -side stresses with less rigid resistance, while the spokes of the rear -wheels are straight. The front wheels are also placed at an angle, that -is to say, the distance between the tops of the front wheels is about -three inches greater than between the bottoms. This is to give perfect -steering qualities and to save wear on tires when turning corners. -The front wheels should not, however, “toe-in” at the front, at least -not more than a quarter of an inch. Lines drawn along the outside of -the wheels when the latter are straight in a forward position should -be parallel. All wheels should always be kept in proper alignment, -otherwise steering will be difficult and tire wear will be greatly -increased. Adjustment can be made by turning the yoke at the left end -of the spindle connecting rod, to draw the wheels into a parallel -position. - -_Q._ What care do the springs need? - -_A._ The springs should be lubricated frequently with oil or graphite. -To do this, pry the leaves apart near the ends and insert the lubricant -between them. Whenever a car is given a general overhauling, the -springs should be disassembled and the leaves polished with emery -cloth, afterwards packing them with graphite when reassembling. Rust -can be prevented from accumulating on the springs by painting them -when necessary with a quick drying black paint. You will find that -these suggestions if carried out will not only improve the riding -qualities of the car but prolong the life of the parts as well. - -_Q._ Should spring clips be kept tight? - -_A._ Yes. If the spring clips are allowed to work loose the entire -strain is put on the tie bolt which extends through the center of the -spring. This may cause the bolt to be sheared off and allow the frame -and body to shift to one side. It is a good plan to frequently inspect -the clips which hold the springs to the frame and see that they are -kept tight. - -_Q._ What about the steering apparatus? - -_A._ It is exceedingly simple and will need little care except, of -course, proper lubrication. The post gears which are arranged in the -“sun and planet” form are located at the top of the post just below the -hub of the wheel. By loosening the set screw and unscrewing the cap -after having removed the steering wheel they may readily be inspected -and replenished with grease. To remove the steering wheel unscrew the -nut on top of the post and drive the wheel off the shaft with a block -of wood and hammer. - -_Q._ How is the steering gear tightened? - -_A._ Should the steering gear become loose, that is, so that a slight -movement of the wheel does not produce immediate results, it may be -tightened in the following manner: Disconnect the two halves of the -ball sockets which surround the ball arm at the lower end of the -steering post and file off the surface until they fit snugly around the -ball. If the ball is badly worn it is best to replace it with a new -one. Also tighten the ball caps at the other end of the steering gear -connecting rod in the same manner. If the bolts in the steering spindle -arms appear to be loose, the brass bushings should be replaced with new -ones. Excessive play in the front axle may be detected by grasping one -of the front wheels by the spokes and jerking the front axle back and -forth. After the car has been in service two or three years excessive -play in the steering gear may make necessary the renewal of the little -pinions, as well as the brass internal gear just underneath the -steering wheel spider. - -It is also advisable to inspect the front spring hangers occasionally -to determine whether or not new bushings are necessary to overcome any -excessive vibration. - - -X - -THE FORD LUBRICATING SYSTEM - - -_Q._ How does the Ford lubricating system differ from others? - -_A._ It is simplified,--and there are fewer places to oil. Practically -all of the parts of the engine and transmission are oiled by the Ford -splash system, from the one big oil reservoir in the crank case. Fig. -154 shows the principal points of lubrication, and specifies when -replenishment should be made, according to mileage. This chart should -be studied carefully and often. It is a good plan to frequently supply -all oil cups with the same oil used in the engine (any good light grade -lubricating oil will answer) and the dope cups with good grease. Be -sure to see that the commutator is kept freely supplied with oil at all -times. - -_Q._ Which is the best way to fill the dope cups? - -_A._ When it is advisable to fill the dope cup covers screw them down, -refill with grease and repeat the operation two or three times. Always -open oil cups by turning to the right, as this keeps tightening them -rather than loosening them. Occasionally remove front wheels and supply -dope to wearing surface. A drop of oil now and then in crank handle -bearing is necessary, also on fan belt pulleys and shaft. The axles, -drive shaft, and universal joint are well supplied with lubricant when -the car leaves the factory, but it is well to examine and oil them -frequently. - -[Illustration: - - A--Oil Every 200 Miles. - - C--Grease Every 200 Miles. - - B--Oil Every 500 Miles. - - D--Grease Every 500 Miles. - - E--Grease Every 1000 Miles. - - F--Oil Motor Daily. Keep oil level between - crank case pet cocks. - - G--Grease Every 5000 Miles. - -Fig. 154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart] - -_Q._ What kind of oil should be used? - -_A._ We recommend only light high grade gas engine oil for use in -the model T motor. A light grade of oil is preferred as it will -naturally reach the bearings with greater ease and consequently less -heat will develop on account of friction. The oil should, however, -have sufficient body so that the pressure between the two bearing -surfaces will not force the oil out and allow the metal to come in -actual contact. Heavy and inferior oils have a tendency to carbonize -quickly, also “gum up” the piston rings, valve stems and bearing. In -cold weather a light grade of oil having a low cold test is absolutely -essential for the proper lubrication of the car. The nearest Ford -branch will advise you concerning the lubricating oil this company -has found best suited for its cars, both for summer and winter -weather. Graphite should not be used as a lubricant in the engine or -transmission as it will have a tendency to short circuit the magneto. - -_Q._ How often should the oil be drained from crank cases? - -_A._ It is advisable to clean out the crank case by draining out the -dirty oil when the new car has been driven four or five hundred miles; -thereafter it will only be necessary to repeat this operation about -every thousand miles. Remove plug underneath the flywheel casing and -drain off the oil. Replace the plug and pour in a gallon of kerosene -oil through the breather pipe. Turn the engine over by hand fifteen or -twenty times so that the splash from the kerosene oil will thoroughly -clean the engine. Remove crank case plug and drain off kerosene oil. In -order to get all of the kerosene out of the depressions in the crank -case the car should be run up a little incline, about the height of the -ordinary street curbing. Refill with fresh oil. - -_Q._ How often should the commutator be oiled? - -_A._ Keeping the commutator well oiled is a matter of far greater -importance than many drivers believe, and is necessary in order to -have a smooth operating engine. Do not be afraid to put a little oil -into the commutator every other day--at least every two hundred miles. -Remember that the commutator roller revolves very rapidly, and without -sufficient oil the parts soon become badly worn. When in this condition -perfect contact between the roller and the four contact points is -impossible, as a result the engine is apt to misfire when running at a -good rate of speed. - -_Q._ What about lubricating the differentials? - -_A._ Do not make the mistake of putting too much grease in the -differential housing. The housing should not be more than one-third -full. The differential is supplied with the required amount of -lubricant when the car leaves the factory. The oil plug should be -removed about every 1000 miles and more grease added if necessary. If a -fluid is used the level should be approximately one and one-half inches -below the oil hole. - - -XI - -CARE OF TIRES - - -_Q._ How are Ford tires removed? - -_A._ First, jack up the wheel clear of the road. The valve cap should -be unscrewed, the lock nut removed and the valve stem pushed into -the tire until its bead is flush with the rim. This done, loosen up -the head of the shoe in the clinch of the rim by working and pushing -with the hands, then insert one of the tire irons or levers under the -beads. The tire iron should be pushed in just enough to get a good hold -on the under side of the bead, but not so far as to pinch the inner -tube between the rim and the tool. A second iron should be inserted -in the same fashion some seven or eight inches from the first, and a -third tool the same distance from the second. As a cylinder tire must -be pried over the clinch, three or four levers will come in handy in -a case of a “one man job,” and the knee of the driver can be used to -good advantage to hold down one lever while the other two are being -manipulated in working the shoe clear of the rim. After freeing a -length of the bead from the clinch, the entire outer edge of the casing -may be readily detached with the hand, and the damaged inner tube -removed and “patched” or a spare tube inserted. Always use plenty of -soapstone in replacing an inner tube. - -_Q._ How are casings repaired? - -_A._ Should the casing be cut so there is danger of the inner tube -being blown through it, a temporary repair can be made by cementing a -canvas patch on the inside of the casing. Before applying the patch the -part of the casing affected should be cleaned with gasoline and when -dry, rubber cement applied to both casing and patch. This will answer -as an emergency repair, but the casing should be vulcanized at the -first opportunity. - -To prolong the life of the tire casings, any small cuts in the tread -should be filled with patching cement and a specially prepared -“plastic” sold by tire companies. - -_Q._ How may tire expense be reduced? - -_A._ Tire cost constitutes one of the most important items in the -running expenses of an automobile. To get the most service at the least -expense, the tire should be inspected frequently and all small cuts -or holes properly sealed or repaired,--thus preventing dirt and water -working in between the rubber tread and the fabric, causing blisters or -sand boils. - -Tires should never be run partially deflated, as the side walls are -unduly bent and the fabric is subject to stress, which is known as rim -cutting. The chances of getting a puncture will be greatly reduced by -keeping your tires properly inflated, as a hard tire exposes much less -surface to the road than a soft tire, and also deflects sharp objects -that would penetrate a soft tire. - -Running a flat tire, even for a short distance, is sure to be costly. -Better run on the rim, very slowly and carefully, rather than on a flat -tire. - -Remember that fast driving and skidding shorten the life of the tires. -Avoid locking the wheels with the brakes,--no tire will stand the -strain of being dragged over the pavement in this fashion. - -Avoid running in street car tracks, in ruts, or bumping the side of the -tire against the curbing. - -The wheel rims should be painted each season and kept free from rust. - -When a car is idle for any appreciable length of time, it should be -jacked up to take the load off the tires. If the car is laid up for -many months, it is best to remove the tires, and wrap up the outer -casings and inner tubes separately, and store them in a dark room not -exposed to extreme temperature. Remove oil or grease from the tires -with gasoline. Remember that heat, light and oil are three natural -enemies to rubber. - -_Q._ How is a puncture in the inner tube repaired? - -_A._ After locating the puncture, carefully clean the rubber around -the leak with benzine or gasoline. Then rough the surface with sand -paper from your tire repair kit to give a hold for the cement. Apply -the cement to both patch and tube, allowing it to dry for about five -minutes, repeating the application twice with like intervals between -for drying. When the cement is dry and sticky press the patch against -the tube firmly and thoroughly to remove all air bubbles beneath it -and insure proper adherence to the surface. Then spread some soapstone -or talc powder over the repair so as to prevent the tube sticking to -the casing. Before the tube is put back into the casing plenty of -talc powder should be sprinkled into the latter. A cement patch is -not usually permanent and the tube should be vulcanized as soon as -possible. In replacing the tire on the rim be very careful not to pinch -the tube. - - -XII - -POINTS ON MAINTENANCE - - -_Q._ What is the proper way to wash the car? - -_A._ Always use cold or lukewarm water,--never hot water. If a hose -is used, do not turn on the water at full force, as this drives the -dirt into the varnish and injures the finish. After the surplus mud -and grime have been washed off, take a sponge and clean the body and -running gear with a tepid solution of water and ivory or linseed oil -soap. Then rinse off with cold water; then rub dry and polish the body -with a chamois skin. A body or furniture polish of good quality may -be used to add luster to the car. Grease on the running gear may be -removed with a gasoline soaked sponge or rag. The nickeled parts may be -polished with any good metal polish. - -_Q._ What care does the top need? - -_A._ When putting the top down be careful in folding to see that the -fabric is not pinched between the bow spacers, as they will chafe a -hole through the top very quickly. Always slip the hood over the top -when folded to keep out dust and dirt. Applying a good top dressing -will greatly improve the appearance of an old top. - -_Q._ What should be done when the car is stored? - -_A._ Drain the water from the radiator, and then put in about a quart -of denatured alcohol to prevent freezing of any water that may possibly -remain. Remove cylinder head and clean out any carbon deposits in -combustion chamber. Draw off all the gasoline. Drain the dirty oil from -the crank case and cleanse the engine with kerosene as directed above. -Refill the crank case with fresh oil and revolve the engine enough to -cover the different parts with oil. Remove the tires and store them -away. Wash up the car, and if possible cover the body with a sheet of -muslin to protect the finish. - -_Q._ What attention do the electric headlights require? - -_A._ Very little. When the cars leave our factory the lamps are -properly focussed and unless the bulb burns out there should be no -occasion for removing the door, as there is nothing to get out of -order. Should the door be removed for any reason care should be -exercised not to touch the silver-plated reflector or the bulb with -anything but a soft, clean rag, preferably flannel. To focus the lamps -turn the adjusting screw in the back of the lamp in either direction -until the desired focus is attained. The bulbs we are furnishing in -electric head lamps are 8 volts, 2 amperes, and best results will -be obtained by securing lamps of this voltage and amperage when -replacement is necessary. - - -XIII - -THE FORD MODEL T ONE TON TRUCK - - -_Q._ Do the instructions relative to the car apply to the truck? - -_A._ The answers pertaining to the car are applicable to the truck. - -_Q._ How is the rear axle removed? - -_A._ Jack up the truck, place supports under rear axle housings, -and remove the rear wheels. Take out the four bolts connecting the -universal ball cap to the transmission case and cover. Disconnect brake -rods. Remove nuts holding spring perches to rear axle housing flanges. -Raise frame by placing a long iron bar or gas pipe under the frame just -in front of rear spring, one end resting on a substantial support of -the proper height. Two workmen at the other end of the bar can raise -the frame and place the end of the bar on another support. The rear -axle assembly can then be easily removed. - -_Q._ How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive shaft? - -_A._ Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting and turn -shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out pin and the joint can be -pulled or forced away from the shaft and out of the housing. - -_Q._ How are the rear axle and differential disassembled? - -_A._ With the universal joint disconnected, remove the bolt in front -end of radius rods and the cap screws which hold the drive shaft -tube to the rear axle housing. Then remove the rear axle housing -cap; also the bolts which hold the two halves of the differential -housing together. With the differential exposed to view, the manner of -disassembling it will be apparent. Care must be exercised to get every -part back in its correct position when reassembling, being sure to use -new paper liners. - -_Q._ How is the worm removed? - -_A._ To remove the worm, drive out the pins which hold the coupling to -the worm and drive shaft. Then remove the felt washer, roller bearing -sleeve, and roller bearing by slipping them over the coupling. Drive -the coupling off from the drive shaft and then force the worm from -the coupling. Removing the worm nut will permit the removal of the -retaining washer, thrust bearing and rear worm roller bearing. In -reassembling be sure that the pin which holds the retaining washer -stationary is in place. - -_Q._ How is the rear axle shaft removed? - -_A._ Remove the rear axle assembly as directed above. Disconnect brake -rods and radius rods at rear axle housing flange; also remove nuts -holding spring perches to flanges. Take out the cap screws holding the -drive shaft tube to the rear axle housing and remove the rear axle -housing cap and the bolts which hold the two halves of the differential -housing together, then pull or force the housing from the shafts and -disassemble differential. After replacing the axle shaft be sure that -the rear wheels are firmly wedged on at the outer end of the axle shaft -and the key in proper position. When the truck has been driven thirty -days or so make it a point to remove the hub cap and set up the lock -nut to overcome any play that might have developed. It is extremely -important that the rear wheels are kept tight, otherwise the constant -rocking back and forth against the keyway may in time cause serious -trouble. - -_Q._ How is the differential gear removed from the shaft? - -_A._ The differential gear is fastened to the inner end of the rear -axle shaft by means of splines, and is held in position by a ring which -is in two halves and fits in a groove in the rear axle shaft. To remove -the gear, force it down on the shaft, that is, away from the end to -which it is fastened, drive out the two halves of the ring in groove in -shaft with screw driver or chisel, and force the gear off the end of -the shaft. - -_Q._ What about lubricating the rear axle? - -_A._ Extreme care must be used in lubricating the differential. An -A-1 heavy fluid or semi-fluid oil, such as Mobiloil C or Whittemore’s -Worm Gear Protective, should be used and cared at a level with the -upper oil plug. The differential is supplied with the required amount -of lubricant when the car leaves the factory and the supply should be -maintained by replenishments as required. After running the truck about -500 miles, the oil should be drained off by removing the lower oil -plug, and the differential filled with fresh lubricant. This operation -should be repeated at approximately 1000 miles, and after that whenever -necessary. The rear axle outer roller bearings are lubricated by means -of dope cups. These cups should be kept filled with a good grade of -grease and given a full turn every 100 miles. Before putting the truck -back into service after the rear axle has been taken out fill the -differential with oil, jack up the axle and run it for five or ten -minutes to insure proper lubricant of all bearings. - - -XIV - -THE F. A. STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM INSTALLED ON SEDANS AND COUPÉS - - -_Q._ Of what does the starting and lighting system consist? - -_A._ The starting and lighting system is of the two unit type and -consists of the starting motor, generator, storage battery, charging -indicator, and lights, together with the necessary wiring and -connections. - -_Q._ Where is the starter located? - -_A._ The starting motor is mounted on the left hand side of the engine -and bolted to the transmission cover. When in operation the pinion on -the Bendix drive shaft engages with the teeth on the flywheel. - -_Q._ What must be done before starting the engine? - -_A._ The spark and the throttle levers should be placed in the same -position on the quadrant as when cranking by hand, and the ignition -switch turned on. Current from either battery or magneto may be used -for ignition. When starting, especially when the engine is cold the -ignition switch should be turned to battery. As soon as the engine is -warmed up, turn switch back to magneto. The magneto was designed to -furnish ignition for the Model T engine and better results will be -obtained by operating in this way. Special attention must be paid to -the position of the spark lever as a too advanced spark will cause -serious backfiring which in turn will bend or break the shaft in the -starter. The starting motor is operated by a push button, conveniently -located in the floor of the car at the driver’s feet. With the spark -and throttle levers in the proper position, and the ignition switch -turned on, press on the push button with the foot. This closes the -circuit between the battery and the starting motor, causing the pinion -of the Bendix drive shaft to engage with the teeth on the flywheel, -thus turning over the crank shaft. When the engine is cold it may be -necessary to prime it by pulling out the carburetor priming rod, which -is located on the instrument board. In order to avoid flooding the -engine with an over rich mixture of gas, the priming rod should only be -held out for a few seconds at a time. - -_Q._ What if the engine fails to start? - -_A._ If the starting motor is turning the crank shaft over and the -engine fails to start, the trouble is not in the starting system. In -this event, release the button at once so as not to unnecessarily -discharge the battery and inspect the carburetor and ignition system to -determine the trouble. - -_Q._ What if the starting motor fails to act? - -_A._ If the starting motor fails to act, after pushing the button, -first inspect the terminal on the starting motor, the two terminals -on the battery and the two terminals on starting switch, making sure -all the connections are tight; then examine the wiring for a break in -the insulation that would cause a short circuit. If the wiring and -connections are O. K. and the starting motor fails to act, test the -battery with the hydrometer. If the hydrometer reading is less than -1.225 the trouble is no doubt due to a weak or discharged battery. - -_Q._ How is the generator operated? - -_A._ The generator is mounted on the right hand side of the engine and -bolted to the cylinder front end cover. It is operated by the pinion on -the armature shaft engaging with the large time gear. The charging rate -of the generator is set so as to cut in at engine speeds corresponding -to ten miles per hour in high speed and reaches a maximum charging rate -at twenty miles per hour. At higher speeds the charge will taper off, -which is a settled characteristic of battery charging. This operation -of cutting in and cutting out at suitable speeds is accomplished by the -cut-out, which is mounted on the dash. This cut-out is set properly at -the factory and should not under any circumstances be tampered with. - -_Q._ What about oiling? - -_A._ The starting motor is lubricated by the Ford splash system, the -same as the engine and the transmission. The generator is lubricated by -a splash of oil from the time gears. In addition an oil cup is located -at the end of the generator housing and a few drops of oil should be -applied occasionally. - -_Q._ What should be done when repairing the ignition? - -_A._ The introduction of a battery current into the magneto will -discharge the magnets and whenever repairing the ignition system or -tampering with the wiring in any way, do not fail to disconnect the -positive wire from the battery. The end of this wire should be wound -with tape to prevent its coming in contact with the ignition system or -metal parts of the car. - -_Q._ How does the charging indicator work? - -_A._ The charging indicator is located on the instrument board. This -indicator registers “charge” when the generator is charging the battery -and “discharge” when the lights are burning and the engine not running -above ten miles per hour. At an engine speed of 15 miles per hour or -more the indicator should show a reading of from 10 to 12 even with the -lights burning. If the engine is running above 15 miles per hour and -the indicator does not show “charge,” first inspect the terminal posts -on the indicator, making sure that the connections are tight, then -disconnect the wire from the terminal on generator, and with the engine -running at a moderate speed, take a pair of pliers or a screw driver -and short circuit the terminal stud on the generator to the generator -housing. If the generator is O.K., a good live spark will be noted. (Do -not run the engine any longer than is necessary with the terminal wire -disconnected.) Next inspect the wiring from the generator through the -charging indicator to the battery for a break in the insulation that -would result in a short circuit. - -_Q._ How are the lights operated? - -_A._ The lighting system consists of two 2-bulb headlights and a tail -light operated by a combination lighting and ignition switch located on -the instrument board. The large bulbs are of 6-8 candle-power type. The -small bulbs of 6-8 volt two candle-power type. The small bulb is also -used in the tail light. All of the lamps are connected in parallel so -that the burning out or removal of any one of them will not effect the -other. Current for the lamps is supplied by the battery. Do not connect -the lights with the magneto as it will result in burning out the bulbs -and might discharge the magnets. - -_Q._ What about repairing starter and generator? - -_A._ If either the starter or generator fails to give proper service, -the owner should at once consult an authorized Ford dealer. If the -trouble is not found in the wiring, connections, etc., as outlined, the -dealer will remove the starter or generator, or both if necessary, and -return them intact to the nearest branch for repair or replacement. -Dealers or owners should not attempt to repair or tamper in any way -with the mechanism of the starter and generator. - -_Q._ How is the starter removed? - -_A._ When removing the starter to replace transmission bands, or for -any other reason, first remove the engine pan and the left hand side -of the engine and with a screw driver remove the four small screws -holding the shaft cover to the transmission cover. Upon removing cover -and gasket, turn the Bendix drive shaft around so that the set screw -on the end of the shaft is in the upward position. Immediately under -the set screw is placed a lock washer, designed with lips or extensions -opposite each other on the outside diameter. One of these is turned -against the collar and the other is turned up against the side of the -screw head. Bend back the lip which has been forced against the screw -and remove the set screw. As the lock washer will no doubt be broken or -weakened in removing the starter, a new one must be used in replacing -it. These washers may be obtained from the nearest branch. Next, pull -the Bendix assembly out of the housing, being careful that the small -key is not misplaced or lost. Remove the four screws which hold the -starter housing to the transmission cover and pull out the starter, -taking same down through the chassis,--this is why it was necessary -to remove the engine pan. Extreme care should be used in removing the -Bendix drive and other parts that none are misplaced nor lost and -that they are replaced in their former positions. In replacing the -starter, be sure that the terminal connection is placed at the top. -If the car is to be operated with the starter removed, be sure to put -the transmission cover plates in position. These plates may also be -obtained from the nearest branch. - -_Q._ How is the generator removed? - -_A._ If it is found necessary to remove the generator, first take out -the three cap screws holding it to the front end cover and by placing -the point of a screw driver between the generator and front end cover; -the generator may be forced off the engine assembly. Always start at -the top of the generator and force it backward and downward at the same -time. Plates may be obtained from the nearest branch to place over the -time gear if the car is to be operated with the generator removed. - -_Q._ Can the engine be run with the generator disconnected from the -battery? - -_A._ If for any reason it is run with the generator disconnected from -the battery, as on a block test, or when battery has been removed for -repair or recharging, be sure that the generator is grounded to the -engine by running a wire from the terminal on generator to one of the -valve cover stud nuts. A piece of wire ¹⁄₁₆″ or more in diameter may -be used for this purpose. Be sure that the connections at both ends of -the wire are tight. Failure to do this when running the engine with the -generator disconnected from the battery will result in serious injury -to the generator. - -_Q._ What about the care of the battery, repairing of recharging? - -_A._ The Ford Starting System uses a 6-volt 13-plate “Exide” battery, -type 3-XC-13-1. The care of the battery in service is summed up in the -following rules: - -1. Add nothing but pure water to the cells and do it often enough -to keep the plates covered at all times. Distilled water, melted -artificial ice or rain water collected in clean receptacles is -recommended. In cold weather add water only just before running the -engine so that the charging may mix the water and the electrolyte and -freezing of the water be avoided. - -2. Take frequent hydrometer readings to make sure that the generator -is keeping the battery charged. To take reading remove filler cap of -cell, insert end of hydrometer syringe in filler opening, squeeze bulb, -and release, drawing up enough liquid to float hydrometer bulb free -in the liquid. The reading of the scale at the surface of the liquid -when hydrometer is floating in the specific gravity (density) of the -electrolyte. A fully charged battery will show a reading of 1.275 to -1.300. A battery half charged will show a reading of 1.225 to 1.250. -A completely discharged battery will show a reading of 1.200 or less. -When taking hydrometer readings remove the filler cap from only one -cell at a time and be sure to return electrolyte to the cell from which -it was taken. Then replace and tighten the filler cap. Hydrometer tests -taken immediately after filling with water and before water has become -thoroughly mixed with the electrolyte will not show the true condition -of the battery. - -3. If hydrometer reading shows battery less than half charged it should -be taken to the nearest Exide Battery Service Station for recharging. -Continued operation in a less than half charged condition is injurious -to the battery, just as running in a soft or deflated condition is -injurious to the tires. - -4. Keep the filler caps in place and screwed tight,--a half turn -tightens them. Keep battery connections tight and clean. A coating of -heavy oil or vaseline will protect the connectors from corrosion. Keep -battery firmly secured in place. If hold-downs are loose battery will -shift about in compartment and result in loose connections, broken -cells or other trouble. - -5. Exide Battery Stations are maintained in principal cities and towns -throughout the country to assist you to obtain good service from your -battery. Do not entrust your battery to the care of a novice. - -_Q._ What about battery guarantee? - -_A._ The Exide batteries are guaranteed by the manufacturers (The -Electric Storage Battery Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) to be free from -defects in material and workmanship. - -At any time within three months from date of delivery to the purchaser -any battery which may prove to be defective or incapable, when fully -charged, of giving its rated capacity, will be repaired or replaced -free of expense upon receipt, transportation charges prepaid, at any -Exide Battery Depot or authorized Exide Battery Service Station. This -guarantee does not cover the free charging of batteries nor the making -good of damage resulting from continued lack of filling the cells from -time to time with pure water. No claims on account of alleged defects -can be allowed unless made within three months of date of delivery of -battery to purchaser, and the right is reserved to refuse to consider -claims in the case of batteries opened by other than authorized Exide -Battery Service Stations. - -Purchasers of cars equipped with the “Exide” batteries are earnestly -urged to coöperate with the battery manufacturers to taking their -cars, as promptly as possible after receipt, by the nearest Exide -Battery Service Station in order that the battery may be tested and -its condition and installation checked. No charge is made for this -inspection. - - - - -INDEX - - - PAGE - - Accumulator 99 - - Alignment 229 - - Alternating current 96 - - Ammeter 99 - - Ampere 95 - - Atwater Kent ignition systems 126 - - Automobile arrangement of parts 245 - painting 262 - troubles 264 - - Axles 212 - dead, type 212 - front 214 - full-floating 213 - live, type 212 - semi-floating 212 - - - Battery, storage 99 - - Bearings, types of 236 - - Bijur starter mechanism 151 - - Body, care and washing 253 - - Borg and Beck clutch 192 - - Bosch Magneto, operation of 105 - cutting out ignition 110 - safety spark gap 109 - timing of 106 - - Brakes, operation of 218 - care of 221 - equalizer 220 - - Breaker box and distributor head assembly, N.E. 117 - - - Cam shaft 18 - - Cam shaft drive 19 - - Car, arrangement and parts, cleaning 243 - care, cleaning and washing 253 - - Carburetion 46 - - Carburetor, types, operation 46 - adjustments of 56 - kerosene, principle of operation 76 - adjustment 78 - - Charging rate, adjustment 165 - - Choking coil 97 - - Circuit breaker 100 - - Clutch, construction of 189 - cone type 191 - multiple disc type 192 - leathers and patterns 196 - - Coil, non-vibrating 100 - - Commutator 97 - - Condenser 97 - - Contact breaker 100 - - Cooling system, necessity, types and care 82 - - Crank shaft, counterbalanced 17 - four-throw plain 17 - - Current, high tension, low tension 95 - - Cylinder head 14 - - - Delco, electrical system 96 - - Differential gears 207 - - Direct current 96 - - Disc clutch, cleaning 195 - - Distributor 100 - - - Electric starter and light equipment 147 - - Electrical, equipment 154 - systems 153 - tuning hints 259 - - Electrolyte 99 - - Engine, 4-cycle type, operation of 29 - assembly of 36 - care and cleaning of 253 - construction and parts 12 - - Evaporation 84 - - Exact magneto timing 108 - - - Filling vacuum tank 94 - - Flywheel, types, care of 20 - - Ford car, operation and care of 269 - cooling system 287 - engine, operation and care of 277 - maintenance 280 - valve arrangement 279 - valve grinding 280 - valve timing 279 - gasoline system 290 - ignition system 295 - lubrication system 316 - maintenance points 323 - muffler 310 - one-ton truck 325 - rear axle assembly 307 - running gear 311 - starting and lighting system 328 - - Ford car, tire care 320 - transmission system 301 - - Fuse, construction, use of 97 - - - Gasoline engine construction 12 - parts assembly 36 - - Gear, shifts 200 - box arrangement 201 - - Generator 147 - - Greases 40 - - - Heated manifolds 79 - - High speed 189 - - High tension current 95 - - Hydrometer syringe 99 - - - Induction coil 96 - - Ignition coil, N.E. type 117 - - Ignition distributor, N.E. type 116 - - - Kick switch arrangement 137 - coil 137 - - - Lamp controllers 159 - - Lens, cleaning of 254 - - Lubrication, of spring leaves 224 - systems 39 - - - Magneto, parts, operation of 101 - timing of 113 - washing, repair 111 - - Main bearings 17 - - Manifold, action of 80 - - Mechanical alignment 230 - - Mufflers, design, care of 86 - cleaning 87 - - Multiple cylinders 12 - - - North East Automatic spark advance 121 - breaker cam 120 - breaker contacts 119 - ignition system 114 - starter system 161 - - - Ohm 95 - - Oils, quality, grade of 40 - - Oil reservoir 19 - - One unit, electrical system 148 - - Overhauling car 247 - - Overheating 83 - - Operation of starter 156 - - - Philbrin ignition system 141 - - Pistons 15 - - Piston rings 15 - rod bearings 16 - rods 16 - wrist pins 15 - - Plunger pump oiling system, operation of 42 - - Power stroke 31 - lapping 32 - - Poppet valve, construction 23 - adjustment 23 - operation 23 - - - Radiator, cleaning 83 - freezing 84 - solutions 84 - repairs 84 - - Regulation of generator 100 - - Repair equipment 25 - - Rug cleaning 254 - - Running gear, washing of 253 - - - Schebler-carburetor, model R, adjustment of 63 - Ford “A,” adjustment of 74 - Ford “A,” operation of 73 - - Semi-floating axle, operation of 212 - - Spark plugs, construction of 186 - care of 186 - - Splash oiling system 40 - care of 41 - cleaning of 41 - - Spring, care, tests 225 - types, care of 226 - - Starter-Generator, operation of 163 - - Starting motor, operation of 149 - - Steering gear, types 232 - adjustment of 233 - care of 235 - - Stewart carburetor, operation, care of and maintenance 65 - - Storage battery, operation of 180 - charging 182 - freezing 185 - maintenance 182 - - Strainer for gasoline 93 - - Stroke 31 - - Stromberg carburetor, model M 47 - model L 58 - - Sunderman carburetor, action of 60 - - Switches 100 - - - Three unit, electrical system 148 - - Tire, build, quality 256 - chains 257 - rim care 254 - - Top, care of 254 - - Transmissions 198 - gear shifts 200 - box arrangement 201 - care of 202 - - Tube, care 258 - repairing 258 - - Two unit, electrical system 148 - - - Universal joints 204 - - Upholstering 254 - - - Vacuum systems 89 - cleaning strainer 93 - - Vacuum systems, operation of 90 - troubles 93 - - Valve, types, arrangement of 21 - grinding 25 - setting 24 - sleeve type 26 - setting of 27 - timing marks 25 - - Voltage 95 - - Voltaic cells 99 - - - Water cooling 82 - - Water vents 16 - - Wheels, lining up 229 - - Windshield, cleaning and care 99 - - Wiring 114 - - Wrapping springs 224 - - Wrist pins 15 - bushings 15 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - The text used for this e-text is that as printed in the source - document. Unless listed under Changes below, inconsistent spelling - and hyphenation, the inconsistent use of quote marks surrounding - reference letters or model and type letters, the inconsistent use of - per cent with and without full stop, etc. have not been standardised. - The automobile brand consistently called Jeffrey in the text was - actually called Jeffery. The (minor) differences in wording and - structure between the table of contents and the text have not been - standardised. - - Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their - settings, not all elements may display as intended. - - Page 8: there are no seventeenth and eighteenth items listed; items - nineteen and twenty are cardinal rather than ordinal numbers in the - source document. - - Page 14, Fig. 3: the oddly shaped cylinder head is as printed in the - source document. - - Page 33, ... Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors ... and ... a case - where two, four, or two six cylindered motors are set ...: as printed - in the source document; the commas between Twin and Four and between - two and four are possibly erroneous. - - Page 35, calculation of piston displacement: the calculation results - in 192.42 cubic inches. - - Page 54: Fig. 32 shows an exterior photograph ...: as printed in the - source document; Fig. 32 is obviously a drawing. - - Page 128 and 135: Fig. 68 and Fig. 75 and their captions are - identical in the source document. - - Page 159 and 183: Fig. 91 and Fig. 103 and their captions are - identical in the source document. - - Page 205 Whitemore and page 327 Whittemore: possibly misspellings of - Whitmore. - - - Changes - - Most tables and illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs. - In some tables and lists the ditto character has been replaced with - the dittoed text. - - Some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been - corrected silently. - - Above or underneath some illustrations indented texts provide - transcriptions of the explanatory and descriptive texts inside the - accompanying illustration. These transcriptions do not occur as - such in the source document but have been provided for the sake of - legibility and searchability. - - Page xii: page number 126 inserted. - - Page 1-2: Daimler was consistently spelled Diamler; this has been - corrected. - - Page 3: Marquis de Doin changed to Marquis de Dion. - - Page 33: ... a staggard position ... changed to ... a staggered - position .... - - Page 47: ... through a verticle channel ... changed to ... through a - vertical channel .... - - Page 47, 48: ... air bled jet ... changed to ... air bleed jet ... (2 - ×). - - Page 70: ... which embodies a radically new principal ... changed to - ... which embodies a radically new principle .... - - Page 82: It acts on the principal that ... changed to It acts on the - principle that .... - - Page 84: ... its freezing point being 8% below zero ... changed to - ... its freezing point being 8° below zero .... - - Page 87: ... are scrapped and rubbed ... changed to ... are scraped - and rubbed .... - - Page 98: reference letters A-F in paragraph Dynamo changed to lower - case as in illustration. - - Page 117: ... the verticle shaft bearing sleeve ... changed to ... - the vertical shaft bearing sleeve .... - - Page 126: ... which eliminate troubles ... changed to ... which - eliminates troubles .... - - Page 152: Figs. 87 (Position 2A) and 87A (Position 3) have been - placed in the right order. - - Page 169: ... in contact with the ear ... changed to ... in contact - with the gear .... - - Page 178: ... shown at D and C (Fig. 99) ... changed to ... shown at - D and C (Fig. 100) .... - - Page 231: ... E-EL lines drawn through the spindles will meet at F - ... changed to ... e-e1 lines drawn through the spindles will meet at - E ...; ... the lines E and E1 meet at different angles ... changed to - ... the lines e and e1 meet at different angles .... - - Page 260: ... the nearest mettle part. changed to ... the nearest - metal part. - - Page 333: ... show a reading of 1,200 or less. changed to ... show a - reading of 1.200 or less. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S -GUIDE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The automobile owner's guide, by Frank B. Scholl</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The automobile owner's guide</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Frank B. Scholl</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 18, 2022 [eBook #69375]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S GUIDE ***</div> - -<div class="tnbox"> -<p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> -</div> - -<div class="x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="container w35em"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover image" class="bordered"> -</div> - -<hr class="chap"> - -</div><!--no epub--> - -<h1>THE AUTOMOBILE<br> -<span class="gesp1">OWNER’S GUIDE</span></h1> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize250"><span class="gesp2">THE AUTOMOBILE</span><br> -<span class="gesp3">OWNER’S GUIDE</span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 blankafter4">BY<br> -<span class="fsize150">FRANK B. SCHOLL</span></p> - -<div class="container w05em"> -<img src="images/illo003.png" alt="Inter folia fructus logo"> -</div> - -<p class="center blankbefore4"><span class="fsize150 gesp1">D. APPLETON AND COMPANY</span><br> -<span class="fsize125"><span class="padr10">NEW YORK</span><span class="padl10">LONDON</span><br> -1920</span></p> - -<hr class="chap"> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 blankafter4"><span class="fsize80">COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY</span><br> -D. APPLETON AND COMPANY</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore4 fsize70">PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagev">[v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">PREFACE</h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - - -<p>The automobile has taken its place as one of the most successful -and useful inventions of the day. It is equaled only -by the internal combustion gas engine, which is a factor in -making it practical and efficient.</p> - -<p>Gasoline-propelled vehicles have become one of man’s greatest -aids in business efficiency, but nevertheless it is very important -that we consider the facts, that the adoption of the -automobile by man for business, commerce and pleasure is -on a very large scale, and that the production by manufacturers -is so great that very little thought is given to proper -care, which is an ever-present factor in economical operation -and a fair return for the investment.</p> - -<p>The purpose of this book is to serve as a practical guide for -those who own, operate, or contemplate purchasing an automobile.</p> - -<p>The contents of this book cover the entire field that would -be of value to the owner or chauffeur in making his own repairs. -The parts and expressions are given in their simplest -form; technical terms, tables and scales have been entirely -eliminated, as they mean little or nothing to the average -owner, and are of value only to the mechanical engineer and -draftsman.</p> - -<p>The illustrations, drawings and diagrams are intended only -for the purpose of bringing out points that are more readily -understood and explained in this manner. No attempt has -been made to conform to proportionate exactness or scale accurateness.</p> - -<p>Since there are many different makes of cars, motors, and -equipment, the functional action of all is practically the same, -therefore we use for illustration only those which are used by -the majority of manufacturers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagevi">[vi]</span></p> - -<p>While, as a general rule, you will find all automobiles efficient -and reliable, troubles and conditions are bound to arise -that are somewhat puzzling; therefore, to assist the owner, -we have written a <a href="#Page264">chapter</a> on trouble hints conveniently arranged -in three columns, headed troubles, cause, and remedy.</p> - -<p>The entire book is worked out along such lines, and so -arranged, that a man or a boy with a common school education -can easily master it and become an efficient mechanic.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagevii">[vii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">INTRODUCTION</h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>After twelve years’ experience with the automobile, I find -that only one-third of the present-day owners understand the -mechanical operation, care and proper upkeep of their cars; -the other two-thirds know little or nothing of their cars, and -are unable to locate or detect trouble, or make the slightest -adjustment necessary to remedy it. This fact remains as the -chief cause of the present high depreciation in cars, and the -loss of millions of dollars annually to automobile owners.</p> - -<p>After two years of observation and close investigation, I -find the vast majority of the present owners are eager to acquire -mechanical knowledge, but they have not accomplished -their aim, chiefly because the available books to attain that -end are too technical, dry, and overdescriptive for the average -owner and beginner in mechanics.</p> - -<p>The automobile is not an individually constructed piece of -machinery, but a combination of individual inventions, each -adapted to a functional purpose, which is necessary to the -harmony of successful operation. A great many of these -mechanical achievements are of delicate construction, and very -apt to get out of adjustment. This, however, is not always -the case, as grease, dirt and foreign matter with which the -various parts come in contact often prevent them from operating -properly.</p> - -<p>Therefore a little common knowledge of operation and a -little care will enable an owner to operate his car successfully, -thereby avoiding unnecessary trouble, damage and expense.</p> - -<p>One of the chief aims of the writer is to make this book -interesting and thorough, in order to hold the reader until -he understands the entire contents, after which he should be -able to make any necessary repairs and adjustments, or to -hold a position as automobile mechanic.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageviii">[viii]</span></p> - -<p>In order to accomplish the foregoing and prevent a student -from becoming discouraged we use functional principle -as the base for explanation whenever possible.</p> - -<p>The instructions set forth in this book are not taken merely -from theory, but have been put into successful operation by -the writer, who for several years sold cars in outlying districts -where garage facilities were limited, and where it was -necessary to make a mechanic of every purchaser in order -to sustain the high reputation of the car sold. Later on his -plan of instructions was used in an automobile school where -he was chief instructor, and still later they were developed -into a note system which he used in establishing an automobile -school in the city of Toledo, Ohio.</p> - -<p>The students turned out by this school were very efficient -and successful, and finished the course in less than one-half -the time usually required for the average automobile course.</p> - -<p>This book was written during the twenty months that the -writer spent in the U. S. Army, from the note system used -in his automobile school.</p> - -<p class="right padr2 blankbefore15">F. B. S.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageix">[ix]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<table class="toc"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -<th class="right fsize70">PAGE</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Pagev">v</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Pagevii">vii</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">History of the Gasoline Engine and Early Automobile -construction</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Purchasing a new car</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page3">3</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Purchasing a used car</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page4">4</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Selecting and testing a used car</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page5">5</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Driving instructions</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page6">6</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Road rules for city and country</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page9">9</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">What to do in case of accident</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page10">10</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER I.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Gasoline Engine Construction, and Parts</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page12">12</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">The engine block castings, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, bearings, crank shaft, -cam shaft and fly-wheel.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER II.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Valve Construction and Operation</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page21">21</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Valve construction. Types and operation of the valves in an 8-cylinder V-type engine. Valve -locations and valve grinding. Valve care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER III.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">The Operation of a 4-Cycle 4-Cylindered Gasoline Engine</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page29">29</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Explaining the cycle. The 4-, 6-, 8-, 12-cylindered engine—The Knight sleeve valve engine—S. A. E. -Horse Power scale—Displacement-Engine charts—Lubrication oils and greases—Lubrication systems—Care—Cleaning—and adjusting -of lubrication systems.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER IV.<span class="pagenum" id="Pagex">[x]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Brief Treatise on Carburetion</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page45">45</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">The Stromberg plain tube Model M carburetor. Principle of action—Installation—Adjustment and -maintenance—Stromberg Model L adjustment.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER V.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Nitro Sunderman Carburetor</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page60">60</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Principle of action, action of venturi, adjustment and general care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">The Schebler Model R carburetor, action and adjustment points.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER VI.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Stewart Carburetor</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page65">65</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Principle of operation—Adjustment and maintenance.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER VII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Carter Carburetor</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page70">70</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Operating principle—Adjustment and care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER VIII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Schebler Plain Tube Carburetor</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page72">72</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Operation—Instructions for installing, adjustment and maintenance.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER IX.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Kerosene Carburetors</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page76">76</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Operating principle—Installation and adjustment.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER X.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Heated Manifolds and Hot Spots</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page79">79</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Action—Advantage and design.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XI.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Cooling Systems</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page82">82</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Purpose of cooling system—Circulating systems—The force pump circulating system—Overheating—Radiator -cleaning—Freezing—Freezing solutions—Radiator repairing—The air cooling system.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XII.<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexi">[xi]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Muffler Construction</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page86">86</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Purpose—Advantage—Type—Assembly and Maintenance.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XIII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Vacuum Systems</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page89">89</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Operating principle—Purpose of the air vent—Failure to feed gasoline to carburetor—Removing -top—Cleaning gasoline strainer screen—Operating principle and general maintenance.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XIV.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Electrical Dictionary of Parts, Units and Terms</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page95">95</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Voltage—Amperage—Ohms—Current—Circuit—Low tension Current—High Tension Current—Induction -coil—Commutator—Insulation—Shunt or choking coil—Fuse—Condenser—Dynamo—Voltaic cell—Accumulator—Storage -battery—Electrolyte—Hydrometer—Ammeter—Circuit breaker—Switch—Generator—Regulator—Contact-breaker—Non-vibrating -coil—Distributors.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XV.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">The Magneto</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page101">101</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Parts—Assemblage—Operating principle.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XVI.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Bosch High Tension Magneto, Type ZR</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page105">105</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Operating principle—Primary or low tension circuit—Secondary or high tension circuit—Timing -magneto gears—Timing magneto with engine—The condenser—Safety spark gap—Interrupter timing range—Cutting out -ignition—Caution—Care—Maintenance.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XVII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Magneto Washing, Repairing and Timing</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page111">111</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Magneto cleaning—Magneto repairing—Magneto assembling—Magneto timing to engine.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XVIII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">North East Ignition System</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page114">114</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Wiring ignition distributor—Ignition coil—Breaker box and distributor head assembly—Condenser—Breaker -contacts—Breaker cam—Distributor head—Automatic spark advance mechanism—Manual spark control—Timing the distributor—General -care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XIX.<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexii">[xii]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Atwater Kent Ignition Systems</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page126">126</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Type CC system—Operating principle—Setting or timing—Adjustment—Oiling—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XX.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Atwater Kent Battery Ignition System</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page132">132</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Type K-2-Operating principle—Operation of contact maker—Contactless distributor—Wiring diagram of -current flowage—Setting and timing the unisparker—Timing with engine—Automatic spark advance—Contact point adjustment—Oiling -diagram—Condenser—Testing for ignition trouble.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXI.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Philbrin Single Spark, and High Frequency Duplex Ignitioystems</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page141">141</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Operation of contact maker—Current induction—Duplex system—Duplex switch—Duplex switch -action—Wiring diagram—Adjustment of contact points—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Electrical Starting and Lighting Systems</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page147">147</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">The generator—The regulator—The automatic cut-out—One unit system—Two unit system—Three unit -system—The starting motor—Lubrication—Maintenance.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXIII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Electric Lighting and Starting Systems</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page154">154</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Wiring diagram Bijur system—Operation of Bijur system—Starting motor—Operation of starting -motor—Wiring circuits—Fuse—Ground fuse—Lamp controller—Oiling—Battery testing—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXIV.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">North East Starter Used on Dodge Brothers’ Cars</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page161">161</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Model G starter-generator operation—Wiring diagram—Starter-generator action—Mounting—Drive—Charging -rate adjustment—Fuse—Locating trouble—Starting switch and reverse current cut-out—Running with battery disconnected.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXV.<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexiii">[xiii]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">The Delco Electrical System</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page167">167</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Motoring the generator—Cranking the engine—Generating electrical energy—Diagram of motor generator -operation—Lubrication—Ignition switch—Circuit breaker—Ignition coil—Distributor—Contact breaker and timer—Care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXVI.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Storage Battery</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page180">180</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Construction—Chemical action—Cells—Electrolyte solution—Battery charging—Care and -maintenance—Hydrometer testing—Battery idle—Battery freezing—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXVII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Spark Plugs and Care</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page186">186</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Type—Construction—Connections—Assembling—Repairing—Cleaning—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXVIII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Clutch Construction, Type and Care</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page189">189</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Clutch operation—Gear shifting—Change speeds—Cone clutch—Cone clutch care—Cone clutch -adjustment—Multiple disc clutch—Borg and Beck clutch—Borg and Beck clutch adjustment—Disc clutch cleaning, wet plate, -dry plate—Cone clutch leather—Cone clutch leather patterns—Cutting—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXIX.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Transmissions, Types, Operation and Care</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page198">198</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Operation of—Planetary type—Progressive type—Selective type—Gear shifts—Unit-power-plant—Transmission -cleaning—Lubrication—Care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXX.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Universal Joints</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page204">204</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Universal joints—Slip joints—Operation—Construction diagram—Tightening—Lubrication—Care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXI.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Differential Gears</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page207">207</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Bevel gear action—Construction—Adjusting—Gearless differential—Action—Adjustment—Advantage—Worm -gear drive differential—Operation—Adjustment—Lubrication—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXII.<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexiv">[xiv]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Axle Types, Operation and Care</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page212">212</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Dead axles—The semi-floating axle—Adjustment—Lubrication—The full-floating -axle—Construction—Adjustment—Lubrication—The I-beam front axle—The spindle—Steering knuckle—Care of all types.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXIII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Brake Types, Operation and Care</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page218">218</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Brake adjustment—Brake re-lining—Brake care—Brake cleaning.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXIV.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Springs and Spring Care Tests</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page223">223</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Spring types—Spring lubrication—Weekly spring care—Bi-monthly spring care—Spring wrapping.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXV.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Alignment</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page229">229</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Wheel alignment—Lengthwise—Crosswise—Axle alignment—Lengthwise—Alignment tests—Mechanical -alignment—Lengthening wheelbase.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXVI.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Steering Gears, Type and Construction</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page232">232</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Operation of worm and sector type—Adjustment of worm and sector type—Worm and nut type—Adjustment -of worm and nut type—Rack and pinion type—Connections—Drag link—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXVII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Bearing Types, Use and Care</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page236">236</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Plain bearings—Bushings—Roller bearings—Flexible roller bearings—Radial ball bearings—Thrust ball -bearings—End thrust—Double thrust—Cleaning—Care—Maintenance.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXVIII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Car Arrangement</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page243">243</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Showing location and names of parts—Adjustment—General care.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXIX.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Overhauling the Car</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page247">247</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Instructions showing how to go about it—And how to give the car a thorough overhauling.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XL.<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexv">[xv]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Repair Equipment</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page251">251</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Road repair necessities—Shop repair necessities.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XLI.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Car Cleaning, Washing and Care</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page253">253</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Body construction—Body washing—Running gear washing—Engine cleaning—Cleaning upholstering—Rug -cleaning—Windshield cleaning—Sedan or closed body cleaning—Tire cleaning—Rim cleaning—Light lens cleaning—Caution.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XLII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Tires, Build, Quality and Care</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page256">256</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">Tire care—Tire chains—Cross chains—Tube care—Tube repairing—Tire and tube storage.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XLIII.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Electrical System</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page259">259</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="contents">General overhauling and tuning hints.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XLIV.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Automobile Painting</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page262">262</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">CHAPTER XLV.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Carbon Removing</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Trouble Hints</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page264">264</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="chapno">FORD SUPPLEMENT.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">I</td> -<td class="contents">The car—its operation and care</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page269">269</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">II</td> -<td class="contents">The Ford Engine</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page277">277</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">III</td> -<td class="contents">The Ford Cooling System</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page287">287</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">IV</td> -<td class="contents">The Gasoline System</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page290">290</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">V</td> -<td class="contents">The Ford Ignition System</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page295">295</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">VI</td> -<td class="contents">The Ford Transmission</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page301">301</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">VII</td> -<td class="contents">The Rear Axle Assembly</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page307">307</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">VIII</td> -<td class="contents">The Ford Muffler</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page310">310</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">IX</td> -<td class="contents">The Ford Running Gear</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page311">311</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">X</td> -<td class="contents">The Ford Lubrication System</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page316">316</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">XI</td> -<td class="contents">Care of Tires</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page320">320</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">XII</td> -<td class="contents">Points of Maintenance</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page323">323</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">XIII</td> -<td class="contents">The Ford One Ton Truck</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page325">325</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="fordno">XIV</td> -<td class="contents">The F. A. Starting and Lighting System Installed on Sedans and Coupés</td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page328">328</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="chapname"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> -<td class="pagno"><a href="#Page335">335</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexvii">[xvi-<br>xvii]</span> -<a id="Pagexvi"></a></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<table class="loi"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="left fsize70">FIGURE</th> -<th class="right fsize70">PAGE</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig1">1</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Typical Four-Cylinder Block</td> -<td class="pagno">13</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig2">2</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Cylinder Block with Head Removed</td> -<td class="pagno">13</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig3">3</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)</td> -<td class="pagno">14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig4">4</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Typical Cylinder Piston</td> -<td class="pagno">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig5">5</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Typical Piston Ring</td> -<td class="pagno">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig6">6</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Typical Connecting Rod</td> -<td class="pagno">16</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig7">7</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft</td> -<td class="pagno">17</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig8">8</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">5-M-B Crank Shaft</td> -<td class="pagno">17</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig9">9</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Cam Shaft</td> -<td class="pagno">18</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig10">10</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Flywheel</td> -<td class="pagno">19</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig11">11</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement</td> -<td class="pagno">22</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig12">12</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Poppet Valve</td> -<td class="pagno">23</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig13">13</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Valve Types, Location and Operation</td> -<td class="pagno">24</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig14">14</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Valve Timing Marks</td> -<td class="pagno">25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig15">15</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Knight Valve-Timing Marks—4-Cylinder</td> -<td class="pagno">27</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig16">16</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Knight Valve-Timing Marks—8-Cylinder</td> -<td class="pagno">28</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig17">17</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">4-Stroke Cycle</td> -<td class="pagno">29</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig18">18</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine</td> -<td class="pagno">31</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig19">19</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Power Stroke Diagram</td> -<td class="pagno">32</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig20">20</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Buick Engine—Parts Assembly</td> -<td class="pagno">36</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig21">21</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Buick Engine—Location Inside Parts Assembly</td> -<td class="pagno">37</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig22">22</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Buick Motor—End View</td> -<td class="pagno">38</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig23">23</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Liberty U. S. A. Engine</td> -<td class="pagno">39</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig24">24</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Splash Oiling</td> -<td class="pagno">41</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig25">25</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Plunger Pump Oiling System</td> -<td class="pagno">42</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig26">26</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stromberg Model M Carburetor—Sectional View</td> -<td class="pagno">46</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig27">27</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Air Bleeder Action</td> -<td class="pagno">47</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig28">28</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Accelerating Well</td> -<td class="pagno">49</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig29">29</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Idling Operation</td> -<td class="pagno">51</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig30">30</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>5</sub> Open</td> -<td class="pagno">52</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig31">31</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle Wide Open</td> -<td class="pagno">53</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig32">32</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stromberg Model M—Adjustment Points</td> -<td class="pagno">55</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig33">33</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stromberg Model “L”—Adjustment Points<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexviii">[xviii]</span></td> -<td class="pagno">58</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig34">34</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Sunderman Carburetor</td> -<td class="pagno">60</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig35">35</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Sunderman Carburetor</td> -<td class="pagno">61</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig36">36</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Sunderman Carburetor</td> -<td class="pagno">62</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig37">37</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Sunderman Carburetor</td> -<td class="pagno">63</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig38">38</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled</td> -<td class="pagno">64</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig39">39</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Stewart Carburetor</td> -<td class="pagno">66</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig40">40</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Carter Carburetor</td> -<td class="pagno">70</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig41">41</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Sectional View</td> -<td class="pagno">72</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig42">42</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Adjustment Points</td> -<td class="pagno">73</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig43">43</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Holley Kerosene Carburetor</td> -<td class="pagno">76</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig44">44</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment</td> -<td class="pagno">77</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig45">45</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Hot Spot Manifold</td> -<td class="pagno">79</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig46">46</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Holley Vapor Manifold—Ford Cars</td> -<td class="pagno">80</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig47">47</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Thermo-Syphon Cooling System</td> -<td class="pagno">82</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig48">48</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Muffler—Three Compartment</td> -<td class="pagno">86</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig49">49</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Muffler</td> -<td class="pagno">87</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig50">50</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Vacuum System—Top Arrangement</td> -<td class="pagno">89</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig51">51</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Vacuum System Installation</td> -<td class="pagno">90</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig52">52</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Vacuum System Diagram—Stewart Warner</td> -<td class="pagno">91</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig53">53</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Vacuum System—Inside View of Parts</td> -<td class="pagno">94</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig54">54</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Coil Diagram</td> -<td class="pagno">96</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig55">55</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Dynamo—Diagram of Action</td> -<td class="pagno">98</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig56">56</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Magnets—Pole Blocks</td> -<td class="pagno">101</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig57">57</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Armature Core—Wound Armature</td> -<td class="pagno">102</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig58">58</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Primary and Secondary Winding and Current Direction</td> -<td class="pagno">102</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig59">59</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Breaker—Slip Ring—Distributor</td> -<td class="pagno">103</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig60">60</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor—Housing Removed</td> -<td class="pagno">106</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig61">61</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4</td> -<td class="pagno">107</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig62">62</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Wiring Diagram, North-East System—on Dodge Car</td> -<td class="pagno">115</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig63">63</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">North-East Distributor—Model O—Ignition</td> -<td class="pagno">116</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig64">64</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">North East Breaker-Box</td> -<td class="pagno">118</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig65">65</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism—North East</td> -<td class="pagno">121</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig66">66</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram—Type C. C.</td> -<td class="pagno">127</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig67">67</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Type C. C.</td> -<td class="pagno">128</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig68">68</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block</td> -<td class="pagno">128</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig69">69</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexix">[xix]</span></td> -<td class="pagno">129</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig70">70</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Type C. C. Wiring Diagram</td> -<td class="pagno">130</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig71">71</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 System</td> -<td class="pagno">133</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig72">72</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 System</td> -<td class="pagno">133</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig73">73</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 System</td> -<td class="pagno">134</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig74">74</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 System</td> -<td class="pagno">134</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig75">75</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block</td> -<td class="pagno">135</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig76">76</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2</td> -<td class="pagno">136</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig77">77</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring</td> -<td class="pagno">137</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig78">78</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism—A-K Type K-2</td> -<td class="pagno">138</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig79">79</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Oiling Diagram—A-K Type K-2</td> -<td class="pagno">139</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig80">80</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Philbrin Contact Maker—Point Adjustment</td> -<td class="pagno">141</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig81">81</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade</td> -<td class="pagno">142</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig82">82</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Switch Case</td> -<td class="pagno">143</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig83">83</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Duplex High Frequency Switch</td> -<td class="pagno">144</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig84">84</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Philbrin Wiring Diagram</td> -<td class="pagno">145</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig85">85</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine</td> -<td class="pagno">149</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig86">86</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action</td> -<td class="pagno">151</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig87">87</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action</td> -<td class="pagno">152</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig88">88</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Wiring Diagram Model N—Hupmobile</td> -<td class="pagno">153</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig89">89</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Wiring Diagram—Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six</td> -<td class="pagno">155</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig90">90</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Wiring Diagram—Jeffrey Four</td> -<td class="pagno">158</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig91">91</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Hydrometer Syringe</td> -<td class="pagno">159</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno special"><a href="#Fig91A">91<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Dodge Wiring Diagram</td> -<td class="pagno">162</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig92">92</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">North East Model G Starter Generator</td> -<td class="pagno">164</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig93">93</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Delco Motor Generator—Showing Parts</td> -<td class="pagno">168</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig94">94</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Delco Motor Generator—Diagram of Operation</td> -<td class="pagno">170</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig95">95</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Delco Ignition Switch Plate</td> -<td class="pagno">173</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig96">96</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker—Mounted</td> -<td class="pagno">173</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig97">97</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Delco Ignition Coil</td> -<td class="pagno">175</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig98">98</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Delco Wiring Diagram—Buick Cars</td> -<td class="pagno">176</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig99">99</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Delco Ignition Distributor</td> -<td class="pagno">177</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig100">100</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer</td> -<td class="pagno">178</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig101">101</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Storage Battery, Sectional View</td> -<td class="pagno">180</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig102">102</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Storage Battery, Sectional View<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexx">[xx]</span></td> -<td class="pagno">182</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig103">103</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Hydrometer Syringe</td> -<td class="pagno">183</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig104">104</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Spark Plug</td> -<td class="pagno">187</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig105">105</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Cone Clutch and Brake</td> -<td class="pagno">190</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig106">106</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmission</td> -<td class="pagno">192</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig107">107</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Borg and Beck Clutch</td> -<td class="pagno">193</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig108">108</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Cone Clutch Leathers—Pattern—Cutting</td> -<td class="pagno">196</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig109">109</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Friction Transmission</td> -<td class="pagno">199</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig110">110</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Selective Type of Gear Shifts</td> -<td class="pagno">200</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig111">111</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Sliding Gear Transmission—Sectional View</td> -<td class="pagno">201</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig112">112</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Clutch and Transmission Assembly—Unit Power Plant</td> -<td class="pagno">203</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig113">113</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Slip Joint and Universal</td> -<td class="pagno">204</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig114">114</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Universal Joint Construction Diagram</td> -<td class="pagno">205</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig115">115</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Differential Action Diagram</td> -<td class="pagno">207</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig116">116</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Differential Assembly</td> -<td class="pagno">208</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig117">117</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Differential Adjusting Points</td> -<td class="pagno">209</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig118">118</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Allen Gearless Differential</td> -<td class="pagno">210</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig119">119</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Semi-Floating Rear Axle</td> -<td class="pagno">213</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig120">120</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Full-Floating Axle—Wheel-End Arrangement</td> -<td class="pagno">214</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig121">121</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Full-Floating Axle</td> -<td class="pagno">214</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig122">122</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts</td> -<td class="pagno">215</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig123">123</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">I-Beam Front Axle</td> -<td class="pagno">216</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig124">124</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Brake—Types and Adjustment</td> -<td class="pagno">219</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig125">125</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Brake—Showing Toggle Arrangement</td> -<td class="pagno">220</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig126">126</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Transmission Brake—Equalizer</td> -<td class="pagno">220</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig127">127</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Brake—Arrangement and Adjustment—“Buick”</td> -<td class="pagno">221</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig128">128</a>.</td> -<td class="figname"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>-Elliptical Front Spring</td> -<td class="pagno">226</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig129">129</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Full-Elliptic Spring</td> -<td class="pagno">226</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig130">130</a>.</td> -<td class="figname"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>-Elliptical Rear Spring</td> -<td class="pagno">227</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig131">131</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Platform Spring</td> -<td class="pagno">227</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig132">132</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Cantilever Spring, Front</td> -<td class="pagno">228</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig133">133</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Cantilever Spring, Rear</td> -<td class="pagno">228</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig134">134</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Wheel Alignment Diagram</td> -<td class="pagno">230</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig135">135</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Worm and Sector Steering Gear</td> -<td class="pagno">233</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig136">136</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Worm and Nut Steering Gear</td> -<td class="pagno">234</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig137">137</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear</td> -<td class="pagno">234</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig138">138</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Steering Wheel</td> -<td class="pagno">235</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig139">139</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Plain Bearings or Bushings</td> -<td class="pagno">236<span class="pagenum" id="Pagexxi">[xxi]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig140">140</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Shims</td> -<td class="pagno">237</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig141">141</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Bock Roller Bearing</td> -<td class="pagno">237</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig142">142</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Hyatt Roller Bearing</td> -<td class="pagno">238</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig143">143</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Double Row Radial Ball Bearing</td> -<td class="pagno">239</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig144">144</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Double Row Thrust Bearing</td> -<td class="pagno">241</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig145">145</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">End Thrust Bearing</td> -<td class="pagno">241</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig146">146</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Car Arrangement</td> -<td class="pagno">245</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig147">147</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Ford Motor—Sectional View</td> -<td class="pagno">278</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig148">148</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Ford Motor—Valve and Cylinder Assembly</td> -<td class="pagno">279</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig149">149</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Ford Fuel System</td> -<td class="pagno">290</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig150">150</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Ford Transmission Assembly</td> -<td class="pagno">303</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig151">151</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Ford Rear Axle System</td> -<td class="pagno">308</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig152">152</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Ford Brake</td> -<td class="pagno">309</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig153">153</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Ford Spindle</td> -<td class="pagno">311</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="figno"><a href="#Fig154">154</a>.</td> -<td class="figname">Ford Chassis Oiling Chart</td> -<td class="pagno">317</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page1">[1]</span></p> - -<p class="fauxh1">THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S -GUIDE</p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">HISTORY OF THE GAS ENGINE AND EARLY -AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>A great many experiments were conducted with the explosive -type of motor between 1840 and 1860. These motors -were very heavy and crude affairs and furnished little or no -power. They were either abandoned or given up by those -conducting the experiments, and had all but disappeared in -the later 50’s. The chief difficulties that they could not overcome -were, the finding of a suitable and combustible fuel, -a way to distribute it to the explosion chambers in proper -proportion, and a device to ignite it at the proper time. -Many of these early inventions used coal tar gases and gunpowder -as fuel.</p> - -<p>The first designs for an internal combustion engine of the -four stroke cycle type were devised in 1862 by M. Beau de -Rochas. These designs were taken in hand by a German by -the name of Otto, and many experiments were conducted by -him and two other Germans, Daimler and Benz, which resulted -in a fairly successful engine. The Otto Gas Engine -Co., of Deutz, Germany, was then formed with Daimler as -general manager. Experiments were carried on which resulted -in many improvements, such as valve adjusting and -electrical spark ignition. Many other smaller improvements -were worked out which overcame many of the difficulties of -the former and cruder devices.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page2">[2]</span></p> - -<p>The first gas engines were all of the single cylinder type, -very heavily constructed and produced from three to five -horse power. In 1886, Daimler conceived the idea of constructing -the multiple type of engine with water-jacketed -cylinders. Benz also completed a very successful motor in -the late fall of 1886, which embodied the water cooling idea. -The practical beginning of the gas engine as a factor in -vehicle propulsion began in the fall of 1886, when Daimler -applied his motor to a two-wheeled contrivance, which greatly -resembled our present-day motorcycle. While this machine -ran, it was not considered a very great success. Benz in the -early part of 1887, connected his motor to a three-wheeled -vehicle with which he was able to travel at the rate of three -miles per hour.</p> - -<p>The real beginning of the present-day automobile took place -in Paris, France, in 1890, when M. Panhard secured the -patent rights from Daimler to use his engine. He then built -a four-wheeled vehicle, which carried some of the ideas of -present-day construction, such as a steering device and brakes. -To this he applied his engine and was able to travel at the rate -of six miles per hour. In 1891 Peugeot Frères completed -their vehicle and installed a Benz engine. This vehicle or -car, as it was then called by the French government on account -of its being mechanically driven, was able to make from -seven to eight miles per hour.</p> - -<p>The perfecting of the automobile was hampered very much -between the years 1891 and 1898 by stringent laws that had -been enacted by the French government, which all but prohibited -the driving of a car on the public thoroughfare.</p> - -<p>The first American-made automobile of the gas propelled -type was completed in the year 1892 by Charles Duryea. -This car embodied many of our present-day ideas but was -very lightly constructed and under-powered.</p> - -<p>In 1893 another car made its appearance in America. This -car was built by Edward T. Haynes and was the beginning -of the present-day Haynes’ line of famous cars.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page3">[3]</span></p> - -<p>The first automobile club was organized in Paris, France, -in the year 1894 with the Marquis de Dion as president. -The purpose of this club was to secure a reformation of the -laws that had been enacted when the automobile made its first -appearance on the public thorough-fare, and to make laws -and rules to govern automobile racing.</p> - -<p>At that time it was necessary when driving on a public -highway to have some one run seventy-five feet in advance -of a car waving a red flag, and to shout a warning at street -intersections. These stringent laws, however, were repealed by -the government through influential aid brought to bear on it -by the automobile club assisted by the rapid progress of the -automobile industry.</p> - -<h3>PURCHASING A NEW CAR<br> -<span class="smcap">Things to be Considered to Make the Investment Safe</span></h3> - -<p>When you are going to buy a new car go about it in this -manner and protect your investment.</p> - -<p>First.—Choose the car that suits you best in regard to -cost, operation, and appearance.</p> - -<p>Second.—Inquire as to the financial status of the manufacturer. -If there is anything wrong with the car, or the -management of the company, it will show up here.</p> - -<p>Third.—Orphaned cars may run as well and give as good -service as anybody could ask for, but when a company fails -or discontinues to manufacture a model, the car immediately -loses from one-third to one-half of its actual value. That is, -providing you wish to trade it in or sell it as a used car.</p> - -<p>Fourth.—What kind of service does the agency in your -vicinity give? Do they take any interest in the cars they sell -after they are in the hands of the purchaser?</p> - -<p>Fifth.—The amount of interest taken in your purchase by -the agent or service station usually determines the amount of -depreciation at the end of the season.</p> - -<p>Sixth.—If you are purchasing your first car some little adjustments -will be required, and conditions will arise that require<span class="pagenum" id="Page4">[4]</span> -understanding and attention. You, therefore, must acquire -either a functional and mechanical knowledge of the -operation, or depend on the agent or service station for help.</p> - -<p>Seventh.—You will probably say that you can get along -without such help. You probably can, but what will be the -results? Will you be required to stand a loss in the long run -resulting from excessive repair bills and depreciation which -could have been prevented to a great extent?</p> - -<p>Eighth.—Remember that an agent can fool you when you -are buying, but that you cannot fool him if you wish to sell -or trade in.</p> - -<p>Ninth.—Remember that this book, <i>The Automobile Owners’ -Guide</i>, was written to assist you in just such cases as we have -presented, and that by spending a little time in study you -can acquire a working knowledge of your car, and become -independent of the service station and the agent, which will -result in a big saving in both repair bills and depreciation.</p> - -<h3>PURCHASING A USED CAR<br> -<span class="smcap">How to Estimate Its Value</span></h3> - -<p>The question is often asked, Does it pay to invest money -in a second-hand car? The answer may be either yes or no, -and depends entirely upon the condition of the car.</p> - -<p>For example, A and B purchase a new car at the same -time. A is rather conservative. He is also a careful driver -and gives his car the best of attention. B is a careless driver -and pays little or no attention to adjustments and lubrication.</p> - -<p>A has seen to proper lubrication and has kept the parts -properly adjusted and tightened up, and his careful driving -has kept the alignment in perfect condition. His car at the -end of the first season requires a little overhauling which will -put it in as good condition as it was when it was new as far -as service is concerned, and it is worth 85 to 90 per cent of -its original value.</p> - -<p>B has not seen to proper lubrication and has allowed his<span class="pagenum" id="Page5">[5]</span> -motor to overheat. The cylinders and pistons are scored and -worn, and the valves are warped and do not seat properly. -He drove into deep ruts and chuck-holes, and bumped into -curbs and posts while turning around. His axles and wheels -are out of line; the frame and all the running parts which -it supports are out of alignment. Overhauling will not put -this car in A-1 condition, and it is not worth more than 30 -per cent. of the original cost price. It would be a poor investment -at any price to an owner who is buying it for his -own use.</p> - -<p><b>Selecting and Testing a Used Car.</b>—First.—If you are buying -from a dealer who trades in cars, judge his statement of -the condition of a car according to his ability as a mechanic -and according to his reputation for accuracy. If you are -buying from a reputable used car dealer his word can usually -be taken as a correct statement of conditions as his business -depends upon the accuracy of his statements and he knows -the condition of a car before he buys it.</p> - -<p>Second.—See the former owner. Get his statement of the -condition of the car and the care it has had, and judge it -by his appearance, and the general appearance of his home -and property.</p> - -<p>Third.—If the car is listed as <i>Rebuilt</i> or <i>Overhauled</i>, see -if the oil-pan, differential, and transmission covers have been -removed. If this has been done the old grease will either -have been cleaned off or show marks of the removal. If these -marks are found the proper adjustments and replacements -have probably been made.</p> - -<p>Fourth.—Don’t judge the mechanical condition of a car by -its outward appearance.</p> - -<p>Fifth.—Examine the tires and figure the cost of replacement -if any are found in poor condition.</p> - -<p>Sixth.—Jack up the front axle and test the wheels for -loose or worn bearings.</p> - -<p>Seventh.—Grasp the wheel at the top and bottom and -wiggle it to determine whether the spindle bolts or steering -device connections are worn.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page6">[6]</span></p> - -<p>Eighth.—Jack up the rear axle, set the gear shift-lever -into high-speed, move the wheel in and out from the bottom -to discover worn bearings, and move the wheel, forward and -backward, to determine the amount of back-lash in the differential -and universal joints.</p> - -<p>Ninth.—Test the compression of the cylinders while the engine -is cold using the hand crank. If one cylinder is found -weak, a leak exists and the escaping compression can be -heard.</p> - -<p>Tenth.—Run the motor until it is warm. If any weakness -in compression is noticeable the cylinders are probably scored, -or the rings may be worn. The valves may also be warped, -thereby preventing them from seating properly.</p> - -<p>Eleventh.—Examine the shoulders of the cross-members -supporting the engine, radiator, or transmission to see if -they are cracked or broken.</p> - -<p>Twelfth.—The battery may have deteriorated through improper -attention. Test the solution with a hydrometer. If -it is found well up, it can be passed as O. K.</p> - -<p>Thirteenth.—Don’t judge the condition of the car by the -model, as a two or three-year-old model may be in better -mechanical condition than a six-month or year-old model.</p> - -<h3>DRIVING INSTRUCTIONS</h3> - -<p>A new driver should remain cool and take things in a -natural way as a matter of course. There is nothing to get -nervous or excited about when learning to drive a car. Any -one can master the art of driving quickly by remaining cool -and optimistic.</p> - -<p>First.—Acquire some definite knowledge of the operation of -the engine and its accompanying devices.</p> - -<p>Second.—Have some one explain the operation of the -accelerator, spark, and throttle levers.</p> - -<p>Third.—Study the relative action of the clutch and gear-shifting -pedal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page7">[7]</span></p> - -<p>Fourth.—The new driver takes the wheel and assumes a -natural and calm position with the muscles relaxed.</p> - -<p>Fifth.—He adjusts the motor control levers. The throttle -lever is advanced one-fourth its sliding distance on the quadrant. -The spark lever is set to one-half the sliding distance -on the quadrant.</p> - -<p>Sixth.—Push the ignition-switch button, IN, or ON, and -press the starter button, letting it up as soon as the engine -begins to fire.</p> - -<p>Seventh.—Not all gear-shifts are marked, consequently it -is a good idea to let the new driver feel out the different -speed changes. This is accomplished by pushing out the -clutch and placing the shift-lever into one of the four slots. -Now let up the clutch pedal until it starts to move the car, -continue the feeling-out process until the reverse speed gear -is located, and at this point impress on him that first and -reverse speeds, are always opposite each other, lengthwise -either on the right or left side of neutral, while second speed -is always crosswise opposite reverse, and high-speed is opposite -first on the other side of neutral.</p> - -<p>Eighth.—Starting the car with engine running, advance the -spark-lever three-fourths the distance on the quadrant, advance -the throttle until the engine is turning over nicely -(not racing). Place one hand on the steering-wheel and with -the other grasp the gear-shift-lever, push in the clutch pedal, -hold it for five seconds, in order that the clutch brake may -stop rotation. Place the shift-lever into the first-speed slot -and let up on the clutch pedal. The car should be driven -four or five hundred feet on this speed until the driver acquires -the “nack” of steering.</p> - -<p>Ninth.—To shift to second speed advance the gas throttle -until the car gathers a smooth rolling motion, press in the -clutch pedal and allow three to five seconds for the brake to -retard the speed of the clutch, then shift the lever to second -speed and release the clutch pedal easily.</p> - -<p>Tenth.—To shift into high-speed retard the throttle lever -a trifle (to prevent the engine from racing), throw out the<span class="pagenum" id="Page8">[8]</span> -clutch and shift the lever into the high-speed slot. Perform -these operations slowly but without hesitation.</p> - -<p>Eleventh.—To shift to reverse speed go through the same -operation that you followed when first was used, except that -the shift-lever is placed in the reverse slot.</p> - -<p>Twelfth.—The reverse speed-gear is never engaged unless -the car is at a “stand-still,” as this gear turns in an opposite -direction.</p> - -<p>Thirteenth.—Always test the emergency brake lever and the -speed shift-lever, to be sure that they are in a neutral position -before starting the engine.</p> - -<p>Fourteenth.—Remember that in case of emergency the car -can be stopped quickly by pushing in both foot-pedals. Pressure -on the clutch pedal disconnects the engine from the car, -while pressure on the “foot” or service brake pedal, slows up -the motion of the car and will bring it quickly to a stand-still.</p> - -<p>Fifteenth.—Always push the clutch out when using the -service brake to check the rolling motion of the car.</p> - -<p>Sixteenth.—When you wish to stop the car and motor kick -out the clutch and hold it in this position while you stop the -rolling motion of the car with the service brake and shift -the gears to neutral. Then set the emergency brake and turn -off the switch to stop the motor.</p> - -<p>If the engine cannot take the car up a steep grade in low -speed (due to defective motor or gravity fuel feed) stop, engage -reverse speed, turn off the ignition switch, and let the -car back down to level or a place where you can turn around, -and back up the hill. The reverse speed is geared from one -and a half to two times lower than first speed.</p> - -<p>Nineteen.—To stop the back wheels from skidding turn the -front wheels in the direction which the back wheels are sliding -and release the brakes. Turning away or applying the -brakes adds momentum to the sliding motion.</p> - -<p>Twenty.—If for any reason you must or cannot avoid driving -into the ditch unless the ditch is very shallow, turn the -car directly toward the opposite bank. The front or rear<span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span> -springs will lodge in the bank and prevent the car from -rolling over and crushing the occupants, and the car can be -drawn out more easily from this position.</p> - -<h3>ROAD RULES FOR CITY AND COUNTRY</h3> - -<p> 1.—Be courteous to all whom you meet and give your assistance -if necessary.</p> - -<p> 2.—When encountering a bad stretch of road, with the -track on your side, don’t drive in and force another machine -coming towards you to get out of the track. WAIT.</p> - -<p> 3.—Never block a track. In case you wish to stop and -talk to some one, drive to one side.</p> - -<p> 4.—Keep on the right hand side of the road at all times, -whether moving or standing, except as prescribed in Paragraph -5.</p> - -<p> 5.—In passing vehicles traveling in the same direction, -always pass on the left and blow the horn.</p> - -<p> 6.—In passing a vehicle that has just stopped, slow down -and sound the horn.</p> - -<p> 7.—In changing your direction, or stopping, always give the -appropriate hand signal.</p> - -<p> 8.—Hand signals, straight up or up on 45° angle, STOP. -Straight out or horizontal, TURNING TO THE LEFT. -Down at an angle of 45°, TURNING TO THE RIGHT.</p> - -<p> 9.—The distance between vehicles outside of towns and -cities, 20 yards; between vehicles passing through towns and -cities, 5 yards; between vehicles halted at the curb, 2 yards.</p> - -<p>10.—Bring all vehicles under easy control at street and road -intersections.</p> - -<p>11.—A maximum driving speed should not exceed 7 miles -in business sections of cities, 15 miles in residential sections, -25 miles on country roads.</p> - -<p>12.—Form the habit of slowing down and looking both ways -before crossing tracks.</p> - -<p>13.—Always pass a street car on the right side.</p> - -<p>14.—Always stop 8 feet from a street car when passengers<span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span> -are getting off, unless there is a safety zone, then -drive slowly.</p> - -<p>15.—Never drive over the side-walk line while waiting for -signal of traffic officer.</p> - -<p>16.—Notify traffic officer which way you wish to turn -with hand signal.</p> - -<p>17.—Always stop and wait for an opening when driving -from a side street or road into a main thoroughfare.</p> - -<p>18.—Make square turns at all street corners unless otherwise -directed by traffic officer.</p> - -<p>19.—If you wish to turn from one street into another wait -until the traffic officer gives the straight ahead signal, then -give the appropriate signal to those in the rear.</p> - -<p>20.—Always drive near the curb when you wish to turn to -the right, and to the right of the center line of the street -when you wish to turn to the left.</p> - -<p>21.—Drive straight ahead at 42nd St. and 5th Ave., N. Y., -and at Market and Broad St., Newark, N. J. These corners -handle more traffic than any two corners in the United States. -No turns are made at either corner.</p> - -<p>22.—Exercise care not to injure road ways.</p> - -<p>23.—Do not damage improved roads by the use of chains -when unnecessary.</p> - -<p>24.—In case the car is not provided with chains, rope -wrapped around the tires will make a good substitute.</p> - -<p>25.—In case of fire, do not try to put it out with water as -the gasoline will only float and spread the fire. Use a fire -extinguisher or smother with sand or with a blanket.</p> - -<h3>WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENT</h3> - -<p>1.—In case of injury to person or property stop car and -render such assistance as may be needed.</p> - -<p>2.—Secure the name of person injured or of owners of -said property.</p> - -<p>3.—Secure names and addresses of witnesses to the accident.</p> - -<p>4.—Draw diagram of streets as shown in <a href="#FigA">Fig. A</a>. Show<span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span> -relative positions of the colliding vehicles and the object of -pedestrian just before the accident.</p> - -<div class="container w30emmax" id="FigA"> - -<img src="images/illo033.png" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. A. Street Intersection</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>5.—Label streets and every object depicted and add measurements -and line showing course followed by vehicles, etc., -and any explanatory statements which would aid an understanding -of the occurrence.</p> - -<p>6.—File this report at police headquarters.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER I</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>We will use for purposes of illustration the common four-cylinder, -four cycle, cast en bloc, “L”-head type of motor, as -this type is used probably by 90% of the automobile manufacturers. -The block of this type of motor is cast with an -overlapping shoulder at the upper left hand side which contains -a compartment adjoining the combustion chamber in -which the intake and exhaust valves seat, and the casting is -made, in the shape of the Capital letter L turned upside down. -This arrangement allows both valves to seat in one chamber -and to operate from one cam shaft.</p> - -<p>The operation of each cylinder is identically the same -whether you have a one or a many cylindered motor, consequently -when you have gained a working knowledge of one -cylinder, others are a mere addition. This may sound confusing -when the eight or twelve cylindered motor is mentioned, -but is more readily understood when we consider the -fact that an eight or twelve cylindered motor is nothing more -than two fours or two sixes, set to a single crank-case or base -in V-shape to allow the connecting rods of each motor to -operate on a single crank shaft. This arrangement also allows -all the valves to operate from a single cam shaft, thereby -making the motor very rigid and compact, which is an absolute -necessity considering the small space that is allowed for -the motor in our present-day designs.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig1">Fig. 1</a>. The casting or block, which is the foundation of the -whole motor or engine, usually has a removable head which -allows for easy access to the pistons and valves. The block -is cast with a passage or compartment through the head<span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span> -and around the cylinders through which water circulates for -cooling the adjoining surfaces of the cylinders. This alleviates -the danger from expansion and contraction caused by -the tremendous heat generated in and about the combustion -chambers. This block also contains the cylinders and valve -seats. The pistons and valves are fitted to their respective -positions as construction progresses.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig1"> - -<img src="images/illo035a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w15emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">Det. Head</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Exhaust Pt.<br> -Intake Pt.<br> -Re. Plate</td> -<td class="right">Cyl. Block</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">Upper Crankcase</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">Lower Crankcase</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 1. Typical Four-cylinder Block</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig2">Fig. 2</a>. The block with head removed shows the smooth -flush surface of the block face and the location of the cylinders -in which the pistons operate or slide, with each power -impulse or explosion. When the piston is at its upper extreme -it comes within a sixteenth of an inch of being flush -with the top of the block, while the valves (also shown in -Fig. 2) rest on ground-in seats, in their respective chambers, -and are operated by a stem which extends downward from -the head through a guide bushing in the block to the cam -shaft.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig2"> - -<img src="images/illo035b.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w08emmax"> - -<p class="right">Pistons<br> -Water Vents<br> -Intake Valve<br> -Exhaust Valve</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 2. Cylinder Block With Head Removed</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span></p> - -<p>The location of the water vents is also shown, through -which water is circulated to prevent the cylinders from overheating -which would cause the pistons to “stick” from expansion.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig3">Fig. 3</a>. The top or head of the motor is removed, exposing -the combustion chambers. These chambers must be absolutely -air-tight as the charge of gas drawn in through the -inlet valve is compressed here before the explosion takes place, -and low compression means a weak explosion, which causes -the motor to run with an uneven-jumpy motion, and with -an apparent great loss of power. A copper fiber insert gasket -is placed between the top of the block and the head before it -is bolted down. This gasket prevents any of the compression -from escaping through unevenness of the contact surfaces, as -metal surfaces are prone to warp when exposed to intense heat. -It is necessary to turn the bolts in the head down occasionally, -as the heat causes expansion. The following contraction, -which loosens them, results in a loss of compression and a -faulty operation of the motor.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig3"> - -<img src="images/illo036.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w12emmax"> - -<p class="right">Combustion Chamber<br> -Spark Plug Vent<br> -Water Circulating Vent<br> -Bolt Holes</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The spark-plug vents through the head are usually located -directly over the piston although in some cases they are over -the valve head and in some motors which are cast without a -removable head they may be at one side of the combustion -chamber. The location of the spark-plug does not materially -affect the force of the explosion, although when it is located -directly over the piston a longer plug may be used, as the -pistons do not come up flush with the top of the block, -and a spark-plug extended well into the combustion chamber -will not become corroded with carbon or burnt oil as is usually<span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span> -the case with a plug which does not extend beyond the upper -wall surface of the combustion chamber.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig4">Fig. 4</a>. The plunger or piston is turned down to fit snugly -within the cylinder and is cast hollow, with two shoulders extending -from the inside wall.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig4"> - -<img src="images/illo037a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w30emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="3" style="width: 33.3%;"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left top">Head<br> -Ring<br> -Wrist Pin<br> -Oil Ring</td> -<td class="left top">Ring Groove<br> -Bushing<br> -Wrist Pin<br> -Set Screw<br> -Ring Groove</td> -<td class="left top">Set Screw<br> -Bushing<br> -Wrist Pin</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 4. Typical Cylinder Piston</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig4">Fig. 4A</a> shows a split piston. Three grooves are cut into it -near the head to receive the piston rings. The width and -depth of these grooves vary according to the size of the piston. -A hole is bored through the piston and shoulders about half -way from each end. The bushing or plain bearing shown in -<a href="#Fig4">Fig. 4B</a> is pressed into this hole and forms a bearing for the -wrist pin also shown in <a href="#Fig4">Fig. 4B</a>. Wrist pins are usually made -of a much softer metal than the bearing, and are subjected to -severe duty, which often causes them to wear and produce a -sharp knock; this may be remedied by pressing out the pin, -giving it a quarter turn, and replacing it in that position.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig5"> - -<img src="images/illo037b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 5. Typical Piston Ring</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig5">Fig. 5</a> shows a split joint piston ring. Piston rings are -usually made from a high grade gray iron, which fits into -the grooves in the piston and springs out against the cylinder -walls, thereby preventing the compressed charge of gas from -escaping down the cylinder, between the wall and the piston.<span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span> -<a href="#Fig5">Fig. 5A</a> shows a piston equipped with leak-proof rings; this -type of piston ring has overlapping joints, and gives excellent -service, especially when used on a motor which has seen -considerable service. <a href="#Fig5">Fig. 5B</a> illustrates how piston rings -may line up, or become worn from long use, or from faulty -lubrication. This trouble may be easily detected by turning -the motor over slowly. The escaping charge can usually be -heard and the strength required to turn the motor will be -found much less uniform on the defective cylinder.</p> - -<p>The motor should be overhauled at least once every year, -and by applying new rings to the pistons at this time new -life and snappiness may be perceived at once.</p> - -<p>The connecting rod shown in <a href="#Fig6">Fig. 6</a> has a detachable or split -bearing on the large end, and takes its bearing on the crank -pin of the crank shaft. The small or upper end may have -either a hinge joint or press fit to the wrist pin. This rod -serves as a connection and delivers the power stroke from the -piston to the crank shaft. These rods are required to stand -very hard jars caused by the explosion taking place over the -piston head. The bearings are provided with shims between -the upper and lower half for adjusting. Piston or connecting -rod bearings must be kept perfectly adjusted to prevent -the bearings from cracking or splitting which will cause the -rod to break and which may cause considerable damage to the -crank case.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig6"> - -<img src="images/illo038.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w35emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="3" style="width: 33.3%;"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left bot">Wrist Pin Bearing</td> -<td class="center">Upper Half<br>Crank Pin Bearing</td> -<td class="center">Lower Half<br>Bearing End Overlaps</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Shims</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">Bolts</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"><span class="padr4">Bushing</span>Rod</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Shims</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 6. Typical Connecting Rod</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig7">Fig. 7</a> shows a counter balanced crank shaft. This type<span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span> -of crank-shaft is provided with weights which balance the -shaft and carry the momentum gathered in the revolution.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig7"> - -<img src="images/illo039a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w40emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="4" class="w25pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left top">Rear Main Bearing</td> -<td class="center bot">Weight</td> -<td class="center">Center<br>Main Bearing</td> -<td class="center bot">Front Main Bearing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Fly Wheel<br>Attached to<br>this Ring</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">Timing Gear<br>Attached<br>Here</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Crank Pin</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">Crank Pins</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w55emmax" id="Fig8"> - -<img src="images/illo039b.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w08emmax"> -<p class="noindent">Main Bearings</p> -</div> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig8">Fig. 8</a> shows the plain type of crank shaft with the timing -gear attached to the front end and the fly-wheel attached to -the rear end. The crank shaft shown is carried or held by five -main bearings, which is an exception, as the majority of motor -manufacturers use only three main bearings to support the -crank shaft, while in some of the smaller motors only two are<span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span> -used. These bearings are always of the split type, the seat -for the upper half is cast into the upper part of the crank-case, -and the lower half is usually attached to the upper half -by four bolts which pass through the flange at each side of -the bearing. Small shims of different sizes are employed between -the flanges of each half of the bearing in order to secure -a perfect adjustment which is very essential, as these -bearings are subjected to heavy strains and severe duty. A -shim may be removed occasionally as the bearing begins to -show wear. A worn main bearing can be detected by placing -the metal end of a screw-driver or hammer on the crank-case -opposite the bearing and the other end to the ear. If the -bearing is loose or worn a dull bump or thud will be heard. -This looseness should be taken up by removing a shim of the -proper thickness.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig9"> - -<img src="images/illo040.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w15emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Cam Gear</td> -<td>Bearings</td> -<td>Cams</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Cams</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 9. Cam Shaft</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Main bearings run loose for any length of time will be -found very hard to adjust as the jar which they are subjected -to invariably pounds them off center which makes readjustment -a very difficult task to accomplish with lasting effect. -New main bearings in a motor should always be scraped to -secure a perfect fit. A loose piston or connecting rod bearing -will produce a sharp knock which can easily be determined -from the dull thud produced by a loose main bearing. (<a href="#Fig9">Fig. -9</a>.) The cam shaft revolves on bearings and is usually located -at the base of the cylinders on the left hand side looking toward -the radiator and carries a set of cams for each cylinder. -The cam pushes the valve open, and holds it in this position,<span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span> -while the piston travels the required number of degrees of the -cycle or stroke.</p> - -<p>The cam shaft is driven from the crank shaft usually -through a set of timing gears, and operated at one-half the -speed of the crank shaft in a four cycle motor, as a valve is -only lifted once, while the crank shaft makes two revolutions -or four strokes. The cam-shaft bearings, and the timing gears -are usually self-lubricating and require very little attention. -Timing of the cam shaft is a rather difficult matter and will -be treated in a following <a href="#Page21">chapter</a> under the head of valve -timing.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig10"> - -<img src="images/illo041.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w15emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w40pc"> -<col class="w60pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Start Gear</td> -<td class="center">Key-Seat</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">Shaft-Seat</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center bot">Cone Clutch<br>Seat</td> -<td class="right top">Disc Clutch<br>Small Disc<br>Bolt on Here</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 10. Flywheel</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The oil pan or reservoir forms the lower half or base of the -crank case. The lubricating oil is carried here at a level which -will allow the piston rods to dip into it at each revolution of -the crank shaft. The timing gears receive their lubrication -from the supply carried in the reservoir by means of a plunger -or piston pump which is operated from the cam shaft. The -balance of the motor is usually lubricated by a splash system -taken up in a later <a href="#Ref01">chapter</a> on lubrication. The oil is carried -at a level between two points marked, high and low, on a glass -or float gauge which is located on the crank case. A gasket -made of paper or fiber is used between the union or connection -of the oil reservoir and the upper half of the crank<span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span> -case to prevent the oil from working out through the connection.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig10">Fig. 10</a> represents the flywheel. The flywheel is usually -keyed to the crank shaft directly behind the rear main bearing. -This wheel is proportionate in weight to the revolving speed -of the motor, which it keeps in balance by gathering the force -of the power stroke. The momentum gathered by it in this -stroke carries the pistons through the three succeeding strokes -called the exhaust, intake, and compression strokes. The flywheel -also serves as a connection between the power-plant and -the running gear of the car, as a part of the clutch is located -on it, and the connection takes place either in the rim or on -the flange.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER II</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The proper and accurate functional operation of the valves -is as necessary to successful motor operation as the proper -adjustment of a hairspring is to a watch, for if a hairspring -becomes impaired in any way, a watch will not keep -correct time. This is the case in a motor when a valve becomes -impaired. The valves in a motor, therefore, must be -considered the most vital part conducive to successful and -economical operation of the motor.</p> - -<p>The valves are manufactured from a high grade tungsten -or carbon steel, and are designed to withstand the intense -heat which the heads located in the combustion chambers -are subjected to, without warping. A perfect seat is required -to prevent leaking, which will cause low compression and a -weak power impulse, thus reducing the power and harmony -of successful operation.</p> - -<p>The poppet valve is used by about ninety-five per cent. of -motor manufacturers. This type of valve is mechanically -operated from the cam shaft at one-half the crank shaft -speed, as a valve is lifted only once in every four strokes, -or two revolutions of the crank shaft. The reduction in -speed is accomplished by using a gear on the cam shaft, -twice the size of that on the crank shaft.</p> - -<p>The heads and chambers must be kept free from carbon -which forms and bakes into a shale and has a tendency to -crack and chip as the temperature changes in the combustion -chambers. These chips are blown about in the -cylinders until they lodge or are trapped by the descending -valves. It then forms a pit on the seat and prevents the<span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span> -valves from seating properly. This leaves an open space -which attracts more carbon, and the entire functional action -of the valve is soon impaired, necessitating regrinding in order -that it may properly seat again.</p> - -<p>Carbon is generated from a poor gas mixture or from -excessive use of lubricating oil and may be considered the -chief cause of improper functional action of the valves.</p> - -<h3>VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION -8-CYLINDERED V-TYPE ENGINE</h3> - -<div class="container w50emmax" id="Fig11"> - -<img src="images/illo044.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w30em"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="4" class="w15pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left top">Valve Head</td> -<td class="right"> <br>Removable Plates</td> -<td class="left top">Cam Shaft</td> -<td class="right top">Valve Head</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Valve Seat</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">Valve Seat</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Tappet for<br>Adjusting Valves</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">Tappet for<br>Adjusting Valves</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig11">Fig. 11</a> shows the location of the cam shaft, valves, and -tappet adjustment, on a V-shaped engine. The cylinders -of this type of engine are arranged in two blocks, consisting -of four cylinders in each, set directly opposite each other -on an angle of 90°. The connecting rods from opposite<span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span> -cylinders are yoked and take their bearing on the same crank -pin. This arrangement allows the intake and exhaust valves -of each opposite cylinder to operate from a single cam shaft, -or in other words the entire sixteen valves are operated by -a single cam shaft carrying eight cams. Consequently an -eight or twelve cylindered engine is identical in regard to -valve timing to either a four or six cylindered engine.</p> - -<div class="container w30emmax" id="Fig12"> - -<img src="images/illo045.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w08emmax"> - -<p class="noindent">Valve Head</p> - -<p class="noindent">Valve Seat</p> - -<p class="noindent">Valve Guide</p> - -<p class="noindent">Valve Stem</p> - -<p class="noindent">Valve Spring</p> - -<p class="noindent">Sp. Seat</p> - -<p class="noindent">Cap Screw</p> - -<p class="noindent">Tappet</p> - -<p class="noindent">Lock Nut</p> - -<p class="noindent">Guide Bushing</p> - -<p class="noindent">Push Block</p> - -<p class="noindent">Roller</p> - -<p class="noindent">Cam</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 12. Poppet Valve</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig12">Fig. 12</a> shows a poppet valve. This type of valve has -only one adjustment, called the tappet. The adjustment is -made by turning the cap-screw out of the push block until -the head comes into contact with the valve stem. The lock -nut on the cap screw is then turned down tightly to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span> -push block to hold the adjustment. A strong spring is placed -on the valve stem which causes it to close quickly and remain -closed until it comes into contact with the cam.</p> - -<p>Valves are set and operate in three different positions as -shown in <a href="#Fig13">Fig. 13</a>. The exhaust valve in this case seats on -the floor of the combustion chamber and is operated by the -stem which extends through the casting to the tappet, while -the intake valve seats on the upper wall of the combustion -chamber and is operated from over head by a push-rod extending -from the tappet to a rocker-arm. When both valves -are operated from above and seat on the upper wall of the -combustion chamber the motor is referred to as the overhead -valve type of motor. In the majority of motors both -valves seat on the floor of the valve chamber.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig13"> - -<img src="images/illo046.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w15emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w50pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Rocker Arm</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Valve Stem</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Valve Open</td> -<td class="left">Valve Seat</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Combustion<br>Chamber</td> -<td class="left bot">Tappets</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Cam</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Cam Shaft</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Overhead<br>Type Valve</td> -<td class="left bot">Push Rod</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Poppet-Type<br>Valve</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 13. Valve Types, Location and Operation</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Valve Timing.</b>—Valve timing is usually accomplished by -setting the first, or exhaust valve cam, to correspond with a -mark on the flywheel and cylinder (shown in <a href="#Fig14">Fig. 14</a>).</p> - -<p>This is accomplished by lining up the <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>, or <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>6</sub> D-C mark on -the flywheel rim with the center mark on the cylinder block, -and means that <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>, or <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>6</sub>, pistons are on upper dead center of -the compression stroke, the flywheel is then turned a trifle -until the marks E-C, or Ex-C, is at upper dead center and in<span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span> -line with the mark on the cylinder block. This means that -the exhaust valve closes at this point. The cam shaft is then -turned in the running direction and the cam shaft gear meshed -at the valve closing or seating point. This is all that is necessary -as the other cams take up correct operation when any -one cam is set properly.</p> - -<p>Another method of valve timing used by some motor manufacturers -is shown in <a href="#Fig14">Fig. 14</a>. It is simply necessary in -this case to line up the prick punch marks on the timing gears—after -getting the first position on upper D-C of the compression -stroke—to acquire correct valve time. No definite or -average scale can be given for valve timing, as all different -types of motors are timed differently. These instructions must -be secured from the manufacturer when the motor is not -marked.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig14"> - -<img src="images/illo047.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w35emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="4" class="w25pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="center bot">Cylinder Marks</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center top">Camshaft<br>Gear</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">1-4 Pistons<br>on Upper<br>Dead Center</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">FLY-WHEEL MARKS</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Running Direction of<br>Fly Wheel</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center top">MARKS LINED UP<br>Timing Gear<br>Punch Marks</td> -<td class="center bot">Crankshaft<br>Gear</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 14. Valve Timing Marks</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p id="Ref05"><b>Valve Grinding.</b>—A valve-grinding compound can be purchased -at any garage or service station or one may be compounded -by mixing emery dust with a heavy lubricating oil -until a thin paste is formed. The valve spring is released -next by forcing up the tension with a screw driver or valve -lifter. A small H-shaped washer is drawn from a groove -near the end of the stem, which frees the valve; it can then -be pushed up and raised through the guide. A small spring<span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span> -is placed over the valve stem. This spring should be strong -enough to raise the valve one-half inch above the seat. A -thin film of the grinding compound is evenly applied to the -seating face of the valve head, a screw driver or ratchet fork -is set in the groove on the head of the valve, and the handle -rolled between the palms of the hands, covering about one-third -of the distance around the valve seat; the valve is let up -after the motion has been repeated four or five times, and repeated -at another angle until the entire surface of the valve -is smoothly ground and allows the valve to seat perfectly.</p> - -<p><b>Valves.</b>—The sleeve valve type of motor was invented -several years ago by Charles A. Knight. He met with some -difficulty in having it manufactured in this country because -the lubrication system was thought to be inadequate and the -poppet valve was then at the height of its popularity with -the manufacturer of engines.</p> - -<p>Knight took his engine to Europe and made some slight -improvements on it. It was then taken over and manufactured -by one of the large automobile manufacturing companies -of that continent and is now being used by many of -the celebrated automobile manufacturers of every country.</p> - -<p>The principle of operation does not differ in any respect -from the ordinary type of four cycle motor, except, that instead -of having the poppet type of valves it has a set of -sleeves which slide up and down on the piston. The sleeves -are operated from an eccentric shaft by a short connecting -rod and carry ports which are timed to line up with the -ports of the intake and exhaust manifold ports at the proper -time in the cycle of operation.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig15">Fig. 15</a> shows the method of timing the sleeves on the -four cylinder engine. First, turn the motor over in the running -direction until the marks (I-4-T-C) on the flywheel are -in alignment with the marks on the cylinder casting. Turn -the eccentric shaft in the running direction until the marks -A, B, C, shown in <a href="#Fig15">Fig. 15</a> are lined up, and then apply -the chain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span></p> - -<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig15"> - -<img src="images/illo049.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20em"> - -<p class="noindent padl2">Timer<br>Shaft<br>Sprocket</p> - -<p class="center">Crank Shaft Sprocket</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks—4-Cylinder</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>To check up on the timing, back the flywheel up an inch -or two and insert a thin piece of tissue paper into the exhaust -port and turn the engine in the running direction until the -paper is pinched, which signifies that the valve is closed. -The marks on the flywheel, timing gears, and the crank case -should be in alignment. <a href="#Fig16">Fig. 16</a> shows a diagram of the -timing marks on the eight cylinder Knight engine. The -method of timing this engine is as follows: (1) Turn the -engine over until the marks I-4-R-H—D-C align with the -marks on the crank case. (2) Turn the eccentric shaft and<span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span> -sprocket until the arrows shown in <a href="#Fig16">Fig. 16</a> are in line with -the guide marks on the front end of the chain housing. Then -put on the chain and check up the timing, using the thin -piece of tissue paper.</p> - -<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig16"> - -<img src="images/illo050.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w08em"> - -<p class="noindent">Eccentric Shaft<br> -Sprocket Hub</p> - -<p class="noindent">Mark on<br> -Eccentric Shaft<br> -Sprocket</p> - -<p class="noindent">Guide Mark on<br> -Crank Case</p> - -<p class="noindent">Crank Shaft<br> -Sprocket</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks—8-Cylinder</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<h3>VALVE CONSTRUCTION</h3> - -<p>If the sleeve rods are removed for some reason, the bearings -should be fitted very loosely to the eccentric shaft when -they are put back. A looseness of about .008 of an inch is -permissible.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER III</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The four-cycle or Otto stroke type of gasoline engine should -rightly be called the four-stroke-cycle engine, as it requires -four strokes and two revolutions of the crank shaft to complete -one cycle of operation.</p> - -<p>This type of motor is used almost universally by the manufacturers -of pleasure cars due to its reliability, and to the -ability it has to furnish continuous power at all speeds with -the minimum amount of vibration.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig17"> - -<img src="images/illo051.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="center w25pc">Firing<br>Stroke</td> -<td class="center w25pc">Exhaust<br>Stroke</td> -<td class="center w25pc">Intake<br>Stroke</td> -<td class="center">Compression<br>Stroke</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center">2</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="center">4</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 17. 4-Stroke Cycle. 1—Cylinder in Action</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig17">Fig. 17</a> shows a diagram of one cylinder in the four strokes -of the cycle, and the distance traveled by the crank shaft during -each stroke. No. 1 begins with a charge of compressed -vapor gas in the cylinder and is called the firing or power<span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span> -stroke. The ignition system (explained in a later chapter) -furnishes a spark at from five to fifteen degrees early or before -the piston reaches top dead center. Although the stroke -theoretically starts before the piston reaches its highest point -of ascent, the actual pressure or force of the explosion is not -exerted until the piston has crossed dead center. This is due -to the fact that the piston travels very rapidly, and that it -requires a small fraction of a second for spark to ignite the -compressed charge of gas. It may, therefore, be easily seen -that, if the spark did not occur until the piston is on or has -crossed dead center, the piston would have traveled part of the -distance of the stroke, and as it is moving away from the highest -point of compression the pressure is reduced by allowing -more volume space which causes a weak explosion and a short -power stroke. The intake and exhaust valves are closed -through the duration of the power stroke.</p> - -<p>No. 2. The exhaust stroke begins from fifteen to thirty degrees -early, or before the piston reaches lower dead center on -the firing stroke. The exhaust valve opens at the start of this -stroke allowing the pressure of the burnt or inert gas to escape -before the piston begins to ascend on the upward part of the -stroke, and closes seven to ten degrees late to allow the combustion -chamber to clear out before the next stroke begins.</p> - -<p>No. 3. The intake or suction stroke begins with the piston -descending from its highest level to its lowest level. The intake -valve opens ten or twenty degrees late, and as the piston -is traveling on its descent, considerable vacuum pressure has -formed which draws suddenly when the valve opens and starts -the gas from the carburetor in full volume. The entire length -of this stroke creates a vacuum which draws a full charge of -vaporized gas into the cylinder through the open intake valve. -The intake valve closes from ten to twenty degrees late in -order that the full drawing force of the vacuum may be -utilized while the piston is crossing lower center.</p> - -<p>No. 4. The compression stroke begins at the end of the intake -stroke with both valves closed. The piston ascends -from its lowest extreme to its highest level, compressing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span> -charge of gas which was drawn into the cylinder on the -intake or suction stroke; and at the completion of this stroke -the cylinder is again in position to start No. 1, the firing -stroke, and begin a new cycle of operation. The cam shaft -is driven from the crank shaft through a set of gears or a -silent chain, and operates at one-half the speed of the crank -shaft as a valve is lifted once through the cycle of operation, -or two revolutions of the crankshaft.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig18"> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="center w25pc">1</td> -<td class="center w25pc">2</td> -<td class="center w25pc">3</td> -<td class="center">4</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<img src="images/illo053.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="center w25pc">Firing<br>Val. Closed</td> -<td class="center w25pc">Compressing<br>Val. Closed</td> -<td class="center w25pc">Exhausting<br>Ex. Val. Open</td> -<td class="center w25pc">Intake<br>In. Val. Open</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig18">Fig. 18</a> shows the operation of a four-cylindered motor as -it would appear if the cylinder block were removed. The -timing or firing order of the motor shown in this diagram -is 1-2-4-3. No. 1 cylinder is always nearest the radiator and -on the left in this diagram. No. 1 cylinder is firing. The intake -and exhaust valve remain closed while this stroke is taking -place. This causes the entire force of the explosion to be exerted -on the head of the receding piston. The cylinders, as -may be seen in the diagram, are timed to fire in succession, -one stroke behind each other. While No. 1 cylinder is on the -firing stroke, No. 2 cylinder is compressing with both valves -closed and will fire and deliver another power impulse as soon -as No. 1 cylinder completes and reaches the lowest extreme -of its firing stroke. No. 3 cylinder, being fourth in the firing -order, has just completed the firing stroke and is starting the -exhaust stroke which forces the burnt and inert gases out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span> -the cylinder through the open exhaust valve. No. 4 cylinder -which is third in the firing order has just completed the exhaust -stroke and is about to start the intake or suction stroke -with the exhaust valve open. This diagram should be studied -and memorized as it is often necessary to remove the wires -which may easily be replaced if the firing order is known, or -found by watching the action of the exhaust valves and made -to conform with the distributor of the ignition system. (Note -the running direction of the distributor brush and connect the -wires up in that direction.) For the firing order given above -connect No. 4 wire to No. 3 distributor post, and No. 3 wire to -No. 4 post, as this cylinder fires last.</p> - -<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig19"> - -<img src="images/illo054a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="w30pc">1-CYL.</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="w30pc">2-CYL.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<img src="images/illo054b.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<tr> -<td class="w30pc">4-CYL.</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="w30pc">8-CYL.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 19 Power Stroke Diagram</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig19">Fig. 19</a> shows a diagram of the power stroke impulse delivered -to the cycle in a one, two, four, and eight cylindered -motor. A complete cycle consists of 360 degrees, and -as there are four strokes to the cycle an even division would -give a stroke of ninety degrees, which is not the case, however, -owing to the fact that the valves do not open and close -at the theoretical beginning and ending point of each stroke<span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span> -which is upper dead center and lower dead center. The firing -or power impulse stroke begins at approximately five to seven -degrees before the piston reaches upper dead center on the -compression stroke and ends from fifteen to thirty degrees -before the piston or cycle of rotation of the crankshaft reaches -lower dead center. This results in a power impulse of less -than ninety degrees, which varies accordingly with valve timing -in the different makes of motors. Consequently we have -a power stroke of a little less than ninety degrees in a one-cylinder -motor; two power strokes of a little less than 180 -degrees in a two cylinder motor, while the power impulse of -the four-cylinder motor very nearly completes the cycle. In -the six, eight, and twelve cylinder motor the power strokes -overlap, thereby delivering continuous power of very nearly -equal strength.</p> - -<p><b>Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors.</b>—The operation of -the twin cylindered motor varies very little from the single -four or six. It is simply a case where two, four, or two six -cylindered motors are set to a single crank case at an angle -which will allow the piston or connecting rods from the opposite -cylinders to operate on a single crank shaft. When the -cylinders are set directly opposite each other the connecting -rods are yoked and take their bearing on a single crank pin -of the crank shaft. This, however, is not always the case, for -in some motors the connecting rods take their bearing side -by side on the crank pin. The cylinders in this case are set -to the crank case in a staggered position to allow the connecting -rods from each cylinder to operate in line with the crank -shaft.</p> - -<p>The cylinder blocks are usually set to the crank case at an -angle of ninety degrees and are timed to furnish the power impulse -or stroke opposite each other in the cycle of operation. -The advantage of this formation is that two power strokes are -delivered in one cycle of operation, which increases the power -momentum and reduces the jar or shock of the explosion -causing a sweet running vibrationless motor.</p> - -<p>The valves are usually operated by a single cam shaft located<span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span> -on the upper inside wall of the crank case. Valve timing -is accomplished by following the marks on the flywheel or -lining up the prick punch marks on the gears, as shown in -<a href="#Page21">Chapter II</a> on valves.</p> - -<p>When a magneto is used to furnish the current for ignition -on an eight cylinder motor it has to be operated at the same -speed as the crank shaft, as a cylinder is fired at each revolution -of the crank shaft and an interruption of the current is -required at the breaker points to produce the secondary or -high tension current at the spark plug gaps.</p> - -<p>Twelve cylindered motors are usually equipped with two -distributors or a dual system, or two magnetos driven separately -through a set of timing gears.</p> - -<p><b>Knight or Sleeve Valve Motor.</b>—The Knight or sleeve valve -motor operates on the same plan as the ordinary type of motor -except that the valves form a sleeve and slide over the piston. -The sleeves are operated by an eccentric shaft and are provided -with ports which are timed to conform with the ports -of the intake and exhaust manifolds at the proper time.</p> - -<p class="tabhead">MOTOR HORSEPOWER<br> -<span class="smcap">S. A. E. Scale</span><br> -<span class="smcapall">FOUR-CYCLE HORSEPOWER RATING</span></p> - -<table class="power"> - -<tr class="bt"> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Bore</th> -<th class="br">1 cyl.</th> -<th class="br">2 cyl.</th> -<th class="br">4 cyl.</th> -<th>6 cyl.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">2</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -<td class="center br"> 3.00</td> -<td class="center br"> 6.00</td> -<td class="center br">12.00</td> -<td class="center">18.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">2</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>7</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub></td> -<td class="center br"> 3.00</td> -<td class="center br"> 6.50</td> -<td class="center br">13.00</td> -<td class="center">20.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">3</td> -<td class="frac br">.00</td> -<td class="center br"> 3.50</td> -<td class="center br"> 7.00</td> -<td class="center br">14.50</td> -<td class="center">21.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">3</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -<td class="center br"> 4.00</td> -<td class="center br"> 8.50</td> -<td class="center br">17.00</td> -<td class="center">25.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">3</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td> -<td class="center br"> 5.00</td> -<td class="center br">10.00</td> -<td class="center br">20.00</td> -<td class="center">29.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">3</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -<td class="center br"> 5.50</td> -<td class="center br">11.00</td> -<td class="center br">22.50</td> -<td class="center">34.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">4</td> -<td class="frac br">.00</td> -<td class="center br"> 6.50</td> -<td class="center br">13.00</td> -<td class="center br">25.50</td> -<td class="center">38.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">4</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -<td class="center br"> 7.00</td> -<td class="center br">14.50</td> -<td class="center br">29.00</td> -<td class="center">43.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">4</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td> -<td class="center br"> 8.00</td> -<td class="center br">16.00</td> -<td class="center br">32.50</td> -<td class="center">48.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">4</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -<td class="center br"> 9.00</td> -<td class="center br">18.00</td> -<td class="center br">36.00</td> -<td class="center">54.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">5</td> -<td class="frac br">.00</td> -<td class="center br">10.00</td> -<td class="center br">20.00</td> -<td class="center br">40.00</td> -<td class="center">60.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">5</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -<td class="center br">11.00</td> -<td class="center br">22.00</td> -<td class="center br">44.00</td> -<td class="center">66.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">5</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></td> -<td class="center br">12.00</td> -<td class="center br">24.00</td> -<td class="center br">48.00</td> -<td class="center">73.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="int">5</td> -<td class="frac br"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></td> -<td class="center br">13.00</td> -<td class="center br">26.50</td> -<td class="center br">53.00</td> -<td class="center">79.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="int">6</td> -<td class="frac br">.00</td> -<td class="center br">14.50</td> -<td class="center br">29.00</td> -<td class="center br">57.50</td> -<td class="center">86.50</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="centerblock w20emmax"> - -<p class="fsize90">This scale gives the nearest equivalent to the whole or half -horsepower, as is required by State where licenses are paid at -so much per horsepower.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<p class="formula fsize90">Formula—S. A. E. <span class="horsplit"><span class="top">D<sup>2</sup> times N</span> -<span class="bot">2.5</span></span> equals horsepower.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span></p> - -<p>For sleeve valve timing see <a href="#Page21">Chapter II</a> on Valves.</p> - -<h3>DISPLACEMENT</h3> - -<p>There are probably few men operating cars to-day who fully -understand what is meant by the term displacement, often -used in referring to automobile races. It is one of the main -factors or points in determining the class in which a car is -qualified to enter under the laws that govern races. In looking -over a race program, you will note that there are usually -two or more classes, one of which is open, and another with a -limited piston displacement, which gives the smaller cars a -competing chance in their class.</p> - -<p>Consequently piston displacement is merely the volume displaced -by all the piston in moving the full length of the -stroke. The volume of a single cylinder is equal to the area -of the bore multiplied by the length of the stroke, and the -total displacement of a four cylinder motor will be four times -this and that of a six cylinder motor, six times this.</p> - -<p>Piston displacement:</p> - -<p class="formula"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">D<sup>2</sup> times S times N times 3.14</span> -<span class="bot">4</span></span></p> - -<table class="floattext"> - -<tr> -<td>Where</td> -<td>D equals bore in inches</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td>S equals stroke in inches</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>Where N equals number of cylinders</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<table class="floattext"> - -<tr> -<td>Example:</td> -<td>Required to find the piston displacement of a -3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> × 5 inch four-cylindered motor. D equals 3.5 -S equals 5. and N equals 4.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="noindent">Piston Displacement</p> - -<p class="padl8 blankbefore05"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">3.5<sup>2</sup> -times 5 times 4 times 3.14</span> -<span class="bot">4</span></span></p> - -<p class="padl8 blankbefore05"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">3.5 times -3.5 times 5 times 4 times 3.14</span> -<span class="bot">4</span></span></p> - -<p class="noindent blankbefore05">equals 173.58 cubic inches.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig20"> - -<img src="images/illo058.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="5" class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">IGNITION COIL</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="right">DELCO GENERATOR</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right">DISTRIBUTOR</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CONTROL<br>LEVER</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">PEDALS</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">FAN</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">BRAKE LEVER</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">FAN BELT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">STARTER SLIDING<br>GEAR CASE</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">UNIVERSAL<br>HOUSING</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">STARTING<br>CRANK SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">TRANSMISSION<br>END PLATE</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">TIMING GEAR<br>CASE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">TRANSMISSION</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">TIMING GEAR<br>HOUSING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left">CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING<br>RETAINER GREASE CUP</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="right">WATER PUMP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">MOTOR ARM</td> -<td class="center">FLY WHEEL<br>HOUSING</td> -<td class="center">LOWER<br>CRANK CASE</td> -<td class="right">DRAIN COCK</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 20. Buick Engine—Parts Assembly</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig21"> - -<img src="images/illo059.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="5" class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE KEY</td> -<td class="center">VALVE ROCKER ARM PIN</td> -<td class="center">OIL FILLER<br>WING PLUG</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">VALVE ROCKER ARM</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE SPRING CAP</td> -<td class="center">VALVE ROCKER ARM WICK</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">WATER OUTLET</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE SPRING</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">SPARK PLUG</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="w20pc"> </td> -<td class="center">FAN</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE GAGE</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">VALVE PUSH ROD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">WATER JACKET</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">COMBUSTION SPACE</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">WATER INLET</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE LIFTER</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">VALVE LIFTER GUIDE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">PISTON PIN</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">PISTON</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">VALVE LIFTER CLAMP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">OIL PUMP<br>DRIVING GEAR</td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">FAN BRACKET STUD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">FAN BELT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CONNECTING ROD</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CRANK SHAFT</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">TIMING GEARS</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">CONNECTING<br>ROD BEARING</td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">FAN PULLEY</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">CAM SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CRANK SHAFT<br>BEARING</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="right">CAM SHAFT BEARING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right">STARTING NUT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">OIL PUMP</td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">GEAR COVER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">UPPER CRANK CASE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">FLY WHEEL</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">TIMING GEAR HOUSING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">FLY WHEEL HOUSING</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">CHECK VALVE</td> -<td class="right">WATER PUMP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">DRAIN PLUG</td> -<td class="center">OIL DIPPER</td> -<td class="center">SPLASH OIL TROUGH</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">VALVE ROLLER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">LOWER CRANK CASE</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">CRANK CASE OIL PIPE</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 21. Buick Engine—Location Inside Parts Assembly</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span></p> - -<div class="container w40emmax" id="Fig22"> - -<img src="images/illo060.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w25pc"> -<col class="w40pc"> -<col class="w35pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">ROCKER ARM</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">OIL WICK</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">WING PLUG</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">VALVE STEM</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">ROCKER ARM COVER</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">VALVE SPRING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">ADJUSTING BALL</td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="center">VALVE CAGE<br>NUT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">LOCK NUT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">VALVE CAGE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">WATER JACKET</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">VALVE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">SPARK PLUG COVER</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">EXHAUST<br>MANIFOLD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">COMBUSTION<br>SPACE</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">INTAKE<br>MANIFOLD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">PUSH ROD</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">HOT AIR<br>CHAMBER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE PUSH<br>ROD COVER</td> -<td class="right">WRIST PIN</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">CYLINDER</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE LIFTER CAP</td> -<td class="right">PISTON</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE LIFTER<br>GUIDE CLAMP</td> -<td rowspan="5" colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE LIFTER SPRING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE LIFTER GUIDE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE LIFTER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CAM ROLLER PIN</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CAM ROLLER</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center">CONNECTING ROD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CAM SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="right">CRANK CASE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">CRANK SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 22. Buick Motor—End View</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig23"> - -<img src="images/illo061.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<p class="right">Fan Belt<br> -Adjustment</p> - -<p class="right">Split Collar<br> -with Locking Cup</p> - -<p class="right">Valve Tappet<br> -Adjustment</p> - -<p class="right">Cam Shaft End<br> -Thrust Adjustment</p> - -<p class="noindent">Shims for<br> -Adjustment of<br> -Connecting Rods</p> - -<p class="right">Oil Passage to<br> -Connecting Rod</p> - -<p class="right">Oil Pipe to<br> -Piston Ring</p> - -<p class="noindent">Oil Pump<br> -Filter Screen</p> - -<p class="right">Oil Sump<br> -Filter Screen</p> - -<p class="noindent">Oil Pump</p> - -<p class="right">Felt Gasket</p> - -<p class="noindent">Oil Drain Plugs</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<h3 id="Ref01">LUBRICATION SYSTEMS, OILS, AND GREASES</h3> - -<p>Special attention should be given to regular lubrication, as -this, more than any one thing, not only determines the life but -also the economic up-keep of the car.</p> - -<p>Whenever you hear an owner say that his car is a gas eater, -or that it uses twice or three times as much oil as his neighbor’s, -which is the same model and make, you know at once -that he, or some one who has used the car before him, either -did not give sufficient attention to lubrication, or used a poor -grade of oil. It is almost impossible to impress the importance -of the foregoing facts upon the minds of the average -motorist, and we have, as a direct result, a loss of millions of -dollars annually through depreciation.</p> - -<p>The manufacturers of automobiles and gasoline engines -have earnestly striven to overcome this negligence by providing<span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span> -their products with automatically fed oiling systems -which alleviate some of the former troubles. These systems, -however, also require some attention to function -properly.</p> - -<p><b>Grease.</b>—A medium grade of light hard oil grease is best -adapted for use in grease cups, universal joints, and for -packing wheel bearings and steering gear housings. The -transmission and differential operate more successfully when a -lighter grade of grease is used, such as a graphite compound, -or a heavy oil known as 600 W.</p> - -<p><b>Oils.</b>—Great care should always be exercised in purchasing -lubricants. None but the best grades should be considered under -any circumstances. The cheaper grades of oil will always -prove to be the most expensive in the end. The ordinary farm -machinery oils should never be used in any case as an engine -lubricant, for in most cases they contain acids, alkalies, and -foreign matter which will deteriorate and destroy the bearings -of the motor.</p> - -<p>An oil to give the best satisfaction must be a purely mineral -or vegetable composition which will flow freely at a temperature -of 33° Fahrenheit and also stand a temperature of 400° -Fahrenheit without burning. Always choose an oil which is -light in color as the darker oil usually contains much carbon.</p> - -<p><b>Lubrication</b> (Lat. <i>Lubricus</i>, meaning slippery).—-Lubrication -is provided on all types of automobile engines, and at -various other places where moving parts come in contact or -operate upon each other.</p> - -<p>Three different types of lubricating systems are found in -common use.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig24">Fig. 24</a> shows the splash system. The oil is placed into -the crank case and maintained at a level between two points, -marked high and low, on a float or glass gauge at the lower -left-hand side of the crank case. The oil is usually poured directly -into the crank case through a breather pipe provided -to prevent excessive vacuum pressure.</p> - -<p>The lower end of the connecting rod carries a spoon or -paddle which dips into the oil at each revolution and splashes<span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span> -it to the cylinder walls and various bearing surfaces within the -motor.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig24"> - -<img src="images/illo063.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 24. Splash Oiling</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Care of the Splash System.</b>—This type of oiling system does -not require any adjustments, or special care, except that the -oil level be constantly kept between the high and low level -marked on the gauge.</p> - -<p><b>Cleaning the Splash System.</b>—Lubricating oils lose their -effectiveness and become thin and watery after a certain period -of use due to a fluid deposit called residue which remains in -the combustion chambers after the charge of gas has been -fired. This fluid generally works its way into the crank case, -thinning the oil.</p> - -<p>The crank case should, therefore, be drained, cleaned, and -refilled with fresh oil every fifth week or thousand miles that -the car is driven. This will prevent much wear and give a -quiet and satisfactory running motor. Draining and washing -out the crank case is accomplished by removing a drain plug -at the bottom of the crank case. The old oil is drained off and -thrown away. Kerosene is then poured into the crank case -through the breather pipe until it flows out of the drain clear -in color. The plug is then replaced and the crank case replenished -with fresh oil until the three-quarter from low level<span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span> -is reached on the gauge. The oil level should be carried as -near this point as possible to obtain the most satisfactory -result.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig25">Fig. 25</a> shows the plunger or piston pump pressure system -usually used in conjunction with the splash system. The -oil is carried in a reservoir at the bottom of the crank case -and is drawn through a fine meshed screen by the oil pump, -which is of the plunger type operated off the cam shaft. It -forces the oil through copper tubes in the three main bearings. -The front and center bearings have an outlet which -furnishes the oil to the gears in front and to the troughs in -which the connecting rods dip. The troughs have holes -drilled to keep the level of the oil, the surplus being returned -to the reservoir.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig25"> - -<img src="images/illo064.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w50emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="5" class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center top">PLUNGER PUMP AND STRAINER</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">OIL PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT</td> -<td class="center">FRONT<br>BEARING<br>LINE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center top">REAR<br>BEARING<br>LINE</td> -<td class="center bot">CENTER BEARING<br>LINE</td> -<td class="left bot">OIL FLOAT LEVEL</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 25. Plunger Pump Oiling System</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>There is a pipe line running from the pump to the gear -case with a screw adjustment to regulate the oil pressure by -turning either in or out. There is a pipe line running to a -gauge on the dash which gives the pressure at all times. The -cam shaft and cylinder walls get the oil by the splash from the -connecting rods. The bottom rings of the pistons wash the -oil back into the crank case. The overflow from the front<span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span> -bearings falls into a small compartment immediately under -the crank shaft gear where it is picked up by this gear and -carried to the other gears and the bearings of the water pump -shaft. A small oil throw washer on the pump shaft prevents -any surplus oil from being carried out on the shaft or the -hub of the fan drive pulley. Any overflow from the gear -compartment is carried immediately to the splash pan where -it provides for the splash lubrication of the connecting rod -bearings and the cylinder walls. The dippers on the connecting -rod bearings should go <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> in. beneath the surface of -the oil. The upward stroke of the oil pump plunger draws -the oil through the lower ball check into the pump body and -the downward stroke discharges it through the upper ball -check into the body of the plunger which is hollow and has -outlets on either side. This allows the oil to flow from the -plunger into the by-pass in the oil pump body and then into -the lines running to the main crank shaft bearings. The next -upward stroke forces the oil through the lines to the main -bearings.</p> - -<p>The oil pressure regulator is located on the body of the -pump and connects to the by-pass. It consists of a hollow -sleeve screwed into the body of the pump which has a small -ball check held by a short coiled spring the tension of which -determines the oil pressure. The tension and the pressure -may be increased by turning the nut to the right. The nut -should not be given more than one turn at a time in either -direction as it is very sensitive. A loose main bearing will -allow more oil to pass through it. Consequently the pressure -registered on the oil gauge will be reduced. This will come -about gradually. It is not advisable to attempt to adjust the -oil pressure without first noting the condition of the main -crank shaft bearings.</p> - -<p>The most common cause of failure to operate is the collection -of dust and dirt on the sleeve at the lower end of the -pump or from an accumulation of sediment back of the ball -check. This needs to be cleaned from time to time.</p> - -<p><b>Force and Gravity Oiling System.</b>—The force and gravity<span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span> -oiling system operates in much the same manner as the plunger -pump system, except that the oil is pumped into an elevated -tank from which it flows through lines by gravity to the various -bearings. Oil pumps, however, differ in construction and -some manufacturers use eccentric, centrifugal, and gear -pumps. Oil pumps are very simple in construction and action -and can be readily understood by recalling their functional -action.</p> - -<p>Oil pumps rarely give any trouble, and if they fail to function -properly, dirt should be immediately suspected, and the -ball valves and pipes inspected and cleaned.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER IV</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>A carburetor is a metering device whose function is to mechanically -blend liquid fuel with a certain amount of air to -produce as nearly a homogeneous mixture as possible, and -in such proportions as will result in as perfect an explosive -mixture as can be obtained.</p> - -<p>If a gas is used as a fuel it is of course not so difficult to -obtain a homogeneous mixture due to the intimacy with which -a gas will mechanically mix with air. This intimacy is a -result of the minuteness of the molecules of both the gas and -the air. With a liquid fuel, such as gasoline, however, it is -quite different, especially with low test gasoline. If it were -possible to completely transfer the liquid fuel into its vapor -the latter would act as a gas and would, therefore, mix with -the air to form a homogeneous mixture. It should be, and is, -therefore, the aim of the carburetor designer to produce an instrument -which will atomize the fuel and break it up into -small particles so that every minute particle of the fuel will -be surrounded by a correct proportion of air when it is -discharged into the intake manifold of the motor. To facilitate -the vaporization of these minute particles of fuel it is -advisable to preheat the air taken into the carburetor, thereby -furnishing the necessary heat units required to vaporize the -fuel by virtue of its physical property known as its latent -heat of evaporation.</p> - -<p>There is a range of proportions of air to vapor, for a -given fuel, between which combustion will obtain. This range -extends from that proportion known as the upper limit of -combustion to that known as the lower limit of combustion. -The upper limit is reached when the ratio of air to vapor is<span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span> -a maximum at which combustion will take place; that is to -say, any addition of air in excess of this maximum will render -the mixture non-combustible. The lower limit is reached when -the ratio of air to vapor is a minimum at which combustion -will take place, any decrease of air below this minimum producing -a non-combustible mixture. It should be remembered -that the limits of combustion of any fuel with air are dependent -upon the temperature and pressure.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig26"> - -<img src="images/illo068.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="6" class="w16pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Carburetor Flange</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Throttle Valve</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">Throttle Stem<br>or Shaft</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left">Large Venturi</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Idle Discharge Jet</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Idle Adjustment Needle</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="right">High Speed Adjustment Needle</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Small Venturi</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="center">Float Needle</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">Air<br>Bleeder</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Mixture Control<br>Valve or Choker</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="center">Float</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right">Accelerating Well</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right">Idling Tube</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">Strainer</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right">Float<br>Needle<br>Seat</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="right">High Speead<br>Needle Seat</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="right">Strainer Body</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Gasoline<br>Connection</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="center">Drain Plug</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor—Sectional View</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Under given temperature and pressure the rate at which the -combustible mixture will burn depends upon the ratio of air -to vapor. This rate of burning is known as the rate of -propagation, and it is apparent that it is desirable to obtain a -mixture whose rate of propagation is a maximum, because the -force of the explosion will depend upon the rapidity with -which the entire mixture is completely ignited.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span></p> - -<p>The limits of combustion of gasoline (.70 sp. gr.) can be -taken approximately as follows: lower limit, 7 parts air (by -weight) to 1 part gasoline, upper limit, 20 parts air to 1 part -gasoline.</p> - -<p><b>The Stromberg Plain Tube Model M Carburetor.</b>—A plain -tube carburetor is one in which both the air and the gasoline -openings are fixed in size, and in which the gasoline is metered -automatically, without the aid of moving parts by the suction -of air velocity past the jets.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig26">Fig. 26</a> shows a longitudinal section of a type M plain tube -carburetor, and shows the location of the gasoline when -the motor is at rest. The various parts are indicated by -names and arrows. An elementary requirement of a carburetor -is that as a metering device it shall properly proportion -the gasoline and air throughout the entire operating -range.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig27"> - -<img src="images/illo069.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Air Bleeder Action</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>In the carburetor under discussion this mixture proportioning -is properly maintained by the use of what is termed the -air bleed jet. <a href="#Fig27">Fig. 27</a> shows the principle of the action of the -air bleeder. The gasoline leaves the float chamber, passes the -point of the high speed adjusting needle, and rises through a -vertical channel “B.” Air is taken in through the air bleeder -“C,” and discharged into the gasoline channel before the<span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span> -latter reaches the jet holes in the small venturi tube “E.” -The result is that the air thus taken in breaks up the flow of -gasoline and produces a finely divided emulsion. Upon reaching -the jet holes of the small venturi tube this emulsion is -discharged into the high velocity air stream in the form of a -finely divided mist. If the reader will recall how thoroughly -a soap bubble divides itself when it bursts, he will readily -appreciate how completely the air bleed jet will atomize the -fuel.</p> - -<p>Before explaining the operation of the accelerating well it -is advisable to know the reason for its existence. Suppose -we had a large tube such as the intake manifold of a motor -through which air and particles of gasoline were flowing due -to a certain suction at one end. What would be the result if -we suddenly increased the suction? It would be this: Due to -the fact that air is so much lighter than gasoline, the air would -respond almost instantly to the increased suction and its flow -would be accelerated very suddenly, whereas the particles of -gasoline, owing to that characteristic known as inertia, would -not respond so rapidly, and due to its heavier weight its flow -would not accelerate as much as the air. This would mean -that the air would rush ahead of the gasoline particles, and the -proportion of air to gasoline would be greater until the inertia -forces had been overcome and the gasoline particles responded -completely to the increased suction. This very thing will take -place in a carburetor unless provision is made for it. That is -to say a sudden opening of the throttle will tend toward -producing a very lean mixture at the motor due to the lagging -of the gasoline explained above. A lean mixture at this -time, when acceleration is desired, would obviously be detrimental -to the result wanted. It is at this particular time that -additional gasoline is most desirable in order to compensate -for the lagging gasoline and maintain the proper mixture at -the motor. In the Stromberg carburetor this is accomplished -by means of the accelerating well shown in <a href="#Fig28">Fig. 28</a>. The -operation is as follows: The action is based upon the principle -of the ordinary U tube. If a U tube contains a liquid,<span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span> -and if pressure is applied to one arm of the tube, or what is -the same, if suction is applied to the other arm, it is self-evident -that the level of the liquid will rise in the arm on -which the suction is applied and will drop in the other arm. -So it is in the construction of the accelerating well. Referring -to the illustration, <a href="#Fig28">Fig. 28</a>, the space “F” forms the -one arm of the U tube, and the space “B” the other arm. -These spaces communicate with each other through the holes -“G” thus forming a modified form of U tube.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig28"> - -<img src="images/illo071.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Accelerating Well</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>When the motor is idling or retarding in speed, the accelerating -well or space “F” fills with gasoline. Now when -the throttle is opened, thereby increasing the suction in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span> -venturi tube, the following takes place: atmospheric pressure -at the bleeder “C” exerts itself on the gasoline in the space -“F” forcing the liquid down to join the regular flow from -“H” and passing up the space “B” and out into the high -velocity air stream through the small venturi tube. While the -well acts the flow of gasoline is more than double the normal -rate of flow, thereby compensating for the lagging of the -gasoline referred to previously.</p> - -<p>Upon close observation it will be noticed that there is a -series of small holes down the wall of the well. Referring -to the analogy of the U tube, these holes directly connect the -two arms of the U tube. It is obvious that the smaller and -fewer these holes, the faster will the well empty, due to the -U tube suction, and the larger and more these holes, the slower -will the well empty. It is therefore apparent that the rate of -discharge of the well can be regulated as required by different -motors, different grades of gasoline, different altitudes, etc., -by inserting wells of different drillings. The action of the -well is also dependent upon the size of the hole in the bleeder -“C” because it is the relative area of this hole in the bleeder -as compared to the area of the holes in the well which determine -the rate at which the well will empty.</p> - -<p>The foregoing characteristics of the model M carburetor -have dealt more with the open throttle or high speed operation. -We shall now consider the operation when the motor -is idling. Earlier types of carburetors, when high test and -very volatile gasoline was employed, were designed with a -mixing chamber in which the gasoline, after being discharged -from the nozzle, would mix with the air and evaporate very -freely. Present day gasoline, however, is considerably heavier -and very much less volatile, and we therefore cannot depend -upon its volatility to accomplish its vaporization.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig29"> - -<img src="images/illo073.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Idling Operation</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig29">Fig. 29</a> shows the arrangement and idling operation of the -model M Stromberg carburetor. Concentric and inside of the -passage “B” is located the idling tube “J.” When the motor -is idling, that is, when the throttle is practically closed, the -action which takes place is as follows: the gasoline leaves the<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span> -float chamber, passes through the passage “H” into the idling -tube through the hole “I,” thence up through the idling tube -“J” to the idling jet “L.” Air is drawn through the hole -“K” and mixes with the gasoline to form a finely divided<span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span> -emulsion which passes on to the jet “L.” It will be noted -that this jet directs the gasoline-air emulsion into the manifold -just above the lip of the throttle valve. Inasmuch as this -throttle valve is practically closed the vacuum created at -the entrance of the jet “L” is very high and exceeds 8 pounds -per square inch. It is obvious, therefore, with this condition -existing, that the gasoline will be drawn into the manifold in a -highly atomized condition. It is well to call attention here to -the fact that the low speed adjusting screw “F” operates a -needle valve which controls the amount of air which passes -through the hole “K,” and it is the position of this needle -valve which determines the idling mixture.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig30"> - -<img src="images/illo074.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 30. Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>5</sub> Open</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>As the throttle is slightly opened from the idling position -a suction is created in the throat of the small venturi tube as -well as at the idling jet. When idling the suction is greater -at the idling jet, and when the throttle is open the suction is -greater at the small venturi tube. At some intermediate position<span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span> -of the throttle there is a time when the suction at the -idling jet is equal to that at the small venturi, and, therefore, -at this particular time the gasoline will follow both channels -to the manifold. This condition which is illustrated in <a href="#Fig30">Fig. -30</a> lasts but a very short while, because as the throttle is -opened wider the suction at the small venturi tube rapidly -becomes greater than that at the idling jet. The result is -that the idling tube and idling jet are thrown entirely out of -action, the level of the gasoline in the idling tube dropping -as illustrated in <a href="#Fig31">Fig. 31</a>, where the throttle is shown to be -wide open, in which case all of the gasoline enters the manifold -by way of the holes in the small venturi tube.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig31"> - -<img src="images/illo075.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 31. Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle Wide Open</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>It will be remembered that at this position of the throttle -the accelerating well has emptied, and therefore there is a -direct passage for air from the bleeder to the gasoline in the -main passage giving the air bleed jet feature explained before. -This is being mentioned again in order to call attention<span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span> -to the fact that care should be taken not to use too large a -bleeder, because the air which enters through the bleeder -partly determines the mixture, and if the bleeder hole is too -large the mixture is very apt to be too lean at high speeds.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig32">Fig. 32</a> shows an exterior photograph of one of the type -M Stromberg carburetor. Before discussing the installation -and adjusting of this carburetor it will be well to say a few -words concerning the use of the venturi tube and its construction.</p> - -<p>The object in using the venturi tube in carburetor design -is to produce a maximum air velocity at the jet and at the -same time not cause undue restriction. This high air velocity -creates the suction necessary to properly atomize the gasoline. -The use of the double venturi tube construction has developed -the best possible results. In this construction the mouth of -the smaller venturi tube is located at the throat of the larger -one, and with this arrangement the highest degree of atomization -is attainable, and at the same time the air restriction is -held down to a minimum.</p> - -<p>In order that any carburetor may do justice to what is -claimed for it, it is absolutely essential that the motor on -which it is installed is in good condition in other respects -because, besides poor carburetion, there are numerous things -about an internal combustion engine which will cause its poor -operation. Therefore, assuming that the following conditions -exist, we can proceed with the installation of the carburetor -and after adjusting it we can expect very good results as to -the operation of the motor.</p> - -<p>1. The ignition should be properly timed so that with a -retarded spark the explosion takes place when the piston of -the cylinder in which the explosion occurs is at its upper dead -center.</p> - -<p>2. The inlet and exhaust valves should be so timed that they -open and close at the proper time during the cycle. In this -respect a motor is usually timed when it comes from the -manufacturer.</p> - -<p>3. The valves should be ground in so that they form a perfect<span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span> -seal with the valve seat. Any accumulation of carbon on -the upper part of the exhaust should be removed so as to prevent -the valve stem from sticking in the guide and thereby not -permitting the valve to close upon its seat.</p> - -<p>4. Any undue wear of the valve stem guides should be corrected -because the clearance between the stem and the walls -of the guide will permit air to be drawn up into the motor -thus ruining the mixture from the carburetor. Similarly any -leaky flange at any joint along the intake system will produce -the same detrimental result.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig32"> - -<img src="images/illo077.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 32. Stromberg Model M—Adjustment Points</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>5. All piston rings should be tight and leak proof in order -to insure good and even compression in all the cylinders. -Without good and even compression in all the cylinders it is -impossible to obtain the maximum power from the motor, and -it is also impossible to obtain good idling of the motor.</p> - -<p>6. It should be seen that the ignition system is delivering a -spark to each spark plug without missing.</p> - -<p>7. The spark plugs should be clean, and the accumulation -of carbon on the inside of the plug should not be sufficient to -cause fouling or short-circuiting of the plug. In the case of<span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span> -a short circuited plug it is impossible to obtain a spark at -the end of the high tension cable, but this does not indicate -that the plug is firing. For best results the gap of the spark -plug should never be less than .020″ nor more than .032″. -A good setting is at about .025″.</p> - -<p>The foregoing constitute some of the more important -troubles to look for when the motor is not performing satisfactorily.</p> - -<p><b>Installation and Adjusting.</b>—We are finally ready to proceed -with instructions for installing and adjusting Model M -carburetors.</p> - -<p>1. Try the throttle lever and the air horn lever by moving -same with the hand before the carburetor is installed, and be -sure that the butterfly valves are open to the limit when the -respective levers come in contact with their stops. Also be -sure that when the throttle valve is closed, the lower side of the -butterfly is adjacent to the hole through which the idling jet -projects.</p> - -<p>2. Prepare a paper gasket about .020″ thick to fit the flange -of the carburetor. Shellac same and then attach the carburetor -to the flange of the intake manifold very securely by -means of proper cap screws.</p> - -<p>The attaching of the gasoline line, hot-air stove, hot air -flexible tubing, and choke control need not be discussed in detail -as these installations are very simple.</p> - -<p>After having properly installed the carburetor on the motor, -turn both the high and low speed adjusting screws, A and -B, completely down clockwise so that the needle valves just -touch their respective seats. Then unscrew (anti-clockwise) -the high speed adjusting screw A about three turns off the -seat, and turn the low speed adjusting screw B anti-clockwise -about one and one-half turns off the seat. These settings -are not to be considered as final adjustments of the carburetor. -They are merely to be taken as starting points because the -motor will run freely with these settings.</p> - -<p>After the motor has been started, permit it to run long -enough to become thoroughly warm then make the high speed<span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span> -adjustment. Advance the spark to the position for normal -running. Advance the gas throttle until the motor is running -at approximately 750 r. p. m. Then turn down on the high -speed screw A gradually notch by notch until a slowing down -of the motor is observed. Then turn up or open the screw -anti-clockwise until the motor runs at the highest rate of -speed for that particular setting of the throttle.</p> - -<p>To make the low speed adjustment B proceed as follows: -Retard the spark fully and close the throttle as far as possible -without causing the motor to come to a stop. If upon -idling the motor tends to roll or load it is an indication that -the mixture is too rich and therefore the low speed screw B -should be turned away from the seat anti-clockwise, thereby -permitting more air to enter into the idling mixture. It is -safe to say that the best idling results will be obtained when the -screw B is not much more or less than one and one-half turns -off the seat.</p> - -<p>After satisfactory adjustments have been made with the -motor vehicle stationary, it is most important and advisable -to take the vehicle out on the road for further observation and -finer adjustments. If upon rather sudden opening of the -throttle the motor backfires, it is an indication that the high -speed mixture is too lean, and in this case the high speed screw -A should be opened one notch at a time until the tendency to -backfire ceases. On the other hand if when running along with -throttle open, the motor rolls or loads, it is an indication that -the mixture is too rich, and this condition is overcome by turning -the high speed screw A down (clockwise) until this loading -is eliminated.</p> - -<h3>STROMBERG MODEL L CARBURETOR</h3> - -<p>There are three adjustments; the high speed, the extremely -low speed or idle, and the “economizer.”</p> - -<p>The high speed is controlled by the knurled nut “A” which -locates the position of the needle “E” past whose point is -taken all the gasoline at all speeds. Turning nut “A” to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span> -right (clockwise) raises the needle “E” and gives more gasoline, -to the left, or anticlockwise, less.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig33"> - -<img src="images/illo080.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 33. Stromberg Model “L”—Adjustment Points</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>If an entirely new adjustment is necessary, use the following -practice. Put economizer “L” in the 5th notch (or farthest -from float chamber) as an indicator, turn nut “A” to the left, -anticlockwise, until needle “E” reaches its seat, as shown by -nut “A” not moving when throttle is opened and closed. -When needle “E” is in its seat it can be felt to stick slightly -when nut “A” is lifted with the fingers. Find adjustment of -“A” where it just begins to move with the throttle opening, -then give 24 notches to the right or clockwise (the notches can -be felt). Then move the economizer pointer “L” back to the -0 notch (toward float chamber). This will give a rich adjustment. -After starting and warming up the motor, thin -out the mixture by turning “A” anticlockwise, and find the<span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span> -point where the motor responds best to quick opening of the -throttle, and shows the best power.</p> - -<p>The gasoline for low speed is taken in above the throttle -through a jet at “K” and is regulated by dilution with air as -controlled by the low speed adjusting screw “B.” Screwing -“B” in clockwise gives more gasoline; outward, less. The -best adjustment is usually <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> to 3 turns outward from a -seating position. Note that this is only an idling adjustment -and does not effect the mixture above 8 miles per hour. When -motor is idling properly there should be a steady hiss in the -carburetor; if there is a weak cylinder or manifold leak, or -if the idle adjustment is very much too rich, the hiss will be -unsteady.</p> - -<p>The economizer device operates to lean out the mixture by -lowering the high speed needle “E” and nut “A” a slight but -definitely regulated amount at throttle positions corresponding -to speeds from 5 to 40 miles per hour. The amount of drop -and consequent leaning is regulated by the pointer “L.”</p> - -<p>After making the high speed adjustment for best power, -with pointer “L” in 0 notch, as above described, place throttle -lever on steering wheel to a position giving about 20 miles -per hour road speed. Then move pointer “L” clockwise (away -from float chamber), one notch at a time, till motor begins to -slow down. Then come back one notch.</p> - -<p>The amount of economizer action needed depends upon the -grade of gasoline and upon the temperature.</p> - -<p>In the mid-west the best economizer adjustment will usually -be the third or fourth notch. With Pennsylvania gasoline and -in the South, the 2nd notch; while on the Pacific coast no -economizer is necessary unless distillate (which should not -be below 59 degrees Baume) is used. Also fewer notches -economizer action will be necessary in summer than in winter.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER V</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">“NITRO”-SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig34"> - -<img src="images/illo082.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 34. Sunderman Carburetor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig34">Fig. 34</a> shows a through section of the new “Nitro”-Sunderman -carburetor. This is practically a new model presented -to the automobile industry for 1919 and 1920. It is claimed -that it is an exact fulfillment of the long sought method of -accurate compensation. It is of the single plain tube design -with a single gasoline nozzle in the shape of a mushroom -placed in the center of the air passage. Around this nozzle, -however, rests the floating venturi which is a large end and<span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span> -small center floating air tube seen in <a href="#Fig35">Fig. 35</a> which hurries -the air at low speeds and checks the rush at high velocities. -<a href="#Fig35">Fig. 35</a> shows the commencement of action at idling speeds, -and as the gasoline for idling comes from the same nozzle -which furnishes the maximum power, an air by-pass is provided -to reduce the suction on the nozzle at low speeds. The -one single adjustment on this type of carburetor is shown -at (X) in <a href="#Fig36">Fig. 36</a>, and is used only to control the passage -of air through the by-pass at idling or low speeds. In <a href="#Fig34">Fig. -34</a> the engine’s demand has increased to a point where the -suction is greater than the weight of the venturi, which -causes it to rise on the air stream, and open up the air passage -around the head of the nozzle. This allows the compensation -for the correct ratios of the air and gasoline mixtures.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig35"> - -<img src="images/illo083.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 35. Sunderman Carburetor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>In <a href="#Fig37">Fig. 37</a> the venturi closes the air by-pass and under full -suction, gives the maximum area around the nozzle for leaner -mixtures and full volumetric. The unrestricted air passage<span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span> -in the plain tube type of carburetor is here worked out to its -fullest development.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig36"> - -<img src="images/illo084.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 36. Sunderman Carburetor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>The Venturi.</b>—This is a stream line air passage tapered -to a narrow throat near the center which increases the velocities -without offering a restriction to the free air passage, -and being of a very loose fit in the carburetor, is allowed to -float up and down on the air stream around the nozzle over -which it automatically centers at all times. The venturi goes -into action slowly as it is retarded by the action of the air by-pass, -but rises fast when the latter is cut off. It rides on the -air stream at a perfect balance and offers no resistance to -the air passage because of its stream line taper, and as the -venturi float is sensitive to a fine degree, it is ready for any -change in the motor suction and compensates accordingly. -The jet tube running up into the mushroom head contains -a jet which is drilled for the particular requirements of the -motor on which the carburetor is installed. This jet feeds -into the mushroom head which is drilled with four small -holes which spread the gasoline by capillary action in a fine -fan film to all sides of the under surfaces of the slot. Here<span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span> -the ascending air picks it off at right angles to its path in -a very fine vapor. This vapor is carried up the stream line -venturi without cross currents and is in a finely mixed state -of flame-propagation. The heavier fuels are readily broken -up with this nozzle and straight kerosene has been used with -success. This carburetor does not require any other care -than a thorough cleaning out once or twice in a season.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig37"> - -<img src="images/illo085.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 37. Sunderman Carburetor</p> - -</div> - -<h3>THE SCHEBLER MODEL “R” CARBURETOR</h3> - -<p><a href="#Fig38">Fig. 38</a> shows a section view of operation and adjustment -on the model “R” Schebler carburetor. This carburetor is -designed for use on both four and six cylindered motors. -It is of the single jet raised needle type, automatic in action, -the air valve controlling the needle valve through a leverage -arrangement. This leverage attachment automatically -proportions the amount of gasoline and air mixture at all -speeds. This type of carburetor has but two adjustments. -The low speed adjustment which is made by turning the air -valve cap and an adjustment on the air valve spring for<span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span> -changing its tension. (A) shows the air valve adjusting cap. -(B) is the dash control leverage attachment. (C) is the air -valve and jet valve connection. (D) is the boss that raises -the jet valve needle and lowers the spring tension on the air -valve giving a rich mixture in starting. The needle valve -seats in E and controls the nozzle spray. (F) is the air -valve spring tension adjusting screw.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig38"> - -<img src="images/illo086.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Model R Adjustment.</b>—To adjust this carburetor turn the -air valve cap to the right until it stops, then to the left one -complete turn, start the motor with the throttle <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> open; after -it is warmed up turn the air valve cap to the left until the -motor hits perfectly. Advance throttle <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> on quadrant. If -the engine backfires turn screw (F) up, increasing the tension -on the air spring until acceleration is satisfactory.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER VI</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">THE STEWART CARBURETOR</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><a href="#Fig39">Fig. 39</a> shows the Stewart carburetor used on Dodge -Brothers cars, which is of the float feed type in which a -fine spray of gasoline is drawn from an aspirating tube by -a current of air induced by the engine pistons. The supply -of gasoline being regulated by a float which actuates a needle -valve controlling the outlet of the feed pipe. This tube is -also called the spray nozzle. This type of carburetor is commonly -used on automobile engines.</p> - -<p>It consists of a float chamber containing a float, functions -of which are described below, a mixing chamber in which the -gasoline spray is reduced to vapor and mixed with air (i. e., -“carbureted” in proper proportion).</p> - -<p>The float and valve maintain a constant or even supply -of gasoline for the carburetor.</p> - -<p>The gasoline flows from the filter Z into the float chamber -C through the inlet valve G, which is directly actuated by the -float F, so that it closes or opens as the float rises or falls. -As the float rises the valve is closed until the float reaches -a certain predetermined level, at which the valve is entirely -closed. If the float falls below this level because of a diminishing -supply of gasoline in the float chamber, the valve is -automatically opened and sufficient fresh gasoline is admitted -to bring the level up to the proper point. From the foregoing -it will be seen that the float chamber in reality serves as -a reservoir of constant supply, in which any pressure to which -the gasoline has been subjected in order to force it from the -tank is eliminated. When the engine is running gasoline is, -of course, being constantly drawn off from the float chamber -through the aspirating tube L, as will be described later, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span> -meet the requirements of the motor, but in practice the resulting -movement of the inlet valve is very slight and hence -the flow of gasoline into the float chamber is nearly constant.</p> - -<p>The gasoline inlet valve is also called the “needle valve.”</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig39"> - -<img src="images/illo088.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 39. Stewart Carburetor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Between the float chamber C and the engine connection of -the carburetor is an enclosed space called the mixing chamber -O. This compartment is provided with a valve for the ingress -of free air.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span></p> - -<p>Extending into the mixing chamber from a point below -the surface of the gasoline in the float chamber is a passage, -L for gasoline, ending with a nozzle, so constructed that gasoline -drawn through it will come forth in a very fine spray. -This is called the aspirating tube, atomizer, or more commonly, -the spray nozzle.</p> - -<p>The air inlet AA to the mixing chamber on the carburetor -used on the Dodge is in the shape of a large tube extending -from the carburetor to a box on the exhaust manifold. -Air supplied from this source is heated in order that vaporization -of gasoline may be more readily accomplished.</p> - -<p>A cold air regulator is interposed between this tube and the -carburetor proper so that in hot weather cool air may be admitted. -This should always be closed when the temperature -of the atmosphere is below 60 F.</p> - -<p>The action of the carburetor is as follows: The suction -created by the downward stroke of the pistons draws air into -the mixing chamber through the air ducts (drilled holes HH). -The same suction draws a fine spray of gasoline through the -aspirating tube L (spray nozzle) into the same compartment, -and the air, becoming impregnated with the gasoline -vapor thus produced, becomes a highly explosive gas. In -order that the proportion of air and gasoline vapor may be -correct for all motor speeds, provision is made by means of -a valve A for the automatic admission of larger quantities -of both at high motor speeds. The ducts are open at all -times, but the valve is held to its seat by its weight until the -suction, increasing as the motor speed increases, is sufficient -to lift it and admit a greater volume of air. The valve A -is joined to the tube L, hence the latter is raised when the -valve is lifted and the ingress of proportionately larger quantities -of gasoline is made possible. This is accomplished by -means of a metering pin P normally stationary, projecting -upward into the tube L. The higher the tube rises the smaller -is the section of the metering pin even with its opening, and -hence the greater is the quantity of gasoline which may be -taken into the tube. The carburetor thus automatically produces<span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span> -the correct mixture and quantity for all motor speeds.</p> - -<p>The metering pin is subject to control from the dash, as -will be explained later, by means of a rack N, and pinion M. -To change the fixed running position of the pin, turn the stop -screw to the right or left. Turning this screw to the right -lowers the position of the metering pin and turning it to -the left raises it. As the pin is lowered more gasoline is -admitted to the aspirating tube at a given motor speed, thus -enriching the mixture.</p> - -<p>A wider range of adjustment of the position of the metering -pin may be had by releasing the clamp of the pinion -shaft lever and changing its position with relation to the -shaft. This should never be attempted by any save experts -in this class of work.</p> - -<p>The carburetor used on the Dodge Brothers car is so nearly -automatic in its action that it is not effected by climatic conditions, -or changes in altitude or temperature. It automatically -adjusts itself to all variations of atmosphere. It is, -therefore, wise to see if the causes of any troubles which -may develop are not due to derangements elsewhere than at -the carburetor before attempting any changes of its adjustment.</p> - -<p>Make all adjustments with dash adjustment all the way in.</p> - -<p>The metering pin should not be tampered with unless absolutely -necessary.</p> - -<p>If replacement of this pin should become necessary, it may -be accomplished as follows: First, remove the cap nut at -the bottom of the rack and pinion housing. Next, turn pinion -shaft slowly from right to left (facing toward the carburetor) -until the bottom of the metering pin appears at the bottom -of the pinion shaft housing. Continue to turn the shaft -slowly in the same direction, releasing the connection to the -dash control if necessary, until the rack to which the pin is -fastened drops out. The palm of the hand should be held -to receive this as the parts are very loosely assembled. The -pinion shaft should be retained at the exact position at which -the rack is released. Install a new metering pin, the way to<span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span> -do this will be obvious, and return the rack to its proper -mesh with the pinion. Replace dash attachment (if detached), -replace cap, adjust per instructions given on previous page.</p> - -<p>The loose assembling of the metering pin in the rack is -for the purpose of providing for freedom of movement of the -metering pin and in order that binding in the aspirating -tube may be avoided.</p> - -<p>The gasoline filter is installed on the carburetor at a -point where the fuel pipe is connected.</p> - -<p>The pressure within the gasoline tank forces the fuel -through the pipe, through the filter screen (ZO in the filter) -and thence out through the opening to the carburetor.</p> - -<p>The filter cap CC may be removed by turning the flanged -nut on the bottom of carburetor to the left, thus releasing the -inlet fitting.</p> - -<p>The filter screen or strainer should occasionally be cleaned. -This may be readily accomplished by removing the filter cap -to which the screen is attached.</p> - -<p>The filter should be screwed up tight when replaced.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER VII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">THE CARTER CARBURETOR</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig40"> - -<img src="images/illo092.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 40—Carter Carburetor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig40">Fig. 40</a> shows the Carter carburetor which embodies a -radically new principle. It belongs to the multiple-jet type, -but possesses this striking difference, variations in fuel level -are utilized to determine the number of jets in action at any -time. The variations in fuel level occur in a vertical tube -known as the “stand pipe.” They take place in instant response -to the slightest change in the suction exerted by the -engine. As this suction depends directly on the engine’s -speed, it can clearly be seen that this provides a marvelously<span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span> -sensitive means of automatic control. A large number of exceedingly -small jets are bored spirally around the upper portion -of this tube. As a result, the level at which the fuel -stands within it, determines the number of jets from which -delivery is being made at any instant and the gasoline supply -is always directly proportioned to the engine speed, however -suddenly changes in speed take place. Owing to the comparatively -large number of these jets, their exceedingly small -size, and their correspondingly short range of action, the -flow of fuel is absolutely uninterrupted.</p> - -<p>The instrument is permanently adjusted for low and intermediate -speeds at the time of installation. An auxiliary air -valve controlled from dash or steering post forms the high -speed adjustment as well as affording a means of securing -absolute uniformity of mixture under widely varying conditions -of weather, temperature, or altitude, directly from the -driver’s seat. A simple method of enabling each cylinder -to such a rich priming charge direct from the float chamber -is another valuable feature that obviates all need of priming -and insures easy starting in the coldest winter weather.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER VIII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">THE SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR MODEL -“FORD A”</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig41"> - -<img src="images/illo094.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Sectional View</p> - -<table class="schebler"> - -<tr> -<td>D</td> -<td>—</td> -<td class="descr">CHOKER OR SHUTTER IN AIR BEND.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>BE</td> -<td>—</td> -<td class="descr">LEVERS CLOSING CHOKER, OPERATED FROM STEERING COLUMN AND FRONT OF RADIATOR.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>H</td> -<td>—</td> -<td class="descr">LOW SPEED GASOLINE ADJUSTING NEEDLE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>I</td> -<td>—</td> -<td class="descr">HIGH SPEED GASOLINE ADJUSTING NEEDLE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>K</td> -<td>—</td> -<td class="descr">IDLE AND LOW SPEED BYPASS.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>M</td> -<td>—</td> -<td class="descr">ACCELERATION WELL.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>P</td> -<td>—</td> -<td class="descr">PILOT OPENING.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The Pilot tube principle is introduced for the first time in -the carburetor and this Pilot tube or improved type of gasoline -nozzle is so designed or built that it automatically -furnishes a rich mixture for acceleration and thins out this<span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span> -mixture after the normal motor speed has been reached. -This furnishes a very economical running mixture at all motor -speeds, together with a smooth and positive acceleration.</p> - -<p>The importance of this Pilot tube or nozzle principle cannot -be over emphasized, as it furnishes a flexible, powerful -and economical mixture, without the addition of any complicated -parts. The Ford “A” carburetor has no parts to -wear or get out of adjustment.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig42"> - -<img src="images/illo095.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Adjustment Points</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Two gasoline needle adjustments are furnished. One for -low speed and idling and one for high speed. These adjustments -have been found advisable and necessary to properly -handle the present heavy grades of fuel and the variations in -the motor due to wear, etc. Those adjustments also insure -the attaining of the widest range of motor speed.</p> - -<p>A double choker is furnished, and with these controls the -Ford can be easily started under the most severe weather -conditions and the mixture controlled from the driver’s seat.</p> - -<p>With the Ford “A” carburetor a low speed of four to five<span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span> -miles an hour can be secured without any loading or missing. -Also, with this carburetor the maximum speed and power of -the motor are obtained.</p> - -<h3>INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING AND ADJUSTING THE SCHEBLER FORD -“A” CARBURETOR</h3> - -<p>First, remove the Ford carburetor from the manifold, also -the dash board control, the hot air drum, and tubing, and the -radiator choke wire. Be sure to save the cotter pin used in -the throttle control.</p> - -<p>Install the Schebler carburetor, using gasket and cap screws -which are furnished with the equipment. The gasoline connection -is the same as regularly furnished on the Ford equipment -and no other connections are necessary. Screw the connections -on the Ford gasoline line onto the connection furnished -on the carburetor. Attach the hot air drum and the -tubing to the exhaust manifold and run the choke wire through -the radiator.</p> - -<p>Before adjusting carburetor, see that the spark plugs are -clean and set about .035, or nearly the thickness of a new -dime. See that the compression is good and equal on all -four cylinders. See that the timer is clean and in good shape, -as an occasional miss is due to the roller in the timer becoming -worn. Also, be sure that there is no leak in the intake -manifold.</p> - -<p>The steering post control must be set so that the tubing is -fastened into set screw (A) and the control wire is fastened -through the binding post in lever (B) with steering post -control or plunger pushed clear in and the butterfly shutter -(D) in the hot air horn or bend open, so that when the -plunger control is pulled out the wire (C) in the binding -post (B) on lever closes the shutter (D) almost completely. -This will furnish a rich mixture for starting and warming -up the motor under normal weather conditions.</p> - -<p>The wire running to the front of the radiator must be attached -to lever (E) so that when the motor is cold, the -shutter (D) can be closed tight, thus insuring positive starting.<span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span> -However, this wire must be released immediately upon -starting the motor or the motor will be choked by excess of -gasoline.</p> - -<p>To start the motor, open low speed needle (H) and high -speed needle (I) about four or five complete turns. You -will note that the needles have dials which indicate turning -needle to the right cuts down the gasoline supply.</p> - -<p>Pull out steering post control, open throttle about one-quarter -way, retard the spark, pull out radiator choke wire -which will close shutter and crank the motor. After motor -is started, immediately release radiator choke wire and gradually -push in the steering post control or plunger and let the -motor run until it is warmed up. Then first adjust the high -speed needle (I) until the motor runs smoothly and evenly -with retarded spark. Close throttle part way and adjust idle -needle until motor runs smoothly at low speed.</p> - -<p>In order to get the desired low throttle running, use the -throttle stop screw (L) which will control the throttle opening -and give you the desired low speed running.</p> - -<p>A strainer is furnished on the carburetor which prevents -dirt or sediment getting into the bowl of the carburetor and -choking up the gasoline nozzle or causing flooding.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER IX</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">KEROSENE CARBURETORS</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Experiments have been carried on for quite some time -pertaining to the development of a more successful carburetor -which will burn the heavier fuels. The chief difficulty encountered -is to find a more suitable way to vaporize these low -grade fuels.</p> - -<p>Kerosene can be used, only with an application of heat -to the manifold to aid in the evaporation of the heavier parts -of this fuel. The exhaust pipes are available for this source -of heat, but as there is no heat from this source until the -engine is running, it is necessary to start the engine on gasoline -and switch over to the heavier fuels after the warming-up -process.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig43"> - -<img src="images/illo098.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig43">Fig. 43</a> shows the Holley kerosene carburetor which is -adaptable to any type of engine by making simple changes in<span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span> -the exhaust manifold to include the heating coil tube. This -carburetor will operate successfully on any hydro-carbon fuel -with a boiling point below 600° F. Two float chambers are -provided to take care of the starting and running fuels. The -engine is started on the gasoline part of the carburetor and -after a short warming-up period the feed is switched to the -kerosene part of the device.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig44"> - -<img src="images/illo099.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The principle upon which this device operates is to provide -a primary mixture by means of a needle valve and -a very small aspirating jet which gives a mixture that is -too rich for combustion. This rich mixture of atomized fuel -is carried through a coil tube of very thin wall thickness, -which is exposed to the exhaust gases, directly in the exhaust -manifold.</p> - -<p>The temperature in this coil tube reaches as high as 500 -degrees F. The globules of the over rich mixture are broken -up here and flow directly into the mixing chamber, where additional -air enters, diluting the mixture to make it combustible. -The opening of the air valve is controlled by the suction<span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span> -of the engine and by the throttle valve. The shifter valve for -changing the operation from gasoline to kerosene is conveniently -arranged for dash control, when the engine becomes -warm. A primer is arranged in the manifold just above the -carburetor and aids in cold weather starting.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig44">Fig. 44</a> shows the installation of the Holley kerosene -carburetor. In this case it was necessary to add a compartment -on the exhaust manifold to contain and heat the coil -tube. There are some details that must be taken care of on -installation. A small auxiliary tank must be provided to -hold the gasoline for starting, while a larger tank must be -provided to carry the main supply of kerosene.</p> - -<p>The adjustments of this type of carburetor is through a -needle valve located in each fuel chamber, and as it is impossible -to give any set adjustment that would apply to the -many different types of motors, the proper adjustment must -be worked out. This is done by shifting to the gasoline and -turning the needle valve to the right and left and noting the -point at which the engine runs the smoothest. The needle -valve is then set at this point. The fuel shifter valve is -turned to feed the kerosene, and this adjustment is made in -the same manner.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER X</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Heat added to the manifold is the probable solution -of the present low-test fuel supplied to the motorist. -In the first place you may be satisfied if your motor -runs and does not give any noticeable loss of power. But -the question is, are you getting full power out of your motor -in accordance with the amount of fuel consumed? And are -you getting the proper amount of mileage out of each gallon? -The answer to both questions would probably be in the -negative, if both questions were taken up individually by -owners.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig45"> - -<img src="images/illo101.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w30emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="5" class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">EXHAUST</td> -<td class="right">INTAKE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="right">EXHAUST</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">GOVERNOR</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">GOVERNOR</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">CARBURETOR</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 45. Hot Spot Manifold</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>One of the best solutions, if not the best, is the new hot-spot -manifold used on the Liberty engine, which was designed -for Army use. <a href="#Fig45">Fig. 45</a> shows the hot-spot Liberty engine -manifold. The intake manifold is external but short, therefore -does not offer much opportunity for the liquid to condense. -From the carburetor it rises up straight to a point -well above the valve ports and the cylinder blocks, and at -the top of the rise it touches the exhaust pipe and divides,<span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span> -the two branches sweeping downward quite clear of the exhaust -manifold to each block of cylinders. About three inches -of the intake passage is exposed to the exhaust manifold top.</p> - -<p>The advantage of this design is that the heating element -affects practically only the liquid fuel and does not have -much effect on the fuel already vaporized. Naturally the -liquid fuel is heavier than the vapor, and as the mixture -rushes up the manifold at a high rate of speed and turns to -the right or left, the heavier liquid particles are thrown -straight against the hot-spot, where they are boiled off in -vapor.</p> - -<p>Thus, although the total amount of heat supplied to the -incoming charge is small, vaporization is good, since pains -have been taken to supply the heat where it is needed.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig46"> - -<img src="images/illo102.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 46. Holley Vapor Manifold—Ford Cars</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig46">Fig. 46</a> shows the Holley vapor manifold for Ford cars<span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span> -which is intended to completely vaporize gasoline by applying -heat at the proper point. As will be noted by the arrows, -the exhaust gases pass down, striking a hot-spot at the top -of the internal intake passage. The exhaust gases flow along -this passage and finally pass out at the bottom. The heavier -particles of fuel, after leaving the carburetor, strike against -the wall at point (A) and there are broken up by the exhaust -gases. Should any of the globules not be broken up at this -point, they will be vaporized when they strike the hot-spot -at (B) as this is directly in contact with the exhaust gases. -It will be noted that the heavier globules are subjected to a -rising temperature. Starting at (A) and finishing at (B) a -control valve regulates the amount of heat supplied to the -intake manifold.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XI</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">COOLING SYSTEMS</span><br> -<span class="thirdline smcap">Type, Operation and Care</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Cooling systems are provided on all types of gasoline engines. -As the heat generated by the constant explosions in -the cylinders would soon overheat and ruin the engine were -it not cooled by some artificial means.</p> - -<p><b>Circulation Systems.</b>—There are two types of water circulating -systems. The Thermo Syphon, and the Force Pump -circulating systems.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig47"> - -<img src="images/illo104.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 47. Thermo-Syphon Cooling System</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig47">Fig. 47</a> shows how the water circulates in the Thermo-Syphon -system. It acts on the principle that hot water seeks -a higher level than cold water, consequently when the water -reaches a certain temperature, approximately 180° F., circulation -commences and the water flows from the lowest radiator<span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span> -outlet pipe up through the water jackets into the upper -radiator water tank, and down through the thin tubes to the -lower tank to repeat the process.</p> - -<p>The heat is extracted from the water by its passage through -the thin metal tubing of the radiator to which are attached -scientifically worked out fins which assist in the rapid radiation -of the heat. The fan just back of the radiator sucks -the air through the small tubes which connect the upper and -lower radiator tanks. The air is also driven through between -these tubes by the forward movement of the car.</p> - -<p><b>The Force Pump Circulation System.</b>—The Force Pump -circulating system is constructed in the same manner as the -Thermo Syphon Cooling System. The only difference in the -two systems is that a small pump is attached to the lower -radiator pipe to force the circulation of the water.</p> - -<p>The pump is usually of the centrifugal type and consists -of a fan-shaped wheel operated in a snugly fitted housing. -The water enters at the hub and is thrown out against the -housing and is forced on by the rapid action of the fan -blades. Another type of pump is used by some manufacturers -which consist of two meshed gears of the same size, -which operate in a snugly fitted housing. These gears operate -in a direction toward each other, the water is carried forward -or upward in the space between the teeth, and is forced -on when the teeth mesh and fill the space.</p> - -<p><b>Overheating.</b>—Overheating may be caused by carbonized -cylinders, too much driving on low speed, not enough or a -poor grade of lubricating oil, spark retarded too far, racing -the engine, clogged muffler, poor carburetor adjustment, a -broken or slipping fan belt, jammed radiator tube, leaky connection, -or low water.</p> - -<p><b>Radiator Cleaning.</b>—The entire circulation system should -be thoroughly cleaned occasionally. A good cleaning solution -is made by dissolving one-half pound of baking soda in -three and one-half to four gallons of soft water. The -radiator is filled with the solution and left to stand for twenty -to thirty minutes. The hose is then removed from the lower<span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span> -pipe, water is then turned into the radiator through the filler -spout until the system is thoroughly flushed out.</p> - -<p><b>Freezing.</b>—Unless an anti-freezing solution is used through -the cold months you are bound to experience trouble. The -circulation does not commence properly until the water becomes -heated. It is apt to freeze at low temperatures before -circulation commences. In case any of the small tubes are -plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze and burst open -if the driver attempts to get along without a non-freezing -solution.</p> - -<p><b>Freezing Solution.</b>—Wood or denatured alcohol can be used -to a good advantage. The following table gives the freezing -point of solutions containing different percentages of alcohol.</p> - -<div class="centerblock fsize90"> - -<p class="blankbefore75">20% solution freezes at 15° above zero.<br> -30% solution freezes at  8° below zero.<br> -50% solution freezes at 34° below zero.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<p class="blankbefore75">A solution composed of 60% of water, 10% of glycerine, and -30% of alcohol is commonly used, its freezing point being -8° below zero.</p> - -<p><b>Evaporation.</b>—On account of evaporation, fresh alcohol -must be added frequently in order to maintain the proper solution.</p> - -<p><b>Radiator Repairs.</b>—A small leak may be temporarily repaired -by applying brown soap, or white lead, but the repair -should be made permanent with solder as soon as possible. A -jammed radiator tube is a more serious affair. While the -stopping up of one tube does not seriously interfere with circulation, -it is bound to cause trouble sooner or later, and the -tube will freeze in cold weather. Cut the tube an inch above -and below the jam and insert a new piece soldering the connection. -If the entire radiator is badly jammed or broken, it -will probably be advisable to install a new one.</p> - -<p><b>Air Cooling System.</b>—Air cooling has been developed to -a point where fairly good results are attained. This system -has an advantage over the circulating systems, in that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span> -weight of the radiator and water is done away with, and no -trouble is experienced with stoppage of circulation and leaky -connection. This system, however, has its drawbacks, in that -it cannot be used successfully on the larger and more compact -engines. In order to allow the necessary large space for -radiation, the cylinders are heavily flanged and set separately. -The fan is placed in a much higher position than usual, in order -that the air current may strike the heads of the cylinders -and circulate downward. Compression is also lowered considerably -to prevent heat generation and pre-ignition. On account -of the small size of the cylinders and low compression, -it is necessary to operate an air cooled engine at a very high -rate of speed to produce sufficient power for automobile locomotion.</p> - -<p>The fan must be kept in good working condition, and care -should be exercised in not allowing the engine to run idle for -any length of time.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The muffler was designed to silence the otherwise loud report -of the exploding charge of gas, which is released from -the cylinders by the sudden opening of the exhaust valves.</p> - -<p>While these devices are differently shaped and formed, -the functional purpose and action is practically the same in all -designs.</p> - -<p>The burnt or inert gases are forced from the cylinders on -the exhaust stroke. It passes into the exhaust manifold which -absorbs some of the heat before it reaches the muffler.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig48"> - -<img src="images/illo108.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w30emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="4" class="w25pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="right">Hanger</td> -<td class="center">Tie Rod</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">Split Clamp Nut</td> -<td class="center">Muffler<br>Shell</td> -<td class="left bot">Spacer<br><span class="padl4">Spacer</span></td> -<td class="center top">Nozzle</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">Center Pipe</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 48. Muffler—Three Compartment</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig48">Fig. 48</a> shows a three compartment muffler. The burnt -gases enter compartment No. 1 from the exhaust pipe. This -compartment is sufficiently large to spread the volume which -lessens the pressure and force. It then enters the rear compartment -No. 3, through the center pipe; it expands again and -passes through the perforated spacer plate, enters compartment -No. 2, and escapes through the nozzle in an even silent -flow.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span></p> - -<p>The muffler at all times produces a certain amount of back-pressure -on the engine which results in a slight loss of power. -The back pressure exerted by the majority of mufflers, however, -is very slight and has a tendency to counter balance -or equalize the sudden shock delivered to the bearings by the -explosion over the piston head.</p> - -<p>The muffler may also become fouled by the use of too much -or too heavy a grade of lubricating oil, which will cause the -expansion space and the small holes in the spacer plates to -become clogged with carbon and soot. This carbon and soot -soon bakes into a hard crust causing much back pressure -which results in a considerable loss of power. This condition -will become noticeable first by a loss of considerable power -caused by an overheated motor. If this condition is not remedied, -the exhaust manifold and pipe leading to the muffler -will soon become red-hot, causing much danger of a serious -damage loss to the car from fire.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig49"> - -<img src="images/illo109.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 49. Muffler</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Muffler.</b>—To eliminate or remedy this condition, disconnect -manifold pipe from the muffler, remove the muffler from -hangers, and disassemble it by removing the nuts from the -tie rods which release the end plates. This will allow the -compartment walls and spacer plates to be drawn from the -sleeve. Each compartment and spacer plate should be removed -sectionally, and its position carefully noted, in order -that it may be replaced correctly in re-assembling. The walls -of the sleeve, and the compartment end plates are scraped -and rubbed with a piece of sandpaper. A small round file -may be used in cleaning the center pipe. The spacer plates -are scraped and sandpapered. The small holes in the spacer<span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span> -plates may be opened by using the tapered end of a small file. -<a href="#Fig49">Fig. 49</a> shows a muffler of another design. The burnt gas -enters a compartment containing three saucer shaped spacers -which retard and break up the volume. It then passes through -an open compartment and enters reversed spacers through -small holes near the sleeve wall. It centers or forms slightly -in volume and escapes to the next compartment through a -small hole in the center of the second spacer. This action of -forming and breaking is kept up until the outlet is reached.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XIII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">VACUUM SYSTEMS</span><br> -<span class="thirdline smcap">Construction, Operation and Care</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The vacuum systems have proved to be one of the important -inventions pertaining to successful motor operation. They -are self contained, simple in construction and automatic in -operation. They do away with the troublesome power and -hand pressure pumps and their connections.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig50"> - -<img src="images/illo111.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w30emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="4" class="w25pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">AIR VENT</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left">FROM<br>INTAKE MANIFOLD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">FROM<br>GASOLINE<br>SUPPLY TANK</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 50. Vacuum System—Top Arrangement</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig50">Fig. 50</a> shows the top arrangement and connections. R is -the air vent over the atmospheric valve. The effect of this -is the same as if the whole tank were elevated, and is for the -purpose of preventing an overflow of gasoline, should the position -of the car ever be such as to raise the fuel supply tank -higher than the vacuum tank. D shows the pipe connection -from the fuel supply tank. C shows the pipe connection to<span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span> -the intake manifold. W shows a tap or vent through which -gasoline may be fed into the upper chamber, in case the -fuel supply tank is damaged or put out of commission. R -shows the air vent connection from the lower tank.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig51">Fig. 51</a> shows a general diagram of vacuum system installation. -One of the chief advantages is that it allows the carburetor -to be placed near the head of the motor and does -away with the long manifold connections required with the -gravity feed systems. This also reduces the frictional resistance, -gives a richer mixture and greater volume of flow.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig51"> - -<img src="images/illo112.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w30emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="3" class="w33pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">AIRVENT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">A—CONNECTION<br>BETWEEN INTAKE<br>MANIFOLD AND<br>VACUUM TANK</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">C—CONNECTION<br>FROM VACUUM<br>TANK TO CARBURETOR</td> -<td class="left">B—<br>CONNECTION<br>BETWEEN<br>MAIN GASOLINE<br>SUPPLY TANK AND<br>VACUUM TANK</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 51. Vacuum System Installation</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig52">Fig. 52</a> shows a sectional view of the Stewart Vacuum System -and explains the operative value of each part. A is the -suction valve for opening and closing the connection to the -manifold through which a vacuum is extended from the engine -manifold to the gasoline tank. B is the atmospheric -valve, and permits or prevents an atmospheric condition in -the upper chamber. When the suction valve A is open and -the suction is drawing gasoline from the main supply tank, -the atmospheric valve B is closed. When the suction valve -A is closed, the atmospheric valve B must be open, as an atmospheric -condition is necessary in the upper tank in order<span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span> -to allow the gasoline to flow through the flapper valve H into -the lower chamber. C is a pipe connecting the tank to the -intake manifold of the engine. D is a pipe connecting the -tank to the main fuel supply tank. E is the valve control -lever and has two coil tension springs S attached to operate -the short valve lever F. G is the metallic air-containing float, -which controls the action of the valves through the spring and -lever arrangement. H is the flapper valve at the outlet of T, -and it closes by suction when the vacuum valve A is open.<span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span> -When the vacuum valve A closes, the atmospheric valve B -opens and relieves the suction in the upper tank, the flapper -valve H opens and allows the fuel to flow from the upper -tank into the lower chamber.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig52"> - -<img src="images/illo113.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="4" class="w25pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">AIR VENT</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">TO INTAKE<br>PASSAGE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">FROM<br>GASOLINE<br>TANK</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">FLOAT VALVE</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">UPPER<br>CHAMBER</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">LOWER<br>CHAMBER</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">TO CARBURETOR</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 52. Vacuum System Diagram—Stewart Warner</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>J is a plug in the bottom of the tank which can be removed -to clean or drain the tank. This plug can be removed and -replaced with a pet-cock for drawing off gasoline for priming -or cleaning purposes. K is the line to the carburetor. -It is extended on the inside of the tank to form a pocket for -trapping water and sediment. L is a channel space between -the inner and outer shells and connects with the air vent R, -thus admitting an atmospheric condition to exist in the lower -chamber at all times, and thereby permitting an uninterrupted -flow of gasoline to the carburetor. R is an air vent over the -atmospheric valve; the effect of this valve is the same as if -the whole tank was elevated. It is also for the purpose of -preventing an overflow of gasoline should the position of the -car ever be such as would raise the fuel supply tank higher -than the vacuum tank. Through this tube the lower or reservoir -chamber is continually open to atmospheric pressure. -T is the outlet at the bottom of the float chamber in which -the flapper valve H is located. U is the float stem guide. V -is a strainer which prevents foreign matter from passing into -the vacuum chamber. W is a tap or vent through which gasoline -may be fed into the upper chamber if the fuel tank is -damaged or put out of commission.</p> - -<p>The simple and durable construction of this system makes it -unlikely that the car owner will ever need to make internal -repairs. Before attempting to repair this tank make sure -that the trouble is not due to some other cause.</p> - -<p><b>Air Vent.</b>—A small amount of gasoline may escape through -the air vent occasionally. This will do no harm and no adjustment -is needed. However, if the vent tube continues to -overflow, one of the following conditions will be responsible: -1. The air hole in the main supply tank is stopped up, or -the hole is too small. Enlarge the hole or clean it out. 2. -If gasoline leaks from the system except from the vent tube,<span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span> -it can only do so from one of the following causes: a. A -leak may exist in the outer wall of the tank. If so soldering -it up will eliminate the trouble. b. The carburetor connection -on the bottom of the tank may be loose. c. There may be -a leak in the tubing at the head of the tank. d. The cover -of the tank may be loose.</p> - -<p><b>Failure to Feed Gasoline to the Carburetor.</b>—This condition -may be due to other causes than the vacuum system. Do -not tinker with it until you are sure that the trouble is not -elsewhere. Flood the carburetor. If gasoline runs out of the -float chamber you may be sure that the vacuum system is performing -its work properly.</p> - -<p><b>To Remove Cover.</b>—To remove the cover for inspection, -take out the screws and run a knife blade carefully around the -top to separate the gasket without damaging it. Shellac the -gasket before you replace it to make the tank air-tight.</p> - -<p><b>Faulty Feed.</b>—If faulty feed is traced to the vacuum tank, -one of the following conditions may be the cause. The float -valve G may have developed a leak. To repair, remove the -top of the tank to which it is attached. Dip the float into a -pan of hot water. Bubbles will show the leak. Punch two -small holes, one at the top, and one at the bottom, and blow -the gasoline out. Then solder up the holes and the leak. -Use solder carefully in order not to add too much weight to -the float. A small particle of dirt may be lodged under the -flapper valve. This trouble can usually be remedied by tapping -the side of the tank. In order to determine whether or -not the flapper valve is working properly, plug up the air -vent tube and remove the pipe extending from the bottom of -the tank to the carburetor. Start the engine and place a -finger over the opening (from which you removed the tube). -If continual suction is felt, it is evident that the flapper valve -is being held off its seat. If tapping the side of the tank will -not remedy this condition, remove the cover and withdraw the -upper chamber. The valve is attached to the pipe projecting -from the bottom.</p> - -<p><b>Strainer.</b>—Remove and clean the strainer screen located at<span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span> -V, <a href="#Fig52">Fig. 52</a>, every five or six weeks. This screen collects all -the dirt and foreign matter in the gasoline, and often becomes -stopped up.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig53"> - -<img src="images/illo116.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="1" class="w67pc"> -<col span="1" class="w33pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CONNECTION TO<br>GASOLINE TANK</td> -<td class="center">SUCTION TUBE<br>CONNECTION TO INTAKE<br>MANIFOLD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left bot">STRAINER</td> -<td class="center">VENT TUBE<br>CONNECTION</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">COVER</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">ATMOSPHERIC<br>VALVE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">SUCTION VALVE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">VALVE LEVER</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">INNER TANK</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">SPRINGS</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">OUTER TANK</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">FLOAT LEVER</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">FLOAT</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">GUIDE</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">FLAPPER VALVE</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">DRAIN PLUG</td> -<td class="center">CONNECTION TO<br>CARBURETOR</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 53. Vacuum System—Inside View of Parts—Stewart Warner</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Filling the Vacuum Tank.</b>—To fill the tank after it has -been cleaned or repaired, leave the spark off, close the gas -throttle, and crank the engine over a few times with the -starter or by hand. It takes less than ten seconds to create -sufficient vacuum to fill the tank.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XIV</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Before taking up the study of automobile ignition systems -and electrical appliances, we will first devote a little time to -study, in order to become familiar with the different electrical -parts, functions, terms and names applied to the various units, -and machines.</p> - -<p>In the first place electricity is not a juice or fluid that flows -through a wire, but is a generated electro-motive force that -may be held in storage or conducted from one place to -another. It will not flow without a round circuit and seeks -ground return at the slightest opportunity. It is designated -in terms which express quality, quantity, force and action.</p> - -<p><b>Voltage.</b>—A volt is an electrical unit, expressing the force -or pressure of the current. The voltage of a system simply -means the difference of pressure exerted on the system measured -in volts.</p> - -<p><b>Ampere.</b>—An ampere is an electrical unit expressing the -quality or intensity of the current.</p> - -<p><b>Ohm.</b>—An ohm is an electrical unit expressing resistance; -or the resistance of conductors to the flow of current.</p> - -<p><b>Current.</b>—The current is the generated electro-motive force.</p> - -<p><b>Circuit.</b>—Electricity will not flow unless there is a circuit -or ground return to its original source.</p> - -<p><b>Low Tension Current.</b>—Low tension current is generated in -the primary winding or coil by placing it in a magnetic field. -It will flow from one point to another but has very little -strength and will not jump the gap at the spark plug. It is -used for lighting purposes, or conducted to an induction coil -which transforms it into a high tension alternating current.</p> - -<p><b>High Tension Current.</b>—High tension current is generated<span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span> -in the secondary coil by interruption of the primary current -or by the rapid magnetization and demagnetization of the -core and primary coil.</p> - -<p><b>Direct Current.</b>—Direct current is produced by placing a -coil or wire in a magnetic field. It is usually conducted to an -induction coil where it is transformed into a high tension alternating -current.</p> - -<p><b>Alternating Currents.</b>—Alternating currents are produced -by the rapid breaking down and building up of the primary -current. An alternating current flows forward from zero to -its highest point of strength and back again to zero. The -alternating action takes place so rapidly that a light can be -connected in this circuit and it will burn steadily without any -noticeable fluctuation.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig54"> - -<img src="images/illo118.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 54. Coil Diagram</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Induction Coil.</b>—An induction coil consists of a soft iron -core; a primary and secondary winding, and a set of platinum -points. The primary winding is wound directly over the core -and consists of a few turns of thick wire. The secondary -wire is wound over the primary and consists of a great many -turns of thin wire. <a href="#Fig54">Fig. 54</a> shows the functional action of -an induction coil. Both of the coils are wound on the soft -iron core A-B. The primary current which is supplied in this -case by a cell or number of cells, C and D, is broken at frequent -intervals of time. The method of doing this is as follows: -One terminal of the primary coil is connected to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span> -fixed platinum stud D, the other terminal to a spring which -carries a piece of soft iron, E. When the spring is unbent it -touches the stud D, and a current passes in the primary. The -core of soft iron becomes magnetized and attracts the soft iron -disc, E, thus breaking contact at D. The current is stopped -and the core immediately becomes unmagnetized, the spring -flies back and the contact is again made. The process is then -repeated. When the contact in the primary is broken the -current flows in one direction in the secondary coil, when it is -made the current flows in the opposite direction in the secondary. -Thus an alternating current is set up in the secondary -current of great frequency.</p> - -<p><b>Commutator.</b>—The commutator or timer as it is commonly -called is used only in connection with the induction coil to -complete the circuit when a spark is required at the plug in -the cylinder.</p> - -<p><b>Insulation.</b>—Insulating is the act of covering a conductor -with a non-conducting substance to prevent the spark from -jumping or seeking ground.</p> - -<p><b>Choking Coil.</b>—A choking coil in simple form consists of a -coil and iron core to increase self-induction. It is used to -reduce currents of high pressure and is commonly called a -bucking coil.</p> - -<p><b>Fuse.</b>—A fuse is used to prevent conductors or coils from -being damaged by heat generated from high pressure currents. -It consists of a metal and glass tube which contains a -fine wire. This wire being much thinner than the wire of the -cable, the heat naturally develops faster at this point, and is -soon high enough to melt the wire and break or open the circuit, -and thus any further damage to the insulation is prevented.</p> - -<p><b>Condenser.</b>—A condenser usually consists of a few strips -of folded tin foil insulated from each other with paraffined or -oiled paper. It absorbs, restricts and distributes high pressure -currents and also prevents excessive sparking at the -contact points.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig55"> - -<img src="images/illo120.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 55. Dynamo—Diagram of Action</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Dynamo.</b>—A dynamo is a machine which converts mechanical<span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span> -energy into electric energy, and must consist of at least -two separate parts; the field magnets to create the magnetic -field, and the armature or conductor in which the current is -generated. One or the other of these must be in motion in -order to cut the lines of magnetic force crossing the field. -<a href="#Fig55">Fig. 55</a> shows the operation of the most common or simplest -type of alternating current producing machine, which is similar -and conforms in action to the high tension magneto and -generator. Field pieces magnetize the pole pieces N and S. -A wire coil is placed in the field at right angles to the magnetic -lines of force turned to the right. It takes up the position -of the dotted lines and no lines of force are cut, -whereas in its original position, as many lines of force as -possible are cut. Turning the coil on its axles, a-b, causes -the lines of force cut by c-d, and e-f to vary from the highest -number of lines that it is possible to cut to zero and back -again, thus constantly changing the flowing direction of the -current. The reversal of the current takes place at the instant -that the coil passes the point where it cuts the greatest number -of lines of force. The ends of the coil are connected to a -commutator on the shaft a, b. Steel insulated brushes pick -the current from the commutator ring and conduct it to the -brush post; an insulated wire conductor is attached to this -post and conducts the current to the place of use or storage.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span></p> - -<p><b>Voltaic Cell.</b>—The source of energy of a voltaic cell is the -chemical action. (<i>See</i> <a href="#Ref02">accumulator</a>).</p> - -<p id="Ref02"><b>Accumulator.</b>—The standard accumulator or storage battery -is composed of three cells or hard rubber jars in which -a number of lead plates are immersed in a solution of sulphuric -acid and water known as electrolyte. The plates are -stiff lead grids which hold a paste made of various oxides of -lead. Six plates in each cell are joined to the positive terminal, -and seven plates in each cell are joined to the negative -terminal. Thin wooden separators are inserted between the -plates to prevent them from touching one another. In the -forming process the material on the positive plates becomes -converted into brown peroxide of lead; the negative plates -assume the form of gray metallic lead. The material on -both plates is known as active material. When current is -taken from the cells the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte combines -with the active material of the plates to form sulphate -of lead, and when the battery is recharged the lead sulphate -is again converted into the original active material and the -acid set free in the solution.</p> - -<p><b>Storage Battery.</b>—For construction and action see <a href="#Ref02">Accumulator</a>. -For care see chapter on <a href="#Page180">storage batteries</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Electrolyte.</b>—A chemical solution used in voltaic cells consisting -of two parts sulphuric acid added to five to seven parts -of water by volume.</p> - -<p><b>Hydrometer.</b>—A hydrometer is used to test the electrolyte -solution in the cells of storage batteries. It consists of a -weighted float and a graduated stem, and as sulphuric acid is -heavier than water, the specific gravity reading will be proportional -to the amount of acid. The hydrometer thus measures -the relative amount of acid in the electrolyte and consequently -reveals the condition of the battery.</p> - -<p><b>Ammeter.</b>—An ammeter is an electrical instrument which -indicates the amount of current that the generator is supplying -to the storage battery, or the amount of current that the -storage battery is supplying for ignition, lights and horn.</p> - -<p><b>Circuit Breaker.</b>—The circuit breaker is a device which prevents<span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span> -excessive discharging of the storage battery. All the -current for lights is conducted through the circuit breaker -(Delco system). Whenever an excessive current flows through -the circuit breaker it intermittently opens the circuit causing -a clicking sound. This will continue until the ground is removed -or the switch is operated to open the circuit on the -grounded wire. When the ground is removed the circuit is automatically -restored, there being nothing to replace as is the -case with fuses.</p> - -<p><b>Switch.</b>—A switch opens and closes the various circuits and -is for the purpose of controlling the light, ignition, generator -and storage battery circuits.</p> - -<p><b>Generator.</b>—See chapter on <a href="#Page147">electrical starting systems</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Regulation.</b>—(Delco). On account of the various speeds -at which the generator must operate it is necessary that the -output be regulated so that sufficient current is obtained at -the low engine speeds without excessive current at the higher -speeds. The regulation in this case is what is known as the -third brush excitation in which the current for magnetizing -the frame is conducted through the auxiliary or third brush -on the generator commutator. With this arrangement the -natural function of the generator itself causes less current -to flow through the shunt field winding at the higher engine -speeds. This weakens the magnetic field in which the armature -is rotating and decreases the output of the generator.</p> - -<p><b>Contact-breaker.</b>—See chapter on <a href="#Page126">Atwater Kent ignition -systems</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Coil, nonvibrating.</b>—See chapters on <a href="#Page126">Atwater Kent ignition -systems</a> and <a href="#Page141">Philbrin electrical systems</a>.</p> - -<p><b>Distributors.</b>—See chapters on <a href="#Page101">Magnetos</a> and <a href="#Page126">Atwater Kent -ignition systems</a>.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XV</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">MAGNETO PARTS AND OPERATION</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig56"> - -<img src="images/illo123.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 56. Magnets—Pole Blocks</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The purpose of the magneto is to furnish electrical current -at regular intervals, to jump the spark plug gaps and to -ignite the gas which has been compressed in the combustion -chambers. The discovery was made years ago that, by placing -a coil of wire between two magnetic poles, current would -be present at once. But it is only while the wire coil is in -motion that the current will flow or circulate, and while there -are many theories why this takes place only while the coil is -in motion, none seem to explain the fact satisfactorily. The -strength of the current depends on the size of the magnetic -field, and the number of wraps of wire in the coil. Consequently -the larger the coil the more intense the current. <a href="#Fig56">Fig. -56</a> represents the magnets, of which there are from three to -six. The U-shaped pieces are made of steel which has been -case hardened and charged with electricity which causes them -to become magnetized. Magnets have two poles or axes, one -of which is positive from which the current flows, and one of -which is negative to which the current flows or passes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span> -<a href="#Fig56">Fig. 56A</a> shows the pole pieces which are located on the inside of the -lower or open end of the magnets. The pole pieces are channel -ground, leaving a round space or tunnel in which the armature -revolves.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig57">Fig. 57</a> shows the soft iron core which is shaped like the -block letter H, and wound with fine wire, making up the coil -shown in <a href="#Fig57">Fig. 57A</a> of the wound armature.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig57"> - -<img src="images/illo124a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 57. Armature Core—Wound Armature</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig58"> - -<img src="images/illo124b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current Direction</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig58">Fig. 58</a> shows the primary and secondary winding. The -primary or heavy wire is wound on the core lengthwise, each -strand being separated from the other with rubber or tin foil -insulation. The current passes from the top of the left pole -piece to the top of the core until it passed out of range, -crossing the upper gap between the two pole pieces. As the -top of the core leaves or breaks the contact flow of current, -the bottom of the core comes in contact range, leaving an -open space which breaks the current and changes the direction -of flowage as shown in <a href="#Fig58">Fig. 58A and 58B</a>. This current is -of a low tension nature, and will not jump the gap at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span> -spark plugs when the engine is running slow. The secondary -winding, shown in <a href="#Fig58">Fig. 58</a>, is made up of many more windings -of a finer wire. The low tension or primary current is -led through the armature shaft to a contact breaker at the -rear of the magneto.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig59">Fig. 59</a> shows the contact breaker, which consists of a housing -in which two platinum points are arranged, one point stationary, -the other attached to an arm on a pivot. The points -are held together by spring tension.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig59"> - -<img src="images/illo125.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 59. Breaker—Slip Ring—Distributor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A cam on the armature shaft comes into contact with the -arm on which the second point is located, forcing it from -the stationary point, thus breaking the low tension current -which returns to the secondary coil, the magnetizing and demagnetizing -caused by the break in the low tension current, -and sets up a rapid alternating current. One end of the secondary -is led to a collector ring on the front of the magneto. -<a href="#Fig59">Fig. 59A</a> shows the collector ring. A carbon brush collects the -current from the ring and conducts it to the distributor’s centrally -located arm. <a href="#Fig59">Fig. 59B</a> shows the distributor. The centrally -located arm is timed to deliver the current, or comes -into contact with one of the segments or brushes and allows -the current to flow from the segment to the gap at the spark -plug, where it jumps the gaps and ignites the gas in the cylinders -at the proper time. Then it returns through the -ground (the engine and the frame) to the magneto, where it -passes back into the secondary coil, passing through an insulated -condenser consisting of small plates of steel insulated -from one another. This regulates the flowage of the returning<span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span> -current, by reducing it through resistance, and prevents -the armature from heating.</p> - -<p>A safety spark gap is provided on some magnetos which -causes the spark to jump and lose some of its force through -resistance when the plugs become shorted. This also restricts -the current and greatly aids the condenser in performing its -purpose.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XVI</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO</span><br> -<span class="thirdline smcap">Operation, Adjustment and Care</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Like all other types of high tension magnetos, the Bosch -Type ZR. Ed. 16 explained in this chapter, generates its own -current and is usually employed as sole ignition on an engine.</p> - -<p>The timer and distributor are integral; and the rotation of -the armature, between the poles of strong permanent field -magnets, sets up or induces a current in the armature primary -circuit, which is farther augmented at every one hundred and -eighty degrees of revolution of the armature shaft, by the -abrupt interruption of the primary circuit by means of the -magneto interruptor. At the opening of the primary circuit -the resulting discharge of current from this circuit induces a -current of high voltage in the armature secondary circuit. -The high tension current thus created is collected by a slip -ring on the armature and passes to the slip ring brush then -to the various magneto distributor terminals each of which -is connected to a spark plug in its respective cylinder.</p> - -<p>The operation of the instrument will be more clearly understood -from a study of the complete circuits, primary and -secondary, which follows.</p> - -<p><b>The Primary or Low Tension Circuit.</b>—The beginning of -the armature primary circuit is in metallic contact with the -armature core, and the end of the primary circuit is connected -by means of the interruptor fastening screw to the insulated -contact block supporting the long platinum contact -on the magneto interruptor. The interruptor lever carrying -a short platinum contact, shown in <a href="#Fig60">Fig. 60</a> at C is mounted on -the interruptor disc, which in turn, is connected to the armature<span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span> -core. The primary circuit is completed whenever the -two platinum contacts of the interruptor are brought together, -and separated whenever these contacts are separated.</p> - -<p>From the latter point the high tension current passes to the -distributor brush (<a href="#Fig60">shown</a> at D) which is held in a brush holder -on the distributor gear, and consequently rotates with the -distributor gear. Metal segments are imbedded in the distributor -plate and as the distributor brush rotates it makes -successive contacts with the segments, passing the current -onto the spark plug gaps through the high tension cables -which are attached to the segment terminal posts.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig60"> - -<img src="images/illo128.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor—Housing Removed</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig61">Fig. 61</a> shows a circuit diagram of the Type ZR. Ed. 16. -Bosch Magneto. Note that the spark plugs must be connected -up in accordance with the firing order of the engine. -The metal segments imbedded in the distributor plate are -connected with the terminal studs on the face of the plate, -and the latter are connected by cable to the spark plugs in -the various cylinders. In the cylinders the high tension current -produces a spark which produces ignition, and then returns -through the ground and the engine to the magneto armature, -thus completing the circuit.</p> - -<p><b>Timing the Magneto.</b>—With the average four cycle engine -the proper operating results are obtained by timing the magneto<span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span> -as follows: The crank shaft is rotated to bring the piston -in No. 1 cylinder (in automobile practice this is the cylinder -nearest the radiator) exactly on top dead center of the compression -stroke. The timing control lever on the housing is -then placed in the fully retarded position. With this done, -the magneto distributor plate should be removed by withdrawing -the two holding screws, or by releasing the two -holding springs as the case may be.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig61"> - -<img src="images/illo129.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w45emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="5" class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left">DISTRIBUTOR</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">BRUSH<br>HOLDER</td> -<td class="center">SAFETY<br>SPARK GAP</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">SLIPRING</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">CONDENSER</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">ARMATURE</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">INTERRUPTER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">GROUND</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">GROUND</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The operation of the platinum contact points is controlled -by the action of the interruptor lever as it bears against -the two steel segments secured to the inner surface of the -interruptor housing.</p> - -<p>In <a href="#Fig60">Fig. 60</a>, A shows the distributor with the face plate -removed to show the position of the distributor segments -which are connected to the terminal posts on the back of the -plate. B shows the interruptor housing and cover removed -from its position on the magneto. C shows the complete assembly -of the distributor and interruptor. Note that the face -plate of the distributor is fastened on with a set of screws -while the interruptor cover is held in position with a latch.</p> - -<p><b>The Secondary or High Tension Current.</b>—The high tension<span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span> -current is generated in the secondary circuit only when -there is an interruption of the primary circuit, the spark being -produced at the instant the platinum interruptor contact -points separate. The armature secondary circuit is a continuation -of the armature primary circuit, the beginning of -the secondary circuit being connected to the primary, while -the end of the secondary is connected to the insulated current -collector ring mounted on the armature just inside the driving -shaft end plate of the magneto. The slip ring brush is held -in contact with the slip ring by a brush holder at the shaft -end of the magneto which receives the high tension current -collected by the slip ring by means of a connecting bar which -passes under the arch of the magnets, and passes the current -to the center of the distributor plate, thus exposing the distributor -brush and gear. The cover of the interruptor housing -is also to be removed to permit observation of the interruptor -points.</p> - -<p>The armature should then be rotated by means of the exposed -distributor gear in the direction in which it is driven -until the platinum contact points are about to separate, which -occurs when the interruptor lever begins to bear against one -of the steel segments of the interruptor housing. Timing or -installation is completed by replacing the interruptor housing -cover and distributor plate, and connecting the cables between -the magneto and the spark plugs.</p> - -<p><b>Exact Magneto Timing.</b>—The foregoing will establish the -desired relationship between the magneto armature shaft and -the engine crank shaft. It should be noted, however, that -while these instructions cover the average engine, the exact -magneto timing for individual engines is best determined by -trial.</p> - -<p>When specific instructions for magneto timing are given by -the engine manufacturer, it is recommended that such instructions -be followed in preference to those herein given.</p> - -<p>It must always be borne in mind that while making connections -the distributor brush travels in the opposite direction -to the rotation of the armature shaft.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Condenser.</b>—The condenser consists of a set of metal -discs, insulated from one another with tin foil. It is carried -at the interruptor end of the magneto. It is connected in the -primary current and forms a shunt connection with the interruptor -contact points, and through resistance to the returning -ground current prevents excessive sparking at the interruptor -contact points which would soon burn the points -and ruin the coils.</p> - -<p><b>The Safety Spark Cap.</b>—A safety spark cap is provided to -protect the armature and other current carrying parts. Under -normal conditions the current will follow its path to the spark -plug, but if for any reason the resistance in the secondary -wire is increased to a high point, as when a cable becomes disconnected, -or a spark gap too wide, the high tension current -will discharge across the safety spark gap.</p> - -<p><b>Caution.</b>—The current should never be allowed to pass over -the safety spark gap for any length of time, and if the engine -is operated on a second or auxiliary ignition system, the -magneto must be grounded in order to prevent the production -of high tension current. The snapping sound by which the -passage of current across the safety spark gap may be noted -should always lead to an immediate search for the cause of the -difficulty.</p> - -<p><b>The Safety Spark Gap.</b>—The safety spark gap consists of -a pointed metal electrode projecting from the mounting flange -of the slip ring holder, inside the shaft end hood. The tip -of the electrode extends to within a short distance of the connecting -bar, extending from the brush holder to a magneto -distributor plate center post.</p> - -<p><b>Timing Range.</b>—The magneto interruptor housing is arranged -so that it may be rotated through an angle of thirty-four -to thirty-seven degrees with respect to the armature shaft. -The movement of this housing in one direction or another -causes the interruptor lever to strike the steel segments earlier -or later in the revolution of the armature, the spark occurring -correspondingly earlier or later in the cylinder. The spark -can be advanced by means of moving the interruptor housing<span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span> -which is connected to the spark lever on the steering gear, in -the direction opposite the rotation of the armature. The armature -rotation is usually indicated by an arrow on the cover -at the driving end of the magneto.</p> - -<p><b>Cutting Out Ignition.</b>—Since a high tension current is -generated only on the interruption of the primary circuit, it -is evident that in order to cut out the ignition, it is merely -necessary to divert the primary current to a path that is not -affected by the action of the magneto interruptor. This is -accomplished as follows: An insulated grounding terminal is -provided on the cover of the magneto interruptor housing with -its inner end consisting of a spring with carbon contact pressing -against the head of an interruptor fastening screw. The -outer end of the grounding screw is connected by low tension -cable to one side of the switch, and the other side of the -switch is grounded by connecting a cable between it and the -engine or frame. When the switch is open the primary current -follows its normal path across the interruptor points, -and is interrupted at each separation of these contact points. -However, when the switch is closed, the primary current -passes from the head of the interruptor fastening screw to the -carbon contacts of the grounding terminal, thence through the -switch to the engine and back to the magneto, and as the primary -current remains uninterrupted when following this path, -no ignition current is produced.</p> - -<p><b>Care and Maintenance.</b>—Aside from keeping the magneto -clean externally, practically the only care required is the oiling -of the bearings. Of these there are two sets supporting -the armature, and a single plain bearing supporting the shaft -of the distributor gear. Any good light oil may be used for -this purpose (never cylinder oil), and each of the bearings -should receive not more than two or three drops about every -thousand miles. Apply the oil through the oil ducts at each -end of the armature shaft. The interruptor is intended to -operate without oil, as oil on the interruptor platinum points -prevents good contact, and causes sparking, burning, and misfiring. -Care should be taken to prevent oil entering these parts.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XVII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>One point that cannot be over sufficiently emphasized is -the warning that only those who are thoroughly familiar with -the magneto should attempt to disassemble it. Therefore every -part should be studied, and its functional action fully -understood before any repairs or adjustments are undertaken.</p> - -<p>The manufacturers of magnetos have developed their product -to a point of high efficiency and dependability, and if -they are properly lubricated and washed occasionally to prevent -gumming up, very little trouble may be expected from -this type of ignition system.</p> - -<p><b>Magneto Cleaning.</b>—Magneto parts should be washed with -gasoline as it has the ability to remove grease and dirt and -evaporates rapidly leaving a perfectly dry surface. Care -should be exercised to prevent fire, for the present grade of -gasoline does not evaporate as readily as it did some time ago -when refiners furnished a high test grade of fuel and the surface -of the armature and indentures of the magneto may retain -a pool or film which may be ignited by a short circuit, or from -the breaker box, and cause a fire which would ruin the magneto. -There is, however, little danger from fire if the gasoline is -used sparingly, and each part wiped dry before reassembling -the magneto.</p> - -<p>It is considered a good point when the magneto has been -taken apart to be cleaned to go over every part with a cloth -dampened in kerosene, because gasoline leaves a very dry surface -which is liable to rust. The bearings especially are most -easily affected in this way.</p> - -<p>The armature may be washed with a brush which has been<span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span> -dipped into gasoline, but should not be immersed as that -would soften the insulation and cause it to rot.</p> - -<p>The way in which the parts come off should be carefully -noted in order to avoid trouble in reassembling, and the gears -operating the distributor should be carefully marked to assure -correct timing, which will result in a saving of time and -trouble.</p> - -<p>When the magnets are removed, close the ends with a file -or piece of steel to prevent them from becoming demagnetized.</p> - -<p><b>Magneto Repairing.</b>—As previously stated, it is not likely -that a magneto will require any further attention than the -regular monthly oiling. Two or three drops of light sewing -machine oil should be dropped into the oil wells which supply -the bearings at each end of the armature shaft.</p> - -<p>If any trouble arises that can be traced directly to the -magneto, examine the breaker box mechanism first; the locknut -at the point adjustment may have worked loose, and the -points may be closed, or some abnormal condition may exist -that has caused the points to pit and stick.</p> - -<p>Breaker point adjustment varies from the thickness of a -sheet of writing paper to one sixty-fourth of an inch; an adjustment -anywhere between these two points usually results -in satisfactory operation.</p> - -<p>If the magneto does not function properly after the breaker -box and external wire connections have been examined, the -trouble is probably due to an internal short circuit, and repairs -of this nature should only be undertaken by an expert -magneto mechanic.</p> - -<p>To remove the magneto, disconnect the high tension wires -leading to the spark plugs from the distributor terminal posts, -tag and number each wire to correspond with the number -stamped below the post. If the engine fires 1-2-4-3, number -three wire will be attached to number four terminal post. -Then remove the ground wire and disconnect the universal -joint and remove the metal strap, or the set screws, from the -base.</p> - -<p><b>To Time the Magneto.</b>—Place the timing control lever in<span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span> -a fully retarded position; remove the plates from the distributor -housing to expose the distributor brush and gear, -then remove the cover from the interruptor housing to permit -observation of the points, and rotate the armature in the direction -which it is driven until the point begins to open. At -this point mesh the distributor gear so that the distributor -lever will just be touching one of the segments which connect -to the distributor terminal posts.</p> - -<p><b>Timing the Magneto with the Engine.</b>—Rotate the crank -shaft until No. 1 cylinder is up on dead center on the compression -stroke; rotate the armature, with the spark lever in -full retard until the distributor arm begins to make contact -with No. 1 segment, and mesh the timing gear at this point.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XVIII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The N.-E. Model O Distributor Ignition System is used on -Dodge Brothers cars. This system provides high tension ignition -for the engine by transforming the low voltage of the -starter generator or the battery into a high voltage capable of -jumping freely between the spark plug electrodes. This is -accomplished through the agency of an induction coil, the -primary winding of which, in series with an interruptor or -contact breaker, receives current under normal running conditions -from the starter generator. The starting and lighting -battery, however, supplies this current instead of the -generator whenever the engine is starting or running very -slowly.</p> - -<p>At each interruption of the primary current there is set up -in the secondary winding of the coil a high tension current, -and this current flows from the coil through a high tension -cable to the distributor rotor from which point it is selectively -conducted to the proper spark plug. Upon reaching the spark -gap in the plug, it jumps from the inner electrode to the outer -one, which is grounded, and then returns through the engine -frame to the grounded end of the secondary winding on the -ignition coil. The high tension spark thus produced in the -cylinder ignites the gas and so brings about the necessary combustion.</p> - -<p><b>Wiring</b> (<a href="#Fig62">Fig. 62</a>).—As will be evident upon reference to -the accompanying wiring diagram, the primary circuit of the -ignition system leads from the positive terminal of the battery -through the charging indicator to the ignition switch -binding post marked “Bat.,” thence, when the switch is turned -on, through the switch to one of its binding posts marked “Ign. -Coil.” Continuing on from this point through the ignition -coil and the breaker contacts, it returns to the second switch -binding post marked “Ign. Coil,” where it passes through the -switch again. It then finally reaches the grounded negative -terminal of the battery through the grounded terminal of the -switch and the car frame.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig62"> - -<img src="images/illo137.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w65emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="1" class="w16pc"> -<col span="1" class="w05pc"> -<col span="1" class="w16pc"> -<col span="1" class="w14pc"> -<col span="1" class="w07pc"> -<col span="1" class="w16pc"> -<col span="1" class="w05pc"> -<col span="1" class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="center">CHARGING<br>INDICATOR</td> -<td class="left">IGNITION AND<br>LIGHTING SWITCH</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">SPARK PLUGS</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right">GROUNDED<br>THROUGH CASE</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">CONTACT-STUD LOCK NUT</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">STATIONARY CONTACT-STUD</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">MANUAL CONTROL LEVER</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="right">BREAKER-ARM</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">GROUND<br>CONNECTION</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="right">BREAKER-CAM</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left">STARTING SWITCH AND<br>REVERSE CURRENT<br>CUT-OUT</td> -<td colspan="3" class="right top">BREAKER-CAM NUT</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="center">CONDENSER</td> -<td class="center">BREAKER-<br>CONTACTS</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">IGNITION<br>COIL</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">BREAKER BOX</td> -<td class="center">DISTRIBUTOR<br>HEAD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">BATTERY</td> -<td colspan="2" class="right">SECONDARY COIL</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="right">PRIMARY COIL</td> -<td colspan="4" class="center">SAFETY SPARK GAP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">GROUND CONNECTION</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">GROUNDED<br>THROUGH CASE</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illobox--> - -<p class="caption"><b>Circuit Diagram of the Model O Ignition System on the Dodge Brothers Motor Car</b></p> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System—on Dodge Car</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span></p> - -<p>The ignition switch is so constructed that it produces a reversal -of polarity in the distributor circuit each time the -switch is turned off and then on again. For this reason there -is no necessity of making a distinction between the two wires -leading from the distributor to the two switch binding posts -marked “Ign. Coil,” because the operation of the system cannot -be affected by the transposition of these wires. With -this one exception, however, the ignition circuit connections -must always be made exactly as indicated in the diagrams, if -satisfactory operation of the system is to be maintained.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig63"> - -<img src="images/illo138.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w65emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w15pc"> -<col span="3" class="w10pc"> -<col class="w05pc"> -<col span="2" class="w10pc"> -<col span="2" class="w15pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">HIGH TENSION<br>DISTRIBUTOR TERMINALS</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="right">DISTRIBUTOR-BRUSH</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">DISTRIBUTOR-HEAD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="right">DISTRIBUTOR-ROTOR</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">BREAKER-CAM NUT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="right">BREAKER-ARM</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">LOCK WASHERS</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="right">VERTICAL SHAFT</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">BREAKER-CAM</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="right">VERTICAL SHAFT<br>BEARING SLEEVE</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">STATIONARY CONTACT-STUD<br>SUPPORT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">PRIMARY COIL<br>TERMINALS</td> -<td colspan="8"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">GREASE CUP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">COUPLING YOKE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">HIGH TENSION<br>COIL TERMINAL</td> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -<td class="right">HORIZONTAL SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">ADVANCE PLATE</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">COIL HOUSING</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">VERTICAL SPIRAL GEAR</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">ADVANCE WEIGHTS</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right">IGNITION COIL</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="center">HORIZONTAL SPIRAL GEAR</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 63. North-East Distributor—Model O—Ignition</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Ignition Distributor.</b> (<a href="#Fig63">Fig. 63</a>).—The model O ignition -distributor is mounted on the right-hand side of the Dodge -Brothers engine where it is held rigidly in position by means -of four bolts. The horizontal shaft of the distributor is connected<span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span> -directly to the engine pump shaft through a flexible -coupling, and runs, therefore, at engine speed. The vertical -distributor shaft is driven from the horizontal shaft by means -of spiral gears which reduce its speed to one-half that of the -engine.</p> - -<p>The complete distributor unit consists essentially of three -self-contained assemblies: The ignition coil, the breaker box -and distributor base assembly which include the automatic -spark advancing mechanism. Each one of these three elements -is so constructed as to be readily detachable from the distributor -unit independently of the others.</p> - -<p><b>Ignition Coil.</b>—The ignition coil, which is contained in a -separate housing, forming part of the distributor unit, is constructed -for 12 volt service and operates directly on the -starting and lighting circuit. The coil housing is attached to -the distributor base by means of four screws and serves also -as a cover for the automatic advance compartment. The -high tension terminal located on the coil housing is designed -to provide a safety spark gap, as well as to act as a binding -post for the high tension cable which connects the coil to the -distributor head.</p> - -<p><b>Breaker Box and Distributor Head Assembly.</b> (<a href="#Fig64">Fig. 64</a>).—The -breaker box and distributor head assembly is mounted -in an upright position near the center of the distributor base -and is secured in place by a large-headed screw in the vertical -portion of the base. This screw projects into the annular -groove in the vertical shaft bearing sleeve, thereby preventing -the breaker box assembly from becoming detached from the -distributor base and yet at the same time permitting it to turn -freely from side to side. The short lug projecting downward -from the manual control lever on the breaker box extends -into the round hole near the middle of the distributor -base and acts as a stop to limit the travel of the breaker box.</p> - -<p>In case it should become necessary to remove the breaker -box and distributor head assembly, the distributor head should -first be detached from the breaker box and then, with the -breaker box in the position of full retard, the exact location<span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span> -of the distributor rotor should be marked accurately on the -edge of the box. This mark should be made with special -care, because it has to serve as the sole guide for the correct -position of the vertical shaft when the assembly is put back -in place again on the distributor base. Moreover, while the -breaker box assembly is separated from the base, the horizontal -shaft in the base must not be turned from the position it -occupied at the time when the location of the rotor was marked. -If either of these precautions is neglected, the correct relationship -between the several moving parts of the system will -be likely to be disturbed to such an extent that the complete -retiming of the distributor will become necessary.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig64"> - -<img src="images/illo140.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 64. North-East Breaker-Box</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Condenser.</b>—The condenser, shunted across the breaker contacts -to absorb the inductive surges that occur in the primary -circuit at each interruption, serves to intensify the effect produced -in the secondary circuit by these interruptions, and also -to protect the breaker contacts from injurious arcing. It is -contained in a sealed case which protects it against possible -external injury, and is located in the breaker box close to -the breaker contacts where its maximum effectiveness is obtained.</p> - -<p>Being very substantially constructed, the condenser ordinarily<span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span> -requires no attention. If for any reason it should become -inoperative, the best course is always to replace it with -a new one, because condenser repairs are not economically -practicable. The entire condenser unit can be easily removed, -whenever desired, by disconnecting the two condenser -leads from the breaker box binding posts, and then unscrewing -the two nuts on the under side of the breaker box that -hold the condenser case in place.</p> - -<p><b>Breaker Contacts.</b>—The breaker arm, which carries one of -the two breaker contacts, is mounted on a pivot post from -which it is thoroughly insulated by a fiber bushing. The helical -spring, which is attached to the lug at the pivot end of -the arm, holds it normally in such a position that the breaker -contacts are kept closed. But the fiber block near the middle -of the breaker arm lies in the path of the breaker cam and -is consequently struck by each lobe of the cam as the vertical -shaft revolves. Each of these blows from the cam cause the -breaker contacts to be forced apart, and thereby produce the -necessary interruptions in the primary circuit. The second -contact is carried by the stationary contact stud, which is adjustably -mounted in an arched support. With this stud properly -adjusted the difference between the contact points when -they are fully separated by the cam, is twenty thousandths of -an inch (.020″).</p> - -<p>If it should ever become necessary to renew the breaker -contacts, a complete replacement of the entire breaker arm -and the contact stud assemblies will in general be found to be -the most effectual method of handling the work. The breaker -arm can be removed by simply lifting it off its pivot bearing -after its pigtail has been disconnected from the breaker box -binding post. The spring attached to the breaker arm lug will -slip off of its own accord as soon as the arm is raised sufficiently -from its normal position. After the breaker arm has -been taken off, the stationary contact stud can be removed by -releasing its lock nut and unscrewing it from its support. To -replace the breaker arm it is merely necessary to insert the -lug in the spring, and then, with the spring held taut, to push<span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span> -the arm firmly down upon its pivot post until it snaps into -position.</p> - -<p><b>Breaker Cam.</b>—The breaker cam, by which the interruptions -in the primary circuit are produced has four projections on -its working surface, so spaced that one of them strikes the -breaker arm and causes the breaker contacts to be abruptly -separated each time a spark is required. The cam is held in -place on the upper end of the vertical shaft by means of a -slotted nut and set of special lock washers. It should never -be disturbed if avoidable, because its accurate setting is absolutely -essential to the correct operation of the entire system. -If, at any time, however, its position should become -altered accidentally, it must be carefully reset at once in accordance -with the timing directions given later on.</p> - -<p>The breaker cam and the distributor rotor are both mounted -on the vertical shaft and are rotated at exactly one-half engine -speed. Accordingly, since the engine is of the usual four-cycle -type requiring two revolutions of the crank shaft for one -complete cycle of operation, the distributor rotor and breaker -can make one revolution during the completion of each full -cycle of the engine.</p> - -<p><b>Distributor Head.</b>—The distributor head contains five high -tension terminals. The central terminal receives the current -from the secondary winding of the ignition coil and transmits -it to the rotor arm by which it is distributed to the four outer -terminals. These outer terminals are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 -respectively, corresponding to the firing order of the engine, -and are connected to the four spark plugs in accordance with -their markings. The distributor rotor in completing one full -revolution establishes contact successively between the rotor -brush and each one of these four outer distributor terminals, -each contact being made at the same moment that the primary -circuit is interrupted by the action of the breaker cam. Thus -when the spark plug leads are properly connected, the high -tension current, as soon as produced in the secondary circuit, -is conducted to the spark plug of the proper cylinder just at -the moment when the gas in that particular cylinder is ready<span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span> -for firing. If, therefore, the spark plug leads ever have to -be removed from the distributor head, they must always be attached -again carefully in the correct order.</p> - -<p><b>Automatic Advance Mechanism.</b> (<a href="#Fig65">Fig. 65</a>).—Combustion -does not follow instantaneously upon the occurrence of the -spark, however, because a small time interval is always needed -for the gas in the cylinder to ignite. Consequently, unless -some means are provided for offsetting the lag between spark -and combustion, the explosion of the gas could not always be -made to take place at exactly the correct moment under varying -conditions of engine speed.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig65"> - -<div class="container w20em"> -<img src="images/illo143.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism—North East</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>To compensate for this lag, therefore, there is incorporated -in the distributor a centrifugally actuated mechanism, which -is capable of automatically advancing or retarding the time -of the spark in exact accordance with the rate of speed at -which the engine is running.</p> - -<p>The operating characteristics of the automatic advance are -accurately proportioned to conform throughout the entire -speed range with the requirements of the engine; and in order -to insure the permanence of this relationship the device is -so constructed as to be practically nonadjustable.</p> - -<p><b>Manual Spark Control.</b>—Besides this automatic advance -there is also the usual manual control mechanism for changing -the time of the spark independently of the centrifugal device.<span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span> -This manual control is for use principally for retarding the -spark when starting or idling the engine or for facilitating -carburetor adjustments. During normal operation of the -engine, the spark lever on the steering wheel quadrant should -be advanced as far as permissible without causing the engine -to knock, and the actual regulation of the spark position -be left entirely to the automatic advance mechanism. The -arrangement of the manual control is such, provided the -breaker cam is properly set, that when the spark lever is in -the position of full retard, and the engine is running very -slowly, the spark will occur in each cylinder at 5 engine degrees -after the piston has passed the upper dead center of -its compression stroke. With the spark lever advanced to the -limit of its travel on the quadrant, the spark will occur 15 -degrees before the upper dead center position has been reached -by the piston on its compression stroke.</p> - -<p><b>Timing the Distributor.</b>—Whenever it becomes necessary to -disconnect the distributor shaft from the engine pump shaft -the exact relative positions of the two halves of the coupling -joining these two shafts, as well as the location of the distributor -rotor, should be carefully noted and marked. This is -necessary in order to make possible the reëstablishment of -the correct relations between the distributor shaft and the -pump shaft when original conditions are being restored. -Moreover, care must be taken to avoid turning the engine -while the distributor is disconnected, because the proper timing -relations can only be retained by keeping the position of -the pump shaft unchanged during this time.</p> - -<p>Should it ever happen, however, that the distributor has -been taken off without the proper precautions having been -observed, or that the timing arrangement has been disturbed -in any other fashion, it will thereupon become necessary to -make a complete readjustment of the timing relations of the -distributor and the engine. This is to be done always after -the distributor has been reconnected to the engine, the first -step being to ascertain definitely the relative position of the -engine pistons and valves. With this done, the positions of<span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span> -the breaker cam and the distributor rotor are then to be reset -as directed below.</p> - -<p>Since all the parts of the engine follow a regular sequence -of operation, only the position of the piston and valves in the -No. 1 cylinder need be considered in this process, and the -three remaining cylinders may be practically disregarded. -There are numerous methods, varying in their degree of accuracy, -for locating the position of the engine pistons, but the -most dependable one is that of removing the cylinder head so -as to expose the pistons and valves to full view. With the -head thus removed, the engine should be cranked slowly by -hand until the No. 1 piston has risen to the top of its compression -stroke and has just started to descend on its combustion -stroke. At this moment the spark, when fully retarded, -should normally occur in No. 1 cylinder.</p> - -<p>Under circumstances where it is not convenient or desirable -to remove the cylinder head the following approximate method -for determining the location of No. 1 piston may be employed -with a fair degree of success. Open the cocks of the priming -cups on all the cylinders, and crank the engine slowly by -hand until the No. 1 piston has just reached the top of its -compression stroke. This can be ascertained by holding the -thumb over the No. 1 priming cup and noting carefully the -moment when the compression ceases to increase. After locating -the dead center position of No. 1 piston in this way, -turn the crank shaft a very slight distance further until the -No. 4 exhaust valve is just at the point of closing. Under -these conditions, provided the No. 4 exhaust valve lifter is in -correct adjustment, the No. 1 piston should be approximately -in the desired position of 5 engine degrees beyond dead center.</p> - -<p>With the No. 1 piston thus carefully set in accordance with -one of the above methods, preferably the former, bring the -distributor into the position of full retard. To do this, disconnect -the manual control attachment and turn the break-box -as far as it will go in the direction in which the vertical -shaft rotates. Then after making sure that the ignition -switch is turned off, remove the distributor-head and the distributor<span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span> -rotor and the breaker box, and with a broad bladed -screw driver back off the breaker cam nut until the cam is -free to turn on its shaft. Next, replace the rotor temporarily, -and turn the cam slowly until the breaker contacts just -begin to open when the rotor occupies the position where -it normally makes contact with the No. 1 distributor terminal. -This adjustment can be made to the best advantage by turning -the cam forward to separate the contacts then back again -slowly until the contacts just come together, at which point -the cam should be allowed to remain.</p> - -<p>After the proper setting has thus been obtained, remove -the rotor again and lock the cam securely in position by -tightening the slotted nut that holds it. Finally, replacing -the rotor, rock the vertical shaft backward and forward as -far as the slack in the gears will permit, and note carefully -the action of the break contacts. The setting of the cam -must be so accurate that when the gears are rocked forward -to take up the slack, the contacts will be just held apart and -yet when the gears are rocked backward as far as the slack -permits, the contacts will be actually closed.</p> - -<p>A convenient method of verifying this adjustment is to turn -on the ignition current and connect an ordinary 14 or 16 volt -2. c. p. lamp across the two binding posts of the breaker -box. The lamp thus attached, will serve as a sensitive indicator -for representing the action of the contact-points when -the vertical shaft is rocked forward and backward to take -up the slack in the gears. The moment the contacts begin to -be separated, the lamp will light; but as soon as they are -allowed to come together the lamp will at once go out again.</p> - -<p>Should the test prove the first setting to be inaccurate, the -cam must be readjusted, and the test repeated several times -if necessary until the correct setting is finally obtained. Too -much care cannot be employed in making this adjustment, -because even a very slight inaccuracy in the setting of the -cam will produce a considerably magnified effect upon the -operation of the engine. This is due to the fact that the -engine speed is twice as great as that of the vertical shaft.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span></p> - -<p><b>General Care.</b>—Under normal operating conditions the ignition -system requires very little care aside from the usual -precautions against moisture and dirt. There are, in fact, but -three points of importance that need attention during service:</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">1. Lubrication.</p> - -<p>2. Cleaning and adjustment of the breaker contacts.</p> - -<p>3. Inspection of the wiring and the spark plugs.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XIX</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS</span><br> -<span class="thirdline smcap">Construction, Operation and Care</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Atwater Kent ignition systems have been adopted of late -by many prominent automobile manufacturers as a means of -distributing or conveying electrical spark to the cylinders at -the proper firing time.</p> - -<p>This type of quick break distributing system has proved -very efficient and dependable, and will usually outlast the -life of the motor as there are very few moving parts, which -eliminates troubles caused by worn parts getting out of adjustment.</p> - -<p>This type of ignition system operates in much the same -manner as the high tension magneto, and differs only in -that the parts have been taken from the compact magneto -case and distributed in other locations in separate units. As -this type takes its current from the lighting and starting battery, -it does not contain an armature or field magnets to manufacture -the electrical force.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig66">Fig. 66</a> illustrates the principles of operation of the type -CC Atwater Kent closed circuit system, which consists of the -unisparker containing the contact maker and distributor. The -only moving parts are located in this unit. The coil consists -of a soft iron core, with a primary and secondary winding -sealed in an insulated tube or container. A resistance unit -is located in the top and regulates the current automatically. -The system is controlled by a switch located on the dash. -The contact breaker shown in <a href="#Fig67">Fig. 67</a> consists of an exceedingly -light steel contact arm. One end rests on a hardened -steel cam which rotates one-half as fast as the crank shaft.<span class="pagenum" id="Page127">[127]</span> -This cam has as many sides as the engine has cylinders. -When the contact points are opened by the movement of the -cam the primary circuit is broken and produces a discharge of -secondary high tension current at one of the spark plug -gaps.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig66"> - -<img src="images/illo148.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w25emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w50pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="center">CONTACT<br>MAKER</td> -<td class="left top">TO PLUG <span class="righttext">TO PLUG</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">DISTRIBUTOR</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">CONDENSER</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">TO PLUG</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">CONTACT MAKER<br>GROUNDED</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">SPARK PLUG</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">BATTERY<br>GROUND</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">PRIMARY</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">BATTERY</td> -<td class="right">GROUND</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">SWITCH</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">SECONDARY</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">GROUND</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">REGULATING<br>RESISTANCE</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram—Type CC</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig68">Fig. 68</a> shows the simple Atwater Kent contactless distributor. -The high tension distributor of the Atwater-Kent -system forms the top of the contact maker. Each spark plug -wire terminates in an electrode, which passes through the -distributor cap. A rotating distributor block takes the high<span class="pagenum" id="Page128">[128]</span> -tension current from the central terminal and distributes it -to the spark plugs in proper firing order. The distributor -block or arm does not make direct contact with the distributor -posts. The current jumps the small gap between the distributor -block and the terminal electrodes and does away with -frictional wear resulting from actual contact.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig67"> - -<img src="images/illo150a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Type CC</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig68"> - -<img src="images/illo150b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page129">[129]</span></p> - -<p><a href="#Fig69">Fig. 69</a> shows the method of connecting the high tension -wires to the distributor; the insulation is removed, or the -wire bared in a space 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>″ long. The removable terminal -cover is pushed up on the wire as shown at A, the bared end -of the wire is then passed through the hole in the secondary -terminal as shown at B. The end of this wire is then twisted -back on itself, for two complete turns as shown at C, so -that the end will not project beyond the diameter of the insulation. -The wire will then be tightly held when the terminal -covers are screwed down as shown in Fig. D. Never use -pliers to tighten these covers and do not solder the wires to -the terminal posts.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig69"> - -<img src="images/illo151.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Adjustment.</b>—The only parts of this system that are adjustable -are the contact points. These need to be adjusted -only for natural wear. Do not adjust the points unless you -are convinced, by trying everything else, that it is the points -that need attention.</p> - -<p>In making adjustments, note the following directions. The -normal gap between the points should not be less than .005″, -or more than .008″, the standard setting is .006″, which is<span class="pagenum" id="Page130">[130]</span> -about the thickness of two ordinary sheets of writing paper.</p> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig70"> - -<img src="images/illo152.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w15emmax"> - -<p class="right">TO UNGROUNDED<br> -TERMINAL OF BATTERY</p> - -<p class="noindent">SWITCH</p> - -<p class="center">COIL</p> - -<p class="right">DISTRIBUTOR</p> - -<p class="center">GROUND</p> - -<p class="right">CONTACT<br> -MAKER</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 70. Atwater Kent Type CC Wiring Diagram</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The contact points are made of tungsten steel, the hardest -known metal. When contact points are working properly -small particles of tungsten steel will be carried from one -point to the other, which sometimes causes a roughness and -a dark gray coloring of the surfaces. This roughness does -not in any way effect the proper working of the points, owing -to the fact that the rough surfaces fit into each other perfectly.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page131">[131]</span></p> - -<p>It should not be necessary to file or redress the points unless -they become burned, due to some abnormal condition or -accident. The dark gray appearance is the natural color of -the tungsten steel.</p> - -<p><b>Oilings.</b>—A very small amount of ordinary vaseline or -grease applied to the cam and a drop or two of oil applied -to the cups every few weeks, is all the lubrication necessary. -Do not get oil on the contact points, and wipe off any free -oil or grease on the contact maker.</p> - -<p>The springs in this system are set at exactly the right tension. -Do not try to bend or tamper with them.</p> - -<p>The wiring of the type CC ignition system is very simple, -as shown in <a href="#Fig70">Fig. 70</a>, and is known as the one wire with ground -return method. Well insulated primary wire is used for the -primary circuit between the coil and the ignition switch. The -best quality of five-sixteenth inch secondary wire is used to -conduct the high tension current from the coil to the distributor, -and from the distributor to the spark plug.</p> - -<p><b>Setting or Timing the Type CC System.</b>—The piston in -number one cylinder should be raised to high dead center, -between the compression and firing strokes, the clamp which -holds the unisparker should be loosened and the unisparker -turned backward, or opposite the rotating direction of the -timer shaft until the contact points commence to open. The -spark occurs at the exact instant of the opening of the point.</p> - -<p>After completing the electrical connection the current can -be turned on, and the unisparker timed exactly from the -spark at the plugs. For this purpose the plugs should be -removed from the engine and laid on top of the cylinders.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page132">[132]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XX</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM, TYPE K-2</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The operating principle of the Atwater Kent ignition -system type K-2, differs from type CC system in that it -operates on the open circuit plan, whereas the type CC -system explained in the preceding chapter, operates on the -closed circuit plan.</p> - -<p>A-K ignition system type K-2 consists of three parts:</p> - -<p>No. 1. The unisparker combining the special contact maker, -a condenser, and a high tension distributor.</p> - -<p>No. 2. The coil, consisting of a simple primary and secondary -winding, and a condenser. These parts are all imbedded -in a special insulating compound. The coil has no vibrator -or other moving parts.</p> - -<p>No. 3. The ignition switch. This switch controls the system -by opening and closing the primary current.</p> - -<p><b>The Principle of the Atwater Kent System.</b>—The function -of this system is to produce a single hot spark for each -power impulse of the motor. It differs from other types of -battery ignition systems in that the contact points do not -touch except during the brief instant of the spark. The -ignition circuit is, therefore, normally open, whence the name -“open circuit” results. The contact maker consists of a pair -of contact points, normally open, which are connected in -series with a battery, and the primary circuit of the non-vibrating -induction coil. The mechanism for operating the -contacts consists of a notched shaft having one notch for -each cylinder, rotating at one-half the engine speed, a lifter -which is pulled forward by the rotation of the shaft, and a -coil spring which pulls the lifter back to its original position -after it has been drawn forward and released by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page133">[133]</span> -notched shaft; hardened steel latch, against which the lifter -strikes on its recoil and which in turn operates the contact -points.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig71"> - -<img src="images/illo155a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="3" class="w33pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">LATCH</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CONTACT<br>SCREW</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">NOTCHED<br>SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">LIFTER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">CONTACT<br>SPRING</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">LIFTER<br>SPRING</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type -K-2 System.</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig72"> - -<img src="images/illo155b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 -System</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig73"> - -<img src="images/illo156a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 -System</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig74"> - -<img src="images/illo156b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 -System</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Operation of the Contact Maker.</b>—It will be noted in <a href="#Fig71">Fig. -71</a> that the lifter is being pulled forward by the notched -shaft. When pulled forward as far as the shaft will carry it -(<a href="#Fig72">Fig. 72</a>), the lifter is suddenly pulled back by the lifter -spring. In returning, it strikes against the latch, throwing -this against the contact spring and closes the contact for a<span class="pagenum" id="Page134">[134]</span> -brief instant. This movement is far too quick for the naked -eye to follow (<a href="#Fig73">Fig. 73</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig74">Fig. 74</a> shows the lifter ready to be pulled forward by the -next notch.</p> - -<p>Note that the circuit is closed only during the brief instant -of the spark. No current can flow at any other time, not -even if the switch is left on when the motor is not running. -No matter how slow or how fast the notched shaft is turning, -the lifter spring will always pull the lifter back at exactly -the same speed, so that the operation of the contact, and therefore<span class="pagenum" id="Page135">[135]</span> -the spark, will always be the same no matter how fast -or how slow the engine is running. The brief instant that -the contact points touch, results in very little current consumption. -The high tension current from the coil is conveyed -to the rotating distributor block, which seats on the end of the -unisparker shaft to each of the spark plug terminals in the -order of firing.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig75"> - -<img src="images/illo157.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The important advantage which the distributor possesses is -the fact that there are no sliding contacts or carbon brushes. -The distributor blade is so arranged that it passes close to -the spark plug terminals without quite touching (as shown in -<a href="#Fig75">Fig. 75</a>), thus permitting the spark to jump the slight gap -without any loss of current pressure. This also eliminates all -wear and trouble caused by sliding or rubbing contacts.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig76">Fig. 76</a> shows the wire connections and direction of current -flowage. The distributor blade is about to make contact -with the terminal leading to the spark plug in No. 2 -cylinder. At the instant that contact is made the breaker -points in the contact maker shown in the lower part of the -diagram close, thus allowing a primary or low tension current -to flow between the contact maker, coil, and battery. The -sudden breaking of this current occurs when the points open -again, thereby creating a current of high tension voltage in -the secondary coil which is conducted to the center terminal -of the distributor where it is distributed to the spark plug<span class="pagenum" id="Page136">[136]</span> -terminals through the rotation of the distributor blade. The -high tension cables leading from the distributor are heavily -insulated, thus the current in seeking ground return chooses -the easiest path, by jumping the slight gap at the spark -plugs.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig76"> - -<img src="images/illo158.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<p class="noindent">DISTRIBUTOR</p> - -<p class="right">GROUND</p> - -<p class="center">COIL</p> - -<p class="right">BATTERY</p> - -<p class="noindent">CONTACT MAKER</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Setting and Timing the Unisparker.</b>—The type K-2 unisparker -is installed, so as to allow a small amount of angular -movement or, in other words, the socket into which the unisparker -fits is provided with a clamp which will permit it to -be turned or locked in any given position.</p> - -<p><b>Timing.</b>—The piston in No. 1 cylinder is raised to high dead -center between the compression and power stroke. Then -loosen the clamp which holds the unisparker and turn the unisparker -backward, or contrary to the direction of rotation -until a click is heard. This click happens at the exact instant -of the spark. Clamp the unisparker tight at this point -being careful not to change its position. Note that current -for this system is usually supplied by the starting and lighting -battery. When changing batteries be sure that the voltage -of the battery is the same as that marked on the coil.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page137">[137]</span></p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig77"> - -<img src="images/illo159.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w50pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center"><span class="smcap">To Plugs</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"><span class="smcap">To Plugs</span></td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center"><span class="smcap">Contact-<br>maker</span></td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td><span class="smcap">Switch</span></td> -<td class="center"><span class="smcap">Contact Maker</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">BAT.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center bot">S & INT. INT. S.</td> -<td class="center bot">INT. INT.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">COIL</td> -<td class="center">SEC</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right"><span class="smcap">Ground To Motor</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right"><span class="smcap">Ground to Motor</span></td> -<td class="center">POS NEG</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">BATTERY</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring—Cut 1, Under Hood Coil; Cut 2, -Kick Switch Coil</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The external wiring of the A-K type K-2 is very simple, -as shown in the diagrams, <a href="#Fig77">Figs. 77 and 77A</a>. Fig. 77 shows -the wire connections, when the reversing switch and under-hood -coil is used. Fig. 77A shows the connections, when using -plate or kick switch coil. A well insulated braided primary -wire is used for the primary or battery circuit. See that this -wire is well protected against rubbing or abrasion wherever it<span class="pagenum" id="Page138">[138]</span> -comes into contact with metal parts of the car. When the -starting and lighting battery is used to furnish the ignition -current, two wires should run directly to the battery terminals.</p> - -<p>The two types of Atwater Kent systems described are provided -with automatic spark advance mechanism. Provisions -are also made for manual lever control, by simply connecting -the unisparker to the throttle lever at the base of the -steering gear.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig78"> - -<img src="images/illo160.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism—A K -Type K-2</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig78">Fig. 78</a> shows the automatic spark advance mechanism. It -is located on the underside of the contact maker base plate, -and consists of a set of weights which swing out from the -center against spring tension, and advances the unisparker on -the shaft, according to the amount of centrifugal action or -speed of the shaft. When the shaft is not in motion the -springs draw the weights toward center, which automatically -shifts the unisparker on the shaft until the spark is in a fully -retarded position.</p> - -<p><b>Contact Point Adjustment.</b>—The only adjustment aside -from the initial timing is in the contact points. They are adjustable -only for natural wear, and one adjustment should -last at least six months. The contact screw is provided with -a number of shim washers against which it is set up tight. -When the points eventually become worn, they should be -dressed flat and smooth. A sufficient number of the washers<span class="pagenum" id="Page139">[139]</span> -should be removed so that when the contact screw is set up -tightly it will maintain the proper gap between the points. -The distance between the contact points should be about the -distance of a thin visiting card. They should never touch -when at rest.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig79"> - -<img src="images/illo161.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w08emmax"> - -<p class="center">Oil lightly every<br> -1000 miles</p> - -<p class="noindent">Oil</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Oiling Diagram—A-K Type K-2</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig79">Fig. 79</a> shows an oiling diagram of the contact maker. -The latch, lifter, and lifter spring are not adjustable or subject -to wear. They should be well cleaned and oiled every -five hundred miles. Use a light oil and avoid getting it on -the contact points.</p> - -<p><b>The Condenser.</b>—The condenser of this system acts somewhat -like a shock absorber to the contact points. It absorbs -the spark or arc and makes the break in the primary current, -clean and abrupt. The condenser is very accessible, but -should never be tampered with, as it does not require any -attention.</p> - -<p><b>Testing for Ignition Trouble.</b>—If the engine misses without -regard to speed, test each cylinder separately by short -circuiting the plug with a screw driver, allowing a spark to -jump. If all cylinders produce a good regular spark the -trouble is not with the ignition system.</p> - -<p>If any cylinder sparks regularly this will indicate that the -ignition system is in working order so far as the unisparker -and coil are concerned. The trouble is probably in the high -tension wiring between the distributor and plug, or in the -plugs themselves. Examine the plugs and wiring carefully.<span class="pagenum" id="Page140">[140]</span> -Leaky secondary wiring is frequently the cause of missing and -backfiring.</p> - -<p>Frequently, when high tension wires are run from the distributor -to the spark plugs through a metal tube, trouble is -experienced with missing and backfiring, which is due to induction -between the various wires in the tube. This is -especially likely to happen if the main secondary wire from -the distributor to the coil runs through this tube with the -spark plug wires.</p> - -<p>Whenever possible the distributor wires should be separated -by at least one-half inch of space. They should be supported -by bracket insulators, rather than run through a tube. -In no case should the main distributor wire run through a -conduit with other wires.</p> - -<p>If irregular sparking is noted at the spark plugs, examine -the battery and connections.</p> - -<p>If the trouble commences suddenly, it is probably due to a -loose connection in the wiring, if gradually, the battery may -be weakening or the contact points may require attention.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page141">[141]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXI</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK IGNITION SYSTEM</span><br> -<span class="thirdline smcap">Operation, Adjustment and Care</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The Philbrin ignition system consists of a specially designed -contact maker and interrupter, a distributor mounted on the -same shaft, a nonvibrating heat and moisture proof coil, an -armored heat, moisture, and puncture proof condenser, and a -special Duplex switch.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig80"> - -<img src="images/illo163.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 80. Philbrin Contact Maker—Point Adjustment</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig80">Fig. 80</a> shows an illustration of the Philbrin contact maker -which operates in this manner. The cam A strikes against the -end of the plunger B and forces the points together at C, -and holds the contact for approximately three and one-half -degrees of the revolution of the cam. The spark occurs -simultaneously with the separation of the contact points. -The contact maker has but one adjustment; that of the adjustable -contact screw, which is in direct line with the contact<span class="pagenum" id="Page142">[142]</span> -plunger. The contact points are brought together gradually -by the surface formation of the cam. When the point of -ample saturation of the coil is reached, the breaking of the -contacts is instantaneous. The duration of the spark is in -proportion to the speed of the engine, but breaking of the -points is always instantaneous and entirely independent of -the engine’s speed thereby producing the required spark at all -speeds without any spark lag.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig81"> - -<img src="images/illo164.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 81. Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig81">Fig. 81</a> shows the distributor blade mounted over the contact -maker. The distributor blade is so arranged that it -clears the spark plug lead terminals in the cover by a slight -margin, and does not make actual contact, thereby eliminating -all friction due to such contacts.</p> - -<p><b>Operation.</b>—Turning on the switch sets up a low tension -current in the coil and primary wire coil when the contact -points close. The sudden breaking of this current -causes demagnetism of the core and the primary coil to set -up a high tension current in the secondary coil. This current -is led to the distributor blade and passes to the spark -plug terminals as the blade comes in contact range.</p> - -<p>The Philbrin high frequency system uses the same coil and -distributor as the single spark system. But as the circuits<span class="pagenum" id="Page143">[143]</span> -of the two systems are entirely distinct and separate, they -do not conflict with each other. The high frequency system -has its own condenser and interrupter located in the switch -case, and supplies a continuous flow of sparks.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig82"> - -<img src="images/illo165.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 82. Switch Case</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig82">Fig. 82</a> shows the interior of the switch case. This part of -the mechanism controls the interruption of the battery current. -The current is supplied to the interruptor through a -polarity reverser, which reverses the direction of the current -each time the switch button is turned. This equalizes the -wear on the contact points.</p> - -<p>Attention is again called to the distributor blade shown in -<a href="#Fig82">Fig. 82</a>, which is used for both systems. Because of the shape -of this blade, there is a continuous flow of sparks after the -explosive spark has been delivered to one cylinder until the -forward edge of the distributor blade is within range of the -distributing point of the next terminal. By this action the -first spark delivered to the cylinder is an efficient one, and -the follow up continues at intervals of approximately one-thousandth -of a second. These sparks are all perfectly -synchronous.</p> - -<p>The operation of the high frequency system does not differ<span class="pagenum" id="Page144">[144]</span> -in function action from the single spark system explained on -the foregoing page. Either system may be had singly, or -in duplex formation. Consequently either the single or the -double system may be encountered. When the duplex system -is used the driver has his choice and can use either the high -frequency or single spark system, by turning the rubber -roll switch on the distributor to the system indicated.</p> - -<p>This follow-up feature has been found particularly advantageous -for starting in cold weather, or where a poor grade -of gasoline is encountered, and in case of a poor carburetor -adjustment or foul spark plugs. The high frequency system -also has the unique feature of keeping the spark plugs clean -without disintegrating the electroids, as is often the case with -the high tension magneto.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig83"> - -<img src="images/illo166.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 83. Duplex High Frequency Switch</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig83">Fig. 83</a> shows the Duplex switch. Ordinarily a storage -battery is used for one source of current, and a set of dry -cells for the other. This is so arranged that either source -of current can be used with either the single spark system -or the high frequency system at will. One source of current -only can be used if so desired, that is, the storage battery -only or the dry cells alone. Where the source of current is<span class="pagenum" id="Page145">[145]</span> -dry cells only, the single spark system is used as it is more -economical in current consumption. All of the switch contacts -are of the pressure plunger type, thereby eliminating the -uncertainty of brush contacts. Each switch is provided with -a lock operating through the hub of the lever. When the -switch is locked in the off position it is impossible to remove -the cover without breaking it as the cover of the switch locks -to the back.</p> - -<p>Ratchet buttons select which one of the systems is to be -used, by a movement of 45°. This button operates only in -a clock-wise direction.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig84"> - -<img src="images/illo167.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w45emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="4" class="w10pc"> -<col span="3" class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6" class="highline3"> </td> -<td rowspan="6" class="left top">C-2 Circuit 2<br> -C-1 Circuit 1<br> -Bat.-1 Battery 1<br> -Bat-2 Battery 2<br> -Sec-Secondary<br> -C-Circuit<br> -Sec. Gr. Secondary<br>Ground</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="right top">To<br>Spark<br>Plugs</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center top">BAT. <span class="fsize150">(</span><span class="horsplit"><span class="top noline">SEC.</span> -<span class="bot">GR.</span></span><span class="fsize150">)</span> C</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">BAT.-2</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">BAT.-1</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="right">Coil</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">C.R.</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="center">Distributor</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 84. Philbrin Wiring Diagram</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig84">Fig. 84</a> shows a wiring diagram of the Philbrin system. -The wire connections come to the contact maker directly from -the switch, instead of from the coil. This provides for control -of the current to the contact maker in such a manner -that if a short circuit occurs in either of the systems, by -turning a button it is entirely cut off and the other system -put into operation.</p> - -<p>Tungsten contact points are used on the single spark system -as they are not effected by the use of light oil. The contact -points for the high frequency system are platinum-iridium. -They are mounted inside of the switch case and -need little or no attention. The contacts, due to the reversed<span class="pagenum" id="Page146">[146]</span> -polarity, have an extremely long life and can be used without -attention until they are worn down to the base metal. -The duel type of system, however, may be purchased in separate -units, and an owner may choose either the high frequency -system or the single spark system separately if so desired.</p> - -<p>This type of ignition system is manufactured for four, six, -eight, and twelve cylindered cars.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page147">[147]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS</span><br> -<span class="thirdline smcap">Construction, Operation and Care</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>A great many different types of mechanical, and compressed -air starters were devised and tried out as equipment -by the manufacturers of automobiles a few years ago. -These devices were either mechanically imperfect, or required -considerable attention from the owner to keep them in -working order and have all but disappeared from the market, -being supplanted by the electrical starter, which has been -perfected to a high state of efficiency and dependability.</p> - -<p>The general principle of all electrical starters is much -alike and they usually operate in much the same manner. -The electrical force or current is produced by a generator -driven from the engine. This current is collected, or held -in storage by chemical reproduction plates in a storage battery. -The battery, in turn, is connected to a small electric -motor carried at the side of the engine.</p> - -<p><b>The Generator.</b>—The operating principle of current production -of the generator is practically the same as explained -in the magneto, which may also be termed a generator or -dynamo.</p> - -<p>A generator consists of an iron frame, a set of magnetic -field windings, a wound armature with a commutator on the -end, and a brush which collects the current from the commutator.</p> - -<p>The current is induced in the armature by rotating it in a -magnetic field. The amount of voltage induced in the armature-coil -depends on its rotating speed, as the faster the armature<span class="pagenum" id="Page148">[148]</span> -turns, the greater the number of magnetic field lines cut, -and the greater the amount of voltage induced in the armature -coil.</p> - -<p><b>The Regulator.</b>—The generator is provided with a regulator -to control the output rate of voltage when the engine is -running at excess speeds. This is necessary to prevent the -higher charging rate from overcoming the capacity of the -storage battery. The regulating of the voltage output may -be accomplished by mechanical or electrical means. The -mechanical regulator usually consists of a governor which -is timed to release the armature from the drive shaft when -the engine reaches a certain rate of speed. The electrical -regulator usually consists of a reversed series of field winding -which acts against the force of the magnetic field, or of -a bucking coil.</p> - -<p><b>The Automatic Cut-out.</b>—All types of generators which -supply current to a storage battery are equipped with an -automatic cut-out arrangement which is entirely automatic in -action and requires no attention.</p> - -<p>The function of the automatic cut-out is to prevent the -current from flowing back to the generator when the current -production of the generator is less than the charged strength -of the storage battery. The cut-out may be located anywhere -on the conductor, between the storage battery and the -generator, and consists of a simple electro-magnet, which is -operated by the direction of current flowage.</p> - -<p><b>One Unit System.</b>—The generator furnishes the current -for ignition and starting, and is also reversible to act as a -starting motor. The system is referred to as a one unit system.</p> - -<p><b>Two Unit System.</b>—When the starting motor and the generator -act singly, and are contained in a separate casting, the -system is referred to as a two unit system.</p> - -<p><b>Three Unit System.</b>—When the generator and starting -motor are located as a separate unit, and when the ignition -current is supplied by a magneto, this system is referred to -as a three unit system.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page149">[149]</span></p> - -<p><b>The Starting Motor.</b>—The starting motor is constructed in -the same manner as the generator, and is simply a reversal -of action. When cranking, the current from the storage battery -flows through the motor winding and magnetizes the -armature core. This acting upon the magnetism of the frame -causes the turning effort.</p> - -<p><b>Lubrication.</b>—Regularly every two weeks, or every five hundred -miles, two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be -dropped into the oil wells supplying the armature bearings -and usually located at each end of the armature shaft.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig85"> - -<img src="images/illo171.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 85. Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Care.</b>—Regularly every two weeks, inspect all connections -as a full volume of current will not flow over a loose or corroded -connection. Never allow any oil or dirt to collect on -the motor or generator, as it interferes with the terminal -connection and misdirects the current, and the instrument soon -becomes inoperative.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig85">Fig. 85</a> shows the location of the two unit Bijur electrical -starting and generating system mounted on an engine. The -starting motor is bolted to the flywheel housing, and is provided -with a square armature shaft which carries a pinion<span class="pagenum" id="Page150">[150]</span> -which can be moved horizontally on the shaft. This pinion -meshes directly with teeth cut in the steel flywheel ring. No -intermediate gears or roller clutches are used. The control -lever connects through linkage to the shifting fork which -shifts the pinion on the square shaft of the motor. The -same foot pedal linkage operates the starting switch. Normally -a spring holds the motor pinion out of mesh with the -flywheel teeth and also holds the starting switch in the “off” -position.</p> - -<p><b>The Generator.</b>—The generator is bolted to an extension on -the crank case at the front side of the gas motor, and is -driven by a silent chain from the crank shaft. After the -gas motor attains a speed equivalent to a car speed of ten -miles per hour on high speed, the generator begins to generate, -and will generate a current which is highest at low -speeds, and diminishes somewhat at higher speeds.</p> - -<p>The machines are both self-contained as there are no regulators -or automatic switches which require separate mounting.</p> - -<p>The automatic switch for opening and closing the circuit -between the generator and storage battery is mounted inside -the generator. This switch is properly adjusted before the -generator leaves the factory, and no further adjustments are -necessary.</p> - -<p>Two wires lead from the generator. One of these is connected -at the starting motor to one of the heavy cables coming -from the storage battery, while the other generator wire -is grounded on the chassis, the chassis forming a part of the -circuit. The generator polarity is reversible and the connections -at the machine may be made haphazard and without -regard to polarity. If connections are reversed at the generator, -no damage will result, as the machine will automatically -assume the correct polarity to charge the battery.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig86">Fig. 86</a> shows the position of the Bijur starting system, and -the relative neutral positions of starting pedal, motor pinion, -and starting switch, when the starting equipment is not in -action.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page151">[151]</span></p> - -<p><a href="#Fig86A">Fig. 86A</a> shows the normal position of the various parts -after the starting pedal has been depressed and just before -the starting motor begins to operate. The pinion is now in -full mesh with the flywheel ring and further depressing the -starter pedal will close the switch.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig86"> - -<img src="images/illo173a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w50emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w10pc"> -<col class="w15pc"> -<col class="w10pc"> -<col span="7" class="w05pc"> -<col span="2" class="w15pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="left">FOOT PEDAL</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="left">POSITION 1--OUT OF ACTION. STARTING<br> -SWITCH OFF. PINION UP AGAINST MOTOR<br> -HEAD.</td> -<td colspan="5" class="left">FLYWHEEL</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="right">SHIFTING FORK</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td colspan="6" class="left">STARTING SWITCH<br> -MOTOR SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">OIL HERE</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">MOTOR</td> -<td colspan="8"> </td> -<td class="left">OIL HERE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="11"> </td> -<td class="left">COLLAR</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="11"> </td> -<td class="center">CLEVIS PIN</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="center">SHIFTING ROD</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="center">STOP</td> -<td colspan="6" class="right">SHIFTER SPRING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="10"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">RELEASE SPRING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">OIL DRAIN<br> -KEEP THIS HOLE CLEAR</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">PINION</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">OIL HERE</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="12" class="center">CRANK CASE</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig86A"> - -<img src="images/illo173b.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent">POSITION 2--ABOUT TO CRANK.<br> -GEARS HAVE MESHED BUT<br> -SWITCH HAS NOT YET MADE CONTACT.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 86. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig87">Fig. 87</a> shows all the parts in their positions for cranking. -The small gap between the collar on the shifting rod and<span class="pagenum" id="Page152">[152]</span> -clevis pin permits the switch rod to move and thus open -the starting switch without moving the motor pinion when -the starting pedal is released.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig87"> - -<img src="images/illo174b.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent">POSITION 2A—ABOUT TO CRANK.<br> -GEARS NOT YET MESHED, TEETH<br> -ARE BUTTING, BUT SWITCH HAS<br> -MADE CONTACT. SHIFTER SPRING<br> -STRONGLY COMPRESSED READY<br> -TO DRAW PINION INTO MESH.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig87A"> - -<img src="images/illo174a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<p class="noindent">POSITION 3—CRANKING, NOTE<br> -GAP BETWEEN COLLAR ON<br> -SHIFTING ROD AND CLEVIS PIN.<br> -SHIFTING FORK IS UP AGAINST<br> -STOP AND SHIFTER SPRING IS<br> -SLIGHTLY COMPRESSED.</p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig87A">Fig. 87A</a> shows the condition when on depressing the foot -pedal, and sliding the pinion on the motor shaft towards the -flywheel the pinion does not mesh with the flywheel, and the -teeth butt. Depressing the foot pedal will close the starting -switch strongly compressing the shifter spring. After the<span class="pagenum" id="Page153">[153]</span> -switch is closed the motor will begin to rotate and allow -the pinion to slip into mesh with the flywheel. The motor -will then crank in the normal way.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig88"> - -<img src="images/illo175.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w50emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="5" class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left">HEAD LAMP</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">MOTOR</td> -<td class="left">SWITCH TERMINAL<br> -GROUNDED</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">GENERATOR</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">STARTING<br> -SWITCH</td> -<td class="center">BATTERY</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">IGNITION SWITCH</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">INTERRUPTOR<br> -AND<br> -DISTRIBUTOR</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">SPARK PLUGS</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right">REAR LAMP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">HORN</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">COIL</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="center">INSTRUMENT LAMP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">HEAD LAMP</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">HORN BUTTON</td> -<td class="right">LIGHTING SWITCH</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 88. Wiring Diagram Model N—Hupmobile</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig88">Fig. 88</a> shows a complete diagram of the Model N Hupmobile -wiring system.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page154">[154]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXIII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><a href="#Fig89">Fig. 89</a> shows a diagram of the Bijur lighting and starting -system on the Jeffrey “Chesterfield-six.” The generator -supplies current for the lights and charges a storage battery -when the gas motor is running at speeds equivalent to -ten or more miles per hour on high gear.</p> - -<p>When the gas motor is running at speeds corresponding -to less than ten miles per hour, all currents for lamps are -drawn from the storage battery.</p> - -<p>The starting motor is in operation only during the period -of starting, and remains idle at all other times. The appliances -shown in the <a href="#Fig89">diagram</a> constituting the equipment are -a six volt constant voltage generator, a six volt starting motor, -starting switch, six volt hundred ampere hour battery, lamp -controller, and a high tension magneto. Due to the reversible -characteristics of the generator, no attention need be -paid to the polarity of the wiring when it is removed and -again replaced.</p> - -<p>The starting motor pinion meshes with teeth on the flywheel -when the starting switch mounted on the housing covering -the motor pinion is compressed.</p> - -<p><b>Operation of System Shown in Diagram.</b>—After the gas -motor reaches a speed equivalent to a car speed of approximately -ten miles per hour on the third speed gear, the generator -will generate and maintain a constant voltage, or electrical -pressure at higher speeds and will also maintain this -pressure constant at all loads.</p> - -<p>The current output from the generator at any time will depend -upon the condition of the storage battery. If a car has -been left standing for some time with the lights burning, the -storage battery will become more or less discharged and its -voltage lowered. Under these conditions the generator voltage -or pressure will be higher than that of the battery, forcing -a comparatively high charging current into the battery. -This current may be from 5 to 20 amperes, and the battery -will rapidly approach the fully charged condition.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page155">[155]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig89"> - -<img src="images/illo177.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w60emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w15pc"> -<col class="w10pc"> -<col span="2" class="w15pc"> -<col class="w20pc"> -<col class="w08pc"> -<col class="w17pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="right"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub> LOOM</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">N<sup>o</sup>. 14 -<span class="righttext">N<sup>o</sup>. 10</span></td> -<td class="center"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub> LOOM</td> -<td class="center"><span class="padr2">N<sup>o</sup>. 14</span> -N<sup>o</sup>. 10</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> LOOM</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">N<sup>o</sup>. 14</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">RIGHT HEAD LIGHT</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">TERMINAL POSTS</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">FUSES 10 AMPERES</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="right">NEGATIVE</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">STORAGE<br> -BATTERY</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">GENERATOR</td> -<td class="center">MAGNETO</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">POSITIVE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">SWITCH</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">CYLINDERS</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">BATT - -<span class="righttext">LIGHTING<br> -SWITCH</span></td> -<td class="right">N<sup>o</sup>. 14</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="left">N<sup>o</sup>. 14 -<span class="padl8">BATT +</span></td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">TONNEAU LIGHT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">GROUND</td> -<td class="center">N<sup>o</sup>. 10</td> -<td class="center">GROUND FUSE</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right">MAGNETO SWITCH</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="right">N<sup>o</sup>. 18 DUPLEX</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">N<sup>o</sup>. 14</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right">DASH & EXTENSION<br> -LIGHT</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="left">N<sup>o</sup>. 10</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="center">AMMETER</td> -<td class="right">N<sup>o</sup>. 0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right">HORN BUTTON</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">REAR LIGHT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">HEAD LIGHT</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">MOTOR</td> -<td class="right">STARTING SWITCH</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="left">HORN</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">2<sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub> LOOM</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 89. Wiring Diagram—Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page156">[156]</span></p> - -<p>As a battery becomes charged its voltage increases reducing -the difference in pressure between the generator and battery -and decreasing the charging current to the battery.</p> - -<h3>ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING OPERATION</h3> - -<p>Current from the generator passes through an ammeter -and this meter shows the current being supplied to the battery -and the lights, or to the battery only when no lights are -in operation.</p> - -<p><b>Starting Motor.</b>—The starting motor is provided with a -square shaft and carries a pinion which can be moved horizontally -on this shaft. This pinion meshes directly with teeth -cut on the flywheel.</p> - -<p>The starting pedal located at the driver’s seat connects -through linkage to fork which shifts the link on the square -shaft of the motor. The same foot pedal linkage operates -the starting switch. Normally a spring holds the motor -pinion out of mesh with the flywheel teeth, and also holds the -starting switch in an “off” position.</p> - -<p><b>Operation of the Starter.</b>—Depressing the starter, one -pedal operates the starting switch and makes a preliminary -contact which connects the starting motor to the storage battery -through a resistance located inside of the starting switch. -This resistance permits a small amount of current to pass -through the starting motor, causing its armatures to rotate -at relatively slow speed. This slow rotation insures proper -meshing of the pinion and flywheel teeth when they are -brought into engagement. Depressing the foot pedal also -shifts the pinion on the square shaft of the motor so as -to bring it into contact with the teeth on the flywheel.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page157">[157]</span></p> - -<p>When the pinion is in full mesh with the teeth on the fly, -the moving contact in the starting switch has traveled to a -position where the resistance is cut out of the circuit, connecting -the storage battery directly to the starting motor. The -starting motor will then spin the gas motor.</p> - -<p><b>Starting.</b>—First see that the necessary adjustments have -been made, then depress the starting foot pedal as far as it -will go and hold it firmly in place until the gas motor starts. -The instant the gas motor begins firing the foot pedal should -be released. The starting pedal should be pressed as far as -it will go without any pausing on the downward stroke.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig90">Fig. 90</a> shows diagram of operation and wiring of the -Bijur electrical system used on Jeffery 4-cylinder car.</p> - -<p>If the pinion and flywheel teeth do not mesh properly -do not hold the starting pedal down, release it and after a -few seconds pause, depress the pedal again.</p> - -<p>If the gas motor does not start firing promptly after spinning -it with the electric motor, do not continue to spin it, -but see that the proper adjustments for starting have been -made and that there is gasoline in the carburetor, and that the -ignition is in working order.</p> - -<p>Continued spinning of the gas motor by the electric motor -will not damage the electrical equipment but constitutes a useless -drain on the storage battery and should be avoided.</p> - -<p><b>Wiring.</b>—<a href="#Fig90">Fig. 90</a> shows the circuits for all electric appliances -on the Jeffrey-4 car. The various units are wired on -the two-wire system. The “out of focus” filaments in the head -lamp bulbs are wired on the three-wire system, the chassis -acting as a neutral wire, one side of the “out of focus” filament -being grounded in the head lamps. The “in focus” -filaments are on the two-wire system.</p> - -<p>The dash lamp is on the tail lamp circuit and is so arranged -that these two lamps are always in operation when -any combination of head lamp filaments are in use.</p> - -<p><b>Fuse Circuits.</b>—Each head lamp is separately fused, the -current for both filaments in each head lamp bulb passing -through one fuse.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page158">[158]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig90"> - -<img src="images/illo180.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w70emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w16pc"> -<col span="3" class="w10pc"> -<col class="w16pc"> -<col class="w22pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="center">GROUND TO OIL PIPE</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">GROUNDED TO INSTRUMENT<br> -ASSEMBLY</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">RIGHT HEAD LIGHT</td> -<td class="left">GENERATOR</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="left">DASH LAMP</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">SWITCH</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">INDICATOR</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">CYLINDERS<br> -1 2 3 4</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="left">CONNECTIONS THROUGH SWITCH -IN “DIM” POSITION</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">FUSE AND<br> -JUNCTION BLOCK</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="left bot">HORN</td> -<td class="left">CONNECTIONS THROUGH SWITCH -IN “ON” POSITION</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right">MAGNETO</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">HORN BUTTON</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center bot">MOTOR</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center bot">STARTING SWITCH</td> -<td class="left bot">BATTERY</td> -<td class="left">WIRING FOR 6-CYLINDER MODEL -661 IS THE SAME AS FOR 4-CYLINDER -MODEL 462, EXCEPT FOR HIGH TENSION -LEADS BETWEEN MAGNETO -AND SPARK PLUGS.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">LEFT HEAD LIGHT</td> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left">NOTE:—DOTTED LINES INDICATE PERMANENT -CONNECTIONS BETWEEN FUSE -CABINET, DASH LAMP, CURRENT INDICATOR -AND SWITCH. CONNECTIONS AS SHOWN -FACING FUSE CABINET.</td> -<td colspan="3" class="center bot">SWITCH GROUNDED</td> -<td class="right top">REAR</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 90. Wiring Diagram—Jeffrey-Four</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page159">[159]</span></p> - -<p>Separate fuses are provided for the electric horn circuit and -for the rear lamp circuit. The push button for operating the -electric horn is mounted on the center of the steering post.</p> - -<p><b>Ground Fuse.</b>—A fuse is located in the ground circuit -between the lamp controller and the magneto top to ground.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig91"> - -<img src="images/illo181.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 91. Hydrometer Syringe</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Lamp Controller.</b>—A pair of wires from the terminals of -the storage battery connect to the five position lamp controller. -All lighting circuits connected to this controller -which may be locked in any of the five positions.</p> - -<p>Oiling should be practiced regularly every two weeks or -every five hundred miles. Two or three drops of thin neutral -oil should be put in each of the two oilers of the motor and -in each of the two oilers of the generator. Do not flood the -bearings with oil.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page160">[160]</span></p> - -<p>At the same time the starting motor shaft should be oiled. -An oil hole is provided in the top of the starting motor gear -case and about ten drops of cylinder oil should be used.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig91">Fig. 91</a> shows a hydrometer syringe used for determining -the specific gravity or density of the solutions in the battery -cells.</p> - -<p>To take specific gravity readings unscrew the filler or vent -plug and insert the tube into the cell and release bulb slowly -to draw the acid solution into the chamber until the hydrometer -floats. The enlarged graduated stem shows a reading -of 1.280 at the point where it emerges from the solution. -After testing, the solution must be returned to the cell from -which it was taken. Specific readings above 1200 show the -battery more than half charged.</p> - -<p>Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery completely discharged -or run down.</p> - -<p>Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should be -given a long run to restore the battery.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page161">[161]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXIV</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">NORTH EAST STARTER SYSTEM USED ON DODGE -BROTHERS’ CARS</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The North East starter system shown in <a href="#Fig91A">Fig. 91<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></a> comprises -the North East Model G starter-generator and the combined -starting switch and reverse current cut-out. This equipment -serves to start the engine and provide current for the lamps -and other electrical accessories as well as for the ignition -system. The battery as the source of current while the engine -is not in operation or is running slowly; but at all -engine speeds above 350 R. P. M. the starter-generator supplies -current for the entire electrical system.</p> - -<p><b>Wiring.</b>—In the accompanying wiring diagrams the starting -circuit is represented by the very heavy cables; the -charging circuit, where it does not coincide with the starting -circuit, by the cables of medium weight, and the lighting and -the ignition circuits by the light cables. As will be seen from -the diagrams, the starting circuit extends from the positive -terminal of the battery to the starting switch, and thence, -when the switch is closed, through the starter-generator armature -and field coils back to the negative terminal of the battery -by way of the grounded negative starter-generator terminal, -the car frame, and the battery ground connections. -The charging circuit is identical with the starting circuit except -at the starting switch, where instead of passing from -one switch terminal to the other through the switch contactor -it extends through a parallel path which includes the -reverse current cut-out and the charging indicator. The cable -leading to the lighting and ignition switch is attached to the -positive terminal of the indicator. From this switch the lighting -and the ignition circuits become distinct, and each, after -passing through its proper course, reaches the car frame and -returns through it to the source of supply.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page162">[162]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig91A"> - -<img src="images/illo184.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w65emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w12pc"> -<col class="w33pc"> -<col span="2" class="w05pc"> -<col span="2" class="w08pc"> -<col class="w05pc"> -<col class="w07pc"> -<col class="w05pc"> -<col class="w12pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="left">Charging<br> -Indicator</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Lighting & Ignition<br> -Switch</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Dash<br> -Lamp</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">Horn</td> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top">Head Lamp</td> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left top">Ground -<span class="righttext">Tail<br> -Lamp</span></td> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left top">Ground</td> -<td colspan="3" class="left bot">Horn Button</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Starting Switch<br> -and<br> -Reverse Current<br> -Cut-out</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center bot">Ground</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Ground<br> -Connection</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left top">Ground</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="10" class="left">Head Lamp</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="right">Battery</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">Ground</td> -<td class="right">Starter-Generator</td> -<td colspan="8" class="right">Ground Connection</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 91<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>. Dodge Wiring Diagram</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page163">[163]</span></p> - -<p>Without exception all the connections of the starting and -lighting system must be made as indicated in this diagram if -entirely satisfactory results are to be obtained from the equipment.</p> - -<p><b>Starter-Generator</b> (<a href="#Fig92">Fig. 92</a>).—The starter-generator is -mounted on the left side of the engine by means of an adjustable -support and a clamping strap. It runs at three times -engine speed, operating directly from the crank shaft through -a silent chain drive. Being a single unit machine, it employs -but one armature with only one commutator, one set of field -windings and one set of brushes for the performance of all of -its functions both as a starter and as a generator.</p> - -<p>While starting the engine it acts as a cumulatively compounded -motor; but while serving as a generator it operates -as a differentially compounded machine with its output positively -controlled through the agency of a Third Brush Regulating -system, supplemented by the differential influence of the -series field upon the shunt field.</p> - -<p>The machine is designed for 12 volt service and, when driven -by the engine, normally begins to deliver current to the battery -as soon as the car speed is brought up to approximately -10 miles per hour. From this point on, the charging rate -rises rapidly with increasing speed until the standard maximum -rate of 6 amperes is reached at a car speed of 16 or 17 -miles per hour. From this speed to 20 or 21 miles per hour -it remains practically constant, but above 21 miles per hour -it decreases gradually until at the upper speed limit of the -engine it may become as low as 3 amperes.</p> - -<p>This charging rate conforms throughout with the standard -recommendations of the battery manufacturers. The early -maximum reached by the starter-generator output provides -amply for the demands of current at ordinary driving speeds; -while the tapering characteristic, which comes into effect at -high speeds, serves to protect the battery from superfluous -charging in instances where cars may be subjected to continuous -high speed service.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page164">[164]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig92"> - -<img src="images/illo186.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w70emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w30pc"> -<col class="w08pc"> -<col span="2" class="w10pc"> -<col class="w16pc"> -<col class="w12pc"> -<col class="w14pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">FIELD COIL</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">TIE ROD</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">ARMATURE</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">FIELD RING</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">FUSE</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="left">RETAINING PLATE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left">CORK PACKING WASHER</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">COMMUTATOR</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="left">ARMATURE SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="left">BALL BEARING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6" class="left">SPROCKET</td> -<td class="left">COMMUTATOR-END<br> -HOUSING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">3<sup>RD</sup> BRUSH PLATE<br> -ADJUSTING-STUD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">SPRING END-PLAY<br> -WASHER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">BALL BEARING<br> -LOCKING SLEEVE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">BEARING-CAP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">FELT<br> -OILING-WASHERS</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">BALL BEARING</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6" class="left">OIL SLINGER.</td> -<td class="center">CLAMP-SCREW</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">3<sup>RD</sup> BRUSH PLATE<br> -CLAMP</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left">CRIMPED SPACER</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">COVER-BAND</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left">SPROCKET-END HOUSING</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">BRUSH-HOLDER STUD</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">BRUSH</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">BRUSH HOLDER</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 92. North East Model G Starter-Generator</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page165">[165]</span></p> - -<p><b>Adjustment of Charging Rate.</b>—The third brush system is -so constructed as to permit the charging rate to be changed -when desired to a higher or to a lower value than that for -which it is normally adjusted. Such adjustments should not -be attempted by the car owner himself, and should never be -made except in cases of actual necessity where the normal -charging rate does not meet the special service conditions -under which the equipment may be required to operate permanently. -In every instance where there is any reason to believe -that a modification of the rate would be beneficial, the -car owner should refer the equipment to the North East Electric -Company or its nearest branch or service station.</p> - -<p><b>Fuse.</b>—The fuse is located on the commutator end of the -starter-generator. Its purpose is to protect the electrical system -if possible by rendering the starter-generator inoperative -whenever abnormal operating conditions may occur. Due to -its protective function the fuse is always the first point in the -system to be inspected in case the starter-generator ever failed -to produce current. If the fuse is found to be “blown” or -missing, a new one should be applied and the machine given -a preliminary test before further search for trouble is made. -Should the generator fail to deliver current even after a new -fuse has been installed or should the new fuse “blow” when -the machine is in operation, the entire electrical system should -then be inspected thoroughly for possible faults such as open -circuits, improper connections or abnormal grounds. Under -such circumstances the difficulty should always be corrected -before any further attempt is made to operate the equipment.</p> - -<p><b>Precautions Necessary for the Operation Without Battery -in Circuit.</b>—The third brush regulating system requires a -closed charging circuit for the successful performance of its -duties. The battery, therefore, forms an indispensable link -in the system and its presence in circuit is always essential to -the proper operation of the starter-generator. Should the -machine ever have to be operated with the battery disconnected<span class="pagenum" id="Page166">[166]</span> -or with the charging circuit otherwise incomplete, the electrical -system must be protected by rendering the machine inoperative. -This is to be done by removing the fuse from its -clips.</p> - -<p>When the starter-generator thus rendered incapable of producing -current, no ignition current will be available from the -usual sources. Under such circumstances, therefore, the engine -cannot be operated without some provisional source of -ignition current. A battery of nine or ten dry cells will serve -satisfactorily as a temporary substitute provided they are -used for ignition only.</p> - -<p><b>Starting Switch and Reverse Current Cut-out.</b>—The reverse -current cut-out is located in the same case with the -starting switch. This combined switch and cut-out is mounted -near the center of the toe-board where the switch push-rod -button is within convenient reach from the driver’s seat.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page167">[167]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXV</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM—BUICK CARS</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The motor generator which is located on the right side of -the engine is the principal part of the Delco System. This -consists essentially of a dynamo with two field windings, and -two windings on the armature with two commutators and corresponding -sets of brushes, in order that the machine may -work both as a starting motor, and as a generator for charging -the battery and supplying the lights, horn and ignition. -The ignition apparatus is incorporated in the forward end of -the motor generator. This in no way affects the working of -the generator, it being mounted in this manner simply as a -convenient and accessible mounting. The motor generator has -three distinct functions to perform which are as follows:</p> - -<div class="itemlist"> - -<p>1.—Motoring the generator.</p> - -<p>2.—Cranking the engine.</p> - -<p>3.—Generating electrical energy.</p> - -</div><!--functions--> - -<p id="Ref04">Motoring the generator is accomplished when the ignition -button on the switch is pulled out. This allows current to -come from the storage battery through the ammeter on the -combination switch, causing it to show a discharge. The first -reading of the meter will be much more than the reading after -the armature is turning freely. The current discharging -through the ammeter during this operation is the current required -to slowly revolve the armature and what is used for -the ignition. The ignition current flows only when the contacts -are closed, it being an intermittent current. The maximum -ignition current is obtained when the circuit is first -closed and the resistance unit on the front end of the coil is -cold. The current at this time is approximately 6 amperes, -but soon decreases to approximately 3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> amperes. Then as -the engine is running it further decreases until at 1000 revolutions -of the engine it is approximately 1 ampere.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page168">[168]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig93"> - -<img src="images/illo190.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w70emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w25pc"> -<col class="w10pc"> -<col class="w45pc"> -<col class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="right">LEAD TO SWITCH.</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">TO SHUNT FIELD.</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center">IGNITION COIL.</td> -<td class="right">RESISTANCE UNIT.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">TO THIRD BRUSH.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">TO POS. BATTERY.</td> -<td colspan="3" class="right">DIS. HEAD LOCATING TONGUE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="left">TO NO 1 TERMINAL.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="left">TO NO 2 TERMINAL.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left">BRUSH OPERATING ROD. -<td class="right">OILER A.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="left">TO STARTING PEDAL.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="left">STARTING GEARS.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">A</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">FIELD COIL.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left">OILER B.</td> -<td class="right">DISTRIBUTOR<br> -SHAFT GEAR.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left">FLY WHEEL.</td> -<td class="right">PUMP SHAFT.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">ARMATURE.</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="right">LUBRICATOR C.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="right">GENERATOR<br> -CLUTCH.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right">ROLLER BEARING.</td> -<td colspan="2" class="right">BALL BEARING.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="right">OIL DRAIN.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left">ONE WAY CLUTCH BUILT IN<br> -THIS GEAR.</td> -<td class="right">MOTOR COMMUTATOR.</td> -<td class="right">GENERATOR COMMUTATOR.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 93. Delco Motor Generator—Showing Parts</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page169">[169]</span></p> - -<p>This motoring of the generator is necessary in order that -the starting gears may be brought into mesh, and should -trouble be experienced in meshing these gears, do not try to -force them, simply allow the starting pedal to come back -giving the gears time to change their relative positions.</p> - -<p>A clicking sound will be heard during the motoring of the -generator. This is caused by the overrunning of the clutch -in the forward end of the generator which is shown in -<a href="#Fig93">Fig. 93</a>.</p> - -<p>The purpose of the generator clutch is to allow the armature -to revolve at a higher speed than the pump shaft during -the cranking operation and permitting the pump shaft to -drive the armature when the engine is running on its own -power. A spiral gear is cut on the outer face of this clutch -for driving the distributor. This portion of the clutch is -connected by an Oldham coupling to the pump shaft. Therefore -its relation to the pump shaft is always the same and -does not throw the ignition out of time during the cranking -operation.</p> - -<p>The cranking operation takes place when the starting pedal -is fully depressed. This causes the top motor brush to come -in contact with the motor commutator. As this brush arm -lowers, it comes in contact with the gear in the generator -brush arm raising the generator brush from its commutator. -At the same time the current from the storage battery flows -through the heavy series field winding, motor brushes and -motor winding on the armature. The switching in this circuit -is accomplished by means of the top motor brush which is -operated from the starting pedal. (Shown in <a href="#Fig94">Fig. 94</a>).</p> - -<p>This cranking operation requires a heavy current from the -storage battery, and if the lights are on during the cranking -operation, the heavy discharge from the battery causes the -voltage of the battery to decrease enough to cause the lights<span class="pagenum" id="Page170">[170]</span> -to grow dim. This is noticed especially when the battery is -nearly discharged; it also will be more apparent with a stiff -motor or with a loose or poor connection in the battery circuit. -It is on account of this heavy discharge current that the -cranking should not be continued any longer than is necessary, -although a fully charged battery will crank the engine for -several minutes.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig94"> - -<img src="images/illo192.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w12emmax"> - -<p class="center">Brush Operating Rod</p> - -<p class="center">Motor Brush</p> - -<p class="center">Generator Brush</p> - -<p class="center">Generator<br> -Commutator</p> - -<p class="center">Motor Commutator</p> - -<p class="center">Third Brush</p> - -<p class="center">Plate Slotted To Permit<br> -Third Brush Adjustment</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 94. Delco Motor Generator—Diagram of Operation</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>During the cranking operation the ammeter will show a -discharge. This is the current that is used both in the shunt -field winding and the ignition current; the ignition current, -being an intermittent current of comparatively low frequency, -will cause the ammeter to vibrate during the cranking operation.<span class="pagenum" id="Page171">[171]</span> -If the lights are on the meter will show a heavier discharge.</p> - -<p>The main cranking current is not conducted through the -ammeter, as this is a very heavy current and it would be impossible -to conduct this heavy current through the ammeter -and still have an ammeter that is sensitive enough to indicate -accurately the charging current and the current for lights and -ignition.</p> - -<p>As soon as the engine fires the starting pedal should be -released immediately, as the overrunning motor clutch is -operating from the time the engine fires until the starting gears -are out of mesh. Since they operate at a very high speed, if -they are held in mesh for any length of time, there is enough -friction in this clutch to cause it to heat and burn out the -lubricant. There is no necessity for holding the gears in -mesh.</p> - -<p>The motor clutch operates between the flywheel and the -armature pinion for the purpose of getting a suitable gear -reduction between the motor generator and the flywheel. It -also prevents the armature from being driven at an excessively -high speed during the short time the gears are -meshed after the engine is running on its own power.</p> - -<p>This clutch is lubricated by the grease cup A, shown in -<a href="#Fig93">Fig. 93</a>. This forces grease through the hollow shaft to the -inside of the clutch. This cup should be given a turn or two -every week.</p> - -<p>When the cranking operation is finished the top brush is -raised off the commutator when the starting pedal is released. -This throws the starting motor out of action (<a href="#Fig94">Fig. 94</a>). -The top brush comes in contact with the generator commutator, -and the armature is driven by the extension of the -pump shaft.</p> - -<p>At speeds above approximately 7 miles per hour the generator -voltage is higher than the voltage of the storage battery -which causes current to flow from the generator winding -through the ammeter in the charge direction to the storage -battery. As the speed increases up to approximately 20 miles<span class="pagenum" id="Page172">[172]</span> -per hour this charging current increases, but at the higher -speeds the charging current decreases.</p> - -<p id="Ref03"><b>Lubrication.</b>—There are five places to lubricate the Delco -System:</p> - -<div class="itemlist"> - -<p>1. The grease clutch for lubricating the motor clutch.</p> - -<p>2. Hole at B (<a href="#Fig93">Fig. 93</a>) for supplying cup grease for -lubricating the generator clutch and forward armature -bearing.</p> - -<p>3. The oiler C in the rear end cover for lubricating the -bearing on the armature shaft. This should receive -a few drops of oil once a week.</p> - -<p>4. The oil hole in the distributor at A (<a href="#Fig93">Fig. 93</a>) for -lubricating the top bearing of the distributor shaft. -This should receive oil once a week</p> - -<p>5. This is the inside of the distributor head. This should -be lubricated with a small amount of vaseline, carefully -applied two or three times during the first 2000 -miles running of the car, after which it will require -no attention. This is to secure a burnished track for -the rotor brush on the distributor head. This grease -should be sparingly applied and the head wiped clean -from dust and dirt.</p> - -</div><!--itemlist--> - -<p>The combination switch (<a href="#Fig95">Figs. 95</a> and <a href="#Fig96">96</a>) is for the purpose -of controlling the lights, ignition, and the circuit between -the generator and the storage battery. The button next to -the ammeter controls both the ignition and the circuit between -the generator and the storage battery, the latter circuit being -shown in the heavier line as shown on the circuit diagram -(<a href="#Fig98">Fig. 98</a>). The button next to this controls the head lights. -The next button controls the auxiliary lamps in the head -lights. The button on the left controls the cowl and tail -lights.</p> - -<p>The circuit breaker is mounted on the combination switch as -shown in <a href="#Fig96">Fig. 96</a>. This is a protective device, which takes -the place of a fuse block and fuses. It prevents the discharging<span class="pagenum" id="Page173">[173]</span> -of the battery or damage to the switch or wiring to -the lamps, in the event of any of the wires leading to these -becoming grounded. As long as the lamps are using the normal -amount of current the circuit breaker is not affected. -But in the event of any of the wires becoming grounded an -abnormally heavy current is conducted through the circuit -breaker, thus producing a strong magnetism which attracts -the pole piece and opens the contacts. This cuts off the flow -of current which allows the contacts to close again and the -operation is repeated, causing the circuit breaker to pass an -intermittent current and give forth a vibrating sound.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig95"> - -<img src="images/illo195a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 95. Delco Ignition Switch Plate</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig96"> - -<img src="images/illo195b.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<p class="left">Circuit Breaker</p> - -<p class="right">Numbers of Lower Terminals</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker—Mounted</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>It requires 25 amperes to start the circuit breaker vibrating,<span class="pagenum" id="Page174">[174]</span> -but once vibrating a current of three to five amperes will -cause it to continue to operate.</p> - -<p>In case the circuit breaker vibrates repeatedly, do not attempt -to increase the tension of the spring, as the vibration -is an indication of a ground in the system. Remove the -ground and the vibration will stop.</p> - -<p>The ammeter on the right side of the combination switch is -to indicate the current that is going to or coming from the -storage battery with the exception of the cranking current. -When the engine is not running and current is being used for -lights, the ammeter shows the amount of current being used -and the ammeter hand points to the discharge side, as the -current is being discharged from the battery.</p> - -<p>When the engine is running above generating speeds and no -current is being used for lights or horn, the ammeter will -show charge. This is the amount of current that is being -charged into the battery. If current is being used for lights, -ignition and horn, in excess of the amount that is being generated, -the ammeter will show a discharge as the excess current -must be discharged from the battery, but at all ordinary -speeds the ammeter will read charge.</p> - -<p>The ignition coil is mounted on top of the motor generator -as shown in <a href="#Fig94">Fig. 94</a> and is what is generally known as the -ignition transformer coil. In addition to being a plain transformer -coil it has incorporated in it a condenser (which is -necessary for all high tension ignition systems) and has included -on the front end an ignition resistance unit.</p> - -<p>The coil proper consists of a round core of a number of -small iron wires. Wound around this and insulated from it is -the primary winding. The circuit and arrangement of the different -parts are shown in <a href="#Fig97">Fig. 97</a>. The primary current is -supplied through the combination switch through the primary -winding and resistance through the coil, to the distributor contacts. -This is very plainly shown in <a href="#Fig98">Fig. 98</a>. It is the interrupting -of this primary current by the timer contacts together -with the action of the condenser which causes a rapid -demagnetization of the iron core of the coil that induces the<span class="pagenum" id="Page175">[175]</span> -high tension current in the secondary winding. This secondary -winding consists of several thousand turns of very fine copper -wire, the different layers of which are well insulated from -each other and from the primary winding. One end of the -secondary winding is grounded and the other end terminates -at the high tension terminal about midway on top of the coil. -It is from this terminal that the high tension current is conducted -to the distributor where it is distributed to the proper -cylinders by the rotor shown in <a href="#Fig98">Fig. 98</a>.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig97"> - -<img src="images/illo197.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w30emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w20pc"> -<col class="w60pc"> -<col class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Connects<br> -To Switch</td> -<td class="center">High Tension Wire<br> -To Center Of Distributor</td> -<td class="right">Connects To<br> -Distributor</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Primary<br> -Winding</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">Resistance<br> -Unit</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Secondary<br> -Winding</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right bot">Iron Core</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left">Condenser</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="center">Coil Bracket Must Be Grounded</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 97. Delco Ignition Coil</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The distributor and timer, together with the ignition coil, -spark plugs, and wiring, constitute the ignition system.</p> - -<p>The proper ignition of an internal combustion engine consists -of igniting the mixture in each cylinder at such a time -that it will be completely burned at the time the piston reaches -dead center on the compression stroke. A definite period of -time is required from the time the spark occurs at the spark -plug until the mixture is completely expanded. It is therefore -apparent, that, as the speed of the engine increases, the -time the spark occurs must be advanced with respect to the -crank shaft, and it is for this reason that the Delco ignition -systems are fitted with an automatic spark control.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page176">[176]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig98"> - -<img src="images/illo198.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w60emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w16pc"> -<col class="w08pc"> -<col span="2" class="w12pc"> -<col class="w05pc"> -<col class="w10pc"> -<col class="w17pc"> -<col class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">CIRCUIT BREAKER</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">AMMETER</td> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -<td class="left">COWL LIGHT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">RESISTANCE UNIT</td> -<td class="center">SWITCH</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="right">BRUSH SWITCHES<br> -OPERATED BY<br> -STARTING PEDAL</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="left top">CONDENSER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">IGNITION COIL</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">TONNEAU<br> -LIGHT</td> -<td class="right">HEAD<br> -LIGHTS</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right bot">SERIES FIELD</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="center">ROTOR FOR DISTRIBUTING<br> -HIGH TENSION CURRENT</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">MOTOR</td> -<td class="left">GENERATOR</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="left">TAIL LIGHT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center top">STORAGE<br> -BATTERY</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center top">SHUNT<br> -FIELD</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center top">TO SPARK PLUGS<br> -<span class="righttext padr1">DISTRIBUTOR</span></td> -<td class="left">ADVANCE<br> -TUNGSTEN<br> -TIMING<br> -CONTACTS</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center top">AUX<br> -LIGHT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="center">HORN BUTTON<br> -IN WHEEL</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 98. Delco Wiring Diagram—Buick Cars</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page177">[177]</span></p> - -<p>The quality of the mixture and the amount of compression -are also factors in the time required for the burning to be -complete. Thus a rich mixture burns quicker than a lean -one. For this reason the engine will stand more advance with -a half open throttle than with a wide open throttle, and in -order to secure the proper timing of the ignition due to these -variations and to retard the spark for starting, idling and carburetor -adjusting, the Delco distributor also has a manual -control.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig99"> - -<img src="images/illo199.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<p class="right">Rotor Button<br> -Rotor<br> -Breaker Cam<br> -Timing Adjustment<br> -Automatic Weights</p> - -<p class="noindent">Advance Lever</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 99. Delco Ignition Distributor</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The automatic feature of this distributor is shown in <a href="#Fig99">Figs. -99</a> and <a href="#Fig100">100</a>. With the spark lever set at the running position -on the steering wheel (which is nearly all the way down -on the quadrant), the automatic feature gives the proper spark -for all speeds excepting a wide open throttle at low speeds, -at which time the spark lever should be slightly retarded. -When the ignition is too far advanced it causes loss of power -and a knocking sound within the engine. With too late a -spark there is a loss of power which is usually not noticed -except by an experienced driver or one very familiar with -the car and heating of the engine and excessive consumption -of fuel is the result.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page178">[178]</span></p> - -<p>The timer contacts shown at D and C (<a href="#Fig100">Fig. 100</a>) are two -of the most important points of an automobile. Very little -attention will keep these in perfect condition. These are -tungsten metal, which is extremely hard and requires a very -high temperature to melt. Under normal conditions they wear -or burn very slightly and will very seldom require attention; -but in the event of abnormal voltage, such as would be obtained -by running with the battery removed, or with the -ignition resistance unit shorted out, or with a defective condenser, -these contacts burn very rapidly and in a short time -will cause serious ignition trouble. <i>The car should never be -operated with the battery removed.</i></p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig100"> - -<img src="images/illo200.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w12emmax"> - -<p class="center">3 AUTOMATIC<br> -WEIGHTS</p> - -<p class="noindent">DISTRIBUTOR<br> -CONTACT BREAKER<br> -CAM</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>It is a very easy matter to check the resistance unit by observing -its heating when the ignition button is out and the -contacts in the distributor are closed. If it is shorted out it -will not heat up, and will cause missing at low speeds.</p> - -<p>A defective condenser such as will cause contact trouble -will cause serious missing of the ignition. Therefore, any of -these troubles are comparatively easy to locate and should be -immediately remedied.</p> - -<p>These contacts should be so adjusted that when the fiber -block B is on top of one of the lobes of the cam, the contacts -are opened the thickness of the gauge on the distributor -wrench. Adjust contacts by turning contact screw C, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page179">[179]</span> -lock nut N. The contacts should be dressed with fine emery -cloth so that they meet squarely across the entire face.</p> - -<p>The rotor distributes the high tension current from the -center of the distributor to the proper cylinder. Care must be -taken to see that the distributor head is properly located, -otherwise the rotor brush will not be in contact with the terminal -at the time the spark occurs.</p> - -<p>The distributor head and rotor should be lubricated as described -under the heading “<a href="#Ref03">Lubrication</a>.” The amount of -ignition current required for different speeds is described -under the heading “<a href="#Ref04">Motoring the Generator</a>.”</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page180">[180]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXVI</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">STORAGE BATTERY</span><br> -<span class="thirdline smcap">Construction, Operation and Care</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The modern storage battery does not produce or generate -electrical force. It was designed to carry an extra supply of -current in storage to operate lighting and starting systems, -and in most cases the current required for ignition is drawn -from this supply.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig101"> - -<img src="images/illo202.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w10emmax"> - -<p class="noindent">Terminal Post<br> -Cell Retainer Case<br> -Cell Jar<br> -Negative Plate<br> -Separator<br> -Positive Plate</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 101. Storage Battery, Sectional View</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>A storage battery is also called an accumulator, as it accumulates -and retains a charge of electrical current for future -use.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig101">Fig. 101</a> illustrates a storage battery -with a section of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page181">[181]</span> -cell retainer case removed to show the location of the cells, -their respective order, terminal posts and connections. A section -of the cell jar, has also been removed to show the core, -which consists of a set of positive and negative plates. The -positive plates are inserted between the negative plates and -are held in this position through their respective connections -to the positive and negative terminal posts. The cell retainer-jars -are made of zinc or rubber, and contain an acid -and water solution called electrolyte into which the core is -entirely immersed.</p> - -<p><b>The Positive and Negative Plates.</b>—The plates are held -from direct contact with each other by a wood or rubber separator. -These plates are formed with small sectional compartments -called grids, into which a lead compound in paste form -is pressed. The positive plates are made of lead oxide (zinc), -and are dark gray in color, while the negative plates are -made of pure lead, and are light gray in color.</p> - -<p><b>Cells.</b>—The cells are connected up in series, that is, the positive -terminal post of one cell is connected to the negative terminal -post of the next cell, forming a direct path through the -cell arrangement. Each cell will retain a two-volt pressure -until fully discharged. The voltage of a battery is determined -by adding the number of two-volt cells that it contains.</p> - -<p><b>Amperage.</b>—The standard type of storage battery shown in -<a href="#Fig102">Fig. 102</a> is composed of three two-volt cells which form a six-volt -unit of sixty ampere hours, which means that a fully -charged battery will deliver one ampere per hour for sixty -hours. This, also, is about the rate of amperage consumed by -the modern battery ignition system.</p> - -<p><b>Electrolyte Solution.</b>—The electrolyte solution is composed -of a mixture of one part of sulphuric acid added to four to -six parts of water. This solution is poured into the cell -through the filler cap, until the plates are covered from one-fourth -to one-half inch in depth as shown in <a href="#Fig102">Fig. 102</a>.</p> - -<p>Care should always be exercised to keep the air vent in the -filler cap free from grease and dirt in order that the gases -formed through evaporation may escape.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page182">[182]</span></p> - -<p><b>Battery Charging.</b>—The cells are charged by passing a direct -current through them, which causes a chemical action to -take place as the current flows in, changing the nature of the -positive and negative plates, thereby retaining a current force -equal to the difference of the changed nature of the plates. -The battery is entirely discharged when the plates become -alike in nature.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig102"> - -<img src="images/illo204.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w25emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w25pc"> -<col class="w30pc"> -<col class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Unscrew<br> -this Cap</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Fill up to<br> -this Point</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center bot">SOLUTION</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Don’t fill<br> -above<br> -this Point</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">PLATE</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 102. Storage Battery, Sectional View</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Storage Battery Care and Maintenance.</b>—Regularly once -every week during the summer, and every two weeks during -the winter, add water to each of the three cells of the battery, -until the tops of the plates are covered. Use water only; -never add acid of any kind. Water for battery purposes -should be distilled fresh rain or melted ice, and must be free -from alkali, iron, or other impurities. The battery should be -kept clean and free from dirt. Use only clean non-metallic -vessels for handling and storing water for battery purposes.</p> - -<p>The state of charge of a battery is indicated by the specific<span class="pagenum" id="Page183">[183]</span> -gravity or density of the solution. <a href="#Fig103">Fig. 103</a> shows a hydrometer -syringe used for taking specific gravity readings. The -filler or vent plug in the top of the cell is removed and the -rubber tube of the hydrometer syringe inserted into the cell -so that the end of the tube is below the solution. Then -squeeze the rubber bulb slowly, drawing the solution into the -acid chamber until the hydrometer floats.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig103"> - -<img src="images/illo205.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 103. Hydrometer Syringe</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The reading on the graduator stem at the point where it -emerges from the solution is the specific gravity or density of -the solution.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig103">Fig. 103</a> shows an enlarged section of the hydrometer floating -so that the reading of the graduated scale is 1.280 at the -point where it emerges from the solution. This is the specific -gravity or density of the solution.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page184">[184]</span></p> - -<p>After testing, the solution must be returned to the cell from -which it was taken.</p> - -<p>Never take specific gravity readings immediately after -adding water to the cells.</p> - -<p>The specific gravity readings are expressed in “points,” -thus the difference between 1.275 and 1.300 is 25 points.</p> - -<p>When all the cells are in good condition the specific gravity -will be approximately the same in all cells and the difference -should not be greater than 25 to 30 points.</p> - -<p>With a fully charged battery the specific gravity of the solution -will be from 1.280 to 1.300.</p> - -<p>Specific gravity readings above 1.200 indicates that the battery -is more than half charged.</p> - -<p>Specific gravity readings below 1.200, but above 1.150 indicates -battery less than half charged.</p> - -<p>Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery discharged or run -down.</p> - -<p>Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should -be given a long run with all lights turned off, to restore the -battery.</p> - -<p>This condition may result from leaving a car standing for -prolonged periods with all lights in use and insufficient running -of the gas motor in between these periods to replace the -current taken to supply the lights.</p> - -<p>When the specific gravity shows the battery to be half discharged, -the lights should be used sparingly until the gravity -rises to approximately 1.275.</p> - -<p>If the specific gravity in one cell is much lower than that -of the others, and if successive readings show the difference -to be increasing, this indicates that the cell is not in good -order.</p> - -<p>If one cell regularly requires more water than the others -(continually lowering the specific gravity), a leaky jar is indicated. -Leaky jars should be replaced immediately.</p> - -<p>If there is no leak and the specific gravity falls 50 to 75 -points below that of the other cells in the battery, an internal -short circuit is indicated and should be remedied.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page185">[185]</span></p> - -<p><b>Battery to Remain Idle.</b>—Where a battery is to remain out -of active service for a long period, it may be kept in good -condition by giving it a freshening charge at least once a -month, by running the gas motor idle.</p> - -<p>When a battery has been out of service for some time it -should be given a thorough charge before it is placed in -service again.</p> - -<p>If the gas motor cannot be run to give a freshening charge, -the battery should be taken from the car and placed at a -garage, which makes a business of charging storage batteries. -It can be charged at least once a month. This charge should -be 4 and <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> to 5 amperes for twenty-four hours.</p> - -<p><b>Battery Freezing.</b>—In order to avoid freezing, a battery -should be kept in a fully charged condition, as a fully charged -battery will not freeze except at extreme temperatures. As a -battery discharges the specific gravity of the solution decreases, -and the specific gravity of a fully discharged battery -will be approximately 1.120. Batteries of this low gravity -will freeze at 20° F. above zero, whereas, the density of the -solution in a battery approximately three-quarters charged will -be 1.260, and a solution of this density will not freeze until -60° F. below zero.</p> - -<p><i>See</i> <a href="#Ref02">Accumulator</a>. Chapter 14, Electrical Dictionary—Function -and Chemical Action.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page186">[186]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXVII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">SPARK PLUGS AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Some definite knowledge of spark plug construction quality, -and care, will be found very useful to the average motorist -in purchasing new plugs, and keeping those in present use, -in good condition. A good plug properly constructed should -outlast the life of the motor. When purchasing new plugs, -first examine the old plug and get one of the same length. -This is very important as spark plugs are made in as many -different lengths as required by high and low compression -motors. High compression motors have a small low walled -combustion chamber, while low compression motors usually -have a spacious high wall chamber and require a longer plug, -whereas if the long plug is used in the high compression -motor it may be put out of commission by the ascending -piston. Next determine the size of the plug and the gauge of -the thread. The majority of motors use the <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> inch plug, -with the S. A. E. thread, while a few still use the A. L. A. M. -thread which is much finer gauged. Another point to be remembered -is that it is an unwise expenditure to purchase -cheap plugs because the intense heat and pressure that they -are subjected to and required to stand, demands that they be -made of the highest quality of material and workmanship.</p> - -<div class="container w15em" id="Fig104"> - -<img src="images/illo209.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 104. Spark Plug</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig104">Fig. 104</a> shows the sectional construction of a spark plug -costing from one dollar to one dollar and fifty cents. No. 1, -the terminal, is designed to fit all connections. No. 2 nut -which holds electroids firmly in place. No. 3 represents -round edged shoulders which prevent the plug from short -circuiting on the outside. No. 4 is a heavy electroid which -will not break or burn. No. 5 is an extra heavy insulator -which insures a good spark in case the outer porcelain insulator<span class="pagenum" id="Page187">[187]</span> -becomes broken or cracked. No. 6 is a bushing which -holds the insulator firmly in place from the top. No. 7 is a -high compression washer which allows for upward expansion -and makes an even seat for the bushing which holds the insulator -in position. No. 8 is a massive porcelain insulator -designed to withstand a high temperature without cracking. -No. 9 is a copper asbestos washer that allows for the downward -expansion of the insulator. No. 10 is the shell casting -which holds and protects the insulator. No. 11 are rounded -corners which will allow the plug to be screwed down flush -without coming into contact with the curved walls of the cup -containers. No. 12 is a high compression washer which prevents -all leakage. No. 13 shows elastic cement which -strengthens the lower construction of the insulator and prevents -the compression from escaping through the center of the -insulator. No. 14 is a hardened polished steel tipped electroid. -No. 15 is a bent polished steel electroid dipped on -each side of the spark in order to prevent oil from running -down from the shell casting and closing the spark gap. No.<span class="pagenum" id="Page188">[188]</span> -16 represents an extended center electroid which prevents any -oil that may have lodged on it from stopping at the spark gap.</p> - -<p><b>Spark Plug Cleaning.</b>—To insure a smooth running motor -and a good spark, the spark plugs should be cleaned at thirty -day intervals. It is not always necessary to disassemble them -at this time as the carbon usually collects and bakes on the -metal casting shell and can be removed by running a thin -knife blade or finger nail file around the inner surface. However, -when the insulator becomes pitted or carbon burnt the -plug should be disassembled and the insulator wiped clean -with a cloth dampened in kerosene. Never immerse the insulator -in kerosene, as this will loosen the cement around the -center electroid and cause the plug to leak compression. The -shell may be immersed. It is then wiped dry and the inside -surfaces scraped or rubbed with a piece of sand or emery -paper to dislodge the carbon pits. After all parts have been -thoroughly dried the plug is reassembled, using new washers.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page189">[189]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXVIII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The clutch used in automobile construction of the present -day becomes a necessary part of the equipment upon the -adoption by manufacturers of the progressive and selective -types of sliding gear transmissions.</p> - -<p>When the engine is started the clutch is “in,” that is, in contact -with the flywheel, and all parts of the clutch revolve with -it at the same speed. The shaft on which the clutch is -mounted extends into the transmission gear case, but as the -transmission gears are in a neutral position, the movement -of the car is not affected.</p> - -<p>When the car is to be started the clutch foot pedal (usually -on the left side of the steering column) is pressed down. -This throws the part attached to the drive shaft out of contact -with the part attached to the flywheel, and in its backward -movement it comes into contact with the clutch brake, as -shown in <a href="#Fig105">Fig. 105</a>, which stops it from revolving. The hand -gear control lever is shifted into the first speed slot or position. -The pressure on the foot pedal is then gradually released -and the clutch is carried in by spring tension, and the car -moves off at first speed.</p> - -<p><b>Second Speed.</b>—The clutch is thrown “out” after a brief -lapse of three to five seconds has been allowed for the -brake to slow up rotation in order that the gears to be meshed -will be rotating at the same speed. The hand control lever is -now shifted into the second speed slot, and the clutch pedals -released.</p> - -<p><b>High Speed or Direct Drive.</b>—The clutch is thrown out and -a few seconds allowed for it to slow up. The hand control -lever is shifted into the high speed slot, which connects the<span class="pagenum" id="Page190">[190]</span> -drive or propeller shaft directly to the clutch shaft and the -car is driven at crank shaft speed when the clutch is let in.</p> - -<p><b>Reverse.</b>—The clutch is employed in the same manner. -However, the motion of the car, the clutch and all gears must -be at a stand still before the gear control lever is shifted to -the reverse speed slot, as the gears in the transmission operate -in the opposite direction.</p> - -<div class="container w20em" id="Fig105"> - -<img src="images/illo212.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 105. Cone Clutch and Brake</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<h3>OPERATION</h3> - -<p>A clutch always consists of two parts, one part which is -attached to the flywheel, and another part which operates on -or against the part formed by the flywheel.</p> - -<p>While there are five to seven different types of clutches, but -two types are used by the majority of automobile manufacturers. -The single or multiple disc clutch is used almost exclusively<span class="pagenum" id="Page191">[191]</span> -in unit power plant construction, while the cone -type is used when the transmission is carried in a separate -unit.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig105">Fig. 105</a> shows the cone clutch with its three adjusting -springs and clutch brake. The cone is shown in a lighter color -than the flywheel. It has a funnel-shaped surface with a slant -or angle of from thirty to thirty-eight degrees. The slanted -surface is faced with leather and fits into the rim of the flywheel -which has been ground to the same slant. The cone -clutch is not attached to the flywheel but forms a part and -revolves with it when the faces are in contact. The cone is -carried on a separate short shaft which extends into the transmission -case. This shaft carries a steel plate or disc at the -front end to which the cone which slides on the shaft is anchored -by studs extending from the plate through the cone. -The studs usually number three or four and carry a two to -three inch spring on the outer end back of the cone. The -cone is backed out of contact with the flywheel face, against -the tension of these springs, in a toggle leverage connected to -the foot pedal. The clutch brake shown in <a href="#Fig105">Fig. 105</a> is adjustable -and makes contact with the rim of the cone retarding -the rotation when the cone is drawn out of contact with the -flywheel.</p> - -<p><b>Cone Clutch Care.</b>—The leather face of the cone should -receive 5 to 7 drops of Neat’s foot oil every thirty days. A -grease cup will be found on the cone which provides lubrication -for the shaft on which the cone slides. This should be -given a half turn every second day.</p> - -<p><b>Cone Clutch Adjustment.</b>—The three studs extending -through the cone, have a lock nut adjustment on the outer -end, and the cone may be adjusted up to make a stronger face -contact by loosening the lock nut and turning the inner nut -to the right. This strengthens the spring tension and causes -the contact faces to set more firmly. This adjustment, however, -should take place only when clutch slipping is noted. -Only a little movement of the nuts is necessary, and all three -or four nuts should be taken up a like amount in order to<span class="pagenum" id="Page192">[192]</span> -prevent the cone from running out of line or making uneven -contact.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig106">Fig. 106</a> shows the multiple disc clutch used almost exclusively -in connection with the unit power plant. This type -of clutch consists of a set of plates attached and driven by -the flywheel, and another set of plates or thin discs attached -to the drive shaft. The drive shaft plates operate between the -flywheel plates. The contact is frictional and the plates are -held together by spring tension.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig106"> - -<img src="images/illo214.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmission</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<h3>BORG AND BECK CLUTCH</h3> - -<p>The new Borg and Beck Clutch is provided with a thrust -bearing at the inner end of the clutch sleeve, which does -away with the friction between the parts, and eliminates the -need of a clutch brake.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page193">[193]</span></p> - -<p>The clutch is mounted in the customary way in a housing -which contains both the flywheel and the clutch.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig107"> - -<img src="images/illo215.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 107. Borg and Beck Clutch</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Referring to the sectional view, <a href="#Fig107">Fig. 107</a>, the action of the -clutch is clear if it is kept in mind that among the rotatable -parts only the driven group, comprising of the disk A and -the shaft B, can stand still when the flywheel is running. All -the other rotatable parts are anchored to the flywheel, and -must revolve and drive with the latter. The clutch brake was -formerly mounted at the inner end of the clutch shaft, and -has been replaced by the thrust bearing shown at C.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page194">[194]</span></p> - -<p>When the clutch is disengaged there is no friction between -the shaft B, and the throw out sleeve D. The thrust bearing -takes the rotating drag of the clutch shaft, thereby eliminating -the necessity for a brake to check the spinning action. The -friction and power action is readily understood as, when the -clutch is thrown in, all the rotating parts are friction locked -into a single combination and revolve as one with the flywheel.</p> - -<p>The power of the release clutch spring E, acting through -the throwout-collar F, and the bell crank pivot G, drives -the thrust shoes outwardly with a lever wedge toggle combination -of powers against the overhanging, inward beveled -face to the thrust ring H, since the parts on which they are -mounted are backed against the cover wall or rigid end of the -clutch casing. It therefore follows that the full part shafting -effect of the thrust is communicated to the thrust ring H, -and the latter, in being driven hard toward the flywheel, sets -up between itself and the inner casing wall a friction grip -sufficiently powerful to stop the slippage of the asbestos rings -upon the polished faces of the discs, thus giving the drive to -the car.</p> - -<p>When the pedal is depressed to release the clutch, the retracing -parts telescope the coil of the spring E, until it -occupies nearly a single plane. The withdrawing parts also -release the clutch shoes a sufficient distance from the face of -the thrust ring H to permit the latter, together with its companion -friction ring, to back away from the disc, thus breaking -the friction grip and permitting it to come to a stop, -while the flywheel and the parts of the clutch anchored to it -are left free to revolve idly.</p> - -<p>The release disc A is so light that its spinning does not continue -except for a very short time and does not offer any -clashing action on the gears. The full thrust of the spring -transmitted through the powerful lever toggle action to the -friction grip parts is always sufficient to lock the driving flywheel -parts, and the driven disc, into a fixed nonslipping relation -for a full driving action; but it is still always within -control of the driver, through the foot lever, to let the clutch<span class="pagenum" id="Page195">[195]</span> -into engagement by degrees, and thus by a gradual increase of -the friction grip, gradually overcome the starting slippage.</p> - -<p><b>Adjustments.</b>—Taking up adjustments are provided by -means of bolts acting through adjustment slots in the cover. -When the bolts are loosened and shifted in their cover slots, -they control and shift with them an adjustment ring which -brings all the shoes to new seats against the nonslipping -thrust ring and these seats being farther up the inclines of the -tapered ring, the ring is necessarily thrust much farther toward -the other friction parts, thus compensating the wear.</p> - -<p>The adjustment for throw-out can be controlled by taking -up the friction grip adjustment, the latter being identical with -the take up adjustment just described, as these too are taken -care of by the same mechanical means to make the adjustment -on the clutch.</p> - -<p><b>Disc Clutch Cleaning; Dry Plate.</b>—Dry plate clutches do -not require any oil, except that the grease cups (which provide -lubrication for the sleeve shaft and bearings) be filled -weekly and given a half turn every second day. The housing -and plates should be cleaned whenever slipping becomes -noticeable. To do this remove the cover from the housing, -and the drain plug from the bottom, hold the clutch out, and -squirt kerosene over the plates with a dope gun. This will remove -the grease from the plates, and also any dirt or grit that -may have lodged in the bottom of the housing.</p> - -<p><b>Disc Clutch Cleaning; Wet Plate.</b>—The wet plate clutch is -cleaned in the same manner as the dry plate, except that the -plug is first removed from the bottom of the housing and the -oil drained off before using the kerosene. After the plates -and housing have been cleaned, replace the drain plug and -fill the housing up to the clutch shaft with a heavy cylinder oil.</p> - -<h3>CONE CLUTCH CLEANING</h3> - -<p>Cone clutches are always in perfect condition when leaving -the factory and should not require any further attention -during the first season or for eight to ten thousand miles of -service.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page196">[196]</span></p> - -<p>After that it is usually necessary to replace the leather, or -reline the cone, which makes it as good and as serviceable as -when it was new.</p> - -<p><b>New Clutch Leathers.</b>—New clutch leathers may be obtained -from the manufacturer, or from the service station, by -giving the number and model of the car. New clutch leathers -obtained in this way are cut, shaped, and have the ends cemented, -and are ready to be slipped on or off, over the cone -and riveted into place. However, the leather must first be -soaked in water or Neat’s foot oil to make it soft and pliable. -This allows it to be driven or stretched over the cone. The -rivets must be counter-sunk to prevent the heads from extending -above the top surface of the leather, which would cause the -clutch to “grab” or jerk upon being engaged.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig108"> - -<img src="images/illo218.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 108. Cone Clutch Leathers—Pattern—Cutting</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Measuring and Cutting Clutch Leathers.</b>—Whenever possible -it is advisable to purchase clutch leathers cut and cemented, -ready to put on. But in case of emergency or when -the proper size cannot be obtained, a new leather may be cut -from a piece of leather three-sixteenth of an inch in thickness -using the old leather as a pattern. But in case the old -leather is not available to serve as a pattern, proceed in the -following manner which is illustrated in <a href="#Fig108">Fig. 108</a>, which shows -how to make an exact pattern out of paper without going -into technicalities. Take a piece of heavy wrapping paper, -forty or fifty inches long and twenty inches wide, lay the cone -on the left hand edge about one inch from the bottom of the -sheet, roll the cone keeping the paper flat on the face until<span class="pagenum" id="Page197">[197]</span> -the starting edge meets the sheet, hold the wrapped cone and -draw a line around the inside of the paper, letting the pencil -rest against the edge of the large diameter of the cone; repeat -at the small end of the cone, then draw a line parallel -to the starting edge where it meets the sheet. This will give -you a pattern similar to that shown with the dotted lines in -<a href="#Fig108">Fig. 108</a>.</p> - -<p>Now secure a piece of unstretchable leather (belting is -preferable). This belting or leather should be slightly longer -than the pattern you have just completed and sufficiently -wide to embrace the curve; about twelve to fifteen inches -wide for the average clutch will be sufficient, and about three-sixteenths -of an inch thick.</p> - -<p>Cut out the paper pattern and lay it on the leather belting -as shown in <a href="#Fig108">Fig. 108</a>, and cut out with a sharp knife, leaving -one-half inch over at each end as a safety measure and for -mitering the joints. Fit this leather to the cone and cut the -ends the exact size, miter the ends and cement with a good -leather cement. Be sure that you have the rough or flesh side -of the new facing on the outside; rivet it firmly in place and -smooth down the rough spots with a piece of coarse sand -paper, clean off all dirt, grease, and grit, especially the grit -from the sand paper, as this will grind and score the smooth -surface of the flywheel and cause clutch slipping. Paint the -leather with Neat’s foot oil and the clutch is ready to be assembled -and adjusted.</p> - -<p><b>Cone Clutch Cleaning.</b>—Cone clutches usually do not require -any special care or cleaning unless oil or grease, other -than (Neat’s foot or castor) are applied accidentally or by mistake -to the leather face. If this happens the grease must be -thoroughly cleaned off of the leather face with kerosene or -gasoline otherwise the clutch will not hold. After the clutch -leather has been washed allow it to dry for twenty minutes -and apply a thin coat of Neat’s foot oil evenly on the leather -face before reassembling the clutch.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page198">[198]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXIX</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Transmission came into use with the application or adoption -of the internal combustion engine as a factor in motor car -propulsion.</p> - -<p>As this type of engine develops its power by a rapid succession -of explosions in the combustion chambers, each explosion -delivers an impulse or power stroke to the piston, -which in turn sets the crank shaft and flywheel to revolving. -The momentum gathered by the crank shaft and flywheel may -therefore be termed the power for duty, or in other words, -unless there is momentum or carrying motion at this point, -there will be little or no power for duty.</p> - -<p>This brings us up to a point where it is easy to see that a -rapid series of explosions are necessary to gain carrying momentum -or power to move a dead weight load. As this motional -power could not be applied to the load without serious -damage to the gears and bearings, it was necessary to invent -a device to gradually transmit or apply the power to the -movable load by graduating the leverage. This resulted in -the development of the automobile transmission. The natural -way of doing this at first seemed to be by applying the power -to the load by frictional slippage. Many ingenious devices -of this sort were tried out without much success until the -driving and driven disc type made its appearance.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig109">Fig. 109</a> shows the driving and driven disc type of friction -transmission. This type of transmission is not being used -by any of the present day manufacturers of automobiles, but -may still be found on some of the three and four-year-old -models still in operation.</p> - -<p>A, the drive shaft, is squared and slides backward a distance<span class="pagenum" id="Page199">[199]</span> -of three inches through a squared sleeve extending from -the hub of the flywheel. The action of this shaft is controlled -by a leverage arrangement to a foot pedal. B, the -steel plate driving disc, is attached to the end of shaft A, and -drives C, when held back against it by pressure on the foot -pedal. Disc C can be slid in any position on the jack or -cross shaft D, and is controlled by a leverage arrangement -connected to a hand lever. The various speeds are obtained -by sliding disc C into different positions and contacts on the -left side of disc B. Reverse speeds are obtained by sliding -disc C over center where it forms contact on the right side of -B and is driven in an opposite direction.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig109"> - -<img src="images/illo221.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 109. Friction Transmission</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>The Planetary Type of Transmission.</b>—The planetary type -of transmission made its appearance along about the same time -as the friction type. The power is transmitted to the load -through a set of reduction gears arranged in a drum. A king -gear on the engine shaft operates a set of small gears in the -drum. These small gears reduce the leverage speed and transmit -the power to the drive shaft, a band similar to that used -on brakes is fitted to the face of the drum. When this drum -containing the reduction gears is not in use it turns at crank -shaft speed. The speed is used by pressing a foot pedal -which tightens the brake band and holds the drum stationary, -thereby forcing the smaller gears into action.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page200">[200]</span></p> - -<p>Planetary transmissions are shown and fully explained in -a later chapter. (See <a href="#Page269">Model T Ford Supplement</a>.)</p> - -<p><b>The Sliding Gear Transmission.</b>—This type of transmission -has proved very successful, and is used by 98 per cent of the -present day automobile manufacturers. This type of transmission -made its first appearance with a progressive gear -shift, that is, it was necessary to proceed through one speed -or set of gears to engage the next. This arrangement caused -considerable confusion at times, as it was necessary to reshift -the gears back through these speeds to attain neutral, when -the car was brought to a stand still.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig110"> - -<img src="images/illo222.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w30emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w12pc"> -<col class="w20pc"> -<col class="w12pc"> -<col class="w40pc"> -<col class="w16pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">Neutral</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">2nd.</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">Rev.</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">Rev.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="center">2nd.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Neut.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">1st.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">3rd.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">3rd.</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">1st.</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="center">Ball-and-Socket<br> -Shift</td> -<td class="center">H or Gate Type<br> -Gear Shift</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig111"> - -<img src="images/illo223.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 111. Sliding Gear Transmission—Sectional View</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The control lever operated on a straight forward and backward -direction on a quadrant, having a notch for each speed -change. This gear shifting arrangement has also been abandoned -by manufacturers in favor of the selective gear shift -which is arranged so that the driver may choose any speed at -will. <a href="#Fig110">Fig. 110</a> shows the control lever which operates in a -frame resembling the block letter H and the ball and socket -shift which operates in the same manner. <a href="#Fig111">Fig. 111</a> shows the -complete assembly of the selective sliding gear transmission. -The sliding gears are arranged on a separate core and are -operated by an individual throw fork, which seats in a groove -on the shoulder of the gear. Low and reverse are always opposite -each other on the same core. High and intermediate -are located on another core, and are controlled by another individual<span class="pagenum" id="Page201">[201]</span> -shifting fork. The gear box arrangement (<a href="#Fig111">Fig. A</a>) -shows the cast gear box which contains the gears, shafts, and -bearings, and a roomy compartment below the gears in which -grease is carried, as the gears in this type of transmission always -operate in an oil bath which prevents excessive wear and -causes them to operate noiselessly. <a href="#Fig111">Fig. B</a>, the gear case -cover, contains the slotted sliding shafts, to which the gear -in shifting forks are attached. <a href="#Fig111">Fig. C</a> shows the arrangement -of the gears in the case and explains their operation. Gear -No. 1 is attached to the extreme end of the engine shaft, and -is continually engaged with gear No. 4, which causes the<span class="pagenum" id="Page202">[202]</span> -counter shaft No. 11, containing the stationery gears, to revolve -whenever the engine shaft No. 9 is in operation. The -drive shaft No. 8 does not run straight through and connect -with No. 9, the engine shaft, but ends and takes its bearing -in the core of gear No. 1. Consequently, when the gears on -the drive shaft are slid into mesh with the gears on the counter -shaft, variable speeds are attained. Low speed is obtained by -sliding gear No. 3 into mesh with gear No. 6; second or intermediate -is obtained by meshing gears No. 2 and gear No. 5.</p> - -<p>High, or engine speed, is obtained by sliding gear No. 2 -which is cored and shouldered over the end of gear No. 1, -making a direct connection of the drive shaft No. 8, and the -engine shaft No. 9, at this point. Reverse is obtained by meshing -gear No. 3 on the drive shaft with gear No. 10, which is -an extra or idle gear mounted on a stub shaft on the rear of -the gear case. Idle gear No. 10 is always in mesh with gear -No. 7, on the counter shaft.</p> - -<p>Functional operation engine shafts always turn to the -right or clockwise, which causes the counter shaft to turn to -the left or anti-clockwise. This causes the drive shaft to turn -to the right when low or intermediate speed gears are engaged, -driving the car forward. Reverse, is obtained by the -use of an extra gear in this way. Counter shaft turning to -the left turns idle gear to the right, and this gear turning to -the right, turns gear on the drive shaft to the left, and causes -the car to be driven in a backward direction. In the unit -power plant shown in <a href="#Fig112">Fig. 112</a>, the operation and gear shifting -are identical with that of the separate gear case. The -crank case of the motor is either extended or another case attached -to the motor which has a compartment arranged to -contain the clutch and transmission gears. This arrangement -results in compactness, and does away with the supports -required to carry the transmission separately.</p> - -<p><b>Transmission Care.</b>—The transmission should be thoroughly -cleaned and refilled with fresh grease or heavy oil once in every -thousand miles that the car is driven to prevent excessive -wear and much noise. To clean, remove the plug at the bottom<span class="pagenum" id="Page203">[203]</span> -of the case, and the cover from the top. After the old -oil has drained out, replace the plug, fill the case half full of -kerosene, replace the cover, and let the motor run for a few -minutes with the gears in neutral. Drain the kerosene off, -and wash the case and gears off with a paint brush which has -been dipped into fresh kerosene. Then examine the gears for -blunt burrs and the bearings for looseness. If the gears are -burred or chipped, file, or grind them down to level. If the -bearings are loose they will have to be replaced, as the bearings -used to carry both the counter and drive shaft are seldom -provided with means of adjusting. These bearings, however, -will not show wear for years if properly cared for. Next, -see that the gear case is free from grit and filings, replace the -drain plug, and fill the gear case to within one half inch from -the drive or propeller shaft with a light graphite grease or -heavy oil, and replace the cover using a new gasket.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig112"> - -<img src="images/illo225.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly—Unit Power Plant</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page204">[204]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXX</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">UNIVERSAL JOINTS</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig113"> - -<img src="images/illo226a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w10emmax"> - -<p class="noindent">Oil Plugs<br> -Slip Joint<br> -Oil-tight Washer</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<img src="images/illo226b.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w10emmax"> - -<p class="noindent">Oil Plugs<br> -Slip Joint<br> -Oil-tight Washer</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 113. Slip Joint and Universal</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Universal joints were designed to transmit power from one -shaft to another at constantly changing angles. An automobile -engine cannot be hung at the low level required to allow -straight line drive, as it would have to be carried from six to -eight inches lower than it is in present construction, and this -would allow very little road clearance if any. And as the -rear axle receives the power transmitted to it at a constantly -changing level due to torque and spring action, it is necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page205">[205]</span> -to have a flexible coupling on the propeller shaft between the -engine and the rear axle to prevent the gears and bearings -from being damaged from distortion.</p> - -<p>Universal joints are made of the best steel or bronze, do not -require any adjusting, and will outlast the life of a car, providing -they are not driven at too great an angle, and are kept -well lubricated. A metal shell or leather boot is fitted to the -joint to carry and provide constant lubrication. This boot -or container should be kept well-packed with a heavy oil, -(600-W steam oil, Whitemore’s compound or a light graphite -grease).</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig114"> - -<img src="images/illo227.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w05emmax"> - -<p class="noindent">No 3001<br> -No 3004<br> -No 3003<br> -No 3002<br> -No 3006<br> -No 3007<br> -No 3008<br> -No 3005<br> -No 3009<br> -No 3010<br> -No 3011</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 114. Universal-Joint Construction Diagram</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Remove the oil plug every thirty days and pack the housing. -Use a dope or oil gun to force in the lubricant. The housing -should be subjected to regular inspections quite frequently as -the lubricant often escapes from the end boot due to distortion -and wear.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page206">[206]</span></p> - -<p><a href="#Fig113">Fig. 113</a> shows the rigid construction of a heavy duty universal -joint and slip joint. The ends of the shafts are yoked -and fitted to a swivel cross block; the leather boot follows the -angle of the shaft and makes the housing oil tight.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig114">Fig. 114</a> shows a sectional view of the “Standard” universal -joint, manufactured by the Universal Machine Co., of Bowling -Green, Ohio. The left-hand cut shows the forward section -and tapered shaft seat. This joint gives a combined universal -action and slip on a two inch square. All points are -concentric and always in balance. The bearings are provided -with grooves and holes for lubrication. A metal and leather -boot is also provided for protection, and as a grease retainer. -And owing to the flange type there are but four bolts -to remove in order to disassemble this joint.</p> - -<p>The names of the various parts are given according to corresponding -numbers.</p> - -<ul class="parts"> - -<li>3001—Flange</li> - -<li>3003—Adapter for same</li> - -<li>3002—Socket</li> - -<li>3006—Bronze caps</li> - -<li>3007—Trunion head</li> - -<li>3008—Metal boot</li> - -<li>3009—Leather boot</li> - -<li>3010-11—Boot clamps</li> - -<li>3004—Oil plug</li> - -<li>3005—Bolts</li> - -</ul> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page207">[207]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXI</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Differential gears were designed to allow for equalization -of the power strain transmitted to the rear axles.</p> - -<p>The rotary movement is transmitted to the axles joining the -wheels by a bevel gear, which if simple would drive both wheels -at the same speed. This is satisfactory on the “straight -ahead” drive, but it is clear that in turning a corner the car -is describing a portion of a circle, and the inner wheel having -a smaller circumference to traverse, must go at less speed than -the outer. The differential gear was devised to allow for this -difference in power stresses.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig115"> - -<img src="images/illo229.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 115. Differential Action Diagram</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>It is perhaps the functional action more than the simple -mechanism that one finds the most confusion about. The diagram -given in <a href="#Fig115">Fig. 115</a> shows how the functional action is -mechanically carried out.</p> - -<p>In the first place, each wheel, W, is fixed firmly to an independent -axle turned by pinions, D and E. These pinions<span class="pagenum" id="Page208">[208]</span> -are connected by another, C. Now if D turns, E will rotate -in the opposite direction due to the action of C. If D and E -are rotating in the same direction at the same speed, C will -merely lock with them and not rotate. If now, D accelerates -slightly, C will turn, slowly retarding E, while if E accelerates, -C will turn slowly in the opposite direction retarding D. -This is precisely what is required in turning a corner. Now -fix these in a box, driven as a whole by the bevel or ring -gear B driven by the driving pinion gear A. When the car -is on the straight ahead drive D, C, E are locked. C does not -rotate and the three act as a single axle. As the car turns, -C turns slowly, acted upon by the outer wheel, and gives the -differential action.</p> - -<p><b>The Worm Gear Drive.</b>—The worm gear drive differential -action is practically the same as the bevel gear action, the -only difference being that there is a worm gear on the end of<span class="pagenum" id="Page209">[209]</span> -the drive shaft which engages with a helical toothed gear, -which takes the place of the bevel gear B.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig116"> - -<img src="images/illo230.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 116. Differential Assembly</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig116">Fig. 116</a> shows the differential gear assembly which is carried -by a set of bearings. These bearings are held in place -by a set of shoulders, or retainers which are built into the -housing on each side of the differential assembly. These -bearings may be of either the radial, roller, or ball type. -However, when the ball or roller bearing is used for carrying -the differential, an end thrust bearing must be used in conjunction -to take the end thrust and for adjusting purposes. -The differential assembly shown is known as the bevel gear -and pinion drive. The pinion gear is keyed to the tapered -end of the drive shaft and usually does not carry an adjustment. -The bevel gear mesh adjustment is made by setting -the bearing supporting the differential assembly backward or -forward. This adjustment, however, applies mostly to the -full floating axle, as the axle shaft in this case usually has a -square end which slides into the small bevel gear of the differential. -The shaft used in this type of axle may be drawn out -through the wheel and replaced without disassembling the -axle or removing the weight from the wheels.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig117"> - -<img src="images/illo231.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig 117. Differential Adjusting Points</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>When the Hotchkiss drive is employed in combination with -the semi-floating or three-quarters floating axle, three adjusting<span class="pagenum" id="Page210">[210]</span> -points will be found. <a href="#Fig117">Fig. 117</a> shows the three points -at which adjustments are made. The short drive shaft carries -the pinion gear at the rear end, and a universal joint at -the front end is supported by a set of radial bearings inside -of the front and rear ends of the housing.</p> - -<p>The adjustment on this shaft is made by turning the notched -cone A1 to the right, which pushes the bearings farther upon -the bearing cones and reduces the looseness. After the short -shaft has been properly adjusted, remove the lugs B, which -fit into the notches of the adjustment nuts, A2 and A3, and -turn A2 to the left to loosen, now turn A3 to the right until -the bevel gear is meshing properly with pinion gear, then replace -the lugs, B, to hold the adjustment. It is only necessary -to make this adjustment when play occurs from natural wear, -which will happen probably once in every five to seven thousand -miles.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig118"> - -<img src="images/illo232.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w12emmax"> - -<p class="center">CASE</p> - -<p class="center">CAM</p> - -<p class="center">CAM FULCRUM PIN</p> - -<p class="center">PAWL</p> - -<p class="center">PAWL BLOCK</p> - -<p class="right">LUG</p> - -<p class="center">RETAINING PLATE</p> - -<p class="center">RATCHET RING</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 118. Allen Gearless Differential</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig118">Fig. 118</a> shows a cross-section of the Allen gearless differential. -The main gearing is bolted to the casing. The wheel -shafts are splined to ratchet rings. The two lugs of the pawl -block are secured in slots in the casing so that the block turns -with it. Eight pawls on the pawl block drive, the ratchet rings -two on each side operate for forward, and two on each side -for reverse. The pawls permit either ratchet ring to overrun<span class="pagenum" id="Page211">[211]</span> -them and move freely in the direction of motion, so long -as it is moving faster than the pawl block. The lugs of the -pawl block have a little motion, about <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>″, in the slots, so -that the casing moves this distance before engaging them for -forward or reverse motion. This operates the rocking cams -by their heads inserted in slots in right angles to the lugs, -having the effect of pressing on and disengaging the forward -or reverse pawls according to the direction of the motion.</p> - -<p>When the car is running by its momentum with the clutch -out, the action is reversed and the ratchet rings drive the -casing and driving gear through the pawl block.</p> - -<p>The adjustment given above also applies to the setting of the -Allen differential.</p> - -<p><b>Lubrication.</b>—<i>See</i> Chapter on <a href="#Page212">Axles</a>.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page212">[212]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Two types of rear axles are being used by the manufacturers -of automobiles—the live axle, and the dead axle. The -live axle which carries the weight of the load and transmits -the power of rotation to the wheels, is built in two distinct -designs called the semi-floating axle, and the full-floating -axle. The semi-floating design is used extensively in -manufacturing cars of light weight, while the full-floating -design is favored more by the manufacturers of cars of medium -and heavy weight. Both designs give equally satisfactory -results.</p> - -<p>The dead axle carries the weight of the car and load in -much the same manner as a horse drawn vehicle. The power -is conveyed to the loose wheels on the axle, by means of a -chain which operates on a sprocket attached to the hub of the -wheel, or by an internal gear drive arranged and housed in the -brake drums.</p> - -<p><b>The Semi-floating Axle.</b>—In the semi-floating design of -axle, the axle shaft carries the weight and transmits the rotation -power to the wheel, which is keyed and locked to the -outer end. The axle shaft is provided with a bearing at each -end which operates on the inside of a closely fitted housing. -The inside end of each axle shaft is bolted directly to the differential. -The housing is split or divided into two halves, and -bolts together in the center over the differential. This design -of axle gives excellent service, but has one disadvantage in -that it is somewhat difficult to disassemble, as the rear system -must be disconnected from the car to take the housing apart. -<a href="#Fig119">Fig. 119</a> shows a part sectional view of a semi-floating axle -used by the Detroit Taxicab Co. The wide series of S. K. F.<span class="pagenum" id="Page213">[213]</span> -ball bearings used on this axle are self aligning, which prevents -any binding action from shaft deflection.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig119"> - -<img src="images/illo235.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>The Full-floating Axle.</b>—The full-floating design of axle -serves the same functional purpose as the semi-floating design, -but is constructed differently and operates on a widely different -plan. In the full-floating design of axle, the axle shaft -does not support any of the weight of the car or load, but -serves simply as a member to transmit the power rotation to -the wheels. The wheels are mounted on separate bearings, -which operate on the outside of the outer end of the housing. -The inner ends of the axle shafts are squared, or splined and -slide into slots or seats in the differential gears. The differential -assembly is in a separate unit, and is floated on bearings -held by retainers extending from the forward end of the -large ball-shaped center of the housing. The outer end of the -axle shaft extends through the hub of the wheel, and has -an umbrella-shaped plate on the end which bolts to the outside -face of the wheel, as shown in <a href="#Fig120">Fig. 120</a>, thus transmitting the -power directly to the outside of the wheel, without the axle -shaft taking any bearing. The axle shaft may be drawn out -through the wheel, by removing the nuts which secure the umbrella -plate, without removing the weight of the car from the -wheels. The differential unit can also be removed without disassembling -the housing, by removing a large cover plate from -the center of the housing. <a href="#Fig121">Fig. 121</a> shows a typical full-floating -axle, with a spiral bevel gear drive. The wheels in -this case are mounted on a set of double series radial and<span class="pagenum" id="Page214">[214]</span> -thrust ball-bearings. The Hotchkiss type of short shaft final -drive is carried in the forward extended part of the housing.</p> - -<div class="container w25em" id="Fig120"> - -<img src="images/illo236a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 120. Full-Floating Axle—Wheel-End Arrangement</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig121"> - -<img src="images/illo236b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 121. Full-Floating Axle</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>Two types of front axles are used by the manufacturers of -automobiles. The I-beam type, which is a one piece drop -forging, and the tubular or hollow type, which is round and -has the yoke fitted into the ends. Both types operate on the -same principle and plan, the only distinction between the types -is that one type has the I-beam cross member and the other -type has a pipe or tubular cross member.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig122"> - -<img src="images/illo237.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>The front axle consists of an I-beam or tubular cross member, -which is yoked at each end as shown at A, in <a href="#Fig122">Fig. -122</a>. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page215">[215]</span> -steering knuckle B is held between the ends of the yoke by C, a -king pin, which allows the knuckle to swing in a half circle. -D, the spindle or short axle, is provided with a set of radial -thrust bearings. The wheel is adjusted snugly to the bearings -E by a castillated nut F. The adjustment is held by a cotter -pin which extends through the spindle and head of the nut F. -A short arm extends backward from each steering knuckle, -shown at G, in <a href="#Fig122">Fig. 122</a>, and are connected together by an adjustable -tie or spread rod shown at H. A half circle ball arm -extends from the knuckle and circles over the axle. A rod or -drag link forms the connection between the ball arm and the -steering arm of the steering gear. <a href="#Fig123">Fig. 123</a> shows the location -of the parts assembled on a typical drop forged I-beam -front axle. A section of the hub has been removed to show -the location of the double row radial end thrust ball bearings.<span class="pagenum" id="Page216">[216]</span> -This type of bearing is becoming very popular for automobile -uses.</p> - -<p><b>Adjustments of the Semi-floating Type of Axle.</b>—The short -shaft carried in the forward part of the housing has a center -nut adjustment between the universal joint and the pinion -gear; moving this notched nut to the right facing the rear -axle draws the shaft backward and meshes the teeth of the -pinion gear deeper with the teeth of the ring gear. After -this adjustment is made, examine the teeth for even mesh; it -may be necessary to shift the differential unit to secure an even -bearing. (<i>See</i> chapter on <a href="#Page207">differential gears</a> for detailed instructions -in regard to differential adjusting.)</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig123"> - -<img src="images/illo238.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 123. I-Beam Front Axle</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Adjustments on the Full-floating Axle.</b>—The adjustments -on the full-floating axle are usually made by shifting the differential -unit, although a pinion gear adjustment is usually -provided as described above.</p> - -<p><b>Care.</b>—The housing of both the semi-floating and the full-floating -axle should receive a fresh supply of medium fiber or -graphite grease every thousand miles. To grease, remove the -plug on the large part of the housing and force in grease with -a dope gun until it begins to bulge out of the hole.</p> - -<p>Wash out the housing every five thousand miles, and replace -the lubricant, as small metallic particles are worn off the gear -teeth and this grit, which is destructive to the gears and bearings, -mixes with the grease making it necessary to remove it -that often.</p> - -<p>A grease cup will be found located at the outer end of each -half of the axle housing, which supplies the lubricant for the -outer bearing. This grease cup should be filled weekly with a -medium cup grease and given a half turn each day.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page217">[217]</span></p> - -<p><b>Care of Front Axle.</b>—Pack the space between the bearings -in the hub of the wheel every thousand miles. Use a heavy -cup grease. The king bolts which hold the steering knuckles -between the ends of the yokes are hollow and carry a grease -cup on the head, which forces the grease out through finely -perforated holes, and lubricates the bushings on which the -pins take their bearing. This cup should be filled weekly and -given a half turn each day.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page218">[218]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXIII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>An automobile is always equipped with two sets of brakes, -as they are required by law. The functional action of the -brakes is to check the motion of the car when the driver wishes -to stop or reduce the rolling speed. The service brake usually -operates on the external surface, or on the outside of the drum -flange, and is connected to the right foot pedal through a set -of linkage. The emergency brake operates on the internal -surface of the drum, and connects through linkage to a hand -lever operating on a notched quadrant. The service brake is -used in ordinary driving to check the rolling motion and to -stop the car. The emergency brake is used to assist the -service brake and to hold the car, in case the driver wishes to -allow it to stand on a grade.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig124">Fig. 124</a> shows a set of brakes assembled on the axle ready -to receive the horizontal flange of the brake drum. The brake -drum is attached to the wheel; consequently when a wheel has -been removed and is about to be replaced, the first operation -consists of starting the drum flange into the space between the -lining of the external and internal bands; care should always -be exercised in making this adjustment, in order not to burr -the outer edge of the lining, as a brake with an uneven frictional -contact surface is of little value in checking the motion -of the car.</p> - -<p>In <a href="#Fig124">Fig. 124</a>, A shows the position of the band on the inside -of the drum; B shows the contracting tension coil spring which -holds the bearing surfaces of the band in contact with the -flat surface of the cam when the brake is not in use; C shows -the cam shaft, and the flat surfaces of the double action cam, -which expands the band and brings it into even contact with<span class="pagenum" id="Page219">[219]</span> -the inner horizontal surface of drum flange, thereby checking -the motion of the wheel by frictionally grasping the drum.</p> - -<p>The service brake shown in <a href="#Fig124">Fig. 124</a> is of the external contracting -type, which operates on, or frictionally grasps the -outside horizontal surface of the drum. D shows the lined -band, which is held in a stationary position from the rear; E -shows the leverage arrangement with its expanding coil spring, -which holds the band free from the drum, when the brake is -not in use; F is the lever to which the pull rod is connected; -G is the lever on the internal brake cam shaft to which the -hand lever is connected by the pull rod.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig124"> - -<img src="images/illo241.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 124. Brake—Types and Adjustment</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig125">Fig. 125</a> shows a new type of internal expanding brake, -which is being used on many of the late models. The brake -band in this case is supported at three points and has an adjustment -at the rear main point of support. The cam has -been done away with, and the band is expanded by a leverage -toggle arrangement which operates through a much larger area, -and is more dependable as there is no danger of its “sticking” -or turning over, as was often the case with the cam.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig126">Fig. 126</a> shows another type of service brake which may be -encountered on a few of the former models. This type of<span class="pagenum" id="Page220">[220]</span> -brake is usually located on the propeller shaft at the rear end -of the transmission case. This type of brake operates in the -same manner as the service brake at the end of the axle.</p> - -<div class="container w35em" id="Fig125"> - -<img src="images/illo242a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 125. Brake—Showing Toggle Arrangement</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig126">Fig. 126</a> shows an equalizer which allows for any difference -that may occur in making adjustments.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig126"> - -<img src="images/illo242b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 126. Transmission Brake—Equalizer</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig127">Fig. 127</a> shows the complete brake assembly, and the points -of adjustment on late Buick cars.</p> - -<p><b>Brake Adjustment.</b>—All types of brakes are adjustable.<span class="pagenum" id="Page221">[221]</span> -The service brake usually has two adjusting points, one at the -drum, which is made by turning the nut on the leverage pull -pin, and another on the pull rods. A long neck clevis, or a -long butted turn buckle will always be found on the pull rods, -or on the rod leading to the equalizer. The adjustment is -made by turning either to the right to shorten, or take up, and -to the left to lengthen. The clevis is always threaded to the -right, while the turn buckle has a right and left thread which -carries each end of the rod into the butt when it is turned -to the right. The lock nuts must always be turned up tight -to the butts after the adjustment is made in order to hold it.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig127"> - -<img src="images/illo243.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w45emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="3" class="w33pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="6"> </td> -<td class="left">BRAKE SHAFT</td> -<td class="left">SERVICE BRAKE PEDAL</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">PULL RODS</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">ADJUSTING TURNBUCKLE</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">EMERGENCY BRAKE<br> -LEVER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">INTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">EXTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT</td> -<td rowspan="5"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">ADJUSTING THUMB SCREW</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">ADJUSTMENT</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">INTERNAL BRAKE BAND</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">EXTERNAL BRAKE BAND</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 127. Brake—Arrangement and Adjustment—“Buick”</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Brake Care.</b>—A great deal depends upon the proper operation -of the brakes. They should be regularly inspected at -least once a month for loose adjustments and uncleanliness. -The need of adjustment usually occurs from natural wear, -while an unclean frictional surface is usually the result of oil -or grease seepage through the outer axle bearing. A felt -washer is provided to prevent this from taking place, but as -these washers are subjected to considerable pressure, they often -become caked and hardened and lose their absorbing effectiveness. -These washers can be purchased at any accessory store -for a few cents apiece, and applied with very little trouble.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page222">[222]</span></p> - -<p><b>Cleaning the Surface of the Brake Bands.</b>—This is accomplished -by removing the wheel and washing the friction contact -surface with gasoline, after the surfaces have become thoroughly -dry. Drop three or four drops of castor or Neat’s foot -oil on the contact surfaces of the drum, and replace the wheel -and spin it a few times before releasing the jack.</p> - -<p><b>Caution.</b>—After you have set the gears for starting, and -before you release the clutch pedal, always reach and make -sure that the emergency brake lever is in the neutral position. -New drivers invariably forget to do this, which results in severe -strain on the bearings, and causes them to get loose; the -average brake band will not stand more than fifteen to twenty -minutes of continuous contact before it burns or wears beyond -the point of usefulness.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page223">[223]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXIV</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">SPRING CARE TESTS</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Information recently gathered from observation and interviews -shows that the average owner who operates and cares for -his car, invariably overlooks the springs and their connections -while giving the car the bi-monthly or monthly tightening-up -and greasing, while the balance of the car usually receives -the required attention.</p> - -<p>This fact seems to be due mostly to an oversight, for the -springs are usually inspected while the car is motionless and -at this time they do not show defects readily, and have -the appearance of being rigid, inactive, and compact.</p> - -<p><b>Weekly Spring Care.</b>—Weekly spring care should consist -of filling the grease cups (with a medium hard oil cup grease) -and turning them down until the grease makes its appearance -at the outer edge of the spring eye. This, under ordinary -driving conditions, will be sufficient lubrication for one week. -But in cases where the car receives more than ordinary use -the grease cups should be given one-half turn every second -day. The shackle connections should then be wiped dry to -prevent dust and grit clinging and working into the bearing, -which causes much wear on even a sufficiently lubricated bearing -surface.</p> - -<p><b>Bi-monthly Spring Care.</b>—Special attention should be given -at this time to the U-shaped clips which connect the spring -to the axle. A loose clip means a broken spring at the first -severe jolt, caused by the rebound taking place between the -clips. Therefore, tightly adjusted clips will prevent action -from taking place at the point between the clips where the -leaves are bolted together and will entirely eliminate spring<span class="pagenum" id="Page224">[224]</span> -breakage. Tighten up the nut on the leave guide clip bolt to -prevent rattling. The shackles should be inspected for side -play. To determine whether there is side play, jack up the -frame until the weight is off the spring, then grasp it near the -shackle and shake with an in and out motion. If there is -play a rattle thump will be heard. To take out play, remove -cotter pin and turn up castillated nut snugly on the shackle -pin. If the nut cannot be turned up a full notch, place a thin -washer over the end of the pin. The nut, however, should -not be turned up too tight as a certain amount of action is -necessary.</p> - -<p><b>Lubrication of the Spring Leaves.</b>—Lubrication of the -spring leaves should take place once every month. This -point must be kept in mind and adhered to, as a spring cannot -produce the marked degree of action necessary for smooth -and easy riding, when the sliding surface is dry and rusty. -The leaves slide on each other when the spring opens and -closes, and if the sliding surface is not well lubricated the -movement will be greatly checked by the dry friction; these -dry surfaces also gather dampness which soon forms into -dry-rust, which, in time entirely retards action and results -in a very hard riding car.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary to disassemble the spring at the monthly -greasing period, unless the spring has been neglected and -rust has formed on the sliding surfaces. In this case the -sliding surface of each blade must be cleaned with a piece of -sand or emery paper.</p> - -<p>When the springs receive regular attention, it is only necessary -to jack up the frame until the wheels and axles are -suspended, the weight of which will usually open the leaves -sufficiently to insert a film of graphite grease with a thin case -knife. In some cases where the leaves are highly curved, it -may be found necessary to drive a small screwdriver in between -them. However, great care should be exercised in doing -this, as the blades are highly tempered and spring out of -position very easily.</p> - -<p><b>Wrapping Springs.</b>—Car owners in some parts of the country<span class="pagenum" id="Page225">[225]</span> -grease their springs and wrap them with heavy cord or adhesive -tape. While this serves to keep the grease in and the -dust and dirt out, it also binds the leaves and prevents free -action. If the car is to be driven for any length of time on -sandy or muddy roads, wrapping may be found very beneficial. -But use only a water-proof material (heavy oil paper -or canvas) to wrap with. Cut the material into one and one-fourth -inch strips, and wrap from the center toward the outer -end to prevent binding.</p> - -<p>The following shows the results of a spring care test conducted -by the writer. The cars were chosen at random and -only those accepted which had seen six months or more -service.</p> - -<p>Eighteen owners were interviewed. Six of this number gave -their springs a thorough greasing and tightening up every -two weeks, and not one of this group made a complaint of -any nature regarding breakage, stiffness, or noise.</p> - -<p>Five of the remaining twelve, gave their springs occasional -attention. Their reports were not entirely unsatisfactory, but -had a tendency toward such troubles as rattles, squeaks, and -stiffness in action.</p> - -<p>The remaining seven did not give their springs any attention -whatever, and all made unsatisfactory reports ranging -from broken leaves, to side play, jingles, squeaks and hard -riding.</p> - -<p>Therefore the results of careful and regular attention may -readily be seen by the reports of the first six owners. All -nuts and connections were tightened, and the sliding surfaces -of the leaves greased on an average of once every two weeks. -The springs gave satisfactory results, and the cars retained -that easy, soft, springy action, so noticeable in a new car.</p> - -<p>The reports of the five who gave their springs occasional -attention would probably have been the same as the first six, -had they given the proper attention more frequently. But -they usually waited until the trouble became annoying, which -caused wear on the spring eye, shackle strap, and pin, on -each occurrence making a good adjustment impossible. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page226">[226]</span> -stiffness in action and squeaks were caused by dry fractional -surfaces between the leaves which prevented free action.</p> - -<p><b>Types.</b>—There are five standard types of springs, and two -or three types of special design. The riding qualities of -all types of springs depend on their length and resiliency, -which is taken into consideration by the engineer and designer. -Consequently there is not much choice between the -different types.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig128"> - -<img src="images/illo248a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 128. <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>-Elliptical Front Spring</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig128">Fig. 128</a> shows the semi-elliptical type of spring used principally -for front suspension. The front end of this spring -is bolted rigidly to the downward end slope of the frame while -the rear end carries a movable shackle arrangement.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig129"> - -<img src="images/illo248b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 129. Full-Elliptic Spring</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig129">Fig. 129</a> shows the full elliptical type of spring which may -be used for either front or rear suspension. The ends may -be fastened together solidly with a yoke and eye arrangement, -or shackled as shown in the above cut.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page227">[227]</span></p> - -<p><a href="#Fig130">Fig. 130</a> shows a spring of the three-quarters elliptical -type used in rear suspension only. This type of spring carries -a shackle arrangement at the front and rear end which -allows backward and forward motion to take place very freely, -consequently it is very necessary to use a very substantial set -of torque rods to keep the proper alignment.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig130"> - -<img src="images/illo249a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 130. <sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>-Elliptical Rear Spring</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig131">Fig. 131</a> shows the three link or commonly termed platform -type of spring used only in rear suspension on the heavier -models.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig131"> - -<img src="images/illo249b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 131. Platform Spring</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig132">Fig. 132</a> shows the front type of cantilever spring. The -front end of this type of spring is bolted to a seat on the -front axle, while the rear end may be fastened directly to -the under side of the frame or attached to a specially arranged<span class="pagenum" id="Page228">[228]</span> -casting seat at the side of the frame. This type of -spring is sometimes employed in multiple formation.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig132"> - -<img src="images/illo250a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 132. Cantilever Spring, Front</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig133"> - -<img src="images/illo250b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 133. Cantilever Spring, Rear</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig133">Fig. 133</a> shows the rear type of cantilever spring, which -may employ a shackle arrangement on one or both sides, while -a hinged seat is usually employed near the center or slightly -over-center toward the front end.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page229">[229]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXV</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">ALIGNMENT</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Attention should be given quite frequently to wheel alignment, -as the life and service of tires depends almost entirely -upon wheel alignment.</p> - -<p>When either of the front wheels become out of line, through -a bent spindle, worn spindle pin, loose or worn bearing the -tire on this wheel is subject to cross traction. That is, when -the car moves forward, the tire on the out of line wheel is -forced to move forward by the other three points of traction, -and as it is not in line with the forward movement the tire -must push or drag crosswise at the traction point. This results -in the tread being worn or filed off in a very short time, -exposing the layers of fabric to dampness and wear which -results in a “blow-out” and ruined tire, which would probably -have given several thousand miles of service had proper attention -been given to wheel alignment.</p> - -<p><b>Alignment Test.</b>—To test the alignment, first look at the -lower side of the springs where they rest on the axle seats. -If one of the springs has slipped on the seat through a loose -clamp, the direction and distance of the slip may be noted -by the rust mark left by the movement. Drive the axle back, -leave the clamp loose, measure the distance between the centers -of the front and rear hub caps on the unaffected side -with a tape or string, move the tape to the affected side and -make the center distances the same, tighten the nuts on all -clamps using new spring or lock washers.</p> - -<p><b>Lengthwise Wheel Alignment.</b>—Before lining up the wheels -lengthwise, jack each wheel separately and shake it to detect a -loose bearing or worn spindle pin which is usually the seat of -the trouble. After the defective part has been readjusted or<span class="pagenum" id="Page230">[230]</span> -replaced, test the alignment as follows: Using a string or -straight edge, which should be placed or drawn across the -front and rear tire, making four contacts as near center as -possible without interference from the hubs. The string or -straight edge is then moved to the other side of the car and -three contacts are made, one on the rear center of the front -tire, and two across the center of the rear tire. The spread -rod should then be adjusted to allow the front contact point -to converge or lean from the line toward the other front -wheel.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig134"> - -<img src="images/illo252.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 134. Wheel-Alignment Diagram</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Mechanical Alignment.</b>—When a motor vehicle turns the -inside wheel has to describe a curve of smaller radius than -the outside wheel. A line drawn lengthwise through the -steering arms, extending from the spindles or knuckles, should -meet at a point in the center of the rear axle to determine the -correct wheel base, otherwise the car will turn in two angles, -which causes the tire on the outside to slide crosswise at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page231">[231]</span> -traction point. <a href="#Fig134">Fig. 134</a> shows the position of the wheels and -the direction they travel in describing two distinct curves in -turning to the left. The correct mechanical alignment and -wheel base will be seen in the diagram, A B. The front -wheels have been turned to a 45 per cent angle, e-e1 lines -drawn through the spindles will meet at E, a line drawn -through the rear axle. E1 in this diagram shows the effect -on the steering of lengthening the wheel base of the car. In -this case the wheel base has been lengthened 10″ and the -lines e and e1 meet at different angles at a point on E1. -The car tries to turn about two distinct centers, as this is an -impossibility, sliding of the tire occurs.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page232">[232]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXVI</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">STEERING GEARS, TYPE, CONSTRUCTION</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><span class="smcap">Operation and Care</span></p> - -<p>The steering mechanism used in automobile construction is -arranged to operate independent of the axle, or in other -words the wheels turn on a pivot, or knuckle, held between -the yoked ends of the axle. A spindle or axle extends outward -from each steering knuckle to accommodate the wheels. -A set of short arms extend to rear of the steering knuckles; an -adjustable spacer bar, commonly called a tie or spread rod, -serves as the connection between the arms. The arms incline -slightly toward each other; which causes the inside -wheel to turn on a shorter angle than the outside wheel when -turning a corner. Another steering arm carrying a ball at the -outer end, describes a half circle over the axle, and is attached -to either the spread rod arm or the steering knuckle. -An adjustable rod, or drag-link, carrying a ball socket at -each end serves as the connection between the steering arm -extending from steering gear and the half circle arm of the -knuckle. To adjust wheels see chapter on “<a href="#Page229">Wheels and Axle -Alignment</a>.”</p> - -<p><b>Steering Gear Types.</b>—Three types of steering gears are -commonly used by automobile manufacturers. They are -namely, the worm and sector, worm and nut, and rack and -pinion types.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig135">Fig. 135</a> shows the construction and operation of the worm -and sector type. The lower end of the steering shaft carries a -worm gear which meshes with the sector gear supported by a -separate shaft. The sector has a ball arm extending downward,<span class="pagenum" id="Page233">[233]</span> -which moves in a forward and backward direction when -the steering shaft is turned.</p> - -<div class="container w45em" id="Fig135"> - -<img src="images/illo255.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w12emmax"> - -<p>Steering Wheel</p> - -<p class="noindent">St. Column -<span class="righttext">Worm</span></p> - -<p class="right">Sector</p> - -<p class="right">Spark</p> - -<p class="right">Throttle</p> - -<p class="right">Frame</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><b>Adjusting the Worm and Sector Type of Steering Gear.</b>—An -eccentric bushing is provided to take up play between the -worm and sector. This adjustment is made by driving the -notched cone to the right to take out play, and to the left to -slack up or take out stiffness.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig136">Fig. 136</a> shows the worm and nut type of steering gear. -This type of steering gear as well as the worm and sector, is -called the irreversible steering gear, which means that no -reverse action takes place, or is present at the steering -wheel, should one of the front wheels encounter a stone in -the road, or drop into a deep rut. The worm and nut type -consists of a double armed and pivoted steering arm. Each -arm carries a ball. The drag link socket is attached to the -ball on the lower arm while the ball on the upper and shorter -arm fits in a socket in the nut through which the worm on the -steering shaft passes. This nut is threaded to fit the worm -which passes through it and moves up and down on the worm -according to the direction which the steering wheel is turned.<span class="pagenum" id="Page234">[234]</span> -The housing of this type of steering must be well packed with -a light cup or graphic grease to prevent the screw or worm -from binding, which will make steering difficult and tiresome.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig136"> - -<img src="images/illo256a.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w50pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3"> </td> -<td class="center">Steering Column</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">Worm Screw</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Nut</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Pivot</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center">Frame</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">Drag Link</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">St. Arm</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 136. Worm and Nut Type Steering Gear</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig137"> - -<img src="images/illo256b.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w15emmax"> - -<p>Steering Shaft</p> - -<p>Ball</p> - -<p class="right">Gear</p> - -<p class="right">Housing</p> - -<p class="noindent">Sliding tooth Shaft</p> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig137">Fig. 137</a> shows the rack and pinion type of steering gear. -This type of steering gear is used on a few of the lighter -weight cars and is not as dependable owing to a reverse action -through the steering mechanism when an obstruction is encountered -by one of the front wheels. This type of steering -device consists of a solid shaft with the steering wheel keyed -to the upper end.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page235">[235]</span></p> - -<p>A small spur gear is keyed and locked to the lower end, -and meshes with a horizontal toothed shaft which slides inside -of a housing. The connection between the steering gear and -the steering knuckles is made by a short rod or drag link -carrying a split ball seat on each end. One end of -the drag link socket is fitted to a ball on the end of the horizontal -toothed shaft, while the socket on the other end is -fitted to a ball on the upper end of the bolt which connects -the tie rod and knuckle.</p> - -<p><b>Steering Gear Care.</b>—Steering gears should be closely adjusted. -The housing should be packed with a medium hard -oil or graphite grease at least once in every thousand miles -that the car is driven. All bolts and nuts connecting the -different parts of the steering gear should be regularly inspected -and kept in a perfectly tight condition.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig138"> - -<img src="images/illo257.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 138. Steering Wheel</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig138">Fig. 138</a> shows the location of the spark and gas control -levers which usually operate on a quadrant on the upper side -of the steering wheel. The short lever always controls the -spark, which may be advanced or retarded by moving it. The -long lever is attached to the carburetor, and controls the speed -of the motor by regulating the volume of gas vapor supplied -to the motor.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page236">[236]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXVII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Three types of bearings are being used by the manufacturers -of automobiles and gasoline engines. They are, namely, the -plain bearing or bushing, the solid and flexible roller-bearing, -and the double and single row of self-aligning ball bearings.</p> - -<p>Bearings were designed to prevent wear and friction between -parts, which operate on, or against each other.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig139">Fig. 139</a> shows three types of plain bearings. A, the split -type of plain bearing, is used widely by the manufacturers -of engines as main bearings to support the crank shaft and -at the large end of the connecting rod. B is a cylindrical -type of plain end bushing, used to support light shafts in end -walls. C is a center or sleeve type of plain bushing.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig139"> - -<img src="images/illo258.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 139. Plain Bearings or Bushings</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p>All three types of plain bearings described above will stand -unusually hard use, but must be kept well lubricated or run -in an oil bath to prevent frictional heating and excessive -wear. <a href="#Fig140">Fig. 140</a> shows two types of shims used between the -retainer jaw of a split bearing, which allows the wear to be -taken up when the bearing gets loose and begins to pound. -The shims may be either solid or loose leafed, and are of -different thickness. The loose leafed shim has an outer casing,<span class="pagenum" id="Page237">[237]</span> -which contains seven to ten metal sheets of paper-like thinness, -which may be removed to the exact thickness required for -an accurately fitted bearing.</p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig140"> - -<img src="images/illo259a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 140. Shims</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig141"> - -<img src="images/illo259b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 141. Bock Roller Bearing</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig141">Fig. 141</a> shows the Bock type of radial and end thrust -roller bearing. The end of each roller is provided with a section -of a perfect sphere which rolls in unison with the tapered -rollers and makes the end contact practically frictionless. The -advantage claimed for this type of bearing is that it embodies -both the ball and roller bearing strength and reduces the -friction on the roller and thrust end to a minimum. This type -of bearing is used in the hub of the wheel, which must be -cleaned and well packed with a medium grease every thousand<span class="pagenum" id="Page238">[238]</span> -miles. The bearing is best cleaned by dropping it into a -container of kerosene and scrubbing it with a stiff paint brush. -Do not run the car with the hub cap off.</p> - -<div class="container w50em" id="Fig142"> - -<img src="images/illo260.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 142. Hyatt Roller Bearing</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig142">Fig. 142</a> shows the Hyatt flexible type of roller bearing. -This type consists of an inner and outer race and a cage -which holds the flexible rolls. The flexible rolls are spirally -wound from a high grade sheet alloy steel. The rolls are -placed in the cage in alternative positions. This arrangement -of rollers has a tendency to work the grease back and -forth on the surfaces of the races. Another advantage claimed -for this type of bearing, is that the weight is more evenly distributed -at the point of contact, due to the fact that the -wound rolls allow a certain amount of resiliency, and accepts -road shocks easily, which reduces the amount of frictional -wear to a minimum. This type of bearing requires the same -attention as the Bock, described above.</p> - -<div class="container w15em" id="Fig143"> - -<img src="images/illo261.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig143">Fig. 143</a> shows a type of double row ball bearings. Ball -bearings are being used more extensively each year by the -manufacturers of light and heavy duty motor vehicles. The -efficient reliability and ease of action has proven to be the -main factor in the development of this type of bearing. One -of the big features in considering ball bearings is that a ball -rolls equally well in any direction, and the slightest effort<span class="pagenum" id="Page239">[239]</span> -will start it to rolling. It is a proven fact, that a ball is -started more easily than any other type of supportive element. -This explains why ball bearings of all types come -nearest to being frictionless. Once upon a time people believed -that the ball in ball bearings carried the load by point -of contact, which is not true, as ball bearings carry the load -on a definite area. And in bearing construction, such as shown -in <a href="#Fig143">Fig. 143</a>, where the inner and outer -race curves around the<span class="pagenum" id="Page240">[240]</span> -balls and increases the contact area, the contact capacity is -greatly increased. Thus a one-fourth inch S. K. F. ball showed -a crushing resistance of nine thousand and seven hundred -pounds, while the one-half inch ball showed a crushing strength -of twenty-five thousand pounds. The sectional view of a -radial bearing, shown in <a href="#Fig142">Fig. 142</a>, consists essentially of four -elements, which are the following: (a) The outer ball race, -(b) the two rows of balls, (c) the ball retainer, and (d) the -inner ball race.</p> - -<p>The inner surface of the outer race is spherically ground -in the form of a section of a sphere whose center is the center -of the axis of rotation. This provides that both rows of balls -shall carry the load at all times. This reduces the load carried -by each ball to the least amount.</p> - -<p>The ball retainer is made of a single piece, which provides -for proper spacing of the balls, and positively circulates the -lubricant. The retainer is open at the sides, which permits -free access of lubricant, and makes inspection easy.</p> - -<p>The inner ball race contains two grooves to accommodate -the two rows of balls, and the curvature of the outer race -is slightly larger than that of the balls. The fact that both -inner and outer races are curved gives an ample surface contact -between the balls and the races.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig144">Fig. 144</a> shows a double thrust bearing. This type of bearing -was designed to take end thrust in both directions. It is -used to stabilize the shaft against lateral motion and to -accept reversing thrust loads. It is also automatically self-aligning.</p> - -<p>The assembly of balls and races forms a section of a -sphere within a steel casing. The inside of this casing is -ground spherically to the same radius as the spherical seats, -thus permitting the assembled bearing parts to adjust themselves -to any shaft deflection.</p> - -<p>This type of double thrust bearing is so designed that the -central rotating disc, two rows of balls, and the aligning seats -are combined in a single unit within the casting.</p> - -<p>The unit construction of this type of bearing insures ease<span class="pagenum" id="Page241">[241]</span> -in mounting, and eliminates much costly machine work usually -encountered in setting double thrust bearings, and renders the -bearing practically dirt, dust and fool-proof. If it becomes -necessary to disassemble the machine upon which these bearings -are mounted, the user has every assurance that the shafts -can be relocated precisely in its original position, with the -minimum of time, labor and expense. This type of bearing is -also entirely free from adjustment, loose parts, costly machine -work, and the possible abuse at the hands of inexperienced -workman are entirely done away with.</p> - -<div class="container w40em" id="Fig144"> - -<img src="images/illo263a.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 144. Double Row Thrust Bearing</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="container" id="Fig145"> - -<img src="images/illo263b.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 145. End Thrust Bearing</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><a href="#Fig145">Fig. 145</a> shows a thrust bearing designed to carry the load -in one direction, along the shaft, and consists of two hardened -steel discs provided with grooved ball-races, and a single row -of balls held in position between the races by means of a -suitable retainer.</p> - -<p><b>Cleaning Bearings.</b>—To clean bearings, use gasoline, kerosene,<span class="pagenum" id="Page242">[242]</span> -or a weak solution of baking soda and soft water. Place -the cleaning fluid in a shallow receptacle, take a piece of wire -and bend a hook on the end, place the hook through the center -of the bearing and rinse up and down in the fluid, spinning it -with the hand occasionally. If some of the grease has dried -or baked on the roll or roller guide or retainer and refuses to -be dislodged by this method, lay the bearing flat and scrub -with a brush which has been dipped into the cleaning fluid.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page243">[243]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXVIII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">CAR ARRANGEMENT, PARTS, ADJUSTMENT, CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">1</a>. Oil cup on shackle bolt or loop pin. Fill every week -with medium cup grease giving one half turn every second day.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">2</a>. Right front spring. Loosen the small clips <a href="#Fig146">No. 47</a>, clean -off all dirt and grease with a brush dipped in kerosene, and -jack up the frame, which will open the leaves. Force graphite -between the leaves, let the frame down and wipe off all the -grease that is forced out, in order to avoid the gathering of -dust and grit (see chapter on <a href="#Page223">Spring Care</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">3</a>. Front lamp. Keep brackets and vibration rod well -tightened. Wipe lens with a damp cloth (inside and outside), -and polish with tissue paper. Adjust or focus both lamps so -that the center rays will strike side by side 45 feet ahead of -the car. Push the light bulbs well into the sockets, otherwise -a dark spot will appear in the center. Test the wire connection -plugs occasionally for weak springs or sticking contact -pins.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">4</a>. Radiator (see chapter on <a href="#Page82">Cooling Systems</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">5</a>. Radiator Cap. Grease or oil thread occasionally.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">6</a>. Radiator connecting hose (see chapter on <a href="#Page82">Cooling Systems</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">7</a>. The fan. It usually operates on a ball and cone bearing, -which must be kept well adjusted and greased to prevent -a clattering or rumbling noise.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">8</a>. The fan belt. This should be well tightened to prevent -slipping, which will cause over-heating. Apply belt dressing -occasionally to prevent dry-rot and cracking.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">9</a>. Adjust the starter chain from time to time by setting -down the idler gear.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">10</a>. Metal tube for carrying the high tension leads to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page244">[244]</span> -spark plugs. Remove the wires from the tube when overhauling -and tape worn insulation.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">11</a>. Spark plugs (see chapter on <a href="#Page186">Spark Plug Care</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">12</a>. The horn. Keep connection tight, clean gum and old -grease off the armature and adjust the brushes when it fails to -work.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">13</a>. Priming cups. Cover the threads with graphite or white -lead and screw them into the cylinder head tightly to prevent -compression leaks.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">14</a>. Horn bracket. Keep well tightened, to prevent vibration.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">15</a>. Clutch pedal. It can usually be lengthened or shortened -to accommodate leg stretch, oil and grease bearings, and -connecting joint each week.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">16</a>. Primer or choker, which operates the air valve on the -carburetor.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">17</a>. Steering column.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">18</a>. Steering wheel (see chapter on <a href="#Page232">Steering Gears</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">19</a>. Horn shorting push button.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">20</a>. Spark control lever.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">21</a>. Gas throttle control.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">22</a>. Transmission (see chapter on <a href="#Page198">Transmission</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">23</a>. Brake rods (see chapter on <a href="#Page218">Brakes</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">24</a>. Universal joint (see chapter on <a href="#Page204">Universal Joints</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">25</a>. The frame.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">26</a>. Emergency brake leverage connection.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">27</a>. Service brake leverage connection.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">28</a>. Threaded clevis for lengthening or shortening brake -rods.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">29</a>. Crown fender.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">30</a>. India rubber bumper.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">31</a>. Brake band guide.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">32</a>. Gasoline or fuel tank.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">33</a>. Filler spout and cap.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">34</a>. Spring shackle hinge.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">35</a>. Tire carrier.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">36</a>. Spare tire and demountable rim.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page245">[245]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig146"> - -<img src="images/illo267.jpg" alt=""> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 146. Car Arrangement</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page246">[246]</span></p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">37</a>. Radiator fastening stud.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">38</a>. Starting crank ratchet.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">39</a>. Spread rod with left and right threaded clevis at each -end.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">40</a>. The crank case.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">41</a>. Crank case drainage plug.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">42</a>. The flywheel and clutch.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">43</a>. Box for carrying storage battery.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">44</a>. Transmission drain plug.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">45</a>. The muffler (see chapter on <a href="#Page86">Muffler Care</a>).</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">46</a>. Main drive shaft.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">47</a>. Spring blade alignment clamp.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">48</a>. Rear universal joint.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">49</a>. Service brake lever.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">50</a>. Demountable rim clamp bolt.</p> - -<p><a href="#Fig146">51</a>. Differential housing on rear axle.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page247">[247]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XXXIX</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">OVERHAULING THE CAR</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Before starting to dismantle the car for overhauling, see -that all the necessary tools are at hand and in good condition. -Place them out separately on a bench or board near -the car. Then secure a number of boxes to hold the parts of -each unit in order that they may not become intermixed.</p> - -<p>When overhauling is to take place, start at the front of the -car and work back. First, disconnect and remove the radiator -and inspect the tubes for dents or jams. If any of any consequence -are found, pry the fins up and down on the tubes -clearing the affected part, which is removed and replaced with -a new piece of tubing and soldered in place. Then turn a -stream of water into the radiator and let it run for fully an -hour, or until it is fully flushed out. Next, inspect the hose -connections, as the rubber lining often becomes cracked and -breaks away from the fabric which retards the circulation, by -filling the passage with hanging shreds of rubber. Then plug -up the lower entrance to the water jackets and fill the jackets -with a solution of 2 gal. of water to <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> lb. of washing soda. -Let this solution stand in the jackets for one-half hour; then -flush out with clean water. The carburetor and manifolds -should be removed and cleaned. The float, if cork, should be -allowed to dry. It is then given a coat of shellac and allowed -to dry before reassembling the carburetor.</p> - -<p>The engine should then be turned over slowly to test the -compression on each cylinder. If it is found to be strong on -each cylinder, the piston rings and cylinder wall may be -passed as being in good condition. In case you find one cylinder -is not as strong as the others, the trouble may be ascertained -by inspection. It may be caused by a scored cylinder<span class="pagenum" id="Page248">[248]</span> -wall, worn piston rings, leaky gasket, or pitted valve seats. -Next remove the head of the motor and remove the carbon with -a scraper and wash with kerosene. If the motor is not of the -detachable head type, remove the valve cup and use a round -wire brush to loosen the carbon. It is best in this case to burn -out the carbon with oxyacetylene flame.</p> - -<p>Next remove the valves and test the springs for shrinkage -or weakness. If any are found that do not conform in length, -replace them with new springs. Grind the valves (see previous -Chapter on <a href="#Ref05">Valve Grinding</a>).</p> - -<p>Next examine the water pump and pack the boxing with a -wick or hemp cylinder packing.</p> - -<p><b>Cleaning the Lubricating System.</b>—Remove the plug in the -bottom of the crank case and drain out the oil. Replace the -plug and pour 1 gal. of kerosene into the crank case through -the breather pipe and spin the motor. Then remove the drain -plug and allow the kerosene to drain out. After it has quit -running, turn the motor over a few times and allow it to -drain one-half hour. Replace the plug and fill the crank case -to the required level with fresh cylinder oil. Next, remove -the plate from the timing gear case and inspect the gears for -wear and play. If they are packed in grease, remove the old -grease and wash out the case with kerosene. If they receive -their oil supply from the crank case it will only be necessary -to inspect them for wear. Then replace the motor head, -timing gear case plate and manifolds, using new gaskets and -new lock washers. Next clean the spark plugs and ignition -systems (see chapter on <a href="#Page186">Spark Plugs</a> and <a href="#Page114">Ignition System</a>).</p> - -<p>Then we proceed to the different types of clutches. The -cone clutch usually does not require cleaning, but in cases -where it has been exposed to grease or lubricating oil the -leather face may be cleaned with a cloth dampened in kerosene, -after which a thin coating of Neat’s foot oil is applied to the -leather facing. The cone is then replaced and the springs adjusted -until it runs true. This is determined by holding it -out and spinning it.</p> - -<p>The wet and dry plate clutches are treated in much the same<span class="pagenum" id="Page249">[249]</span> -manner. First drain out all the oil or grease and wash out -the housing with kerosene. Examine all parts for wear and -adjust or replace loose parts. Fill the housing up to the -slip shaft with fresh oil or grease, that is, providing it is a -wet plate clutch. The dry plate clutch need only be washed -with kerosene to remove any grease or dirt that has lodged on -the plates.</p> - -<p><b>Cleaning the Transmission.</b>—First drain off the oil and -wash the gear with a brush dipped in kerosene. Then inspect -the bearings for looseness. If you find one badly worn, replace -the bearing at each end of the shaft. Next, examine the -gears. If they are blunt, burred or chipped, smooth them off -on an emery wheel or with a coarse file. Wash out the case -with kerosene and fill with a thick transmission oil or grease -until the fartherest up meshing point is covered to the -depth of from 1 to 1<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub> inches. Examine the slots or notches -on the horizontal sliding shafts in the cover of the case which -holds the gears in or out of mesh. If the slots are badly worn -it will be necessary to replace sliding shafts or it may be necessary -to replace the springs which hold the ball or pin to the -shaft and slots.</p> - -<p>The universal joints are cleaned and freed of all grease and -dirt. The bushings and trunion head are inspected for looseness. -If any exists a new set of bushings will usually remedy -the trouble. The housing should then be packed with a -medium or fairly heavy cup grease.</p> - -<p>Next we come to the differential which is treated in the -same manner as the transmission, except that the housing is -packed with a much heavier grease, and new felt washers are -placed at the outer end of the housing where the axle extends -to the wheels.</p> - -<p>The rear system is then jacked up until both wheels clear -the ground. The brakes are then tested and adjusted (see -chapter on <a href="#Page218">Brakes</a>), and the rear wheels tested for looseness. -If the axle is of the full floating type looseness may be -taken up by withdrawing the axle and loosening the lock nut -back of the cone and driving the notched cone ring to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page250">[250]</span> -right (facing it) until the play is taken up. When looseness -is found in the semi-floating or three quarters floating axle it -is necessary to replace the outer bearing which is located -inside of the outer end of the housing tube.</p> - -<p>Next examine the springs (see chapter on <a href="#Page223">Springs and -Spring Tests</a>).</p> - -<p>This brings us to the steering gear, which should be inspected, -tightened up, and freed from all play at the various -joints and connections, after which it should be well packed -with grease.</p> - -<p>The front wheels should be jacked up and tested for loose -or worn bearings and spindle pins. The bearings can usually -be adjusted while the loose spindle pin or bushing should be -replaced. After the bearings have been adjusted or replaced, -pack the space in the hubs between the bearings with a medium -hard oil or cup grease, which will sufficiently lubricate the -bearings for 2000 miles of service.</p> - -<p>The wheels and axles are then lined up (See chapter on -<a href="#Page229">Alignment</a>).</p> - -<p>Next, take a piece of sharp wire and remove all the dirt, -gum, and hard grease from oil holes supplying clevis joints -and plain bearings. Take up all play which is liable to produce -noise and rattles with new bolts, pins and washers. -Clean and fill all grease cups boring out the stem heads with -a piece of wire.</p> - -<p>(See chapter on <a href="#Page253">Washing</a>, <a href="#Page262">Painting</a>, -and <a href="#Page263">Top and Body Care</a>.)</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page251">[251]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XL</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">REPAIR EQUIPMENT</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The necessary repair equipment should be divided into two -sets, one to be carried with the car, which we will call road -repair necessities, such as 25 ft. of <sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub>″ manilla hemp rope, -which will probably come in very handy and save the original -cost many times in one year. Even with good roads and the -general tendency toward improvements, there still remains a -great many miles of bad road that becomes very troublesome -with their customary chuck holes and slippery brims, which -often lead a motorist to bring up in a ditch after a short rain -storm. The advantages of this rope are explained in this way; -should you slide into the ditch or get into a deep rut, the -wheels will usually spin and you are helplessly stuck. A pull -from a passing motorist, or farmer, will help you out of your -difficulty. Should any part of your car break, or give out, -any passing motorist or farmer will give you a tow to the -nearest garage and thereby avoid delays.</p> - -<p>Therefore, we will head our list of road repairs with: 25 -ft. of <sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub>″ manilla hemp rope, 2 inner tubes, 1 blowout patch, -1 outer shoe, 1 set of chains, 1 jack, 1 pump, 1 tire gauge, 1 -tube repair outfit and patches, an extra spark plug, several -cores and terminals, a few feet of primary and secondary wire, -1 box of assorted bolts, nuts, washers and cotter pins, 1 qt. -can of lubricating oil, 1 complete set of good tools neatly -packed in a small box and secured to the floor of the car under -the rear seat by fastening both ends of a strap to the floor -and placing a buckle in the center which will hold the box -securely and avoid all noise.</p> - -<p>Garage repair equipment should consist of the following: -1 set of tire jacks, 1 small vulcanizing set and supplies, 1 can<span class="pagenum" id="Page252">[252]</span> -of medium cup grease, 1 can or tank of lubricating oil, 1 small -vise, 1 box of felt washers, 1 box of assorted cotter pins, 1 -box of assorted nuts, 1 box of assorted lock washers, 1 box -assorted cap screws and bolts, 1 set of assorted files, 1 hack -saw, 1 Stilson wrench, 1 dope gun, 1 air pressure oil can, 1 -valve lifter, several valve and assorted springs, 1 box of auto -soap, 1 sponge and a good chamois skin.</p> - -<p>This outfit should all be purchased at the same time and -each supply and tool packed or placed in respective places, -so that it will not be necessary to look far and wide when -you wish to use some particular tool. With this equipment, -and some knowledge and patience, the average man should -be able to keep his car in excellent condition by doing his -own adjusting and repairing.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page253">[253]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XLI</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><b>Body.</b>—The body is the carrying part of the car and usually -consists of an oak or ash frame covered with a thin sheet -steel. It is bolted to the frame of the car, and aside from -washing and cleaning and keeping the bolts tight to prevent -squeaks, it requires no further care.</p> - -<p><b>Body Washing.</b>—When about to wash the body, soak the -dirt off with a gentle open stream of cold water. That is, -remove the nozzle from the hose, and do not rub. Remove -mud before it gets dry and hard whenever possible. Grease -can be removed with soap suds and a soft sponge. Use a -neutral auto soap, and rub as little as possible. Rinse thoroughly -with a gentle stream of cold water, and dry and polish -with a clean piece of chamois skin. If the body has a -dull appearance after washing, due to sun exposure or too -frequent washing, apply a good body polish lightly and polish -until thoroughly dry with a clean piece of gauze or cheese -cloth.</p> - -<p><b>Running Gear Washing.</b>—Scrape the caked grease and dirt -off from the brake drums and axles, and scrub lightly with a -soft brush dipped in soap suds. Rinse thoroughly with a -gentle stream of cold water. Dry with a piece of cloth or a -chamois. Old pieces of chamois skin which are too dirty to -use on the body can be used to dry the running gear. If the -running gear takes on a dirty appearance after becoming dry, -go over it with a cloth dampened with body polish. Tighten -up all bolts and make all adjustments while the car is clean.</p> - -<p><b>Engine Cleaning.</b>—Clean the engine with a paint brush -dipped in kerosene. Then go over it with a cloth dampened -with kerosene.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page254">[254]</span></p> - -<p><b>Top Cleaning.</b>—The top should never be folded until it is -thoroughly cleaned and dried. Dust on the outside can be removed -by washing it with clear cold water and castile soap. -Be sure to rinse it thoroughly with clear water. The inside -should be dusted out with a whisk broom. Be careful when -folding it and see that the cloth is not pinched between the -sockets and bows, and always put on the slip cover when it is -folded to keep out the dust and dirt.</p> - -<p><b>Curtain Cleaning.</b>—Wash the curtains with castile soap. -After they are dry go over them with a cloth dampened in -body polish. Always roll the curtains; never fold them.</p> - -<p><b>Cleaning Upholstering.</b>—If the car is upholstered with -leather or imitation leather, it should be washed with warm -water and castile soap, then wiped off thoroughly with a clean -cloth dampened in clear warm water. If the upholstering is -with cloth it should be brushed thoroughly with a stiff whisk -broom, then gone over lightly with a cloth dampened in water -to which a few drops of washing ammonia has been added.</p> - -<p><b>Rug Cleaning.</b>—Clean the rugs with a vacuum cleaner, or -stiff whisk broom.</p> - -<p><b>Windshield Cleaning.</b>—Add a few drops of ammonia or -kerosene to a pint of warm water; and wash the wind shield -with this solution and polish with a soft cloth or tissue paper.</p> - -<p><b>Sedan or Closed Body Cleaning.</b>—Follow directions given -for cleaning upholstering and windshields.</p> - -<p><b>Tire Rim Cleaning.</b>—Remove the tires twice each season. -Drive the dents out of the rims, rub off all rust with sand -paper, and file off all sharp edges and paint the rims with -a metal filler. Allow the paint to dry thoroughly before replacing -the tire. Rust on the rims causes rapid tire and tube -deterioration.</p> - -<p><b>Tire Cleaning.</b>—Rinse the mud and dirt off the tires, and -wash them with soap suds and a coarse sponge. Rinse with -clear water.</p> - -<p><b>Lens Cleaning.</b>—To clean the light lens follow the instructions -given above for cleaning windshields.</p> - -<p>Cover the car at night to prevent garage dust from settling<span class="pagenum" id="Page255">[255]</span> -into the pores of the paint. This type of dust causes the -varnish to check and take on a dull dirty appearance, and is -very hard to remove without the use of soap. Use a neutral -soap and rinse thoroughly with clear cold water.</p> - -<p>A good serviceable throw-cover can be made from any kind -of cheap light goods, or by sewing several old sheets together.</p> - -<p><b>Caution.</b>—Do not dust the car immediately after driving it -in the sun and never use a feather duster as this only pads -the dust into the varnish, and scratches it.</p> - -<p>A good dusting cloth is made by dampening a soft cloth -with an oil polish. The cloth should be left to dry in the sun -for several hours after being dampened with oil.</p> - -<p>Rinsing the body off with clear cold water and drying it -with a chamois skin is always preferable as it produces a -clean appearance and freshens the paint.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page256">[256]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XLII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY, AND CARE</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Building a tire is like building a house or laying a cement -sidewalk; the foundation must be right or the job will not -stand up.</p> - -<p>The foundation of a tire as every motorist knows consists -of alternative layers of rubber, fabric, or cord, covered with -a tread and breaker strip of rubber. The tread and breaker -strip, however, are not worth the space they occupy if they -are placed over a poorly constructed foundation of cheaply -made fabric. Therefore, great care should be exercised in -choosing a tire of standard make which has been tested, inspected, -and guaranteed to be in perfect condition, and gives -a mileage guarantee.</p> - -<p>The cheaper grades of tires may be very deceiving in looks, -but the point remains, that beneath the tread and breaker -strip there must be something that is cheaper in quality than -the material used in building a standard tire or it could -not be sold for less, as tire building material sells at a market -price obtainable to all; and the standard tire is usually produced -in large quantities at a small profit, which may be seen -by comparing the production records and the dividends paid -on capitalization.</p> - -<p>This point alone shows the wise economy in purchasing tires -of standard build and avoiding all so-called low priced tires -as they usually cost the motorist considerable more before the -average mileage of a good tire is obtained.</p> - -<p>Tires given close attention will usually give from one to two -thousand more miles of service than those that do not receive -prompt attention. Therefore, close inspection should be -made frequently for cuts, rents, stone bruises, or a break in<span class="pagenum" id="Page257">[257]</span> -the tread which exposes the underlying fabric to wear and -dampness.</p> - -<p>When a break is discovered in either the tread or breaker -strip, it should be slightly enlarged and well cleaned. A coat -of raw rubber cement is applied and allowed to dry. Another -coat of cement is applied, and when this coat is fairly -dry, fill the indenture with raw rubber gum and cook for -thirty minutes with a small vulcanizer. The cement, rubber, -and vulcanizer may be purchased at any accessory store for -a couple of dollars.</p> - -<p><b>Tire Care.</b>—Always keep the garage floor clean and free -from oil, grease and gasoline, in order that the tires may not -come in contact with it or stand in it. All three are deadly -enemies to rubber. This is easily accomplished by spreading a -thin layer of sawdust or bran on the floor and dampening it. -This not only makes floor cleaning easy but also keeps the air -moist and causes the dust to settle quickly.</p> - -<p>When a tire comes in contact with either grease, oil, or -gasoline, it should immediately be washed with warm water -and castile soap.</p> - -<p>Mud must not be allowed to dry and bake on the tires as it -causes the rubber to loose its springy elastic qualities, and -dry-rot or rubber scurvy takes place immediately, and the -tread begins to crack and crumble.</p> - -<p><b>Tire Chains.</b>—Use tire chains only when they are absolutely -necessary to overcome road conditions, as the use of chains -under the most ideal conditions results in a certain amount -of damage to the tires, and also causes destruction to improved -roads. Chains are easily put on by stretching them out at -the rear of the car and rolling the car on them. The clamps -should be placed forward in order that the contact with the -road may serve to keep them closed.</p> - -<p>Adjust the chains to the tire loosely in order that the cross -chains may work around and distribute the wear evenly.</p> - -<p><b>Cross Chains.</b>—Inspect the cross chains occasionally for -wear and sharp edges.</p> - -<p>Do not use springs across the front of the wheel to hold<span class="pagenum" id="Page258">[258]</span> -the chains, as they prevent the cross chains from working -around on the tire and the opposite side chain is often drawn -onto the tread, and as these chains are not continuous, the -link connections wear and cut the tread exposing the underlying -layers of fabric to dampness and wear.</p> - -<p><b>Tube Care.</b>—When an extra tube is carried with the car -shake some tire talc or soap stone on it and wrap with tissue -paper. It can then be carried in a small box with the tools -without being damaged from vibration.</p> - -<p><b>Tube Repairing.</b>—A tube should always be vulcanized to -make the repair permanent; but in case you must make a -road repair and have not a vulcanizer with you, an emergency -repair can be made by sticking on a patch. The surface -of the tube and the patch is cleaned and roughened with a -fine file or piece of emery paper. A coat of cement is applied -next and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is applied -and allowed to dry until it becomes tacky. The patch is then -pressed on the tube and held under pressure fifteen or twenty -minutes until the cement is dry. This repair will serve for -a short time but should be made permanent at the first opportunity.</p> - -<p><b>Tire Storage.</b>—When the car is to be stored for the winter, -the tires should be left on the wheels and deflated to thirty -pounds pressure (that is, after they have been relieved of the -weight of the car), except in cases where the garage is cold -and very damp and subjected to weather changes. In this -case remove the tires and hang them up in a cool dry place -(store room or cellar).</p> - -<p>Always remove the old valve cores from the valve stems -and replace them with new ones before putting the tires back -into service, as the rubber plungers deteriorate very rapidly -when inactive. Valve cores can be purchased at any service -station in a small tin container for thirty-five to fifty cents -per dozen.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page259">[259]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XLIII</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">ELECTRICAL SYSTEM</span><br> -<span class="thirdline smcap">Tuning Hints</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>The average car owner usually fights shy of the electrical -system. This deserves attention when overhauling the car, -as well as any other part of the car, and a few simple precautions -will go a long way toward eliminating electrical -troubles.</p> - -<p>The entire electrical system should be gone over. One of -the most important things demanding inspection is the wiring. -It often happens that the insulation becomes chafed or worn, -through contact with other parts of the car. It is, therefore, -important to look over the wiring very carefully. Where -there is any doubt as to the insulation being insufficient, new -wires should be used. This eliminates the possibility of there -being an accidental ground, or short circuit, rendering a part -or the entire system inoperative.</p> - -<p>All terminals should be gone over to determine whether -they are clean and tight. This is especially true of the terminals -on the storage battery, and at the point where the -battery is grounded to the frame of the car if it is a single -wire system.</p> - -<p>The connections between the storage battery and the starting -motor should be clean and free from corrosion. If these -connections are not tight and clean, improper performance -of the starting motor is the result.</p> - -<p>Apply a small amount of vaseline to the battery terminals -for protection of the metal from the action of the acid fumes -and prevention of corrosion. It is well to have the battery -inspected by a battery specialist and any necessary repairs -taken care of.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page260">[260]</span></p> - -<p>Distributor and relay points should be examined to see if -they are pitted or burned. If they are, they should be -smoothed down with a fine platinum file and adjusted to the -proper gap. It is essential that the contact points meet -squarely. If this is not done burning and pitting will result.</p> - -<p>The generator and starting motor commutator should be examined -for undue wear and high mica. It may be necessary -in order to insure good performance that the commutator -be turned down in a lathe and the mica undercut.</p> - -<p>The brushes should be properly seated by careful sanding. -This is especially necessary when the commutator is turned -down. It is desirable to have three-quarters of the brush -face bearing on the commutator. This can be determined by -examination of the glazed area on the brush after running -a short time.</p> - -<p>Should the starter drive be of the bendix type, the threaded -shaft and pinion should be cleaned, and any grease which has -hardened should be removed.</p> - -<p>Lamps should be examined. Dim and burned out lamps -should be replaced.</p> - -<p>All connections of the lighting and ignition switch should -be inspected. It should be noted whether the terminals are -touching, or nearly touching. If any wires are rubbing thus, -entailing the possibility of a short circuit or ground, they -should be fixed.</p> - -<p>Electric cables that rub on sharp edges of the battery box -will soon wear through the insulation from vibration of the -car and a short circuit will occur that may be hard to find. -Such parts of the wire should be well protected with adhesive -tape and should be also frequently inspected.</p> - -<p>High tension currents are very hard to control, and a short -or leakage often occurs where the wire is cramped. The -center wire works or wears through the rubber insulation -causing the current to jump to the nearest metal part. This -kind of trouble is especially hard to locate as the outer surface -of the braided insulation does not show the break.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page261">[261]</span></p> - -<p>It is a good plan to examine the wiring for short circuits -occasionally in this manner. When putting the car in at -night, close the garage door and turn out the lights, running -the motor at various speeds and gently moving each wire. -If there are any short or grounded circuits a brilliant spark -will jump at the defective point.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page262">[262]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XLIV</span><br> -<span class="chaptitle">AUTOMOBILE PAINTING</span></h2> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>Painting a car requires a great amount of patience. But -a fairly good job may be done by the average amateur -painter, providing the work is done carefully and exactly. -However, this work should be undertaken only in a warm, -dry room where it is possible to keep an even temperature.</p> - -<p>The old paint is first removed with a paint remover, or -solution which is applied to the surface and allowed to penetrate -into the pores. Another coat is then applied. The surface -is then scraped with a putty knife until it is smooth -and free from the old paint. In some cases it may be found -necessary to use a blow torch to soften the old paint.</p> - -<p>After the old paint has been thoroughly removed, the rough -spots should be smoothed over with a piece of sand or emery -paper, and all counter sunk screw heads, joinings, and -scratches filled with putty, to make an even surface. The -metal primer is applied and allowed to dry. A second coat -consisting of equal parts of white lead, turpentine and boiled -oil is next applied and allowed to dry. Three or four coats -of color are applied next and allowed to dry. Colors come -in a paste form, and may be turned into a paste by adding -a little turpentine. Two coats of color and an equal amount -of rubbing varnish are next applied in turn and rubbed -with powdered pumice stone and water. The car is then -stripped and allowed to dry, and the job finished by applying -a coat of finishing varnish.</p> - -<p>All the foreign matter and grease is removed from the running -gear. The rough places are scraped and rubbed with a -piece of emery paper. Two coats of metal primer are applied -and allowed to dry. A coat of color varnish is applied which -completes the job.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page263">[263]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="chapnumber">CHAPTER XLV</span></h2> - -<h3>CARBON REMOVING</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p>It is necessary to remove the carbon deposits from the -combustion chambers and piston heads at frequent intervals -in order to maintain an economical and efficient motor.</p> - -<p>There are various methods and ways of doing this without -removing the casting or cylinder head; that is, providing -regular attention is given to prevent the deposit from baking -and forming in a shale which can be removed only by burning -or scraping.</p> - -<p>There are a number of carbon removing compounds on the -market which give excellent satisfaction, although some of -these compounds may prove very harmful unless the directions -are followed very carefully.</p> - -<p>A great many owners use kerosene once or twice a month. -An ounce or two may be poured into each cylinder while they -are quite warm and allowed to stand for several hours. The -motor is then turned over a few times which allows the kerosene -to escape through the valves. The particles of carbon -are blown out through the muffler when the motor is started. -Others prefer to feed it into the motor through the carburetor. -This is done by speeding up the motor and feeding -a little at a time into the float chamber or air valve. Others -use chloroform, turpentine, and alcohol in the same way.</p> - -<p>The latest method is to take the car to a garage and have -the carbon burnt out occasionally with a carbon dioxide flame. -This vaporizes and consumes the carbon and blows it out in -the form of soot. The flame of an acetylene welding outfit -may be used successfully. Great care must be taken to prevent -fire. The carburetor is removed and the fuel line drained -and tied out of range of the flame.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page264">[264]</span></p> - -<h3>TROUBLES</h3> - -<table class="troubles"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="3" class="w33pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr class="bt bb"> -<th class="br">TROUBLE</th> -<th class="br">CAUSE</th> -<th>REMEDY</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Worn piston rings</td> -<td>New oversize rings</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Pitted valve seats</td> -<td>Grind in valve seats</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Loose locknut, tappets</td> -<td>Adjust tappets</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Gas. mixture too heavy</td> -<td>Adjust carburetor</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Gas. mixture too thin</td> -<td>Adjust carburetor</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Contact points worn</td> -<td>Adjust points</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Loose cable connections</td> -<td>Connect to terminal posts</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Cracked piston head</td> -<td>Replace piston</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Cracked water jacket</td> -<td>Weld, rebore cylinder</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Poor circulation</td> -<td>Flush out radiator</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Insufficient lubrication</td> -<td>Clean oiling system</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Excessive carbon deposit</td> -<td><i>See</i> chapter on <a href="#Page263">Carbon Removing</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Cracked piston ring</td> -<td>Replace rings</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Scored cylinder wall</td> -<td>Rebore cylinder</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Tight main bearings</td> -<td>Lubricate plentifully</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Heavy gas mixture</td> -<td>Adjust carburetor</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Cylinders missing</td> -<td><i>See</i> <a href="#Ref06">Motor Misses</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor heats</td> -<td class="br">Worn distributor contact spring</td> -<td>Replace spring on block</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor back-fires</td> -<td class="br">Lean mixture</td> -<td>Adjust carburetor</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor back-fires</td> -<td class="br">Valve open</td> -<td>Reseat valve, adj. tappet</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor back-fires</td> -<td class="br">Ignition off time</td> -<td><i>See</i> <a href="#Page114">ignition systems</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Lack of gasoline</td> -<td>Fill tank</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Vacuum in fuel tank</td> -<td>Open air hole in cap</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Lack of current</td> -<td>Close circuit</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Short circuit</td> -<td>Tape conductor at point</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Discharged battery</td> -<td>Test with hydrometer; have recharged</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Lack of fuel</td> -<td>Clean carburetor</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Lack of fuel</td> -<td>Clean screen at fuel entrance to vacuum system</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Lack of fuel</td> -<td>Clean pipe from vacuum system to carburetor</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Ignition fouled</td> -<td>Clean corrosion from terminals</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Breaker points stuck</td> -<td>Redress lightly with finger nail file</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Plugs improperly set</td> -<td>Close points to thickness of a dime</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Oil on points</td> -<td>Clean plugs and screw down tightly</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Cracked porcelain</td> -<td>New plug</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Open valves</td> -<td>Grind or reset valves</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Valves stuck</td> -<td>Polish stems</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Weak valve springs</td> -<td>Replace springs</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor fails to start</td> -<td class="br">Open circuit</td> -<td>Close switch</td> -</tr> - -<tr id="Ref06"> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Defective spark plug</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Disconnected wires</td> -<td>Connect up tightly</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td class="br">Dirty plugs</td> -<td>Clean</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="br">Motor misses</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="br">Poor compression</td> -<td>Replace gasket</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td>New piston rings</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor vibrates</td> -<td class="br">Loose frame connection</td> -<td>Draw bolts down</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor vibrates<span class="pagenum" id="Page265">[265]</span></td> -<td class="br">Pistons sticking</td> -<td>Increase lubrication</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor vibrates</td> -<td class="br">Pistons weight uneven</td> -<td>Balance evenly</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor vibrates</td> -<td class="br">Defective spark plug</td> -<td>Clean, replace plug</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor kicks</td> -<td class="br">Preignition</td> -<td>Time ignition system</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor kicks</td> -<td class="br">Carbon, combustion chamber</td> -<td>Scrape out, burn out</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor knock head</td> -<td class="br">Wrist pin bearing loose</td> -<td>Give pin <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub> turn</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor knock head</td> -<td class="br">Loose connecting rod</td> -<td>Tighten upper bearing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor knock head</td> -<td class="br">Valve slap</td> -<td>Adjust tappet</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor knock base</td> -<td class="br">Connecting rod loose</td> -<td>Adjust remove shim</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor knock base</td> -<td class="br">Main bearing loose</td> -<td>Adjust remove shim</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor rumble</td> -<td class="br">Flywheel loose</td> -<td>Adjust reseat</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor rumble</td> -<td class="br">Fan bearing loose</td> -<td>Adjust grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor tipping</td> -<td class="br">Fan blade strikes radiator</td> -<td>Adjust bend blade</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor tapping</td> -<td class="br">Tappet worn</td> -<td>Adjust tighten lock nut</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor compression poor</td> -<td class="br">Thread stretch</td> -<td>Tighten head bolts</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor compression poor</td> -<td class="br">Gasket burned or blown</td> -<td>Replace, new gasket</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor compression poor</td> -<td class="br">Valve seat pitted</td> -<td>Grind, reset valve</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor compression poor</td> -<td class="br">Valve guide worn</td> -<td>Replace bushing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor compression poor</td> -<td class="br">Valve stem warped</td> -<td>New valve</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor compression poor</td> -<td class="br">Piston rings lined up</td> -<td>Distribute openings</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Motor compression poor</td> -<td class="br">Cylinder wall scored</td> -<td>Oversize rings; rebore</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Universal joint noise</td> -<td class="br">Loose sleeve connection</td> -<td>Tighten flange bolts</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Universal joint noise</td> -<td class="br">Insufficient lubrication</td> -<td>Remove boot and pack with grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Universal joint slap</td> -<td class="br">Worn bushings</td> -<td>Turn bushings end for end</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Universal joint slap</td> -<td class="br">Worn trunion</td> -<td>New bushings</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Differential noise</td> -<td class="br">Dry</td> -<td>Fill with graphite grease or 600 W</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Differential click</td> -<td class="br">Chipped gear</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Differential knock</td> -<td class="br">Broken out tooth</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Differential growl (steady)</td> -<td class="br">Ring gear mesh too deep</td> -<td>Back up trifle on adjustment</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Differential growl (uneven)</td> -<td class="br">Ring gear mesh too loosely</td> -<td>Set up adjustment</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Differential growl (uneven)</td> -<td class="br">Axle shaft sprung</td> -<td>Retrue, replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Differential growl (uneven)</td> -<td class="br">Loose bearing retainer</td> -<td>Tighten nuts</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brakes fail to release</td> -<td class="br">Rusted clevis joints</td> -<td>Lubricate with heavy grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brakes fail to release</td> -<td class="br">Broken coil spring</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brakes fail to release</td> -<td class="br">Stretched coil spring</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake clatter</td> -<td class="br">Loose adjustment</td> -<td>Adjust</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake clatter</td> -<td class="br">Worn lining</td> -<td>Reline the outer band</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake clatter</td> -<td class="br">Loose release spring</td> -<td>Adjust</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake squeak</td> -<td class="br">Dry lining</td> -<td>Four or five drops of oil</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake squeak</td> -<td class="br">Burned lining</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brakes fail to grip</td> -<td class="br">Lining worn down to rivet heads</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brakes fail to grip</td> -<td class="br">Overly lubricated</td> -<td>Wash with kerosene</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brakes fail to grip</td> -<td class="br">Lining worn slick</td> -<td>Wash with kerosene and roughen with file</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brakes fail to grip<span class="pagenum" id="Page266">[266]</span></td> -<td class="br">Lining burned hard</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brakes fail to grip</td> -<td class="br">Stretched rivets</td> -<td>Draw down</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake rod rattle</td> -<td class="br">Worn clevis pin</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake rod rattle</td> -<td class="br">Spread clevis yoke</td> -<td>Drive ends together</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake rod rattle</td> -<td class="br">Loose lock-nut behind clevis</td> -<td>Tighten down</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake rod rattle</td> -<td class="br">Brake rods strike each other</td> -<td>Tape one rod at contact point</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Brake rod rattle</td> -<td class="br">Dry connections</td> -<td>Lubricate with small lump of grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Torque rod rattle</td> -<td class="br">Loose connections</td> -<td>Adjust</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Torque rod rattle</td> -<td class="br">Loose coil spring</td> -<td>Adjust</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Emergency brake lever rattle</td> -<td class="br">Loose joint bearing</td> -<td>Replace bushing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Emergency brake lever rattle</td> -<td class="br">Worn plunger spring</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Gear shift lever rattle</td> -<td class="br">Worn ball socket</td> -<td>Lubricate with heavy grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Gear shift lever rattle</td> -<td class="br">Worn ball</td> -<td>Dent in socket with punch</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Gear shift lever rattle</td> -<td class="br">Worn alignment spring blades</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Gear shift lever rattle</td> -<td class="br">Worn bearing</td> -<td>Place thin washer at end of joint</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Steering wheel play</td> -<td class="br">Open mesh</td> -<td>Set up sector</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Steering wheel play</td> -<td class="br">Loose bearing</td> -<td>Turn down cone</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Steering wheel play</td> -<td class="br">Worn gear tooth</td> -<td>Take up on eccentric bushing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Steering wheel play</td> -<td class="br">Loose drag link sockets</td> -<td>Turn in end plug</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Steering wheel stiffness</td> -<td class="br">Dry</td> -<td>Pack with grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Radiator heats</td> -<td class="br">Poor circulation</td> -<td>Flush radiator</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Radiator heats</td> -<td class="br">Jammed tubes</td> -<td>Remove jam and solder in new piece tube</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Radiator heats</td> -<td class="br">Sediment in bottom tank</td> -<td>Flush out with soda solution</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Radiator heats</td> -<td class="br">Stopped up overflow</td> -<td>Run wire through</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Radiator freezes</td> -<td class="br">Too much radiation</td> -<td>Cover bottom half of radiator with cardboard</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Radiator freezes</td> -<td class="br">Jammed tubes</td> -<td>Cut out section; solder in new piece</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Radiator freezes</td> -<td class="br">Sediment in bottom tank</td> -<td>Flush out with soda solution</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Vacuum tank spouts gas</td> -<td class="br">Dirt on vacuum valve seat</td> -<td>Clean valve</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Vacuum tank overflows</td> -<td class="br">Dirt on vacuum valve seat</td> -<td>Clean valve</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Vacuum tank fails</td> -<td class="br">Suction pipe from manifold stopped up</td> -<td>Clean pipe</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Vacuum tank fails</td> -<td class="br">Vacuum valve stuck</td> -<td>Clean valve</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Vacuum tank fails</td> -<td class="br">Entrance screen stopped up</td> -<td>Remove fuel line and clean screen</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Vacuum tank fails</td> -<td class="br">Loose connection at manifold</td> -<td>Tighten joint</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Vacuum tank fails</td> -<td class="br">Plugged fuel line</td> -<td>Run wire through</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor wheeze</td> -<td class="br">Choke valve out too far on dash</td> -<td>Push in after starting</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor wheeze</td> -<td class="br">Choke valve wire too short</td> -<td>Lengthen and adjust</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor wheeze<span class="pagenum" id="Page267">[267]</span></td> -<td class="br">Butterfly loose on air valve pivot</td> -<td>Adjust and tighten</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor chokes</td> -<td class="br">Dirty valve</td> -<td>Grind needle valves</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor chokes</td> -<td class="br">Sediment in bowl</td> -<td>Clean out bowl</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor chokes</td> -<td class="br">Heavy mixture</td> -<td>Open air valve slightly</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor chokes</td> -<td class="br">Water in gas</td> -<td>Clean out bowl</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor snaps</td> -<td class="br">Thin mixture</td> -<td>Cut down air</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor snaps</td> -<td class="br">Water in gas</td> -<td>Strain gas through chamois</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor snaps</td> -<td class="br">Dirt in fuel line</td> -<td>Run wire through</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor snaps</td> -<td class="br">Dirt under needle valve</td> -<td>Remove; clean seat</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor overflows</td> -<td class="br">Dirt on needle valve seat</td> -<td>Remove; clean seat</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor overflows</td> -<td class="br">Cork float (water-logged)</td> -<td>Dry in sun and shellac</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor overflows</td> -<td class="br">Metal float punctured</td> -<td>Punch hole opposite leak, blow out, solder both</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor backfires</td> -<td class="br">Worn intake valve bushing</td> -<td>Replace bushing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor backfires</td> -<td class="br">Defective spark plug</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Carburetor backfires</td> -<td class="br">Pitted valve seat</td> -<td>Reseat</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto roar</td> -<td class="br">Armature shaft bearings dry</td> -<td>Two drops of light oil in bearing well</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto click</td> -<td class="br">Dry bearing</td> -<td>Two drops of light oil in bearing well</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto fires uneven</td> -<td class="br">Breaker points out of adjustment</td> -<td>Adjust points</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto fires uneven</td> -<td class="br">Open safety spark gap</td> -<td>Adjust gap to <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>″</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto fires uneven</td> -<td class="br">Condensor short circuited</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto fires uneven</td> -<td class="br">Distributor segments worn</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto fires uneven</td> -<td class="br">Distributor brush worn</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto fires uneven</td> -<td class="br">Distributor insulation cracked</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Magneto fires uneven</td> -<td class="br">Coil short circuited</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor arm wabbles</td> -<td class="br">Worn center bushing</td> -<td>Replace bushing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Spring blade broken in head</td> -<td>Replace blade</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Worn contact point in head</td> -<td>Cut down insulation</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Oil on contact block blade</td> -<td>Clean with kerosene</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Contact points welded</td> -<td>File smooth, adjust</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Loose on shaft</td> -<td>Reset and retime</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Coil shorted from dampness</td> -<td>Dry out thoroughly</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Punctured condensor</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Secondary wire short circuited</td> -<td>Replace or tape</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Distributor fails</td> -<td class="br">Secondary wire disconnected in switch</td> -<td>Connect to proper terminal</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Starting motor fails</td> -<td class="br">Corroded terminals</td> -<td>Clean and grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Starting motor fails</td> -<td class="br">Brush loose</td> -<td>Tighten and adjust to even contact</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Starting motor fails</td> -<td class="br">Terminal from battery short circuited to frame</td> -<td>Clean and tape</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Starting motor fails</td> -<td class="br">Starting switch short circuited</td> -<td>Cut off end of wire, make new connection</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Starting motor fails</td> -<td class="br">Bennidict spring broken</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Starting motor fails</td> -<td class="br">Battery discharged</td> -<td>Recharge battery</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Generator fails to charge</td> -<td class="br">Disconnected</td> -<td>Replace heavy wire<span class="pagenum" id="Page268">[268]</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Generator fails to charge</td> -<td class="br">Short circuit in cut-out switch</td> -<td>Make new connection</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Generator fails to charge</td> -<td class="br">Brush out of contact</td> -<td>Adjust contact</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Generator noise</td> -<td class="br">Dry bearings</td> -<td>Lubricate with light oil</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Battery discharges too quickly</td> -<td class="br">Plate short circuited</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Battery discharges too quickly</td> -<td class="br">Leaky cell</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Battery discharges too quickly</td> -<td class="br">Weak solution</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Battery discharges too quickly</td> -<td class="br">Deteriorated plates</td> -<td>Take to service station</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Battery discharges too quickly</td> -<td class="br">Dry plates</td> -<td>Cover plates with distilled water</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Battery overcharges</td> -<td class="br">Insufficient use of current</td> -<td>Burn lights and use starter frequently</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Battery heats</td> -<td class="br">Overcharging</td> -<td>Burn lights and use starter frequently</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Horn fails</td> -<td class="br">Wire short circuited</td> -<td>Replace or tape</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Horn fails</td> -<td class="br">Brush making poor contact</td> -<td>Adjust brush evenly</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Horn fails</td> -<td class="br">Brush making heavy contact</td> -<td>Adjust brush lightly</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Horn fails</td> -<td class="br">Drum too tightly adjusted</td> -<td>Adjust through funnel</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Squeaks</td> -<td class="br">Body loose on frame</td> -<td>Tighten four retainer bolts</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Squeaks</td> -<td class="br">Dry springs</td> -<td>Lubricate with graphite grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Squeaks</td> -<td class="br">Fuel tank loose</td> -<td>Tighten bands</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Squeaks</td> -<td class="br">Radiator loose</td> -<td>Tighten studs</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Squeaks</td> -<td class="br">Drip pan loose</td> -<td>Compress coil springs</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Squeaks</td> -<td class="br">Fender irons loose</td> -<td>Tighten bolts</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Squeaks</td> -<td class="br">Upper steering shaft bearing dry</td> -<td>Pack with heavy grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Rattles</td> -<td class="br">Loose spring alignment clamp</td> -<td>Bush and tighten</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Rattles</td> -<td class="br">Spread rod clevis open</td> -<td>Draw up ends and grease</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Rattles</td> -<td class="br">Demountable rim lugs loose</td> -<td>Draw up or replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Rattles</td> -<td class="br">Door hinge screws loose</td> -<td>Draw up</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Rattles</td> -<td class="br">Door lock worn</td> -<td>Bush slot</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Lights jar out</td> -<td class="br">Wires short circuited</td> -<td>Tape worn insulation</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Lights jar out</td> -<td class="br">Weak plunger spring in contact plug</td> -<td>Stretch spring</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Lights fail</td> -<td class="br">Poor contact</td> -<td>Remove wire and tape insulation</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Lights fail</td> -<td class="br">Poor contact</td> -<td>Remove plugs and adjust firmly in sockets</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="br">Lights dim</td> -<td class="br">Globes carboned</td> -<td>Replace</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="br">Lights burn with black spot in center</td> -<td class="br">Globe out of adjustment</td> -<td>Turn back into socket firmly</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page269">[269]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">APPENDIX</h2> - -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h3 class="nobreak">I<br> -FORD—MODEL-T<br> -THE CAR, ITS OPERATION, AND CARE</h3> - -<p class="center fsize90">Given in Questions and Answers—This Supplement also -Covers the 1-Ton Truck</p> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p class="blankbefore75"><i>Q.</i> What should be done before starting the car?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Before trying to start the car fill the radiator (by removing -the cap at the top) with clean fresh water. If perfectly -clean water cannot be obtained, it is advisable to -strain it through muslin or other similar material to prevent -foreign matter from getting in and obstructing the small -tubes of the radiator. The system will hold approximately -three gallons of water. It is important that the car should -not be run under its own power unless the water circulating -system has been filled. Pour in the water until you are sure -that both radiator and cylinder water jackets are full. The -water will run out of the overflow pipe onto the ground -when the entire water system has been properly filled. During -the first few days that a new car is being driven it is a -good plan to examine the radiator frequently and see that it -is kept well filled. The water supply should be replenished -as often as it is found necessary to do so. Soft rain water, -when it is to be had in a clean state, is superior to hard -water, which may contain alkalies and other salts which tend -to deposit sediment and clog the radiator.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about gasoline?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The ten gallon gasoline tank should be filled nearly -full and the supply should never be allowed to get low. -Strain the gas through chamois skin to prevent water and<span class="pagenum" id="Page270">[270]</span> -other foreign matter from getting into the tank. Dirt or -water in the gasoline is sure to cause trouble. When filling -the tank be sure that there are no naked flames within several -feet, as the vapor is extremely volatile and travels -rapidly. Always be careful about lighting matches near where -gasoline has been spilled, as the air within a radius of several -feet is permeated with the highly explosive vapor. The -small vent hole in the gasoline tank cap should not be allowed -to get plugged up, as this would prevent proper flow of -gasoline to the carburetor. The gasoline tank may be -drained by opening the pet cock in the sediment bulb at the -bottom of the tank.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How about the oiling system?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Upon receipt of the car see that a supply of medium -light high-grade gas engine oil is poured into the crank case -through the breather pipe at the front of the engine (a metal -cap covers it). Down under the car in the flywheel casing -(the reservoir which holds the oil) you will find two pet -cocks. Pour oil in slowly until it runs out of the upper -cock. Leave the cock open until it stops running, then close -it. After the engine has become thoroughly warmed up, the -best results will be obtained by carrying the oil at a level -midway between the two cocks, but under no circumstances -should it be allowed to get below the lower cock. All other -parts of the car are properly oiled when it leaves the factory. -However, it will be well to see that all grease cups are filled -and that oil is supplied to the necessary parts. (See chapter -on <a href="#Page316">Lubrication</a>.)</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are spark and throttle levers used?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Under the steering wheel are two small levers. The -right hand (throttle) lever controls the amount of mixture -(gasoline and air) which goes into the engine. When the -engine is in operation, the farther the lever is moved downward -toward the driver (referred to as “opening the -throttle”) the faster the engine runs and the greater the -power furnished. The left hand lever controls the spark -which ignites the gas in the cylinders of the engine. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page271">[271]</span> -advancing of this lever “advances the spark,” and it should -be moved down notch by notch until the motor seems to reach -its maximum speed. If the lever is advanced beyond this -point a dull knock will be heard in the engine. (See chapter -on <a href="#Page295">Ignition</a>.)</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Where should these levers be when the engine is ready -to crank?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The spark lever should usually be put in about the -third or fourth notch of the quadrant (the notched half -circle on which the levers operate). The throttle should -usually be opened five or six notches. A little experience -will soon teach you where these levers should be placed for -proper starting. Care should be taken not to advance the -spark lever too far as the engine may “back-kick.”</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What else is necessary before cranking the engine?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> First, see that the hand lever that comes up through -the floor of the car at the left of the driver, is pulled back -as far as it will go. The lever in this position holds the -clutch in neutral and engages the hub brake, thus preventing -the car from moving forward when the engine is started. -Second, after inserting the switch key in the switch on the -coil box, throw the switch lever as far to the left as it will -go, to the point marked “magneto.” This switch connects the -magneto to the engine. The engine cannot be started until -it is on; and the throwing off of the switch stops the engine. -The next step is to crank the engine.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the engine cranked?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> By the lifting of the starting crank at the front of -the car. Take hold of the handle and push it toward the -car until you feel the crank ratchets engage, then lift upward -with a quick swing. With a little experience this operation -will become an easy matter. Do not as a usual thing crank -downward against the compression, for then an early explosion -may drive the handle vigorously backward. This does -not mean, however, that it is advisable, when the car is hard -to start, to occasionally “spin” the engine with the starting -handle but be sure that the spark is retarded when spinning<span class="pagenum" id="Page272">[272]</span> -or cranking the engine against compression, otherwise -a sudden back-fire may injure the arm of the operator. When -the engine is cool it is advisable to prime the carburetor by -pulling on the small wire at the lower left-hand side of the -radiator while giving the engine two or three quarter turns -with the starting handle.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the engine best started in cold weather?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> As gasoline does not vaporize readily in cold weather, -it is naturally more difficult to start the motor under such -conditions. The usual method of starting the engine when -cold is to turn the carburetor dash adjustment one-quarter -turn to the left in order to allow a richer mixture of gasoline -to be drawn into the cylinders. Then hold out the -priming rod which projects through the radiator while you -turn the crank from six to eight quarter turns in quick succession. -Another method of starting a cold troublesome motor -is as follows: Before you throw on the magneto switch, (1) -close throttle lever. (2) Hold out the priming rod while -you crank several quick turns, then let go of the priming -rod, being careful that it goes back all the way. (3) Place -spark lever in about the third notch and advance throttle -lever several notches. (4) Throw on switch being sure to get -it on the side marked “magneto.” (5) Give crank one or -two turns and the motor should start. After starting the -motor it is advisable to advance the spark eight or ten notches -on the quadrant and let the motor run until it is thoroughly -warmed up.</p> - -<p>If you start out with a cold motor you will not have much -power and are liable to “stall.” The advantage of turning -on the switch last, or after priming, is that when you throw -on the switch and give the crank one-quarter turn you have -plenty of gas in the cylinders to keep the motor running, -thereby eliminating the trouble of the motor starting and -stopping. After motor is warmed up turn carburetor adjustment -back one-quarter turn.</p> - -<p><i>Note.</i> Many drivers make a practice of stopping their engine -by walking around in front of the car and pulling out<span class="pagenum" id="Page273">[273]</span> -on the priming rod which has the effect of shutting off the -air suction and filling the cylinders full of a very rich gasoline -vapor. This should not be done unless the car is going -to stand over night or long enough to cool off. If the motor -is stopped in this way and then started when hot, starting is -apt to be difficult on account of the surplus gasoline in the -carburetor.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How do the foot pedals operate?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The first one toward the left operates the clutch, and -by it the car is started and its operations largely controlled. -When pressed forward the clutch pedal engages the low speed -gear. When halfway forward the gears are in neutral (i. e., -disconnected from the driving mechanism of the rear wheels), -and, with the hand lever thrown forward the releasing of the -pedal engages the high-speed clutch. The right hand pedal -operates the transmission brake.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What function does the hand lever perform?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Its chief purpose is to hold the clutch in neutral position. -If it were not for this lever the driver would have to -stop the engine whenever he left the driver’s seat. He would -also be unable to crank the engine without the car starting -forward with the first explosion. When pulled back as far -as it will go, the hand lever acts as an emergency lever on the -rear wheels, by expanding the brake shoes in the rear wheel -drums. Therefore the hand lever should be back as far as -it will go when cranking the engine or when the car is at -rest. It should be only in a vertical position, and not far -enough backward to act as a brake on the rear wheels when -the car is to be reversed. When the car is operating in -high or low speed the hand lever should be all the way forward.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the car started?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Slightly accelerate the engine by opening the throttle. -Place the foot on the clutch pedal, and thereby hold the -gears in a neutral position while throwing the hand lever -forward. Then to start the car in motion, press the pedal -forward into low speed and when under sufficient headway<span class="pagenum" id="Page274">[274]</span> -(20 to 30 feet), allow the pedal to drop back slowly into high -speed, at the same time partially closing the throttle which -will allow the engine to pick up its load easily. With a little -practice the change of speeds will be easily accomplished, and -without any appreciable effect on the smooth running of the -machine.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the car stopped?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Partially close the throttle. Release the high speed by -pressing the clutch pedal forward into neutral. Apply the -foot brake slowly but firmly until the car comes to a dead -stop. Do not remove the foot from the clutch pedal without -first pulling the hand lever back to neutral position, or -the engine will stall. To stop the motor, open the throttle -a trifle to accelerate the motor and then throw off the switch. -The engine will then stop with the cylinders full of gas, which -will naturally facilitate starting.</p> - -<p>Endeavor to so familiarize yourself with the operation of -the car that to disengage the clutch and apply the brake becomes -practically automatic, the natural thing to do in case of -emergency.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the car reversed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It must be brought to a dead stop. With the engine -running, disengage the clutch with the hand lever and press -the reverse pedal forward with the left foot, the right foot -being free to use on the brake pedal if needed. Do not bring -the hand lever back too far or you will set the brakes on the -rear wheels. Experienced drivers ordinarily reverse the car -by simply holding the clutch pedal in neutral with the left -foot, and operating the reverse pedal with the right.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the spark controlled?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> By the left hand lever under the steering wheel. Good -operators drive with the spark lever advanced just as far -as the engine will permit. But if the spark is advanced too -far a dull knock will be heard in the motor, due to the fact -that the explosion occurs before the piston in the engine has -completed its compression stroke. The best results are obtained -when the spark occurs just at the time that piston<span class="pagenum" id="Page275">[275]</span> -reaches its highest point of travel, the gas being then at its -highest point of compression. The spark should only be retarded -when the engine slows down on a heavy road or steep -grade, but care should be exercised not to retard the spark too -far, for when the spark is “late” instead of getting a powerful -explosion, a slow burning of gas with excessive heat will -result. Learn to operate the spark as the occasion demands. -The greatest economy in gasoline consumption is obtained by -driving with the spark advanced sufficiently to obtain the -maximum speed.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is speed of car controlled?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The different speeds required to meet road conditions -are obtained by opening or closing the throttle. Practically -all the running speeds needed for ordinary travel are -obtained on high gear, and it is seldom necessary to use the -low gear except to give the car momentum in starting. The -speed of the car may be temporarily slackened in driving -through crowded traffic, turning corners, etc., by “slipping -the clutch,” i. e., pressing the clutch pedal forward into neutral.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Is it advisable for owners to make their own adjustments?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The Ford is the simplest of all cars. Most of the -ordinary adjustments an owner will soon learn to make for -himself. But we must strongly recommend that when it becomes -necessary to employ the services of a mechanic, the -car be taken to a Ford mechanic—one of our own representatives -who thoroughly understands the car—and who will -have no motive for running up useless repair bills. The entire -Ford organization is interested in keeping every individual -Ford car in constant operation, at the lowest possible -cost. We have known of much damage done to many cars by -unskilled repair men.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What attention does the car need?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Remember that a new machine requires more careful attention -during the first few days it is being driven than after -the parts have become thoroughly “worked in.” The car<span class="pagenum" id="Page276">[276]</span> -which is driven slowly and carefully when new usually gives -the most satisfactory service in the end. Never start out with -your car until you are sure that it has plenty of oil and -water. Frequently inspect the running gear. See that no unnecessary -play exists in either front or rear wheels, and that -all bolts and nuts are tight. Make a practice of taking care -of every repair or adjustment as soon as its necessity is discovered. -This attention requires but little time and may -avoid delay or possible accident on the road. We aim to deliver -the car in proper mechanical adjustment. Afterwards -it is plainly the duty of the driver to keep it in that condition.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page277">[277]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">II<br> -THE FORD ENGINE</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q</i>. What is the principle of the gasoline driven engine?</p> - -<p><i>A</i>. Gasoline when mixed with air and compressed is highly -explosive. An explosion is a violent expansion caused by instantaneous -combustion of confined gases. In the gasoline -engine the mixture is drawn into the cylinder, where it is compressed -by an advancing piston and then exploded by an -electric spark, which sends the piston violently downward, -and through the connecting rod imparts a rotary motion to the -crank shaft. (See <a href="#Fig147">cut No. 147</a>.)</p> - -<p><i>Q</i>. What are functions of the pistons?</p> - -<p><i>A</i>. On the downward stroke the suction of the piston -draws the fresh gas from the carburetor, through the inlet -pipe and valve, into the cylinder. The upward movement of -the piston compresses the gas into a very small space, between -the top of the piston and the depression in the cylinder -head, known as the “combustion chamber.” (The compressed -gases inert a pressure of approximately 60 pounds to the -square inch.) At this point the electric spark, generated by -the magneto, explodes the gas-driving piston downward, thus -producing the power which turns the crank shaft. On the -next stroke upward the piston drives the exploded gas out -through the exhaust valve and pipe to the muffler. The accompanying -cut shows clearly the relative positions of the -pistons and valves during the different strokes.</p> - -<p><i>Q</i>. How is the connecting rod removed?</p> - -<p><i>A</i>. It is a vanadium steel rod connecting piston and crank -shaft. Should the babbitt bearing become worn, or burned -out through lack of oil, a knocking in the engine will result, -in which case the entire connecting rod should be replaced. -To make this replacement, (1) drain oil from crank case; (2) -take off cylinder head; (3) remove detachable plate on bottom -of crank case; (4) disconnect connecting rod from crank -shaft; (5) take piston and rod out through top of cylinder.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page278">[278]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig147"> - -<img src="images/illo300.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w14pc"> -<col class="w16pc"> -<col class="w12pc"> -<col class="w14pc"> -<col class="w16pc"> -<col class="w04pc"> -<col class="w10pc"> -<col class="w14pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left bot">Exhaust Valve</td> -<td class="right bot">Spark Plug</td> -<td class="center">Exhaust and Intake<br> -Pipe Clamp</td> -<td class="center">Cylinder<br> -Head Bolt</td> -<td colspan="3" class="left bot">Top Water Connection</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Intake Valve</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="6"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Water Chamber</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Comp. Chamber</span></td> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left bot"><span class="padl2">Reverse Pedal</span></td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl4">Piston Ring</span></td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="right">Cylinder<br> -Head</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left bot">Fan</td> -<td class="left bot">Crank Handle</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Clutch Pedal</span></td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl4">Piston</span></td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right">Exhaust<br> -Manifold</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Grease Cup</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Brake Pedal</span></td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl4">Magneto Contact</span></td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Fan Bracket</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left"><span class="padl2">Transmission Cover</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left"><span class="padl6">Magneto</span><br> -<span class="padl4">Contact Point</span></td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right top">Intake Pipe</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Fan Bracket Bolt</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Bracket Pipe</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Triple Gear</span></td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Fan Belt</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Adjusting Nut</span></td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Large Time Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Reverse Band</span></td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Commutator</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl1">Slow Speed Band</span></td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Com. Wire Terminal</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl1">Brake Band</span></td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Starting Pin</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Driving Plate</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Drive Pulley</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -<td class="left">Starting Crank</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7"> </td> -<td class="left">Starting Crank Spring</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="5"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="left">Cam Shaft<br> -Front Bearing</td> -<td class="left">Starting Crank Sleeve</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Starting Crank Ratchet</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl1">Clutch Spring</span></td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl1">Push Rod</span></td> -<td colspan="3" class="left">Small Time Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Clutch Release Fork</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Cam Shaft Rear Bearing</td> -<td class="left">Crank Case Oil Tube</td> -<td colspan="3" class="left">Crank Shaft Front Bearing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Clutch Release Ring</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Magneto</td> -<td class="left">Crank Shaft Rear Bearing</td> -<td class="left">Crank Shaft Center Bearing</td> -<td colspan="3" class="left">Valve Spring</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl4">Clutch Shift</span></td> -<td class="left">Magneto Support</td> -<td class="left">Magneto Coil Support</td> -<td class="left">Crank Shaft</td> -<td colspan="3" class="left">Cam Shaft</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left"><span class="padl4">Clutch Finger</span></td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Magneto Clamp</td> -<td class="left">Magneto Coil</td> -<td class="left">Connecting Rod</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">Oil Level</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Flywheel</td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="5"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">Oil Cocks</td> -<td class="left">Oil Drain Plug</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 147. Ford Motor—Sectional View</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page279">[279]</span></p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is the valve arrangement?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> One intake and one exhaust valve are located in each -cylinder. The former admits the fresh gas drawn from the -carburetor through the inlet pipe, the latter permits the exploded -gas to be driven out through the exhaust pipe. The -valves are alternately opened and closed (see <a href="#Fig148">Fig. 148</a>) by -the cams on the cam shaft striking against push rods which in -turn lift the valves from their seats.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig148"> - -<img src="images/illo301.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w60emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w08pc"> -<col class="w24pc"> -<col class="w30pc"> -<col class="w08pc"> -<col class="w10pc"> -<col class="w20pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Intake Stroke<br> -Exhaust Valve Closed<br> -Intake Valve Open</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="left">Exhaust Valve Closed<br> -Intake Valve Closed<br> -Explosion Stroke</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="left">Compression Stroke<br> -Intake Valve Closed<br> -Exhaust Valve Closed</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Intake Valve Closed<br> -Exhaust Valve Open<br> -Exhaust Stroke</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="5" colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="left">Push Rod</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Large Time Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Comm. Brush Assb.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Zero Marks on Time Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Small Time Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right">Crank Shaft</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Cam Shaft</span></td> -<td colspan="3" class="left"><span class="padl4">Exhaust Cam</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Connecting Rod</td> -<td colspan="3" class="left"><span class="padl4">Intake Cam</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 148. Ford Motor—Valve and Cylinder Assembly</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about valve timing?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> In timing the engine the points of opening and closing -of the valves are, of course, what should be considered. As -the valves are properly timed at the factory when the engine -is built, the necessity for retiming would occur only when -such parts as the cam shaft, time gears, or valves were removed -in overhauling the engine. In fitting the large time -gear to the cam shaft it is important to see that the first -cam points in a direction opposite to the zero mark (see <span class="pagenum" id="Page280">[280]</span> -<a href="#Fig148">Fig. 148</a>). The time gears must also mesh so that the tooth marked -(0) on the small time gear will come between the two teeth -on the large gear at the zero point. The time gears now being -properly set, the exhaust valve on No. 1 cylinder is open -and the intake valve closed, the other valves being in the -position indicated in <a href="#Fig148">cut No. 148</a>. The opening and closing of -the valves are as follows: The exhaust valve opens when the -piston reaches <sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>″ of bottom center, the distance from the -top of the piston head to the top of the cylinder casting -measuring 3<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub>″. The exhaust valve will close on top center, -the piston being <sup>5</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>″ above the cylinder casting. The intake -valve opens <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>″ after the top center and closes <sup>9</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>″ after -bottom center, the distance from the top of the piston to the -top of the cylinder casting measuring 3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>8</sub>″ The clearance between -the push rod and the valve stem should never be greater -than <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>32</sub>″ nor less than <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>64</sub>″. The correct clearance is -naturally halfway between these two measurements. The gap -should be measured when the push rod is on the heel of the -cam.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about the care of the valves?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> They seldom get out of order, but they do get dirty as -a result of carbon collecting on the valve seats. These carbon -deposits, by preventing proper closing of the valves, permit -the gases under compression to escape, resulting in loss of -power and uneven running of the motor. If, when turning -the engine over slowly, there is lack of resistance in one or -more cylinders, it is probable that the valves need regrinding. -As the “life” of the engine depends largely upon the proper -seating of the valves, it is necessary that they be ground occasionally.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are valves removed for grinding?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> (1) Draining radiator; (2) remove cylinder head; (3) -remove the two valve covers on the right side of the engine; -(4) raise the valve spring with lifting tool and pull out the -little pin under the valve seat. The valve may then be lifted -out by the head, preparatory to grinding.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are valves ground?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page281">[281]</span></p> - -<p><i>A.</i> For this work use a good grinding paste of ground -glass and oil procurable from auto supply houses. A convenient -way is to put a small amount in a suitable dish, adding -a spoonful or two of kerosene and a few drops of lubricating -oil to make a thin paste. Place the mixture sparingly -on the bevel face of the valve. Put the valve in position -on the valve seat, and rotate it back and forth (about a -quarter turn) a few times with a Ford grinding tool. Then -lift slightly from the seat, change the position and continue -the rotation, and keep on repeating this operation until the -bearing surface is bright and smooth. The valve should not -be turned through a complete rotation, as this is apt to cause -scratches running around the entire circumference of the -valve and seat. When the grinding is completed the valve -should be removed from the cylinder, thoroughly washed with -kerosene, and the valve seat wiped out thoroughly. Extreme -care should be taken that no abrasive substance gets into the -cylinders or valve guides. This can be avoided if the grinding -paste is applied sparingly on the bevel face of the valve. -If the valve seat is worn badly or smeared, it is best to have it -reseated with a valve seating tool. This operation requires -considerable skill, and perhaps had better be done by an expert -mechanic. Care should be exercised against making too -deep a cut, necessitating the retiming of the valve.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What should be done when the valves and push rods -are worn?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> When the valves and push rods become worn so as to -leave too much play between them, thus reducing the lift of -the valves and diminishing the power of the motor, it is best -to replace the push rods with new ones. The clearance between -the push rod and the valve stem should never be greater -than <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>32</sub>″ nor less than <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>64</sub>″. If the clearance is greater, -the valve will open late and close early, resulting in uneven -running of the motor. If the clearance is less than <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>64</sub>″ -there is danger of the valve remaining partially open all the -time. If replacing the push rod does not give the proper -clearance, the valve should also be replaced. We do not<span class="pagenum" id="Page282">[282]</span> -recommend drawing out the valve stem, as the operation required, -and the price of a new part does not warrant the time -and expense necessary to properly do the work.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about valve springs?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> When the valves fail to seat themselves properly, there -is a possibility that the springs may be weak or broken. A -weak inlet spring would probably not affect the running of the -engine, but weakness in the exhaust valve spring causes a -very uneven action, which is difficult to locate. The symptoms -are a lag in the engine due to the exhaust valve not closing -instantaneously, and as a result a certain per cent. of the -charge under compression escapes, greatly diminishing the -force of the explosion. Weakness in a valve spring can -usually be detected by the following method: Remove the -plate which encloses them at the side of the cylinder and -insert a screw driver between the coils of the spring while -the engine is running. If the extra tension thus produced -causes the engine to pick up speed, the spring is obviously -weak and should be replaced by a new one.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What causes “knocking” in the engine?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> There are several causes which may be enumerated as -follows: (1) carbon knock, which is by far the most common, -resulting from carbonizing of cylinders; (2) knock caused by -a too advanced spark; (3) connecting rod knock; (4) crank -shaft main bearing knock; (5) knock due to loose fitting piston -or broken ring; (6) knock caused by piston striking the -cylinder head gasket. When the engine knocks from any -cause whatsoever, the matter should be promptly investigated -by an experienced mechanic and the difficulty corrected.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How may the different knocks be distinguished?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> (1) The carbon knock is a clear hollow sound most -noticeable in climbing sharp grades, particularly when the engine -is heated. It is also indicated by a sharp rap immediately -on advancing the throttle. (2) Too advanced spark will be indicated -by a dull knock in the motor. (3) The connecting -rod knock sound is like the distant tapping of steel with a -small hammer, and is readily distinguished when the car is<span class="pagenum" id="Page283">[283]</span> -allowed to run idly down grade or upon speeding the car -to twenty-five miles an hour, then suddenly closing the throttle, -the tapping will be very distinct. (4) The crank shaft main -bearing knock can be distinguished as a dull thud when the -car is going up hill. (5) The loose piston knock is heard -only upon suddenly opening the throttle, when the sound -produced might be likened to a rattle. The remedies for these -knocks are treated under their proper divisions.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is carbon removed from the combustion chamber?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> First, drain the water off by opening the pet cock at the -bottom of the radiator; then disconnect the wires at the top -of the motor and also the radiator connection attached to the -radiator. Remove the 15 cap screws which hold the cylinder -head in place. Take off the cylinder head and, with a putty -knife or screw driver, scrape from the cylinder and piston -heads the carbonized matter, being careful to prevent the -specks of carbon from getting into the cylinders or bolt -holes. In replacing the cylinder head gasket turn the motor -over so that No. 1 and No. 4 pistons are at top center; place -the gasket in position over the pistons and then put the cylinder -head in place. Be sure and draw the cylinder head -bolts down evenly (i. e., give each bolt a few turns at a time). -Do not tighten them on one end before drawing them up at the -other.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are spark plugs cleaned?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> After removing the plug from the engine the points -may be cleaned with an old tooth brush dipped in gasoline. -However, to do the work thoroughly, the plug should be taken -apart by securing the large hexagon steel shell in a vise and -loosening the pack nut which holds the porcelain in place. -The carbon deposits can then be easily removed from the -porcelain and shell with a small knife. Care should be exercised -not to scrape off the glazed surface of the porcelain, -otherwise it will be apt to carbonize quickly. The porcelain -and other parts should be finally washed in gasoline and -wiped dry with a cloth.</p> - -<p>In assembling the plug care should be taken to see that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page284">[284]</span> -pack nut is not tightened too much so as to crack the porcelain, -and the distance between the sparking points should be -<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>32</sub>″, about the thickness of a smooth dime. Dirty plugs -usually result from an excess of oil being carried in the -crank case, or from using oil of poor quality.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the power plant removed from the car?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> (1) Drain the water out of the radiator and disconnect -the radiator hose. (2) Disconnect the radiator stay rod which -holds it to the dash. (3) Take out the two bolts which fasten -the radiator to the frame and take radiator off. (4) Disconnect -the dash at the two supporting brackets which rest on the -frame. (5) Loosen the steering post bracket, fastened to the -frame, when the dash and steering gear may be removed as -one assembly, the wires first having been disconnected. (6) -Take out the bolts holding the front radius rods in the socket -underneath the crank case. (7) Remove the four bolts at -the universal joint. (8) Remove pans on either side of cylinder -casting and turn off gasoline; disconnect feed pipe from -carburetor. (9) Disconnect exhaust manifold from exhaust -pipe by uncovering large brass pack nut. (10) Take out the -two cap screws which hold the crank case to the front frame. -(11) Remove the bolts which hold the crank case arms to the -frame at the side. Then pass a rope through the opening -between the two middle cylinders and tie in a loose knot. -Through the rope pass a “2 by 4,” or stout iron pipe about -ten feet long, and let a man hold each end; let a third man -take hold of the starting crank handle, when the whole power -plant can be lifted from the car to the work bench for adjustment.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the connecting rod bearings adjusted?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Connecting rod bearings may be adjusted, without taking -out the engine, by the following method: (1) Drain off -the oil; (2) Remove plate on bottom of crank case, exposing -connecting rods; (3) Take off the first connecting rod cap, -and drawfile the ends a very little at a time; (4) Replace cap, -being careful to see that punch marks correspond, and tighten -bolts until it fits shaft snugly; (5) Test tightness of bearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page285">[285]</span> -by turning engine over with the starting handle. Experienced -mechanics usually determine when the bearing is properly -fitted by lightly tapping each side of the cap with a -hammer; (6) then loosen the bearing and proceed to fit the -other bearings in the same manner; (7) after each bearing -has been properly fitted and tested, then tighten the cap bolts -and the work is finished.</p> - -<p>Remember that there is a possibility of getting the bearings -too tight, and under such conditions the babbitt is apt to -cut out quickly, unless precaution is taken to run the motor -slowly at the start. It is a good plan after adjusting the -bearings to jack up the rear wheels and let the motor run -slowly for about two hours (keeping it well supplied with -water and oil) before taking it out on the road. Whenever -possible these bearings should be fitted by an expert Ford -mechanic.</p> - -<p>Worn connecting rods may be returned, prepaid, to the -nearest agent or branch house for exchange at a price of 75 -cents each to cover the cost of rebabbitting. It is not advisable -for any owner or repair shop to attempt the rebabbitting -of connecting rods or main bearings, for without a special -jig in which to form the bearings, satisfactory results will not -be obtained. The constant tapping of a loose connecting rod -on the crank shaft will eventually produce crystallization of -the steel, resulting in broken crank shaft and possibly other -parts of the engine damaged.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the crank shaft main bearings adjusted?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Should the stationary bearings in which the crank shaft -revolves become worn (evidenced by a pounding in the motor) -and need replacing or adjustment, proceed as follows: (1) -After the engine has been taken out of the car, remove crank -case, transmission cover, cylinder head, pistons, connecting -rods, transmission and magnetic coils. Take off the three babbitted -caps and clean the bearing surfaces with gasoline. -Apply Persian blue or red lead to the crank shaft bearing surfaces, -which will enable you, in fitting the caps, to determine -whether a perfect bearing surface is obtained.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page286">[286]</span></p> - -<p>(2) Place the rear cap in position and tighten it up as much -as possible without stripping the bolt threads. When the -bearing has been properly fitted, the crank will permit moving -with one hand. If the crank shaft cannot be turned with one -hand, the contact between the bearing surface is evidently too -close, and the cap requires ohming up, one or two brass lines -usually being sufficient. In case the crank shaft moves too -easily with one hand, the shims should be removed and the -steel surface of the cap filed off, permitting it to set closer.</p> - -<p>(3) After removing the cap, observe whether the blue or -red “spottings” indicate a full bearing the length of the cap. -If “spottings” do not show a true bearing, the babbitt should -be scraped and the cap refitted until the proper results are obtained.</p> - -<p>(4) Lay the rear cap aside and proceed to adjust the -center bearing in the same manner. Repeat the operation with -the front bearing, with the other two bearings laid aside.</p> - -<p>(5) When the proper adjustment of each bearing has been -obtained, clean the babbitt surface carefully and place a -little lubricating oil on the bearings, also on the crank shaft; -then draw the caps up as closely as possible, the necessary -shims, of course, being in place. Do not be afraid of getting -the cap bolts too tight, as the shim under the cap and the oil -between the bearing surfaces will prevent the metal being -drawn into the close contact. If oil is not put on the bearing -surfaces, the babbitt is apt to cut out when the motor is -started up before the oil in the crank case can get into the -bearing. In replacing the crank case and transmission cover -on the motor, it is advisable to use a new set of felt gaskets -to prevent oil leaks.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page287">[287]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">III<br> -THE FORD COOLING SYSTEM</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the engine cooled?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The heat generated by the constant explosions in the -engine would soon overheat and ruin the engine were it not -cooled by some artificial means. The Ford engine is cooled -by the circulation of water in jackets around the cylinders. -The heat is extracted from the water by its passage through -the thin metal tubing of the radiator, to which are attached -scientifically worked out fins, which assist in the rapid radiation -of the heat. The fan, just back of the radiator, sucks -the air around the tubing through which the air is also driven -by the forward movement of the car. The belt should be inspected -frequently and tightened by means of the adjusting -screw in the fan bracket when necessary. It should not be too -tight, however. Take up the slack till the fan starts to bind -when turned by hand.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How does the water circulate?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The cooling apparatus of the Ford car is known as the -thermo-syphon system. It acts on the principle that hot -water seeks a higher level than cold water. Consequently -when the water reaches a certain heat, approximately 180 -degrees Fahrenheit, circulation commences and the water flows -from the lower radiator outlet pipe up through the water -jackets, into the upper radiator water tank, and down through -the tubes to the lower tank, to repeat the process.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What are the causes of overheating?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> (1) Carbonized cylinders; (2) too much driving on low -speed; (3) spark retarded too far; (4) poor ignition; (5) -not enough or poor grade oil; (6) racing motor; (7) clogged -muffler; (8) improper carburetor adjustment; (9) fan not<span class="pagenum" id="Page288">[288]</span> -working properly on account of broken or slipping belt; (10) -improper circulation of water due to clogged or jammed -radiator tubes, leaky connections or low water.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What should be done when the radiator overheats?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Keep the radiator full. Do not get alarmed if it boils -occasionally, especially in driving through mud and deep sand -or up long hills in extremely warm weather. Remember -that the engine develops the greatest efficiency when the -water is heated nearly to the boiling point. But if there is -persistent overheating when the motor is working under ordinary -conditions, find the cause of the trouble and remedy -it. The chances are that the difficulty lies in improper driving -or carbonized cylinders. Perhaps twisting the fan blades -at a greater angle to produce more suction may bring desired -results. By reference to the proper division of this book each -of the causes which contribute to an overheated radiator is -treated and remedies suggested. No trouble can result from -the filling of an overheated radiator with cold water, providing -the water system is not entirely empty, in which case the -motor should be allowed to cool before the cold water is introduced.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How about cleaning the radiator?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The entire circulation system should be flushed out -occasionally. To do this properly, the radiator inlet and outlet -hose should be disconnected, and the radiator flushed out -by allowing the water to enter the filler neck at ordinary pressure, -from whence it will flow down through the tubes and -out at the drain cock and hose. The water jackets can be -flushed out in the same manner. Simply allow the water to -enter into the cylinder head connections and to flow through -the water jackets and out at the side inlet connection.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Will the radiator freeze in winter?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Yes; unless an anti-freezing solution is used in the -circulating system you are bound to experience trouble. As -the circulation does not commence until the water becomes -heated, it is apt to freeze at low temperature before it commences -to circulate. In case any of the radiator tubes happen<span class="pagenum" id="Page289">[289]</span> -to be plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze and -burst open if the driver undertakes to get along without using -a non-freezing solution. Wood or denatured alcohol can be -used to good advantage. The following table gives the freezing -points of solutions containing different percentages of -alcohol: 20% solution freezes at 15 degrees above zero. 30% -solution freezes at 8 degrees below zero. 50% solution freezes -at 34 degrees below zero. A solution composed of 60% -water, 10% glycerine and 30% alcohol is commonly used, its -freezing point being about 8 degrees below zero. On account -of evaporation fresh alcohol must be added frequently in order -to maintain the proper solution.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are leaks and jams in the radiator repaired?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> A small leak may be temporarily repaired by applying -brown soap or white lead, but the repair should be made permanent -with solder as soon as possible. A jammed radiator -tube is a more serious affair. While the stopping of one -tube does not seriously interfere with the circulation, it is -bound to cause trouble sooner or later, and the tube will freeze -in cold weather. Cut the tube an inch above and below the -jam and insert a new piece, soldering the connections. If the -entire radiator is badly jammed or broken it would probably -be advisable to install a new one.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page290">[290]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">IV<br> -THE GASOLINE SYSTEM</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How does the carburetor work?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The carburetor is of the automatic float feed type, having -but one adjustment, the gasoline needle valve. The cross-section -diagram of carburetor (<a href="#Fig149">Fig. 149</a>) shows how the -gasoline enters the carburetor, is vaporized by a current of -air and passes through the inlet pipe to the engine in the -form of an explosive mixture. The gasoline, entering the -bowl of the carburetor, gradually raises the float to a point -where the inlet needle is forced upwards into its seat, thus -cutting off the flow of gasoline. As the gasoline in the bowl -recedes, the float lowers, allowing the needle to drop from its -seat and the flow of gasoline is resumed. It is plain to see -that a constant level of gasoline is maintained in the carburetor -by the automatic action of float and needle. The -quantity of gasoline entering into the mixture is governed by -the needle valve (<i>see</i> <a href="#Ref07">following page</a>). The volume of gas -mixture entering the inlet pipe is controlled by opening and<span class="pagenum" id="Page291">[291]</span> -closing the throttle, according to the speed desired by the -driver.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig149"> - -<img src="images/illo312.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w60emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w30pc"> -<col class="w15pc"> -<col class="w40pc"> -<col class="w15pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl4">Gasoline Tank</span></td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left">Inlet Pipe</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Needle Valve</td> -<td class="left">Needle Valve<br> -Lock Screw</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Air Gate Lever</td> -<td class="left">Throttle Lever</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left">Clamp Screw</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Screen<br> -(Gasoline Strainer)</td> -<td class="left top">Air Current</td> -<td class="left">Throttle<br> -Stop Screw</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Air Intake Gate</td> -<td class="left">Throttle Gate</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Stop Cock</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td class="left">Cork Float</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="left"><span class="padl4">Gasoline Inlet Needle</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Sediment Bulb</td> -<td class="left"><span class="padl2">Feed Pipe</span></td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Carburetor<br> -Drain Cock</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="left">Sediment Bulb<br> -Drain Cock</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 149. Ford Fuel System</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Why is carburetor adjustment placed on dash?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> For the convenience of the driver in adjusting the carburetor. -After the new car has become thoroughly worked in, -the driver should observe the angle of the carburetor adjustment -rod at which the engine runs most satisfactorily. In cold -weather it will probably be found necessary to turn the dash adjustment -one-quarter turn to the left, particularly in starting -a cold engine. As gasoline vaporizes readily in warm weather, -the driver will find it economical to reduce the quantity of -gasoline in the mixture by turning the carburetor adjustment -to the right as far as possible without reducing the speed. -This is particularly true when taking long drives where conditions -permit a fair rate of speed to be maintained, and accounts -for the excellent gasoline mileage obtained by good -drivers.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is meant by a “lean” and a “rich” mixture?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> A lean mixture has too much air and not enough gasoline. -A rich mixture has too much gasoline and not enough -air. A rich mixture will not only quickly cover the cylinders, -pistons and valves with soot, but will tend to overheat the -cylinders, and is likewise wasteful of the fuel. It will often -choke the engine and cause misfiring at slow speeds, although -at high speeds the engine will run perfectly. The mixture -should be kept as lean as possible without the sacrifice of any -of the power of the motor. A lean mixture will often result -in backfiring through the carburetor, for the reason that the -gas burns slowly in the cylinder, and is still burning when the -inlet valve opens again, which causes the gas in the intake to -ignite. A rich mixture is shown by heavy, black exhaust -smoke with a disagreeable smell. Proper mixture will cause -very little smoke or odor.</p> - -<p id="Ref07"><i>Q.</i> How is the carburetor adjusted?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The usual method of regulating the carburetor is to -start the motor, advancing the throttle lever to about the sixth -notch, with the spark retarded to about the fourth notch. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page292">[292]</span> -flow of gasoline should now be cut off by screwing the needle -valve down to the right until the engine begins to misfire. -Then gradually increase the gasoline feed by opening the -needle valve until the motor picks up and reaches its highest -speed and no trace of black smoke comes from the exhaust. -Whenever it is necessary to turn the adjusting needle down -more than a quarter turn below its normal position, the lock -nut on the top of the carburetor at the point through which -the needle passes should first be loosened, as otherwise it is -impossible to tell when the needle is turned down in its seat -too far. Turning the needle down too tightly will result in -its becoming grooved and the seat enlarged. When those parts -are damaged it is difficult to maintain proper adjustment of -the carburetor. Having determined the point where the motor -runs at its maximum speed, the needle valve lock nut should -be tightened to prevent the adjustment being disturbed. For -average running a lean mixture will give better results than a -rich one.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Why does water clog the carburetor?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The presence of water in the carburetor or gasoline -tank, even in small amounts, will prevent easy starting and -the motor will misfire and stop. As water is heavier than -gasoline it settles to the bottom of the tank and into the sediment -bulb along with other foreign matters. As it is difficult -nowadays to get gasoline absolutely free from impurities, -especially water, it is advisable to frequently drain the sediment -bulb under the gasoline tank. During cold weather the -water which accumulates in the sediment bulb is likely to freeze -and prevent the flow of gas through the pipe leading to the -carburetor. Should anything of this kind happen it is possible -to open the gasoline line by wrapping a cloth around the sediment -bulb and keeping it saturated with hot water for a short -time. Then the water should be drained off. In event of the -water getting down into the carburetor and freezing, the same -treatment may be applied.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What makes the carburetor leak?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The flow of gasoline entering the carburetor through<span class="pagenum" id="Page293">[293]</span> -the feed pipe is automatically regulated by the float needle -raising and lowering in its seat. Should any particle of dirt -become lodged in the seat, which prevents the needle from -closing, the gasoline will overflow in the bowl of the carburetor -and leak out upon the ground.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What should be done when there is dirt in the carburetor?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The spraying nozzle of the carburetor having a very -small opening, a minute particle of dirt or other foreign matter -will clog up the orifice. The result is that the motor will -begin to misfire and slow down as soon as it has attained any -considerable speed. This is accounted for by the fact that -at high speeds the increased suction will draw the particles of -dust, etc., into the nozzle. By opening the valve needle half -a turn and giving the throttle lever two or three quick pulls -the dirt or sediment will often be drawn through, when the -needle may be turned back to its original place. If this does -not accomplish the purpose, the carburetor should be drained.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> If the engine runs too fast or chokes with throttle retarded, -what is to be done?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> If the engine runs too fast with throttle fully retarded, -unscrew the carburetor throttle lever adjusting screw until -the engine idles at suitable speed. If the motor chokes or -stops when throttle is fully retarded, the adjusting screw -should be screwed until it strikes the boss, preventing the -throttle from closing too far. When proper adjustment has -been made, tighten lock screw so that adjustment will not be -disturbed.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is the purpose of the hot air pipe?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It takes the hot air from around the exhaust pipe and -conducts it to the carburetor where the heat facilitates the -vaporizing of the gasoline. It is usually advisable to remove -this pipe in the hot season, but it is an absolutely necessary -feature during cold weather.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is the purpose of the cork float?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It automatically controls the flow of gasoline into the -carburetor. If it floats too low, starting will be difficult; if<span class="pagenum" id="Page294">[294]</span> -too high, the carburetor will flood and leak. A cork float -which has become fuel soaked should be removed and replaced -by a new one or thoroughly dried and then given a couple of -coats of shellac varnish to make it waterproof.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Should priming rod be used in cranking when motor is -warm?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> No. The carburetor does not ordinarily require priming -when the motor is warm, and cranking with the rod pulled -out is apt to “flood” the engine with an over rich mixture of -gas, which does not readily explode. This naturally causes -difficulty in starting. If you should accidentally flood the -engine, turn the carburetor adjusting needle down (to the -right) until it seats; then turn the engine over a few times -with the starting crank in order to exhaust the rich gas. As -soon as the motor starts, turn back the needle to the left and -readjust the carburetor.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page295">[295]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">V<br> -THE FORD IGNITION SYSTEM</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is the purpose of the ignition system?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It furnishes the electric spark which explodes the -charge in the combustion chamber, thus producing the power -which runs the engine. It is important that the charge be -correctly ignited at the proper time, in order to obtain satisfactory -results in running the car. In the Ford car the -ignition system is as simple as it is possible for human invention -to make it.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How does the magneto generate the current?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> In revolving at the same rate of speed as the motor, -the magnets on the flywheel passing the stationary coil spools -create an alternating low tension electric current in coils of -wire which are wound around spools fastened to the stationary -part of the magneto, and is carried from these coils to the -magneto connection (wire) leading to the coil box on the -dash.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Should the coil vibrator adjustment be disturbed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The present style of coil unit is properly adjusted when -it leaves the factory and this adjustment should not be disturbed -unless to install new points or to reduce the gap between -the points which may have increased from wear. When -adjustments are necessary they should, whenever possible, be -made by one of the Ford service stations who have special -equipment for testing and adjusting units and will gladly -furnish expert service. If the points are pitted they should be -filed flat with a fine double-faced file and the adjusting thumb -nut turned down so that with the spring held down the gap between -the points will be a trifle less than <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>32</sub> of an inch. -Then set the lock nut so that the adjustment cannot be disturbed.<span class="pagenum" id="Page296">[296]</span> -Do not bend or hammer on the vibrators, as this -would affect the operation of the cushion spring of the vibrator -bridge and reduce the efficiency of the unit.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is a weak unit detected?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> With the vibrators properly adjusted, if any particular -cylinder fails or seems to develop only a weak action, change -the position of the unit to determine if the fault is actually -in the unit. The first symptom of a defective unit is the -buzzing of the vibrator with no spark at the plug. Remember -that a loose wire connection, faulty spark plug, or worn commutator -may cause irregularity in the running of the motor. -These are points to be considered before laying the blame on -the coil.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How may short circuit in commutator wiring be detected?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Should the insulation of the primary wires (running -from coil to commutator) become worn to such an extent that -the copper wire is exposed, the current will leak out (i. e., -short circuit) whenever contact with the engine pan or other -metal parts is made. A steady buzzing of one of the coil -units will indicate a “short” in the wiring. When driving the -car the engine will suddenly lag and pound on account of -the premature explosion. Be careful not to crank the engine -downward against compression when the car is in this condition, -as the “short” is apt to cause a vigorous kick back.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Does coil adjustment affect starting?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Yes. When the vibrators are not properly adjusted -more current is required to make and break the contact between -the points, and, as a result, at cranking speeds you -would not get a spark between the spark plug points. Do -not allow the contact points to become “ragged,” otherwise they -are apt to stick and cause unnecessary difficulty in starting, -and when running they are apt to produce an occasional -“miss” in the engine.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is the purpose of the commutator?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The commutator (or timer) determines the instant at -which the spark plugs must fire. It affects the “make and<span class="pagenum" id="Page297">[297]</span> -break” in the primary circuit. The grounded wire in the magneto -allows the current to flow through the metal parts to the -metal roller in the commutator. Therefore, when the commutator -roller in revolving, touches the four commutator contact -points, to each of which is attached a wire connected with -the coil unit, an electrical circuit is passed through the entire -system of primary wires. This circuit is only momentary, -however, as the roller passes over the contact point very rapidly -and sets up the circuit in each unit as the roller touches -the contact point connected with that unit. The commutator -should be kept clean and well oiled at all times.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about the spark plug?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> One is located at the top of each cylinder and can be -taken out easily with the spark plug wrench included with -every car, after the wire connection is removed. The high -voltage current flows out of the secondary coils in the coil -box and on reaching the contact points on each spark plug it -is forced to jump <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>32</sub>″ gap, thereby forming a spark which -ignites the gasoline charge in the cylinders.</p> - -<p>The spark plug should be kept clean (i. e., free from carbon) -and should be replaced if they persist in not working -properly. There is nothing to be gained by experimenting -with different makes of plugs. The make of plug with which -Ford engines are equipped when they leave the factory are -best adapted to the requirements of our motor, notwithstanding -the opinion of various garage men to the contrary. All -wire connections to spark plugs, coil box and commutator -should, of course, at all times be kept in perfect contact.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What are the indications of ignition trouble?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The uneven sputter and bang of the exhaust means that -one or more cylinders are exploding irregularly or not at all, -and that the trouble should be promptly located and overcome. -Misfiring, if allowed to continue, will in time injure -the engine and the entire mechanism. If you would be known -as a good driver you will be satisfied only with a soft, steady -purr from the exhaust. If anything goes wrong, stop and fix -it if possible. Do not wait until you get home.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page298">[298]</span></p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How can one tell which cylinder is missing?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> This is done by manipulating the vibrators on the spark -coils. Open the throttle until the engine is running at a -good speed and then hold down the two outside vibrators, -No. 1 and No. 4, with the fingers, so they cannot buzz. This -cuts out the two corresponding cylinders, No. 1 and No. 4, -leaving only No. 2 and No. 3 running. If they explode regularly -it is obvious the trouble is in either No. 1 or No. 4. -Relieve No. 4 and hold down No. 2 and No. 3 and also No. 1; -if No. 4 cylinder explodes evenly it is evident the misfiring is -in No. 1. In this manner all of the cylinders in turn can be -tested until the trouble is located. Examine both the spark -plug and the vibrator of the missing cylinder.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> If the coil and plug are right, what?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The trouble is probably due to an improperly seated -valve, worn commutator, or short circuit in the commutator -wiring. Weakness in the valves may be easily determined by -lifting the starting crank slowly the length of the stroke of -each cylinder in turn, a strong or weak compression in any -particular valve being easily detected. It sometimes happens -that the cylinder head gasket (packing) becomes leaky permitting -the gas under compression to escape, a condition that can -be detected by running a little lubricating oil around the edge -of the gasket and noticing whether bubbles appear or not.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Does a worn commutator ever cause misfiring?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Yes. If misfiring occurs when running at high speed, -inspect the commutator. The surface of the circle around -which the roller travels should be clean and smooth, so that -the roller makes a perfect contact at all points. If the roller -fails to make a good contact on any of the four points, its -corresponding cylinder will not fire. Clean these surfaces if -dirty. In case the fiber, contact points, and roller of the commutator -are badly worn, the most satisfactory remedy is to -replace them with new parts. The trouble is probably caused -by short circuited commutator wires. The spring should be -strong enough to make a firm contact between the roller points -if they are worn or dirty.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page299">[299]</span></p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the commutator removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Remove cotter pin from spark rod and detach latter -from commutator. Loosen the cap screw which goes through -breather pipe on top of time gear cover. This will release the -spring which holds the commutator case in place and this part -can be readily removed. Unscrew lock nut; withdraw steel -brush cap and drive out the retaining pin. The brush can -then be removed from the cam shaft.</p> - -<p>In replacing the brush, care must be exercised to see that -it is reinstated so that the exhaust valve on the first cylinder -is closed when the brush points upward. This may be ascertained -by removing the valve door and observing the operation -of No. 1 valve.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Does cold weather affect the commutator?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It is a well known fact that in cold weather the best -grades of lubricating oil are apt to congeal to some extent. -If this occurs in the commutator it is very apt to prevent the -roller from making perfect contact with the contact points -imbedded in the fiber. This, of course, makes difficult starting, -as the roller arm spring is not stiff enough to brush -away the film of oil which naturally forms over the contact -points. To overcome this, as well as any liability to the contact -points to rust, we recommend a mixture of 25% kerosene -with the commutator lubricating oil, which will thin it sufficiently -to prevent congealing, or freezing, as it is commonly -called. You have probably noticed in starting your car in -cold weather that perhaps only one or two cylinders will fire -for the first minute or so, which indicates that the timer is in -the condition described above and as a consequence a perfect -contact is not being made on each of the four terminals.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the magneto removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It is necessary to take the power plant out of the car -in order to remove the magneto. Then remove crank case and -transmission cover. Take out the four cap screws that hold -the flywheel to the crank shaft. You will then have access -to the magnets and entire magneto mechanism. In taking -out these parts, or any parts of the car, the utmost care should<span class="pagenum" id="Page300">[300]</span> -be taken to make sure that the parts are marked in order that -they may be replaced properly.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is to be done when the magneto gets out of order?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> A Ford magneto is made of permanent magnets and -there is very little likelihood of their ever losing their strength -unless acted upon by some outside force. For instance, the -attachments of a storage battery to the magneto terminal will -demagnetize the magnets. If anything like this happens, it is -not advisable to try to recharge them, but rather install a -complete set of new magnets. The new magnets will be sent -from the nearest agent or branch house, and will be placed on -a board in identically the same manner as they should be -when installed on the flywheel. Great care should be taken -in assembling the magnets and lining up the magneto so that -the faces of the magnets are separated from the surface of -the coil spool just <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>32</sub> of an inch. To take out the old -magnets, simply remove the cap screw and bronze screw -which hold each in place. The magneto is often blamed when -the trouble is a weak current caused by waste or other foreign -matter accumulating under the contact spring cover. -Remove the three screws which hold the binding post in -place; remove binding post and spring and replace after foreign -substance has been removed.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page301">[301]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">VI<br> -THE FORD TRANSMISSION</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is the function of the transmission?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It is that part of the mechanism of an automobile -which lies between the engine shaft and the propeller shaft -and by which one is enabled to move at different speeds from -the other. It is the speed gear of the car. It sends the car -forward at low and high speeds and by it the car is reversed.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is meant by the term “planetary transmission”?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> One in which the groups of gears always remain in -mesh and revolve around a main axis. The different sets of -gears are brought into action by stopping the revolution of -the parts which support the gears. By means of bands (similar -to brake bands) the rotation of the different parts is -stopped. The planetary transmission is the simplest and most -direct means of speed control and is a distinct advantage to -the Ford car.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is the purpose of the clutch?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> If the crank shaft of the engine ran without break -straight through to the differential and through it applied its -power direct to the rear wheels, the car would start forward -immediately upon the starting of the engine (were it possible -to get it started under such conditions). To overcome this -difficulty the shaft is divided by means of the clutch. -The part of the shaft to which the running engine is delivering -its power is enabled to take hold of the unmoving part -gradually and start the car without jolt or jar. The forward -part of the shaft is referred to as the crank shaft, the -rear part as the drive shaft.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the clutch controlled?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> By the left pedal at the driver’s feet. If the clutch<span class="pagenum" id="Page302">[302]</span> -pedal, when pushed forward into slow speed, has a tendency -to stick and not to come back readily into high, tighten up -the slow speed band. Should the machine have an inclination -to creep forward when cranking, it indicates that the clutch -lever screw which bears on the clutch lever cam has worn, and -requires an extra turn to hold the clutch in neutral position. -When the clutch is released by pulling back the hand lever -the pedal should move forward the distance of 1<sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub>″ in passing -from high speed to neutral. See that the hub brake shoe -and connections are in proper order so that the brake will -act sufficiently to prevent the car creeping very far ahead. -Also be sure that the slow speed band does not bind on account -of being adjusted too tight. Do not use too heavy a -grade of oil in cold weather, as it will have a tendency to -congeal between the clutch discs and prevent proper action of -the clutch.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the clutch adjusted?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Remove the plate on the transmission cover under the -floor boards at the driver’s seat. Take out the cotter key on -the first clutch finger and give the set screw one-half to one -complete turn to the right with a screw driver. Do the same -to the other finger set screw. But be sure to give each the -same number of turns and do not forget to replace the cotter -key. And after a considerable period of service the wear in -the clutch may be taken up by installing another pair of -clutch discs, rather than by turning the adjusting screw in -too far.</p> - -<p><b>Caution.</b> Let us warn you against placing any small tools -or objects over or in the transmission case without a good wire -or cord attached to them. It is almost impossible to recover -them without taking off the transmission cover.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the bands adjusted?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The slow speed bands may be tightened by loosening -the lock nut at the right side of the transmission cover, and -turning up the adjusting screw to the right. To tighten the -brake and reverse bands, remove the transmission case cover -door and turn the adjusting nuts on the shaft to the right. -See that the bands do not drag on the drums when disengaged, -as they exert a brake effect, and tend to overheat the motor. -However, the foot brake should be adjusted so that a sudden -pressure will stop the car immediately, or slide the rear wheels -in case of emergency. The bands, when worn to such an extent -that they will not take hold properly, should be relined, -so that they will engage smoothly without causing a jerky -movement of the car. The lining is inexpensive and may be -had at any of the eight thousand Ford service stations at small -cost.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page303">[303]</span></p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig150"> - -<img src="images/illo325.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w80emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w27pc"> -<col span="2" class="w15pc"> -<col class="w12pc"> -<col class="w08pc"> -<col class="w08pc"> -<col class="w15pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left">Slow Speed Drum and Gear</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Triple Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left top">Brake Drum</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Reverse Drum<br> -and Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left">Clutch Disks</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Driven Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left">Disk Drum</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Triple Gear Pin</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left">Clutch Push Ring</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Trans. Shaft</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left">Driving Plate</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Flywheel</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="left">Group 1</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="left">Clutch Push Ring</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="left">Clutch Finger</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="7" class="left">Driving Plate</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="4" colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="left">Triple Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Reverse Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Slow Speed Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Driven Gear</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3"> </td> -<td colspan="6" class="left">Clutch Shift</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6" class="left">Clutch Spring</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6" class="left">Clutch Spring Support</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Group 5</td> -<td class="left">Clutch Spring Support Pin</td> -<td class="left">Group 4</td> -<td class="left">Group 3</td> -<td colspan="3" class="left">Group 2</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 150. Ford Transmission Assembly</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page304">[304]</span></p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the bands removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Take off the door on top of transmission cover. Turn -the reverse adjustment nut and the brake adjustment nut to -the extreme ends of the pedal shafts, then remove the slow -speed adjusting screw. Remove the bolts holding the transmission -cover to the crank case and lift off the cover assembly. -Slip the band nearest the flywheel over the first of -the triple gears, then turn the band around so that the opening -is downward. The band may now be removed by lifting -upward. The operation is more easily accomplished if the -three sets of triple gears are so placed that one set is about -ten degrees to the right of center at top. Each band is removed -by the same operation. It is necessary to shove each -band forward on to the triple gears as at this point only is -there sufficient clearance in the crank case to allow the ears -of the transmission bands to be turned downward. By reversing -this operation the bands may be installed. After being -placed in their upright position on the drums pass a cord -around the ears of the three bands, holding them in the center -so that when putting the transmission cover in place no trouble -will be experienced in getting the pedal shafts to rest in the -notches in the band ears. The clutch release ring must be -placed in the rear groove of the clutch shaft. With the -cover in place remove the cord which held the bands in place -while the cover was being installed.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is transmission assembled?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> <a href="#Fig150">Cut No. 150</a> shows the transmission -parts in their relative<span class="pagenum" id="Page305">[305]</span> -assembling positions and grouped in their different operations -of assembling.</p> - -<p>The first operation is the assembling of group No. 2, which -is as follows: Place the brake drum on table with the hub -in a vertical position. Place the slow speed plate over the -hub with the gear uppermost. Then place reverse plate over -the slow speed plate so that the reverse gear surrounds the -slow speed gear. Fit the two keys in the hub just above the -slow speed gear. Put the driven gear in position with the -teeth downward so that they will come next to the slow speed -gear. Take the three triple gears and mesh them with the -driven gear according to the punch marks on the teeth, the -reverse gear or smallest of the triple gear assembly being -downward. After making sure that the triple gears are properly -meshed tie them in place by passing a cord around the -outside of the three gears. Take the flywheel and place it -on the table with the face downward and the transmission -shaft in vertical position. Then invert the group which you -have assembled over the transmission shaft, setting it in position -so that the triple gear pins on the flywheel will pass -through the triple gears. This will bring the brake drum on -top in a position to hold the clutch plates, etc. The next -step is to fit the clutch drum key in the transmission shaft. -Press the clutch disc drum over the shaft and put the set -screw in place to hold the drum. Put the large disc over the -clutch drum, then the small disc, alternating with large and -small discs until the entire set of discs are in position, ending -up with a large disc on top. If a small disc is on top it is -liable to fall over the clutch in changing the speed from -high to low and as a result you would be unable to change the -speed back into high. Next put the clutch push rings over -the clutch drum, and on top of the discs, with the three pins -projecting upward (<i>see</i> group No. 4, <a href="#Fig149">cut No. 149</a>). You will -note the remaining parts are placed as they will be assembled. -Next bolt the driving plate in position so that the adjusting -screws of the clutch fingers will bear against the clutch push -ring pins. Before proceeding further it would be a good<span class="pagenum" id="Page306">[306]</span> -plan to test the transmission by moving the plates with the -hands. If the transmission is properly assembled the flywheel -will revolve freely while holding any of the drums stationary. -The clutch parts may be assembled on the driving plate hub -as follows: Slip the clutch shift over the hub so that the -small end rests on the ends of the clutch fingers. Next put -on the clutch spring, placing the clutch supports inside so that -the flange will rest on the upper coil of the spring and press -into place, inserting the pin in the driving plate hub through -the holes in the side of the spring support. Then turn the -clutch spring support until the pin fits into the lugs on the -bottom of the support. The easiest method of compressing -the spring sufficiently to insert the pin is to loosen the tension -of the clutch finger by means of the adjusting screws. When -tightening up the clutch again the spring should be compressed -to within a space of two or two and one-sixteenth inches to -insure against the clutch spring slipping. Care should be -exercised to see that the screws in the fingers are adjusted so -the spring is compressed evenly all around.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page307">[307]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">VII<br> -THE REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the rear axle removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Jack up car and remove rear wheels as instructed below. -Take out the four bolts connecting the universal ball -cap to the transmission case and cover. Disconnect brake -rods. Remove nuts holding spring perches to rear axle housing -flanges. Raise frame at the rear end, and the axle can -be easily withdrawn.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive -shaft?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting -and turn shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out pin -and joint can be pulled or forced away from the shaft and -out of the housing.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the rear axle and differential disassembled?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> With the universal joint disconnected, remove nuts in -front end of radius rods and the nuts on studs holding drive -shaft tube to rear axle housing. Remove bolts which hold the -two halves of differential together. If necessary to disassemble -differential a very slight mechanical knowledge will -permit one to immediately discern how to do it once it is -exposed to view. Care must be exercised to get every pin, -bolt and key lock back in its correct position when reassembling.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the drive shaft pinion removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The end of the drive shaft, to which the pinion is attached, -is tapered to fit the tapered hole in the pinion, which -is keyed onto the shaft, and then secured by a cotter pinned -“castle” nut. Remove the castle nut, and drive the pinion -off.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page308">[308]</span></p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the differential gears removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The compensating gears are attached to the inner ends -of the rear axle shaft. They work upon the spider gears when -turning a corner, so that the axle shaft revolves independently, -but when the car is moving in a straight line the spider gears -and compensating gears and axle shaft move as an integral -part. If you will examine the rear axle shafts you will notice -that the gears are keyed on, and held in position by a ring -which is in two halves and fits in a groove in the rear axle shaft. -To remove the compensating gears, force them down on the -shaft, that is, away from the end to which they are secured, -drive out the two halves of ring in the grooves in shaft with -screw driver or chisel, then force the gears off the end of the -shafts.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig151"> - -<img src="images/illo330.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col class="w28pc"> -<col class="w14pc"> -<col span="2" class="w05pc"> -<col class="w12pc"> -<col span="2" class="w18pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="left">Universal Joint Knuckle (Male)<br> -Joint Housing<br> -Joint Coupling Ring<br> -Universal Joint Knuckle (Female)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="6"> </td> -<td class="left">Radius Rod Castle Nut<br> -Radius Rod Lock Nut<br> -Drive Shaft Front Bushing<br> -Rear Radius Rod<br> -Drive Shaft Tube<br> -Drive Shaft</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="left top">Ball Race<br> -Ball Thrust Collar<br> -Drive Shaft Pinion<br> -Driving Gear<br> -Drive Gear Screws</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Drive Shaft<br> -Drive Shaft Tube<br> -Ball Bearing<br> -Ball Bearing Housing<br> -Roller Bearing<br> -Roller Bearing Sleeve<br> -Castle Nut<br> -Differential Pinion<br> -Differential Spider<br> -Differential Gear<br> -Rear Axle Housing (Right)<br> -Thrust Washers</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="left top">Rear Radius Rod<br> -Rear Axle Brake Drum<br> -Hub Brake Cam Shaft<br> -Hub Brake Cam Shaft Lever<br> -Radius Rod Bolt and Nut</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left top">Lock Wire<br> -Thrust Washer (Steel)<br> -Thrust Washer (Babbitt)<br> -Thrust Washer (Steel)<br> -Gear Case (Left)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Mud Cap<br> -Cotter Pin<br> -Castle Nut<br> -Hub Key<br> -Hub<br> -Hub Flange</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left bot">Roller Bearing Sleeve<br> -Roller Bearing<br> -Axle Housing Cap<br> -Axle Roller Bearing Steel Washer<br> -Brake Shoe Support Bolt and Nut</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">Rear Axle Shaft<br> -Rear Axle Roller Bearing Sleeve<br> -Rear Axle Roller Bearing<br> -<span class="padl6">Rear Axle Housing (Left)</span></td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Gear Case (Right)<br> -Differential Case Stud<br> -Grease Plug</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 151. Ford Rear Axle System</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the rear axle shaft removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Disconnect rear axle as directed above, then unbolt the -drive shaft assembly where it joins the rear axle housing at -the differential. Disconnect the two radius rods at the outer -end of the housing. Take out the bolts which hold the two<span class="pagenum" id="Page309">[309]</span> -halves of the rear axle housing together at the center. Take -the inner differential casing apart and draw the axle shaft -through the housing at the center. After replacing the axle -shaft be sure that the rear wheels are firmly wedged on at -the outer end of the axle shaft and the key in proper position. -When the car has been driven thirty days or so, make -it a point to remove the hub cap and set up the lock nut to -overcome any play that might have developed. It is extremely -important that the rear wheels are kept tight, otherwise -the constant rocking back and forth against the key may -in time cause serious trouble. If the rear axle or wheel is -sprung by skidding against the curb, or other accident, it is -false economy to drive the car, as tires, gears and all other -parts will suffer. If the axle shaft is bent, it can, with proper -facilities, be straightened, but it is best to replace it.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig152"> - -<img src="images/illo331.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w20emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w50pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">Axle Housing Cap<br> -Hub Key<br> -Lock Nut<br> -Hub Brake Drum</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Coil Spring<br> -Hub Brake Cam<br> -Axle Shaft<br> -Hub Brake Shoe</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 152. Ford Brake</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page310">[310]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">VIII<br> -THE FORD MUFFLER</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Why is the muffler necessary?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The exhaust as it comes from the engine through the -exhaust pipe would create a constant and distracting noise -were it not for the muffler. From the comparatively small -pipe, the exhaust is liberated into the larger chambers of the -muffler, where the force of the exhaust is lessened by expansion -and discharged out of the muffler with practically no noise. -The Ford muffler construction is such that there is very little -back pressure of the escaping gases, consequently there is -nothing to be gained by putting a cut-out on the exhaust pipe -between the engine and the muffler.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the muffler kept in order?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It should be cleaned occasionally. Remove it and take -off nuts on ends of rods which hold it together, and disassemble.</p> - -<p>In reassembling muffler, be careful not to get the holes in -the inner shells on the same side or end.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the muffler disconnected?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> To disconnect the muffler it is not necessary to disconnect -the exhaust pipe from the motor (although it is a good -plan and a simple matter, necessitating only unscrewing the -union). To disconnect muffler from frame, unscrew union at -formed end of pipe, drop it down so it will clear the frame and -slip it back off the tube. If the muffler from any cause becomes -materially damaged it will probably be cheaper to replace -it with a new one than to attempt to repair it.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page311">[311]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">IX<br> -THE RUNNING GEAR</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What care should the running gear have?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> In the first place it at all times should have proper lubrication -(<i>see</i> chapter on <a href="#Page316">Lubrication</a>). Once in every thirty -days the front and rear axles should be carefully gone over -to see that every moving part, such as the bushings in spring -connections, spring hangers, steering knuckles and hub bearings, -are thoroughly lubricated, and that all nuts and connections -are secured with center pins in place. The spring -clips, which attach the front spring to the frame, should be -inspected frequently to see that every thing is in perfect order.</p> - -<div class="container" id="Fig153"> - -<img src="images/illo333.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w25emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w50pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left top">Spindle oiler<br> -Spindle Bolt<br> -Spindle Body Bushing<br> -Spindle Con. Rod Bolt<br> -Spindle Con. Rod Yoke<br> -Spindle Arm</td> -<td class="left">Spoke<br> -Felt Washer<br> -Hub Bolt<br> -Large Ball Race<br> -Hub Flange<br> -Hub<br> -Spindle<br> -Grease Chamber<br> -Ball Bearings<br> -Adjusting Cone<br> -Lock Nut<br> -Hub Cap<br> -Washer<br> -Ball Retainer<br> -Small Ball Race</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Clamp Bolt<br> -Spindle Arm Nut<br> -Spindle Body Bushing<br> -Spidle Bolt Nut</td> -<td class="left bot">Stationary Cone<br> -Ball Retainer<br> -Dust Ring</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 153. Ford Spindle</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the front axle removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Jack up front of car so wheels can be removed. Disconnect -steering gear arm from the spindle connecting rod,<span class="pagenum" id="Page312">[312]</span> -disconnect radius rod at ball joint, and remove two cotter pin -bolts from spring shackle on each side, so detaching front -spring.</p> - -<p>To disconnect radius rod entirely, take the two bolts out of -the ball joint and remove lower half of cap.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> In case of accident, how is the front axle straightened?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Should the axle or spindle become bent, extreme care -must be used to straighten the parts accurately. Do not -heat the forgings, as this will distemper the steel, but -straighten them cold. If convenient it would be better to return -such parts to the factory, where they may be properly -straightened in jigs designed for that purpose. It is very -essential that the wheels line up properly. The eye is not -sufficiently accurate to determine whether the parts have been -properly straightened, and excessive wear of the front tires -will occur if everything is not in perfect alignment.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about the wheels?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The wheels should be jacked up periodically and tested, -not only for smoothness of running, but for side play as well. -If in spinning a front wheel a sharp click is heard, now and -then, and the wheel is momentarily checked, it is probable that -there is a chipped or split ball in the bearing which should be -removed, otherwise it may necessitate the removal of the entire -bearing. A wheel in perfect adjustment should after spinning, -come to rest with the tire valve directly below the hub. -Undue wear of the hub bearings, such as cones, balls and races, -is usually caused by lack of lubrication and excessive friction, -due to the adjusting cone being drawn up too tight. It is a -good plan to clean the bearing frequently and keep the hub -well filled with grease.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the wheels removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> <i>Front wheels.</i> Take off hub cap, remove cotter pin -and unscrew castle nut and spindle washer. The adjustable -bearing cone can then be taken out and the wheel removed. -Care should be taken to see that the cones and lock nuts are -replaced on the same spindle from which they were removed, -otherwise there is a liability of stripping the threads which are<span class="pagenum" id="Page313">[313]</span> -left on the left spindle and right on the opposite as you stand -facing the car. <i>Back wheels.</i> They should not be removed -unless absolutely necessary, in which case proceed as above. -Then with a wheel puller remove the wheel from the tapered -shaft to which it is locked with a key. In replacing rear -wheels be sure that nut on axle shaft is as tight as possible -and cotter pin in place. The hub caps of the rear wheels -should be removed occasionally and the lock nuts which hold -the hub in place tightened. If these nuts are allowed to work -loose, the resulting play on the hub key may eventually twist -off the axle shaft.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How does the setting of the front wheels differ from -that of the rear wheels?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It will be observed that the front wheels are “dished”; -that is, the spokes are given a slight outward flare to enable -them to meet side stresses with less rigid resistance, while -the spokes of the rear wheels are straight. The front wheels -are also placed at an angle, that is to say, the distance between -the tops of the front wheels is about three inches greater -than between the bottoms. This is to give perfect steering -qualities and to save wear on tires when turning corners. The -front wheels should not, however, “toe-in” at the front, at -least not more than a quarter of an inch. Lines drawn along -the outside of the wheels when the latter are straight in a -forward position should be parallel. All wheels should always -be kept in proper alignment, otherwise steering will be -difficult and tire wear will be greatly increased. Adjustment -can be made by turning the yoke at the left end of the spindle -connecting rod, to draw the wheels into a parallel position.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What care do the springs need?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The springs should be lubricated frequently with oil or -graphite. To do this, pry the leaves apart near the ends and -insert the lubricant between them. Whenever a car is given a -general overhauling, the springs should be disassembled and -the leaves polished with emery cloth, afterwards packing them -with graphite when reassembling. Rust can be prevented -from accumulating on the springs by painting them when<span class="pagenum" id="Page314">[314]</span> -necessary with a quick drying black paint. You will find that -these suggestions if carried out will not only improve the -riding qualities of the car but prolong the life of the parts -as well.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Should spring clips be kept tight?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Yes. If the spring clips are allowed to work loose the -entire strain is put on the tie bolt which extends through the -center of the spring. This may cause the bolt to be sheared -off and allow the frame and body to shift to one side. It is -a good plan to frequently inspect the clips which hold the -springs to the frame and see that they are kept tight.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about the steering apparatus?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It is exceedingly simple and will need little care except, -of course, proper lubrication. The post gears which are arranged -in the “sun and planet” form are located at the top of -the post just below the hub of the wheel. By loosening the -set screw and unscrewing the cap after having removed the -steering wheel they may readily be inspected and replenished -with grease. To remove the steering wheel unscrew the nut on -top of the post and drive the wheel off the shaft with a block -of wood and hammer.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the steering gear tightened?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Should the steering gear become loose, that is, so that -a slight movement of the wheel does not produce immediate -results, it may be tightened in the following manner: Disconnect -the two halves of the ball sockets which surround the -ball arm at the lower end of the steering post and file off the -surface until they fit snugly around the ball. If the ball is -badly worn it is best to replace it with a new one. Also -tighten the ball caps at the other end of the steering gear -connecting rod in the same manner. If the bolts in the steering -spindle arms appear to be loose, the brass bushings should -be replaced with new ones. Excessive play in the front axle -may be detected by grasping one of the front wheels by the -spokes and jerking the front axle back and forth. After the -car has been in service two or three years excessive play in -the steering gear may make necessary the renewal of the little<span class="pagenum" id="Page315">[315]</span> -pinions, as well as the brass internal gear just underneath the -steering wheel spider.</p> - -<p>It is also advisable to inspect the front spring hangers occasionally -to determine whether or not new bushings are necessary -to overcome any excessive vibration.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page316">[316]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">X<br> -THE FORD LUBRICATING SYSTEM</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How does the Ford lubricating system differ from others?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It is simplified,—and there are fewer places to oil. -Practically all of the parts of the engine and transmission are -oiled by the Ford splash system, from the one big oil reservoir -in the crank case. <a href="#Fig154">Fig. 154</a> shows the principal points -of lubrication, and specifies when replenishment should be -made, according to mileage. This chart should be studied carefully -and often. It is a good plan to frequently supply all oil -cups with the same oil used in the engine (any good light -grade lubricating oil will answer) and the dope cups with good -grease. Be sure to see that the commutator is kept freely -supplied with oil at all times.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Which is the best way to fill the dope cups?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> When it is advisable to fill the dope cup covers screw -them down, refill with grease and repeat the operation two -or three times. Always open oil cups by turning to the right, -as this keeps tightening them rather than loosening them. -Occasionally remove front wheels and supply dope to wearing -surface. A drop of oil now and then in crank handle bearing -is necessary, also on fan belt pulleys and shaft. The axles, -drive shaft, and universal joint are well supplied with lubricant -when the car leaves the factory, but it is well to examine -and oil them frequently.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page317">[317]</span></p> - -<div class="container w30em" id="Fig154"> - -<img src="images/illo339.jpg" alt=""> - -<div class="illotext w25emmax"> - -<table class="legend"> - -<colgroup> -<col span="2" class="w50pc"> -</colgroup> - -<tr> -<td class="left">A—Oil Every 200 Miles. -<td class="left">C—Grease Every 200 Miles. -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">B—Oil Every 500 Miles.<br> -<td class="left">D—Grease Every 500 Miles.<br> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">E—Grease Every 1000 Miles.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">F—Oil Motor Daily. Keep oil level between<br> -crank case pet cocks.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">G—Grease Every 5000 Miles.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--illotext--> - -<p class="caption">Fig. 154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart</p> - -</div><!--container--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page318">[318]</span></p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What kind of oil should be used?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> We recommend only light high grade gas engine oil for -use in the model T motor. A light grade of oil is preferred -as it will naturally reach the bearings with greater ease and -consequently less heat will develop on account of friction. The -oil should, however, have sufficient body so that the pressure -between the two bearing surfaces will not force the oil out -and allow the metal to come in actual contact. Heavy and -inferior oils have a tendency to carbonize quickly, also “gum -up” the piston rings, valve stems and bearing. In cold -weather a light grade of oil having a low cold test is absolutely -essential for the proper lubrication of the car. The nearest -Ford branch will advise you concerning the lubricating oil -this company has found best suited for its cars, both for summer -and winter weather. Graphite should not be used as a -lubricant in the engine or transmission as it will have a tendency -to short circuit the magneto.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How often should the oil be drained from crank cases?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> It is advisable to clean out the crank case by draining -out the dirty oil when the new car has been driven four or -five hundred miles; thereafter it will only be necessary to repeat -this operation about every thousand miles. Remove plug -underneath the flywheel casing and drain off the oil. Replace -the plug and pour in a gallon of kerosene oil through the -breather pipe. Turn the engine over by hand fifteen or twenty -times so that the splash from the kerosene oil will thoroughly -clean the engine. Remove crank case plug and drain off -kerosene oil. In order to get all of the kerosene out of the -depressions in the crank case the car should be run up a little -incline, about the height of the ordinary street curbing. Refill -with fresh oil.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How often should the commutator be oiled?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Keeping the commutator well oiled is a matter of far -greater importance than many drivers believe, and is necessary -in order to have a smooth operating engine. Do not be -afraid to put a little oil into the commutator every other day—at -least every two hundred miles. Remember that the commutator -roller revolves very rapidly, and without sufficient oil -the parts soon become badly worn. When in this condition -perfect contact between the roller and the four contact points -is impossible, as a result the engine is apt to misfire when running -at a good rate of speed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page319">[319]</span></p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about lubricating the differentials?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Do not make the mistake of putting too much grease in -the differential housing. The housing should not be more than -one-third full. The differential is supplied with the required -amount of lubricant when the car leaves the factory. The oil -plug should be removed about every 1000 miles and more -grease added if necessary. If a fluid is used the level should -be approximately one and one-half inches below the oil hole.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page320">[320]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">XI<br> -CARE OF TIRES</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are Ford tires removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> First, jack up the wheel clear of the road. The valve -cap should be unscrewed, the lock nut removed and the valve -stem pushed into the tire until its bead is flush with the rim. -This done, loosen up the head of the shoe in the clinch of -the rim by working and pushing with the hands, then insert -one of the tire irons or levers under the beads. The -tire iron should be pushed in just enough to get a good -hold on the under side of the bead, but not so far as to pinch -the inner tube between the rim and the tool. A second iron -should be inserted in the same fashion some seven or eight -inches from the first, and a third tool the same distance -from the second. As a cylinder tire must be pried over the -clinch, three or four levers will come in handy in a case -of a “one man job,” and the knee of the driver can be used -to good advantage to hold down one lever while the other -two are being manipulated in working the shoe clear of the -rim. After freeing a length of the bead from the clinch, the -entire outer edge of the casing may be readily detached with -the hand, and the damaged inner tube removed and “patched” -or a spare tube inserted. Always use plenty of soapstone in -replacing an inner tube.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are casings repaired?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Should the casing be cut so there is danger of the inner -tube being blown through it, a temporary repair can be made -by cementing a canvas patch on the inside of the casing. Before -applying the patch the part of the casing affected should -be cleaned with gasoline and when dry, rubber cement applied<span class="pagenum" id="Page321">[321]</span> -to both casing and patch. This will answer as an emergency -repair, but the casing should be vulcanized at the first opportunity.</p> - -<p>To prolong the life of the tire casings, any small cuts in the -tread should be filled with patching cement and a specially -prepared “plastic” sold by tire companies.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How may tire expense be reduced?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Tire cost constitutes one of the most important items -in the running expenses of an automobile. To get the most -service at the least expense, the tire should be inspected frequently -and all small cuts or holes properly sealed or repaired,—thus -preventing dirt and water working in between -the rubber tread and the fabric, causing blisters or sand boils.</p> - -<p>Tires should never be run partially deflated, as the side -walls are unduly bent and the fabric is subject to stress, -which is known as rim cutting. The chances of getting a -puncture will be greatly reduced by keeping your tires properly -inflated, as a hard tire exposes much less surface to -the road than a soft tire, and also deflects sharp objects -that would penetrate a soft tire.</p> - -<p>Running a flat tire, even for a short distance, is sure to be -costly. Better run on the rim, very slowly and carefully, -rather than on a flat tire.</p> - -<p>Remember that fast driving and skidding shorten the life of -the tires. Avoid locking the wheels with the brakes,—no tire -will stand the strain of being dragged over the pavement -in this fashion.</p> - -<p>Avoid running in street car tracks, in ruts, or bumping the -side of the tire against the curbing.</p> - -<p>The wheel rims should be painted each season and kept -free from rust.</p> - -<p>When a car is idle for any appreciable length of time, it -should be jacked up to take the load off the tires. If the -car is laid up for many months, it is best to remove the tires, -and wrap up the outer casings and inner tubes separately, -and store them in a dark room not exposed to extreme temperature. -Remove oil or grease from the tires with gasoline.<span class="pagenum" id="Page322">[322]</span> -Remember that heat, light and oil are three natural enemies -to rubber.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is a puncture in the inner tube repaired?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> After locating the puncture, carefully clean the rubber -around the leak with benzine or gasoline. Then rough the -surface with sand paper from your tire repair kit to give -a hold for the cement. Apply the cement to both patch and -tube, allowing it to dry for about five minutes, repeating -the application twice with like intervals between for drying. -When the cement is dry and sticky press the patch against -the tube firmly and thoroughly to remove all air bubbles -beneath it and insure proper adherence to the surface. Then -spread some soapstone or talc powder over the repair so as -to prevent the tube sticking to the casing. Before the tube -is put back into the casing plenty of talc powder should be -sprinkled into the latter. A cement patch is not usually permanent -and the tube should be vulcanized as soon as possible. -In replacing the tire on the rim be very careful not to -pinch the tube.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page323">[323]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">XII<br> -POINTS ON MAINTENANCE</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What is the proper way to wash the car?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Always use cold or lukewarm water,—never hot water. -If a hose is used, do not turn on the water at full force, as -this drives the dirt into the varnish and injures the finish. -After the surplus mud and grime have been washed off, take -a sponge and clean the body and running gear with a tepid -solution of water and ivory or linseed oil soap. Then rinse -off with cold water; then rub dry and polish the body with -a chamois skin. A body or furniture polish of good quality -may be used to add luster to the car. Grease on the running -gear may be removed with a gasoline soaked sponge or rag. -The nickeled parts may be polished with any good metal -polish.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What care does the top need?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> When putting the top down be careful in folding to -see that the fabric is not pinched between the bow spacers, -as they will chafe a hole through the top very quickly. Always -slip the hood over the top when folded to keep out dust -and dirt. Applying a good top dressing will greatly improve -the appearance of an old top.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What should be done when the car is stored?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Drain the water from the radiator, and then put in -about a quart of denatured alcohol to prevent freezing of -any water that may possibly remain. Remove cylinder head -and clean out any carbon deposits in combustion chamber. -Draw off all the gasoline. Drain the dirty oil from the crank -case and cleanse the engine with kerosene as directed above. -Refill the crank case with fresh oil and revolve the engine -enough to cover the different parts with oil. Remove the<span class="pagenum" id="Page324">[324]</span> -tires and store them away. Wash up the car, and if possible -cover the body with a sheet of muslin to protect the finish.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What attention do the electric headlights require?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Very little. When the cars leave our factory the -lamps are properly focussed and unless the bulb burns out -there should be no occasion for removing the door, as there -is nothing to get out of order. Should the door be removed -for any reason care should be exercised not to touch the -silver-plated reflector or the bulb with anything but a soft, -clean rag, preferably flannel. To focus the lamps turn the -adjusting screw in the back of the lamp in either direction -until the desired focus is attained. The bulbs we are furnishing -in electric head lamps are 8 volts, 2 amperes, and best -results will be obtained by securing lamps of this voltage and -amperage when replacement is necessary.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page325">[325]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">XIII<br> -THE FORD MODEL T ONE TON TRUCK</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Do the instructions relative to the car apply to the -truck?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The answers pertaining to the car are applicable to the -truck.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the rear axle removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Jack up the truck, place supports under rear axle -housings, and remove the rear wheels. Take out the four -bolts connecting the universal ball cap to the transmission case -and cover. Disconnect brake rods. Remove nuts holding -spring perches to rear axle housing flanges. Raise frame by -placing a long iron bar or gas pipe under the frame just -in front of rear spring, one end resting on a substantial support -of the proper height. Two workmen at the other end -of the bar can raise the frame and place the end of the bar -on another support. The rear axle assembly can then be -easily removed.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive -shaft?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting -and turn shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out -pin and the joint can be pulled or forced away from the -shaft and out of the housing.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the rear axle and differential disassembled?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> With the universal joint disconnected, remove the bolt -in front end of radius rods and the cap screws which hold the -drive shaft tube to the rear axle housing. Then remove the -rear axle housing cap; also the bolts which hold the two -halves of the differential housing together. With the differential -exposed to view, the manner of disassembling it will be<span class="pagenum" id="Page326">[326]</span> -apparent. Care must be exercised to get every part back -in its correct position when reassembling, being sure to use -new paper liners.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the worm removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> To remove the worm, drive out the pins which hold the -coupling to the worm and drive shaft. Then remove the felt -washer, roller bearing sleeve, and roller bearing by slipping -them over the coupling. Drive the coupling off from the drive -shaft and then force the worm from the coupling. Removing -the worm nut will permit the removal of the retaining -washer, thrust bearing and rear worm roller bearing. In reassembling -be sure that the pin which holds the retaining -washer stationary is in place.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the rear axle shaft removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Remove the rear axle assembly as directed above. Disconnect -brake rods and radius rods at rear axle housing -flange; also remove nuts holding spring perches to flanges. -Take out the cap screws holding the drive shaft tube to the -rear axle housing and remove the rear axle housing cap and -the bolts which hold the two halves of the differential housing -together, then pull or force the housing from the shafts -and disassemble differential. After replacing the axle shaft -be sure that the rear wheels are firmly wedged on at the -outer end of the axle shaft and the key in proper position. -When the truck has been driven thirty days or so make it -a point to remove the hub cap and set up the lock nut to overcome -any play that might have developed. It is extremely -important that the rear wheels are kept tight, otherwise the -constant rocking back and forth against the keyway may in -time cause serious trouble.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the differential gear removed from the shaft?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The differential gear is fastened to the inner end of -the rear axle shaft by means of splines, and is held in position -by a ring which is in two halves and fits in a groove -in the rear axle shaft. To remove the gear, force it down on -the shaft, that is, away from the end to which it is fastened, -drive out the two halves of the ring in groove in shaft with<span class="pagenum" id="Page327">[327]</span> -screw driver or chisel, and force the gear off the end of the -shaft.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about lubricating the rear axle?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> Extreme care must be used in lubricating the differential. -An A-1 heavy fluid or semi-fluid oil, such as Mobiloil -C or Whittemore’s Worm Gear Protective, should be used -and cared at a level with the upper oil plug. The differential -is supplied with the required amount of lubricant when -the car leaves the factory and the supply should be maintained -by replenishments as required. After running the -truck about 500 miles, the oil should be drained off by removing -the lower oil plug, and the differential filled with fresh -lubricant. This operation should be repeated at approximately -1000 miles, and after that whenever necessary. The -rear axle outer roller bearings are lubricated by means of -dope cups. These cups should be kept filled with a good -grade of grease and given a full turn every 100 miles. Before -putting the truck back into service after the rear axle -has been taken out fill the differential with oil, jack up the -axle and run it for five or ten minutes to insure proper lubricant -of all bearings.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page328">[328]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak">XIV<br> -THE F. A. STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM INSTALLED -ON SEDANS AND COUPÉS</h3> - -</div><!--chapter--> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Of what does the starting and lighting system consist?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The starting and lighting system is of the two unit type -and consists of the starting motor, generator, storage battery, -charging indicator, and lights, together with the necessary -wiring and connections.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Where is the starter located?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The starting motor is mounted on the left hand side of -the engine and bolted to the transmission cover. When in -operation the pinion on the Bendix drive shaft engages with -the teeth on the flywheel.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What must be done before starting the engine?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The spark and the throttle levers should be placed in -the same position on the quadrant as when cranking by hand, -and the ignition switch turned on. Current from either battery -or magneto may be used for ignition. When starting, -especially when the engine is cold the ignition switch should -be turned to battery. As soon as the engine is warmed up, -turn switch back to magneto. The magneto was designed to -furnish ignition for the Model T engine and better results will -be obtained by operating in this way. Special attention must -be paid to the position of the spark lever as a too advanced -spark will cause serious backfiring which in turn will bend -or break the shaft in the starter. The starting motor is -operated by a push button, conveniently located in the floor -of the car at the driver’s feet. With the spark and throttle -levers in the proper position, and the ignition switch turned -on, press on the push button with the foot. This closes<span class="pagenum" id="Page329">[329]</span> -the circuit between the battery and the starting motor, causing -the pinion of the Bendix drive shaft to engage with the -teeth on the flywheel, thus turning over the crank shaft. -When the engine is cold it may be necessary to prime it by -pulling out the carburetor priming rod, which is located on -the instrument board. In order to avoid flooding the engine -with an over rich mixture of gas, the priming rod should -only be held out for a few seconds at a time.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What if the engine fails to start?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> If the starting motor is turning the crank shaft over -and the engine fails to start, the trouble is not in the starting -system. In this event, release the button at once so as not -to unnecessarily discharge the battery and inspect the carburetor -and ignition system to determine the trouble.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What if the starting motor fails to act?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> If the starting motor fails to act, after pushing the -button, first inspect the terminal on the starting motor, the -two terminals on the battery and the two terminals on starting -switch, making sure all the connections are tight; then -examine the wiring for a break in the insulation that would -cause a short circuit. If the wiring and connections are -O. K. and the starting motor fails to act, test the battery -with the hydrometer. If the hydrometer reading is less than -1.225 the trouble is no doubt due to a weak or discharged -battery.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the generator operated?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The generator is mounted on the right hand side of the -engine and bolted to the cylinder front end cover. It is -operated by the pinion on the armature shaft engaging with -the large time gear. The charging rate of the generator is -set so as to cut in at engine speeds corresponding to ten -miles per hour in high speed and reaches a maximum charging -rate at twenty miles per hour. At higher speeds the charge -will taper off, which is a settled characteristic of battery -charging. This operation of cutting in and cutting out at -suitable speeds is accomplished by the cut-out, which is -mounted on the dash. This cut-out is set properly at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page330">[330]</span> -factory and should not under any circumstances be tampered -with.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about oiling?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The starting motor is lubricated by the Ford splash -system, the same as the engine and the transmission. The -generator is lubricated by a splash of oil from the time gears. -In addition an oil cup is located at the end of the generator -housing and a few drops of oil should be applied occasionally.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What should be done when repairing the ignition?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The introduction of a battery current into the magneto -will discharge the magnets and whenever repairing the ignition -system or tampering with the wiring in any way, do not -fail to disconnect the positive wire from the battery. The end -of this wire should be wound with tape to prevent its coming -in contact with the ignition system or metal parts of the car.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How does the charging indicator work?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The charging indicator is located on the instrument -board. This indicator registers “charge” when the generator -is charging the battery and “discharge” when the lights are -burning and the engine not running above ten miles per hour. -At an engine speed of 15 miles per hour or more the indicator -should show a reading of from 10 to 12 even with the lights -burning. If the engine is running above 15 miles per hour -and the indicator does not show “charge,” first inspect the -terminal posts on the indicator, making sure that the connections -are tight, then disconnect the wire from the terminal -on generator, and with the engine running at a moderate -speed, take a pair of pliers or a screw driver and short circuit -the terminal stud on the generator to the generator housing. -If the generator is O.K., a good live spark will be noted. -(Do not run the engine any longer than is necessary with the -terminal wire disconnected.) Next inspect the wiring from -the generator through the charging indicator to the battery -for a break in the insulation that would result in a short -circuit.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How are the lights operated?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The lighting system consists of two 2-bulb headlights<span class="pagenum" id="Page331">[331]</span> -and a tail light operated by a combination lighting and ignition -switch located on the instrument board. The large bulbs -are of 6-8 candle-power type. The small bulbs of 6-8 -volt two candle-power type. The small bulb is also used in -the tail light. All of the lamps are connected in parallel so -that the burning out or removal of any one of them will -not effect the other. Current for the lamps is supplied by -the battery. Do not connect the lights with the magneto as -it will result in burning out the bulbs and might discharge -the magnets.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about repairing starter and generator?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> If either the starter or generator fails to give proper -service, the owner should at once consult an authorized Ford -dealer. If the trouble is not found in the wiring, connections, -etc., as outlined, the dealer will remove the starter -or generator, or both if necessary, and return them intact -to the nearest branch for repair or replacement. Dealers or -owners should not attempt to repair or tamper in any way -with the mechanism of the starter and generator.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the starter removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> When removing the starter to replace transmission -bands, or for any other reason, first remove the engine pan -and the left hand side of the engine and with a screw driver -remove the four small screws holding the shaft cover to the -transmission cover. Upon removing cover and gasket, turn -the Bendix drive shaft around so that the set screw on the -end of the shaft is in the upward position. Immediately -under the set screw is placed a lock washer, designed with -lips or extensions opposite each other on the outside diameter. -One of these is turned against the collar and the other is -turned up against the side of the screw head. Bend back -the lip which has been forced against the screw and remove -the set screw. As the lock washer will no doubt be broken -or weakened in removing the starter, a new one must be -used in replacing it. These washers may be obtained from -the nearest branch. Next, pull the Bendix assembly out of -the housing, being careful that the small key is not misplaced<span class="pagenum" id="Page332">[332]</span> -or lost. Remove the four screws which hold the starter -housing to the transmission cover and pull out the starter, -taking same down through the chassis,—this is why it was -necessary to remove the engine pan. Extreme care should -be used in removing the Bendix drive and other parts that -none are misplaced nor lost and that they are replaced in their -former positions. In replacing the starter, be sure that the -terminal connection is placed at the top. If the car is to -be operated with the starter removed, be sure to put the -transmission cover plates in position. These plates may also -be obtained from the nearest branch.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> How is the generator removed?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> If it is found necessary to remove the generator, first -take out the three cap screws holding it to the front end -cover and by placing the point of a screw driver between -the generator and front end cover; the generator may be -forced off the engine assembly. Always start at the top -of the generator and force it backward and downward at the -same time. Plates may be obtained from the nearest branch -to place over the time gear if the car is to be operated -with the generator removed.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> Can the engine be run with the generator disconnected -from the battery?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> If for any reason it is run with the generator disconnected -from the battery, as on a block test, or when battery -has been removed for repair or recharging, be sure that the -generator is grounded to the engine by running a wire -from the terminal on generator to one of the valve cover -stud nuts. A piece of wire <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>16</sub>″ or more in diameter may -be used for this purpose. Be sure that the connections -at both ends of the wire are tight. Failure to do this -when running the engine with the generator disconnected -from the battery will result in serious injury to the generator.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about the care of the battery, repairing of recharging?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The Ford Starting System uses a 6-volt 13-plate<span class="pagenum" id="Page333">[333]</span> -“Exide” battery, type 3-XC-13-1. The care of the battery -in service is summed up in the following rules:</p> - -<p>1. Add nothing but pure water to the cells and do it often -enough to keep the plates covered at all times. Distilled -water, melted artificial ice or rain water collected in clean -receptacles is recommended. In cold weather add water only -just before running the engine so that the charging may mix -the water and the electrolyte and freezing of the water be -avoided.</p> - -<p>2. Take frequent hydrometer readings to make sure that the -generator is keeping the battery charged. To take reading -remove filler cap of cell, insert end of hydrometer syringe in -filler opening, squeeze bulb, and release, drawing up enough -liquid to float hydrometer bulb free in the liquid. The reading -of the scale at the surface of the liquid when hydrometer -is floating in the specific gravity (density) of the electrolyte. -A fully charged battery will show a reading of 1.275 to 1.300. -A battery half charged will show a reading of 1.225 to 1.250. -A completely discharged battery will show a reading of 1.200 -or less. When taking hydrometer readings remove the filler -cap from only one cell at a time and be sure to return -electrolyte to the cell from which it was taken. Then replace -and tighten the filler cap. Hydrometer tests taken immediately -after filling with water and before water has become -thoroughly mixed with the electrolyte will not show -the true condition of the battery.</p> - -<p>3. If hydrometer reading shows battery less than half -charged it should be taken to the nearest Exide Battery Service -Station for recharging. Continued operation in a less -than half charged condition is injurious to the battery, just -as running in a soft or deflated condition is injurious to the -tires.</p> - -<p>4. Keep the filler caps in place and screwed tight,—a half -turn tightens them. Keep battery connections tight and -clean. A coating of heavy oil or vaseline will protect the -connectors from corrosion. Keep battery firmly secured in -place. If hold-downs are loose battery will shift about in<span class="pagenum" id="Page334">[334]</span> -compartment and result in loose connections, broken cells or -other trouble.</p> - -<p>5. Exide Battery Stations are maintained in principal cities -and towns throughout the country to assist you to obtain good -service from your battery. Do not entrust your battery to -the care of a novice.</p> - -<p><i>Q.</i> What about battery guarantee?</p> - -<p><i>A.</i> The Exide batteries are guaranteed by the manufacturers -(The Electric Storage Battery Company, Philadelphia, -Pa.) to be free from defects in material and workmanship.</p> - -<p>At any time within three months from date of delivery to -the purchaser any battery which may prove to be defective or -incapable, when fully charged, of giving its rated capacity, -will be repaired or replaced free of expense upon receipt, -transportation charges prepaid, at any Exide Battery Depot -or authorized Exide Battery Service Station. This guarantee -does not cover the free charging of batteries nor the making -good of damage resulting from continued lack of filling the -cells from time to time with pure water. No claims on account -of alleged defects can be allowed unless made within -three months of date of delivery of battery to purchaser, and -the right is reserved to refuse to consider claims in the case -of batteries opened by other than authorized Exide Battery -Service Stations.</p> - -<p>Purchasers of cars equipped with the “Exide” batteries -are earnestly urged to coöperate with the battery manufacturers -to taking their cars, as promptly as possible after receipt, -by the nearest Exide Battery Service Station in order -that the battery may be tested and its condition and installation -checked. No charge is made for this inspection.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page335">[335]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2> - -</div> - -<ul class="index"> - -<li><span class="righttext fsize70">PAGE</span></li> - -<li>Accumulator <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page99">99</a></span></li> - -<li>Alignment <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page229">229</a></span></li> - -<li>Alternating current <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page96">96</a></span></li> - -<li>Ammeter <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page99">99</a></span></li> - -<li>Ampere <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page95">95</a></span></li> - -<li>Atwater Kent ignition systems <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page126">126</a></span></li> - -<li>Automobile arrangement of parts <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page245">245</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">painting <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page262">262</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">troubles <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page264">264</a></span></li> - -<li>Axles <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page212">212</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">dead, type <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page212">212</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">front <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page214">214</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">full-floating <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page213">213</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">live, type <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page212">212</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">semi-floating <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page212">212</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Battery, storage <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page99">99</a></span></li> - -<li>Bearings, types of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page236">236</a></span></li> - -<li>Bijur starter mechanism <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page151">151</a></span></li> - -<li>Body, care and washing <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page253">253</a></span></li> - -<li>Borg and Beck clutch <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page192">192</a></span></li> - -<li>Bosch Magneto, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page105">105</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">cutting out ignition <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page110">110</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">safety spark gap <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page109">109</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">timing of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page106">106</a></span></li> - -<li>Brakes, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page218">218</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page221">221</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">equalizer <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page220">220</a></span></li> - -<li>Breaker box and distributor head assembly, N.E. <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page117">117</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Cam shaft <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page18">18</a></span></li> - -<li>Cam shaft drive <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page19">19</a></span></li> - -<li>Car, arrangement and parts, cleaning <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page243">243</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">care, cleaning and washing <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page253">253</a></span></li> - -<li>Carburetion <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page46">46</a></span></li> - -<li>Carburetor, types, operation <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page46">46</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">adjustments of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page56">56</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">kerosene, principle of operation <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page76">76</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">adjustment <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page78">78</a></span></li> - -<li>Charging rate, adjustment <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page165">165</a></span></li> - -<li>Choking coil <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page97">97</a></span></li> - -<li>Circuit breaker <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page100">100</a></span></li> - -<li>Clutch, construction of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page189">189</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">cone type <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page191">191</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">multiple disc type <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page192">192</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">leathers and patterns <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page196">196</a></span></li> - -<li>Coil, non-vibrating <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page100">100</a></span></li> - -<li>Commutator <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page97">97</a></span></li> - -<li>Condenser <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page97">97</a></span></li> - -<li>Contact breaker <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page100">100</a></span></li> - -<li>Cooling system, necessity, types and care <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page82">82</a></span></li> - -<li>Crank shaft, counterbalanced <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page17">17</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">four-throw plain <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page17">17</a></span></li> - -<li>Current, high tension, low tension <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page95">95</a></span></li> - -<li>Cylinder head <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page14">14</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Delco, electrical system<span class="pagenum" id="Page336">[336]</span>, -<span class="righttext"><a href="#Page96">96</a></span></li> - -<li>Differential gears <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page207">207</a></span></li> - -<li>Direct current <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page96">96</a></span></li> - -<li>Disc clutch, cleaning <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page195">195</a></span></li> - -<li>Distributor <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page100">100</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Electric starter and light equipment <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page147">147</a></span></li> - -<li>Electrical, equipment <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page154">154</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">systems <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page153">153</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">tuning hints <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page259">259</a></span></li> - -<li>Electrolyte <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page99">99</a></span></li> - -<li>Engine, 4-cycle type, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page29">29</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">assembly of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page36">36</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">care and cleaning of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page253">253</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">construction and parts <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page12">12</a></span></li> - -<li>Evaporation <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page84">84</a></span></li> - -<li>Exact magneto timing <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page108">108</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Filling vacuum tank <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page94">94</a></span></li> - -<li>Flywheel, types, care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page20">20</a></span></li> - -<li>Ford car, operation and care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page269">269</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">cooling system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page287">287</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">engine, operation and care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page277">277</a></span></li> -<li class="level2">maintenance <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page280">280</a></span></li> -<li class="level2">valve arrangement <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page279">279</a></span></li> -<li class="level2">valve grinding <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page280">280</a></span></li> -<li class="level2">valve timing <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page279">279</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">gasoline system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page290">290</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">ignition system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page295">295</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">lubrication system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page316">316</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">maintenance points <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page323">323</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">muffler <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page310">310</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">one-ton truck <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page325">325</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">rear axle assembly <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page307">307</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">running gear <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page311">311</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">starting and lighting system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page328">328</a></span></li> - -<li>Ford car, tire care <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page320">320</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">transmission system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page301">301</a></span></li> - -<li>Fuse, construction, use of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page97">97</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Gasoline engine construction <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page12">12</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">parts assembly <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page36">36</a></span></li> - -<li>Gear, shifts <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page200">200</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">box arrangement <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page201">201</a></span></li> - -<li>Generator <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page147">147</a></span></li> - -<li>Greases <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page40">40</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Heated manifolds <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page79">79</a></span></li> - -<li>High speed <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page189">189</a></span></li> - -<li>High tension current <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page95">95</a></span></li> - -<li>Hydrometer syringe <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page99">99</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Induction coil <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page96">96</a></span></li> - -<li>Ignition coil, N.E. type <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page117">117</a></span></li> - -<li>Ignition distributor, N.E. type <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page116">116</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Kick switch arrangement <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page137">137</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">coil <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page137">137</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Lamp controllers <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page159">159</a></span></li> - -<li>Lens, cleaning of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page254">254</a></span></li> - -<li>Lubrication, of spring leaves <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page224">224</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">systems <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page39">39</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Magneto, parts, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page101">101</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">timing of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page113">113</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">washing, repair <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page111">111</a></span></li> - -<li>Main bearings <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page17">17</a></span></li> - -<li>Manifold, action of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page80">80</a></span></li> - -<li>Mechanical alignment <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page230">230</a></span></li> - -<li>Mufflers, design, care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page86">86</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">cleaning <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page87">87</a></span></li> - -<li>Multiple cylinders<span class="pagenum" id="Page337">[337]</span>, -<span class="righttext"><a href="#Page12">12</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">North East Automatic spark advance <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page121">121</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">breaker cam <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page120">120</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">breaker contacts <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page119">119</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">ignition system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page114">114</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">starter system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page161">161</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Ohm <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page95">95</a></span></li> - -<li>Oils, quality, grade of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page40">40</a></span></li> - -<li>Oil reservoir <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page19">19</a></span></li> - -<li>One unit, electrical system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page148">148</a></span></li> - -<li>Overhauling car <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page247">247</a></span></li> - -<li>Overheating <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page83">83</a></span></li> - -<li>Operation of starter <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page156">156</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Philbrin ignition system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page141">141</a></span></li> - -<li>Pistons <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page15">15</a></span></li> - -<li>Piston rings <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page15">15</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">rod bearings <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page16">16</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">rods <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page16">16</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">wrist pins <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page15">15</a></span></li> - -<li>Plunger pump oiling system, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page42">42</a></span></li> - -<li>Power stroke <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page31">31</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">lapping <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page32">32</a></span></li> - -<li>Poppet valve, construction <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page23">23</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">adjustment <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page23">23</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">operation <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page23">23</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Radiator, cleaning <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page83">83</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">freezing <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page84">84</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">solutions <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page84">84</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">repairs <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page84">84</a></span></li> - -<li>Regulation of generator <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page100">100</a></span></li> - -<li>Repair equipment <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page25">25</a></span></li> - -<li>Rug cleaning <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page254">254</a></span></li> - -<li>Running gear, washing of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page253">253</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Schebler-carburetor, model R, adjustment of, -<span class="righttext"><a href="#Page63">63</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">Ford “A,” adjustment of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page74">74</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">Ford “A,” operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page73">73</a></span></li> - -<li>Semi-floating axle, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page212">212</a></span></li> - -<li>Spark plugs, construction of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page186">186</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page186">186</a></span></li> - -<li>Splash oiling system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page40">40</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page41">41</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">cleaning of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page41">41</a></span></li> - -<li>Spring, care, tests <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page225">225</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">types, care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page226">226</a></span></li> - -<li>Starter-Generator, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page163">163</a></span></li> - -<li>Starting motor, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page149">149</a></span></li> - -<li>Steering gear, types <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page232">232</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">adjustment of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page233">233</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page235">235</a></span></li> - -<li>Stewart carburetor, operation, care of and maintenance <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page65">65</a></span></li> - -<li>Storage battery, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page180">180</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">charging <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page182">182</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">freezing <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page185">185</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">maintenance <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page182">182</a></span></li> - -<li>Strainer for gasoline <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page93">93</a></span></li> - -<li>Stroke <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page31">31</a></span></li> - -<li>Stromberg carburetor, model M <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page47">47</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">model L <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page58">58</a></span></li> - -<li>Sunderman carburetor, action of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page60">60</a></span></li> - -<li>Switches<span class="pagenum" id="Page338">[338]</span> <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page100">100</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Three unit, electrical system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page148">148</a></span></li> - -<li>Tire, build, quality <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page256">256</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">chains <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page257">257</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">rim care <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page254">254</a></span></li> - -<li>Top, care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page254">254</a></span></li> - -<li>Transmissions <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page198">198</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">gear shifts <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page200">200</a></span></li> -<li class="level2">box arrangement <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page201">201</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">care of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page202">202</a></span></li> - -<li>Tube, care <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page258">258</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">repairing <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page258">258</a></span></li> - -<li>Two unit, electrical system <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page148">148</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Universal joints <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page204">204</a></span></li> - -<li>Upholstering <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page254">254</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Vacuum systems <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page89">89</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">cleaning strainer <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page93">93</a></span></li> - -<li>Vacuum systems, operation of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page90">90</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">troubles <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page93">93</a></span></li> - -<li>Valve, types, arrangement of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page21">21</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">grinding <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page25">25</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">setting <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page24">24</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">sleeve type <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page26">26</a></span></li> -<li class="level2">setting of <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page27">27</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">timing marks <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page25">25</a></span></li> - -<li>Voltage <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page95">95</a></span></li> - -<li>Voltaic cells <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page99">99</a></span></li> - -<li class="newletter">Water cooling <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page82">82</a></span></li> - -<li>Water vents <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page16">16</a></span></li> - -<li>Wheels, lining up <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page229">229</a></span></li> - -<li>Windshield, cleaning and care <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page99">99</a></span></li> - -<li>Wiring <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page114">114</a></span></li> - -<li>Wrapping springs <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page224">224</a></span></li> - -<li>Wrist pins <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page15">15</a></span></li> -<li class="level1">bushings <span class="righttext"><a href="#Page15">15</a></span></li> - -</ul> - -<hr class="full"> - -<div class="tnbot" id="TN"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>The text of this e-text is that as printed in the source document. Unless listed under Changes -below, factual errors, inconsistent spelling and hyphenation, the inconsistent use of quote marks surrounding -reference letters or model and type letters, the inconsistent use of per cent with and without full stop, etc. have not been -corrected or standardised. The automobile brand consistently called Jeffrey in the text was actually called Jeffery. The -(minor) differences in wording and structure between the table of contents and the text have not been standardised.</p> - -<p>Hyperlinks have been provided only where the target is clear and unambiguous.</p> - -<p>Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their settings, not all elements may display -as intended.</p> - -<p>Page 8: there are no seventeenth and eighteenth items listed; items nineteen and twenty are cardinal rather than -ordinal numbers in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 14, Fig. 3: the oddly shaped cylinder head is as printed in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 33, ... Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors ... and ... a case where two, four, or two six cylindered motors -are set ...: as printed in the source document; the commas between Twin and Four and between two and four are possibly -erroneous.</p> - -<p>Page 35, calculation of piston displacement: the calculation results in 192.42 cubic inches.</p> - -<p>Page 54: Fig. 32 shows an exterior photograph ...: as printed in the source document; Fig. 32 is obviously a drawing.</p> - -<p>Page 128 and 135: Fig. 68 and Fig. 75 and their captions are identical in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 159 and 183: Fig. 91 and Fig. 103 and their captions are identical in the source document.</p> - -<p>Page 205 Whitemore and page 327 Whittemore: possibly misspellings of Whitmore.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore75">Changes made</p> - -<p>Most tables and illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs. In some tables and lists the ditto character -has been replaced with the dittoed text.</p> - -<p>Some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently.</p> - -<p>Above or underneath some illustrations <span class="illotext">dashed boxes</span> provide -transcriptions (and an indication of their relative positions) of the explanatory and descriptive texts inside the -accompanying illustration. These transcriptions do not occur as such in the source document but have been provided for -the sake of legibility and searchability.</p> - -<p>Page xii: page number 126 inserted.</p> - -<p>Page 1-2: Daimler was consistently spelled Diamler; this has been corrected.</p> - -<p>Page 3: Marquis de Doin changed to Marquis de Dion.</p> - -<p>Page 33: ... a staggard position ... changed to ... a staggered position ....</p> - -<p>Page 47: ... through a verticle channel ... changed to ... through a vertical channel ....</p> - -<p>Page 47, 48: ... air bled jet ... changed to ... air bleed jet ... (2 ×).</p> - -<p>Page 70: ... which embodies a radically new principal ... changed to ... which embodies a radically new principle ....</p> - -<p>Page 82: It acts on the principal that ... changed to It acts on the principle that ....</p> - -<p>Page 84: ... its freezing point being 8% below zero ... changed to ... its freezing point being 8° below zero ....</p> - -<p>Page 87: ... are scrapped and rubbed ... changed to ... are scraped and rubbed ....</p> - -<p>Page 98: reference letters A-F in paragraph Dynamo changed to lower case as in illustration.</p> - -<p>Page 117: ... the verticle shaft bearing sleeve ... changed to ... the vertical shaft bearing sleeve ....</p> - -<p>Page 126: ... which eliminate troubles ... changed to ... which eliminates troubles ....</p> - -<p>Page 152: Figs. 87 (Position 2A) and 87A (Position 3) have been placed in the right order.</p> - -<p>Page 169: ... in contact with the ear ... changed to ... in contact with the gear ....</p> - -<p>Page 178: ... shown at D and C (Fig. 99) ... changed to ... shown at D and C (Fig. 100) ....</p> - -<p>Page 231: ... E-EL lines drawn through the spindles will meet at F ... changed to ... e-e1 lines drawn through the -spindles will meet at E ...; ... the lines E and E1 meet at different angles ... changed to ... the lines e and e1 meet -at different angles ....</p> - -<p>Page 260: ... the nearest mettle part. changed to ... the nearest metal part.</p> - -<p>Page 333: ... show a reading of 1,200 or less. changed to ... show a reading of 1.200 or less.</p> - -</div><!--tnbot--> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S GUIDE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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