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diff --git a/old/69375-0.txt b/old/69375-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4587006..0000000 --- a/old/69375-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13078 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The automobile owner's guide, by Frank -B. Scholl - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The automobile owner's guide - -Author: Frank B. Scholl - -Release Date: November 18, 2022 [eBook #69375] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S -GUIDE *** - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Text printed in italics and bold face have been transcribed _between - underscores_ and =between equal signs= resspectively. Single - superscript characters are preceded by ^, multiple superscript - characters by ^{...}. Small capitals have been replaced with ALL - CAPITALS. - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - THE AUTOMOBILE - OWNER’S GUIDE - - - - - THE AUTOMOBILE - OWNER’S GUIDE - - BY - FRANK B. SCHOLL - - [Illustration] - - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - NEW YORK LONDON - 1920 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - - -PREFACE - - -The automobile has taken its place as one of the most successful and -useful inventions of the day. It is equaled only by the internal -combustion gas engine, which is a factor in making it practical and -efficient. - -Gasoline-propelled vehicles have become one of man’s greatest aids in -business efficiency, but nevertheless it is very important that we -consider the facts, that the adoption of the automobile by man for -business, commerce and pleasure is on a very large scale, and that the -production by manufacturers is so great that very little thought is -given to proper care, which is an ever-present factor in economical -operation and a fair return for the investment. - -The purpose of this book is to serve as a practical guide for those who -own, operate, or contemplate purchasing an automobile. - -The contents of this book cover the entire field that would be of -value to the owner or chauffeur in making his own repairs. The parts -and expressions are given in their simplest form; technical terms, -tables and scales have been entirely eliminated, as they mean little or -nothing to the average owner, and are of value only to the mechanical -engineer and draftsman. - -The illustrations, drawings and diagrams are intended only for the -purpose of bringing out points that are more readily understood and -explained in this manner. No attempt has been made to conform to -proportionate exactness or scale accurateness. - -Since there are many different makes of cars, motors, and equipment, -the functional action of all is practically the same, therefore we -use for illustration only those which are used by the majority of -manufacturers. - -While, as a general rule, you will find all automobiles efficient and -reliable, troubles and conditions are bound to arise that are somewhat -puzzling; therefore, to assist the owner, we have written a chapter on -trouble hints conveniently arranged in three columns, headed troubles, -cause, and remedy. - -The entire book is worked out along such lines, and so arranged, that -a man or a boy with a common school education can easily master it and -become an efficient mechanic. - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -After twelve years’ experience with the automobile, I find that -only one-third of the present-day owners understand the mechanical -operation, care and proper upkeep of their cars; the other two-thirds -know little or nothing of their cars, and are unable to locate -or detect trouble, or make the slightest adjustment necessary to -remedy it. This fact remains as the chief cause of the present high -depreciation in cars, and the loss of millions of dollars annually to -automobile owners. - -After two years of observation and close investigation, I find the -vast majority of the present owners are eager to acquire mechanical -knowledge, but they have not accomplished their aim, chiefly because -the available books to attain that end are too technical, dry, and -overdescriptive for the average owner and beginner in mechanics. - -The automobile is not an individually constructed piece of machinery, -but a combination of individual inventions, each adapted to a -functional purpose, which is necessary to the harmony of successful -operation. A great many of these mechanical achievements are of -delicate construction, and very apt to get out of adjustment. This, -however, is not always the case, as grease, dirt and foreign matter -with which the various parts come in contact often prevent them from -operating properly. - -Therefore a little common knowledge of operation and a little care -will enable an owner to operate his car successfully, thereby avoiding -unnecessary trouble, damage and expense. - -One of the chief aims of the writer is to make this book interesting -and thorough, in order to hold the reader until he understands the -entire contents, after which he should be able to make any necessary -repairs and adjustments, or to hold a position as automobile mechanic. - -In order to accomplish the foregoing and prevent a student from -becoming discouraged we use functional principle as the base for -explanation whenever possible. - -The instructions set forth in this book are not taken merely from -theory, but have been put into successful operation by the writer, -who for several years sold cars in outlying districts where garage -facilities were limited, and where it was necessary to make a -mechanic of every purchaser in order to sustain the high reputation -of the car sold. Later on his plan of instructions was used in an -automobile school where he was chief instructor, and still later they -were developed into a note system which he used in establishing an -automobile school in the city of Toledo, Ohio. - -The students turned out by this school were very efficient and -successful, and finished the course in less than one-half the time -usually required for the average automobile course. - -This book was written during the twenty months that the writer spent in -the U. S. Army, from the note system used in his automobile school. - - F. B. S. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PREFACE v - - INTRODUCTION vii - - - INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. - - HISTORY OF THE GASOLINE ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION 1 - - Purchasing a new car 3 - - Purchasing a used car 4 - - Selecting and testing a used car 5 - - Driving instructions 6 - - Road rules for city and country 9 - - What to do in case of accident 10 - - - CHAPTER I. - - GASOLINE ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS 12 - - The engine block castings, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, - bearings, crank shaft, cam shaft and fly-wheel. - - - CHAPTER II. - - VALVE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 21 - - Valve construction. Types and operation of the valves in an - 8-cylinder V-type engine. Valve locations and valve grinding. - Valve care. - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE 4-CYLINDERED GASOLINE ENGINE 29 - - Explaining the cycle. The 4-, 6-, 8-, 12-cylindered engine -- - The Knight sleeve valve engine -- S. A. E. Horse Power Scale -- - Displacement-Engine charts -- Lubrication oils and greases -- - Lubrication systems -- Care -- Cleaning -- and adjusting of - lubrication systems. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 45 - - The Stromberg plain tube Model M carburetor. Principle of action - -- Installation -- Adjustment and maintenance -- Stromberg Model - L adjustment. - - - CHAPTER V. - - NITRO SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR 60 - - Principle of action, action of venturi, adjustment and general - care. - - The Schebler Model R carburetor, action and adjustment points. - - - CHAPTER VI. - - STEWART CARBURETOR 65 - - Principle of operation -- Adjustment and maintenance. - - - CHAPTER VII. - - CARTER CARBURETOR 70 - - Operating principle -- Adjustment and care. - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR 72 - - Operation -- Instructions for installing, adjustment and - maintenance. - - - CHAPTER IX. - - KEROSENE CARBURETORS 76 - - Operating principle -- Installation and adjustment. - - - CHAPTER X. - - HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS 79 - - Action -- Advantage and design. - - - CHAPTER XI. - - COOLING SYSTEMS 82 - - Purpose of cooling system -- Circulating systems -- The force - pump circulating system -- Overheating -- Radiator cleaning -- - Freezing -- Freezing solutions -- Radiator repairing -- The air - cooling system. - - - CHAPTER XII. - - MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION 86 - - Purpose -- Advantage -- Type -- Assembly and Maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - VACUUM SYSTEMS 89 - - Operating principle -- Purpose of the air vent -- Failure to - feed gasoline to carburetor -- Removing top -- Cleaning - gasoline strainer screen -- Operating principle and general - maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS 95 - - Voltage -- Amperage -- Ohms -- Current -- Circuit -- Low Tension - Current -- High Tension Current -- Induction Coil -- Commutator - -- Insulation -- Shunt or choking coil -- Fuse -- Condenser -- - Dynamo -- Voltaic cell -- Accumulator -- Storage battery -- - Electrolyte -- Hydrometer -- Ammeter -- Circuit breaker -- - Switch -- Generator -- Regulator -- Contact-breaker -- - Non-vibrating coil -- Distributors. - - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE MAGNETO 101 - - Parts -- Assemblage -- Operating principle. - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO, TYPE ZR 105 - - Operating principle -- Primary or low tension circuit -- - Secondary or high tension circuit -- Timing magneto gears -- - Timing magneto with engine -- The condenser -- Safety spark gap - -- Interrupter timing range -- Cutting out ignition -- Caution - -- Care -- Maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING 111 - - Magneto cleaning -- Magneto repairing -- Magneto assembling -- - Magneto timing to engine. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 114 - - Wiring ignition distributor -- Ignition coil -- Breaker box and - distributor head assembly -- Condenser -- Breaker contacts -- - Breaker cam -- Distributor head -- Automatic spark advance - mechanism -- Manual spark control -- Timing the distributor -- - General care. - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS 126 - - Type CC system -- Operating principle -- Setting or timing -- - Adjustment -- Oiling -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XX. - - ATWATER KENT BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM 132 - - Type K-2-Operating principle -- Operation of contact maker -- - Contactless distributor -- Wiring diagram of current flowage -- - Setting and timing the unisparker -- Timing with engine -- - Automatic spark advance -- Contact point adjustment -- Oiling - diagram -- Condenser -- Testing for ignition trouble. - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK, AND HIGH FREQUENCY DUPLEX IGNITION - SYSTEMS 141 - - Operation of contact maker -- Current induction -- Duplex system - -- Duplex switch -- Duplex switch action -- Wiring diagram -- - Adjustment of contact points -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS 147 - - The generator -- The regulator -- The automatic cut-out -- One - unit system -- Two unit system -- Three unit system -- The - starting motor -- Lubrication -- Maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND STARTING SYSTEMS 154 - - Wiring diagram Bijur system -- Operation of Bijur system -- - Starting motor -- Operation of starting motor -- Wiring circuits - -- Fuse -- Ground fuse -- Lamp controller -- Oiling -- Battery - testing -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - NORTH EAST STARTER USED ON DODGE BROTHERS’ CARS 161 - - Model G starter-generator operation -- Wiring diagram -- - Starter-generator action -- Mounting -- Drive -- Charging rate - adjustment -- Fuse -- Locating trouble -- Starting switch and - reverse current cut-out -- Running with battery disconnected. - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 167 - - Motoring the generator -- Cranking the engine -- Generating - electrical energy -- Diagram of motor generator operation -- - Lubrication -- Ignition switch -- Circuit breaker -- Ignition - coil -- Distributor -- Contact breaker and timer -- Care. - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - STORAGE BATTERY 180 - - Construction -- Chemical action -- Cells -- Electrolyte solution - -- Battery charging -- Care and maintenance -- Hydrometer - testing -- Battery idle -- Battery freezing -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - SPARK PLUGS AND CARE 186 - - Type -- Construction -- Connections -- Assembling -- Repairing -- - Cleaning -- General care. - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE 189 - - Clutch operation -- Gear shifting -- Change speeds -- Cone - clutch -- Cone clutch care -- Cone clutch adjustment -- Multiple - disc clutch -- Borg and Beck clutch -- Borg and Beck clutch - adjustment -- Disc clutch cleaning, wet plate, dry plate -- Cone - clutch leather -- Cone clutch leather patterns -- Cutting -- - General care. - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 198 - - Operation of -- Planetary type -- Progressive type -- Selective - type -- Gear shifts -- Unit-power-plant -- Transmission cleaning - -- Lubrication -- Care. - - - CHAPTER XXX. - - UNIVERSAL JOINTS 204 - - Universal joints -- Slip joints -- Operation -- Construction - diagram -- Tightening -- Lubrication -- Care. - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - - DIFFERENTIAL GEARS 207 - - Bevel gear action -- Construction -- Adjusting -- Gearless - differential -- Action -- Adjustment -- Advantage -- Worm gear - drive differential -- Operation -- Adjustment -- Lubrication -- - General care. - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - - AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 212 - - Dead axles -- The semi-floating axle -- Adjustment -- - Lubrication -- The full-floating axle -- Construction -- - Adjustment -- Lubrication -- The I-beam front axle -- The - spindle -- Steering knuckle -- Care of all types. - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - - BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 218 - - Brake adjustment -- Brake re-lining -- Brake care -- Brake - cleaning. - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - - SPRINGS AND SPRING CARE TESTS 223 - - Spring types -- Spring lubrication -- Weekly spring care -- - Bi-monthly spring care -- Spring wrapping. - - - CHAPTER XXXV. - - ALIGNMENT 229 - - Wheel alignment -- Lengthwise -- Crosswise -- Axle alignment -- - Lengthwise -- Alignment tests -- Mechanical alignment -- - Lengthening wheelbase. - - - CHAPTER XXXVI. - - STEERING GEARS, TYPE AND CONSTRUCTION 232 - - Operation of worm and sector type -- Adjustment of worm and - sector type -- Worm and nut type -- Adjustment of worm and nut - type -- Rack and pinion type -- Connections -- Drag link -- - General care. - - - CHAPTER XXXVII. - - BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE 236 - - Plain bearings -- Bushings -- Roller bearings -- Flexible roller - bearings -- Radial ball bearings -- Thrust ball bearings -- End - thrust -- Double thrust -- Cleaning -- Care -- Maintenance. - - - CHAPTER XXXVIII. - - CAR ARRANGEMENT 243 - - Showing location and names of parts -- Adjustment -- General - care. - - - CHAPTER XXXIX. - - OVERHAULING THE CAR 247 - - Instructions showing how to go about it -- And how to give the - car a thorough overhauling. - - - CHAPTER XL. - - REPAIR EQUIPMENT 251 - - Road repair necessities -- Shop repair necessities. - - - CHAPTER XLI. - - CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE 253 - - Body construction -- Body washing -- Running gear washing -- - Engine cleaning -- Cleaning upholstering -- Rug cleaning -- - Windshield cleaning -- Sedan or closed body cleaning -- Tire - cleaning -- Rim cleaning -- Light lens cleaning -- Caution. - - - CHAPTER XLII. - - TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY AND CARE 256 - - Tire care -- Tire chains -- Cross chains -- Tube care -- Tube - repairing -- Tire and tube storage. - - - CHAPTER XLIII. - - ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 259 - - General overhauling and tuning hints. - - - CHAPTER XLIV. - - AUTOMOBILE PAINTING 262 - - - CHAPTER XLV. - - CARBON REMOVING 263 - - TROUBLE HINTS 264 - - - FORD SUPPLEMENT. - - I The car -- its operation and care 269 - - II The Ford Engine 277 - - III The Ford Cooling System 287 - - IV The Gasoline System 290 - - V The Ford Ignition System 295 - - VI The Ford Transmission 301 - - VII The Rear Axle Assembly 307 - - VIII The Ford Muffler 310 - - IX The Ford Running Gear 311 - - X The Ford Lubrication System 316 - - XI Care of Tires 320 - - XII Points of Maintenance 323 - - XIII The Ford One Ton Truck 325 - - XIV The F. A. Starting and Lighting System Installed on Sedans - and Coupés 328 - - INDEX 335 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FIGURE PAGE - - 1. Typical Four-Cylinder Block 13 - - 2. Cylinder Block with Head Removed 13 - - 3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed) 14 - - 4. Typical Cylinder Piston 15 - - 5. Typical Piston Ring 15 - - 6. Typical Connecting Rod 16 - - 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft 17 - - 8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft 17 - - 9. Cam Shaft 18 - - 10. Flywheel 19 - - 11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement 22 - - 12. Poppet Valve 23 - - 13. Valve Types, Location and Operation 24 - - 14. Valve Timing Marks 25 - - 15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks -- 4-Cylinder 27 - - 16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks -- 8-Cylinder 28 - - 17. 4-Stroke Cycle 29 - - 18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine 31 - - 19. Power Stroke Diagram 32 - - 20. Buick Engine -- Parts Assembly 36 - - 21. Buick Engine -- Location Inside Parts Assembly 37 - - 22. Buick Motor -- End View 38 - - 23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine 39 - - 24. Splash Oiling 41 - - 25. Plunger Pump Oiling System 42 - - 26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor -- Sectional View 46 - - 27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Air Bleeder Action 47 - - 28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Accelerating Well 49 - - 29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Idling Operation 51 - - 30. Stromberg Carburetor -- Throttle ¹⁄₅ Open 52 - - 31. Stromberg Carburetor -- Throttle Wide Open 53 - - 32. Stromberg Model M -- Adjustment Points 55 - - 33. Stromberg Model “L” -- Adjustment Points 58 - - 34. Sunderman Carburetor 60 - - 35. Sunderman Carburetor 61 - - 36. Sunderman Carburetor 62 - - 37. Sunderman Carburetor 63 - - 38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled 64 - - 39. Stewart Carburetor 66 - - 40. Carter Carburetor 70 - - 41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A -- Sectional View 72 - - 42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A -- Adjustment Points 73 - - 43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor 76 - - 44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment 77 - - 45. Hot Spot Manifold 79 - - 46. Holley Vapor Manifold -- Ford Cars 80 - - 47. Thermo-Syphon Cooling System 82 - - 48. Muffler -- Three Compartment 86 - - 49. Muffler 87 - - 50. Vacuum System -- Top Arrangement 89 - - 51. Vacuum System Installation 90 - - 52. Vacuum System Diagram -- Stewart Warner 91 - - 53. Vacuum System -- Inside View of Parts 94 - - 54. Coil Diagram 96 - - 55. Dynamo -- Diagram of Action 98 - - 56. Magnets -- Pole Blocks 101 - - 57. Armature Core -- Wound Armature 102 - - 58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current Direction 102 - - 59. Breaker -- Slip Ring -- Distributor 103 - - 60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor -- Housing Removed 106 - - 61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4 107 - - 62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System -- on Dodge Car 115 - - 63. North-East Distributor -- Model O -- Ignition 116 - - 64. North East Breaker-Box 118 - - 65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism -- North East 121 - - 66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram -- Type C. C. 127 - - 67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Type C. C. 128 - - 68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block 128 - - 69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor 129 - - 70. Atwater Kent Type C. C. Wiring Diagram 130 - - 71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type - K-2 System 133 - - 72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type - K-2 System 133 - - 73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type - K-2 System 134 - - 74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type - K-2 System 134 - - 75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block 135 - - 76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2 136 - - 77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring 137 - - 78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism -- A-K Type - K-2 138 - - 79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Oiling Diagram -- A-K Type - K-2 139 - - 80. Philbrin Contact Maker -- Point Adjustment 141 - - 81. Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade 142 - - 82. Switch Case 143 - - 83. Duplex High Frequency Switch 144 - - 84. Philbrin Wiring Diagram 145 - - 85. Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine 149 - - 86. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action 151 - - 87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action 152 - - 88. Wiring Diagram Model N -- Hupmobile 153 - - 89. Wiring Diagram -- Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six 155 - - 90. Wiring Diagram -- Jeffrey Four 158 - - 91. Hydrometer Syringe 159 - - 91¹⁄₂. Dodge Wiring Diagram 162 - - 92. North East Model G Starter Generator 164 - - 93. Delco Motor Generator -- Showing Parts 168 - - 94. Delco Motor Generator -- Diagram of Operation 170 - - 95. Delco Ignition Switch Plate 173 - - 96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker -- Mounted 173 - - 97. Delco Ignition Coil 175 - - 98. Delco Wiring Diagram -- Buick Cars 176 - - 99. Delco Ignition Distributor 177 - - 100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer 178 - - 101. Storage Battery, Sectional View 180 - - 102. Storage Battery, Sectional View 182 - - 103. Hydrometer Syringe 183 - - 104. Spark Plug 187 - - 105. Cone Clutch and Brake 190 - - 106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmission 192 - - 107. Borg and Beck Clutch 193 - - 108. Cone Clutch Leathers -- Pattern -- Cutting 196 - - 109. Friction Transmission 199 - - 110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts 200 - - 111. Sliding Gear Transmission -- Sectional View 201 - - 112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly -- Unit Power Plant 203 - - 113. Slip Joint and Universal 204 - - 114. Universal Joint Construction Diagram 205 - - 115. Differential Action Diagram 207 - - 116. Differential Assembly 208 - - 117. Differential Adjusting Points 209 - - 118. Allen Gearless Differential 210 - - 119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle 213 - - 120. Full-Floating Axle -- Wheel-End Arrangement 214 - - 121. Full-Floating Axle 214 - - 122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts 215 - - 123. I-Beam Front Axle 216 - - 124. Brake -- Types and Adjustment 219 - - 125. Brake -- Showing Toggle Arrangement 220 - - 126. Transmission Brake -- Equalizer 220 - - 127. Brake -- Arrangement and Adjustment -- “Buick” 221 - - 128. ¹⁄₂-Elliptical Front Spring 226 - - 129. Full-Elliptic Spring 226 - - 130. ³⁄₄-Elliptical Rear Spring 227 - - 131. Platform Spring 227 - - 132. Cantilever Spring, Front 228 - - 133. Cantilever Spring, Rear 228 - - 134. Wheel Alignment Diagram 230 - - 135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear 233 - - 136. Worm and Nut Steering Gear 234 - - 137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear 234 - - 138. Steering Wheel 235 - - 139. Plain Bearings or Bushings 236 - - 140. Shims 237 - - 141. Bock Roller Bearing 237 - - 142. Hyatt Roller Bearing 238 - - 143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing 239 - - 144. Double Row Thrust Bearing 241 - - 145. End Thrust Bearing 241 - - 146. Car Arrangement 245 - - 147. Ford Motor -- Sectional View 278 - - 148. Ford Motor -- Valve and Cylinder Assembly 279 - - 149. Ford Fuel System 290 - - 150. Ford Transmission Assembly 303 - - 151. Ford Rear Axle System 308 - - 152. Ford Brake 309 - - 153. Ford Spindle 311 - - 154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart 317 - - - - -THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE - - - - -INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER - -HISTORY OF THE GAS ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION - - -A great many experiments were conducted with the explosive type of -motor between 1840 and 1860. These motors were very heavy and crude -affairs and furnished little or no power. They were either abandoned -or given up by those conducting the experiments, and had all but -disappeared in the later 50’s. The chief difficulties that they could -not overcome were, the finding of a suitable and combustible fuel, a -way to distribute it to the explosion chambers in proper proportion, -and a device to ignite it at the proper time. Many of these early -inventions used coal tar gases and gunpowder as fuel. - -The first designs for an internal combustion engine of the four -stroke cycle type were devised in 1862 by M. Beau de Rochas. These -designs were taken in hand by a German by the name of Otto, and many -experiments were conducted by him and two other Germans, Daimler -and Benz, which resulted in a fairly successful engine. The Otto -Gas Engine Co., of Deutz, Germany, was then formed with Daimler as -general manager. Experiments were carried on which resulted in many -improvements, such as valve adjusting and electrical spark ignition. -Many other smaller improvements were worked out which overcame many of -the difficulties of the former and cruder devices. - -The first gas engines were all of the single cylinder type, very -heavily constructed and produced from three to five horse power. In -1886, Daimler conceived the idea of constructing the multiple type -of engine with water-jacketed cylinders. Benz also completed a very -successful motor in the late fall of 1886, which embodied the water -cooling idea. The practical beginning of the gas engine as a factor -in vehicle propulsion began in the fall of 1886, when Daimler applied -his motor to a two-wheeled contrivance, which greatly resembled our -present-day motorcycle. While this machine ran, it was not considered a -very great success. Benz in the early part of 1887, connected his motor -to a three-wheeled vehicle with which he was able to travel at the rate -of three miles per hour. - -The real beginning of the present-day automobile took place in Paris, -France, in 1890, when M. Panhard secured the patent rights from Daimler -to use his engine. He then built a four-wheeled vehicle, which carried -some of the ideas of present-day construction, such as a steering -device and brakes. To this he applied his engine and was able to travel -at the rate of six miles per hour. In 1891 Peugeot Frères completed -their vehicle and installed a Benz engine. This vehicle or car, as -it was then called by the French government on account of its being -mechanically driven, was able to make from seven to eight miles per -hour. - -The perfecting of the automobile was hampered very much between the -years 1891 and 1898 by stringent laws that had been enacted by the -French government, which all but prohibited the driving of a car on the -public thoroughfare. - -The first American-made automobile of the gas propelled type was -completed in the year 1892 by Charles Duryea. This car embodied -many of our present-day ideas but was very lightly constructed and -under-powered. - -In 1893 another car made its appearance in America. This car was built -by Edward T. Haynes and was the beginning of the present-day Haynes’ -line of famous cars. - -The first automobile club was organized in Paris, France, in the year -1894 with the Marquis de Dion as president. The purpose of this club -was to secure a reformation of the laws that had been enacted when the -automobile made its first appearance on the public thorough-fare, and -to make laws and rules to govern automobile racing. - -At that time it was necessary when driving on a public highway to -have some one run seventy-five feet in advance of a car waving a red -flag, and to shout a warning at street intersections. These stringent -laws, however, were repealed by the government through influential aid -brought to bear on it by the automobile club assisted by the rapid -progress of the automobile industry. - - -PURCHASING A NEW CAR - -THINGS TO BE CONSIDERED TO MAKE THE INVESTMENT SAFE - -When you are going to buy a new car go about it in this manner and -protect your investment. - -First.--Choose the car that suits you best in regard to cost, -operation, and appearance. - -Second.--Inquire as to the financial status of the manufacturer. If -there is anything wrong with the car, or the management of the company, -it will show up here. - -Third.--Orphaned cars may run as well and give as good service as -anybody could ask for, but when a company fails or discontinues to -manufacture a model, the car immediately loses from one-third to -one-half of its actual value. That is, providing you wish to trade it -in or sell it as a used car. - -Fourth.--What kind of service does the agency in your vicinity give? -Do they take any interest in the cars they sell after they are in the -hands of the purchaser? - -Fifth.--The amount of interest taken in your purchase by the agent or -service station usually determines the amount of depreciation at the -end of the season. - -Sixth.--If you are purchasing your first car some little adjustments -will be required, and conditions will arise that require understanding -and attention. You, therefore, must acquire either a functional and -mechanical knowledge of the operation, or depend on the agent or -service station for help. - -Seventh.--You will probably say that you can get along without such -help. You probably can, but what will be the results? Will you be -required to stand a loss in the long run resulting from excessive -repair bills and depreciation which could have been prevented to a -great extent? - -Eighth.--Remember that an agent can fool you when you are buying, but -that you cannot fool him if you wish to sell or trade in. - -Ninth.--Remember that this book, _The Automobile Owners’ Guide_, was -written to assist you in just such cases as we have presented, and that -by spending a little time in study you can acquire a working knowledge -of your car, and become independent of the service station and the -agent, which will result in a big saving in both repair bills and -depreciation. - - -PURCHASING A USED CAR - -HOW TO ESTIMATE ITS VALUE - -The question is often asked, Does it pay to invest money in a -second-hand car? The answer may be either yes or no, and depends -entirely upon the condition of the car. - -For example, A and B purchase a new car at the same time. A is rather -conservative. He is also a careful driver and gives his car the best of -attention. B is a careless driver and pays little or no attention to -adjustments and lubrication. - -A has seen to proper lubrication and has kept the parts properly -adjusted and tightened up, and his careful driving has kept the -alignment in perfect condition. His car at the end of the first season -requires a little overhauling which will put it in as good condition as -it was when it was new as far as service is concerned, and it is worth -85 to 90 per cent of its original value. - -B has not seen to proper lubrication and has allowed his motor to -overheat. The cylinders and pistons are scored and worn, and the valves -are warped and do not seat properly. He drove into deep ruts and -chuck-holes, and bumped into curbs and posts while turning around. His -axles and wheels are out of line; the frame and all the running parts -which it supports are out of alignment. Overhauling will not put this -car in A-1 condition, and it is not worth more than 30 per cent. of the -original cost price. It would be a poor investment at any price to an -owner who is buying it for his own use. - -=Selecting and Testing a Used Car.=--First.--If you are buying from -a dealer who trades in cars, judge his statement of the condition of -a car according to his ability as a mechanic and according to his -reputation for accuracy. If you are buying from a reputable used -car dealer his word can usually be taken as a correct statement of -conditions as his business depends upon the accuracy of his statements -and he knows the condition of a car before he buys it. - -Second.--See the former owner. Get his statement of the condition of -the car and the care it has had, and judge it by his appearance, and -the general appearance of his home and property. - -Third.--If the car is listed as _Rebuilt_ or _Overhauled_, see if the -oil-pan, differential, and transmission covers have been removed. If -this has been done the old grease will either have been cleaned off -or show marks of the removal. If these marks are found the proper -adjustments and replacements have probably been made. - -Fourth.--Don’t judge the mechanical condition of a car by its outward -appearance. - -Fifth.--Examine the tires and figure the cost of replacement if any are -found in poor condition. - -Sixth.--Jack up the front axle and test the wheels for loose or worn -bearings. - -Seventh.--Grasp the wheel at the top and bottom and wiggle it to -determine whether the spindle bolts or steering device connections are -worn. - -Eighth.--Jack up the rear axle, set the gear shift-lever into -high-speed, move the wheel in and out from the bottom to discover worn -bearings, and move the wheel, forward and backward, to determine the -amount of back-lash in the differential and universal joints. - -Ninth.--Test the compression of the cylinders while the engine is cold -using the hand crank. If one cylinder is found weak, a leak exists and -the escaping compression can be heard. - -Tenth.--Run the motor until it is warm. If any weakness in compression -is noticeable the cylinders are probably scored, or the rings may be -worn. The valves may also be warped, thereby preventing them from -seating properly. - -Eleventh.--Examine the shoulders of the cross-members supporting the -engine, radiator, or transmission to see if they are cracked or broken. - -Twelfth.--The battery may have deteriorated through improper attention. -Test the solution with a hydrometer. If it is found well up, it can be -passed as O. K. - -Thirteenth.--Don’t judge the condition of the car by the model, as a -two or three-year-old model may be in better mechanical condition than -a six-month or year-old model. - - -DRIVING INSTRUCTIONS - -A new driver should remain cool and take things in a natural way as a -matter of course. There is nothing to get nervous or excited about when -learning to drive a car. Any one can master the art of driving quickly -by remaining cool and optimistic. - -First.--Acquire some definite knowledge of the operation of the engine -and its accompanying devices. - -Second.--Have some one explain the operation of the accelerator, spark, -and throttle levers. - -Third.--Study the relative action of the clutch and gear-shifting -pedal. - -Fourth.--The new driver takes the wheel and assumes a natural and calm -position with the muscles relaxed. - -Fifth.--He adjusts the motor control levers. The throttle lever is -advanced one-fourth its sliding distance on the quadrant. The spark -lever is set to one-half the sliding distance on the quadrant. - -Sixth.--Push the ignition-switch button, IN, or ON, and press the -starter button, letting it up as soon as the engine begins to fire. - -Seventh.--Not all gear-shifts are marked, consequently it is a good -idea to let the new driver feel out the different speed changes. This -is accomplished by pushing out the clutch and placing the shift-lever -into one of the four slots. Now let up the clutch pedal until it starts -to move the car, continue the feeling-out process until the reverse -speed gear is located, and at this point impress on him that first -and reverse speeds, are always opposite each other, lengthwise either -on the right or left side of neutral, while second speed is always -crosswise opposite reverse, and high-speed is opposite first on the -other side of neutral. - -Eighth.--Starting the car with engine running, advance the spark-lever -three-fourths the distance on the quadrant, advance the throttle until -the engine is turning over nicely (not racing). Place one hand on the -steering-wheel and with the other grasp the gear-shift-lever, push in -the clutch pedal, hold it for five seconds, in order that the clutch -brake may stop rotation. Place the shift-lever into the first-speed -slot and let up on the clutch pedal. The car should be driven four or -five hundred feet on this speed until the driver acquires the “nack” of -steering. - -Ninth.--To shift to second speed advance the gas throttle until the car -gathers a smooth rolling motion, press in the clutch pedal and allow -three to five seconds for the brake to retard the speed of the clutch, -then shift the lever to second speed and release the clutch pedal -easily. - -Tenth.--To shift into high-speed retard the throttle lever a trifle (to -prevent the engine from racing), throw out the clutch and shift the -lever into the high-speed slot. Perform these operations slowly but -without hesitation. - -Eleventh.--To shift to reverse speed go through the same operation that -you followed when first was used, except that the shift-lever is placed -in the reverse slot. - -Twelfth.--The reverse speed-gear is never engaged unless the car is at -a “stand-still,” as this gear turns in an opposite direction. - -Thirteenth.--Always test the emergency brake lever and the speed -shift-lever, to be sure that they are in a neutral position before -starting the engine. - -Fourteenth.--Remember that in case of emergency the car can be stopped -quickly by pushing in both foot-pedals. Pressure on the clutch pedal -disconnects the engine from the car, while pressure on the “foot” or -service brake pedal, slows up the motion of the car and will bring it -quickly to a stand-still. - -Fifteenth.--Always push the clutch out when using the service brake to -check the rolling motion of the car. - -Sixteenth.--When you wish to stop the car and motor kick out the clutch -and hold it in this position while you stop the rolling motion of the -car with the service brake and shift the gears to neutral. Then set the -emergency brake and turn off the switch to stop the motor. - -If the engine cannot take the car up a steep grade in low speed (due to -defective motor or gravity fuel feed) stop, engage reverse speed, turn -off the ignition switch, and let the car back down to level or a place -where you can turn around, and back up the hill. The reverse speed is -geared from one and a half to two times lower than first speed. - -Nineteen.--To stop the back wheels from skidding turn the front wheels -in the direction which the back wheels are sliding and release the -brakes. Turning away or applying the brakes adds momentum to the -sliding motion. - -Twenty.--If for any reason you must or cannot avoid driving into the -ditch unless the ditch is very shallow, turn the car directly toward -the opposite bank. The front or rear springs will lodge in the bank -and prevent the car from rolling over and crushing the occupants, and -the car can be drawn out more easily from this position. - - -ROAD RULES FOR CITY AND COUNTRY - -1.--Be courteous to all whom you meet and give your assistance if -necessary. - -2.--When encountering a bad stretch of road, with the track on your -side, don’t drive in and force another machine coming towards you to -get out of the track. WAIT. - -3.--Never block a track. In case you wish to stop and talk to some one, -drive to one side. - -4.--Keep on the right hand side of the road at all times, whether -moving or standing, except as prescribed in Paragraph 5. - -5.--In passing vehicles traveling in the same direction, always pass on -the left and blow the horn. - -6.--In passing a vehicle that has just stopped, slow down and sound the -horn. - -7.--In changing your direction, or stopping, always give the -appropriate hand signal. - -8.--Hand signals, straight up or up on 45° angle, STOP. Straight out or -horizontal, TURNING TO THE LEFT. Down at an angle of 45°, TURNING TO -THE RIGHT. - -9.--The distance between vehicles outside of towns and cities, 20 -yards; between vehicles passing through towns and cities, 5 yards; -between vehicles halted at the curb, 2 yards. - -10.--Bring all vehicles under easy control at street and road -intersections. - -11.--A maximum driving speed should not exceed 7 miles in business -sections of cities, 15 miles in residential sections, 25 miles on -country roads. - -12.--Form the habit of slowing down and looking both ways before -crossing tracks. - -13.--Always pass a street car on the right side. - -14.--Always stop 8 feet from a street car when passengers are getting -off, unless there is a safety zone, then drive slowly. - -15.--Never drive over the side-walk line while waiting for signal of -traffic officer. - -16.--Notify traffic officer which way you wish to turn with hand signal. - -17.--Always stop and wait for an opening when driving from a side -street or road into a main thoroughfare. - -18.--Make square turns at all street corners unless otherwise directed -by traffic officer. - -19.--If you wish to turn from one street into another wait until -the traffic officer gives the straight ahead signal, then give the -appropriate signal to those in the rear. - -20.--Always drive near the curb when you wish to turn to the right, and -to the right of the center line of the street when you wish to turn to -the left. - -21.--Drive straight ahead at 42nd St. and 5th Ave., N. Y., and at -Market and Broad St., Newark, N. J. These corners handle more traffic -than any two corners in the United States. No turns are made at either -corner. - -22.--Exercise care not to injure road ways. - -23.--Do not damage improved roads by the use of chains when unnecessary. - -24.--In case the car is not provided with chains, rope wrapped around -the tires will make a good substitute. - -25.--In case of fire, do not try to put it out with water as the -gasoline will only float and spread the fire. Use a fire extinguisher -or smother with sand or with a blanket. - - -WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENT - -1.--In case of injury to person or property stop car and render such -assistance as may be needed. - -2.--Secure the name of person injured or of owners of said property. - -3.--Secure names and addresses of witnesses to the accident. - -4.--Draw diagram of streets as shown in Fig. A. Show relative -positions of the colliding vehicles and the object of pedestrian just -before the accident. - -5.--Label streets and every object depicted and add measurements and -line showing course followed by vehicles, etc., and any explanatory -statements which would aid an understanding of the occurrence. - -[Illustration: - - Main St. - - Side St. - -Fig. A. Street Intersection] - -6.--File this report at police headquarters. - - - - -CHAPTER I - -GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS - - -We will use for purposes of illustration the common four-cylinder, -four cycle, cast en bloc, “L”-head type of motor, as this type is used -probably by 90% of the automobile manufacturers. The block of this type -of motor is cast with an overlapping shoulder at the upper left hand -side which contains a compartment adjoining the combustion chamber in -which the intake and exhaust valves seat, and the casting is made, in -the shape of the Capital letter L turned upside down. This arrangement -allows both valves to seat in one chamber and to operate from one cam -shaft. - -The operation of each cylinder is identically the same whether you have -a one or a many cylindered motor, consequently when you have gained a -working knowledge of one cylinder, others are a mere addition. This may -sound confusing when the eight or twelve cylindered motor is mentioned, -but is more readily understood when we consider the fact that an eight -or twelve cylindered motor is nothing more than two fours or two sixes, -set to a single crank-case or base in V-shape to allow the connecting -rods of each motor to operate on a single crank shaft. This arrangement -also allows all the valves to operate from a single cam shaft, thereby -making the motor very rigid and compact, which is an absolute necessity -considering the small space that is allowed for the motor in our -present-day designs. - -Fig. 1. The casting or block, which is the foundation of the whole -motor or engine, usually has a removable head which allows for easy -access to the pistons and valves. The block is cast with a passage or -compartment through the head and around the cylinders through which -water circulates for cooling the adjoining surfaces of the cylinders. -This alleviates the danger from expansion and contraction caused by -the tremendous heat generated in and about the combustion chambers. -This block also contains the cylinders and valve seats. The pistons -and valves are fitted to their respective positions as construction -progresses. - -[Illustration: - - Exhaust Pt. - - Intake Pt. - - Re. Plate - - Det. Head - - Cyl. Block - - Upper Crankcase - - Lower Crankcase - -Fig. 1. Typical Four-cylinder Block] - -Fig. 2. The block with head removed shows the smooth flush surface of -the block face and the location of the cylinders in which the pistons -operate or slide, with each power impulse or explosion. When the piston -is at its upper extreme it comes within a sixteenth of an inch of -being flush with the top of the block, while the valves (also shown in -Fig. 2) rest on ground-in seats, in their respective chambers, and are -operated by a stem which extends downward from the head through a guide -bushing in the block to the cam shaft. - -[Illustration: - - Pistons - - Water Vents - - Intake Valve - - Exhaust Valve - -Fig. 2. Cylinder Block With Head Removed] - -The location of the water vents is also shown, through which water is -circulated to prevent the cylinders from overheating which would cause -the pistons to “stick” from expansion. - -Fig. 3. The top or head of the motor is removed, exposing the -combustion chambers. These chambers must be absolutely air-tight as -the charge of gas drawn in through the inlet valve is compressed here -before the explosion takes place, and low compression means a weak -explosion, which causes the motor to run with an uneven-jumpy motion, -and with an apparent great loss of power. A copper fiber insert gasket -is placed between the top of the block and the head before it is bolted -down. This gasket prevents any of the compression from escaping through -unevenness of the contact surfaces, as metal surfaces are prone to warp -when exposed to intense heat. It is necessary to turn the bolts in the -head down occasionally, as the heat causes expansion. The following -contraction, which loosens them, results in a loss of compression and a -faulty operation of the motor. - -[Illustration: - - Combustion Chamber - - Spark Plug Vent - - Water Circulating Vent - - Bolt Holes - -Fig. 3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)] - -The spark-plug vents through the head are usually located directly -over the piston although in some cases they are over the valve head -and in some motors which are cast without a removable head they may be -at one side of the combustion chamber. The location of the spark-plug -does not materially affect the force of the explosion, although when -it is located directly over the piston a longer plug may be used, as -the pistons do not come up flush with the top of the block, and a -spark-plug extended well into the combustion chamber will not become -corroded with carbon or burnt oil as is usually the case with a plug -which does not extend beyond the upper wall surface of the combustion -chamber. - -Fig. 4. The plunger or piston is turned down to fit snugly within the -cylinder and is cast hollow, with two shoulders extending from the -inside wall. - -[Illustration: - - Head - - Ring - - Wrist Pin - - Oil Ring - - Ring Groove - - Bushing - - Wrist Pin - - Set Screw - - Ring Groove - - Set Screw - - Bushing - - Wrist Pin - -Fig. 4. Typical Cylinder Piston] - -Fig. 4A shows a split piston. Three grooves are cut into it near the -head to receive the piston rings. The width and depth of these grooves -vary according to the size of the piston. A hole is bored through the -piston and shoulders about half way from each end. The bushing or plain -bearing shown in Fig. 4B is pressed into this hole and forms a bearing -for the wrist pin also shown in Fig. 4B. Wrist pins are usually made -of a much softer metal than the bearing, and are subjected to severe -duty, which often causes them to wear and produce a sharp knock; this -may be remedied by pressing out the pin, giving it a quarter turn, and -replacing it in that position. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5. Typical Piston Ring] - -Fig. 5 shows a split joint piston ring. Piston rings are usually made -from a high grade gray iron, which fits into the grooves in the piston -and springs out against the cylinder walls, thereby preventing the -compressed charge of gas from escaping down the cylinder, between the -wall and the piston. Fig. 5A shows a piston equipped with leak-proof -rings; this type of piston ring has overlapping joints, and gives -excellent service, especially when used on a motor which has seen -considerable service. Fig. 5B illustrates how piston rings may line up, -or become worn from long use, or from faulty lubrication. This trouble -may be easily detected by turning the motor over slowly. The escaping -charge can usually be heard and the strength required to turn the motor -will be found much less uniform on the defective cylinder. - -The motor should be overhauled at least once every year, and by -applying new rings to the pistons at this time new life and snappiness -may be perceived at once. - -The connecting rod shown in Fig. 6 has a detachable or split bearing -on the large end, and takes its bearing on the crank pin of the crank -shaft. The small or upper end may have either a hinge joint or press -fit to the wrist pin. This rod serves as a connection and delivers -the power stroke from the piston to the crank shaft. These rods are -required to stand very hard jars caused by the explosion taking place -over the piston head. The bearings are provided with shims between the -upper and lower half for adjusting. Piston or connecting rod bearings -must be kept perfectly adjusted to prevent the bearings from cracking -or splitting which will cause the rod to break and which may cause -considerable damage to the crank case. - -[Illustration: - - Wrist Pin Bearing - - Upper Half Crank Pin Bearing - - Lower Half Bearing End Overlaps - - Shims - - Bushing - - Rod - - Shims - - Bolts - -Fig. 6. Typical Connecting Rod] - -Fig. 7 shows a counter balanced crank shaft. This type of crank-shaft -is provided with weights which balance the shaft and carry the momentum -gathered in the revolution. - -[Illustration: - - Rear Main Bearing - - Weight - - Center Main Bearing - - Front Main Bearing - - Fly Wheel Attached to this Ring - - Timing Gear Attached Here - - Crank Pin - - Crank Pins - -Fig. 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft] - -[Illustration: - - Main Bearings - -Fig. 8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft] - -Fig. 8 shows the plain type of crank shaft with the timing gear -attached to the front end and the fly-wheel attached to the rear end. -The crank shaft shown is carried or held by five main bearings, which -is an exception, as the majority of motor manufacturers use only three -main bearings to support the crank shaft, while in some of the smaller -motors only two are used. These bearings are always of the split -type, the seat for the upper half is cast into the upper part of the -crank-case, and the lower half is usually attached to the upper half by -four bolts which pass through the flange at each side of the bearing. -Small shims of different sizes are employed between the flanges of -each half of the bearing in order to secure a perfect adjustment which -is very essential, as these bearings are subjected to heavy strains -and severe duty. A shim may be removed occasionally as the bearing -begins to show wear. A worn main bearing can be detected by placing the -metal end of a screw-driver or hammer on the crank-case opposite the -bearing and the other end to the ear. If the bearing is loose or worn a -dull bump or thud will be heard. This looseness should be taken up by -removing a shim of the proper thickness. - -[Illustration: - - Cam Gear - - Bearings - - Cams - - Cams - -Fig. 9. Cam Shaft] - -Main bearings run loose for any length of time will be found very hard -to adjust as the jar which they are subjected to invariably pounds -them off center which makes readjustment a very difficult task to -accomplish with lasting effect. New main bearings in a motor should -always be scraped to secure a perfect fit. A loose piston or connecting -rod bearing will produce a sharp knock which can easily be determined -from the dull thud produced by a loose main bearing. (Fig. 9.) The -cam shaft revolves on bearings and is usually located at the base of -the cylinders on the left hand side looking toward the radiator and -carries a set of cams for each cylinder. The cam pushes the valve open, -and holds it in this position, while the piston travels the required -number of degrees of the cycle or stroke. - -The cam shaft is driven from the crank shaft usually through a set of -timing gears, and operated at one-half the speed of the crank shaft in -a four cycle motor, as a valve is only lifted once, while the crank -shaft makes two revolutions or four strokes. The cam-shaft bearings, -and the timing gears are usually self-lubricating and require very -little attention. Timing of the cam shaft is a rather difficult matter -and will be treated in a following chapter under the head of valve -timing. - -[Illustration: - - Start Gear - - Key-Seat - - Shaft-Seat - - Cone Clutch Seat - - Disc Clutch Small Disc Bolt on Here - -Fig. 10. Flywheel] - -The oil pan or reservoir forms the lower half or base of the crank -case. The lubricating oil is carried here at a level which will allow -the piston rods to dip into it at each revolution of the crank shaft. -The timing gears receive their lubrication from the supply carried in -the reservoir by means of a plunger or piston pump which is operated -from the cam shaft. The balance of the motor is usually lubricated by -a splash system taken up in a later chapter on lubrication. The oil -is carried at a level between two points marked, high and low, on a -glass or float gauge which is located on the crank case. A gasket made -of paper or fiber is used between the union or connection of the oil -reservoir and the upper half of the crank case to prevent the oil from -working out through the connection. - -Fig. 10 represents the flywheel. The flywheel is usually keyed to -the crank shaft directly behind the rear main bearing. This wheel is -proportionate in weight to the revolving speed of the motor, which -it keeps in balance by gathering the force of the power stroke. The -momentum gathered by it in this stroke carries the pistons through the -three succeeding strokes called the exhaust, intake, and compression -strokes. The flywheel also serves as a connection between the -power-plant and the running gear of the car, as a part of the clutch is -located on it, and the connection takes place either in the rim or on -the flange. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION - - -The proper and accurate functional operation of the valves is as -necessary to successful motor operation as the proper adjustment of -a hairspring is to a watch, for if a hairspring becomes impaired in -any way, a watch will not keep correct time. This is the case in a -motor when a valve becomes impaired. The valves in a motor, therefore, -must be considered the most vital part conducive to successful and -economical operation of the motor. - -The valves are manufactured from a high grade tungsten or carbon steel, -and are designed to withstand the intense heat which the heads located -in the combustion chambers are subjected to, without warping. A perfect -seat is required to prevent leaking, which will cause low compression -and a weak power impulse, thus reducing the power and harmony of -successful operation. - -The poppet valve is used by about ninety-five per cent. of motor -manufacturers. This type of valve is mechanically operated from the -cam shaft at one-half the crank shaft speed, as a valve is lifted only -once in every four strokes, or two revolutions of the crank shaft. The -reduction in speed is accomplished by using a gear on the cam shaft, -twice the size of that on the crank shaft. - -The heads and chambers must be kept free from carbon which forms -and bakes into a shale and has a tendency to crack and chip as the -temperature changes in the combustion chambers. These chips are -blown about in the cylinders until they lodge or are trapped by the -descending valves. It then forms a pit on the seat and prevents the -valves from seating properly. This leaves an open space which attracts -more carbon, and the entire functional action of the valve is soon -impaired, necessitating regrinding in order that it may properly seat -again. - -Carbon is generated from a poor gas mixture or from excessive use of -lubricating oil and may be considered the chief cause of improper -functional action of the valves. - - -VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION 8-CYLINDERED V-TYPE ENGINE - -[Illustration: - - Valve Head - - Removable Plates - - Cam Shaft - - Valve Head - - Valve Seat - - Valve Seat - - Tappet for Adjusting Valves - - Tappet for Adjusting Valves - -Fig. 11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement] - -Fig. 11 shows the location of the cam shaft, valves, and tappet -adjustment, on a V-shaped engine. The cylinders of this type of engine -are arranged in two blocks, consisting of four cylinders in each, -set directly opposite each other on an angle of 90°. The connecting -rods from opposite cylinders are yoked and take their bearing on the -same crank pin. This arrangement allows the intake and exhaust valves -of each opposite cylinder to operate from a single cam shaft, or in -other words the entire sixteen valves are operated by a single cam -shaft carrying eight cams. Consequently an eight or twelve cylindered -engine is identical in regard to valve timing to either a four or six -cylindered engine. - -[Illustration: - - Valve Head - - „ Seat - - „ Guide - - „ Stem - - „ Spring - - Sp. Seat - - Cap Screw - - Tappet - - Lock Nut - - Guide Bushing - - Push Block - - Roller - - Cam - -Fig. 12. Poppet Valve] - -Fig. 12 shows a poppet valve. This type of valve has only one -adjustment, called the tappet. The adjustment is made by turning the -cap-screw out of the push block until the head comes into contact with -the valve stem. The lock nut on the cap screw is then turned down -tightly to the push block to hold the adjustment. A strong spring is -placed on the valve stem which causes it to close quickly and remain -closed until it comes into contact with the cam. - -Valves are set and operate in three different positions as shown in -Fig. 13. The exhaust valve in this case seats on the floor of the -combustion chamber and is operated by the stem which extends through -the casting to the tappet, while the intake valve seats on the upper -wall of the combustion chamber and is operated from over head by a -push-rod extending from the tappet to a rocker-arm. When both valves -are operated from above and seat on the upper wall of the combustion -chamber the motor is referred to as the overhead valve type of motor. -In the majority of motors both valves seat on the floor of the valve -chamber. - -[Illustration: - - Rocker Arm - - Valve Stem - - Valve Open - - Valve Seat - - Combustion Chamber - - Tappets - - Cam - - Cam Shaft - - Overhead Type Valve - - Push Rod - - Poppet-Type Valve - -Fig. 13. Valve Types, Location and Operation] - -=Valve Timing.=--Valve timing is usually accomplished by setting the -first, or exhaust valve cam, to correspond with a mark on the flywheel -and cylinder (shown in Fig. 14). - -This is accomplished by lining up the ¹⁄₄, or ¹⁄₆ D-C mark on the -flywheel rim with the center mark on the cylinder block, and means -that ¹⁄₄, or ¹⁄₆, pistons are on upper dead center of the compression -stroke, the flywheel is then turned a trifle until the marks E-C, -or Ex-C, is at upper dead center and in line with the mark on the -cylinder block. This means that the exhaust valve closes at this point. -The cam shaft is then turned in the running direction and the cam shaft -gear meshed at the valve closing or seating point. This is all that is -necessary as the other cams take up correct operation when any one cam -is set properly. - -Another method of valve timing used by some motor manufacturers is -shown in Fig. 14. It is simply necessary in this case to line up the -prick punch marks on the timing gears--after getting the first position -on upper D-C of the compression stroke--to acquire correct valve time. -No definite or average scale can be given for valve timing, as all -different types of motors are timed differently. These instructions -must be secured from the manufacturer when the motor is not marked. - -[Illustration: - - Cylinder Marks - - Camshaft Gear - - 1-4 Pistons on Upper Dead Center - - FLY-WHEEL MARKS - - Running Direction of Fly Wheel - - MARKS LINED UP Timing Gear Punch Marks - - Crankshaft Gear - -Fig. 14. Valve Timing Marks] - -=Valve Grinding.=--A valve-grinding compound can be purchased at any -garage or service station or one may be compounded by mixing emery -dust with a heavy lubricating oil until a thin paste is formed. The -valve spring is released next by forcing up the tension with a screw -driver or valve lifter. A small H-shaped washer is drawn from a groove -near the end of the stem, which frees the valve; it can then be pushed -up and raised through the guide. A small spring is placed over the -valve stem. This spring should be strong enough to raise the valve -one-half inch above the seat. A thin film of the grinding compound is -evenly applied to the seating face of the valve head, a screw driver -or ratchet fork is set in the groove on the head of the valve, and the -handle rolled between the palms of the hands, covering about one-third -of the distance around the valve seat; the valve is let up after the -motion has been repeated four or five times, and repeated at another -angle until the entire surface of the valve is smoothly ground and -allows the valve to seat perfectly. - -=Valves.=--The sleeve valve type of motor was invented several years -ago by Charles A. Knight. He met with some difficulty in having it -manufactured in this country because the lubrication system was thought -to be inadequate and the poppet valve was then at the height of its -popularity with the manufacturer of engines. - -Knight took his engine to Europe and made some slight improvements -on it. It was then taken over and manufactured by one of the large -automobile manufacturing companies of that continent and is now being -used by many of the celebrated automobile manufacturers of every -country. - -The principle of operation does not differ in any respect from the -ordinary type of four cycle motor, except, that instead of having the -poppet type of valves it has a set of sleeves which slide up and down -on the piston. The sleeves are operated from an eccentric shaft by a -short connecting rod and carry ports which are timed to line up with -the ports of the intake and exhaust manifold ports at the proper time -in the cycle of operation. - -Fig. 15 shows the method of timing the sleeves on the four cylinder -engine. First, turn the motor over in the running direction until the -marks (I-4-T-C) on the flywheel are in alignment with the marks on the -cylinder casting. Turn the eccentric shaft in the running direction -until the marks A, B, C, shown in Fig. 15 are lined up, and then apply -the chain. - -[Illustration: - - Timer - Shaft - Sprocket - - Crank Shaft Sprocket - -Fig. 15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks--4-Cylinder] - -To check up on the timing, back the flywheel up an inch or two and -insert a thin piece of tissue paper into the exhaust port and turn -the engine in the running direction until the paper is pinched, which -signifies that the valve is closed. The marks on the flywheel, timing -gears, and the crank case should be in alignment. Fig. 16 shows a -diagram of the timing marks on the eight cylinder Knight engine. The -method of timing this engine is as follows: (1) Turn the engine over -until the marks I-4-R-H--D-C align with the marks on the crank case. -(2) Turn the eccentric shaft and sprocket until the arrows shown in -Fig. 16 are in line with the guide marks on the front end of the chain -housing. Then put on the chain and check up the timing, using the thin -piece of tissue paper. - -[Illustration: - - Eccentric Shaft - Sprocket Hub - - Mark on - Eccentric Shaft - Sprocket - - Guide Mark on - Crank Case - - Crank Shaft - Sprocket - -Fig. 16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks--8-Cylinder] - - -VALVE CONSTRUCTION - -If the sleeve rods are removed for some reason, the bearings should be -fitted very loosely to the eccentric shaft when they are put back. A -looseness of about .008 of an inch is permissible. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE - - -The four-cycle or Otto stroke type of gasoline engine should rightly be -called the four-stroke-cycle engine, as it requires four strokes and -two revolutions of the crank shaft to complete one cycle of operation. - -This type of motor is used almost universally by the manufacturers -of pleasure cars due to its reliability, and to the ability it has -to furnish continuous power at all speeds with the minimum amount of -vibration. - -[Illustration: - - Firing - Stroke - - Exhaust - Stroke - - Intake - Stroke - - Compression - Stroke - - 1 - - 2 - - 3 - - 4 - -Fig. 17. 4-Stroke Cycle. 1--Cylinder in Action] - -Fig. 17 shows a diagram of one cylinder in the four strokes of the -cycle, and the distance traveled by the crank shaft during each stroke. -No. 1 begins with a charge of compressed vapor gas in the cylinder and -is called the firing or power stroke. The ignition system (explained -in a later chapter) furnishes a spark at from five to fifteen degrees -early or before the piston reaches top dead center. Although the stroke -theoretically starts before the piston reaches its highest point of -ascent, the actual pressure or force of the explosion is not exerted -until the piston has crossed dead center. This is due to the fact that -the piston travels very rapidly, and that it requires a small fraction -of a second for spark to ignite the compressed charge of gas. It may, -therefore, be easily seen that, if the spark did not occur until the -piston is on or has crossed dead center, the piston would have traveled -part of the distance of the stroke, and as it is moving away from the -highest point of compression the pressure is reduced by allowing more -volume space which causes a weak explosion and a short power stroke. -The intake and exhaust valves are closed through the duration of the -power stroke. - -No. 2. The exhaust stroke begins from fifteen to thirty degrees early, -or before the piston reaches lower dead center on the firing stroke. -The exhaust valve opens at the start of this stroke allowing the -pressure of the burnt or inert gas to escape before the piston begins -to ascend on the upward part of the stroke, and closes seven to ten -degrees late to allow the combustion chamber to clear out before the -next stroke begins. - -No. 3. The intake or suction stroke begins with the piston descending -from its highest level to its lowest level. The intake valve opens ten -or twenty degrees late, and as the piston is traveling on its descent, -considerable vacuum pressure has formed which draws suddenly when the -valve opens and starts the gas from the carburetor in full volume. The -entire length of this stroke creates a vacuum which draws a full charge -of vaporized gas into the cylinder through the open intake valve. The -intake valve closes from ten to twenty degrees late in order that the -full drawing force of the vacuum may be utilized while the piston is -crossing lower center. - -No. 4. The compression stroke begins at the end of the intake stroke -with both valves closed. The piston ascends from its lowest extreme to -its highest level, compressing the charge of gas which was drawn into -the cylinder on the intake or suction stroke; and at the completion -of this stroke the cylinder is again in position to start No. 1, the -firing stroke, and begin a new cycle of operation. The cam shaft is -driven from the crank shaft through a set of gears or a silent chain, -and operates at one-half the speed of the crank shaft as a valve is -lifted once through the cycle of operation, or two revolutions of the -crankshaft. - -[Illustration: - - 1 - - 2 - - 3 - - 4 - - Firing - Val. Closed - - Compressing - Val. Closed - - Exhausting - Ex. Val. Open - - Intake - In. Val. Open - -Fig. 18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine] - -Fig. 18 shows the operation of a four-cylindered motor as it would -appear if the cylinder block were removed. The timing or firing order -of the motor shown in this diagram is 1-2-4-3. No. 1 cylinder is always -nearest the radiator and on the left in this diagram. No. 1 cylinder is -firing. The intake and exhaust valve remain closed while this stroke -is taking place. This causes the entire force of the explosion to be -exerted on the head of the receding piston. The cylinders, as may -be seen in the diagram, are timed to fire in succession, one stroke -behind each other. While No. 1 cylinder is on the firing stroke, No. -2 cylinder is compressing with both valves closed and will fire and -deliver another power impulse as soon as No. 1 cylinder completes and -reaches the lowest extreme of its firing stroke. No. 3 cylinder, being -fourth in the firing order, has just completed the firing stroke and is -starting the exhaust stroke which forces the burnt and inert gases out -of the cylinder through the open exhaust valve. No. 4 cylinder which -is third in the firing order has just completed the exhaust stroke and -is about to start the intake or suction stroke with the exhaust valve -open. This diagram should be studied and memorized as it is often -necessary to remove the wires which may easily be replaced if the -firing order is known, or found by watching the action of the exhaust -valves and made to conform with the distributor of the ignition system. -(Note the running direction of the distributor brush and connect the -wires up in that direction.) For the firing order given above connect -No. 4 wire to No. 3 distributor post, and No. 3 wire to No. 4 post, as -this cylinder fires last. - -[Illustration: - - 1-CYL. - - 2-CYL. - - 4-CYL. - - 8-CYL. - -Fig. 19. Power Stroke Diagram] - -Fig. 19 shows a diagram of the power stroke impulse delivered to the -cycle in a one, two, four, and eight cylindered motor. A complete cycle -consists of 360 degrees, and as there are four strokes to the cycle an -even division would give a stroke of ninety degrees, which is not the -case, however, owing to the fact that the valves do not open and close -at the theoretical beginning and ending point of each stroke which is -upper dead center and lower dead center. The firing or power impulse -stroke begins at approximately five to seven degrees before the piston -reaches upper dead center on the compression stroke and ends from -fifteen to thirty degrees before the piston or cycle of rotation of the -crankshaft reaches lower dead center. This results in a power impulse -of less than ninety degrees, which varies accordingly with valve -timing in the different makes of motors. Consequently we have a power -stroke of a little less than ninety degrees in a one-cylinder motor; -two power strokes of a little less than 180 degrees in a two cylinder -motor, while the power impulse of the four-cylinder motor very nearly -completes the cycle. In the six, eight, and twelve cylinder motor the -power strokes overlap, thereby delivering continuous power of very -nearly equal strength. - -=Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors.=--The operation of the twin -cylindered motor varies very little from the single four or six. It -is simply a case where two, four, or two six cylindered motors are -set to a single crank case at an angle which will allow the piston or -connecting rods from the opposite cylinders to operate on a single -crank shaft. When the cylinders are set directly opposite each other -the connecting rods are yoked and take their bearing on a single crank -pin of the crank shaft. This, however, is not always the case, for in -some motors the connecting rods take their bearing side by side on the -crank pin. The cylinders in this case are set to the crank case in a -staggered position to allow the connecting rods from each cylinder to -operate in line with the crank shaft. - -The cylinder blocks are usually set to the crank case at an angle of -ninety degrees and are timed to furnish the power impulse or stroke -opposite each other in the cycle of operation. The advantage of this -formation is that two power strokes are delivered in one cycle of -operation, which increases the power momentum and reduces the jar or -shock of the explosion causing a sweet running vibrationless motor. - -The valves are usually operated by a single cam shaft located on the -upper inside wall of the crank case. Valve timing is accomplished by -following the marks on the flywheel or lining up the prick punch marks -on the gears, as shown in Chapter II on valves. - -When a magneto is used to furnish the current for ignition on an eight -cylinder motor it has to be operated at the same speed as the crank -shaft, as a cylinder is fired at each revolution of the crank shaft and -an interruption of the current is required at the breaker points to -produce the secondary or high tension current at the spark plug gaps. - -Twelve cylindered motors are usually equipped with two distributors -or a dual system, or two magnetos driven separately through a set of -timing gears. - -=Knight or Sleeve Valve Motor.=--The Knight or sleeve valve motor -operates on the same plan as the ordinary type of motor except that -the valves form a sleeve and slide over the piston. The sleeves are -operated by an eccentric shaft and are provided with ports which are -timed to conform with the ports of the intake and exhaust manifolds at -the proper time. - - MOTOR HORSEPOWER - - S. A. E. SCALE - - FOUR-CYCLE HORSEPOWER RATING - - ------+-------+-------+-------+------ - Bore | 1 cyl.| 2 cyl.| 4 cyl.| 6 cyl. - 2³⁄₄ | 3.00 | 6.00 |12.00 |18.00 - 2⁷⁄₈ | 3.00 | 6.50 |13.00 |20.00 - 3.00 | 3.50 | 7.00 |14.50 |21.50 - 3¹⁄₄ | 4.00 | 8.50 |17.00 |25.50 - 3¹⁄₂ | 5.00 |10.00 |20.00 |29.50 - 3³⁄₄ | 5.50 |11.00 |22.50 |34.00 - 4.00 | 6.50 |13.00 |25.50 |38.50 - 4¹⁄₄ | 7.00 |14.50 |29.00 |43.50 - 4¹⁄₂ | 8.00 |16.00 |32.50 |48.50 - 4³⁄₄ | 9.00 |18.00 |36.00 |54.00 - 5.00 |10.00 |20.00 |40.00 |60.00 - 5¹⁄₄ |11.00 |22.00 |44.00 |66.00 - 5¹⁄₂ |12.00 |24.00 |48.00 |73.00 - 5³⁄₄ |13.00 |26.50 |53.00 |79.50 - 6.00 |14.50 |29.00 |57.50 |86.50 - ------+-------+-------+-------+------ - - This scale gives the nearest equivalent to the whole or half - horsepower, as is required by State where licenses are paid at so - much per horsepower. - - D² times N - Formula--S. A. E. ------------ equals horsepower. - 2.5 - -For sleeve valve timing see Chapter II on Valves. - - -DISPLACEMENT - -There are probably few men operating cars to-day who fully understand -what is meant by the term displacement, often used in referring -to automobile races. It is one of the main factors or points in -determining the class in which a car is qualified to enter under the -laws that govern races. In looking over a race program, you will note -that there are usually two or more classes, one of which is open, and -another with a limited piston displacement, which gives the smaller -cars a competing chance in their class. - -Consequently piston displacement is merely the volume displaced by -all the piston in moving the full length of the stroke. The volume of -a single cylinder is equal to the area of the bore multiplied by the -length of the stroke, and the total displacement of a four cylinder -motor will be four times this and that of a six cylinder motor, six -times this. - -Piston displacement: - - D² times S times N times 3.14 - ----------------------------- - 4 - - Where D equals bore in inches - S „ stroke in inches - N „ number of cylinders - - Example: Required to find the piston displacement of a 3¹⁄₂ × 5 inch - four-cylindered motor. D equals 3.5 S equals 5. and N equals 4. - -Piston Displacement - - 3.5² times 5 times 4 times 3.14 - ------------------------------- - 4 - - 3.5 times 3.5 times 5 times 4 times 3.14 - ---------------------------------------- - 4 - -equals 173.58 cubic inches. - -[Illustration: - - IGNITION COIL - DELCO GENERATOR - - DISTRIBUTOR - - CONTROL LEVER - - PEDALS - FAN - - BRAKE LEVER - FAN BELT - - STARTER SLIDING GEAR CASE - - UNIVERSAL HOUSING - STARTING CRANK SHAFT - - TRANSMISSION END PLATE - TIMING GEAR CASE - - TRANSMISSION - TIMING GEAR HOUSING - - CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING RETAINER GREASE CUP - WATER PUMP - - MOTOR ARM - FLY WHEEL HOUSING - LOWER CRANK CASE - DRAIN COCK - -Fig. 20. Buick Engine--Parts Assembly] - -[Illustration: - - VALVE KEY - VALVE ROCKER ARM PIN - OIL FILLER WING PLUG - VALVE ROCKER ARM - - VALVE SPRING CAP - VALVE ROCKER ARM WICK - WATER OUTLET - - VALVE SPRING - SPARK PLUG - - VALVE - FAN - - VALVE GAGE - VALVE PUSH ROD - - WATER JACKET - - COMBUSTION SPACE - WATER INLET - - VALVE LIFTER - VALVE LIFTER GUIDE - - PISTON PIN - - PISTON - VALVE LIFTER CLAMP - - OIL PUMP DRIVING GEAR - FAN BRACKET STUD - - FAN BELT - - CONNECTING ROD - - CRANK SHAFT - TIMING GEARS - - CONNECTING ROD BEARING - FAN PULLEY - - CAM SHAFT - - CRANK SHAFT BEARING - CAM SHAFT BEARING - - STARTING NUT - - OIL PUMP - GEAR COVER - - UPPER CRANK CASE - - FLY WHEEL - TIMING GEAR HOUSING - - FLY WHEEL HOUSING - CHECK VALVE - WATER PUMP - - DRAIN PLUG - OIL DIPPER - SPLASH OIL TROUGH - VALVE ROLLER - - LOWER CRANK CASE - CRANK CASE OIL PIPE - -Fig. 21. Buick Engine--Location Inside Parts Assembly] - -[Illustration: - - ROCKER ARM - OIL WICK - - WING PLUG - VALVE STEM - - ROCKER ARM COVER - VALVE SPRING - - ADJUSTING BALL - VALVE CAGE NUT - - LOCK NUT - - VALVE CAGE - - WATER JACKET - - VALVE - - SPARK PLUG COVER - - EXHAUST MANIFOLD - - COMBUSTION SPACE - - INTAKE MANIFOLD - - PUSH ROD - - HOT AIR CHAMBER - - VALVE PUSH ROD COVER - WRIST PIN - - CYLINDER - - VALVE LIFTER CAP - PISTON - - VALVE LIFTER GUIDE CLAMP - - VALVE LIFTER SPRING - - VALVE LIFTER GUIDE - - VALVE LIFTER - - CAM ROLLER PIN - - CAM ROLLER - - CONNECTING ROD - - CAM SHAFT - - CRANK CASE - - CRANK SHAFT - -Fig. 22. Buick Motor--End View] - -[Illustration: - - Fan Belt Adjustment - - Split Collar with Locking Cup - - Valve Tappet Adjustment - - Cam Shaft End Thrust Adjustment - - Shims for Adjustment of Connecting Rods - - Oil Passage to Connecting Rod - - Oil Pipe to Piston Ring - - Oil Pump Filter Screen - - Oil Sump Filter Screen - - Oil Pump - - Felt Gasket - - Oil Drain Plugs - -Fig. 23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine] - - -LUBRICATION SYSTEMS, OILS, AND GREASES - -Special attention should be given to regular lubrication, as this, more -than any one thing, not only determines the life but also the economic -up-keep of the car. - -Whenever you hear an owner say that his car is a gas eater, or that -it uses twice or three times as much oil as his neighbor’s, which is -the same model and make, you know at once that he, or some one who has -used the car before him, either did not give sufficient attention to -lubrication, or used a poor grade of oil. It is almost impossible to -impress the importance of the foregoing facts upon the minds of the -average motorist, and we have, as a direct result, a loss of millions -of dollars annually through depreciation. - -The manufacturers of automobiles and gasoline engines have earnestly -striven to overcome this negligence by providing their products with -automatically fed oiling systems which alleviate some of the former -troubles. These systems, however, also require some attention to -function properly. - -=Grease.=--A medium grade of light hard oil grease is best adapted for -use in grease cups, universal joints, and for packing wheel bearings -and steering gear housings. The transmission and differential operate -more successfully when a lighter grade of grease is used, such as a -graphite compound, or a heavy oil known as 600 W. - -=Oils.=--Great care should always be exercised in purchasing -lubricants. None but the best grades should be considered under any -circumstances. The cheaper grades of oil will always prove to be the -most expensive in the end. The ordinary farm machinery oils should -never be used in any case as an engine lubricant, for in most cases -they contain acids, alkalies, and foreign matter which will deteriorate -and destroy the bearings of the motor. - -An oil to give the best satisfaction must be a purely mineral or -vegetable composition which will flow freely at a temperature of 33° -Fahrenheit and also stand a temperature of 400° Fahrenheit without -burning. Always choose an oil which is light in color as the darker oil -usually contains much carbon. - -=Lubrication= (Lat. _Lubricus_, meaning slippery).---Lubrication is -provided on all types of automobile engines, and at various other -places where moving parts come in contact or operate upon each other. - -Three different types of lubricating systems are found in common use. - -Fig. 24 shows the splash system. The oil is placed into the crank case -and maintained at a level between two points, marked high and low, on a -float or glass gauge at the lower left-hand side of the crank case. The -oil is usually poured directly into the crank case through a breather -pipe provided to prevent excessive vacuum pressure. - -The lower end of the connecting rod carries a spoon or paddle which -dips into the oil at each revolution and splashes it to the cylinder -walls and various bearing surfaces within the motor. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24. Splash Oiling] - -=Care of the Splash System.=--This type of oiling system does not -require any adjustments, or special care, except that the oil level be -constantly kept between the high and low level marked on the gauge. - -=Cleaning the Splash System.=--Lubricating oils lose their -effectiveness and become thin and watery after a certain period of use -due to a fluid deposit called residue which remains in the combustion -chambers after the charge of gas has been fired. This fluid generally -works its way into the crank case, thinning the oil. - -The crank case should, therefore, be drained, cleaned, and refilled -with fresh oil every fifth week or thousand miles that the car is -driven. This will prevent much wear and give a quiet and satisfactory -running motor. Draining and washing out the crank case is accomplished -by removing a drain plug at the bottom of the crank case. The old oil -is drained off and thrown away. Kerosene is then poured into the crank -case through the breather pipe until it flows out of the drain clear in -color. The plug is then replaced and the crank case replenished with -fresh oil until the three-quarter from low level is reached on the -gauge. The oil level should be carried as near this point as possible -to obtain the most satisfactory result. - -Fig. 25 shows the plunger or piston pump pressure system usually -used in conjunction with the splash system. The oil is carried in a -reservoir at the bottom of the crank case and is drawn through a fine -meshed screen by the oil pump, which is of the plunger type operated -off the cam shaft. It forces the oil through copper tubes in the three -main bearings. The front and center bearings have an outlet which -furnishes the oil to the gears in front and to the troughs in which the -connecting rods dip. The troughs have holes drilled to keep the level -of the oil, the surplus being returned to the reservoir. - -[Illustration: - - PLUNGER PUMP AND STRAINER - OIL PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT - FRONT BEARING LINE - - REAR BEARING LINE - CENTER BEARING LINE - OIL FLOAT LEVEL - -Fig. 25. Plunger Pump Oiling System] - -There is a pipe line running from the pump to the gear case with a -screw adjustment to regulate the oil pressure by turning either in or -out. There is a pipe line running to a gauge on the dash which gives -the pressure at all times. The cam shaft and cylinder walls get the -oil by the splash from the connecting rods. The bottom rings of the -pistons wash the oil back into the crank case. The overflow from the -front bearings falls into a small compartment immediately under the -crank shaft gear where it is picked up by this gear and carried to the -other gears and the bearings of the water pump shaft. A small oil throw -washer on the pump shaft prevents any surplus oil from being carried -out on the shaft or the hub of the fan drive pulley. Any overflow from -the gear compartment is carried immediately to the splash pan where it -provides for the splash lubrication of the connecting rod bearings and -the cylinder walls. The dippers on the connecting rod bearings should -go ¹⁄₄ in. beneath the surface of the oil. The upward stroke of the oil -pump plunger draws the oil through the lower ball check into the pump -body and the downward stroke discharges it through the upper ball check -into the body of the plunger which is hollow and has outlets on either -side. This allows the oil to flow from the plunger into the by-pass in -the oil pump body and then into the lines running to the main crank -shaft bearings. The next upward stroke forces the oil through the lines -to the main bearings. - -The oil pressure regulator is located on the body of the pump and -connects to the by-pass. It consists of a hollow sleeve screwed into -the body of the pump which has a small ball check held by a short -coiled spring the tension of which determines the oil pressure. The -tension and the pressure may be increased by turning the nut to the -right. The nut should not be given more than one turn at a time in -either direction as it is very sensitive. A loose main bearing will -allow more oil to pass through it. Consequently the pressure registered -on the oil gauge will be reduced. This will come about gradually. It -is not advisable to attempt to adjust the oil pressure without first -noting the condition of the main crank shaft bearings. - -The most common cause of failure to operate is the collection of -dust and dirt on the sleeve at the lower end of the pump or from an -accumulation of sediment back of the ball check. This needs to be -cleaned from time to time. - -=Force and Gravity Oiling System.=--The force and gravity oiling -system operates in much the same manner as the plunger pump system, -except that the oil is pumped into an elevated tank from which it -flows through lines by gravity to the various bearings. Oil pumps, -however, differ in construction and some manufacturers use eccentric, -centrifugal, and gear pumps. Oil pumps are very simple in construction -and action and can be readily understood by recalling their functional -action. - -Oil pumps rarely give any trouble, and if they fail to function -properly, dirt should be immediately suspected, and the ball valves and -pipes inspected and cleaned. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION - - -A carburetor is a metering device whose function is to mechanically -blend liquid fuel with a certain amount of air to produce as nearly a -homogeneous mixture as possible, and in such proportions as will result -in as perfect an explosive mixture as can be obtained. - -If a gas is used as a fuel it is of course not so difficult to obtain -a homogeneous mixture due to the intimacy with which a gas will -mechanically mix with air. This intimacy is a result of the minuteness -of the molecules of both the gas and the air. With a liquid fuel, such -as gasoline, however, it is quite different, especially with low test -gasoline. If it were possible to completely transfer the liquid fuel -into its vapor the latter would act as a gas and would, therefore, -mix with the air to form a homogeneous mixture. It should be, and is, -therefore, the aim of the carburetor designer to produce an instrument -which will atomize the fuel and break it up into small particles so -that every minute particle of the fuel will be surrounded by a correct -proportion of air when it is discharged into the intake manifold of the -motor. To facilitate the vaporization of these minute particles of fuel -it is advisable to preheat the air taken into the carburetor, thereby -furnishing the necessary heat units required to vaporize the fuel by -virtue of its physical property known as its latent heat of evaporation. - -There is a range of proportions of air to vapor, for a given fuel, -between which combustion will obtain. This range extends from that -proportion known as the upper limit of combustion to that known as the -lower limit of combustion. The upper limit is reached when the ratio of -air to vapor is a maximum at which combustion will take place; that -is to say, any addition of air in excess of this maximum will render -the mixture non-combustible. The lower limit is reached when the ratio -of air to vapor is a minimum at which combustion will take place, any -decrease of air below this minimum producing a non-combustible mixture. -It should be remembered that the limits of combustion of any fuel with -air are dependent upon the temperature and pressure. - -[Illustration: - - Carburetor Flange - Throttle Valve - - Throttle Stem or Shaft - - Large Venturi - Idle Discharge Jet - - Idle Adjustment Needle - - High Speed Adjustment Needle - - Small Venturi - - Float Needle - - Air Bleeder - - Mixture Control Valve or Choker - - Float - - Accelerating Well - - Idling Tube - - Strainer - - Float Needle Seat - - High Speead Needle Seat - - Strainer Body - - Gasoline Connection - - Drain Plug - -Fig. 26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor--Sectional View] - -Under given temperature and pressure the rate at which the combustible -mixture will burn depends upon the ratio of air to vapor. This rate -of burning is known as the rate of propagation, and it is apparent -that it is desirable to obtain a mixture whose rate of propagation is -a maximum, because the force of the explosion will depend upon the -rapidity with which the entire mixture is completely ignited. - -The limits of combustion of gasoline (.70 sp. gr.) can be taken -approximately as follows: lower limit, 7 parts air (by weight) to 1 -part gasoline, upper limit, 20 parts air to 1 part gasoline. - -=The Stromberg Plain Tube Model M Carburetor.=--A plain tube carburetor -is one in which both the air and the gasoline openings are fixed in -size, and in which the gasoline is metered automatically, without the -aid of moving parts by the suction of air velocity past the jets. - -Fig. 26 shows a longitudinal section of a type M plain tube carburetor, -and shows the location of the gasoline when the motor is at rest. -The various parts are indicated by names and arrows. An elementary -requirement of a carburetor is that as a metering device it shall -properly proportion the gasoline and air throughout the entire -operating range. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Air Bleeder -Action] - -In the carburetor under discussion this mixture proportioning is -properly maintained by the use of what is termed the air bleed jet. -Fig. 27 shows the principle of the action of the air bleeder. The -gasoline leaves the float chamber, passes the point of the high speed -adjusting needle, and rises through a vertical channel “B.” Air is -taken in through the air bleeder “C,” and discharged into the gasoline -channel before the latter reaches the jet holes in the small venturi -tube “E.” The result is that the air thus taken in breaks up the flow -of gasoline and produces a finely divided emulsion. Upon reaching the -jet holes of the small venturi tube this emulsion is discharged into -the high velocity air stream in the form of a finely divided mist. If -the reader will recall how thoroughly a soap bubble divides itself when -it bursts, he will readily appreciate how completely the air bleed jet -will atomize the fuel. - -Before explaining the operation of the accelerating well it is -advisable to know the reason for its existence. Suppose we had a large -tube such as the intake manifold of a motor through which air and -particles of gasoline were flowing due to a certain suction at one end. -What would be the result if we suddenly increased the suction? It would -be this: Due to the fact that air is so much lighter than gasoline, -the air would respond almost instantly to the increased suction and -its flow would be accelerated very suddenly, whereas the particles of -gasoline, owing to that characteristic known as inertia, would not -respond so rapidly, and due to its heavier weight its flow would not -accelerate as much as the air. This would mean that the air would rush -ahead of the gasoline particles, and the proportion of air to gasoline -would be greater until the inertia forces had been overcome and the -gasoline particles responded completely to the increased suction. This -very thing will take place in a carburetor unless provision is made -for it. That is to say a sudden opening of the throttle will tend -toward producing a very lean mixture at the motor due to the lagging -of the gasoline explained above. A lean mixture at this time, when -acceleration is desired, would obviously be detrimental to the result -wanted. It is at this particular time that additional gasoline is most -desirable in order to compensate for the lagging gasoline and maintain -the proper mixture at the motor. In the Stromberg carburetor this is -accomplished by means of the accelerating well shown in Fig. 28. The -operation is as follows: The action is based upon the principle of -the ordinary U tube. If a U tube contains a liquid, and if pressure -is applied to one arm of the tube, or what is the same, if suction is -applied to the other arm, it is self-evident that the level of the -liquid will rise in the arm on which the suction is applied and will -drop in the other arm. So it is in the construction of the accelerating -well. Referring to the illustration, Fig. 28, the space “F” forms the -one arm of the U tube, and the space “B” the other arm. These spaces -communicate with each other through the holes “G” thus forming a -modified form of U tube. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Accelerating Well] - -When the motor is idling or retarding in speed, the accelerating well -or space “F” fills with gasoline. Now when the throttle is opened, -thereby increasing the suction in the venturi tube, the following -takes place: atmospheric pressure at the bleeder “C” exerts itself -on the gasoline in the space “F” forcing the liquid down to join the -regular flow from “H” and passing up the space “B” and out into the -high velocity air stream through the small venturi tube. While the -well acts the flow of gasoline is more than double the normal rate of -flow, thereby compensating for the lagging of the gasoline referred to -previously. - -Upon close observation it will be noticed that there is a series of -small holes down the wall of the well. Referring to the analogy of -the U tube, these holes directly connect the two arms of the U tube. -It is obvious that the smaller and fewer these holes, the faster will -the well empty, due to the U tube suction, and the larger and more -these holes, the slower will the well empty. It is therefore apparent -that the rate of discharge of the well can be regulated as required by -different motors, different grades of gasoline, different altitudes, -etc., by inserting wells of different drillings. The action of the well -is also dependent upon the size of the hole in the bleeder “C” because -it is the relative area of this hole in the bleeder as compared to the -area of the holes in the well which determine the rate at which the -well will empty. - -The foregoing characteristics of the model M carburetor have dealt more -with the open throttle or high speed operation. We shall now consider -the operation when the motor is idling. Earlier types of carburetors, -when high test and very volatile gasoline was employed, were designed -with a mixing chamber in which the gasoline, after being discharged -from the nozzle, would mix with the air and evaporate very freely. -Present day gasoline, however, is considerably heavier and very much -less volatile, and we therefore cannot depend upon its volatility to -accomplish its vaporization. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M--Idling Operation] - -Fig. 29 shows the arrangement and idling operation of the model M -Stromberg carburetor. Concentric and inside of the passage “B” is -located the idling tube “J.” When the motor is idling, that is, when -the throttle is practically closed, the action which takes place is -as follows: the gasoline leaves the float chamber, passes through -the passage “H” into the idling tube through the hole “I,” thence up -through the idling tube “J” to the idling jet “L.” Air is drawn through -the hole “K” and mixes with the gasoline to form a finely divided -emulsion which passes on to the jet “L.” It will be noted that this jet -directs the gasoline-air emulsion into the manifold just above the lip -of the throttle valve. Inasmuch as this throttle valve is practically -closed the vacuum created at the entrance of the jet “L” is very high -and exceeds 8 pounds per square inch. It is obvious, therefore, with -this condition existing, that the gasoline will be drawn into the -manifold in a highly atomized condition. It is well to call attention -here to the fact that the low speed adjusting screw “F” operates a -needle valve which controls the amount of air which passes through the -hole “K,” and it is the position of this needle valve which determines -the idling mixture. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30. Stromberg Carburetor--Throttle ¹⁄₅ Open] - -As the throttle is slightly opened from the idling position a suction -is created in the throat of the small venturi tube as well as at the -idling jet. When idling the suction is greater at the idling jet, -and when the throttle is open the suction is greater at the small -venturi tube. At some intermediate position of the throttle there -is a time when the suction at the idling jet is equal to that at the -small venturi, and, therefore, at this particular time the gasoline -will follow both channels to the manifold. This condition which is -illustrated in Fig. 30 lasts but a very short while, because as the -throttle is opened wider the suction at the small venturi tube rapidly -becomes greater than that at the idling jet. The result is that the -idling tube and idling jet are thrown entirely out of action, the level -of the gasoline in the idling tube dropping as illustrated in Fig. 31, -where the throttle is shown to be wide open, in which case all of the -gasoline enters the manifold by way of the holes in the small venturi -tube. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31. Stromberg Carburetor--Throttle Wide Open] - -It will be remembered that at this position of the throttle the -accelerating well has emptied, and therefore there is a direct passage -for air from the bleeder to the gasoline in the main passage giving the -air bleed jet feature explained before. This is being mentioned again -in order to call attention to the fact that care should be taken not -to use too large a bleeder, because the air which enters through the -bleeder partly determines the mixture, and if the bleeder hole is too -large the mixture is very apt to be too lean at high speeds. - -Fig. 32 shows an exterior photograph of one of the type M Stromberg -carburetor. Before discussing the installation and adjusting of this -carburetor it will be well to say a few words concerning the use of the -venturi tube and its construction. - -The object in using the venturi tube in carburetor design is to produce -a maximum air velocity at the jet and at the same time not cause undue -restriction. This high air velocity creates the suction necessary -to properly atomize the gasoline. The use of the double venturi -tube construction has developed the best possible results. In this -construction the mouth of the smaller venturi tube is located at the -throat of the larger one, and with this arrangement the highest degree -of atomization is attainable, and at the same time the air restriction -is held down to a minimum. - -In order that any carburetor may do justice to what is claimed for it, -it is absolutely essential that the motor on which it is installed is -in good condition in other respects because, besides poor carburetion, -there are numerous things about an internal combustion engine which -will cause its poor operation. Therefore, assuming that the following -conditions exist, we can proceed with the installation of the -carburetor and after adjusting it we can expect very good results as to -the operation of the motor. - -1. The ignition should be properly timed so that with a retarded spark -the explosion takes place when the piston of the cylinder in which the -explosion occurs is at its upper dead center. - -2. The inlet and exhaust valves should be so timed that they open and -close at the proper time during the cycle. In this respect a motor is -usually timed when it comes from the manufacturer. - -3. The valves should be ground in so that they form a perfect seal -with the valve seat. Any accumulation of carbon on the upper part of -the exhaust should be removed so as to prevent the valve stem from -sticking in the guide and thereby not permitting the valve to close -upon its seat. - -4. Any undue wear of the valve stem guides should be corrected because -the clearance between the stem and the walls of the guide will permit -air to be drawn up into the motor thus ruining the mixture from the -carburetor. Similarly any leaky flange at any joint along the intake -system will produce the same detrimental result. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32. Stromberg Model M--Adjustment Points] - -5. All piston rings should be tight and leak proof in order to insure -good and even compression in all the cylinders. Without good and even -compression in all the cylinders it is impossible to obtain the maximum -power from the motor, and it is also impossible to obtain good idling -of the motor. - -6. It should be seen that the ignition system is delivering a spark to -each spark plug without missing. - -7. The spark plugs should be clean, and the accumulation of carbon on -the inside of the plug should not be sufficient to cause fouling or -short-circuiting of the plug. In the case of a short circuited plug it -is impossible to obtain a spark at the end of the high tension cable, -but this does not indicate that the plug is firing. For best results -the gap of the spark plug should never be less than .020″ nor more than -.032″. A good setting is at about .025″. - -The foregoing constitute some of the more important troubles to look -for when the motor is not performing satisfactorily. - -=Installation and Adjusting.=--We are finally ready to proceed with -instructions for installing and adjusting Model M carburetors. - -1. Try the throttle lever and the air horn lever by moving same with -the hand before the carburetor is installed, and be sure that the -butterfly valves are open to the limit when the respective levers come -in contact with their stops. Also be sure that when the throttle valve -is closed, the lower side of the butterfly is adjacent to the hole -through which the idling jet projects. - -2. Prepare a paper gasket about .020″ thick to fit the flange of the -carburetor. Shellac same and then attach the carburetor to the flange -of the intake manifold very securely by means of proper cap screws. - -The attaching of the gasoline line, hot-air stove, hot air flexible -tubing, and choke control need not be discussed in detail as these -installations are very simple. - -After having properly installed the carburetor on the motor, turn -both the high and low speed adjusting screws, A and B, completely -down clockwise so that the needle valves just touch their respective -seats. Then unscrew (anti-clockwise) the high speed adjusting screw -A about three turns off the seat, and turn the low speed adjusting -screw B anti-clockwise about one and one-half turns off the seat. -These settings are not to be considered as final adjustments of the -carburetor. They are merely to be taken as starting points because the -motor will run freely with these settings. - -After the motor has been started, permit it to run long enough to -become thoroughly warm then make the high speed adjustment. Advance -the spark to the position for normal running. Advance the gas throttle -until the motor is running at approximately 750 r. p. m. Then turn down -on the high speed screw A gradually notch by notch until a slowing down -of the motor is observed. Then turn up or open the screw anti-clockwise -until the motor runs at the highest rate of speed for that particular -setting of the throttle. - -To make the low speed adjustment B proceed as follows: Retard the spark -fully and close the throttle as far as possible without causing the -motor to come to a stop. If upon idling the motor tends to roll or load -it is an indication that the mixture is too rich and therefore the -low speed screw B should be turned away from the seat anti-clockwise, -thereby permitting more air to enter into the idling mixture. It is -safe to say that the best idling results will be obtained when the -screw B is not much more or less than one and one-half turns off the -seat. - -After satisfactory adjustments have been made with the motor vehicle -stationary, it is most important and advisable to take the vehicle out -on the road for further observation and finer adjustments. If upon -rather sudden opening of the throttle the motor backfires, it is an -indication that the high speed mixture is too lean, and in this case -the high speed screw A should be opened one notch at a time until the -tendency to backfire ceases. On the other hand if when running along -with throttle open, the motor rolls or loads, it is an indication that -the mixture is too rich, and this condition is overcome by turning the -high speed screw A down (clockwise) until this loading is eliminated. - - -STROMBERG MODEL L CARBURETOR - -There are three adjustments; the high speed, the extremely low speed or -idle, and the “economizer.” - -The high speed is controlled by the knurled nut “A” which locates the -position of the needle “E” past whose point is taken all the gasoline -at all speeds. Turning nut “A” to the right (clockwise) raises the -needle “E” and gives more gasoline, to the left, or anticlockwise, less. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33. Stromberg Model “L”--Adjustment Points] - -If an entirely new adjustment is necessary, use the following practice. -Put economizer “L” in the 5th notch (or farthest from float chamber) -as an indicator, turn nut “A” to the left, anticlockwise, until needle -“E” reaches its seat, as shown by nut “A” not moving when throttle is -opened and closed. When needle “E” is in its seat it can be felt to -stick slightly when nut “A” is lifted with the fingers. Find adjustment -of “A” where it just begins to move with the throttle opening, then -give 24 notches to the right or clockwise (the notches can be felt). -Then move the economizer pointer “L” back to the 0 notch (toward float -chamber). This will give a rich adjustment. After starting and warming -up the motor, thin out the mixture by turning “A” anticlockwise, and -find the point where the motor responds best to quick opening of the -throttle, and shows the best power. - -The gasoline for low speed is taken in above the throttle through a -jet at “K” and is regulated by dilution with air as controlled by the -low speed adjusting screw “B.” Screwing “B” in clockwise gives more -gasoline; outward, less. The best adjustment is usually ¹⁄₂ to 3 turns -outward from a seating position. Note that this is only an idling -adjustment and does not effect the mixture above 8 miles per hour. -When motor is idling properly there should be a steady hiss in the -carburetor; if there is a weak cylinder or manifold leak, or if the -idle adjustment is very much too rich, the hiss will be unsteady. - -The economizer device operates to lean out the mixture by lowering the -high speed needle “E” and nut “A” a slight but definitely regulated -amount at throttle positions corresponding to speeds from 5 to 40 miles -per hour. The amount of drop and consequent leaning is regulated by the -pointer “L.” - -After making the high speed adjustment for best power, with pointer “L” -in 0 notch, as above described, place throttle lever on steering wheel -to a position giving about 20 miles per hour road speed. Then move -pointer “L” clockwise (away from float chamber), one notch at a time, -till motor begins to slow down. Then come back one notch. - -The amount of economizer action needed depends upon the grade of -gasoline and upon the temperature. - -In the mid-west the best economizer adjustment will usually be the -third or fourth notch. With Pennsylvania gasoline and in the South, the -2nd notch; while on the Pacific coast no economizer is necessary unless -distillate (which should not be below 59 degrees Baume) is used. Also -fewer notches economizer action will be necessary in summer than in -winter. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -“NITRO”-SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR - - -[Illustration: Fig. 34. Sunderman Carburetor] - -Fig. 34 shows a through section of the new “Nitro”-Sunderman -carburetor. This is practically a new model presented to the automobile -industry for 1919 and 1920. It is claimed that it is an exact -fulfillment of the long sought method of accurate compensation. It is -of the single plain tube design with a single gasoline nozzle in the -shape of a mushroom placed in the center of the air passage. Around -this nozzle, however, rests the floating venturi which is a large end -and small center floating air tube seen in Fig. 35 which hurries the -air at low speeds and checks the rush at high velocities. Fig. 35 shows -the commencement of action at idling speeds, and as the gasoline for -idling comes from the same nozzle which furnishes the maximum power, -an air by-pass is provided to reduce the suction on the nozzle at low -speeds. The one single adjustment on this type of carburetor is shown -at (X) in Fig. 36, and is used only to control the passage of air -through the by-pass at idling or low speeds. In Fig. 34 the engine’s -demand has increased to a point where the suction is greater than the -weight of the venturi, which causes it to rise on the air stream, and -open up the air passage around the head of the nozzle. This allows the -compensation for the correct ratios of the air and gasoline mixtures. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35. Sunderman Carburetor] - -In Fig. 37 the venturi closes the air by-pass and under full suction, -gives the maximum area around the nozzle for leaner mixtures and full -volumetric. The unrestricted air passage in the plain tube type of -carburetor is here worked out to its fullest development. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36. Sunderman Carburetor] - -=The Venturi.=--This is a stream line air passage tapered to a narrow -throat near the center which increases the velocities without offering -a restriction to the free air passage, and being of a very loose fit -in the carburetor, is allowed to float up and down on the air stream -around the nozzle over which it automatically centers at all times. -The venturi goes into action slowly as it is retarded by the action of -the air by-pass, but rises fast when the latter is cut off. It rides -on the air stream at a perfect balance and offers no resistance to -the air passage because of its stream line taper, and as the venturi -float is sensitive to a fine degree, it is ready for any change in the -motor suction and compensates accordingly. The jet tube running up into -the mushroom head contains a jet which is drilled for the particular -requirements of the motor on which the carburetor is installed. This -jet feeds into the mushroom head which is drilled with four small holes -which spread the gasoline by capillary action in a fine fan film to -all sides of the under surfaces of the slot. Here the ascending air -picks it off at right angles to its path in a very fine vapor. This -vapor is carried up the stream line venturi without cross currents and -is in a finely mixed state of flame-propagation. The heavier fuels are -readily broken up with this nozzle and straight kerosene has been used -with success. This carburetor does not require any other care than a -thorough cleaning out once or twice in a season. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37. Sunderman Carburetor] - - -THE SCHEBLER MODEL “R” CARBURETOR - -Fig. 38 shows a section view of operation and adjustment on the model -“R” Schebler carburetor. This carburetor is designed for use on both -four and six cylindered motors. It is of the single jet raised needle -type, automatic in action, the air valve controlling the needle valve -through a leverage arrangement. This leverage attachment automatically -proportions the amount of gasoline and air mixture at all speeds. This -type of carburetor has but two adjustments. The low speed adjustment -which is made by turning the air valve cap and an adjustment on the -air valve spring for changing its tension. (A) shows the air valve -adjusting cap. (B) is the dash control leverage attachment. (C) is the -air valve and jet valve connection. (D) is the boss that raises the jet -valve needle and lowers the spring tension on the air valve giving a -rich mixture in starting. The needle valve seats in E and controls the -nozzle spray. (F) is the air valve spring tension adjusting screw. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled] - -=Model R Adjustment.=--To adjust this carburetor turn the air valve -cap to the right until it stops, then to the left one complete turn, -start the motor with the throttle ¹⁄₄ open; after it is warmed up -turn the air valve cap to the left until the motor hits perfectly. -Advance throttle ³⁄₄ on quadrant. If the engine backfires turn screw -(F) up, increasing the tension on the air spring until acceleration is -satisfactory. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE STEWART CARBURETOR - - -Fig. 39 shows the Stewart carburetor used on Dodge Brothers cars, -which is of the float feed type in which a fine spray of gasoline -is drawn from an aspirating tube by a current of air induced by the -engine pistons. The supply of gasoline being regulated by a float -which actuates a needle valve controlling the outlet of the feed pipe. -This tube is also called the spray nozzle. This type of carburetor is -commonly used on automobile engines. - -It consists of a float chamber containing a float, functions of which -are described below, a mixing chamber in which the gasoline spray is -reduced to vapor and mixed with air (i. e., “carbureted” in proper -proportion). - -The float and valve maintain a constant or even supply of gasoline for -the carburetor. - -The gasoline flows from the filter Z into the float chamber C through -the inlet valve G, which is directly actuated by the float F, so that -it closes or opens as the float rises or falls. As the float rises the -valve is closed until the float reaches a certain predetermined level, -at which the valve is entirely closed. If the float falls below this -level because of a diminishing supply of gasoline in the float chamber, -the valve is automatically opened and sufficient fresh gasoline is -admitted to bring the level up to the proper point. From the foregoing -it will be seen that the float chamber in reality serves as a reservoir -of constant supply, in which any pressure to which the gasoline has -been subjected in order to force it from the tank is eliminated. When -the engine is running gasoline is, of course, being constantly drawn -off from the float chamber through the aspirating tube L, as will -be described later, to meet the requirements of the motor, but in -practice the resulting movement of the inlet valve is very slight and -hence the flow of gasoline into the float chamber is nearly constant. - -The gasoline inlet valve is also called the “needle valve.” - -[Illustration: Fig. 39. Stewart Carburetor] - -Between the float chamber C and the engine connection of the carburetor -is an enclosed space called the mixing chamber O. This compartment is -provided with a valve for the ingress of free air. - -Extending into the mixing chamber from a point below the surface of the -gasoline in the float chamber is a passage, L for gasoline, ending with -a nozzle, so constructed that gasoline drawn through it will come forth -in a very fine spray. This is called the aspirating tube, atomizer, or -more commonly, the spray nozzle. - -The air inlet AA to the mixing chamber on the carburetor used on the -Dodge is in the shape of a large tube extending from the carburetor to -a box on the exhaust manifold. Air supplied from this source is heated -in order that vaporization of gasoline may be more readily accomplished. - -A cold air regulator is interposed between this tube and the carburetor -proper so that in hot weather cool air may be admitted. This should -always be closed when the temperature of the atmosphere is below 60 F. - -The action of the carburetor is as follows: The suction created by -the downward stroke of the pistons draws air into the mixing chamber -through the air ducts (drilled holes HH). The same suction draws a -fine spray of gasoline through the aspirating tube L (spray nozzle) -into the same compartment, and the air, becoming impregnated with the -gasoline vapor thus produced, becomes a highly explosive gas. In order -that the proportion of air and gasoline vapor may be correct for all -motor speeds, provision is made by means of a valve A for the automatic -admission of larger quantities of both at high motor speeds. The -ducts are open at all times, but the valve is held to its seat by its -weight until the suction, increasing as the motor speed increases, is -sufficient to lift it and admit a greater volume of air. The valve A -is joined to the tube L, hence the latter is raised when the valve is -lifted and the ingress of proportionately larger quantities of gasoline -is made possible. This is accomplished by means of a metering pin P -normally stationary, projecting upward into the tube L. The higher the -tube rises the smaller is the section of the metering pin even with its -opening, and hence the greater is the quantity of gasoline which may be -taken into the tube. The carburetor thus automatically produces the -correct mixture and quantity for all motor speeds. - -The metering pin is subject to control from the dash, as will be -explained later, by means of a rack N, and pinion M. To change the -fixed running position of the pin, turn the stop screw to the right -or left. Turning this screw to the right lowers the position of the -metering pin and turning it to the left raises it. As the pin is -lowered more gasoline is admitted to the aspirating tube at a given -motor speed, thus enriching the mixture. - -A wider range of adjustment of the position of the metering pin may be -had by releasing the clamp of the pinion shaft lever and changing its -position with relation to the shaft. This should never be attempted by -any save experts in this class of work. - -The carburetor used on the Dodge Brothers car is so nearly automatic in -its action that it is not effected by climatic conditions, or changes -in altitude or temperature. It automatically adjusts itself to all -variations of atmosphere. It is, therefore, wise to see if the causes -of any troubles which may develop are not due to derangements elsewhere -than at the carburetor before attempting any changes of its adjustment. - -Make all adjustments with dash adjustment all the way in. - -The metering pin should not be tampered with unless absolutely -necessary. - -If replacement of this pin should become necessary, it may be -accomplished as follows: First, remove the cap nut at the bottom of the -rack and pinion housing. Next, turn pinion shaft slowly from right to -left (facing toward the carburetor) until the bottom of the metering -pin appears at the bottom of the pinion shaft housing. Continue to -turn the shaft slowly in the same direction, releasing the connection -to the dash control if necessary, until the rack to which the pin is -fastened drops out. The palm of the hand should be held to receive this -as the parts are very loosely assembled. The pinion shaft should be -retained at the exact position at which the rack is released. Install a -new metering pin, the way to do this will be obvious, and return the -rack to its proper mesh with the pinion. Replace dash attachment (if -detached), replace cap, adjust per instructions given on previous page. - -The loose assembling of the metering pin in the rack is for the purpose -of providing for freedom of movement of the metering pin and in order -that binding in the aspirating tube may be avoided. - -The gasoline filter is installed on the carburetor at a point where the -fuel pipe is connected. - -The pressure within the gasoline tank forces the fuel through the pipe, -through the filter screen (ZO in the filter) and thence out through the -opening to the carburetor. - -The filter cap CC may be removed by turning the flanged nut on the -bottom of carburetor to the left, thus releasing the inlet fitting. - -The filter screen or strainer should occasionally be cleaned. This may -be readily accomplished by removing the filter cap to which the screen -is attached. - -The filter should be screwed up tight when replaced. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE CARTER CARBURETOR - - -[Illustration: Fig. 40--Carter Carburetor] - -Fig. 40 shows the Carter carburetor which embodies a radically new -principle. It belongs to the multiple-jet type, but possesses this -striking difference, variations in fuel level are utilized to determine -the number of jets in action at any time. The variations in fuel level -occur in a vertical tube known as the “stand pipe.” They take place in -instant response to the slightest change in the suction exerted by the -engine. As this suction depends directly on the engine’s speed, it can -clearly be seen that this provides a marvelously sensitive means of -automatic control. A large number of exceedingly small jets are bored -spirally around the upper portion of this tube. As a result, the level -at which the fuel stands within it, determines the number of jets from -which delivery is being made at any instant and the gasoline supply -is always directly proportioned to the engine speed, however suddenly -changes in speed take place. Owing to the comparatively large number -of these jets, their exceedingly small size, and their correspondingly -short range of action, the flow of fuel is absolutely uninterrupted. - -The instrument is permanently adjusted for low and intermediate speeds -at the time of installation. An auxiliary air valve controlled from -dash or steering post forms the high speed adjustment as well as -affording a means of securing absolute uniformity of mixture under -widely varying conditions of weather, temperature, or altitude, -directly from the driver’s seat. A simple method of enabling each -cylinder to such a rich priming charge direct from the float chamber is -another valuable feature that obviates all need of priming and insures -easy starting in the coldest winter weather. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR MODEL “FORD A” - - -[Illustration: Fig. 41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A--Sectional View - - D--CHOKER OR SHUTTER IN AIR - BEND. - - BE--LEVERS CLOSING CHOKER, - OPERATED FROM STEERING - COLUMN AND FRONT OF - RADIATOR. - - H--LOW SPEED GASOLINE ADJUSTING - NEEDLE. - - I--HIGH SPEED GASOLINE ADJUSTING - NEEDLE. - - K--IDLE AND LOW SPEED BYPASS. - - M--ACCELERATION WELL. - - P--PILOT OPENING.] - -The Pilot tube principle is introduced for the first time in the -carburetor and this Pilot tube or improved type of gasoline nozzle is -so designed or built that it automatically furnishes a rich mixture for -acceleration and thins out this mixture after the normal motor speed -has been reached. This furnishes a very economical running mixture at -all motor speeds, together with a smooth and positive acceleration. - -The importance of this Pilot tube or nozzle principle cannot be over -emphasized, as it furnishes a flexible, powerful and economical -mixture, without the addition of any complicated parts. The Ford “A” -carburetor has no parts to wear or get out of adjustment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A--Adjustment -Points] - -Two gasoline needle adjustments are furnished. One for low speed and -idling and one for high speed. These adjustments have been found -advisable and necessary to properly handle the present heavy grades -of fuel and the variations in the motor due to wear, etc. Those -adjustments also insure the attaining of the widest range of motor -speed. - -A double choker is furnished, and with these controls the Ford can be -easily started under the most severe weather conditions and the mixture -controlled from the driver’s seat. - -With the Ford “A” carburetor a low speed of four to five miles an -hour can be secured without any loading or missing. Also, with this -carburetor the maximum speed and power of the motor are obtained. - - -INSTRUCTIONS FOR INSTALLING AND ADJUSTING THE SCHEBLER FORD “A” -CARBURETOR - -First, remove the Ford carburetor from the manifold, also the dash -board control, the hot air drum, and tubing, and the radiator choke -wire. Be sure to save the cotter pin used in the throttle control. - -Install the Schebler carburetor, using gasket and cap screws which are -furnished with the equipment. The gasoline connection is the same as -regularly furnished on the Ford equipment and no other connections are -necessary. Screw the connections on the Ford gasoline line onto the -connection furnished on the carburetor. Attach the hot air drum and -the tubing to the exhaust manifold and run the choke wire through the -radiator. - -Before adjusting carburetor, see that the spark plugs are clean and -set about .035, or nearly the thickness of a new dime. See that the -compression is good and equal on all four cylinders. See that the timer -is clean and in good shape, as an occasional miss is due to the roller -in the timer becoming worn. Also, be sure that there is no leak in the -intake manifold. - -The steering post control must be set so that the tubing is fastened -into set screw (A) and the control wire is fastened through the binding -post in lever (B) with steering post control or plunger pushed clear -in and the butterfly shutter (D) in the hot air horn or bend open, so -that when the plunger control is pulled out the wire (C) in the binding -post (B) on lever closes the shutter (D) almost completely. This will -furnish a rich mixture for starting and warming up the motor under -normal weather conditions. - -The wire running to the front of the radiator must be attached to lever -(E) so that when the motor is cold, the shutter (D) can be closed -tight, thus insuring positive starting. However, this wire must be -released immediately upon starting the motor or the motor will be -choked by excess of gasoline. - -To start the motor, open low speed needle (H) and high speed needle (I) -about four or five complete turns. You will note that the needles have -dials which indicate turning needle to the right cuts down the gasoline -supply. - -Pull out steering post control, open throttle about one-quarter way, -retard the spark, pull out radiator choke wire which will close shutter -and crank the motor. After motor is started, immediately release -radiator choke wire and gradually push in the steering post control or -plunger and let the motor run until it is warmed up. Then first adjust -the high speed needle (I) until the motor runs smoothly and evenly with -retarded spark. Close throttle part way and adjust idle needle until -motor runs smoothly at low speed. - -In order to get the desired low throttle running, use the throttle stop -screw (L) which will control the throttle opening and give you the -desired low speed running. - -A strainer is furnished on the carburetor which prevents dirt or -sediment getting into the bowl of the carburetor and choking up the -gasoline nozzle or causing flooding. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -KEROSENE CARBURETORS - - -Experiments have been carried on for quite some time pertaining to the -development of a more successful carburetor which will burn the heavier -fuels. The chief difficulty encountered is to find a more suitable way -to vaporize these low grade fuels. - -Kerosene can be used, only with an application of heat to the manifold -to aid in the evaporation of the heavier parts of this fuel. The -exhaust pipes are available for this source of heat, but as there is no -heat from this source until the engine is running, it is necessary to -start the engine on gasoline and switch over to the heavier fuels after -the warming-up process. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor] - -Fig. 43 shows the Holley kerosene carburetor which is adaptable to -any type of engine by making simple changes in the exhaust manifold -to include the heating coil tube. This carburetor will operate -successfully on any hydro-carbon fuel with a boiling point below -600° F. Two float chambers are provided to take care of the starting -and running fuels. The engine is started on the gasoline part of the -carburetor and after a short warming-up period the feed is switched to -the kerosene part of the device. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment] - -The principle upon which this device operates is to provide a primary -mixture by means of a needle valve and a very small aspirating jet -which gives a mixture that is too rich for combustion. This rich -mixture of atomized fuel is carried through a coil tube of very thin -wall thickness, which is exposed to the exhaust gases, directly in the -exhaust manifold. - -The temperature in this coil tube reaches as high as 500 degrees F. -The globules of the over rich mixture are broken up here and flow -directly into the mixing chamber, where additional air enters, diluting -the mixture to make it combustible. The opening of the air valve is -controlled by the suction of the engine and by the throttle valve. The -shifter valve for changing the operation from gasoline to kerosene is -conveniently arranged for dash control, when the engine becomes warm. A -primer is arranged in the manifold just above the carburetor and aids -in cold weather starting. - -Fig. 44 shows the installation of the Holley kerosene carburetor. In -this case it was necessary to add a compartment on the exhaust manifold -to contain and heat the coil tube. There are some details that must be -taken care of on installation. A small auxiliary tank must be provided -to hold the gasoline for starting, while a larger tank must be provided -to carry the main supply of kerosene. - -The adjustments of this type of carburetor is through a needle valve -located in each fuel chamber, and as it is impossible to give any set -adjustment that would apply to the many different types of motors, the -proper adjustment must be worked out. This is done by shifting to the -gasoline and turning the needle valve to the right and left and noting -the point at which the engine runs the smoothest. The needle valve is -then set at this point. The fuel shifter valve is turned to feed the -kerosene, and this adjustment is made in the same manner. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS - - -Heat added to the manifold is the probable solution of the present -low-test fuel supplied to the motorist. In the first place you may be -satisfied if your motor runs and does not give any noticeable loss of -power. But the question is, are you getting full power out of your -motor in accordance with the amount of fuel consumed? And are you -getting the proper amount of mileage out of each gallon? The answer to -both questions would probably be in the negative, if both questions -were taken up individually by owners. - -[Illustration: - - EXHAUST - - INTAKE - - EXHAUST - - GOVERNOR - - GOVERNOR - - CARBURETOR - -Fig. 45. Hot Spot Manifold] - -One of the best solutions, if not the best, is the new hot-spot -manifold used on the Liberty engine, which was designed for Army use. -Fig. 45 shows the hot-spot Liberty engine manifold. The intake manifold -is external but short, therefore does not offer much opportunity for -the liquid to condense. From the carburetor it rises up straight to -a point well above the valve ports and the cylinder blocks, and at -the top of the rise it touches the exhaust pipe and divides, the two -branches sweeping downward quite clear of the exhaust manifold to each -block of cylinders. About three inches of the intake passage is exposed -to the exhaust manifold top. - -The advantage of this design is that the heating element affects -practically only the liquid fuel and does not have much effect on the -fuel already vaporized. Naturally the liquid fuel is heavier than the -vapor, and as the mixture rushes up the manifold at a high rate of -speed and turns to the right or left, the heavier liquid particles are -thrown straight against the hot-spot, where they are boiled off in -vapor. - -Thus, although the total amount of heat supplied to the incoming charge -is small, vaporization is good, since pains have been taken to supply -the heat where it is needed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46. Holley Vapor Manifold--Ford Cars] - -Fig. 46 shows the Holley vapor manifold for Ford cars which is -intended to completely vaporize gasoline by applying heat at the -proper point. As will be noted by the arrows, the exhaust gases pass -down, striking a hot-spot at the top of the internal intake passage. -The exhaust gases flow along this passage and finally pass out at the -bottom. The heavier particles of fuel, after leaving the carburetor, -strike against the wall at point (A) and there are broken up by the -exhaust gases. Should any of the globules not be broken up at this -point, they will be vaporized when they strike the hot-spot at (B) as -this is directly in contact with the exhaust gases. It will be noted -that the heavier globules are subjected to a rising temperature. -Starting at (A) and finishing at (B) a control valve regulates the -amount of heat supplied to the intake manifold. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -COOLING SYSTEMS - -TYPE, OPERATION AND CARE - - -Cooling systems are provided on all types of gasoline engines. As the -heat generated by the constant explosions in the cylinders would soon -overheat and ruin the engine were it not cooled by some artificial -means. - -=Circulation Systems.=--There are two types of water circulating -systems. The Thermo Syphon, and the Force Pump circulating systems. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47. Thermo-Syphon Cooling System] - -Fig. 47 shows how the water circulates in the Thermo-Syphon system. It -acts on the principle that hot water seeks a higher level than cold -water, consequently when the water reaches a certain temperature, -approximately 180° F., circulation commences and the water flows from -the lowest radiator outlet pipe up through the water jackets into the -upper radiator water tank, and down through the thin tubes to the lower -tank to repeat the process. - -The heat is extracted from the water by its passage through the thin -metal tubing of the radiator to which are attached scientifically -worked out fins which assist in the rapid radiation of the heat. The -fan just back of the radiator sucks the air through the small tubes -which connect the upper and lower radiator tanks. The air is also -driven through between these tubes by the forward movement of the car. - -=The Force Pump Circulation System.=--The Force Pump circulating system -is constructed in the same manner as the Thermo Syphon Cooling System. -The only difference in the two systems is that a small pump is attached -to the lower radiator pipe to force the circulation of the water. - -The pump is usually of the centrifugal type and consists of a -fan-shaped wheel operated in a snugly fitted housing. The water enters -at the hub and is thrown out against the housing and is forced on by -the rapid action of the fan blades. Another type of pump is used by -some manufacturers which consist of two meshed gears of the same size, -which operate in a snugly fitted housing. These gears operate in a -direction toward each other, the water is carried forward or upward in -the space between the teeth, and is forced on when the teeth mesh and -fill the space. - -=Overheating.=--Overheating may be caused by carbonized cylinders, too -much driving on low speed, not enough or a poor grade of lubricating -oil, spark retarded too far, racing the engine, clogged muffler, poor -carburetor adjustment, a broken or slipping fan belt, jammed radiator -tube, leaky connection, or low water. - -=Radiator Cleaning.=--The entire circulation system should be -thoroughly cleaned occasionally. A good cleaning solution is made by -dissolving one-half pound of baking soda in three and one-half to four -gallons of soft water. The radiator is filled with the solution and -left to stand for twenty to thirty minutes. The hose is then removed -from the lower pipe, water is then turned into the radiator through -the filler spout until the system is thoroughly flushed out. - -=Freezing.=--Unless an anti-freezing solution is used through the -cold months you are bound to experience trouble. The circulation does -not commence properly until the water becomes heated. It is apt to -freeze at low temperatures before circulation commences. In case any -of the small tubes are plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze and -burst open if the driver attempts to get along without a non-freezing -solution. - -=Freezing Solution.=--Wood or denatured alcohol can be used to a good -advantage. The following table gives the freezing point of solutions -containing different percentages of alcohol. - - 20% solution freezes at 15° above zero. - 30% solution freezes at 8° below zero. - 50% solution freezes at 34° below zero. - -A solution composed of 60% of water, 10% of glycerine, and 30% of -alcohol is commonly used, its freezing point being 8° below zero. - -=Evaporation.=--On account of evaporation, fresh alcohol must be added -frequently in order to maintain the proper solution. - -=Radiator Repairs.=--A small leak may be temporarily repaired by -applying brown soap, or white lead, but the repair should be made -permanent with solder as soon as possible. A jammed radiator tube is -a more serious affair. While the stopping up of one tube does not -seriously interfere with circulation, it is bound to cause trouble -sooner or later, and the tube will freeze in cold weather. Cut the tube -an inch above and below the jam and insert a new piece soldering the -connection. If the entire radiator is badly jammed or broken, it will -probably be advisable to install a new one. - -=Air Cooling System.=--Air cooling has been developed to a point -where fairly good results are attained. This system has an advantage -over the circulating systems, in that the weight of the radiator and -water is done away with, and no trouble is experienced with stoppage -of circulation and leaky connection. This system, however, has its -drawbacks, in that it cannot be used successfully on the larger and -more compact engines. In order to allow the necessary large space for -radiation, the cylinders are heavily flanged and set separately. The -fan is placed in a much higher position than usual, in order that -the air current may strike the heads of the cylinders and circulate -downward. Compression is also lowered considerably to prevent heat -generation and pre-ignition. On account of the small size of the -cylinders and low compression, it is necessary to operate an air cooled -engine at a very high rate of speed to produce sufficient power for -automobile locomotion. - -The fan must be kept in good working condition, and care should be -exercised in not allowing the engine to run idle for any length of -time. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -The muffler was designed to silence the otherwise loud report of the -exploding charge of gas, which is released from the cylinders by the -sudden opening of the exhaust valves. - -While these devices are differently shaped and formed, the functional -purpose and action is practically the same in all designs. - -The burnt or inert gases are forced from the cylinders on the exhaust -stroke. It passes into the exhaust manifold which absorbs some of the -heat before it reaches the muffler. - -[Illustration: - - Hanger - - Tie Rod - - Split Clamp Nut - - Muffler Shell - - Spacer - - Spacer - - Nozzle - - Center Pipe - -Fig. 48. Muffler--Three Compartment] - -Fig. 48 shows a three compartment muffler. The burnt gases enter -compartment No. 1 from the exhaust pipe. This compartment is -sufficiently large to spread the volume which lessens the pressure and -force. It then enters the rear compartment No. 3, through the center -pipe; it expands again and passes through the perforated spacer plate, -enters compartment No. 2, and escapes through the nozzle in an even -silent flow. - -The muffler at all times produces a certain amount of back-pressure on -the engine which results in a slight loss of power. The back pressure -exerted by the majority of mufflers, however, is very slight and has a -tendency to counter balance or equalize the sudden shock delivered to -the bearings by the explosion over the piston head. - -The muffler may also become fouled by the use of too much or too heavy -a grade of lubricating oil, which will cause the expansion space and -the small holes in the spacer plates to become clogged with carbon -and soot. This carbon and soot soon bakes into a hard crust causing -much back pressure which results in a considerable loss of power. This -condition will become noticeable first by a loss of considerable power -caused by an overheated motor. If this condition is not remedied, the -exhaust manifold and pipe leading to the muffler will soon become -red-hot, causing much danger of a serious damage loss to the car from -fire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49. Muffler] - -=Muffler.=--To eliminate or remedy this condition, disconnect manifold -pipe from the muffler, remove the muffler from hangers, and disassemble -it by removing the nuts from the tie rods which release the end plates. -This will allow the compartment walls and spacer plates to be drawn -from the sleeve. Each compartment and spacer plate should be removed -sectionally, and its position carefully noted, in order that it may -be replaced correctly in re-assembling. The walls of the sleeve, and -the compartment end plates are scraped and rubbed with a piece of -sandpaper. A small round file may be used in cleaning the center pipe. -The spacer plates are scraped and sandpapered. The small holes in -the spacer plates may be opened by using the tapered end of a small -file. Fig. 49 shows a muffler of another design. The burnt gas enters -a compartment containing three saucer shaped spacers which retard and -break up the volume. It then passes through an open compartment and -enters reversed spacers through small holes near the sleeve wall. It -centers or forms slightly in volume and escapes to the next compartment -through a small hole in the center of the second spacer. This action of -forming and breaking is kept up until the outlet is reached. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -VACUUM SYSTEMS - -CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -The vacuum systems have proved to be one of the important inventions -pertaining to successful motor operation. They are self contained, -simple in construction and automatic in operation. They do away with -the troublesome power and hand pressure pumps and their connections. - -[Illustration: - - AIR VENT - - FROM INTAKE MANIFOLD - - FROM GASOLINE SUPPLY TANK - -Fig. 50. Vacuum System--Top Arrangement] - -Fig. 50 shows the top arrangement and connections. R is the air vent -over the atmospheric valve. The effect of this is the same as if the -whole tank were elevated, and is for the purpose of preventing an -overflow of gasoline, should the position of the car ever be such as -to raise the fuel supply tank higher than the vacuum tank. D shows the -pipe connection from the fuel supply tank. C shows the pipe connection -to the intake manifold. W shows a tap or vent through which gasoline -may be fed into the upper chamber, in case the fuel supply tank is -damaged or put out of commission. R shows the air vent connection from -the lower tank. - -Fig. 51 shows a general diagram of vacuum system installation. One of -the chief advantages is that it allows the carburetor to be placed -near the head of the motor and does away with the long manifold -connections required with the gravity feed systems. This also reduces -the frictional resistance, gives a richer mixture and greater volume of -flow. - -[Illustration: - - AIRVENT - - A--CONNECTION - BETWEEN INTAKE - MANIFOLD AND - VACUUM TANK - - C--CONNECTION - FROM VACUUM - TANK TO CARBURETOR - - B--CONNECTION - BETWEEN - MAIN GASOLINE - SUPPLY TANK AND - VACUUM TANK - -Fig. 51. Vacuum System Installation] - -Fig. 52 shows a sectional view of the Stewart Vacuum System and -explains the operative value of each part. A is the suction valve for -opening and closing the connection to the manifold through which a -vacuum is extended from the engine manifold to the gasoline tank. B is -the atmospheric valve, and permits or prevents an atmospheric condition -in the upper chamber. When the suction valve A is open and the suction -is drawing gasoline from the main supply tank, the atmospheric valve B -is closed. When the suction valve A is closed, the atmospheric valve -B must be open, as an atmospheric condition is necessary in the upper -tank in order to allow the gasoline to flow through the flapper valve -H into the lower chamber. C is a pipe connecting the tank to the -intake manifold of the engine. D is a pipe connecting the tank to the -main fuel supply tank. E is the valve control lever and has two coil -tension springs S attached to operate the short valve lever F. G is the -metallic air-containing float, which controls the action of the valves -through the spring and lever arrangement. H is the flapper valve at the -outlet of T, and it closes by suction when the vacuum valve A is open. -When the vacuum valve A closes, the atmospheric valve B opens and -relieves the suction in the upper tank, the flapper valve H opens and -allows the fuel to flow from the upper tank into the lower chamber. - -[Illustration: - - AIR VENT - - TO INTAKE - PASSAGE - - FROM - GASOLINE - TANK - - FLOAT VALVE - - UPPER - CHAMBER - - LOWER - CHAMBER - - TO CARBURETOR - -Fig. 52. Vacuum System Diagram--Stewart Warner] - -J is a plug in the bottom of the tank which can be removed to clean or -drain the tank. This plug can be removed and replaced with a pet-cock -for drawing off gasoline for priming or cleaning purposes. K is the -line to the carburetor. It is extended on the inside of the tank to -form a pocket for trapping water and sediment. L is a channel space -between the inner and outer shells and connects with the air vent R, -thus admitting an atmospheric condition to exist in the lower chamber -at all times, and thereby permitting an uninterrupted flow of gasoline -to the carburetor. R is an air vent over the atmospheric valve; the -effect of this valve is the same as if the whole tank was elevated. It -is also for the purpose of preventing an overflow of gasoline should -the position of the car ever be such as would raise the fuel supply -tank higher than the vacuum tank. Through this tube the lower or -reservoir chamber is continually open to atmospheric pressure. T is the -outlet at the bottom of the float chamber in which the flapper valve H -is located. U is the float stem guide. V is a strainer which prevents -foreign matter from passing into the vacuum chamber. W is a tap or vent -through which gasoline may be fed into the upper chamber if the fuel -tank is damaged or put out of commission. - -The simple and durable construction of this system makes it unlikely -that the car owner will ever need to make internal repairs. Before -attempting to repair this tank make sure that the trouble is not due to -some other cause. - -=Air Vent.=--A small amount of gasoline may escape through the air -vent occasionally. This will do no harm and no adjustment is needed. -However, if the vent tube continues to overflow, one of the following -conditions will be responsible: 1. The air hole in the main supply tank -is stopped up, or the hole is too small. Enlarge the hole or clean it -out. 2. If gasoline leaks from the system except from the vent tube, -it can only do so from one of the following causes: a. A leak may exist -in the outer wall of the tank. If so soldering it up will eliminate the -trouble. b. The carburetor connection on the bottom of the tank may be -loose. c. There may be a leak in the tubing at the head of the tank. d. -The cover of the tank may be loose. - -=Failure to Feed Gasoline to the Carburetor.=--This condition may be -due to other causes than the vacuum system. Do not tinker with it until -you are sure that the trouble is not elsewhere. Flood the carburetor. -If gasoline runs out of the float chamber you may be sure that the -vacuum system is performing its work properly. - -=To Remove Cover.=--To remove the cover for inspection, take out the -screws and run a knife blade carefully around the top to separate the -gasket without damaging it. Shellac the gasket before you replace it to -make the tank air-tight. - -=Faulty Feed.=--If faulty feed is traced to the vacuum tank, one of -the following conditions may be the cause. The float valve G may have -developed a leak. To repair, remove the top of the tank to which it -is attached. Dip the float into a pan of hot water. Bubbles will -show the leak. Punch two small holes, one at the top, and one at the -bottom, and blow the gasoline out. Then solder up the holes and the -leak. Use solder carefully in order not to add too much weight to the -float. A small particle of dirt may be lodged under the flapper valve. -This trouble can usually be remedied by tapping the side of the tank. -In order to determine whether or not the flapper valve is working -properly, plug up the air vent tube and remove the pipe extending from -the bottom of the tank to the carburetor. Start the engine and place a -finger over the opening (from which you removed the tube). If continual -suction is felt, it is evident that the flapper valve is being held -off its seat. If tapping the side of the tank will not remedy this -condition, remove the cover and withdraw the upper chamber. The valve -is attached to the pipe projecting from the bottom. - -=Strainer.=--Remove and clean the strainer screen located at V, Fig. -52, every five or six weeks. This screen collects all the dirt and -foreign matter in the gasoline, and often becomes stopped up. - -[Illustration: - - CONNECTION TO - GASOLINE TANK - - SUCTION TUBE - CONNECTION TO INTAKE - MANIFOLD - - STRAINER - - VENT TUBE - CONNECTION - - COVER - - ATMOSPHERIC - VALVE - - SUCTION VALVE - - VALVE LEVER - - INNER TANK - - SPRINGS - - OUTER TANK - - FLOAT LEVER - - FLOAT - - GUIDE - - FLAPPER VALVE - - DRAIN PLUG - - CONNECTION TO - CARBURETOR - -Fig. 53. Vacuum System--Inside View of Parts--Stewart Warner] - -=Filling the Vacuum Tank.=--To fill the tank after it has been cleaned -or repaired, leave the spark off, close the gas throttle, and crank the -engine over a few times with the starter or by hand. It takes less than -ten seconds to create sufficient vacuum to fill the tank. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS - - -Before taking up the study of automobile ignition systems and -electrical appliances, we will first devote a little time to study, -in order to become familiar with the different electrical parts, -functions, terms and names applied to the various units, and machines. - -In the first place electricity is not a juice or fluid that flows -through a wire, but is a generated electro-motive force that may be -held in storage or conducted from one place to another. It will not -flow without a round circuit and seeks ground return at the slightest -opportunity. It is designated in terms which express quality, quantity, -force and action. - -=Voltage.=--A volt is an electrical unit, expressing the force or -pressure of the current. The voltage of a system simply means the -difference of pressure exerted on the system measured in volts. - -=Ampere.=--An ampere is an electrical unit expressing the quality or -intensity of the current. - -=Ohm.=--An ohm is an electrical unit expressing resistance; or the -resistance of conductors to the flow of current. - -=Current.=--The current is the generated electro-motive force. - -=Circuit.=--Electricity will not flow unless there is a circuit or -ground return to its original source. - -=Low Tension Current.=--Low tension current is generated in the primary -winding or coil by placing it in a magnetic field. It will flow from -one point to another but has very little strength and will not jump -the gap at the spark plug. It is used for lighting purposes, or -conducted to an induction coil which transforms it into a high tension -alternating current. - -=High Tension Current.=--High tension current is generated in the -secondary coil by interruption of the primary current or by the rapid -magnetization and demagnetization of the core and primary coil. - -=Direct Current.=--Direct current is produced by placing a coil or wire -in a magnetic field. It is usually conducted to an induction coil where -it is transformed into a high tension alternating current. - -=Alternating Currents.=--Alternating currents are produced by the rapid -breaking down and building up of the primary current. An alternating -current flows forward from zero to its highest point of strength and -back again to zero. The alternating action takes place so rapidly that -a light can be connected in this circuit and it will burn steadily -without any noticeable fluctuation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54. Coil Diagram] - -=Induction Coil.=--An induction coil consists of a soft iron core; -a primary and secondary winding, and a set of platinum points. The -primary winding is wound directly over the core and consists of a few -turns of thick wire. The secondary wire is wound over the primary -and consists of a great many turns of thin wire. Fig. 54 shows the -functional action of an induction coil. Both of the coils are wound -on the soft iron core A-B. The primary current which is supplied in -this case by a cell or number of cells, C and D, is broken at frequent -intervals of time. The method of doing this is as follows: One terminal -of the primary coil is connected to the fixed platinum stud D, the -other terminal to a spring which carries a piece of soft iron, E. When -the spring is unbent it touches the stud D, and a current passes in -the primary. The core of soft iron becomes magnetized and attracts the -soft iron disc, E, thus breaking contact at D. The current is stopped -and the core immediately becomes unmagnetized, the spring flies back -and the contact is again made. The process is then repeated. When the -contact in the primary is broken the current flows in one direction in -the secondary coil, when it is made the current flows in the opposite -direction in the secondary. Thus an alternating current is set up in -the secondary current of great frequency. - -=Commutator.=--The commutator or timer as it is commonly called is used -only in connection with the induction coil to complete the circuit when -a spark is required at the plug in the cylinder. - -=Insulation.=--Insulating is the act of covering a conductor with a -non-conducting substance to prevent the spark from jumping or seeking -ground. - -=Choking Coil.=--A choking coil in simple form consists of a coil and -iron core to increase self-induction. It is used to reduce currents of -high pressure and is commonly called a bucking coil. - -=Fuse.=--A fuse is used to prevent conductors or coils from being -damaged by heat generated from high pressure currents. It consists of a -metal and glass tube which contains a fine wire. This wire being much -thinner than the wire of the cable, the heat naturally develops faster -at this point, and is soon high enough to melt the wire and break or -open the circuit, and thus any further damage to the insulation is -prevented. - -=Condenser.=--A condenser usually consists of a few strips of folded -tin foil insulated from each other with paraffined or oiled paper. It -absorbs, restricts and distributes high pressure currents and also -prevents excessive sparking at the contact points. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55. Dynamo--Diagram of Action] - -=Dynamo.=--A dynamo is a machine which converts mechanical energy -into electric energy, and must consist of at least two separate parts; -the field magnets to create the magnetic field, and the armature or -conductor in which the current is generated. One or the other of these -must be in motion in order to cut the lines of magnetic force crossing -the field. Fig. 55 shows the operation of the most common or simplest -type of alternating current producing machine, which is similar and -conforms in action to the high tension magneto and generator. Field -pieces magnetize the pole pieces N and S. A wire coil is placed in -the field at right angles to the magnetic lines of force turned to -the right. It takes up the position of the dotted lines and no lines -of force are cut, whereas in its original position, as many lines of -force as possible are cut. Turning the coil on its axles, a-b, causes -the lines of force cut by c-d, and e-f to vary from the highest number -of lines that it is possible to cut to zero and back again, thus -constantly changing the flowing direction of the current. The reversal -of the current takes place at the instant that the coil passes the -point where it cuts the greatest number of lines of force. The ends -of the coil are connected to a commutator on the shaft a, b. Steel -insulated brushes pick the current from the commutator ring and conduct -it to the brush post; an insulated wire conductor is attached to this -post and conducts the current to the place of use or storage. - -=Voltaic Cell.=--The source of energy of a voltaic cell is the chemical -action. (_See_ accumulator). - -=Accumulator.=--The standard accumulator or storage battery is -composed of three cells or hard rubber jars in which a number of -lead plates are immersed in a solution of sulphuric acid and water -known as electrolyte. The plates are stiff lead grids which hold a -paste made of various oxides of lead. Six plates in each cell are -joined to the positive terminal, and seven plates in each cell are -joined to the negative terminal. Thin wooden separators are inserted -between the plates to prevent them from touching one another. In the -forming process the material on the positive plates becomes converted -into brown peroxide of lead; the negative plates assume the form of -gray metallic lead. The material on both plates is known as active -material. When current is taken from the cells the sulphuric acid in -the electrolyte combines with the active material of the plates to form -sulphate of lead, and when the battery is recharged the lead sulphate -is again converted into the original active material and the acid set -free in the solution. - -=Storage Battery.=--For construction and action see Accumulator. For -care see chapter on storage batteries. - -=Electrolyte.=--A chemical solution used in voltaic cells consisting -of two parts sulphuric acid added to five to seven parts of water by -volume. - -=Hydrometer.=--A hydrometer is used to test the electrolyte solution -in the cells of storage batteries. It consists of a weighted float -and a graduated stem, and as sulphuric acid is heavier than water, -the specific gravity reading will be proportional to the amount of -acid. The hydrometer thus measures the relative amount of acid in the -electrolyte and consequently reveals the condition of the battery. - -=Ammeter.=--An ammeter is an electrical instrument which indicates -the amount of current that the generator is supplying to the storage -battery, or the amount of current that the storage battery is supplying -for ignition, lights and horn. - -=Circuit Breaker.=--The circuit breaker is a device which prevents -excessive discharging of the storage battery. All the current for -lights is conducted through the circuit breaker (Delco system). -Whenever an excessive current flows through the circuit breaker it -intermittently opens the circuit causing a clicking sound. This will -continue until the ground is removed or the switch is operated to -open the circuit on the grounded wire. When the ground is removed the -circuit is automatically restored, there being nothing to replace as is -the case with fuses. - -=Switch.=--A switch opens and closes the various circuits and is for -the purpose of controlling the light, ignition, generator and storage -battery circuits. - -=Generator.=--See chapter on electrical starting systems. - -=Regulation.=--(Delco). On account of the various speeds at which the -generator must operate it is necessary that the output be regulated so -that sufficient current is obtained at the low engine speeds without -excessive current at the higher speeds. The regulation in this case is -what is known as the third brush excitation in which the current for -magnetizing the frame is conducted through the auxiliary or third brush -on the generator commutator. With this arrangement the natural function -of the generator itself causes less current to flow through the shunt -field winding at the higher engine speeds. This weakens the magnetic -field in which the armature is rotating and decreases the output of the -generator. - -=Contact-breaker.=--See chapter on Atwater Kent ignition systems. - -=Coil, nonvibrating.=--See chapters on Atwater Kent ignition systems -and Philbrin electrical systems. - -=Distributors.=--See chapters on Magnetos and Atwater Kent ignition -systems. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -MAGNETO PARTS AND OPERATION - - -[Illustration: Fig. 56. Magnets--Pole Blocks] - -The purpose of the magneto is to furnish electrical current at regular -intervals, to jump the spark plug gaps and to ignite the gas which has -been compressed in the combustion chambers. The discovery was made -years ago that, by placing a coil of wire between two magnetic poles, -current would be present at once. But it is only while the wire coil is -in motion that the current will flow or circulate, and while there are -many theories why this takes place only while the coil is in motion, -none seem to explain the fact satisfactorily. The strength of the -current depends on the size of the magnetic field, and the number of -wraps of wire in the coil. Consequently the larger the coil the more -intense the current. Fig. 56 represents the magnets, of which there are -from three to six. The U-shaped pieces are made of steel which has been -case hardened and charged with electricity which causes them to become -magnetized. Magnets have two poles or axes, one of which is positive -from which the current flows, and one of which is negative to which -the current flows or passes. Fig. 56A shows the pole pieces which are -located on the inside of the lower or open end of the magnets. The pole -pieces are channel ground, leaving a round space or tunnel in which the -armature revolves. - -Fig. 57 shows the soft iron core which is shaped like the block letter -H, and wound with fine wire, making up the coil shown in Fig. 57A of -the wound armature. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57. Armature Core--Wound Armature] - -[Illustration: Fig. 58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current -Direction] - -Fig. 58 shows the primary and secondary winding. The primary or heavy -wire is wound on the core lengthwise, each strand being separated from -the other with rubber or tin foil insulation. The current passes from -the top of the left pole piece to the top of the core until it passed -out of range, crossing the upper gap between the two pole pieces. As -the top of the core leaves or breaks the contact flow of current, the -bottom of the core comes in contact range, leaving an open space which -breaks the current and changes the direction of flowage as shown in -Fig. 58A and 58B. This current is of a low tension nature, and will not -jump the gap at the spark plugs when the engine is running slow. The -secondary winding, shown in Fig. 58, is made up of many more windings -of a finer wire. The low tension or primary current is led through the -armature shaft to a contact breaker at the rear of the magneto. - -Fig. 59 shows the contact breaker, which consists of a housing in which -two platinum points are arranged, one point stationary, the other -attached to an arm on a pivot. The points are held together by spring -tension. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59. Breaker--Slip Ring--Distributor] - -A cam on the armature shaft comes into contact with the arm on which -the second point is located, forcing it from the stationary point, -thus breaking the low tension current which returns to the secondary -coil, the magnetizing and demagnetizing caused by the break in the low -tension current, and sets up a rapid alternating current. One end of -the secondary is led to a collector ring on the front of the magneto. -Fig. 59A shows the collector ring. A carbon brush collects the current -from the ring and conducts it to the distributor’s centrally located -arm. Fig. 59B shows the distributor. The centrally located arm is timed -to deliver the current, or comes into contact with one of the segments -or brushes and allows the current to flow from the segment to the gap -at the spark plug, where it jumps the gaps and ignites the gas in the -cylinders at the proper time. Then it returns through the ground (the -engine and the frame) to the magneto, where it passes back into the -secondary coil, passing through an insulated condenser consisting of -small plates of steel insulated from one another. This regulates the -flowage of the returning current, by reducing it through resistance, -and prevents the armature from heating. - -A safety spark gap is provided on some magnetos which causes the spark -to jump and lose some of its force through resistance when the plugs -become shorted. This also restricts the current and greatly aids the -condenser in performing its purpose. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO - -OPERATION, ADJUSTMENT AND CARE - - -Like all other types of high tension magnetos, the Bosch Type ZR. Ed. -16 explained in this chapter, generates its own current and is usually -employed as sole ignition on an engine. - -The timer and distributor are integral; and the rotation of the -armature, between the poles of strong permanent field magnets, sets up -or induces a current in the armature primary circuit, which is farther -augmented at every one hundred and eighty degrees of revolution of the -armature shaft, by the abrupt interruption of the primary circuit by -means of the magneto interruptor. At the opening of the primary circuit -the resulting discharge of current from this circuit induces a current -of high voltage in the armature secondary circuit. The high tension -current thus created is collected by a slip ring on the armature and -passes to the slip ring brush then to the various magneto distributor -terminals each of which is connected to a spark plug in its respective -cylinder. - -The operation of the instrument will be more clearly understood from a -study of the complete circuits, primary and secondary, which follows. - -=The Primary or Low Tension Circuit.=--The beginning of the armature -primary circuit is in metallic contact with the armature core, and the -end of the primary circuit is connected by means of the interruptor -fastening screw to the insulated contact block supporting the long -platinum contact on the magneto interruptor. The interruptor lever -carrying a short platinum contact, shown in Fig. 60 at C is mounted -on the interruptor disc, which in turn, is connected to the armature -core. The primary circuit is completed whenever the two platinum -contacts of the interruptor are brought together, and separated -whenever these contacts are separated. - -From the latter point the high tension current passes to the -distributor brush (shown at D) which is held in a brush holder on -the distributor gear, and consequently rotates with the distributor -gear. Metal segments are imbedded in the distributor plate and as -the distributor brush rotates it makes successive contacts with the -segments, passing the current onto the spark plug gaps through the high -tension cables which are attached to the segment terminal posts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor--Housing -Removed] - -Fig. 61 shows a circuit diagram of the Type ZR. Ed. 16. Bosch Magneto. -Note that the spark plugs must be connected up in accordance with -the firing order of the engine. The metal segments imbedded in the -distributor plate are connected with the terminal studs on the face of -the plate, and the latter are connected by cable to the spark plugs -in the various cylinders. In the cylinders the high tension current -produces a spark which produces ignition, and then returns through the -ground and the engine to the magneto armature, thus completing the -circuit. - -=Timing the Magneto.=--With the average four cycle engine the proper -operating results are obtained by timing the magneto as follows: -The crank shaft is rotated to bring the piston in No. 1 cylinder (in -automobile practice this is the cylinder nearest the radiator) exactly -on top dead center of the compression stroke. The timing control lever -on the housing is then placed in the fully retarded position. With this -done, the magneto distributor plate should be removed by withdrawing -the two holding screws, or by releasing the two holding springs as the -case may be. - -[Illustration: - - DISTRIBUTOR - - BRUSH - HOLDER - - SAFETY - SPARK GAP - - SLIPRING - - CONDENSER - - ARMATURE - - INTERRUPTER - - GROUND - - GROUND - -Fig. 61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4] - -The operation of the platinum contact points is controlled by the -action of the interruptor lever as it bears against the two steel -segments secured to the inner surface of the interruptor housing. - -In Fig. 60, A shows the distributor with the face plate removed to -show the position of the distributor segments which are connected to -the terminal posts on the back of the plate. B shows the interruptor -housing and cover removed from its position on the magneto. C shows the -complete assembly of the distributor and interruptor. Note that the -face plate of the distributor is fastened on with a set of screws while -the interruptor cover is held in position with a latch. - -=The Secondary or High Tension Current.=--The high tension current is -generated in the secondary circuit only when there is an interruption -of the primary circuit, the spark being produced at the instant the -platinum interruptor contact points separate. The armature secondary -circuit is a continuation of the armature primary circuit, the -beginning of the secondary circuit being connected to the primary, -while the end of the secondary is connected to the insulated current -collector ring mounted on the armature just inside the driving shaft -end plate of the magneto. The slip ring brush is held in contact -with the slip ring by a brush holder at the shaft end of the magneto -which receives the high tension current collected by the slip ring by -means of a connecting bar which passes under the arch of the magnets, -and passes the current to the center of the distributor plate, thus -exposing the distributor brush and gear. The cover of the interruptor -housing is also to be removed to permit observation of the interruptor -points. - -The armature should then be rotated by means of the exposed distributor -gear in the direction in which it is driven until the platinum contact -points are about to separate, which occurs when the interruptor lever -begins to bear against one of the steel segments of the interruptor -housing. Timing or installation is completed by replacing the -interruptor housing cover and distributor plate, and connecting the -cables between the magneto and the spark plugs. - -=Exact Magneto Timing.=--The foregoing will establish the desired -relationship between the magneto armature shaft and the engine crank -shaft. It should be noted, however, that while these instructions cover -the average engine, the exact magneto timing for individual engines is -best determined by trial. - -When specific instructions for magneto timing are given by the engine -manufacturer, it is recommended that such instructions be followed in -preference to those herein given. - -It must always be borne in mind that while making connections the -distributor brush travels in the opposite direction to the rotation of -the armature shaft. - -=The Condenser.=--The condenser consists of a set of metal discs, -insulated from one another with tin foil. It is carried at the -interruptor end of the magneto. It is connected in the primary current -and forms a shunt connection with the interruptor contact points, and -through resistance to the returning ground current prevents excessive -sparking at the interruptor contact points which would soon burn the -points and ruin the coils. - -=The Safety Spark Cap.=--A safety spark cap is provided to protect the -armature and other current carrying parts. Under normal conditions the -current will follow its path to the spark plug, but if for any reason -the resistance in the secondary wire is increased to a high point, as -when a cable becomes disconnected, or a spark gap too wide, the high -tension current will discharge across the safety spark gap. - -=Caution.=--The current should never be allowed to pass over the safety -spark gap for any length of time, and if the engine is operated on a -second or auxiliary ignition system, the magneto must be grounded in -order to prevent the production of high tension current. The snapping -sound by which the passage of current across the safety spark gap may -be noted should always lead to an immediate search for the cause of the -difficulty. - -=The Safety Spark Gap.=--The safety spark gap consists of a pointed -metal electrode projecting from the mounting flange of the slip ring -holder, inside the shaft end hood. The tip of the electrode extends to -within a short distance of the connecting bar, extending from the brush -holder to a magneto distributor plate center post. - -=Timing Range.=--The magneto interruptor housing is arranged so that it -may be rotated through an angle of thirty-four to thirty-seven degrees -with respect to the armature shaft. The movement of this housing in one -direction or another causes the interruptor lever to strike the steel -segments earlier or later in the revolution of the armature, the spark -occurring correspondingly earlier or later in the cylinder. The spark -can be advanced by means of moving the interruptor housing which is -connected to the spark lever on the steering gear, in the direction -opposite the rotation of the armature. The armature rotation is usually -indicated by an arrow on the cover at the driving end of the magneto. - -=Cutting Out Ignition.=--Since a high tension current is generated only -on the interruption of the primary circuit, it is evident that in order -to cut out the ignition, it is merely necessary to divert the primary -current to a path that is not affected by the action of the magneto -interruptor. This is accomplished as follows: An insulated grounding -terminal is provided on the cover of the magneto interruptor housing -with its inner end consisting of a spring with carbon contact pressing -against the head of an interruptor fastening screw. The outer end of -the grounding screw is connected by low tension cable to one side of -the switch, and the other side of the switch is grounded by connecting -a cable between it and the engine or frame. When the switch is open -the primary current follows its normal path across the interruptor -points, and is interrupted at each separation of these contact points. -However, when the switch is closed, the primary current passes from the -head of the interruptor fastening screw to the carbon contacts of the -grounding terminal, thence through the switch to the engine and back -to the magneto, and as the primary current remains uninterrupted when -following this path, no ignition current is produced. - -=Care and Maintenance.=--Aside from keeping the magneto clean -externally, practically the only care required is the oiling of the -bearings. Of these there are two sets supporting the armature, and a -single plain bearing supporting the shaft of the distributor gear. Any -good light oil may be used for this purpose (never cylinder oil), and -each of the bearings should receive not more than two or three drops -about every thousand miles. Apply the oil through the oil ducts at -each end of the armature shaft. The interruptor is intended to operate -without oil, as oil on the interruptor platinum points prevents good -contact, and causes sparking, burning, and misfiring. Care should be -taken to prevent oil entering these parts. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING - - -One point that cannot be over sufficiently emphasized is the warning -that only those who are thoroughly familiar with the magneto should -attempt to disassemble it. Therefore every part should be studied, -and its functional action fully understood before any repairs or -adjustments are undertaken. - -The manufacturers of magnetos have developed their product to a -point of high efficiency and dependability, and if they are properly -lubricated and washed occasionally to prevent gumming up, very little -trouble may be expected from this type of ignition system. - -=Magneto Cleaning.=--Magneto parts should be washed with gasoline as -it has the ability to remove grease and dirt and evaporates rapidly -leaving a perfectly dry surface. Care should be exercised to prevent -fire, for the present grade of gasoline does not evaporate as readily -as it did some time ago when refiners furnished a high test grade of -fuel and the surface of the armature and indentures of the magneto may -retain a pool or film which may be ignited by a short circuit, or from -the breaker box, and cause a fire which would ruin the magneto. There -is, however, little danger from fire if the gasoline is used sparingly, -and each part wiped dry before reassembling the magneto. - -It is considered a good point when the magneto has been taken apart to -be cleaned to go over every part with a cloth dampened in kerosene, -because gasoline leaves a very dry surface which is liable to rust. The -bearings especially are most easily affected in this way. - -The armature may be washed with a brush which has been dipped -into gasoline, but should not be immersed as that would soften the -insulation and cause it to rot. - -The way in which the parts come off should be carefully noted in -order to avoid trouble in reassembling, and the gears operating the -distributor should be carefully marked to assure correct timing, which -will result in a saving of time and trouble. - -When the magnets are removed, close the ends with a file or piece of -steel to prevent them from becoming demagnetized. - -=Magneto Repairing.=--As previously stated, it is not likely that a -magneto will require any further attention than the regular monthly -oiling. Two or three drops of light sewing machine oil should be -dropped into the oil wells which supply the bearings at each end of the -armature shaft. - -If any trouble arises that can be traced directly to the magneto, -examine the breaker box mechanism first; the locknut at the point -adjustment may have worked loose, and the points may be closed, or some -abnormal condition may exist that has caused the points to pit and -stick. - -Breaker point adjustment varies from the thickness of a sheet of -writing paper to one sixty-fourth of an inch; an adjustment anywhere -between these two points usually results in satisfactory operation. - -If the magneto does not function properly after the breaker box and -external wire connections have been examined, the trouble is probably -due to an internal short circuit, and repairs of this nature should -only be undertaken by an expert magneto mechanic. - -To remove the magneto, disconnect the high tension wires leading to -the spark plugs from the distributor terminal posts, tag and number -each wire to correspond with the number stamped below the post. If the -engine fires 1-2-4-3, number three wire will be attached to number four -terminal post. Then remove the ground wire and disconnect the universal -joint and remove the metal strap, or the set screws, from the base. - -=To Time the Magneto.=--Place the timing control lever in a fully -retarded position; remove the plates from the distributor housing to -expose the distributor brush and gear, then remove the cover from the -interruptor housing to permit observation of the points, and rotate the -armature in the direction which it is driven until the point begins to -open. At this point mesh the distributor gear so that the distributor -lever will just be touching one of the segments which connect to the -distributor terminal posts. - -=Timing the Magneto with the Engine.=--Rotate the crank shaft until No. -1 cylinder is up on dead center on the compression stroke; rotate the -armature, with the spark lever in full retard until the distributor arm -begins to make contact with No. 1 segment, and mesh the timing gear at -this point. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM - - -The N.-E. Model O Distributor Ignition System is used on Dodge Brothers -cars. This system provides high tension ignition for the engine by -transforming the low voltage of the starter generator or the battery -into a high voltage capable of jumping freely between the spark plug -electrodes. This is accomplished through the agency of an induction -coil, the primary winding of which, in series with an interruptor or -contact breaker, receives current under normal running conditions from -the starter generator. The starting and lighting battery, however, -supplies this current instead of the generator whenever the engine is -starting or running very slowly. - -At each interruption of the primary current there is set up in the -secondary winding of the coil a high tension current, and this current -flows from the coil through a high tension cable to the distributor -rotor from which point it is selectively conducted to the proper spark -plug. Upon reaching the spark gap in the plug, it jumps from the inner -electrode to the outer one, which is grounded, and then returns through -the engine frame to the grounded end of the secondary winding on the -ignition coil. The high tension spark thus produced in the cylinder -ignites the gas and so brings about the necessary combustion. - -=Wiring= (Fig. 62).--As will be evident upon reference to the -accompanying wiring diagram, the primary circuit of the ignition system -leads from the positive terminal of the battery through the charging -indicator to the ignition switch binding post marked “Bat.,” thence, -when the switch is turned on, through the switch to one of its binding -posts marked “Ign. Coil.” Continuing on from this point through the -ignition coil and the breaker contacts, it returns to the second switch -binding post marked “Ign. Coil,” where it passes through the switch -again. It then finally reaches the grounded negative terminal of the -battery through the grounded terminal of the switch and the car frame. - -[Illustration: =Circuit Diagram of the Model O Ignition System on the -Dodge Brothers Motor Car= - -Fig. 62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System--on Dodge Car] - -The ignition switch is so constructed that it produces a reversal of -polarity in the distributor circuit each time the switch is turned off -and then on again. For this reason there is no necessity of making a -distinction between the two wires leading from the distributor to the -two switch binding posts marked “Ign. Coil,” because the operation of -the system cannot be affected by the transposition of these wires. With -this one exception, however, the ignition circuit connections must -always be made exactly as indicated in the diagrams, if satisfactory -operation of the system is to be maintained. - -[Illustration: - - CHARGING - INDICATOR - - IGNITION AND - LIGHTING SWITCH - - SPARK PLUGS - - GROUNDED - THROUGH CASE - - CONTACT-STUD LOCK NUT - - STATIONARY CONTACT-STUD - - MANUAL CONTROL LEVER - - BREAKER-ARM - - GROUND - CONNECTION - - BREAKER-CAM - - STARTING SWITCH AND - REVERSE CURRENT - CUT-OUT - - BREAKER-CAM NUT - - CONDENSER - - BREAKER- - CONTACTS - - IGNITION - COIL - - BREAKER BOX - - DISTRIBUTOR - HEAD - - BATTERY - - SECONDARY COIL - - PRIMARY COIL - - SAFETY SPARK GAP - - GROUND CONNECTION - - GROUNDED - THROUGH CASE - -Fig. 63. North-East Distributor--Model O--Ignition] - -=Ignition Distributor.= (Fig. 63).--The model O ignition distributor is -mounted on the right-hand side of the Dodge Brothers engine where it is -held rigidly in position by means of four bolts. The horizontal shaft -of the distributor is connected directly to the engine pump shaft -through a flexible coupling, and runs, therefore, at engine speed. The -vertical distributor shaft is driven from the horizontal shaft by means -of spiral gears which reduce its speed to one-half that of the engine. - -The complete distributor unit consists essentially of three -self-contained assemblies: The ignition coil, the breaker box and -distributor base assembly which include the automatic spark advancing -mechanism. Each one of these three elements is so constructed as to -be readily detachable from the distributor unit independently of the -others. - -=Ignition Coil.=--The ignition coil, which is contained in a separate -housing, forming part of the distributor unit, is constructed for -12 volt service and operates directly on the starting and lighting -circuit. The coil housing is attached to the distributor base by means -of four screws and serves also as a cover for the automatic advance -compartment. The high tension terminal located on the coil housing -is designed to provide a safety spark gap, as well as to act as a -binding post for the high tension cable which connects the coil to the -distributor head. - -=Breaker Box and Distributor Head Assembly.= (Fig. 64).--The breaker -box and distributor head assembly is mounted in an upright position -near the center of the distributor base and is secured in place by a -large-headed screw in the vertical portion of the base. This screw -projects into the annular groove in the vertical shaft bearing sleeve, -thereby preventing the breaker box assembly from becoming detached from -the distributor base and yet at the same time permitting it to turn -freely from side to side. The short lug projecting downward from the -manual control lever on the breaker box extends into the round hole -near the middle of the distributor base and acts as a stop to limit the -travel of the breaker box. - -In case it should become necessary to remove the breaker box and -distributor head assembly, the distributor head should first be -detached from the breaker box and then, with the breaker box in the -position of full retard, the exact location of the distributor rotor -should be marked accurately on the edge of the box. This mark should -be made with special care, because it has to serve as the sole guide -for the correct position of the vertical shaft when the assembly is -put back in place again on the distributor base. Moreover, while the -breaker box assembly is separated from the base, the horizontal shaft -in the base must not be turned from the position it occupied at the -time when the location of the rotor was marked. If either of these -precautions is neglected, the correct relationship between the several -moving parts of the system will be likely to be disturbed to such -an extent that the complete retiming of the distributor will become -necessary. - -[Illustration: - - HIGH TENSION - DISTRIBUTOR TERMINALS - - DISTRIBUTOR-BRUSH - - DISTRIBUTOR-HEAD - - DISTRIBUTOR-ROTOR - - BREAKER-CAM NUT - - BREAKER-ARM - - LOCK WASHERS - - VERTICAL SHAFT - - BREAKER-CAM - - VERTICAL SHAFT - BEARING SLEEVE - - STATIONARY CONTACT-STUD - SUPPORT - - PRIMARY COIL - TERMINALS - - GREASE CUP - - COUPLING YOKE - - HIGH TENSION - COIL TERMINAL - - HORIZONTAL SHAFT - - ADVANCE PLATE - - COIL HOUSING - - VERTICAL SPIRAL GEAR - - ADVANCE WEIGHTS - - IGNITION COIL - - HORIZONTAL SPIRAL GEAR - -Fig. 64. North-East Breaker-Box] - -=Condenser.=--The condenser, shunted across the breaker contacts to -absorb the inductive surges that occur in the primary circuit at -each interruption, serves to intensify the effect produced in the -secondary circuit by these interruptions, and also to protect the -breaker contacts from injurious arcing. It is contained in a sealed -case which protects it against possible external injury, and is located -in the breaker box close to the breaker contacts where its maximum -effectiveness is obtained. - -Being very substantially constructed, the condenser ordinarily -requires no attention. If for any reason it should become -inoperative, the best course is always to replace it with a new one, -because condenser repairs are not economically practicable. The -entire condenser unit can be easily removed, whenever desired, by -disconnecting the two condenser leads from the breaker box binding -posts, and then unscrewing the two nuts on the under side of the -breaker box that hold the condenser case in place. - -=Breaker Contacts.=--The breaker arm, which carries one of the -two breaker contacts, is mounted on a pivot post from which it is -thoroughly insulated by a fiber bushing. The helical spring, which is -attached to the lug at the pivot end of the arm, holds it normally in -such a position that the breaker contacts are kept closed. But the -fiber block near the middle of the breaker arm lies in the path of the -breaker cam and is consequently struck by each lobe of the cam as the -vertical shaft revolves. Each of these blows from the cam cause the -breaker contacts to be forced apart, and thereby produce the necessary -interruptions in the primary circuit. The second contact is carried by -the stationary contact stud, which is adjustably mounted in an arched -support. With this stud properly adjusted the difference between the -contact points when they are fully separated by the cam, is twenty -thousandths of an inch (.020″). - -If it should ever become necessary to renew the breaker contacts, a -complete replacement of the entire breaker arm and the contact stud -assemblies will in general be found to be the most effectual method of -handling the work. The breaker arm can be removed by simply lifting -it off its pivot bearing after its pigtail has been disconnected from -the breaker box binding post. The spring attached to the breaker arm -lug will slip off of its own accord as soon as the arm is raised -sufficiently from its normal position. After the breaker arm has been -taken off, the stationary contact stud can be removed by releasing its -lock nut and unscrewing it from its support. To replace the breaker arm -it is merely necessary to insert the lug in the spring, and then, with -the spring held taut, to push the arm firmly down upon its pivot post -until it snaps into position. - -=Breaker Cam.=--The breaker cam, by which the interruptions in the -primary circuit are produced has four projections on its working -surface, so spaced that one of them strikes the breaker arm and causes -the breaker contacts to be abruptly separated each time a spark is -required. The cam is held in place on the upper end of the vertical -shaft by means of a slotted nut and set of special lock washers. It -should never be disturbed if avoidable, because its accurate setting is -absolutely essential to the correct operation of the entire system. If, -at any time, however, its position should become altered accidentally, -it must be carefully reset at once in accordance with the timing -directions given later on. - -The breaker cam and the distributor rotor are both mounted on the -vertical shaft and are rotated at exactly one-half engine speed. -Accordingly, since the engine is of the usual four-cycle type requiring -two revolutions of the crank shaft for one complete cycle of operation, -the distributor rotor and breaker can make one revolution during the -completion of each full cycle of the engine. - -=Distributor Head.=--The distributor head contains five high tension -terminals. The central terminal receives the current from the secondary -winding of the ignition coil and transmits it to the rotor arm by which -it is distributed to the four outer terminals. These outer terminals -are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively, corresponding to the firing order -of the engine, and are connected to the four spark plugs in accordance -with their markings. The distributor rotor in completing one full -revolution establishes contact successively between the rotor brush -and each one of these four outer distributor terminals, each contact -being made at the same moment that the primary circuit is interrupted -by the action of the breaker cam. Thus when the spark plug leads are -properly connected, the high tension current, as soon as produced in -the secondary circuit, is conducted to the spark plug of the proper -cylinder just at the moment when the gas in that particular cylinder is -ready for firing. If, therefore, the spark plug leads ever have to be -removed from the distributor head, they must always be attached again -carefully in the correct order. - -=Automatic Advance Mechanism.= (Fig. 65).--Combustion does not follow -instantaneously upon the occurrence of the spark, however, because a -small time interval is always needed for the gas in the cylinder to -ignite. Consequently, unless some means are provided for offsetting -the lag between spark and combustion, the explosion of the gas could -not always be made to take place at exactly the correct moment under -varying conditions of engine speed. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism--North East] - -To compensate for this lag, therefore, there is incorporated in the -distributor a centrifugally actuated mechanism, which is capable of -automatically advancing or retarding the time of the spark in exact -accordance with the rate of speed at which the engine is running. - -The operating characteristics of the automatic advance are accurately -proportioned to conform throughout the entire speed range with the -requirements of the engine; and in order to insure the permanence of -this relationship the device is so constructed as to be practically -nonadjustable. - -=Manual Spark Control.=--Besides this automatic advance there is -also the usual manual control mechanism for changing the time of the -spark independently of the centrifugal device. This manual control -is for use principally for retarding the spark when starting or -idling the engine or for facilitating carburetor adjustments. During -normal operation of the engine, the spark lever on the steering wheel -quadrant should be advanced as far as permissible without causing the -engine to knock, and the actual regulation of the spark position be -left entirely to the automatic advance mechanism. The arrangement of -the manual control is such, provided the breaker cam is properly set, -that when the spark lever is in the position of full retard, and the -engine is running very slowly, the spark will occur in each cylinder -at 5 engine degrees after the piston has passed the upper dead center -of its compression stroke. With the spark lever advanced to the limit -of its travel on the quadrant, the spark will occur 15 degrees before -the upper dead center position has been reached by the piston on its -compression stroke. - -=Timing the Distributor.=--Whenever it becomes necessary to disconnect -the distributor shaft from the engine pump shaft the exact relative -positions of the two halves of the coupling joining these two shafts, -as well as the location of the distributor rotor, should be carefully -noted and marked. This is necessary in order to make possible the -reëstablishment of the correct relations between the distributor -shaft and the pump shaft when original conditions are being restored. -Moreover, care must be taken to avoid turning the engine while the -distributor is disconnected, because the proper timing relations can -only be retained by keeping the position of the pump shaft unchanged -during this time. - -Should it ever happen, however, that the distributor has been taken off -without the proper precautions having been observed, or that the timing -arrangement has been disturbed in any other fashion, it will thereupon -become necessary to make a complete readjustment of the timing -relations of the distributor and the engine. This is to be done always -after the distributor has been reconnected to the engine, the first -step being to ascertain definitely the relative position of the engine -pistons and valves. With this done, the positions of the breaker cam -and the distributor rotor are then to be reset as directed below. - -Since all the parts of the engine follow a regular sequence of -operation, only the position of the piston and valves in the No. 1 -cylinder need be considered in this process, and the three remaining -cylinders may be practically disregarded. There are numerous methods, -varying in their degree of accuracy, for locating the position of the -engine pistons, but the most dependable one is that of removing the -cylinder head so as to expose the pistons and valves to full view. With -the head thus removed, the engine should be cranked slowly by hand -until the No. 1 piston has risen to the top of its compression stroke -and has just started to descend on its combustion stroke. At this -moment the spark, when fully retarded, should normally occur in No. 1 -cylinder. - -Under circumstances where it is not convenient or desirable to remove -the cylinder head the following approximate method for determining the -location of No. 1 piston may be employed with a fair degree of success. -Open the cocks of the priming cups on all the cylinders, and crank -the engine slowly by hand until the No. 1 piston has just reached the -top of its compression stroke. This can be ascertained by holding the -thumb over the No. 1 priming cup and noting carefully the moment when -the compression ceases to increase. After locating the dead center -position of No. 1 piston in this way, turn the crank shaft a very -slight distance further until the No. 4 exhaust valve is just at the -point of closing. Under these conditions, provided the No. 4 exhaust -valve lifter is in correct adjustment, the No. 1 piston should be -approximately in the desired position of 5 engine degrees beyond dead -center. - -With the No. 1 piston thus carefully set in accordance with one of the -above methods, preferably the former, bring the distributor into the -position of full retard. To do this, disconnect the manual control -attachment and turn the break-box as far as it will go in the direction -in which the vertical shaft rotates. Then after making sure that the -ignition switch is turned off, remove the distributor-head and the -distributor rotor and the breaker box, and with a broad bladed screw -driver back off the breaker cam nut until the cam is free to turn on -its shaft. Next, replace the rotor temporarily, and turn the cam slowly -until the breaker contacts just begin to open when the rotor occupies -the position where it normally makes contact with the No. 1 distributor -terminal. This adjustment can be made to the best advantage by turning -the cam forward to separate the contacts then back again slowly until -the contacts just come together, at which point the cam should be -allowed to remain. - -After the proper setting has thus been obtained, remove the rotor again -and lock the cam securely in position by tightening the slotted nut -that holds it. Finally, replacing the rotor, rock the vertical shaft -backward and forward as far as the slack in the gears will permit, and -note carefully the action of the break contacts. The setting of the cam -must be so accurate that when the gears are rocked forward to take up -the slack, the contacts will be just held apart and yet when the gears -are rocked backward as far as the slack permits, the contacts will be -actually closed. - -A convenient method of verifying this adjustment is to turn on the -ignition current and connect an ordinary 14 or 16 volt 2. c. p. -lamp across the two binding posts of the breaker box. The lamp thus -attached, will serve as a sensitive indicator for representing the -action of the contact-points when the vertical shaft is rocked forward -and backward to take up the slack in the gears. The moment the contacts -begin to be separated, the lamp will light; but as soon as they are -allowed to come together the lamp will at once go out again. - -Should the test prove the first setting to be inaccurate, the cam -must be readjusted, and the test repeated several times if necessary -until the correct setting is finally obtained. Too much care cannot -be employed in making this adjustment, because even a very slight -inaccuracy in the setting of the cam will produce a considerably -magnified effect upon the operation of the engine. This is due to the -fact that the engine speed is twice as great as that of the vertical -shaft. - -=General Care.=--Under normal operating conditions the ignition system -requires very little care aside from the usual precautions against -moisture and dirt. There are, in fact, but three points of importance -that need attention during service: - - 1. Lubrication. - - 2. Cleaning and adjustment of the breaker contacts. - - 3. Inspection of the wiring and the spark plugs. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS - -CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -Atwater Kent ignition systems have been adopted of late by many -prominent automobile manufacturers as a means of distributing or -conveying electrical spark to the cylinders at the proper firing time. - -This type of quick break distributing system has proved very efficient -and dependable, and will usually outlast the life of the motor as there -are very few moving parts, which eliminates troubles caused by worn -parts getting out of adjustment. - -This type of ignition system operates in much the same manner as the -high tension magneto, and differs only in that the parts have been -taken from the compact magneto case and distributed in other locations -in separate units. As this type takes its current from the lighting and -starting battery, it does not contain an armature or field magnets to -manufacture the electrical force. - -Fig. 66 illustrates the principles of operation of the type CC Atwater -Kent closed circuit system, which consists of the unisparker containing -the contact maker and distributor. The only moving parts are located -in this unit. The coil consists of a soft iron core, with a primary -and secondary winding sealed in an insulated tube or container. A -resistance unit is located in the top and regulates the current -automatically. The system is controlled by a switch located on the -dash. The contact breaker shown in Fig. 67 consists of an exceedingly -light steel contact arm. One end rests on a hardened steel cam which -rotates one-half as fast as the crank shaft. This cam has as many -sides as the engine has cylinders. When the contact points are opened -by the movement of the cam the primary circuit is broken and produces -a discharge of secondary high tension current at one of the spark plug -gaps. - -[Illustration: - - CONTACT - MAKER - - TO PLUG - - TO PLUG - - DISTRIBUTOR - - CONDENSER - - TO PLUG - - CONTACT MAKER - GROUNDED - - SPARK PLUG - - BATTERY - GROUND - - PRIMARY - - BATTERY - - GROUND - - SWITCH - - SECONDARY - - GROUND - - REGULATING - RESISTANCE - -Fig. 66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram--Type CC] - -Fig. 68 shows the simple Atwater Kent contactless distributor. The high -tension distributor of the Atwater-Kent system forms the top of the -contact maker. Each spark plug wire terminates in an electrode, which -passes through the distributor cap. A rotating distributor block takes -the high tension current from the central terminal and distributes it -to the spark plugs in proper firing order. The distributor block or arm -does not make direct contact with the distributor posts. The current -jumps the small gap between the distributor block and the terminal -electrodes and does away with frictional wear resulting from actual -contact. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Type CC] - -[Illustration: Fig. 68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block] - -Fig. 69 shows the method of connecting the high tension wires to the -distributor; the insulation is removed, or the wire bared in a space -1¹⁄₄″ long. The removable terminal cover is pushed up on the wire as -shown at A, the bared end of the wire is then passed through the hole -in the secondary terminal as shown at B. The end of this wire is then -twisted back on itself, for two complete turns as shown at C, so that -the end will not project beyond the diameter of the insulation. The -wire will then be tightly held when the terminal covers are screwed -down as shown in Fig. D. Never use pliers to tighten these covers and -do not solder the wires to the terminal posts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor] - -=Adjustment.=--The only parts of this system that are adjustable are -the contact points. These need to be adjusted only for natural wear. Do -not adjust the points unless you are convinced, by trying everything -else, that it is the points that need attention. - -In making adjustments, note the following directions. The normal gap -between the points should not be less than .005″, or more than .008″, -the standard setting is .006″, which is about the thickness of two -ordinary sheets of writing paper. - -[Illustration: - - TO UNGROUNDED - TERMINAL OF BATTERY - - SWITCH - - COIL - - DISTRIBUTOR - - GROUND - - CONTACT - MAKER - -Fig. 70. Atwater Kent Type CC Wiring Diagram] - -The contact points are made of tungsten steel, the hardest known -metal. When contact points are working properly small particles of -tungsten steel will be carried from one point to the other, which -sometimes causes a roughness and a dark gray coloring of the surfaces. -This roughness does not in any way effect the proper working of the -points, owing to the fact that the rough surfaces fit into each other -perfectly. - -It should not be necessary to file or redress the points unless they -become burned, due to some abnormal condition or accident. The dark -gray appearance is the natural color of the tungsten steel. - -=Oilings.=--A very small amount of ordinary vaseline or grease applied -to the cam and a drop or two of oil applied to the cups every few -weeks, is all the lubrication necessary. Do not get oil on the contact -points, and wipe off any free oil or grease on the contact maker. - -The springs in this system are set at exactly the right tension. Do not -try to bend or tamper with them. - -The wiring of the type CC ignition system is very simple, as shown in -Fig. 70, and is known as the one wire with ground return method. Well -insulated primary wire is used for the primary circuit between the -coil and the ignition switch. The best quality of five-sixteenth inch -secondary wire is used to conduct the high tension current from the -coil to the distributor, and from the distributor to the spark plug. - -=Setting or Timing the Type CC System.=--The piston in number one -cylinder should be raised to high dead center, between the compression -and firing strokes, the clamp which holds the unisparker should be -loosened and the unisparker turned backward, or opposite the rotating -direction of the timer shaft until the contact points commence to open. -The spark occurs at the exact instant of the opening of the point. - -After completing the electrical connection the current can be turned -on, and the unisparker timed exactly from the spark at the plugs. For -this purpose the plugs should be removed from the engine and laid on -top of the cylinders. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEM, TYPE K-2 - - -The operating principle of the Atwater Kent ignition system type K-2, -differs from type CC system in that it operates on the open circuit -plan, whereas the type CC system explained in the preceding chapter, -operates on the closed circuit plan. - -A-K ignition system type K-2 consists of three parts: - -No. 1. The unisparker combining the special contact maker, a condenser, -and a high tension distributor. - -No. 2. The coil, consisting of a simple primary and secondary winding, -and a condenser. These parts are all imbedded in a special insulating -compound. The coil has no vibrator or other moving parts. - -No. 3. The ignition switch. This switch controls the system by opening -and closing the primary current. - -=The Principle of the Atwater Kent System.=--The function of this -system is to produce a single hot spark for each power impulse of the -motor. It differs from other types of battery ignition systems in that -the contact points do not touch except during the brief instant of the -spark. The ignition circuit is, therefore, normally open, whence the -name “open circuit” results. The contact maker consists of a pair of -contact points, normally open, which are connected in series with a -battery, and the primary circuit of the non-vibrating induction coil. -The mechanism for operating the contacts consists of a notched shaft -having one notch for each cylinder, rotating at one-half the engine -speed, a lifter which is pulled forward by the rotation of the shaft, -and a coil spring which pulls the lifter back to its original position -after it has been drawn forward and released by the notched shaft; -hardened steel latch, against which the lifter strikes on its recoil -and which in turn operates the contact points. - -[Illustration: - - LATCH - - CONTACT SCREW - - NOTCHED SHAFT - - LIFTER - - CONTACT SPRING - - LIFTER SPRING - -Fig. 71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of Action--Type K-2 -System.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of -Action--Type K-2 System] - -[Illustration: Fig. 73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of -Action--Type K-2 System] - -[Illustration: Fig. 74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Diagram of -Action--Type K-2 System] - -=Operation of the Contact Maker.=--It will be noted in Fig. 71 that -the lifter is being pulled forward by the notched shaft. When pulled -forward as far as the shaft will carry it (Fig. 72), the lifter is -suddenly pulled back by the lifter spring. In returning, it strikes -against the latch, throwing this against the contact spring and closes -the contact for a brief instant. This movement is far too quick for -the naked eye to follow (Fig. 73). - -Fig. 74 shows the lifter ready to be pulled forward by the next notch. - -Note that the circuit is closed only during the brief instant of the -spark. No current can flow at any other time, not even if the switch is -left on when the motor is not running. No matter how slow or how fast -the notched shaft is turning, the lifter spring will always pull the -lifter back at exactly the same speed, so that the operation of the -contact, and therefore the spark, will always be the same no matter -how fast or how slow the engine is running. The brief instant that -the contact points touch, results in very little current consumption. -The high tension current from the coil is conveyed to the rotating -distributor block, which seats on the end of the unisparker shaft to -each of the spark plug terminals in the order of firing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block] - -The important advantage which the distributor possesses is the fact -that there are no sliding contacts or carbon brushes. The distributor -blade is so arranged that it passes close to the spark plug terminals -without quite touching (as shown in Fig. 75), thus permitting the spark -to jump the slight gap without any loss of current pressure. This also -eliminates all wear and trouble caused by sliding or rubbing contacts. - -Fig. 76 shows the wire connections and direction of current flowage. -The distributor blade is about to make contact with the terminal -leading to the spark plug in No. 2 cylinder. At the instant that -contact is made the breaker points in the contact maker shown in the -lower part of the diagram close, thus allowing a primary or low tension -current to flow between the contact maker, coil, and battery. The -sudden breaking of this current occurs when the points open again, -thereby creating a current of high tension voltage in the secondary -coil which is conducted to the center terminal of the distributor where -it is distributed to the spark plug terminals through the rotation -of the distributor blade. The high tension cables leading from the -distributor are heavily insulated, thus the current in seeking ground -return chooses the easiest path, by jumping the slight gap at the spark -plugs. - -[Illustration: - - DISTRIBUTOR - - GROUND - - COIL - - BATTERY - - CONTACT MAKER - -Fig. 76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2] - -=Setting and Timing the Unisparker.=--The type K-2 unisparker is -installed, so as to allow a small amount of angular movement or, in -other words, the socket into which the unisparker fits is provided -with a clamp which will permit it to be turned or locked in any given -position. - -=Timing.=--The piston in No. 1 cylinder is raised to high dead center -between the compression and power stroke. Then loosen the clamp which -holds the unisparker and turn the unisparker backward, or contrary to -the direction of rotation until a click is heard. This click happens -at the exact instant of the spark. Clamp the unisparker tight at this -point being careful not to change its position. Note that current for -this system is usually supplied by the starting and lighting battery. -When changing batteries be sure that the voltage of the battery is the -same as that marked on the coil. - -[Illustration: - - TO PLUGS - - TO PLUGS - - CONTACT-MAKER - - CONTACT MAKER - - SWITCH - - BAT. - - S & INT. - INT. - S. - - COIL - - INT. - INT. - SEC - - GROUND TO MOTOR - - GROUND TO MOTOR - - POS - NEG - - BATTERY - -Fig. 77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring--Cut 1, Under Hood Coil; Cut 2, Kick -Switch Coil] - -The external wiring of the A-K type K-2 is very simple, as shown in the -diagrams, Figs. 77 and 77A. Fig. 77 shows the wire connections, when -the reversing switch and under-hood coil is used. Fig. 77A shows the -connections, when using plate or kick switch coil. A well insulated -braided primary wire is used for the primary or battery circuit. See -that this wire is well protected against rubbing or abrasion wherever -it comes into contact with metal parts of the car. When the starting -and lighting battery is used to furnish the ignition current, two wires -should run directly to the battery terminals. - -The two types of Atwater Kent systems described are provided with -automatic spark advance mechanism. Provisions are also made for manual -lever control, by simply connecting the unisparker to the throttle -lever at the base of the steering gear. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance -Mechanism--A K Type K-2] - -Fig. 78 shows the automatic spark advance mechanism. It is located on -the underside of the contact maker base plate, and consists of a set -of weights which swing out from the center against spring tension, -and advances the unisparker on the shaft, according to the amount of -centrifugal action or speed of the shaft. When the shaft is not in -motion the springs draw the weights toward center, which automatically -shifts the unisparker on the shaft until the spark is in a fully -retarded position. - -=Contact Point Adjustment.=--The only adjustment aside from the initial -timing is in the contact points. They are adjustable only for natural -wear, and one adjustment should last at least six months. The contact -screw is provided with a number of shim washers against which it is -set up tight. When the points eventually become worn, they should be -dressed flat and smooth. A sufficient number of the washers should -be removed so that when the contact screw is set up tightly it will -maintain the proper gap between the points. The distance between the -contact points should be about the distance of a thin visiting card. -They should never touch when at rest. - -[Illustration: - - Oil lightly every - 1000 miles - - Oil - -Fig. 79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker--Oiling Diagram--A-K Type K-2] - -Fig. 79 shows an oiling diagram of the contact maker. The latch, -lifter, and lifter spring are not adjustable or subject to wear. They -should be well cleaned and oiled every five hundred miles. Use a light -oil and avoid getting it on the contact points. - -=The Condenser.=--The condenser of this system acts somewhat like a -shock absorber to the contact points. It absorbs the spark or arc and -makes the break in the primary current, clean and abrupt. The condenser -is very accessible, but should never be tampered with, as it does not -require any attention. - -=Testing for Ignition Trouble.=--If the engine misses without regard to -speed, test each cylinder separately by short circuiting the plug with -a screw driver, allowing a spark to jump. If all cylinders produce a -good regular spark the trouble is not with the ignition system. - -If any cylinder sparks regularly this will indicate that the ignition -system is in working order so far as the unisparker and coil are -concerned. The trouble is probably in the high tension wiring between -the distributor and plug, or in the plugs themselves. Examine the plugs -and wiring carefully. Leaky secondary wiring is frequently the cause -of missing and backfiring. - -Frequently, when high tension wires are run from the distributor to the -spark plugs through a metal tube, trouble is experienced with missing -and backfiring, which is due to induction between the various wires in -the tube. This is especially likely to happen if the main secondary -wire from the distributor to the coil runs through this tube with the -spark plug wires. - -Whenever possible the distributor wires should be separated by at least -one-half inch of space. They should be supported by bracket insulators, -rather than run through a tube. In no case should the main distributor -wire run through a conduit with other wires. - -If irregular sparking is noted at the spark plugs, examine the battery -and connections. - -If the trouble commences suddenly, it is probably due to a loose -connection in the wiring, if gradually, the battery may be weakening or -the contact points may require attention. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK IGNITION SYSTEM - -OPERATION, ADJUSTMENT AND CARE - - -The Philbrin ignition system consists of a specially designed contact -maker and interrupter, a distributor mounted on the same shaft, a -nonvibrating heat and moisture proof coil, an armored heat, moisture, -and puncture proof condenser, and a special Duplex switch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80. Philbrin Contact Maker--Point Adjustment] - -Fig. 80 shows an illustration of the Philbrin contact maker which -operates in this manner. The cam A strikes against the end of the -plunger B and forces the points together at C, and holds the contact -for approximately three and one-half degrees of the revolution of -the cam. The spark occurs simultaneously with the separation of the -contact points. The contact maker has but one adjustment; that of the -adjustable contact screw, which is in direct line with the contact -plunger. The contact points are brought together gradually by the -surface formation of the cam. When the point of ample saturation of the -coil is reached, the breaking of the contacts is instantaneous. The -duration of the spark is in proportion to the speed of the engine, but -breaking of the points is always instantaneous and entirely independent -of the engine’s speed thereby producing the required spark at all -speeds without any spark lag. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81. Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade] - -Fig. 81 shows the distributor blade mounted over the contact maker. The -distributor blade is so arranged that it clears the spark plug lead -terminals in the cover by a slight margin, and does not make actual -contact, thereby eliminating all friction due to such contacts. - -=Operation.=--Turning on the switch sets up a low tension current in -the coil and primary wire coil when the contact points close. The -sudden breaking of this current causes demagnetism of the core and the -primary coil to set up a high tension current in the secondary coil. -This current is led to the distributor blade and passes to the spark -plug terminals as the blade comes in contact range. - -The Philbrin high frequency system uses the same coil and distributor -as the single spark system. But as the circuits of the two systems are -entirely distinct and separate, they do not conflict with each other. -The high frequency system has its own condenser and interrupter located -in the switch case, and supplies a continuous flow of sparks. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82. Switch Case] - -Fig. 82 shows the interior of the switch case. This part of the -mechanism controls the interruption of the battery current. The current -is supplied to the interruptor through a polarity reverser, which -reverses the direction of the current each time the switch button is -turned. This equalizes the wear on the contact points. - -Attention is again called to the distributor blade shown in Fig. -82, which is used for both systems. Because of the shape of this -blade, there is a continuous flow of sparks after the explosive -spark has been delivered to one cylinder until the forward edge of -the distributor blade is within range of the distributing point of -the next terminal. By this action the first spark delivered to the -cylinder is an efficient one, and the follow up continues at intervals -of approximately one-thousandth of a second. These sparks are all -perfectly synchronous. - -The operation of the high frequency system does not differ in function -action from the single spark system explained on the foregoing page. -Either system may be had singly, or in duplex formation. Consequently -either the single or the double system may be encountered. When the -duplex system is used the driver has his choice and can use either -the high frequency or single spark system, by turning the rubber roll -switch on the distributor to the system indicated. - -This follow-up feature has been found particularly advantageous -for starting in cold weather, or where a poor grade of gasoline is -encountered, and in case of a poor carburetor adjustment or foul spark -plugs. The high frequency system also has the unique feature of keeping -the spark plugs clean without disintegrating the electroids, as is -often the case with the high tension magneto. - -[Illustration: Fig. 83. Duplex High Frequency Switch] - -Fig. 83 shows the Duplex switch. Ordinarily a storage battery is used -for one source of current, and a set of dry cells for the other. This -is so arranged that either source of current can be used with either -the single spark system or the high frequency system at will. One -source of current only can be used if so desired, that is, the storage -battery only or the dry cells alone. Where the source of current -is dry cells only, the single spark system is used as it is more -economical in current consumption. All of the switch contacts are of -the pressure plunger type, thereby eliminating the uncertainty of brush -contacts. Each switch is provided with a lock operating through the -hub of the lever. When the switch is locked in the off position it is -impossible to remove the cover without breaking it as the cover of the -switch locks to the back. - -Ratchet buttons select which one of the systems is to be used, by a -movement of 45°. This button operates only in a clock-wise direction. - -[Illustration: - - C-2 Circuit 2 - C-1 Circuit 1 - Bat.-1 Battery 1 - Bat.-2 Battery 2 - Sec.-Secondary - C-Circuit - Sec. Gr. Secondary Ground - - To Spark Plugs - - BAT. (SEC.) C - ( GR.) - - BAT.-2 - - BAT.-1 - - Coil - - C.R. - - Distributor - -Fig. 84. Philbrin Wiring Diagram] - -Fig. 84 shows a wiring diagram of the Philbrin system. The wire -connections come to the contact maker directly from the switch, instead -of from the coil. This provides for control of the current to the -contact maker in such a manner that if a short circuit occurs in either -of the systems, by turning a button it is entirely cut off and the -other system put into operation. - -Tungsten contact points are used on the single spark system as they are -not effected by the use of light oil. The contact points for the high -frequency system are platinum-iridium. They are mounted inside of the -switch case and need little or no attention. The contacts, due to the -reversed polarity, have an extremely long life and can be used without -attention until they are worn down to the base metal. The duel type -of system, however, may be purchased in separate units, and an owner -may choose either the high frequency system or the single spark system -separately if so desired. - -This type of ignition system is manufactured for four, six, eight, and -twelve cylindered cars. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - -ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS - -CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -A great many different types of mechanical, and compressed air starters -were devised and tried out as equipment by the manufacturers of -automobiles a few years ago. These devices were either mechanically -imperfect, or required considerable attention from the owner to keep -them in working order and have all but disappeared from the market, -being supplanted by the electrical starter, which has been perfected to -a high state of efficiency and dependability. - -The general principle of all electrical starters is much alike and -they usually operate in much the same manner. The electrical force or -current is produced by a generator driven from the engine. This current -is collected, or held in storage by chemical reproduction plates in a -storage battery. The battery, in turn, is connected to a small electric -motor carried at the side of the engine. - -=The Generator.=--The operating principle of current production of the -generator is practically the same as explained in the magneto, which -may also be termed a generator or dynamo. - -A generator consists of an iron frame, a set of magnetic field -windings, a wound armature with a commutator on the end, and a brush -which collects the current from the commutator. - -The current is induced in the armature by rotating it in a magnetic -field. The amount of voltage induced in the armature-coil depends on -its rotating speed, as the faster the armature turns, the greater -the number of magnetic field lines cut, and the greater the amount of -voltage induced in the armature coil. - -=The Regulator.=--The generator is provided with a regulator to control -the output rate of voltage when the engine is running at excess speeds. -This is necessary to prevent the higher charging rate from overcoming -the capacity of the storage battery. The regulating of the voltage -output may be accomplished by mechanical or electrical means. The -mechanical regulator usually consists of a governor which is timed to -release the armature from the drive shaft when the engine reaches a -certain rate of speed. The electrical regulator usually consists of a -reversed series of field winding which acts against the force of the -magnetic field, or of a bucking coil. - -=The Automatic Cut-out.=--All types of generators which supply current -to a storage battery are equipped with an automatic cut-out arrangement -which is entirely automatic in action and requires no attention. - -The function of the automatic cut-out is to prevent the current from -flowing back to the generator when the current production of the -generator is less than the charged strength of the storage battery. The -cut-out may be located anywhere on the conductor, between the storage -battery and the generator, and consists of a simple electro-magnet, -which is operated by the direction of current flowage. - -=One Unit System.=--The generator furnishes the current for ignition -and starting, and is also reversible to act as a starting motor. The -system is referred to as a one unit system. - -=Two Unit System.=--When the starting motor and the generator act -singly, and are contained in a separate casting, the system is referred -to as a two unit system. - -=Three Unit System.=--When the generator and starting motor are located -as a separate unit, and when the ignition current is supplied by a -magneto, this system is referred to as a three unit system. - -=The Starting Motor.=--The starting motor is constructed in the same -manner as the generator, and is simply a reversal of action. When -cranking, the current from the storage battery flows through the -motor winding and magnetizes the armature core. This acting upon the -magnetism of the frame causes the turning effort. - -=Lubrication.=--Regularly every two weeks, or every five hundred miles, -two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be dropped into the oil -wells supplying the armature bearings and usually located at each end -of the armature shaft. - -[Illustration: Fig. 85. Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine] - -=Care.=--Regularly every two weeks, inspect all connections as a full -volume of current will not flow over a loose or corroded connection. -Never allow any oil or dirt to collect on the motor or generator, as it -interferes with the terminal connection and misdirects the current, and -the instrument soon becomes inoperative. - -Fig. 85 shows the location of the two unit Bijur electrical starting -and generating system mounted on an engine. The starting motor is -bolted to the flywheel housing, and is provided with a square armature -shaft which carries a pinion which can be moved horizontally on the -shaft. This pinion meshes directly with teeth cut in the steel flywheel -ring. No intermediate gears or roller clutches are used. The control -lever connects through linkage to the shifting fork which shifts the -pinion on the square shaft of the motor. The same foot pedal linkage -operates the starting switch. Normally a spring holds the motor pinion -out of mesh with the flywheel teeth and also holds the starting switch -in the “off” position. - -=The Generator.=--The generator is bolted to an extension on the -crank case at the front side of the gas motor, and is driven by a -silent chain from the crank shaft. After the gas motor attains a speed -equivalent to a car speed of ten miles per hour on high speed, the -generator begins to generate, and will generate a current which is -highest at low speeds, and diminishes somewhat at higher speeds. - -The machines are both self-contained as there are no regulators or -automatic switches which require separate mounting. - -The automatic switch for opening and closing the circuit between the -generator and storage battery is mounted inside the generator. This -switch is properly adjusted before the generator leaves the factory, -and no further adjustments are necessary. - -Two wires lead from the generator. One of these is connected at the -starting motor to one of the heavy cables coming from the storage -battery, while the other generator wire is grounded on the chassis, -the chassis forming a part of the circuit. The generator polarity is -reversible and the connections at the machine may be made haphazard -and without regard to polarity. If connections are reversed at the -generator, no damage will result, as the machine will automatically -assume the correct polarity to charge the battery. - -Fig. 86 shows the position of the Bijur starting system, and the -relative neutral positions of starting pedal, motor pinion, and -starting switch, when the starting equipment is not in action. - -Fig. 86A shows the normal position of the various parts after the -starting pedal has been depressed and just before the starting motor -begins to operate. The pinion is now in full mesh with the flywheel -ring and further depressing the starter pedal will close the switch. - -[Illustration: - - FOOT PEDAL - - POSITION 1--OUT OF ACTION. STARTING - SWITCH OFF. PINION UP AGAINST MOTOR - HEAD. - - FLYWHEEL - - SHIFTING FORK - - STARTING SWITCH - - MOTOR SHAFT - - OIL HERE - - MOTOR - - OIL HERE - - COLLAR - - CLEVIS PIN - - SHIFTING ROD - - STOP - - SHIFTER SPRING - - RELEASE SPRING - - OIL DRAIN - KEEP THIS HOLE CLEAR - - PINION - - OIL HERE - - CRANK CASE - - POSITION 2--ABOUT TO CRANK. - GEARS HAVE MESHED BUT - SWITCH HAS NOT YET MADE CONTACT. - -Fig. 86. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action] - -Fig. 87 shows all the parts in their positions for cranking. The small -gap between the collar on the shifting rod and clevis pin permits the -switch rod to move and thus open the starting switch without moving the -motor pinion when the starting pedal is released. - -[Illustration: - - POSITION 3--CRANKING, NOTE - GAP BETWEEN COLLAR ON - SHIFTING ROD AND CLEVIS PIN. - SHIFTING FORK IS UP AGAINST - STOP AND SHIFTER SPRING IS - SLIGHTLY COMPRESSED. - - POSITION 2A--ABOUT TO CRANK. - GEARS NOT YET MESHED, TEETH - ARE BUTTING, BUT SWITCH HAS - MADE CONTACT. SHIFTER SPRING - STRONGLY COMPRESSED READY - TO DRAW PINION INTO MESH. - -Fig. 87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action] - -Fig. 87A shows the condition when on depressing the foot pedal, and -sliding the pinion on the motor shaft towards the flywheel the pinion -does not mesh with the flywheel, and the teeth butt. Depressing the -foot pedal will close the starting switch strongly compressing the -shifter spring. After the switch is closed the motor will begin to -rotate and allow the pinion to slip into mesh with the flywheel. The -motor will then crank in the normal way. - -[Illustration: - - HEAD LAMP - - MOTOR - - SWITCH TERMINAL - GROUNDED - - GENERATOR - - STARTING - SWITCH - - BATTERY - - IGNITION SWITCH - - INTERRUPTOR - AND - DISTRIBUTOR - - SPARK PLUGS - - REAR LAMP - - HORN - - COIL - - INSTRUMENT LAMP - - HEAD LAMP - - HORN BUTTON - - LIGHTING SWITCH - -Fig. 88. Wiring Diagram Model N--Hupmobile] - -Fig. 88 shows a complete diagram of the Model N Hupmobile wiring -system. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT - - -Fig. 89 shows a diagram of the Bijur lighting and starting system on -the Jeffrey “Chesterfield-six.” The generator supplies current for the -lights and charges a storage battery when the gas motor is running at -speeds equivalent to ten or more miles per hour on high gear. - -When the gas motor is running at speeds corresponding to less than -ten miles per hour, all currents for lamps are drawn from the storage -battery. - -The starting motor is in operation only during the period of starting, -and remains idle at all other times. The appliances shown in the -diagram constituting the equipment are a six volt constant voltage -generator, a six volt starting motor, starting switch, six volt hundred -ampere hour battery, lamp controller, and a high tension magneto. Due -to the reversible characteristics of the generator, no attention need -be paid to the polarity of the wiring when it is removed and again -replaced. - -The starting motor pinion meshes with teeth on the flywheel when the -starting switch mounted on the housing covering the motor pinion is -compressed. - -=Operation of System Shown in Diagram.=--After the gas motor reaches -a speed equivalent to a car speed of approximately ten miles per hour -on the third speed gear, the generator will generate and maintain a -constant voltage, or electrical pressure at higher speeds and will also -maintain this pressure constant at all loads. - -The current output from the generator at any time will depend upon the -condition of the storage battery. If a car has been left standing for -some time with the lights burning, the storage battery will become more -or less discharged and its voltage lowered. Under these conditions the -generator voltage or pressure will be higher than that of the battery, -forcing a comparatively high charging current into the battery. This -current may be from 5 to 20 amperes, and the battery will rapidly -approach the fully charged condition. - -[Illustration: - - ³⁄₈ LOOM - - N^o. 14 - - N^o. 10 - - ³⁄₈ LOOM - - N^o. 14 - - N^o. 10 - - ¹⁄₄ LOOM - - N^o. 14 - - RIGHT HEAD LIGHT - - TERMINAL POSTS - - FUSES 10 AMPERES - - NEGATIVE - - STORAGE - BATTERY - - GENERATOR - - MAGNETO - - POSITIVE - - SWITCH - - CYLINDERS - - BATT - - - LIGHTING - SWITCH - - N^o. 14 - - N^o. 14 - - BATT + - - TONNEAU LIGHT - - GROUND - - N^o. 10 - - GROUND FUSE - - MAGNETO SWITCH - - N^o. 18 DUPLEX - - N^o. 14 - - N^o. 10 - - DASH & EXTENSION - LIGHT - - AMMETER - - N^o. 0 - - HORN BUTTON - - REAR LIGHT - - HEAD LIGHT - - MOTOR - - STARTING SWITCH - - HORN - - 2⁵⁄₈ LOOM - -Fig. 89. Wiring Diagram--Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six] - -As a battery becomes charged its voltage increases reducing the -difference in pressure between the generator and battery and decreasing -the charging current to the battery. - - -ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING OPERATION - -Current from the generator passes through an ammeter and this meter -shows the current being supplied to the battery and the lights, or to -the battery only when no lights are in operation. - -=Starting Motor.=--The starting motor is provided with a square shaft -and carries a pinion which can be moved horizontally on this shaft. -This pinion meshes directly with teeth cut on the flywheel. - -The starting pedal located at the driver’s seat connects through -linkage to fork which shifts the link on the square shaft of the motor. -The same foot pedal linkage operates the starting switch. Normally a -spring holds the motor pinion out of mesh with the flywheel teeth, and -also holds the starting switch in an “off” position. - -=Operation of the Starter.=--Depressing the starter, one pedal operates -the starting switch and makes a preliminary contact which connects the -starting motor to the storage battery through a resistance located -inside of the starting switch. This resistance permits a small amount -of current to pass through the starting motor, causing its armatures -to rotate at relatively slow speed. This slow rotation insures proper -meshing of the pinion and flywheel teeth when they are brought into -engagement. Depressing the foot pedal also shifts the pinion on the -square shaft of the motor so as to bring it into contact with the teeth -on the flywheel. - -When the pinion is in full mesh with the teeth on the fly, the moving -contact in the starting switch has traveled to a position where the -resistance is cut out of the circuit, connecting the storage battery -directly to the starting motor. The starting motor will then spin the -gas motor. - -=Starting.=--First see that the necessary adjustments have been made, -then depress the starting foot pedal as far as it will go and hold it -firmly in place until the gas motor starts. The instant the gas motor -begins firing the foot pedal should be released. The starting pedal -should be pressed as far as it will go without any pausing on the -downward stroke. - -Fig. 90 shows diagram of operation and wiring of the Bijur electrical -system used on Jeffery 4-cylinder car. - -If the pinion and flywheel teeth do not mesh properly do not hold the -starting pedal down, release it and after a few seconds pause, depress -the pedal again. - -If the gas motor does not start firing promptly after spinning it with -the electric motor, do not continue to spin it, but see that the proper -adjustments for starting have been made and that there is gasoline in -the carburetor, and that the ignition is in working order. - -Continued spinning of the gas motor by the electric motor will not -damage the electrical equipment but constitutes a useless drain on the -storage battery and should be avoided. - -=Wiring.=--Fig. 90 shows the circuits for all electric appliances on -the Jeffrey-4 car. The various units are wired on the two-wire system. -The “out of focus” filaments in the head lamp bulbs are wired on the -three-wire system, the chassis acting as a neutral wire, one side of -the “out of focus” filament being grounded in the head lamps. The “in -focus” filaments are on the two-wire system. - -The dash lamp is on the tail lamp circuit and is so arranged that these -two lamps are always in operation when any combination of head lamp -filaments are in use. - -=Fuse Circuits.=--Each head lamp is separately fused, the current for -both filaments in each head lamp bulb passing through one fuse. - -[Illustration: - - GROUND TO OIL PIPE - - GROUNDED TO INSTRUMENT - ASSEMBLY - - RIGHT HEAD LIGHT - - GENERATOR - - DASH LAMP - - SWITCH - - INDICATOR - - CYLINDERS - 1 2 3 4 - - CONNECTIONS THROUGH SWITCH - IN “DIM” POSITION - - FUSE AND - JUNCTION BLOCK - - HORN - - CONNECTIONS THROUGH SWITCH - IN “ON” POSITION - - MAGNETO - - HORN BUTTON - - MOTOR - - STARTING SWITCH - - BATTERY - - WIRING FOR 6-CYLINDER MODEL - 661 IS THE SAME AS FOR 4-CYLINDER - MODEL 462, EXCEPT FOR HIGH TENSION - LEADS BETWEEN MAGNETO - AND SPARK PLUGS. - - LEFT HEAD LIGHT - - NOTE:--DOTTED LINES INDICATE PERMANENT - CONNECTIONS BETWEEN FUSE - CABINET, DASH LAMP, CURRENT INDICATOR - AND SWITCH. CONNECTIONS AS SHOWN - FACING FUSE CABINET. - - SWITCH GROUNDED - - REAR - -Fig. 90. Wiring Diagram--Jeffrey-Four] - -Separate fuses are provided for the electric horn circuit and for the -rear lamp circuit. The push button for operating the electric horn is -mounted on the center of the steering post. - -=Ground Fuse.=--A fuse is located in the ground circuit between the -lamp controller and the magneto top to ground. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91. Hydrometer Syringe] - -=Lamp Controller.=--A pair of wires from the terminals of the storage -battery connect to the five position lamp controller. All lighting -circuits connected to this controller which may be locked in any of the -five positions. - -Oiling should be practiced regularly every two weeks or every five -hundred miles. Two or three drops of thin neutral oil should be put in -each of the two oilers of the motor and in each of the two oilers of -the generator. Do not flood the bearings with oil. - -At the same time the starting motor shaft should be oiled. An oil hole -is provided in the top of the starting motor gear case and about ten -drops of cylinder oil should be used. - -Fig. 91 shows a hydrometer syringe used for determining the specific -gravity or density of the solutions in the battery cells. - -To take specific gravity readings unscrew the filler or vent plug and -insert the tube into the cell and release bulb slowly to draw the acid -solution into the chamber until the hydrometer floats. The enlarged -graduated stem shows a reading of 1.280 at the point where it emerges -from the solution. After testing, the solution must be returned to the -cell from which it was taken. Specific readings above 1200 show the -battery more than half charged. - -Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery completely discharged or run down. - -Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should be given a -long run to restore the battery. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -NORTH EAST STARTER SYSTEM USED ON DODGE BROTHERS’ CARS - - -The North East starter system shown in Fig. 91¹⁄₂ comprises the North -East Model G starter-generator and the combined starting switch and -reverse current cut-out. This equipment serves to start the engine and -provide current for the lamps and other electrical accessories as well -as for the ignition system. The battery as the source of current while -the engine is not in operation or is running slowly; but at all engine -speeds above 350 R. P. M. the starter-generator supplies current for -the entire electrical system. - -=Wiring.=--In the accompanying wiring diagrams the starting circuit -is represented by the very heavy cables; the charging circuit, where -it does not coincide with the starting circuit, by the cables of -medium weight, and the lighting and the ignition circuits by the light -cables. As will be seen from the diagrams, the starting circuit extends -from the positive terminal of the battery to the starting switch, -and thence, when the switch is closed, through the starter-generator -armature and field coils back to the negative terminal of the battery -by way of the grounded negative starter-generator terminal, the car -frame, and the battery ground connections. The charging circuit is -identical with the starting circuit except at the starting switch, -where instead of passing from one switch terminal to the other -through the switch contactor it extends through a parallel path which -includes the reverse current cut-out and the charging indicator. The -cable leading to the lighting and ignition switch is attached to the -positive terminal of the indicator. From this switch the lighting and -the ignition circuits become distinct, and each, after passing through -its proper course, reaches the car frame and returns through it to the -source of supply. - -[Illustration: - - Charging - Indicator - - Lighting & Ignition - Switch - - Dash - Lamp - - Horn - - Head Lamp - - Ground - - Tail - Lamp - - Ground - - Horn Button - - Starting Switch - and - Reverse Current - Cut-out - - Ground - - Ground - Connection - - Ground - - Head Lamp - - Battery - - Ground - - Starter-Generator - - Ground Connection - -Fig. 91¹⁄₂. Dodge Wiring Diagram] - -Without exception all the connections of the starting and lighting -system must be made as indicated in this diagram if entirely -satisfactory results are to be obtained from the equipment. - -=Starter-Generator= (Fig. 92).--The starter-generator is mounted on -the left side of the engine by means of an adjustable support and a -clamping strap. It runs at three times engine speed, operating directly -from the crank shaft through a silent chain drive. Being a single unit -machine, it employs but one armature with only one commutator, one set -of field windings and one set of brushes for the performance of all of -its functions both as a starter and as a generator. - -While starting the engine it acts as a cumulatively compounded motor; -but while serving as a generator it operates as a differentially -compounded machine with its output positively controlled through -the agency of a Third Brush Regulating system, supplemented by the -differential influence of the series field upon the shunt field. - -The machine is designed for 12 volt service and, when driven by the -engine, normally begins to deliver current to the battery as soon as -the car speed is brought up to approximately 10 miles per hour. From -this point on, the charging rate rises rapidly with increasing speed -until the standard maximum rate of 6 amperes is reached at a car speed -of 16 or 17 miles per hour. From this speed to 20 or 21 miles per -hour it remains practically constant, but above 21 miles per hour it -decreases gradually until at the upper speed limit of the engine it may -become as low as 3 amperes. - -This charging rate conforms throughout with the standard -recommendations of the battery manufacturers. The early maximum reached -by the starter-generator output provides amply for the demands of -current at ordinary driving speeds; while the tapering characteristic, -which comes into effect at high speeds, serves to protect the battery -from superfluous charging in instances where cars may be subjected to -continuous high speed service. - -[Illustration: - - FIELD COIL - - TIE ROD - - ARMATURE - - FIELD RING - - FUSE - - RETAINING PLATE - - CORK PACKING WASHER - - COMMUTATOR - - ARMATURE SHAFT - - BALL BEARING - - SPROCKET - - COMMUTATOR-END - HOUSING - - 3^{RD} BRUSH PLATE - ADJUSTING-STUD - - SPRING END-PLAY - WASHER - - BALL BEARING - LOCKING SLEEVE - - BEARING-CAP - - FELT - OILING-WASHERS - - BALL BEARING - - OIL SLINGER. - - CLAMP-SCREW - - 3^{RD} BRUSH PLATE - CLAMP - - CRIMPED SPACER - - COVER-BAND - - SPROCKET-END HOUSING - - BRUSH-HOLDER STUD - - BRUSH - - BRUSH HOLDER - -Fig. 92. North East Model G Starter-Generator] - -=Adjustment of Charging Rate.=--The third brush system is so -constructed as to permit the charging rate to be changed when desired -to a higher or to a lower value than that for which it is normally -adjusted. Such adjustments should not be attempted by the car owner -himself, and should never be made except in cases of actual necessity -where the normal charging rate does not meet the special service -conditions under which the equipment may be required to operate -permanently. In every instance where there is any reason to believe -that a modification of the rate would be beneficial, the car owner -should refer the equipment to the North East Electric Company or its -nearest branch or service station. - -=Fuse.=--The fuse is located on the commutator end of the -starter-generator. Its purpose is to protect the electrical system -if possible by rendering the starter-generator inoperative whenever -abnormal operating conditions may occur. Due to its protective function -the fuse is always the first point in the system to be inspected in -case the starter-generator ever failed to produce current. If the -fuse is found to be “blown” or missing, a new one should be applied -and the machine given a preliminary test before further search for -trouble is made. Should the generator fail to deliver current even -after a new fuse has been installed or should the new fuse “blow” when -the machine is in operation, the entire electrical system should then -be inspected thoroughly for possible faults such as open circuits, -improper connections or abnormal grounds. Under such circumstances the -difficulty should always be corrected before any further attempt is -made to operate the equipment. - -=Precautions Necessary for the Operation Without Battery in -Circuit.=--The third brush regulating system requires a closed -charging circuit for the successful performance of its duties. The -battery, therefore, forms an indispensable link in the system and its -presence in circuit is always essential to the proper operation of -the starter-generator. Should the machine ever have to be operated -with the battery disconnected or with the charging circuit otherwise -incomplete, the electrical system must be protected by rendering the -machine inoperative. This is to be done by removing the fuse from its -clips. - -When the starter-generator thus rendered incapable of producing -current, no ignition current will be available from the usual sources. -Under such circumstances, therefore, the engine cannot be operated -without some provisional source of ignition current. A battery of nine -or ten dry cells will serve satisfactorily as a temporary substitute -provided they are used for ignition only. - -=Starting Switch and Reverse Current Cut-out.=--The reverse current -cut-out is located in the same case with the starting switch. This -combined switch and cut-out is mounted near the center of the toe-board -where the switch push-rod button is within convenient reach from the -driver’s seat. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV - -THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM--BUICK CARS - - -The motor generator which is located on the right side of the engine -is the principal part of the Delco System. This consists essentially -of a dynamo with two field windings, and two windings on the armature -with two commutators and corresponding sets of brushes, in order that -the machine may work both as a starting motor, and as a generator for -charging the battery and supplying the lights, horn and ignition. The -ignition apparatus is incorporated in the forward end of the motor -generator. This in no way affects the working of the generator, it -being mounted in this manner simply as a convenient and accessible -mounting. The motor generator has three distinct functions to perform -which are as follows: - - 1.--Motoring the generator. - 2.--Cranking the engine. - 3.--Generating electrical energy. - -Motoring the generator is accomplished when the ignition button on the -switch is pulled out. This allows current to come from the storage -battery through the ammeter on the combination switch, causing it to -show a discharge. The first reading of the meter will be much more -than the reading after the armature is turning freely. The current -discharging through the ammeter during this operation is the current -required to slowly revolve the armature and what is used for the -ignition. The ignition current flows only when the contacts are closed, -it being an intermittent current. The maximum ignition current is -obtained when the circuit is first closed and the resistance unit -on the front end of the coil is cold. The current at this time is -approximately 6 amperes, but soon decreases to approximately 3¹⁄₂ -amperes. Then as the engine is running it further decreases until at -1000 revolutions of the engine it is approximately 1 ampere. - -[Illustration: - - LEAD TO SWITCH. - - TO SHUNT FIELD. - - IGNITION COIL. - - RESISTANCE UNIT. - - TO THIRD BRUSH. - - TO POS. BATTERY. - - DIS. HEAD LOCATING TONGUE. - - TO NO 1 TERMINAL. - - TO NO 2 TERMINAL. - - BRUSH OPERATING ROD. - - OILER A. - - TO STARTING PEDAL. - - STARTING GEARS. - - A - - FIELD COIL. - - OILER B. - - DISTRIBUTOR - SHAFT GEAR. - - FLY WHEEL. - - PUMP SHAFT. - - ARMATURE. - - LUBRICATOR C. - - GENERATOR - CLUTCH. - - ROLLER BEARING. - - BALL BEARING. - - OIL DRAIN. - - ONE WAY CLUTCH BUILT IN - THIS GEAR. - - MOTOR COMMUTATOR. - - GENERATOR COMMUTATOR. - -Fig. 93. Delco Motor Generator--Showing Parts] - -This motoring of the generator is necessary in order that the starting -gears may be brought into mesh, and should trouble be experienced -in meshing these gears, do not try to force them, simply allow the -starting pedal to come back giving the gears time to change their -relative positions. - -A clicking sound will be heard during the motoring of the generator. -This is caused by the overrunning of the clutch in the forward end of -the generator which is shown in Fig. 93. - -The purpose of the generator clutch is to allow the armature to revolve -at a higher speed than the pump shaft during the cranking operation -and permitting the pump shaft to drive the armature when the engine is -running on its own power. A spiral gear is cut on the outer face of -this clutch for driving the distributor. This portion of the clutch -is connected by an Oldham coupling to the pump shaft. Therefore its -relation to the pump shaft is always the same and does not throw the -ignition out of time during the cranking operation. - -The cranking operation takes place when the starting pedal is fully -depressed. This causes the top motor brush to come in contact with the -motor commutator. As this brush arm lowers, it comes in contact with -the gear in the generator brush arm raising the generator brush from -its commutator. At the same time the current from the storage battery -flows through the heavy series field winding, motor brushes and motor -winding on the armature. The switching in this circuit is accomplished -by means of the top motor brush which is operated from the starting -pedal. (Shown in Fig. 94). - -This cranking operation requires a heavy current from the storage -battery, and if the lights are on during the cranking operation, the -heavy discharge from the battery causes the voltage of the battery -to decrease enough to cause the lights to grow dim. This is noticed -especially when the battery is nearly discharged; it also will be more -apparent with a stiff motor or with a loose or poor connection in the -battery circuit. It is on account of this heavy discharge current that -the cranking should not be continued any longer than is necessary, -although a fully charged battery will crank the engine for several -minutes. - -[Illustration: - - _BRUSH OPERATING ROD_ - - _MOTOR BRUSH_ - - _GENERATOR BRUSH_ - - _GENERATOR - COMMUTATOR_ - - _MOTOR COMMUTATOR_ - - _THIRD BRUSH_ - - _PLATE SLOTTED TO PERMIT - THIRD BRUSH ADJUSTMENT_ - -Fig. 94. Delco Motor Generator--Diagram of Operation] - -During the cranking operation the ammeter will show a discharge. This -is the current that is used both in the shunt field winding and the -ignition current; the ignition current, being an intermittent current -of comparatively low frequency, will cause the ammeter to vibrate -during the cranking operation. If the lights are on the meter will -show a heavier discharge. - -The main cranking current is not conducted through the ammeter, as this -is a very heavy current and it would be impossible to conduct this -heavy current through the ammeter and still have an ammeter that is -sensitive enough to indicate accurately the charging current and the -current for lights and ignition. - -As soon as the engine fires the starting pedal should be released -immediately, as the overrunning motor clutch is operating from the time -the engine fires until the starting gears are out of mesh. Since they -operate at a very high speed, if they are held in mesh for any length -of time, there is enough friction in this clutch to cause it to heat -and burn out the lubricant. There is no necessity for holding the gears -in mesh. - -The motor clutch operates between the flywheel and the armature pinion -for the purpose of getting a suitable gear reduction between the motor -generator and the flywheel. It also prevents the armature from being -driven at an excessively high speed during the short time the gears are -meshed after the engine is running on its own power. - -This clutch is lubricated by the grease cup A, shown in Fig. 93. This -forces grease through the hollow shaft to the inside of the clutch. -This cup should be given a turn or two every week. - -When the cranking operation is finished the top brush is raised off -the commutator when the starting pedal is released. This throws the -starting motor out of action (Fig. 94). The top brush comes in contact -with the generator commutator, and the armature is driven by the -extension of the pump shaft. - -At speeds above approximately 7 miles per hour the generator voltage -is higher than the voltage of the storage battery which causes -current to flow from the generator winding through the ammeter in the -charge direction to the storage battery. As the speed increases up to -approximately 20 miles per hour this charging current increases, but -at the higher speeds the charging current decreases. - -=Lubrication.=--There are five places to lubricate the Delco System: - - 1. The grease clutch for lubricating the motor clutch. - - 2. Hole at B (Fig. 93) for supplying cup grease for lubricating the - generator clutch and forward armature bearing. - - 3. The oiler C in the rear end cover for lubricating the bearing on - the armature shaft. This should receive a few drops of oil once a - week. - - 4. The oil hole in the distributor at A (Fig. 93) for lubricating the - top bearing of the distributor shaft. This should receive oil once a - week - - 5. This is the inside of the distributor head. This should be - lubricated with a small amount of vaseline, carefully applied two or - three times during the first 2000 miles running of the car, after - which it will require no attention. This is to secure a burnished - track for the rotor brush on the distributor head. This grease should - be sparingly applied and the head wiped clean from dust and dirt. - -The combination switch (Figs. 95 and 96) is for the purpose of -controlling the lights, ignition, and the circuit between the generator -and the storage battery. The button next to the ammeter controls both -the ignition and the circuit between the generator and the storage -battery, the latter circuit being shown in the heavier line as shown -on the circuit diagram (Fig. 98). The button next to this controls the -head lights. The next button controls the auxiliary lamps in the head -lights. The button on the left controls the cowl and tail lights. - -The circuit breaker is mounted on the combination switch as shown in -Fig. 96. This is a protective device, which takes the place of a fuse -block and fuses. It prevents the discharging of the battery or damage -to the switch or wiring to the lamps, in the event of any of the wires -leading to these becoming grounded. As long as the lamps are using the -normal amount of current the circuit breaker is not affected. But in -the event of any of the wires becoming grounded an abnormally heavy -current is conducted through the circuit breaker, thus producing a -strong magnetism which attracts the pole piece and opens the contacts. -This cuts off the flow of current which allows the contacts to close -again and the operation is repeated, causing the circuit breaker to -pass an intermittent current and give forth a vibrating sound. - -[Illustration: Fig. 95. Delco Ignition Switch Plate] - -[Illustration: - - Circuit Breaker - - Numbers of Lower Terminals - -Fig. 96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker--Mounted] - -It requires 25 amperes to start the circuit breaker vibrating, but -once vibrating a current of three to five amperes will cause it to -continue to operate. - -In case the circuit breaker vibrates repeatedly, do not attempt to -increase the tension of the spring, as the vibration is an indication -of a ground in the system. Remove the ground and the vibration will -stop. - -The ammeter on the right side of the combination switch is to indicate -the current that is going to or coming from the storage battery with -the exception of the cranking current. When the engine is not running -and current is being used for lights, the ammeter shows the amount of -current being used and the ammeter hand points to the discharge side, -as the current is being discharged from the battery. - -When the engine is running above generating speeds and no current is -being used for lights or horn, the ammeter will show charge. This -is the amount of current that is being charged into the battery. If -current is being used for lights, ignition and horn, in excess of the -amount that is being generated, the ammeter will show a discharge as -the excess current must be discharged from the battery, but at all -ordinary speeds the ammeter will read charge. - -The ignition coil is mounted on top of the motor generator as shown -in Fig. 94 and is what is generally known as the ignition transformer -coil. In addition to being a plain transformer coil it has incorporated -in it a condenser (which is necessary for all high tension ignition -systems) and has included on the front end an ignition resistance unit. - -The coil proper consists of a round core of a number of small iron -wires. Wound around this and insulated from it is the primary winding. -The circuit and arrangement of the different parts are shown in Fig. -97. The primary current is supplied through the combination switch -through the primary winding and resistance through the coil, to the -distributor contacts. This is very plainly shown in Fig. 98. It is the -interrupting of this primary current by the timer contacts together -with the action of the condenser which causes a rapid demagnetization -of the iron core of the coil that induces the high tension current -in the secondary winding. This secondary winding consists of several -thousand turns of very fine copper wire, the different layers of which -are well insulated from each other and from the primary winding. One -end of the secondary winding is grounded and the other end terminates -at the high tension terminal about midway on top of the coil. It is -from this terminal that the high tension current is conducted to the -distributor where it is distributed to the proper cylinders by the -rotor shown in Fig. 98. - -[Illustration: - - Connects - To Switch - - High Tension Wire - To Center Of Distributor - - Connects To - Distributor - - Primary - Winding - - Resistance - Unit - - Secondary - Winding - - Iron Core - - Condenser - - Coil Bracket Must Be Grounded - -Fig. 97. Delco Ignition Coil] - -The distributor and timer, together with the ignition coil, spark -plugs, and wiring, constitute the ignition system. - -The proper ignition of an internal combustion engine consists of -igniting the mixture in each cylinder at such a time that it will be -completely burned at the time the piston reaches dead center on the -compression stroke. A definite period of time is required from the time -the spark occurs at the spark plug until the mixture is completely -expanded. It is therefore apparent, that, as the speed of the engine -increases, the time the spark occurs must be advanced with respect to -the crank shaft, and it is for this reason that the Delco ignition -systems are fitted with an automatic spark control. - -[Illustration: - - CIRCUIT BREAKER - - AMMETER - - COWL LIGHT - - RESISTANCE UNIT - - SWITCH - - BRUSH SWITCHES - OPERATED BY - STARTING PEDAL - - CONDENSER - - IGNITION COIL - - TONNEAU - LIGHT - - HEAD - LIGHTS - - SERIES FIELD - - ROTOR FOR DISTRIBUTING - HIGH TENSION CURRENT - - MOTOR - - GENERATOR - - TAIL LIGHT - - STORAGE - BATTERY - - SHUNT - FIELD - - TO SPARK PLUGS - - DISTRIBUTOR - - ADVANCE - TUNGSTEN - TIMING - CONTACTS - - AUX - LIGHT - - HORN BUTTON - IN WHEEL - -Fig. 98. Delco Wiring Diagram--Buick Cars] - -The quality of the mixture and the amount of compression are also -factors in the time required for the burning to be complete. Thus a -rich mixture burns quicker than a lean one. For this reason the engine -will stand more advance with a half open throttle than with a wide open -throttle, and in order to secure the proper timing of the ignition due -to these variations and to retard the spark for starting, idling and -carburetor adjusting, the Delco distributor also has a manual control. - -[Illustration: - - Rotor Button - - Rotor - - Breaker Cam - - Timing Adjustment - - Automatic Weights - - Advance Lever - -Fig. 99. Delco Ignition Distributor] - -The automatic feature of this distributor is shown in Figs. 99 and -100. With the spark lever set at the running position on the steering -wheel (which is nearly all the way down on the quadrant), the automatic -feature gives the proper spark for all speeds excepting a wide open -throttle at low speeds, at which time the spark lever should be -slightly retarded. When the ignition is too far advanced it causes loss -of power and a knocking sound within the engine. With too late a spark -there is a loss of power which is usually not noticed except by an -experienced driver or one very familiar with the car and heating of the -engine and excessive consumption of fuel is the result. - -The timer contacts shown at D and C (Fig. 100) are two of the most -important points of an automobile. Very little attention will keep -these in perfect condition. These are tungsten metal, which is -extremely hard and requires a very high temperature to melt. Under -normal conditions they wear or burn very slightly and will very seldom -require attention; but in the event of abnormal voltage, such as would -be obtained by running with the battery removed, or with the ignition -resistance unit shorted out, or with a defective condenser, these -contacts burn very rapidly and in a short time will cause serious -ignition trouble. _The car should never be operated with the battery -removed._ - -[Illustration: - - 3 AUTOMATIC - WEIGHTS - - DISTRIBUTOR - CONTACT BREAKER - CAM - -Fig. 100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer] - -It is a very easy matter to check the resistance unit by observing -its heating when the ignition button is out and the contacts in the -distributor are closed. If it is shorted out it will not heat up, and -will cause missing at low speeds. - -A defective condenser such as will cause contact trouble will cause -serious missing of the ignition. Therefore, any of these troubles are -comparatively easy to locate and should be immediately remedied. - -These contacts should be so adjusted that when the fiber block B is -on top of one of the lobes of the cam, the contacts are opened the -thickness of the gauge on the distributor wrench. Adjust contacts -by turning contact screw C, and lock nut N. The contacts should be -dressed with fine emery cloth so that they meet squarely across the -entire face. - -The rotor distributes the high tension current from the center of the -distributor to the proper cylinder. Care must be taken to see that the -distributor head is properly located, otherwise the rotor brush will -not be in contact with the terminal at the time the spark occurs. - -The distributor head and rotor should be lubricated as described under -the heading “Lubrication.” The amount of ignition current required -for different speeds is described under the heading “Motoring the -Generator.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI - -STORAGE BATTERY - -CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND CARE - - -The modern storage battery does not produce or generate electrical -force. It was designed to carry an extra supply of current in storage -to operate lighting and starting systems, and in most cases the current -required for ignition is drawn from this supply. - -[Illustration: - - Terminal Post - - Cell Retainer Case - - Cell Jar - - Negative Plate - - Separator - - Positive Plate - -Fig. 101. Storage Battery, Sectional View] - -A storage battery is also called an accumulator, as it accumulates and -retains a charge of electrical current for future use. - -Fig. 101 illustrates a storage battery with a section of the cell -retainer case removed to show the location of the cells, their -respective order, terminal posts and connections. A section of the -cell jar, has also been removed to show the core, which consists of a -set of positive and negative plates. The positive plates are inserted -between the negative plates and are held in this position through their -respective connections to the positive and negative terminal posts. -The cell retainer-jars are made of zinc or rubber, and contain an acid -and water solution called electrolyte into which the core is entirely -immersed. - -=The Positive and Negative Plates.=--The plates are held from direct -contact with each other by a wood or rubber separator. These plates -are formed with small sectional compartments called grids, into which -a lead compound in paste form is pressed. The positive plates are made -of lead oxide (zinc), and are dark gray in color, while the negative -plates are made of pure lead, and are light gray in color. - -=Cells.=--The cells are connected up in series, that is, the positive -terminal post of one cell is connected to the negative terminal post -of the next cell, forming a direct path through the cell arrangement. -Each cell will retain a two-volt pressure until fully discharged. The -voltage of a battery is determined by adding the number of two-volt -cells that it contains. - -=Amperage.=--The standard type of storage battery shown in Fig. 102 is -composed of three two-volt cells which form a six-volt unit of sixty -ampere hours, which means that a fully charged battery will deliver -one ampere per hour for sixty hours. This, also, is about the rate of -amperage consumed by the modern battery ignition system. - -=Electrolyte Solution.=--The electrolyte solution is composed of a -mixture of one part of sulphuric acid added to four to six parts of -water. This solution is poured into the cell through the filler cap, -until the plates are covered from one-fourth to one-half inch in depth -as shown in Fig. 102. - -Care should always be exercised to keep the air vent in the filler -cap free from grease and dirt in order that the gases formed through -evaporation may escape. - -=Battery Charging.=--The cells are charged by passing a direct current -through them, which causes a chemical action to take place as the -current flows in, changing the nature of the positive and negative -plates, thereby retaining a current force equal to the difference of -the changed nature of the plates. The battery is entirely discharged -when the plates become alike in nature. - -[Illustration: - - Unscrew - this Cap - - Fill up to - this Point - - SOLUTION - - Don’t fill - above - this Point - - PLATE - -Fig. 102. Storage Battery, Sectional View] - -=Storage Battery Care and Maintenance.=--Regularly once every week -during the summer, and every two weeks during the winter, add water to -each of the three cells of the battery, until the tops of the plates -are covered. Use water only; never add acid of any kind. Water for -battery purposes should be distilled fresh rain or melted ice, and must -be free from alkali, iron, or other impurities. The battery should be -kept clean and free from dirt. Use only clean non-metallic vessels for -handling and storing water for battery purposes. - -The state of charge of a battery is indicated by the specific gravity -or density of the solution. Fig. 103 shows a hydrometer syringe used -for taking specific gravity readings. The filler or vent plug in the -top of the cell is removed and the rubber tube of the hydrometer -syringe inserted into the cell so that the end of the tube is below the -solution. Then squeeze the rubber bulb slowly, drawing the solution -into the acid chamber until the hydrometer floats. - -[Illustration: Fig. 103. Hydrometer Syringe] - -The reading on the graduator stem at the point where it emerges from -the solution is the specific gravity or density of the solution. - -Fig. 103 shows an enlarged section of the hydrometer floating so that -the reading of the graduated scale is 1.280 at the point where it -emerges from the solution. This is the specific gravity or density of -the solution. - -After testing, the solution must be returned to the cell from which it -was taken. - -Never take specific gravity readings immediately after adding water to -the cells. - -The specific gravity readings are expressed in “points,” thus the -difference between 1.275 and 1.300 is 25 points. - -When all the cells are in good condition the specific gravity will be -approximately the same in all cells and the difference should not be -greater than 25 to 30 points. - -With a fully charged battery the specific gravity of the solution will -be from 1.280 to 1.300. - -Specific gravity readings above 1.200 indicates that the battery is -more than half charged. - -Specific gravity readings below 1.200, but above 1.150 indicates -battery less than half charged. - -Gravity below 1.150 indicates battery discharged or run down. - -Should the gravity fall below 1.150 the gas motor should be given a -long run with all lights turned off, to restore the battery. - -This condition may result from leaving a car standing for prolonged -periods with all lights in use and insufficient running of the gas -motor in between these periods to replace the current taken to supply -the lights. - -When the specific gravity shows the battery to be half discharged, -the lights should be used sparingly until the gravity rises to -approximately 1.275. - -If the specific gravity in one cell is much lower than that of -the others, and if successive readings show the difference to be -increasing, this indicates that the cell is not in good order. - -If one cell regularly requires more water than the others (continually -lowering the specific gravity), a leaky jar is indicated. Leaky jars -should be replaced immediately. - -If there is no leak and the specific gravity falls 50 to 75 points -below that of the other cells in the battery, an internal short circuit -is indicated and should be remedied. - -=Battery to Remain Idle.=--Where a battery is to remain out of active -service for a long period, it may be kept in good condition by giving -it a freshening charge at least once a month, by running the gas motor -idle. - -When a battery has been out of service for some time it should be given -a thorough charge before it is placed in service again. - -If the gas motor cannot be run to give a freshening charge, the battery -should be taken from the car and placed at a garage, which makes a -business of charging storage batteries. It can be charged at least once -a month. This charge should be 4 and ³⁄₄ to 5 amperes for twenty-four -hours. - -=Battery Freezing.=--In order to avoid freezing, a battery should be -kept in a fully charged condition, as a fully charged battery will not -freeze except at extreme temperatures. As a battery discharges the -specific gravity of the solution decreases, and the specific gravity of -a fully discharged battery will be approximately 1.120. Batteries of -this low gravity will freeze at 20° F. above zero, whereas, the density -of the solution in a battery approximately three-quarters charged will -be 1.260, and a solution of this density will not freeze until 60° F. -below zero. - -_See_ Accumulator. Chapter 14, Electrical Dictionary--Function and -Chemical Action. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII - -SPARK PLUGS AND CARE - - -Some definite knowledge of spark plug construction quality, and care, -will be found very useful to the average motorist in purchasing new -plugs, and keeping those in present use, in good condition. A good -plug properly constructed should outlast the life of the motor. When -purchasing new plugs, first examine the old plug and get one of the -same length. This is very important as spark plugs are made in as many -different lengths as required by high and low compression motors. High -compression motors have a small low walled combustion chamber, while -low compression motors usually have a spacious high wall chamber and -require a longer plug, whereas if the long plug is used in the high -compression motor it may be put out of commission by the ascending -piston. Next determine the size of the plug and the gauge of the -thread. The majority of motors use the ³⁄₄ inch plug, with the S. A. -E. thread, while a few still use the A. L. A. M. thread which is much -finer gauged. Another point to be remembered is that it is an unwise -expenditure to purchase cheap plugs because the intense heat and -pressure that they are subjected to and required to stand, demands that -they be made of the highest quality of material and workmanship. - -[Illustration: Fig. 104. Spark Plug] - -Fig. 104 shows the sectional construction of a spark plug costing -from one dollar to one dollar and fifty cents. No. 1, the terminal, -is designed to fit all connections. No. 2 nut which holds electroids -firmly in place. No. 3 represents round edged shoulders which prevent -the plug from short circuiting on the outside. No. 4 is a heavy -electroid which will not break or burn. No. 5 is an extra heavy -insulator which insures a good spark in case the outer porcelain -insulator becomes broken or cracked. No. 6 is a bushing which holds -the insulator firmly in place from the top. No. 7 is a high compression -washer which allows for upward expansion and makes an even seat -for the bushing which holds the insulator in position. No. 8 is a -massive porcelain insulator designed to withstand a high temperature -without cracking. No. 9 is a copper asbestos washer that allows for -the downward expansion of the insulator. No. 10 is the shell casting -which holds and protects the insulator. No. 11 are rounded corners -which will allow the plug to be screwed down flush without coming into -contact with the curved walls of the cup containers. No. 12 is a high -compression washer which prevents all leakage. No. 13 shows elastic -cement which strengthens the lower construction of the insulator and -prevents the compression from escaping through the center of the -insulator. No. 14 is a hardened polished steel tipped electroid. No. -15 is a bent polished steel electroid dipped on each side of the spark -in order to prevent oil from running down from the shell casting and -closing the spark gap. No. 16 represents an extended center electroid -which prevents any oil that may have lodged on it from stopping at the -spark gap. - -=Spark Plug Cleaning.=--To insure a smooth running motor and a good -spark, the spark plugs should be cleaned at thirty day intervals. It -is not always necessary to disassemble them at this time as the carbon -usually collects and bakes on the metal casting shell and can be -removed by running a thin knife blade or finger nail file around the -inner surface. However, when the insulator becomes pitted or carbon -burnt the plug should be disassembled and the insulator wiped clean -with a cloth dampened in kerosene. Never immerse the insulator in -kerosene, as this will loosen the cement around the center electroid -and cause the plug to leak compression. The shell may be immersed. It -is then wiped dry and the inside surfaces scraped or rubbed with a -piece of sand or emery paper to dislodge the carbon pits. After all -parts have been thoroughly dried the plug is reassembled, using new -washers. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII - -CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE - - -The clutch used in automobile construction of the present day becomes a -necessary part of the equipment upon the adoption by manufacturers of -the progressive and selective types of sliding gear transmissions. - -When the engine is started the clutch is “in,” that is, in contact -with the flywheel, and all parts of the clutch revolve with it at the -same speed. The shaft on which the clutch is mounted extends into the -transmission gear case, but as the transmission gears are in a neutral -position, the movement of the car is not affected. - -When the car is to be started the clutch foot pedal (usually on the -left side of the steering column) is pressed down. This throws the part -attached to the drive shaft out of contact with the part attached to -the flywheel, and in its backward movement it comes into contact with -the clutch brake, as shown in Fig. 105, which stops it from revolving. -The hand gear control lever is shifted into the first speed slot or -position. The pressure on the foot pedal is then gradually released and -the clutch is carried in by spring tension, and the car moves off at -first speed. - -=Second Speed.=--The clutch is thrown “out” after a brief lapse of -three to five seconds has been allowed for the brake to slow up -rotation in order that the gears to be meshed will be rotating at the -same speed. The hand control lever is now shifted into the second speed -slot, and the clutch pedals released. - -=High Speed or Direct Drive.=--The clutch is thrown out and a few -seconds allowed for it to slow up. The hand control lever is shifted -into the high speed slot, which connects the drive or propeller shaft -directly to the clutch shaft and the car is driven at crank shaft speed -when the clutch is let in. - -=Reverse.=--The clutch is employed in the same manner. However, the -motion of the car, the clutch and all gears must be at a stand still -before the gear control lever is shifted to the reverse speed slot, as -the gears in the transmission operate in the opposite direction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 105. Cone Clutch and Brake] - - -OPERATION - -A clutch always consists of two parts, one part which is attached to -the flywheel, and another part which operates on or against the part -formed by the flywheel. - -While there are five to seven different types of clutches, but two -types are used by the majority of automobile manufacturers. The single -or multiple disc clutch is used almost exclusively in unit power plant -construction, while the cone type is used when the transmission is -carried in a separate unit. - -Fig. 105 shows the cone clutch with its three adjusting springs and -clutch brake. The cone is shown in a lighter color than the flywheel. -It has a funnel-shaped surface with a slant or angle of from thirty to -thirty-eight degrees. The slanted surface is faced with leather and -fits into the rim of the flywheel which has been ground to the same -slant. The cone clutch is not attached to the flywheel but forms a -part and revolves with it when the faces are in contact. The cone is -carried on a separate short shaft which extends into the transmission -case. This shaft carries a steel plate or disc at the front end to -which the cone which slides on the shaft is anchored by studs extending -from the plate through the cone. The studs usually number three or -four and carry a two to three inch spring on the outer end back of the -cone. The cone is backed out of contact with the flywheel face, against -the tension of these springs, in a toggle leverage connected to the -foot pedal. The clutch brake shown in Fig. 105 is adjustable and makes -contact with the rim of the cone retarding the rotation when the cone -is drawn out of contact with the flywheel. - -=Cone Clutch Care.=--The leather face of the cone should receive 5 to 7 -drops of Neat’s foot oil every thirty days. A grease cup will be found -on the cone which provides lubrication for the shaft on which the cone -slides. This should be given a half turn every second day. - -=Cone Clutch Adjustment.=--The three studs extending through the -cone, have a lock nut adjustment on the outer end, and the cone may -be adjusted up to make a stronger face contact by loosening the lock -nut and turning the inner nut to the right. This strengthens the -spring tension and causes the contact faces to set more firmly. This -adjustment, however, should take place only when clutch slipping is -noted. Only a little movement of the nuts is necessary, and all three -or four nuts should be taken up a like amount in order to prevent the -cone from running out of line or making uneven contact. - -Fig. 106 shows the multiple disc clutch used almost exclusively in -connection with the unit power plant. This type of clutch consists of -a set of plates attached and driven by the flywheel, and another set -of plates or thin discs attached to the drive shaft. The drive shaft -plates operate between the flywheel plates. The contact is frictional -and the plates are held together by spring tension. - -[Illustration: Fig. 106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and -Transmission] - - -BORG AND BECK CLUTCH - -The new Borg and Beck Clutch is provided with a thrust bearing at the -inner end of the clutch sleeve, which does away with the friction -between the parts, and eliminates the need of a clutch brake. - -The clutch is mounted in the customary way in a housing which contains -both the flywheel and the clutch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107. Borg and Beck Clutch] - -Referring to the sectional view, Fig. 107, the action of the clutch -is clear if it is kept in mind that among the rotatable parts only -the driven group, comprising of the disk A and the shaft B, can stand -still when the flywheel is running. All the other rotatable parts are -anchored to the flywheel, and must revolve and drive with the latter. -The clutch brake was formerly mounted at the inner end of the clutch -shaft, and has been replaced by the thrust bearing shown at C. - -When the clutch is disengaged there is no friction between the shaft -B, and the throw out sleeve D. The thrust bearing takes the rotating -drag of the clutch shaft, thereby eliminating the necessity for a brake -to check the spinning action. The friction and power action is readily -understood as, when the clutch is thrown in, all the rotating parts are -friction locked into a single combination and revolve as one with the -flywheel. - -The power of the release clutch spring E, acting through the -throwout-collar F, and the bell crank pivot G, drives the thrust shoes -outwardly with a lever wedge toggle combination of powers against the -overhanging, inward beveled face to the thrust ring H, since the parts -on which they are mounted are backed against the cover wall or rigid -end of the clutch casing. It therefore follows that the full part -shafting effect of the thrust is communicated to the thrust ring H, and -the latter, in being driven hard toward the flywheel, sets up between -itself and the inner casing wall a friction grip sufficiently powerful -to stop the slippage of the asbestos rings upon the polished faces of -the discs, thus giving the drive to the car. - -When the pedal is depressed to release the clutch, the retracing parts -telescope the coil of the spring E, until it occupies nearly a single -plane. The withdrawing parts also release the clutch shoes a sufficient -distance from the face of the thrust ring H to permit the latter, -together with its companion friction ring, to back away from the disc, -thus breaking the friction grip and permitting it to come to a stop, -while the flywheel and the parts of the clutch anchored to it are left -free to revolve idly. - -The release disc A is so light that its spinning does not continue -except for a very short time and does not offer any clashing action -on the gears. The full thrust of the spring transmitted through the -powerful lever toggle action to the friction grip parts is always -sufficient to lock the driving flywheel parts, and the driven disc, -into a fixed nonslipping relation for a full driving action; but it -is still always within control of the driver, through the foot lever, -to let the clutch into engagement by degrees, and thus by a gradual -increase of the friction grip, gradually overcome the starting slippage. - -=Adjustments.=--Taking up adjustments are provided by means of bolts -acting through adjustment slots in the cover. When the bolts are -loosened and shifted in their cover slots, they control and shift -with them an adjustment ring which brings all the shoes to new seats -against the nonslipping thrust ring and these seats being farther up -the inclines of the tapered ring, the ring is necessarily thrust much -farther toward the other friction parts, thus compensating the wear. - -The adjustment for throw-out can be controlled by taking up the -friction grip adjustment, the latter being identical with the take up -adjustment just described, as these too are taken care of by the same -mechanical means to make the adjustment on the clutch. - -=Disc Clutch Cleaning; Dry Plate.=--Dry plate clutches do not require -any oil, except that the grease cups (which provide lubrication for the -sleeve shaft and bearings) be filled weekly and given a half turn every -second day. The housing and plates should be cleaned whenever slipping -becomes noticeable. To do this remove the cover from the housing, -and the drain plug from the bottom, hold the clutch out, and squirt -kerosene over the plates with a dope gun. This will remove the grease -from the plates, and also any dirt or grit that may have lodged in the -bottom of the housing. - -=Disc Clutch Cleaning; Wet Plate.=--The wet plate clutch is cleaned in -the same manner as the dry plate, except that the plug is first removed -from the bottom of the housing and the oil drained off before using the -kerosene. After the plates and housing have been cleaned, replace the -drain plug and fill the housing up to the clutch shaft with a heavy -cylinder oil. - - -CONE CLUTCH CLEANING - -Cone clutches are always in perfect condition when leaving the factory -and should not require any further attention during the first season or -for eight to ten thousand miles of service. - -After that it is usually necessary to replace the leather, or reline -the cone, which makes it as good and as serviceable as when it was new. - -=New Clutch Leathers.=--New clutch leathers may be obtained from the -manufacturer, or from the service station, by giving the number and -model of the car. New clutch leathers obtained in this way are cut, -shaped, and have the ends cemented, and are ready to be slipped on -or off, over the cone and riveted into place. However, the leather -must first be soaked in water or Neat’s foot oil to make it soft and -pliable. This allows it to be driven or stretched over the cone. The -rivets must be counter-sunk to prevent the heads from extending above -the top surface of the leather, which would cause the clutch to “grab” -or jerk upon being engaged. - -[Illustration: Fig. 108. Cone Clutch Leathers--Pattern--Cutting] - -=Measuring and Cutting Clutch Leathers.=--Whenever possible it is -advisable to purchase clutch leathers cut and cemented, ready to -put on. But in case of emergency or when the proper size cannot -be obtained, a new leather may be cut from a piece of leather -three-sixteenth of an inch in thickness using the old leather as a -pattern. But in case the old leather is not available to serve as a -pattern, proceed in the following manner which is illustrated in Fig. -108, which shows how to make an exact pattern out of paper without -going into technicalities. Take a piece of heavy wrapping paper, forty -or fifty inches long and twenty inches wide, lay the cone on the left -hand edge about one inch from the bottom of the sheet, roll the cone -keeping the paper flat on the face until the starting edge meets the -sheet, hold the wrapped cone and draw a line around the inside of the -paper, letting the pencil rest against the edge of the large diameter -of the cone; repeat at the small end of the cone, then draw a line -parallel to the starting edge where it meets the sheet. This will give -you a pattern similar to that shown with the dotted lines in Fig. 108. - -Now secure a piece of unstretchable leather (belting is preferable). -This belting or leather should be slightly longer than the pattern -you have just completed and sufficiently wide to embrace the curve; -about twelve to fifteen inches wide for the average clutch will be -sufficient, and about three-sixteenths of an inch thick. - -Cut out the paper pattern and lay it on the leather belting as shown in -Fig. 108, and cut out with a sharp knife, leaving one-half inch over -at each end as a safety measure and for mitering the joints. Fit this -leather to the cone and cut the ends the exact size, miter the ends and -cement with a good leather cement. Be sure that you have the rough or -flesh side of the new facing on the outside; rivet it firmly in place -and smooth down the rough spots with a piece of coarse sand paper, -clean off all dirt, grease, and grit, especially the grit from the sand -paper, as this will grind and score the smooth surface of the flywheel -and cause clutch slipping. Paint the leather with Neat’s foot oil and -the clutch is ready to be assembled and adjusted. - -=Cone Clutch Cleaning.=--Cone clutches usually do not require any -special care or cleaning unless oil or grease, other than (Neat’s -foot or castor) are applied accidentally or by mistake to the leather -face. If this happens the grease must be thoroughly cleaned off of the -leather face with kerosene or gasoline otherwise the clutch will not -hold. After the clutch leather has been washed allow it to dry for -twenty minutes and apply a thin coat of Neat’s foot oil evenly on the -leather face before reassembling the clutch. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX - -TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE - - -Transmission came into use with the application or adoption of the -internal combustion engine as a factor in motor car propulsion. - -As this type of engine develops its power by a rapid succession of -explosions in the combustion chambers, each explosion delivers an -impulse or power stroke to the piston, which in turn sets the crank -shaft and flywheel to revolving. The momentum gathered by the crank -shaft and flywheel may therefore be termed the power for duty, or in -other words, unless there is momentum or carrying motion at this point, -there will be little or no power for duty. - -This brings us up to a point where it is easy to see that a rapid -series of explosions are necessary to gain carrying momentum or power -to move a dead weight load. As this motional power could not be applied -to the load without serious damage to the gears and bearings, it -was necessary to invent a device to gradually transmit or apply the -power to the movable load by graduating the leverage. This resulted -in the development of the automobile transmission. The natural way of -doing this at first seemed to be by applying the power to the load by -frictional slippage. Many ingenious devices of this sort were tried out -without much success until the driving and driven disc type made its -appearance. - -Fig. 109 shows the driving and driven disc type of friction -transmission. This type of transmission is not being used by any of the -present day manufacturers of automobiles, but may still be found on -some of the three and four-year-old models still in operation. - -A, the drive shaft, is squared and slides backward a distance of three -inches through a squared sleeve extending from the hub of the flywheel. -The action of this shaft is controlled by a leverage arrangement to a -foot pedal. B, the steel plate driving disc, is attached to the end of -shaft A, and drives C, when held back against it by pressure on the -foot pedal. Disc C can be slid in any position on the jack or cross -shaft D, and is controlled by a leverage arrangement connected to a -hand lever. The various speeds are obtained by sliding disc C into -different positions and contacts on the left side of disc B. Reverse -speeds are obtained by sliding disc C over center where it forms -contact on the right side of B and is driven in an opposite direction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 109. Friction Transmission] - -=The Planetary Type of Transmission.=--The planetary type of -transmission made its appearance along about the same time as the -friction type. The power is transmitted to the load through a set of -reduction gears arranged in a drum. A king gear on the engine shaft -operates a set of small gears in the drum. These small gears reduce -the leverage speed and transmit the power to the drive shaft, a band -similar to that used on brakes is fitted to the face of the drum. When -this drum containing the reduction gears is not in use it turns at -crank shaft speed. The speed is used by pressing a foot pedal which -tightens the brake band and holds the drum stationary, thereby forcing -the smaller gears into action. - -Planetary transmissions are shown and fully explained in a later -chapter. (See Model T Ford Supplement.) - -=The Sliding Gear Transmission.=--This type of transmission has -proved very successful, and is used by 98 per cent of the present day -automobile manufacturers. This type of transmission made its first -appearance with a progressive gear shift, that is, it was necessary -to proceed through one speed or set of gears to engage the next. This -arrangement caused considerable confusion at times, as it was necessary -to reshift the gears back through these speeds to attain neutral, when -the car was brought to a stand still. - -[Illustration: - - Neutral - - 2nd. - - Rev. - - Rev. - - 2nd. - - Neut. - - 1st. - - 3rd. - - 3rd. - - 1st. - - Ball-and-Socket - Shift - - H or Gate Type - Gear Shift - -Fig. 110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts] - -[Illustration: Fig. 111. Sliding Gear Transmission--Sectional View] - -The control lever operated on a straight forward and backward direction -on a quadrant, having a notch for each speed change. This gear shifting -arrangement has also been abandoned by manufacturers in favor of the -selective gear shift which is arranged so that the driver may choose -any speed at will. Fig. 110 shows the control lever which operates in a -frame resembling the block letter H and the ball and socket shift which -operates in the same manner. Fig. 111 shows the complete assembly of -the selective sliding gear transmission. The sliding gears are arranged -on a separate core and are operated by an individual throw fork, which -seats in a groove on the shoulder of the gear. Low and reverse are -always opposite each other on the same core. High and intermediate are -located on another core, and are controlled by another individual -shifting fork. The gear box arrangement (Fig. A) shows the cast gear -box which contains the gears, shafts, and bearings, and a roomy -compartment below the gears in which grease is carried, as the gears in -this type of transmission always operate in an oil bath which prevents -excessive wear and causes them to operate noiselessly. Fig. B, the gear -case cover, contains the slotted sliding shafts, to which the gear -in shifting forks are attached. Fig. C shows the arrangement of the -gears in the case and explains their operation. Gear No. 1 is attached -to the extreme end of the engine shaft, and is continually engaged -with gear No. 4, which causes the counter shaft No. 11, containing -the stationery gears, to revolve whenever the engine shaft No. 9 is -in operation. The drive shaft No. 8 does not run straight through and -connect with No. 9, the engine shaft, but ends and takes its bearing in -the core of gear No. 1. Consequently, when the gears on the drive shaft -are slid into mesh with the gears on the counter shaft, variable speeds -are attained. Low speed is obtained by sliding gear No. 3 into mesh -with gear No. 6; second or intermediate is obtained by meshing gears -No. 2 and gear No. 5. - -High, or engine speed, is obtained by sliding gear No. 2 which is cored -and shouldered over the end of gear No. 1, making a direct connection -of the drive shaft No. 8, and the engine shaft No. 9, at this point. -Reverse is obtained by meshing gear No. 3 on the drive shaft with gear -No. 10, which is an extra or idle gear mounted on a stub shaft on the -rear of the gear case. Idle gear No. 10 is always in mesh with gear No. -7, on the counter shaft. - -Functional operation engine shafts always turn to the right or -clockwise, which causes the counter shaft to turn to the left or -anti-clockwise. This causes the drive shaft to turn to the right when -low or intermediate speed gears are engaged, driving the car forward. -Reverse, is obtained by the use of an extra gear in this way. Counter -shaft turning to the left turns idle gear to the right, and this gear -turning to the right, turns gear on the drive shaft to the left, and -causes the car to be driven in a backward direction. In the unit power -plant shown in Fig. 112, the operation and gear shifting are identical -with that of the separate gear case. The crank case of the motor is -either extended or another case attached to the motor which has a -compartment arranged to contain the clutch and transmission gears. This -arrangement results in compactness, and does away with the supports -required to carry the transmission separately. - -=Transmission Care.=--The transmission should be thoroughly cleaned and -refilled with fresh grease or heavy oil once in every thousand miles -that the car is driven to prevent excessive wear and much noise. To -clean, remove the plug at the bottom of the case, and the cover from -the top. After the old oil has drained out, replace the plug, fill -the case half full of kerosene, replace the cover, and let the motor -run for a few minutes with the gears in neutral. Drain the kerosene -off, and wash the case and gears off with a paint brush which has been -dipped into fresh kerosene. Then examine the gears for blunt burrs -and the bearings for looseness. If the gears are burred or chipped, -file, or grind them down to level. If the bearings are loose they will -have to be replaced, as the bearings used to carry both the counter -and drive shaft are seldom provided with means of adjusting. These -bearings, however, will not show wear for years if properly cared for. -Next, see that the gear case is free from grit and filings, replace the -drain plug, and fill the gear case to within one half inch from the -drive or propeller shaft with a light graphite grease or heavy oil, and -replace the cover using a new gasket. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly--Unit Power -Plant] - - - - -CHAPTER XXX - -UNIVERSAL JOINTS - - -[Illustration: - - Oil Plugs - - Slip Joint - - Oil-tight Washer - - Oil Plugs - - Slip Joint - - Oil-tight Washer - -Fig. 113. Slip Joint and Universal] - -Universal joints were designed to transmit power from one shaft to -another at constantly changing angles. An automobile engine cannot be -hung at the low level required to allow straight line drive, as it -would have to be carried from six to eight inches lower than it is in -present construction, and this would allow very little road clearance -if any. And as the rear axle receives the power transmitted to it at -a constantly changing level due to torque and spring action, it is -necessary to have a flexible coupling on the propeller shaft between -the engine and the rear axle to prevent the gears and bearings from -being damaged from distortion. - -Universal joints are made of the best steel or bronze, do not require -any adjusting, and will outlast the life of a car, providing they are -not driven at too great an angle, and are kept well lubricated. A metal -shell or leather boot is fitted to the joint to carry and provide -constant lubrication. This boot or container should be kept well-packed -with a heavy oil, (600-W steam oil, Whitemore’s compound or a light -graphite grease). - -[Illustration: - - _No 3001_ - - _No 3004_ - - _No 3003_ - - _No 3002_ - - _No 3006_ - - _No 3007_ - - _No 3008_ - - _No 3005_ - - _No 3009_ - - _No 3010_ - - _No 3011_ - -Fig. 114. Universal-Joint Construction Diagram] - -Remove the oil plug every thirty days and pack the housing. Use a dope -or oil gun to force in the lubricant. The housing should be subjected -to regular inspections quite frequently as the lubricant often escapes -from the end boot due to distortion and wear. - -Fig. 113 shows the rigid construction of a heavy duty universal joint -and slip joint. The ends of the shafts are yoked and fitted to a swivel -cross block; the leather boot follows the angle of the shaft and makes -the housing oil tight. - -Fig. 114 shows a sectional view of the “Standard” universal joint, -manufactured by the Universal Machine Co., of Bowling Green, Ohio. The -left-hand cut shows the forward section and tapered shaft seat. This -joint gives a combined universal action and slip on a two inch square. -All points are concentric and always in balance. The bearings are -provided with grooves and holes for lubrication. A metal and leather -boot is also provided for protection, and as a grease retainer. And -owing to the flange type there are but four bolts to remove in order to -disassemble this joint. - -The names of the various parts are given according to corresponding -numbers. - - 3001--Flange - - 3003--Adapter for same - - 3002--Socket - - 3006--Bronze caps - - 3007--Trunion head - - 3008--Metal boot - - 3009--Leather boot - - 3010-11--Boot clamps - - 3004--Oil plug - - 3005--Bolts - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI - -THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR - - -Differential gears were designed to allow for equalization of the power -strain transmitted to the rear axles. - -The rotary movement is transmitted to the axles joining the wheels by a -bevel gear, which if simple would drive both wheels at the same speed. -This is satisfactory on the “straight ahead” drive, but it is clear -that in turning a corner the car is describing a portion of a circle, -and the inner wheel having a smaller circumference to traverse, must -go at less speed than the outer. The differential gear was devised to -allow for this difference in power stresses. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115. Differential Action Diagram] - -It is perhaps the functional action more than the simple mechanism that -one finds the most confusion about. The diagram given in Fig. 115 shows -how the functional action is mechanically carried out. - -In the first place, each wheel, W, is fixed firmly to an independent -axle turned by pinions, D and E. These pinions are connected by -another, C. Now if D turns, E will rotate in the opposite direction due -to the action of C. If D and E are rotating in the same direction at -the same speed, C will merely lock with them and not rotate. If now, -D accelerates slightly, C will turn, slowly retarding E, while if E -accelerates, C will turn slowly in the opposite direction retarding D. -This is precisely what is required in turning a corner. Now fix these -in a box, driven as a whole by the bevel or ring gear B driven by the -driving pinion gear A. When the car is on the straight ahead drive D, -C, E are locked. C does not rotate and the three act as a single axle. -As the car turns, C turns slowly, acted upon by the outer wheel, and -gives the differential action. - -=The Worm Gear Drive.=--The worm gear drive differential action is -practically the same as the bevel gear action, the only difference -being that there is a worm gear on the end of the drive shaft which -engages with a helical toothed gear, which takes the place of the bevel -gear B. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116. Differential Assembly] - -Fig. 116 shows the differential gear assembly which is carried by a set -of bearings. These bearings are held in place by a set of shoulders, -or retainers which are built into the housing on each side of the -differential assembly. These bearings may be of either the radial, -roller, or ball type. However, when the ball or roller bearing is used -for carrying the differential, an end thrust bearing must be used in -conjunction to take the end thrust and for adjusting purposes. The -differential assembly shown is known as the bevel gear and pinion -drive. The pinion gear is keyed to the tapered end of the drive -shaft and usually does not carry an adjustment. The bevel gear mesh -adjustment is made by setting the bearing supporting the differential -assembly backward or forward. This adjustment, however, applies mostly -to the full floating axle, as the axle shaft in this case usually has a -square end which slides into the small bevel gear of the differential. -The shaft used in this type of axle may be drawn out through the wheel -and replaced without disassembling the axle or removing the weight from -the wheels. - -[Illustration: Fig 117. Differential Adjusting Points] - -When the Hotchkiss drive is employed in combination with the -semi-floating or three-quarters floating axle, three adjusting points -will be found. Fig. 117 shows the three points at which adjustments are -made. The short drive shaft carries the pinion gear at the rear end, -and a universal joint at the front end is supported by a set of radial -bearings inside of the front and rear ends of the housing. - -The adjustment on this shaft is made by turning the notched cone A1 to -the right, which pushes the bearings farther upon the bearing cones -and reduces the looseness. After the short shaft has been properly -adjusted, remove the lugs B, which fit into the notches of the -adjustment nuts, A2 and A3, and turn A2 to the left to loosen, now turn -A3 to the right until the bevel gear is meshing properly with pinion -gear, then replace the lugs, B, to hold the adjustment. It is only -necessary to make this adjustment when play occurs from natural wear, -which will happen probably once in every five to seven thousand miles. - -[Illustration: - - CASE - - CAM - - CAM FULCRUM PIN - - PAWL - - PAWL BLOCK - - LUG - - RETAINING PLATE - - RATCHET RING - -Fig. 118. Allen Gearless Differential] - -Fig. 118 shows a cross-section of the Allen gearless differential. The -main gearing is bolted to the casing. The wheel shafts are splined to -ratchet rings. The two lugs of the pawl block are secured in slots in -the casing so that the block turns with it. Eight pawls on the pawl -block drive, the ratchet rings two on each side operate for forward, -and two on each side for reverse. The pawls permit either ratchet -ring to overrun them and move freely in the direction of motion, so -long as it is moving faster than the pawl block. The lugs of the pawl -block have a little motion, about ³⁄₁₆″, in the slots, so that the -casing moves this distance before engaging them for forward or reverse -motion. This operates the rocking cams by their heads inserted in slots -in right angles to the lugs, having the effect of pressing on and -disengaging the forward or reverse pawls according to the direction of -the motion. - -When the car is running by its momentum with the clutch out, the action -is reversed and the ratchet rings drive the casing and driving gear -through the pawl block. - -The adjustment given above also applies to the setting of the Allen -differential. - -=Lubrication.=--_See_ Chapter on Axles. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII - -AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE - - -Two types of rear axles are being used by the manufacturers of -automobiles--the live axle, and the dead axle. The live axle which -carries the weight of the load and transmits the power of rotation to -the wheels, is built in two distinct designs called the semi-floating -axle, and the full-floating axle. The semi-floating design is -used extensively in manufacturing cars of light weight, while the -full-floating design is favored more by the manufacturers of cars of -medium and heavy weight. Both designs give equally satisfactory results. - -The dead axle carries the weight of the car and load in much the same -manner as a horse drawn vehicle. The power is conveyed to the loose -wheels on the axle, by means of a chain which operates on a sprocket -attached to the hub of the wheel, or by an internal gear drive arranged -and housed in the brake drums. - -=The Semi-floating Axle.=--In the semi-floating design of axle, the -axle shaft carries the weight and transmits the rotation power to the -wheel, which is keyed and locked to the outer end. The axle shaft is -provided with a bearing at each end which operates on the inside of a -closely fitted housing. The inside end of each axle shaft is bolted -directly to the differential. The housing is split or divided into -two halves, and bolts together in the center over the differential. -This design of axle gives excellent service, but has one disadvantage -in that it is somewhat difficult to disassemble, as the rear system -must be disconnected from the car to take the housing apart. Fig. 119 -shows a part sectional view of a semi-floating axle used by the Detroit -Taxicab Co. The wide series of S. K. F. ball bearings used on this -axle are self aligning, which prevents any binding action from shaft -deflection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle] - -=The Full-floating Axle.=--The full-floating design of axle serves -the same functional purpose as the semi-floating design, but is -constructed differently and operates on a widely different plan. In -the full-floating design of axle, the axle shaft does not support -any of the weight of the car or load, but serves simply as a member -to transmit the power rotation to the wheels. The wheels are mounted -on separate bearings, which operate on the outside of the outer end -of the housing. The inner ends of the axle shafts are squared, or -splined and slide into slots or seats in the differential gears. -The differential assembly is in a separate unit, and is floated on -bearings held by retainers extending from the forward end of the large -ball-shaped center of the housing. The outer end of the axle shaft -extends through the hub of the wheel, and has an umbrella-shaped plate -on the end which bolts to the outside face of the wheel, as shown in -Fig. 120, thus transmitting the power directly to the outside of the -wheel, without the axle shaft taking any bearing. The axle shaft may -be drawn out through the wheel, by removing the nuts which secure -the umbrella plate, without removing the weight of the car from the -wheels. The differential unit can also be removed without disassembling -the housing, by removing a large cover plate from the center of the -housing. Fig. 121 shows a typical full-floating axle, with a spiral -bevel gear drive. The wheels in this case are mounted on a set of -double series radial and thrust ball-bearings. The Hotchkiss type of -short shaft final drive is carried in the forward extended part of the -housing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 120. Full-Floating Axle--Wheel-End Arrangement] - -[Illustration: Fig. 121. Full-Floating Axle] - -Two types of front axles are used by the manufacturers of automobiles. -The I-beam type, which is a one piece drop forging, and the tubular -or hollow type, which is round and has the yoke fitted into the ends. -Both types operate on the same principle and plan, the only distinction -between the types is that one type has the I-beam cross member and the -other type has a pipe or tubular cross member. - -[Illustration: Fig. 122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts] - -The front axle consists of an I-beam or tubular cross member, which is -yoked at each end as shown at A, in Fig. 122. A steering knuckle B is -held between the ends of the yoke by C, a king pin, which allows the -knuckle to swing in a half circle. D, the spindle or short axle, is -provided with a set of radial thrust bearings. The wheel is adjusted -snugly to the bearings E by a castillated nut F. The adjustment is -held by a cotter pin which extends through the spindle and head of the -nut F. A short arm extends backward from each steering knuckle, shown -at G, in Fig. 122, and are connected together by an adjustable tie or -spread rod shown at H. A half circle ball arm extends from the knuckle -and circles over the axle. A rod or drag link forms the connection -between the ball arm and the steering arm of the steering gear. Fig. -123 shows the location of the parts assembled on a typical drop forged -I-beam front axle. A section of the hub has been removed to show the -location of the double row radial end thrust ball bearings. This type -of bearing is becoming very popular for automobile uses. - -=Adjustments of the Semi-floating Type of Axle.=--The short shaft -carried in the forward part of the housing has a center nut adjustment -between the universal joint and the pinion gear; moving this notched -nut to the right facing the rear axle draws the shaft backward and -meshes the teeth of the pinion gear deeper with the teeth of the ring -gear. After this adjustment is made, examine the teeth for even mesh; -it may be necessary to shift the differential unit to secure an even -bearing. (_See_ chapter on differential gears for detailed instructions -in regard to differential adjusting.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 123. I-Beam Front Axle] - -=Adjustments on the Full-floating Axle.=--The adjustments on the -full-floating axle are usually made by shifting the differential unit, -although a pinion gear adjustment is usually provided as described -above. - -=Care.=--The housing of both the semi-floating and the full-floating -axle should receive a fresh supply of medium fiber or graphite grease -every thousand miles. To grease, remove the plug on the large part of -the housing and force in grease with a dope gun until it begins to -bulge out of the hole. - -Wash out the housing every five thousand miles, and replace the -lubricant, as small metallic particles are worn off the gear teeth and -this grit, which is destructive to the gears and bearings, mixes with -the grease making it necessary to remove it that often. - -A grease cup will be found located at the outer end of each half of the -axle housing, which supplies the lubricant for the outer bearing. This -grease cup should be filled weekly with a medium cup grease and given a -half turn each day. - -=Care of Front Axle.=--Pack the space between the bearings in the hub -of the wheel every thousand miles. Use a heavy cup grease. The king -bolts which hold the steering knuckles between the ends of the yokes -are hollow and carry a grease cup on the head, which forces the grease -out through finely perforated holes, and lubricates the bushings on -which the pins take their bearing. This cup should be filled weekly and -given a half turn each day. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII - -BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE - - -An automobile is always equipped with two sets of brakes, as they are -required by law. The functional action of the brakes is to check the -motion of the car when the driver wishes to stop or reduce the rolling -speed. The service brake usually operates on the external surface, or -on the outside of the drum flange, and is connected to the right foot -pedal through a set of linkage. The emergency brake operates on the -internal surface of the drum, and connects through linkage to a hand -lever operating on a notched quadrant. The service brake is used in -ordinary driving to check the rolling motion and to stop the car. The -emergency brake is used to assist the service brake and to hold the -car, in case the driver wishes to allow it to stand on a grade. - -Fig. 124 shows a set of brakes assembled on the axle ready to receive -the horizontal flange of the brake drum. The brake drum is attached to -the wheel; consequently when a wheel has been removed and is about to -be replaced, the first operation consists of starting the drum flange -into the space between the lining of the external and internal bands; -care should always be exercised in making this adjustment, in order -not to burr the outer edge of the lining, as a brake with an uneven -frictional contact surface is of little value in checking the motion of -the car. - -In Fig. 124, A shows the position of the band on the inside of the -drum; B shows the contracting tension coil spring which holds the -bearing surfaces of the band in contact with the flat surface of the -cam when the brake is not in use; C shows the cam shaft, and the flat -surfaces of the double action cam, which expands the band and brings it -into even contact with the inner horizontal surface of drum flange, -thereby checking the motion of the wheel by frictionally grasping the -drum. - -The service brake shown in Fig. 124 is of the external contracting -type, which operates on, or frictionally grasps the outside horizontal -surface of the drum. D shows the lined band, which is held in a -stationary position from the rear; E shows the leverage arrangement -with its expanding coil spring, which holds the band free from the -drum, when the brake is not in use; F is the lever to which the pull -rod is connected; G is the lever on the internal brake cam shaft to -which the hand lever is connected by the pull rod. - -[Illustration: Fig. 124. Brake--Types and Adjustment] - -Fig. 125 shows a new type of internal expanding brake, which is being -used on many of the late models. The brake band in this case is -supported at three points and has an adjustment at the rear main point -of support. The cam has been done away with, and the band is expanded -by a leverage toggle arrangement which operates through a much larger -area, and is more dependable as there is no danger of its “sticking” or -turning over, as was often the case with the cam. - -Fig. 126 shows another type of service brake which may be encountered -on a few of the former models. This type of brake is usually located -on the propeller shaft at the rear end of the transmission case. This -type of brake operates in the same manner as the service brake at the -end of the axle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 125. Brake--Showing Toggle Arrangement] - -Fig. 126 shows an equalizer which allows for any difference that may -occur in making adjustments. - -[Illustration: Fig. 126. Transmission Brake--Equalizer] - -Fig. 127 shows the complete brake assembly, and the points of -adjustment on late Buick cars. - -=Brake Adjustment.=--All types of brakes are adjustable. The service -brake usually has two adjusting points, one at the drum, which is made -by turning the nut on the leverage pull pin, and another on the pull -rods. A long neck clevis, or a long butted turn buckle will always be -found on the pull rods, or on the rod leading to the equalizer. The -adjustment is made by turning either to the right to shorten, or take -up, and to the left to lengthen. The clevis is always threaded to the -right, while the turn buckle has a right and left thread which carries -each end of the rod into the butt when it is turned to the right. -The lock nuts must always be turned up tight to the butts after the -adjustment is made in order to hold it. - -[Illustration: - - BRAKE SHAFT - - SERVICE BRAKE PEDAL - - PULL RODS - - ADJUSTING TURNBUCKLE - - EMERGENCY BRAKE - LEVER - - INTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT - - EXTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT - - ADJUSTING THUMB SCREW - - ADJUSTMENT - - INTERNAL BRAKE BAND - - EXTERNAL BRAKE BAND - -Fig. 127. Brake--Arrangement and Adjustment--“Buick”] - -=Brake Care.=--A great deal depends upon the proper operation of the -brakes. They should be regularly inspected at least once a month for -loose adjustments and uncleanliness. The need of adjustment usually -occurs from natural wear, while an unclean frictional surface is -usually the result of oil or grease seepage through the outer axle -bearing. A felt washer is provided to prevent this from taking place, -but as these washers are subjected to considerable pressure, they often -become caked and hardened and lose their absorbing effectiveness. These -washers can be purchased at any accessory store for a few cents apiece, -and applied with very little trouble. - -=Cleaning the Surface of the Brake Bands.=--This is accomplished by -removing the wheel and washing the friction contact surface with -gasoline, after the surfaces have become thoroughly dry. Drop three or -four drops of castor or Neat’s foot oil on the contact surfaces of the -drum, and replace the wheel and spin it a few times before releasing -the jack. - -=Caution.=--After you have set the gears for starting, and before you -release the clutch pedal, always reach and make sure that the emergency -brake lever is in the neutral position. New drivers invariably forget -to do this, which results in severe strain on the bearings, and causes -them to get loose; the average brake band will not stand more than -fifteen to twenty minutes of continuous contact before it burns or -wears beyond the point of usefulness. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIV - -SPRING CARE TESTS - - -Information recently gathered from observation and interviews shows -that the average owner who operates and cares for his car, invariably -overlooks the springs and their connections while giving the car the -bi-monthly or monthly tightening-up and greasing, while the balance of -the car usually receives the required attention. - -This fact seems to be due mostly to an oversight, for the springs are -usually inspected while the car is motionless and at this time they -do not show defects readily, and have the appearance of being rigid, -inactive, and compact. - -=Weekly Spring Care.=--Weekly spring care should consist of filling -the grease cups (with a medium hard oil cup grease) and turning them -down until the grease makes its appearance at the outer edge of the -spring eye. This, under ordinary driving conditions, will be sufficient -lubrication for one week. But in cases where the car receives more than -ordinary use the grease cups should be given one-half turn every second -day. The shackle connections should then be wiped dry to prevent dust -and grit clinging and working into the bearing, which causes much wear -on even a sufficiently lubricated bearing surface. - -=Bi-monthly Spring Care.=--Special attention should be given at this -time to the U-shaped clips which connect the spring to the axle. A -loose clip means a broken spring at the first severe jolt, caused by -the rebound taking place between the clips. Therefore, tightly adjusted -clips will prevent action from taking place at the point between the -clips where the leaves are bolted together and will entirely eliminate -spring breakage. Tighten up the nut on the leave guide clip bolt to -prevent rattling. The shackles should be inspected for side play. To -determine whether there is side play, jack up the frame until the -weight is off the spring, then grasp it near the shackle and shake with -an in and out motion. If there is play a rattle thump will be heard. -To take out play, remove cotter pin and turn up castillated nut snugly -on the shackle pin. If the nut cannot be turned up a full notch, place -a thin washer over the end of the pin. The nut, however, should not be -turned up too tight as a certain amount of action is necessary. - -=Lubrication of the Spring Leaves.=--Lubrication of the spring leaves -should take place once every month. This point must be kept in mind -and adhered to, as a spring cannot produce the marked degree of action -necessary for smooth and easy riding, when the sliding surface is dry -and rusty. The leaves slide on each other when the spring opens and -closes, and if the sliding surface is not well lubricated the movement -will be greatly checked by the dry friction; these dry surfaces also -gather dampness which soon forms into dry-rust, which, in time entirely -retards action and results in a very hard riding car. - -It is not necessary to disassemble the spring at the monthly greasing -period, unless the spring has been neglected and rust has formed on the -sliding surfaces. In this case the sliding surface of each blade must -be cleaned with a piece of sand or emery paper. - -When the springs receive regular attention, it is only necessary to -jack up the frame until the wheels and axles are suspended, the weight -of which will usually open the leaves sufficiently to insert a film -of graphite grease with a thin case knife. In some cases where the -leaves are highly curved, it may be found necessary to drive a small -screwdriver in between them. However, great care should be exercised -in doing this, as the blades are highly tempered and spring out of -position very easily. - -=Wrapping Springs.=--Car owners in some parts of the country grease -their springs and wrap them with heavy cord or adhesive tape. While -this serves to keep the grease in and the dust and dirt out, it also -binds the leaves and prevents free action. If the car is to be driven -for any length of time on sandy or muddy roads, wrapping may be found -very beneficial. But use only a water-proof material (heavy oil paper -or canvas) to wrap with. Cut the material into one and one-fourth -inch strips, and wrap from the center toward the outer end to prevent -binding. - -The following shows the results of a spring care test conducted by the -writer. The cars were chosen at random and only those accepted which -had seen six months or more service. - -Eighteen owners were interviewed. Six of this number gave their springs -a thorough greasing and tightening up every two weeks, and not one -of this group made a complaint of any nature regarding breakage, -stiffness, or noise. - -Five of the remaining twelve, gave their springs occasional attention. -Their reports were not entirely unsatisfactory, but had a tendency -toward such troubles as rattles, squeaks, and stiffness in action. - -The remaining seven did not give their springs any attention whatever, -and all made unsatisfactory reports ranging from broken leaves, to side -play, jingles, squeaks and hard riding. - -Therefore the results of careful and regular attention may readily be -seen by the reports of the first six owners. All nuts and connections -were tightened, and the sliding surfaces of the leaves greased on an -average of once every two weeks. The springs gave satisfactory results, -and the cars retained that easy, soft, springy action, so noticeable in -a new car. - -The reports of the five who gave their springs occasional attention -would probably have been the same as the first six, had they given the -proper attention more frequently. But they usually waited until the -trouble became annoying, which caused wear on the spring eye, shackle -strap, and pin, on each occurrence making a good adjustment impossible. -The stiffness in action and squeaks were caused by dry fractional -surfaces between the leaves which prevented free action. - -=Types.=--There are five standard types of springs, and two or -three types of special design. The riding qualities of all types of -springs depend on their length and resiliency, which is taken into -consideration by the engineer and designer. Consequently there is not -much choice between the different types. - -[Illustration: Fig. 128. ¹⁄₂-Elliptical Front Spring] - -Fig. 128 shows the semi-elliptical type of spring used principally for -front suspension. The front end of this spring is bolted rigidly to the -downward end slope of the frame while the rear end carries a movable -shackle arrangement. - -[Illustration: Fig. 129. Full-Elliptic Spring] - -Fig. 129 shows the full elliptical type of spring which may be used -for either front or rear suspension. The ends may be fastened together -solidly with a yoke and eye arrangement, or shackled as shown in the -above cut. - -Fig. 130 shows a spring of the three-quarters elliptical type used in -rear suspension only. This type of spring carries a shackle arrangement -at the front and rear end which allows backward and forward motion to -take place very freely, consequently it is very necessary to use a very -substantial set of torque rods to keep the proper alignment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 130. ³⁄₄-Elliptical Rear Spring] - -Fig. 131 shows the three link or commonly termed platform type of -spring used only in rear suspension on the heavier models. - -[Illustration: Fig. 131. Platform Spring] - -Fig. 132 shows the front type of cantilever spring. The front end of -this type of spring is bolted to a seat on the front axle, while the -rear end may be fastened directly to the under side of the frame or -attached to a specially arranged casting seat at the side of the -frame. This type of spring is sometimes employed in multiple formation. - -[Illustration: Fig. 132. Cantilever Spring, Front] - -[Illustration: Fig. 133. Cantilever Spring, Rear] - -Fig. 133 shows the rear type of cantilever spring, which may employ -a shackle arrangement on one or both sides, while a hinged seat is -usually employed near the center or slightly over-center toward the -front end. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXV - -ALIGNMENT - - -Attention should be given quite frequently to wheel alignment, as the -life and service of tires depends almost entirely upon wheel alignment. - -When either of the front wheels become out of line, through a bent -spindle, worn spindle pin, loose or worn bearing the tire on this wheel -is subject to cross traction. That is, when the car moves forward, the -tire on the out of line wheel is forced to move forward by the other -three points of traction, and as it is not in line with the forward -movement the tire must push or drag crosswise at the traction point. -This results in the tread being worn or filed off in a very short time, -exposing the layers of fabric to dampness and wear which results in a -“blow-out” and ruined tire, which would probably have given several -thousand miles of service had proper attention been given to wheel -alignment. - -=Alignment Test.=--To test the alignment, first look at the lower -side of the springs where they rest on the axle seats. If one of the -springs has slipped on the seat through a loose clamp, the direction -and distance of the slip may be noted by the rust mark left by the -movement. Drive the axle back, leave the clamp loose, measure the -distance between the centers of the front and rear hub caps on the -unaffected side with a tape or string, move the tape to the affected -side and make the center distances the same, tighten the nuts on all -clamps using new spring or lock washers. - -=Lengthwise Wheel Alignment.=--Before lining up the wheels lengthwise, -jack each wheel separately and shake it to detect a loose bearing or -worn spindle pin which is usually the seat of the trouble. After the -defective part has been readjusted or replaced, test the alignment -as follows: Using a string or straight edge, which should be placed -or drawn across the front and rear tire, making four contacts as near -center as possible without interference from the hubs. The string or -straight edge is then moved to the other side of the car and three -contacts are made, one on the rear center of the front tire, and two -across the center of the rear tire. The spread rod should then be -adjusted to allow the front contact point to converge or lean from the -line toward the other front wheel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 134. Wheel-Alignment Diagram] - -=Mechanical Alignment.=--When a motor vehicle turns the inside wheel -has to describe a curve of smaller radius than the outside wheel. A -line drawn lengthwise through the steering arms, extending from the -spindles or knuckles, should meet at a point in the center of the rear -axle to determine the correct wheel base, otherwise the car will turn -in two angles, which causes the tire on the outside to slide crosswise -at the traction point. Fig. 134 shows the position of the wheels and -the direction they travel in describing two distinct curves in turning -to the left. The correct mechanical alignment and wheel base will be -seen in the diagram, A B. The front wheels have been turned to a 45 per -cent angle, e-e1 lines drawn through the spindles will meet at E, a -line drawn through the rear axle. E1 in this diagram shows the effect -on the steering of lengthening the wheel base of the car. In this case -the wheel base has been lengthened 10″ and the lines e and e1 meet at -different angles at a point on E1. The car tries to turn about two -distinct centers, as this is an impossibility, sliding of the tire -occurs. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVI - -STEERING GEARS, TYPE, CONSTRUCTION - -OPERATION AND CARE - - -The steering mechanism used in automobile construction is arranged to -operate independent of the axle, or in other words the wheels turn on a -pivot, or knuckle, held between the yoked ends of the axle. A spindle -or axle extends outward from each steering knuckle to accommodate the -wheels. A set of short arms extend to rear of the steering knuckles; an -adjustable spacer bar, commonly called a tie or spread rod, serves as -the connection between the arms. The arms incline slightly toward each -other; which causes the inside wheel to turn on a shorter angle than -the outside wheel when turning a corner. Another steering arm carrying -a ball at the outer end, describes a half circle over the axle, and -is attached to either the spread rod arm or the steering knuckle. An -adjustable rod, or drag-link, carrying a ball socket at each end serves -as the connection between the steering arm extending from steering gear -and the half circle arm of the knuckle. To adjust wheels see chapter on -“Wheels and Axle Alignment.” - -=Steering Gear Types.=--Three types of steering gears are commonly used -by automobile manufacturers. They are namely, the worm and sector, worm -and nut, and rack and pinion types. - -Fig. 135 shows the construction and operation of the worm and sector -type. The lower end of the steering shaft carries a worm gear which -meshes with the sector gear supported by a separate shaft. The sector -has a ball arm extending downward, which moves in a forward and -backward direction when the steering shaft is turned. - -[Illustration: - - Steering Wheel - - St. Column - - Worm - - Sector - - Spark - - Throttle - - Frame - -Fig. 135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear] - -=Adjusting the Worm and Sector Type of Steering Gear.=--An eccentric -bushing is provided to take up play between the worm and sector. This -adjustment is made by driving the notched cone to the right to take out -play, and to the left to slack up or take out stiffness. - -Fig. 136 shows the worm and nut type of steering gear. This type -of steering gear as well as the worm and sector, is called the -irreversible steering gear, which means that no reverse action takes -place, or is present at the steering wheel, should one of the front -wheels encounter a stone in the road, or drop into a deep rut. The -worm and nut type consists of a double armed and pivoted steering arm. -Each arm carries a ball. The drag link socket is attached to the ball -on the lower arm while the ball on the upper and shorter arm fits in a -socket in the nut through which the worm on the steering shaft passes. -This nut is threaded to fit the worm which passes through it and moves -up and down on the worm according to the direction which the steering -wheel is turned. The housing of this type of steering must be well -packed with a light cup or graphic grease to prevent the screw or worm -from binding, which will make steering difficult and tiresome. - -[Illustration: - - Steering Column - - Worm Screw - - Nut - - Pivot - - Frame - - Drag Link - - St. Arm - -Fig. 136. Worm and Nut Type Steering Gear] - -[Illustration: - - Steering Shaft - - Ball - - Gear - - Housing - - Sliding tooth Shaft - -Fig. 137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear] - -Fig. 137 shows the rack and pinion type of steering gear. This type of -steering gear is used on a few of the lighter weight cars and is not -as dependable owing to a reverse action through the steering mechanism -when an obstruction is encountered by one of the front wheels. This -type of steering device consists of a solid shaft with the steering -wheel keyed to the upper end. - -A small spur gear is keyed and locked to the lower end, and meshes -with a horizontal toothed shaft which slides inside of a housing. The -connection between the steering gear and the steering knuckles is made -by a short rod or drag link carrying a split ball seat on each end. -One end of the drag link socket is fitted to a ball on the end of the -horizontal toothed shaft, while the socket on the other end is fitted -to a ball on the upper end of the bolt which connects the tie rod and -knuckle. - -=Steering Gear Care.=--Steering gears should be closely adjusted. The -housing should be packed with a medium hard oil or graphite grease at -least once in every thousand miles that the car is driven. All bolts -and nuts connecting the different parts of the steering gear should be -regularly inspected and kept in a perfectly tight condition. - -[Illustration: Fig. 138. Steering Wheel] - -Fig. 138 shows the location of the spark and gas control levers which -usually operate on a quadrant on the upper side of the steering wheel. -The short lever always controls the spark, which may be advanced or -retarded by moving it. The long lever is attached to the carburetor, -and controls the speed of the motor by regulating the volume of gas -vapor supplied to the motor. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVII - -BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE - - -Three types of bearings are being used by the manufacturers of -automobiles and gasoline engines. They are, namely, the plain bearing -or bushing, the solid and flexible roller-bearing, and the double and -single row of self-aligning ball bearings. - -Bearings were designed to prevent wear and friction between parts, -which operate on, or against each other. - -Fig. 139 shows three types of plain bearings. A, the split type of -plain bearing, is used widely by the manufacturers of engines as -main bearings to support the crank shaft and at the large end of the -connecting rod. B is a cylindrical type of plain end bushing, used to -support light shafts in end walls. C is a center or sleeve type of -plain bushing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 139. Plain Bearings or Bushings] - -All three types of plain bearings described above will stand unusually -hard use, but must be kept well lubricated or run in an oil bath to -prevent frictional heating and excessive wear. Fig. 140 shows two -types of shims used between the retainer jaw of a split bearing, which -allows the wear to be taken up when the bearing gets loose and begins -to pound. The shims may be either solid or loose leafed, and are of -different thickness. The loose leafed shim has an outer casing, which -contains seven to ten metal sheets of paper-like thinness, which may -be removed to the exact thickness required for an accurately fitted -bearing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 140. Shims] - -[Illustration: Fig. 141. Bock Roller Bearing] - -Fig. 141 shows the Bock type of radial and end thrust roller bearing. -The end of each roller is provided with a section of a perfect sphere -which rolls in unison with the tapered rollers and makes the end -contact practically frictionless. The advantage claimed for this -type of bearing is that it embodies both the ball and roller bearing -strength and reduces the friction on the roller and thrust end to a -minimum. This type of bearing is used in the hub of the wheel, which -must be cleaned and well packed with a medium grease every thousand -miles. The bearing is best cleaned by dropping it into a container of -kerosene and scrubbing it with a stiff paint brush. Do not run the car -with the hub cap off. - -[Illustration: Fig. 142. Hyatt Roller Bearing] - -Fig. 142 shows the Hyatt flexible type of roller bearing. This type -consists of an inner and outer race and a cage which holds the flexible -rolls. The flexible rolls are spirally wound from a high grade sheet -alloy steel. The rolls are placed in the cage in alternative positions. -This arrangement of rollers has a tendency to work the grease back and -forth on the surfaces of the races. Another advantage claimed for this -type of bearing, is that the weight is more evenly distributed at the -point of contact, due to the fact that the wound rolls allow a certain -amount of resiliency, and accepts road shocks easily, which reduces the -amount of frictional wear to a minimum. This type of bearing requires -the same attention as the Bock, described above. - -[Illustration: Fig. 143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing] - -Fig. 143 shows a type of double row ball bearings. Ball bearings are -being used more extensively each year by the manufacturers of light and -heavy duty motor vehicles. The efficient reliability and ease of action -has proven to be the main factor in the development of this type of -bearing. One of the big features in considering ball bearings is that -a ball rolls equally well in any direction, and the slightest effort -will start it to rolling. It is a proven fact, that a ball is started -more easily than any other type of supportive element. This explains -why ball bearings of all types come nearest to being frictionless. Once -upon a time people believed that the ball in ball bearings carried the -load by point of contact, which is not true, as ball bearings carry the -load on a definite area. And in bearing construction, such as shown in -Fig. 143, where the inner and outer race curves around the balls and -increases the contact area, the contact capacity is greatly increased. -Thus a one-fourth inch S. K. F. ball showed a crushing resistance -of nine thousand and seven hundred pounds, while the one-half inch -ball showed a crushing strength of twenty-five thousand pounds. The -sectional view of a radial bearing, shown in Fig. 142, consists -essentially of four elements, which are the following: (a) The outer -ball race, (b) the two rows of balls, (c) the ball retainer, and (d) -the inner ball race. - -The inner surface of the outer race is spherically ground in the form -of a section of a sphere whose center is the center of the axis of -rotation. This provides that both rows of balls shall carry the load -at all times. This reduces the load carried by each ball to the least -amount. - -The ball retainer is made of a single piece, which provides for proper -spacing of the balls, and positively circulates the lubricant. The -retainer is open at the sides, which permits free access of lubricant, -and makes inspection easy. - -The inner ball race contains two grooves to accommodate the two rows of -balls, and the curvature of the outer race is slightly larger than that -of the balls. The fact that both inner and outer races are curved gives -an ample surface contact between the balls and the races. - -Fig. 144 shows a double thrust bearing. This type of bearing was -designed to take end thrust in both directions. It is used to stabilize -the shaft against lateral motion and to accept reversing thrust loads. -It is also automatically self-aligning. - -The assembly of balls and races forms a section of a sphere within a -steel casing. The inside of this casing is ground spherically to the -same radius as the spherical seats, thus permitting the assembled -bearing parts to adjust themselves to any shaft deflection. - -This type of double thrust bearing is so designed that the central -rotating disc, two rows of balls, and the aligning seats are combined -in a single unit within the casting. - -The unit construction of this type of bearing insures ease in -mounting, and eliminates much costly machine work usually encountered -in setting double thrust bearings, and renders the bearing practically -dirt, dust and fool-proof. If it becomes necessary to disassemble the -machine upon which these bearings are mounted, the user has every -assurance that the shafts can be relocated precisely in its original -position, with the minimum of time, labor and expense. This type of -bearing is also entirely free from adjustment, loose parts, costly -machine work, and the possible abuse at the hands of inexperienced -workman are entirely done away with. - -[Illustration: Fig. 144. Double Row Thrust Bearing] - -[Illustration: Fig. 145. End Thrust Bearing] - -Fig. 145 shows a thrust bearing designed to carry the load in one -direction, along the shaft, and consists of two hardened steel discs -provided with grooved ball-races, and a single row of balls held in -position between the races by means of a suitable retainer. - -=Cleaning Bearings.=--To clean bearings, use gasoline, kerosene, or a -weak solution of baking soda and soft water. Place the cleaning fluid -in a shallow receptacle, take a piece of wire and bend a hook on the -end, place the hook through the center of the bearing and rinse up and -down in the fluid, spinning it with the hand occasionally. If some of -the grease has dried or baked on the roll or roller guide or retainer -and refuses to be dislodged by this method, lay the bearing flat and -scrub with a brush which has been dipped into the cleaning fluid. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVIII - -CAR ARRANGEMENT, PARTS, ADJUSTMENT, CARE - - -1. Oil cup on shackle bolt or loop pin. Fill every week with medium cup -grease giving one half turn every second day. - -2. Right front spring. Loosen the small clips No. 47, clean off all -dirt and grease with a brush dipped in kerosene, and jack up the frame, -which will open the leaves. Force graphite between the leaves, let the -frame down and wipe off all the grease that is forced out, in order to -avoid the gathering of dust and grit (see chapter on Spring Care). - -3. Front lamp. Keep brackets and vibration rod well tightened. Wipe -lens with a damp cloth (inside and outside), and polish with tissue -paper. Adjust or focus both lamps so that the center rays will strike -side by side 45 feet ahead of the car. Push the light bulbs well into -the sockets, otherwise a dark spot will appear in the center. Test the -wire connection plugs occasionally for weak springs or sticking contact -pins. - -4. Radiator (see chapter on Cooling Systems). - -5. Radiator Cap. Grease or oil thread occasionally. - -6. Radiator connecting hose (see chapter on Cooling Systems). - -7. The fan. It usually operates on a ball and cone bearing, which must -be kept well adjusted and greased to prevent a clattering or rumbling -noise. - -8. The fan belt. This should be well tightened to prevent slipping, -which will cause over-heating. Apply belt dressing occasionally to -prevent dry-rot and cracking. - -9. Adjust the starter chain from time to time by setting down the idler -gear. - -10. Metal tube for carrying the high tension leads to the spark -plugs. Remove the wires from the tube when overhauling and tape worn -insulation. - -11. Spark plugs (see chapter on Spark Plug Care). - -12. The horn. Keep connection tight, clean gum and old grease off the -armature and adjust the brushes when it fails to work. - -13. Priming cups. Cover the threads with graphite or white lead and -screw them into the cylinder head tightly to prevent compression leaks. - -14. Horn bracket. Keep well tightened, to prevent vibration. - -15. Clutch pedal. It can usually be lengthened or shortened to -accommodate leg stretch, oil and grease bearings, and connecting joint -each week. - -16. Primer or choker, which operates the air valve on the carburetor. - -17. Steering column. - -18. Steering wheel (see chapter on Steering Gears). - -19. Horn shorting push button. - -20. Spark control lever. - -21. Gas throttle control. - -22. Transmission (see chapter on Transmission). - -23. Brake rods (see chapter on Brakes). - -24. Universal joint (see chapter on Universal Joints). - -25. The frame. - -26. Emergency brake leverage connection. - -27. Service brake leverage connection. - -28. Threaded clevis for lengthening or shortening brake rods. - -29. Crown fender. - -30. India rubber bumper. - -31. Brake band guide. - -32. Gasoline or fuel tank. - -33. Filler spout and cap. - -34. Spring shackle hinge. - -35. Tire carrier. - -36. Spare tire and demountable rim. - -[Illustration: Fig. 146. Car Arrangement] - -37. Radiator fastening stud. - -38. Starting crank ratchet. - -39. Spread rod with left and right threaded clevis at each end. - -40. The crank case. - -41. Crank case drainage plug. - -42. The flywheel and clutch. - -43. Box for carrying storage battery. - -44. Transmission drain plug. - -45. The muffler (see chapter on Muffler Care). - -46. Main drive shaft. - -47. Spring blade alignment clamp. - -48. Rear universal joint. - -49. Service brake lever. - -50. Demountable rim clamp bolt. - -51. Differential housing on rear axle. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIX - -OVERHAULING THE CAR - - -Before starting to dismantle the car for overhauling, see that all -the necessary tools are at hand and in good condition. Place them out -separately on a bench or board near the car. Then secure a number of -boxes to hold the parts of each unit in order that they may not become -intermixed. - -When overhauling is to take place, start at the front of the car and -work back. First, disconnect and remove the radiator and inspect the -tubes for dents or jams. If any of any consequence are found, pry the -fins up and down on the tubes clearing the affected part, which is -removed and replaced with a new piece of tubing and soldered in place. -Then turn a stream of water into the radiator and let it run for fully -an hour, or until it is fully flushed out. Next, inspect the hose -connections, as the rubber lining often becomes cracked and breaks away -from the fabric which retards the circulation, by filling the passage -with hanging shreds of rubber. Then plug up the lower entrance to the -water jackets and fill the jackets with a solution of 2 gal. of water -to ¹⁄₂ lb. of washing soda. Let this solution stand in the jackets for -one-half hour; then flush out with clean water. The carburetor and -manifolds should be removed and cleaned. The float, if cork, should be -allowed to dry. It is then given a coat of shellac and allowed to dry -before reassembling the carburetor. - -The engine should then be turned over slowly to test the compression on -each cylinder. If it is found to be strong on each cylinder, the piston -rings and cylinder wall may be passed as being in good condition. -In case you find one cylinder is not as strong as the others, the -trouble may be ascertained by inspection. It may be caused by a scored -cylinder wall, worn piston rings, leaky gasket, or pitted valve -seats. Next remove the head of the motor and remove the carbon with a -scraper and wash with kerosene. If the motor is not of the detachable -head type, remove the valve cup and use a round wire brush to loosen -the carbon. It is best in this case to burn out the carbon with -oxyacetylene flame. - -Next remove the valves and test the springs for shrinkage or weakness. -If any are found that do not conform in length, replace them with new -springs. Grind the valves (see previous Chapter on Valve Grinding). - -Next examine the water pump and pack the boxing with a wick or hemp -cylinder packing. - -=Cleaning the Lubricating System.=--Remove the plug in the bottom of -the crank case and drain out the oil. Replace the plug and pour 1 gal. -of kerosene into the crank case through the breather pipe and spin the -motor. Then remove the drain plug and allow the kerosene to drain out. -After it has quit running, turn the motor over a few times and allow -it to drain one-half hour. Replace the plug and fill the crank case -to the required level with fresh cylinder oil. Next, remove the plate -from the timing gear case and inspect the gears for wear and play. If -they are packed in grease, remove the old grease and wash out the case -with kerosene. If they receive their oil supply from the crank case -it will only be necessary to inspect them for wear. Then replace the -motor head, timing gear case plate and manifolds, using new gaskets and -new lock washers. Next clean the spark plugs and ignition systems (see -chapter on Spark Plugs and Ignition System). - -Then we proceed to the different types of clutches. The cone clutch -usually does not require cleaning, but in cases where it has been -exposed to grease or lubricating oil the leather face may be cleaned -with a cloth dampened in kerosene, after which a thin coating of Neat’s -foot oil is applied to the leather facing. The cone is then replaced -and the springs adjusted until it runs true. This is determined by -holding it out and spinning it. - -The wet and dry plate clutches are treated in much the same manner. -First drain out all the oil or grease and wash out the housing with -kerosene. Examine all parts for wear and adjust or replace loose parts. -Fill the housing up to the slip shaft with fresh oil or grease, that -is, providing it is a wet plate clutch. The dry plate clutch need only -be washed with kerosene to remove any grease or dirt that has lodged on -the plates. - -=Cleaning the Transmission.=--First drain off the oil and wash the -gear with a brush dipped in kerosene. Then inspect the bearings for -looseness. If you find one badly worn, replace the bearing at each end -of the shaft. Next, examine the gears. If they are blunt, burred or -chipped, smooth them off on an emery wheel or with a coarse file. Wash -out the case with kerosene and fill with a thick transmission oil or -grease until the fartherest up meshing point is covered to the depth of -from 1 to 1¹⁄₂ inches. Examine the slots or notches on the horizontal -sliding shafts in the cover of the case which holds the gears in or out -of mesh. If the slots are badly worn it will be necessary to replace -sliding shafts or it may be necessary to replace the springs which hold -the ball or pin to the shaft and slots. - -The universal joints are cleaned and freed of all grease and dirt. The -bushings and trunion head are inspected for looseness. If any exists a -new set of bushings will usually remedy the trouble. The housing should -then be packed with a medium or fairly heavy cup grease. - -Next we come to the differential which is treated in the same manner as -the transmission, except that the housing is packed with a much heavier -grease, and new felt washers are placed at the outer end of the housing -where the axle extends to the wheels. - -The rear system is then jacked up until both wheels clear the ground. -The brakes are then tested and adjusted (see chapter on Brakes), and -the rear wheels tested for looseness. If the axle is of the full -floating type looseness may be taken up by withdrawing the axle and -loosening the lock nut back of the cone and driving the notched cone -ring to the right (facing it) until the play is taken up. When -looseness is found in the semi-floating or three quarters floating axle -it is necessary to replace the outer bearing which is located inside of -the outer end of the housing tube. - -Next examine the springs (see chapter on Springs and Spring Tests). - -This brings us to the steering gear, which should be inspected, -tightened up, and freed from all play at the various joints and -connections, after which it should be well packed with grease. - -The front wheels should be jacked up and tested for loose or worn -bearings and spindle pins. The bearings can usually be adjusted while -the loose spindle pin or bushing should be replaced. After the bearings -have been adjusted or replaced, pack the space in the hubs between the -bearings with a medium hard oil or cup grease, which will sufficiently -lubricate the bearings for 2000 miles of service. - -The wheels and axles are then lined up (See chapter on Alignment). - -Next, take a piece of sharp wire and remove all the dirt, gum, and -hard grease from oil holes supplying clevis joints and plain bearings. -Take up all play which is liable to produce noise and rattles with new -bolts, pins and washers. Clean and fill all grease cups boring out the -stem heads with a piece of wire. - -(See chapter on Washing, Painting, and Top and Body Care.) - - - - -CHAPTER XL - -REPAIR EQUIPMENT - - -The necessary repair equipment should be divided into two sets, one to -be carried with the car, which we will call road repair necessities, -such as 25 ft. of ⁵⁄₈″ manilla hemp rope, which will probably come in -very handy and save the original cost many times in one year. Even with -good roads and the general tendency toward improvements, there still -remains a great many miles of bad road that becomes very troublesome -with their customary chuck holes and slippery brims, which often -lead a motorist to bring up in a ditch after a short rain storm. The -advantages of this rope are explained in this way; should you slide -into the ditch or get into a deep rut, the wheels will usually spin and -you are helplessly stuck. A pull from a passing motorist, or farmer, -will help you out of your difficulty. Should any part of your car -break, or give out, any passing motorist or farmer will give you a tow -to the nearest garage and thereby avoid delays. - -Therefore, we will head our list of road repairs with: 25 ft. of ⁵⁄₈″ -manilla hemp rope, 2 inner tubes, 1 blowout patch, 1 outer shoe, 1 -set of chains, 1 jack, 1 pump, 1 tire gauge, 1 tube repair outfit and -patches, an extra spark plug, several cores and terminals, a few feet -of primary and secondary wire, 1 box of assorted bolts, nuts, washers -and cotter pins, 1 qt. can of lubricating oil, 1 complete set of good -tools neatly packed in a small box and secured to the floor of the car -under the rear seat by fastening both ends of a strap to the floor and -placing a buckle in the center which will hold the box securely and -avoid all noise. - -Garage repair equipment should consist of the following: 1 set of tire -jacks, 1 small vulcanizing set and supplies, 1 can of medium cup -grease, 1 can or tank of lubricating oil, 1 small vise, 1 box of felt -washers, 1 box of assorted cotter pins, 1 box of assorted nuts, 1 box -of assorted lock washers, 1 box assorted cap screws and bolts, 1 set -of assorted files, 1 hack saw, 1 Stilson wrench, 1 dope gun, 1 air -pressure oil can, 1 valve lifter, several valve and assorted springs, 1 -box of auto soap, 1 sponge and a good chamois skin. - -This outfit should all be purchased at the same time and each supply -and tool packed or placed in respective places, so that it will not be -necessary to look far and wide when you wish to use some particular -tool. With this equipment, and some knowledge and patience, the average -man should be able to keep his car in excellent condition by doing his -own adjusting and repairing. - - - - -CHAPTER XLI - -CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE - - -=Body.=--The body is the carrying part of the car and usually consists -of an oak or ash frame covered with a thin sheet steel. It is bolted to -the frame of the car, and aside from washing and cleaning and keeping -the bolts tight to prevent squeaks, it requires no further care. - -=Body Washing.=--When about to wash the body, soak the dirt off with a -gentle open stream of cold water. That is, remove the nozzle from the -hose, and do not rub. Remove mud before it gets dry and hard whenever -possible. Grease can be removed with soap suds and a soft sponge. Use a -neutral auto soap, and rub as little as possible. Rinse thoroughly with -a gentle stream of cold water, and dry and polish with a clean piece of -chamois skin. If the body has a dull appearance after washing, due to -sun exposure or too frequent washing, apply a good body polish lightly -and polish until thoroughly dry with a clean piece of gauze or cheese -cloth. - -=Running Gear Washing.=--Scrape the caked grease and dirt off from the -brake drums and axles, and scrub lightly with a soft brush dipped in -soap suds. Rinse thoroughly with a gentle stream of cold water. Dry -with a piece of cloth or a chamois. Old pieces of chamois skin which -are too dirty to use on the body can be used to dry the running gear. -If the running gear takes on a dirty appearance after becoming dry, go -over it with a cloth dampened with body polish. Tighten up all bolts -and make all adjustments while the car is clean. - -=Engine Cleaning.=--Clean the engine with a paint brush dipped in -kerosene. Then go over it with a cloth dampened with kerosene. - -=Top Cleaning.=--The top should never be folded until it is thoroughly -cleaned and dried. Dust on the outside can be removed by washing it -with clear cold water and castile soap. Be sure to rinse it thoroughly -with clear water. The inside should be dusted out with a whisk broom. -Be careful when folding it and see that the cloth is not pinched -between the sockets and bows, and always put on the slip cover when it -is folded to keep out the dust and dirt. - -=Curtain Cleaning.=--Wash the curtains with castile soap. After they -are dry go over them with a cloth dampened in body polish. Always roll -the curtains; never fold them. - -=Cleaning Upholstering.=--If the car is upholstered with leather or -imitation leather, it should be washed with warm water and castile -soap, then wiped off thoroughly with a clean cloth dampened in clear -warm water. If the upholstering is with cloth it should be brushed -thoroughly with a stiff whisk broom, then gone over lightly with a -cloth dampened in water to which a few drops of washing ammonia has -been added. - -=Rug Cleaning.=--Clean the rugs with a vacuum cleaner, or stiff whisk -broom. - -=Windshield Cleaning.=--Add a few drops of ammonia or kerosene to a -pint of warm water; and wash the wind shield with this solution and -polish with a soft cloth or tissue paper. - -=Sedan or Closed Body Cleaning.=--Follow directions given for cleaning -upholstering and windshields. - -=Tire Rim Cleaning.=--Remove the tires twice each season. Drive the -dents out of the rims, rub off all rust with sand paper, and file off -all sharp edges and paint the rims with a metal filler. Allow the paint -to dry thoroughly before replacing the tire. Rust on the rims causes -rapid tire and tube deterioration. - -=Tire Cleaning.=--Rinse the mud and dirt off the tires, and wash them -with soap suds and a coarse sponge. Rinse with clear water. - -=Lens Cleaning.=--To clean the light lens follow the instructions given -above for cleaning windshields. - -Cover the car at night to prevent garage dust from settling into the -pores of the paint. This type of dust causes the varnish to check and -take on a dull dirty appearance, and is very hard to remove without the -use of soap. Use a neutral soap and rinse thoroughly with clear cold -water. - -A good serviceable throw-cover can be made from any kind of cheap light -goods, or by sewing several old sheets together. - -=Caution.=--Do not dust the car immediately after driving it in the -sun and never use a feather duster as this only pads the dust into the -varnish, and scratches it. - -A good dusting cloth is made by dampening a soft cloth with an oil -polish. The cloth should be left to dry in the sun for several hours -after being dampened with oil. - -Rinsing the body off with clear cold water and drying it with a chamois -skin is always preferable as it produces a clean appearance and -freshens the paint. - - - - -CHAPTER XLII - -TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY, AND CARE - - -Building a tire is like building a house or laying a cement sidewalk; -the foundation must be right or the job will not stand up. - -The foundation of a tire as every motorist knows consists of -alternative layers of rubber, fabric, or cord, covered with a tread -and breaker strip of rubber. The tread and breaker strip, however, -are not worth the space they occupy if they are placed over a poorly -constructed foundation of cheaply made fabric. Therefore, great care -should be exercised in choosing a tire of standard make which has been -tested, inspected, and guaranteed to be in perfect condition, and gives -a mileage guarantee. - -The cheaper grades of tires may be very deceiving in looks, but the -point remains, that beneath the tread and breaker strip there must be -something that is cheaper in quality than the material used in building -a standard tire or it could not be sold for less, as tire building -material sells at a market price obtainable to all; and the standard -tire is usually produced in large quantities at a small profit, which -may be seen by comparing the production records and the dividends paid -on capitalization. - -This point alone shows the wise economy in purchasing tires of standard -build and avoiding all so-called low priced tires as they usually cost -the motorist considerable more before the average mileage of a good -tire is obtained. - -Tires given close attention will usually give from one to two thousand -more miles of service than those that do not receive prompt attention. -Therefore, close inspection should be made frequently for cuts, rents, -stone bruises, or a break in the tread which exposes the underlying -fabric to wear and dampness. - -When a break is discovered in either the tread or breaker strip, it -should be slightly enlarged and well cleaned. A coat of raw rubber -cement is applied and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is -applied, and when this coat is fairly dry, fill the indenture with raw -rubber gum and cook for thirty minutes with a small vulcanizer. The -cement, rubber, and vulcanizer may be purchased at any accessory store -for a couple of dollars. - -=Tire Care.=--Always keep the garage floor clean and free from oil, -grease and gasoline, in order that the tires may not come in contact -with it or stand in it. All three are deadly enemies to rubber. This -is easily accomplished by spreading a thin layer of sawdust or bran on -the floor and dampening it. This not only makes floor cleaning easy but -also keeps the air moist and causes the dust to settle quickly. - -When a tire comes in contact with either grease, oil, or gasoline, it -should immediately be washed with warm water and castile soap. - -Mud must not be allowed to dry and bake on the tires as it causes the -rubber to loose its springy elastic qualities, and dry-rot or rubber -scurvy takes place immediately, and the tread begins to crack and -crumble. - -=Tire Chains.=--Use tire chains only when they are absolutely necessary -to overcome road conditions, as the use of chains under the most ideal -conditions results in a certain amount of damage to the tires, and -also causes destruction to improved roads. Chains are easily put on by -stretching them out at the rear of the car and rolling the car on them. -The clamps should be placed forward in order that the contact with the -road may serve to keep them closed. - -Adjust the chains to the tire loosely in order that the cross chains -may work around and distribute the wear evenly. - -=Cross Chains.=--Inspect the cross chains occasionally for wear and -sharp edges. - -Do not use springs across the front of the wheel to hold the chains, -as they prevent the cross chains from working around on the tire and -the opposite side chain is often drawn onto the tread, and as these -chains are not continuous, the link connections wear and cut the tread -exposing the underlying layers of fabric to dampness and wear. - -=Tube Care.=--When an extra tube is carried with the car shake some -tire talc or soap stone on it and wrap with tissue paper. It can then -be carried in a small box with the tools without being damaged from -vibration. - -=Tube Repairing.=--A tube should always be vulcanized to make the -repair permanent; but in case you must make a road repair and have not -a vulcanizer with you, an emergency repair can be made by sticking on a -patch. The surface of the tube and the patch is cleaned and roughened -with a fine file or piece of emery paper. A coat of cement is applied -next and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is applied and allowed -to dry until it becomes tacky. The patch is then pressed on the tube -and held under pressure fifteen or twenty minutes until the cement -is dry. This repair will serve for a short time but should be made -permanent at the first opportunity. - -=Tire Storage.=--When the car is to be stored for the winter, the tires -should be left on the wheels and deflated to thirty pounds pressure -(that is, after they have been relieved of the weight of the car), -except in cases where the garage is cold and very damp and subjected to -weather changes. In this case remove the tires and hang them up in a -cool dry place (store room or cellar). - -Always remove the old valve cores from the valve stems and replace -them with new ones before putting the tires back into service, as the -rubber plungers deteriorate very rapidly when inactive. Valve cores -can be purchased at any service station in a small tin container for -thirty-five to fifty cents per dozen. - - - - -CHAPTER XLIII - -ELECTRICAL SYSTEM - -TUNING HINTS - - -The average car owner usually fights shy of the electrical system. This -deserves attention when overhauling the car, as well as any other part -of the car, and a few simple precautions will go a long way toward -eliminating electrical troubles. - -The entire electrical system should be gone over. One of the most -important things demanding inspection is the wiring. It often happens -that the insulation becomes chafed or worn, through contact with other -parts of the car. It is, therefore, important to look over the wiring -very carefully. Where there is any doubt as to the insulation being -insufficient, new wires should be used. This eliminates the possibility -of there being an accidental ground, or short circuit, rendering a part -or the entire system inoperative. - -All terminals should be gone over to determine whether they are clean -and tight. This is especially true of the terminals on the storage -battery, and at the point where the battery is grounded to the frame of -the car if it is a single wire system. - -The connections between the storage battery and the starting motor -should be clean and free from corrosion. If these connections are not -tight and clean, improper performance of the starting motor is the -result. - -Apply a small amount of vaseline to the battery terminals for -protection of the metal from the action of the acid fumes and -prevention of corrosion. It is well to have the battery inspected by a -battery specialist and any necessary repairs taken care of. - -Distributor and relay points should be examined to see if they are -pitted or burned. If they are, they should be smoothed down with a fine -platinum file and adjusted to the proper gap. It is essential that the -contact points meet squarely. If this is not done burning and pitting -will result. - -The generator and starting motor commutator should be examined for -undue wear and high mica. It may be necessary in order to insure good -performance that the commutator be turned down in a lathe and the mica -undercut. - -The brushes should be properly seated by careful sanding. This is -especially necessary when the commutator is turned down. It is -desirable to have three-quarters of the brush face bearing on the -commutator. This can be determined by examination of the glazed area on -the brush after running a short time. - -Should the starter drive be of the bendix type, the threaded shaft and -pinion should be cleaned, and any grease which has hardened should be -removed. - -Lamps should be examined. Dim and burned out lamps should be replaced. - -All connections of the lighting and ignition switch should be -inspected. It should be noted whether the terminals are touching, -or nearly touching. If any wires are rubbing thus, entailing the -possibility of a short circuit or ground, they should be fixed. - -Electric cables that rub on sharp edges of the battery box will -soon wear through the insulation from vibration of the car and a -short circuit will occur that may be hard to find. Such parts of the -wire should be well protected with adhesive tape and should be also -frequently inspected. - -High tension currents are very hard to control, and a short or leakage -often occurs where the wire is cramped. The center wire works or wears -through the rubber insulation causing the current to jump to the -nearest metal part. This kind of trouble is especially hard to locate -as the outer surface of the braided insulation does not show the break. - -It is a good plan to examine the wiring for short circuits occasionally -in this manner. When putting the car in at night, close the garage -door and turn out the lights, running the motor at various speeds and -gently moving each wire. If there are any short or grounded circuits a -brilliant spark will jump at the defective point. - - - - -CHAPTER XLIV - -AUTOMOBILE PAINTING - - -Painting a car requires a great amount of patience. But a fairly good -job may be done by the average amateur painter, providing the work is -done carefully and exactly. However, this work should be undertaken -only in a warm, dry room where it is possible to keep an even -temperature. - -The old paint is first removed with a paint remover, or solution which -is applied to the surface and allowed to penetrate into the pores. -Another coat is then applied. The surface is then scraped with a putty -knife until it is smooth and free from the old paint. In some cases it -may be found necessary to use a blow torch to soften the old paint. - -After the old paint has been thoroughly removed, the rough spots should -be smoothed over with a piece of sand or emery paper, and all counter -sunk screw heads, joinings, and scratches filled with putty, to make an -even surface. The metal primer is applied and allowed to dry. A second -coat consisting of equal parts of white lead, turpentine and boiled -oil is next applied and allowed to dry. Three or four coats of color -are applied next and allowed to dry. Colors come in a paste form, and -may be turned into a paste by adding a little turpentine. Two coats -of color and an equal amount of rubbing varnish are next applied in -turn and rubbed with powdered pumice stone and water. The car is then -stripped and allowed to dry, and the job finished by applying a coat of -finishing varnish. - -All the foreign matter and grease is removed from the running gear. The -rough places are scraped and rubbed with a piece of emery paper. Two -coats of metal primer are applied and allowed to dry. A coat of color -varnish is applied which completes the job. - - - - -CHAPTER XLV - -CARBON REMOVING - - -It is necessary to remove the carbon deposits from the combustion -chambers and piston heads at frequent intervals in order to maintain an -economical and efficient motor. - -There are various methods and ways of doing this without removing the -casting or cylinder head; that is, providing regular attention is given -to prevent the deposit from baking and forming in a shale which can be -removed only by burning or scraping. - -There are a number of carbon removing compounds on the market which -give excellent satisfaction, although some of these compounds may prove -very harmful unless the directions are followed very carefully. - -A great many owners use kerosene once or twice a month. An ounce or two -may be poured into each cylinder while they are quite warm and allowed -to stand for several hours. The motor is then turned over a few times -which allows the kerosene to escape through the valves. The particles -of carbon are blown out through the muffler when the motor is started. -Others prefer to feed it into the motor through the carburetor. This -is done by speeding up the motor and feeding a little at a time into -the float chamber or air valve. Others use chloroform, turpentine, and -alcohol in the same way. - -The latest method is to take the car to a garage and have the carbon -burnt out occasionally with a carbon dioxide flame. This vaporizes and -consumes the carbon and blows it out in the form of soot. The flame of -an acetylene welding outfit may be used successfully. Great care must -be taken to prevent fire. The carburetor is removed and the fuel line -drained and tied out of range of the flame. - -TROUBLES - - --------------------+------------------------+------------------------ - TROUBLE |CAUSE |REMEDY - --------------------+------------------------+------------------------ - Motor misses |Worn piston rings |New oversize rings - Motor misses |Pitted valve seats |Grind in valve seats - Motor misses |Loose locknut, tappets |Adjust tappets - Motor misses |Gas. mixture too heavy |Adjust carburetor - Motor misses |Gas. mixture too thin |Adjust carburetor - Motor misses |Contact points worn |Adjust points - Motor misses |Loose cable connections |Connect to terminal - | |posts - Motor misses |Cracked piston head |Replace piston - Motor misses |Cracked water jacket |Weld, rebore cylinder - Motor heats |Poor circulation |Flush out radiator - Motor heats |Insufficient lubrication|Clean oiling system - Motor heats |Excessive carbon deposit|_See_ chapter on Carbon - | |Removing - Motor heats |Cracked piston ring |Replace rings - Motor heats |Scored cylinder wall |Rebore cylinder - Motor heats |Tight main bearings |Lubricate plentifully - Motor heats |Heavy gas mixture |Adjust carburetor - Motor heats |Cylinders missing |_See_ Motor Misses - Motor heats |Worn distributor contact|Replace spring on block - |spring | - Motor back-fires |Lean mixture |Adjust carburetor - Motor back-fires |Valve open |Reseat valve, adj. - | |tappet - Motor back-fires |Ignition off time |_See_ ignition systems - Motor fails to start|Lack of gasoline |Fill tank - Motor fails to start|Vacuum in fuel tank |Open air hole in cap - Motor fails to start|Lack of current |Close circuit - Motor fails to start|Short circuit |Tape conductor at point - Motor fails to start|Discharged battery |Test with hydrometer; - | |have recharged - Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel |Clean carburetor - Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel |Clean screen at fuel - | |entrance to vacuum - | |system - Motor fails to start|Lack of fuel |Clean pipe from vacuum - | | system to carburetor - Motor fails to start|Ignition fouled |Clean corrosion from - | | terminals - Motor fails to start|Breaker points stuck |Redress lightly with - | |finger nail file - Motor fails to start|Plugs improperly set |Close points to - | |thickness of a dime - Motor fails to start|Oil on points |Clean plugs and screw - | |down tightly - Motor fails to start|Cracked porcelain |New plug - Motor fails to start|Open valves |Grind or reset valves - Motor fails to start|Valves stuck |Polish stems - Motor fails to start|Weak valve springs |Replace springs - Motor fails to start|Open circuit |Close switch - Motor misses |Defective spark plug |Replace - Motor misses |Disconnected wires |Connect up tightly - Motor misses |Dirty plugs |Clean - Motor misses |Poor compression |Replace gasket - | |New piston rings - Motor vibrates |Loose frame connection |Draw bolts down - Motor vibrates |Pistons sticking |Increase lubrication - Motor vibrates |Pistons weight uneven |Balance evenly - Motor vibrates |Defective spark plug |Clean, replace plug - Motor kicks |Preignition |Time ignition system - Motor kicks |Carbon, combustion |Scrape out, burn out - |chamber | - Motor knock head |Wrist pin bearing loose |Give pin ¹⁄₄ turn - Motor knock head |Loose connecting rod |Tighten upper bearing - Motor knock head |Valve slap |Adjust tappet - Motor knock base |Connecting rod loose |Adjust remove shim - Motor knock base |Main bearing loose |Adjust remove shim - Motor rumble |Flywheel loose |Adjust reseat - Motor rumble |Fan bearing loose |Adjust grease - Motor tipping |Fan blade strikes |Adjust bend blade - |radiator | - Motor tapping |Tappet worn |Adjust tighten lock nut - Motor compression |Thread stretch |Tighten head bolts - poor | | - Motor compression |Gasket burned or blown |Replace, new gasket - poor | | - Motor compression |Valve seat pitted |Grind, reset valve - poor | | - Motor compression |Valve guide worn |Replace bushing - poor | | - Motor compression |Valve stem warped |New valve - poor | | - Motor compression |Piston rings lined up |Distribute openings - poor | | - Motor compression |Cylinder wall scored |Oversize rings; rebore - poor | | - Universal joint |Loose sleeve connection |Tighten flange bolts - noise | | - Universal joint |Insufficient lubrication|Remove boot and pack - noise | |with grease - Universal joint slap|Worn bushings |Turn bushings end for - | |end - Universal joint slap|Worn trunion |New bushings - Differential noise |Dry |Fill with graphite - | |grease or 600 W - Differential click |Chipped gear |Replace - Differential knock |Broken out tooth |Replace - Differential growl |Ring gear mesh too deep |Back up trifle on - (steady) | |adjustment - Differential growl |Ring gear mesh too |Set up adjustment - (uneven) |loosely | - Differential growl |Axle shaft sprung |Retrue, replace - (uneven) | | - Differential growl |Loose bearing retainer |Tighten nuts - (uneven) | | - Brakes fail to |Rusted clevis joints |Lubricate with heavy - release | |grease - Brakes fail to |Broken coil spring |Replace - release | | - Brakes fail to |Stretched coil spring |Replace - release | | - Brake clatter |Loose adjustment |Adjust - Brake clatter |Worn lining |Reline the outer band - Brake clatter |Loose release spring |Adjust - Brake squeak |Dry lining |Four or five drops of - | |oil - Brake squeak |Burned lining |Replace - Brakes fail to grip |Lining worn down to |Replace - |rivet heads | - Brakes fail to grip |Overly lubricated |Wash with kerosene - Brakes fail to grip |Lining worn slick |Wash with kerosene and - | |roughen with file - Brakes fail to grip |Lining burned hard |Replace - Brakes fail to grip |Stretched rivets |Draw down - Brake rod rattle |Worn clevis pin |Replace - Brake rod rattle |Spread clevis yoke |Drive ends together - Brake rod rattle |Loose lock-nut behind |Tighten down - |clevis | - Brake rod rattle |Brake rods strike each |Tape one rod at contact - |other |point - Brake rod rattle |Dry connections |Lubricate with small - | |lump of grease - Torque rod rattle |Loose connections |Adjust - Torque rod rattle |Loose coil spring |Adjust - Emergency brake |Loose joint bearing |Replace bushing - lever rattle | | - Emergency brake |Worn plunger spring |Replace - lever rattle | | - Gear shift lever |Worn ball socket |Lubricate with heavy - rattle | |grease - Gear shift lever |Worn ball |Dent in socket with - rattle | |punch - Gear shift lever |Worn alignment spring |Replace - rattle |blades | - Gear shift lever |Worn bearing |Place thin washer at end - rattle | |of joint - Steering wheel play |Open mesh |Set up sector - Steering wheel play |Loose bearing |Turn down cone - Steering wheel play |Worn gear tooth |Take up on eccentric - | |bushing - Steering wheel play |Loose drag link sockets |Turn in end plug - Steering wheel |Dry |Pack with grease - stiffness | | - Radiator heats |Poor circulation |Flush radiator - Radiator heats |Jammed tubes |Remove jam and solder in - | |new piece tube - Radiator heats |Sediment in bottom tank |Flush out with soda - | |solution - Radiator heats |Stopped up overflow |Run wire through - Radiator freezes |Too much radiation |Cover bottom half of - | |radiator with cardboard - Radiator freezes |Jammed tubes |Cut out section; solder - | |in new piece - Radiator freezes |Sediment in bottom tank |Flush out with soda - | |solution - Vacuum tank spouts |Dirt on vacuum valve |Clean valve - gas |seat | - Vacuum tank |Dirt on vacuum valve |Clean valve - overflows |seat | - Vacuum tank fails |Suction pipe from |Clean pipe - |manifold stopped up | - Vacuum tank fails |Vacuum valve stuck |Clean valve - | | - Vacuum tank fails |Entrance screen stopped |Remove fuel line and - |up |clean screen - Vacuum tank fails |Loose connection at |Tighten joint - |manifold | - Vacuum tank fails |Plugged fuel line |Run wire through - | | - Carburetor wheeze |Choke valve out too far |Push in after starting - |on dash | - Carburetor wheeze |Choke valve wire too |Lengthen and adjust - |short | - Carburetor wheeze |Butterfly loose on air |Adjust and tighten - |valve pivot | - Carburetor chokes |Dirty valve |Grind needle valves - Carburetor chokes |Sediment in bowl |Clean out bowl - Carburetor chokes |Heavy mixture |Open air valve slightly - Carburetor chokes |Water in gas |Clean out bowl - Carburetor snaps |Thin mixture |Cut down air - Carburetor snaps |Water in gas |Strain gas through - | |chamois - Carburetor snaps |Dirt in fuel line |Run wire through - Carburetor snaps |Dirt under needle valve |Remove; clean seat - Carburetor overflows|Dirt on needle valve |Remove; clean seat - |seat | - Carburetor overflows|Cork float (water- |Dry in sun and shellac - |logged) | - Carburetor overflows|Metal float punctured |Punch hole opposite - | |leak, blow out, solder - | |both - Carburetor backfires|Worn intake valve |Replace bushing - |bushing | - Carburetor backfires|Defective spark plug |Replace - Carburetor backfires|Pitted valve seat |Reseat - Magneto roar |Armature shaft bearings |Two drops of light oil - |dry |in bearing well - Magneto click |Dry bearing |Two drops of light oil - | |in bearing well - Magneto fires uneven|Breaker points out of |Adjust points - |adjustment | - Magneto fires uneven|Open safety spark gap |Adjust gap to ¹⁄₁₆″ - Magneto fires uneven|Condensor short |Take to service station - |circuited | - Magneto fires uneven|Distributor segments |Take to service station - |worn | - Magneto fires uneven|Distributor brush worn |Take to service station - Magneto fires uneven|Distributor insulation |Take to service station - |cracked | - Magneto fires uneven|Coil short circuited |Take to service station - Distributor arm |Worn center bushing |Replace bushing - wabbles | | - Distributor fails |Spring blade broken in |Replace blade - |head | - Distributor fails |Worn contact point in |Cut down insulation - |head | - Distributor fails |Oil on contact block |Clean with kerosene - |blade | - Distributor fails |Contact points welded |File smooth, adjust - Distributor fails |Loose on shaft |Reset and retime - Distributor fails |Coil shorted from |Dry out thoroughly - |dampness | - Distributor fails |Punctured condensor |Replace - Distributor fails |Secondary wire short |Replace or tape - |circuited | - Distributor fails |Secondary wire |Connect to proper - |disconnected in switch |terminal - Starting motor fails|Corroded terminals |Clean and grease - Starting motor fails|Brush loose |Tighten and adjust to - | |even contact - Starting motor fails|Terminal from battery |Clean and tape - |short circuited to frame| - Starting motor fails|Starting switch short |Cut off end of wire, - |circuited |make new connection - Starting motor fails|Bennidict spring broken |Replace - Starting motor fails|Battery discharged |Recharge battery - Generator fails to |Disconnected |Replace heavy wire - charge | | - Generator fails to |Short circuit in cut-out|Make new connection - charge |switch | - Generator fails to |Brush out of contact |Adjust contact - charge | | - Generator noise |Dry bearings |Lubricate with light oil - Battery discharges |Plate short circuited |Take to service station - too quickly | | - Battery discharges |Leaky cell |Take to service station - too quickly | | - Battery discharges |Weak solution |Take to service station - too quickly | | - Battery discharges |Deteriorated plates |Take to service station - too quickly | | - Battery discharges |Dry plates |Cover plates with - too quickly | |distilled water - Battery overcharges |Insufficient use of |Burn lights and use - |current |starter frequently - Battery heats |Overcharging |Burn lights and use - | |starter frequently - Horn fails |Wire short circuited |Replace or tape - Horn fails |Brush making poor |Adjust brush evenly - |contact | - Horn fails |Brush making heavy |Adjust brush lightly - |contact | - Horn fails |Drum too tightly |Adjust through funnel - |adjusted | - Squeaks |Body loose on frame |Tighten four retainer - | |bolts - Squeaks |Dry springs |Lubricate with graphite - | |grease - Squeaks |Fuel tank loose |Tighten bands - Squeaks |Radiator loose |Tighten studs - Squeaks |Drip pan loose |Compress coil springs - Squeaks |Fender irons loose |Tighten bolts - Squeaks |Upper steering shaft |Pack with heavy grease - |bearing dry | - Rattles |Loose spring alignment |Bush and tighten - |clamp | - Rattles |Spread rod clevis open |Draw up ends and grease - Rattles |Demountable rim lugs |Draw up or replace - |loose | - Rattles |Door hinge screws loose |Draw up - Rattles |Door lock worn |Bush slot - Lights jar out |Wires short circuited |Tape worn insulation - Lights jar out |Weak plunger spring in |Stretch spring - |contact plug | - Lights fail |Poor contact |Remove wire and tape - | |insulation - Lights fail |Poor contact |Remove plugs and adjust - | |firmly in sockets - Lights dim |Globes carboned |Replace - Lights burn with |Globe out of adjustment |Turn back into socket - black spot in center| |firmly - - - - -APPENDIX - - -I - -FORD--MODEL-T - -THE CAR, ITS OPERATION, AND CARE - -Given in Questions and Answers--This Supplement also Covers the 1-Ton -Truck - - -_Q._ What should be done before starting the car? - -_A._ Before trying to start the car fill the radiator (by removing -the cap at the top) with clean fresh water. If perfectly clean water -cannot be obtained, it is advisable to strain it through muslin or -other similar material to prevent foreign matter from getting in and -obstructing the small tubes of the radiator. The system will hold -approximately three gallons of water. It is important that the car -should not be run under its own power unless the water circulating -system has been filled. Pour in the water until you are sure that both -radiator and cylinder water jackets are full. The water will run out -of the overflow pipe onto the ground when the entire water system has -been properly filled. During the first few days that a new car is being -driven it is a good plan to examine the radiator frequently and see -that it is kept well filled. The water supply should be replenished as -often as it is found necessary to do so. Soft rain water, when it is to -be had in a clean state, is superior to hard water, which may contain -alkalies and other salts which tend to deposit sediment and clog the -radiator. - -_Q._ What about gasoline? - -_A._ The ten gallon gasoline tank should be filled nearly full and -the supply should never be allowed to get low. Strain the gas through -chamois skin to prevent water and other foreign matter from getting -into the tank. Dirt or water in the gasoline is sure to cause trouble. -When filling the tank be sure that there are no naked flames within -several feet, as the vapor is extremely volatile and travels rapidly. -Always be careful about lighting matches near where gasoline has been -spilled, as the air within a radius of several feet is permeated with -the highly explosive vapor. The small vent hole in the gasoline tank -cap should not be allowed to get plugged up, as this would prevent -proper flow of gasoline to the carburetor. The gasoline tank may be -drained by opening the pet cock in the sediment bulb at the bottom of -the tank. - -_Q._ How about the oiling system? - -_A._ Upon receipt of the car see that a supply of medium light -high-grade gas engine oil is poured into the crank case through the -breather pipe at the front of the engine (a metal cap covers it). Down -under the car in the flywheel casing (the reservoir which holds the -oil) you will find two pet cocks. Pour oil in slowly until it runs out -of the upper cock. Leave the cock open until it stops running, then -close it. After the engine has become thoroughly warmed up, the best -results will be obtained by carrying the oil at a level midway between -the two cocks, but under no circumstances should it be allowed to get -below the lower cock. All other parts of the car are properly oiled -when it leaves the factory. However, it will be well to see that all -grease cups are filled and that oil is supplied to the necessary parts. -(See chapter on Lubrication.) - -_Q._ How are spark and throttle levers used? - -_A._ Under the steering wheel are two small levers. The right hand -(throttle) lever controls the amount of mixture (gasoline and air) -which goes into the engine. When the engine is in operation, the -farther the lever is moved downward toward the driver (referred to as -“opening the throttle”) the faster the engine runs and the greater the -power furnished. The left hand lever controls the spark which ignites -the gas in the cylinders of the engine. The advancing of this lever -“advances the spark,” and it should be moved down notch by notch until -the motor seems to reach its maximum speed. If the lever is advanced -beyond this point a dull knock will be heard in the engine. (See -chapter on Ignition.) - -_Q._ Where should these levers be when the engine is ready to crank? - -_A._ The spark lever should usually be put in about the third or fourth -notch of the quadrant (the notched half circle on which the levers -operate). The throttle should usually be opened five or six notches. -A little experience will soon teach you where these levers should be -placed for proper starting. Care should be taken not to advance the -spark lever too far as the engine may “back-kick.” - -_Q._ What else is necessary before cranking the engine? - -_A._ First, see that the hand lever that comes up through the floor of -the car at the left of the driver, is pulled back as far as it will go. -The lever in this position holds the clutch in neutral and engages the -hub brake, thus preventing the car from moving forward when the engine -is started. Second, after inserting the switch key in the switch on -the coil box, throw the switch lever as far to the left as it will go, -to the point marked “magneto.” This switch connects the magneto to the -engine. The engine cannot be started until it is on; and the throwing -off of the switch stops the engine. The next step is to crank the -engine. - -_Q._ How is the engine cranked? - -_A._ By the lifting of the starting crank at the front of the car. -Take hold of the handle and push it toward the car until you feel the -crank ratchets engage, then lift upward with a quick swing. With a -little experience this operation will become an easy matter. Do not -as a usual thing crank downward against the compression, for then an -early explosion may drive the handle vigorously backward. This does not -mean, however, that it is advisable, when the car is hard to start, -to occasionally “spin” the engine with the starting handle but be -sure that the spark is retarded when spinning or cranking the engine -against compression, otherwise a sudden back-fire may injure the arm -of the operator. When the engine is cool it is advisable to prime the -carburetor by pulling on the small wire at the lower left-hand side of -the radiator while giving the engine two or three quarter turns with -the starting handle. - -_Q._ How is the engine best started in cold weather? - -_A._ As gasoline does not vaporize readily in cold weather, it is -naturally more difficult to start the motor under such conditions. The -usual method of starting the engine when cold is to turn the carburetor -dash adjustment one-quarter turn to the left in order to allow a richer -mixture of gasoline to be drawn into the cylinders. Then hold out the -priming rod which projects through the radiator while you turn the -crank from six to eight quarter turns in quick succession. Another -method of starting a cold troublesome motor is as follows: Before -you throw on the magneto switch, (1) close throttle lever. (2) Hold -out the priming rod while you crank several quick turns, then let go -of the priming rod, being careful that it goes back all the way. (3) -Place spark lever in about the third notch and advance throttle lever -several notches. (4) Throw on switch being sure to get it on the side -marked “magneto.” (5) Give crank one or two turns and the motor should -start. After starting the motor it is advisable to advance the spark -eight or ten notches on the quadrant and let the motor run until it is -thoroughly warmed up. - -If you start out with a cold motor you will not have much power and -are liable to “stall.” The advantage of turning on the switch last, or -after priming, is that when you throw on the switch and give the crank -one-quarter turn you have plenty of gas in the cylinders to keep the -motor running, thereby eliminating the trouble of the motor starting -and stopping. After motor is warmed up turn carburetor adjustment back -one-quarter turn. - -_Note._ Many drivers make a practice of stopping their engine by -walking around in front of the car and pulling out on the priming rod -which has the effect of shutting off the air suction and filling the -cylinders full of a very rich gasoline vapor. This should not be done -unless the car is going to stand over night or long enough to cool off. -If the motor is stopped in this way and then started when hot, starting -is apt to be difficult on account of the surplus gasoline in the -carburetor. - -_Q._ How do the foot pedals operate? - -_A._ The first one toward the left operates the clutch, and by it the -car is started and its operations largely controlled. When pressed -forward the clutch pedal engages the low speed gear. When halfway -forward the gears are in neutral (i. e., disconnected from the driving -mechanism of the rear wheels), and, with the hand lever thrown forward -the releasing of the pedal engages the high-speed clutch. The right -hand pedal operates the transmission brake. - -_Q._ What function does the hand lever perform? - -_A._ Its chief purpose is to hold the clutch in neutral position. If -it were not for this lever the driver would have to stop the engine -whenever he left the driver’s seat. He would also be unable to crank -the engine without the car starting forward with the first explosion. -When pulled back as far as it will go, the hand lever acts as an -emergency lever on the rear wheels, by expanding the brake shoes in the -rear wheel drums. Therefore the hand lever should be back as far as it -will go when cranking the engine or when the car is at rest. It should -be only in a vertical position, and not far enough backward to act as a -brake on the rear wheels when the car is to be reversed. When the car -is operating in high or low speed the hand lever should be all the way -forward. - -_Q._ How is the car started? - -_A._ Slightly accelerate the engine by opening the throttle. Place -the foot on the clutch pedal, and thereby hold the gears in a neutral -position while throwing the hand lever forward. Then to start the -car in motion, press the pedal forward into low speed and when under -sufficient headway (20 to 30 feet), allow the pedal to drop back -slowly into high speed, at the same time partially closing the throttle -which will allow the engine to pick up its load easily. With a little -practice the change of speeds will be easily accomplished, and without -any appreciable effect on the smooth running of the machine. - -_Q._ How is the car stopped? - -_A._ Partially close the throttle. Release the high speed by pressing -the clutch pedal forward into neutral. Apply the foot brake slowly -but firmly until the car comes to a dead stop. Do not remove the foot -from the clutch pedal without first pulling the hand lever back to -neutral position, or the engine will stall. To stop the motor, open -the throttle a trifle to accelerate the motor and then throw off the -switch. The engine will then stop with the cylinders full of gas, which -will naturally facilitate starting. - -Endeavor to so familiarize yourself with the operation of the car -that to disengage the clutch and apply the brake becomes practically -automatic, the natural thing to do in case of emergency. - -_Q._ How is the car reversed? - -_A._ It must be brought to a dead stop. With the engine running, -disengage the clutch with the hand lever and press the reverse pedal -forward with the left foot, the right foot being free to use on the -brake pedal if needed. Do not bring the hand lever back too far or you -will set the brakes on the rear wheels. Experienced drivers ordinarily -reverse the car by simply holding the clutch pedal in neutral with the -left foot, and operating the reverse pedal with the right. - -_Q._ How is the spark controlled? - -_A._ By the left hand lever under the steering wheel. Good operators -drive with the spark lever advanced just as far as the engine will -permit. But if the spark is advanced too far a dull knock will be -heard in the motor, due to the fact that the explosion occurs before -the piston in the engine has completed its compression stroke. The -best results are obtained when the spark occurs just at the time that -piston reaches its highest point of travel, the gas being then at its -highest point of compression. The spark should only be retarded when -the engine slows down on a heavy road or steep grade, but care should -be exercised not to retard the spark too far, for when the spark is -“late” instead of getting a powerful explosion, a slow burning of gas -with excessive heat will result. Learn to operate the spark as the -occasion demands. The greatest economy in gasoline consumption is -obtained by driving with the spark advanced sufficiently to obtain the -maximum speed. - -_Q._ How is speed of car controlled? - -_A._ The different speeds required to meet road conditions are obtained -by opening or closing the throttle. Practically all the running speeds -needed for ordinary travel are obtained on high gear, and it is seldom -necessary to use the low gear except to give the car momentum in -starting. The speed of the car may be temporarily slackened in driving -through crowded traffic, turning corners, etc., by “slipping the -clutch,” i. e., pressing the clutch pedal forward into neutral. - -_Q._ Is it advisable for owners to make their own adjustments? - -_A._ The Ford is the simplest of all cars. Most of the ordinary -adjustments an owner will soon learn to make for himself. But we -must strongly recommend that when it becomes necessary to employ the -services of a mechanic, the car be taken to a Ford mechanic--one of -our own representatives who thoroughly understands the car--and who -will have no motive for running up useless repair bills. The entire -Ford organization is interested in keeping every individual Ford car in -constant operation, at the lowest possible cost. We have known of much -damage done to many cars by unskilled repair men. - -_Q._ What attention does the car need? - -_A._ Remember that a new machine requires more careful attention during -the first few days it is being driven than after the parts have become -thoroughly “worked in.” The car which is driven slowly and carefully -when new usually gives the most satisfactory service in the end. Never -start out with your car until you are sure that it has plenty of oil -and water. Frequently inspect the running gear. See that no unnecessary -play exists in either front or rear wheels, and that all bolts and nuts -are tight. Make a practice of taking care of every repair or adjustment -as soon as its necessity is discovered. This attention requires but -little time and may avoid delay or possible accident on the road. We -aim to deliver the car in proper mechanical adjustment. Afterwards it -is plainly the duty of the driver to keep it in that condition. - - -II - -THE FORD ENGINE - - -_Q_. What is the principle of the gasoline driven engine? - -_A_. Gasoline when mixed with air and compressed is highly explosive. -An explosion is a violent expansion caused by instantaneous combustion -of confined gases. In the gasoline engine the mixture is drawn into -the cylinder, where it is compressed by an advancing piston and then -exploded by an electric spark, which sends the piston violently -downward, and through the connecting rod imparts a rotary motion to the -crank shaft. (See cut No. 147.) - -_Q_. What are functions of the pistons? - -_A_. On the downward stroke the suction of the piston draws the fresh -gas from the carburetor, through the inlet pipe and valve, into the -cylinder. The upward movement of the piston compresses the gas into a -very small space, between the top of the piston and the depression in -the cylinder head, known as the “combustion chamber.” (The compressed -gases inert a pressure of approximately 60 pounds to the square inch.) -At this point the electric spark, generated by the magneto, explodes -the gas-driving piston downward, thus producing the power which turns -the crank shaft. On the next stroke upward the piston drives the -exploded gas out through the exhaust valve and pipe to the muffler. The -accompanying cut shows clearly the relative positions of the pistons -and valves during the different strokes. - -_Q_. How is the connecting rod removed? - -_A_. It is a vanadium steel rod connecting piston and crank shaft. -Should the babbitt bearing become worn, or burned out through lack of -oil, a knocking in the engine will result, in which case the entire -connecting rod should be replaced. To make this replacement, (1) drain -oil from crank case; (2) take off cylinder head; (3) remove detachable -plate on bottom of crank case; (4) disconnect connecting rod from crank -shaft; (5) take piston and rod out through top of cylinder. - -[Illustration: - - Exhaust Valve - - Spark Plug - - Exhaust and Intake - Pipe Clamp - - Cylinder - Head Bolt - - Top Water Connection - - Intake Valve - - Water Chamber - - Comp. Chamber - - Reverse Pedal - - Piston Ring - - Cylinder - Head - - Fan - - Crank Handle - - Clutch Pedal - - Piston - - Exhaust - Manifold - - Grease Cup - - Brake Pedal - - Magneto Contact - - Fan Bracket - - Transmission Cover - - Magneto - Contact Point - - Intake Pipe - - Fan Bracket Bolt - - Bracket Pipe - - Triple Gear - - Fan Belt - - Adjusting Nut - - Large Time Gear - - Reverse Band - - Commutator - - Slow Speed Band - - Com. Wire Terminal - - Brake Band - - Starting Pin - - Driving Plate - - Drive Pulley - - Starting Crank - - Starting Crank Spring - - Cam Shaft - Front Bearing - - Starting Crank Sleeve - - Starting Crank Ratchet - - Clutch Spring - - Push Rod - - Small Time Gear - - Clutch Release Fork - - Cam Shaft Rear Bearing - - Crank Case Oil Tube - - Crank Shaft Front Bearing - - Clutch Release Ring - - Magneto - - Crank Shaft Rear Bearing - - Crank Shaft Center Bearing - - Valve Spring - - Clutch Shift - - Magneto Support - - Magneto Coil Support - - Crank Shaft - - Cam Shaft - - Clutch Finger - - Magneto Clamp - - Magneto Coil - - Connecting Rod - - Oil Level - - Flywheel - - Oil Cocks - - Oil Drain Plug - -Fig. 147. Ford Motor--Sectional View] - -_Q._ What is the valve arrangement? - -_A._ One intake and one exhaust valve are located in each cylinder. The -former admits the fresh gas drawn from the carburetor through the inlet -pipe, the latter permits the exploded gas to be driven out through the -exhaust pipe. The valves are alternately opened and closed (see Fig. -148) by the cams on the cam shaft striking against push rods which in -turn lift the valves from their seats. - -[Illustration: - - Intake Stroke - Exhaust Valve Closed - Intake Valve Open - - Exhaust Valve Closed - Intake Valve Closed - Explosion Stroke - - Compression Stroke - Intake Valve Closed - Exhaust Valve Closed - - Intake Valve Closed - Exhaust Valve Open - Exhaust Stroke - - Push Rod - - Large Time Gear - - Comm. Brush Assb. - - Zero Marks on Time Gear - - Small Time Gear - - Crank Shaft - - Cam Shaft - - Exhaust Cam - - Connecting Rod - - Intake Cam - -Fig. 148. Ford Motor--Valve and Cylinder Assembly] - -_Q._ What about valve timing? - -_A._ In timing the engine the points of opening and closing of the -valves are, of course, what should be considered. As the valves are -properly timed at the factory when the engine is built, the necessity -for retiming would occur only when such parts as the cam shaft, time -gears, or valves were removed in overhauling the engine. In fitting -the large time gear to the cam shaft it is important to see that the -first cam points in a direction opposite to the zero mark (see Fig. -148). The time gears must also mesh so that the tooth marked (0) on -the small time gear will come between the two teeth on the large gear -at the zero point. The time gears now being properly set, the exhaust -valve on No. 1 cylinder is open and the intake valve closed, the other -valves being in the position indicated in cut No. 148. The opening and -closing of the valves are as follows: The exhaust valve opens when the -piston reaches ⁵⁄₁₆″ of bottom center, the distance from the top of the -piston head to the top of the cylinder casting measuring 3³⁄₈″. The -exhaust valve will close on top center, the piston being ⁵⁄₁₆″ above -the cylinder casting. The intake valve opens ¹⁄₁₆″ after the top center -and closes ⁹⁄₁₆″ after bottom center, the distance from the top of the -piston to the top of the cylinder casting measuring 3¹⁄₈″ The clearance -between the push rod and the valve stem should never be greater than -¹⁄₃₂″ nor less than ¹⁄₆₄″. The correct clearance is naturally halfway -between these two measurements. The gap should be measured when the -push rod is on the heel of the cam. - -_Q._ What about the care of the valves? - -_A._ They seldom get out of order, but they do get dirty as a result -of carbon collecting on the valve seats. These carbon deposits, by -preventing proper closing of the valves, permit the gases under -compression to escape, resulting in loss of power and uneven running -of the motor. If, when turning the engine over slowly, there is lack -of resistance in one or more cylinders, it is probable that the valves -need regrinding. As the “life” of the engine depends largely upon the -proper seating of the valves, it is necessary that they be ground -occasionally. - -_Q._ How are valves removed for grinding? - -_A._ (1) Draining radiator; (2) remove cylinder head; (3) remove the -two valve covers on the right side of the engine; (4) raise the valve -spring with lifting tool and pull out the little pin under the valve -seat. The valve may then be lifted out by the head, preparatory to -grinding. - -_Q._ How are valves ground? - -_A._ For this work use a good grinding paste of ground glass and oil -procurable from auto supply houses. A convenient way is to put a small -amount in a suitable dish, adding a spoonful or two of kerosene and a -few drops of lubricating oil to make a thin paste. Place the mixture -sparingly on the bevel face of the valve. Put the valve in position on -the valve seat, and rotate it back and forth (about a quarter turn) a -few times with a Ford grinding tool. Then lift slightly from the seat, -change the position and continue the rotation, and keep on repeating -this operation until the bearing surface is bright and smooth. The -valve should not be turned through a complete rotation, as this is -apt to cause scratches running around the entire circumference of the -valve and seat. When the grinding is completed the valve should be -removed from the cylinder, thoroughly washed with kerosene, and the -valve seat wiped out thoroughly. Extreme care should be taken that no -abrasive substance gets into the cylinders or valve guides. This can be -avoided if the grinding paste is applied sparingly on the bevel face -of the valve. If the valve seat is worn badly or smeared, it is best -to have it reseated with a valve seating tool. This operation requires -considerable skill, and perhaps had better be done by an expert -mechanic. Care should be exercised against making too deep a cut, -necessitating the retiming of the valve. - -_Q._ What should be done when the valves and push rods are worn? - -_A._ When the valves and push rods become worn so as to leave too much -play between them, thus reducing the lift of the valves and diminishing -the power of the motor, it is best to replace the push rods with new -ones. The clearance between the push rod and the valve stem should -never be greater than ¹⁄₃₂″ nor less than ¹⁄₆₄″. If the clearance is -greater, the valve will open late and close early, resulting in uneven -running of the motor. If the clearance is less than ¹⁄₆₄″ there is -danger of the valve remaining partially open all the time. If replacing -the push rod does not give the proper clearance, the valve should also -be replaced. We do not recommend drawing out the valve stem, as the -operation required, and the price of a new part does not warrant the -time and expense necessary to properly do the work. - -_Q._ What about valve springs? - -_A._ When the valves fail to seat themselves properly, there is a -possibility that the springs may be weak or broken. A weak inlet spring -would probably not affect the running of the engine, but weakness -in the exhaust valve spring causes a very uneven action, which is -difficult to locate. The symptoms are a lag in the engine due to the -exhaust valve not closing instantaneously, and as a result a certain -per cent. of the charge under compression escapes, greatly diminishing -the force of the explosion. Weakness in a valve spring can usually be -detected by the following method: Remove the plate which encloses them -at the side of the cylinder and insert a screw driver between the coils -of the spring while the engine is running. If the extra tension thus -produced causes the engine to pick up speed, the spring is obviously -weak and should be replaced by a new one. - -_Q._ What causes “knocking” in the engine? - -_A._ There are several causes which may be enumerated as follows: -(1) carbon knock, which is by far the most common, resulting from -carbonizing of cylinders; (2) knock caused by a too advanced spark; -(3) connecting rod knock; (4) crank shaft main bearing knock; (5) -knock due to loose fitting piston or broken ring; (6) knock caused by -piston striking the cylinder head gasket. When the engine knocks from -any cause whatsoever, the matter should be promptly investigated by an -experienced mechanic and the difficulty corrected. - -_Q._ How may the different knocks be distinguished? - -_A._ (1) The carbon knock is a clear hollow sound most noticeable in -climbing sharp grades, particularly when the engine is heated. It is -also indicated by a sharp rap immediately on advancing the throttle. -(2) Too advanced spark will be indicated by a dull knock in the motor. -(3) The connecting rod knock sound is like the distant tapping of steel -with a small hammer, and is readily distinguished when the car is -allowed to run idly down grade or upon speeding the car to twenty-five -miles an hour, then suddenly closing the throttle, the tapping will -be very distinct. (4) The crank shaft main bearing knock can be -distinguished as a dull thud when the car is going up hill. (5) The -loose piston knock is heard only upon suddenly opening the throttle, -when the sound produced might be likened to a rattle. The remedies for -these knocks are treated under their proper divisions. - -_Q._ How is carbon removed from the combustion chamber? - -_A._ First, drain the water off by opening the pet cock at the bottom -of the radiator; then disconnect the wires at the top of the motor and -also the radiator connection attached to the radiator. Remove the 15 -cap screws which hold the cylinder head in place. Take off the cylinder -head and, with a putty knife or screw driver, scrape from the cylinder -and piston heads the carbonized matter, being careful to prevent the -specks of carbon from getting into the cylinders or bolt holes. In -replacing the cylinder head gasket turn the motor over so that No. 1 -and No. 4 pistons are at top center; place the gasket in position over -the pistons and then put the cylinder head in place. Be sure and draw -the cylinder head bolts down evenly (i. e., give each bolt a few turns -at a time). Do not tighten them on one end before drawing them up at -the other. - -_Q._ How are spark plugs cleaned? - -_A._ After removing the plug from the engine the points may be -cleaned with an old tooth brush dipped in gasoline. However, to do -the work thoroughly, the plug should be taken apart by securing the -large hexagon steel shell in a vise and loosening the pack nut which -holds the porcelain in place. The carbon deposits can then be easily -removed from the porcelain and shell with a small knife. Care should -be exercised not to scrape off the glazed surface of the porcelain, -otherwise it will be apt to carbonize quickly. The porcelain and other -parts should be finally washed in gasoline and wiped dry with a cloth. - -In assembling the plug care should be taken to see that the pack -nut is not tightened too much so as to crack the porcelain, and the -distance between the sparking points should be ¹⁄₃₂″, about the -thickness of a smooth dime. Dirty plugs usually result from an excess -of oil being carried in the crank case, or from using oil of poor -quality. - -_Q._ How is the power plant removed from the car? - -_A._ (1) Drain the water out of the radiator and disconnect the -radiator hose. (2) Disconnect the radiator stay rod which holds it -to the dash. (3) Take out the two bolts which fasten the radiator to -the frame and take radiator off. (4) Disconnect the dash at the two -supporting brackets which rest on the frame. (5) Loosen the steering -post bracket, fastened to the frame, when the dash and steering -gear may be removed as one assembly, the wires first having been -disconnected. (6) Take out the bolts holding the front radius rods in -the socket underneath the crank case. (7) Remove the four bolts at the -universal joint. (8) Remove pans on either side of cylinder casting and -turn off gasoline; disconnect feed pipe from carburetor. (9) Disconnect -exhaust manifold from exhaust pipe by uncovering large brass pack nut. -(10) Take out the two cap screws which hold the crank case to the front -frame. (11) Remove the bolts which hold the crank case arms to the -frame at the side. Then pass a rope through the opening between the -two middle cylinders and tie in a loose knot. Through the rope pass a -“2 by 4,” or stout iron pipe about ten feet long, and let a man hold -each end; let a third man take hold of the starting crank handle, when -the whole power plant can be lifted from the car to the work bench for -adjustment. - -_Q._ How are the connecting rod bearings adjusted? - -_A._ Connecting rod bearings may be adjusted, without taking out the -engine, by the following method: (1) Drain off the oil; (2) Remove -plate on bottom of crank case, exposing connecting rods; (3) Take off -the first connecting rod cap, and drawfile the ends a very little -at a time; (4) Replace cap, being careful to see that punch marks -correspond, and tighten bolts until it fits shaft snugly; (5) Test -tightness of bearing by turning engine over with the starting handle. -Experienced mechanics usually determine when the bearing is properly -fitted by lightly tapping each side of the cap with a hammer; (6) then -loosen the bearing and proceed to fit the other bearings in the same -manner; (7) after each bearing has been properly fitted and tested, -then tighten the cap bolts and the work is finished. - -Remember that there is a possibility of getting the bearings too tight, -and under such conditions the babbitt is apt to cut out quickly, unless -precaution is taken to run the motor slowly at the start. It is a good -plan after adjusting the bearings to jack up the rear wheels and let -the motor run slowly for about two hours (keeping it well supplied with -water and oil) before taking it out on the road. Whenever possible -these bearings should be fitted by an expert Ford mechanic. - -Worn connecting rods may be returned, prepaid, to the nearest agent -or branch house for exchange at a price of 75 cents each to cover -the cost of rebabbitting. It is not advisable for any owner or -repair shop to attempt the rebabbitting of connecting rods or main -bearings, for without a special jig in which to form the bearings, -satisfactory results will not be obtained. The constant tapping of -a loose connecting rod on the crank shaft will eventually produce -crystallization of the steel, resulting in broken crank shaft and -possibly other parts of the engine damaged. - -_Q._ How are the crank shaft main bearings adjusted? - -_A._ Should the stationary bearings in which the crank shaft revolves -become worn (evidenced by a pounding in the motor) and need replacing -or adjustment, proceed as follows: (1) After the engine has been taken -out of the car, remove crank case, transmission cover, cylinder head, -pistons, connecting rods, transmission and magnetic coils. Take off -the three babbitted caps and clean the bearing surfaces with gasoline. -Apply Persian blue or red lead to the crank shaft bearing surfaces, -which will enable you, in fitting the caps, to determine whether a -perfect bearing surface is obtained. - -(2) Place the rear cap in position and tighten it up as much as -possible without stripping the bolt threads. When the bearing has been -properly fitted, the crank will permit moving with one hand. If the -crank shaft cannot be turned with one hand, the contact between the -bearing surface is evidently too close, and the cap requires ohming -up, one or two brass lines usually being sufficient. In case the crank -shaft moves too easily with one hand, the shims should be removed and -the steel surface of the cap filed off, permitting it to set closer. - -(3) After removing the cap, observe whether the blue or red “spottings” -indicate a full bearing the length of the cap. If “spottings” do not -show a true bearing, the babbitt should be scraped and the cap refitted -until the proper results are obtained. - -(4) Lay the rear cap aside and proceed to adjust the center bearing in -the same manner. Repeat the operation with the front bearing, with the -other two bearings laid aside. - -(5) When the proper adjustment of each bearing has been obtained, clean -the babbitt surface carefully and place a little lubricating oil on the -bearings, also on the crank shaft; then draw the caps up as closely -as possible, the necessary shims, of course, being in place. Do not -be afraid of getting the cap bolts too tight, as the shim under the -cap and the oil between the bearing surfaces will prevent the metal -being drawn into the close contact. If oil is not put on the bearing -surfaces, the babbitt is apt to cut out when the motor is started up -before the oil in the crank case can get into the bearing. In replacing -the crank case and transmission cover on the motor, it is advisable to -use a new set of felt gaskets to prevent oil leaks. - - -III - -THE FORD COOLING SYSTEM - - -_Q._ How is the engine cooled? - -_A._ The heat generated by the constant explosions in the engine -would soon overheat and ruin the engine were it not cooled by some -artificial means. The Ford engine is cooled by the circulation of -water in jackets around the cylinders. The heat is extracted from the -water by its passage through the thin metal tubing of the radiator, to -which are attached scientifically worked out fins, which assist in the -rapid radiation of the heat. The fan, just back of the radiator, sucks -the air around the tubing through which the air is also driven by the -forward movement of the car. The belt should be inspected frequently -and tightened by means of the adjusting screw in the fan bracket when -necessary. It should not be too tight, however. Take up the slack till -the fan starts to bind when turned by hand. - -_Q._ How does the water circulate? - -_A._ The cooling apparatus of the Ford car is known as the -thermo-syphon system. It acts on the principle that hot water seeks -a higher level than cold water. Consequently when the water reaches -a certain heat, approximately 180 degrees Fahrenheit, circulation -commences and the water flows from the lower radiator outlet pipe up -through the water jackets, into the upper radiator water tank, and down -through the tubes to the lower tank, to repeat the process. - -_Q._ What are the causes of overheating? - -_A._ (1) Carbonized cylinders; (2) too much driving on low speed; (3) -spark retarded too far; (4) poor ignition; (5) not enough or poor grade -oil; (6) racing motor; (7) clogged muffler; (8) improper carburetor -adjustment; (9) fan not working properly on account of broken or -slipping belt; (10) improper circulation of water due to clogged or -jammed radiator tubes, leaky connections or low water. - -_Q._ What should be done when the radiator overheats? - -_A._ Keep the radiator full. Do not get alarmed if it boils -occasionally, especially in driving through mud and deep sand or up -long hills in extremely warm weather. Remember that the engine develops -the greatest efficiency when the water is heated nearly to the boiling -point. But if there is persistent overheating when the motor is working -under ordinary conditions, find the cause of the trouble and remedy -it. The chances are that the difficulty lies in improper driving or -carbonized cylinders. Perhaps twisting the fan blades at a greater -angle to produce more suction may bring desired results. By reference -to the proper division of this book each of the causes which contribute -to an overheated radiator is treated and remedies suggested. No trouble -can result from the filling of an overheated radiator with cold water, -providing the water system is not entirely empty, in which case the -motor should be allowed to cool before the cold water is introduced. - -_Q._ How about cleaning the radiator? - -_A._ The entire circulation system should be flushed out occasionally. -To do this properly, the radiator inlet and outlet hose should be -disconnected, and the radiator flushed out by allowing the water to -enter the filler neck at ordinary pressure, from whence it will flow -down through the tubes and out at the drain cock and hose. The water -jackets can be flushed out in the same manner. Simply allow the water -to enter into the cylinder head connections and to flow through the -water jackets and out at the side inlet connection. - -_Q._ Will the radiator freeze in winter? - -_A._ Yes; unless an anti-freezing solution is used in the circulating -system you are bound to experience trouble. As the circulation does -not commence until the water becomes heated, it is apt to freeze at -low temperature before it commences to circulate. In case any of the -radiator tubes happen to be plugged or jammed they are bound to freeze -and burst open if the driver undertakes to get along without using a -non-freezing solution. Wood or denatured alcohol can be used to good -advantage. The following table gives the freezing points of solutions -containing different percentages of alcohol: 20% solution freezes at -15 degrees above zero. 30% solution freezes at 8 degrees below zero. -50% solution freezes at 34 degrees below zero. A solution composed of -60% water, 10% glycerine and 30% alcohol is commonly used, its freezing -point being about 8 degrees below zero. On account of evaporation -fresh alcohol must be added frequently in order to maintain the proper -solution. - -_Q._ How are leaks and jams in the radiator repaired? - -_A._ A small leak may be temporarily repaired by applying brown soap or -white lead, but the repair should be made permanent with solder as soon -as possible. A jammed radiator tube is a more serious affair. While the -stopping of one tube does not seriously interfere with the circulation, -it is bound to cause trouble sooner or later, and the tube will freeze -in cold weather. Cut the tube an inch above and below the jam and -insert a new piece, soldering the connections. If the entire radiator -is badly jammed or broken it would probably be advisable to install a -new one. - - -IV - -THE GASOLINE SYSTEM - - -_Q._ How does the carburetor work? - -_A._ The carburetor is of the automatic float feed type, having but -one adjustment, the gasoline needle valve. The cross-section diagram -of carburetor (Fig. 149) shows how the gasoline enters the carburetor, -is vaporized by a current of air and passes through the inlet pipe to -the engine in the form of an explosive mixture. The gasoline, entering -the bowl of the carburetor, gradually raises the float to a point -where the inlet needle is forced upwards into its seat, thus cutting -off the flow of gasoline. As the gasoline in the bowl recedes, the -float lowers, allowing the needle to drop from its seat and the flow -of gasoline is resumed. It is plain to see that a constant level of -gasoline is maintained in the carburetor by the automatic action of -float and needle. The quantity of gasoline entering into the mixture is -governed by the needle valve (_see_ following page). The volume of gas -mixture entering the inlet pipe is controlled by opening and closing -the throttle, according to the speed desired by the driver. - -[Illustration: - - Gasoline Tank - - Inlet Pipe - - Needle Valve - - Needle Valve - Lock Screw - - Air Gate Lever - - Throttle Lever - - Clamp Screw - - Screen - (Gasoline Strainer) - - Air Current - - Throttle - Stop Screw - - Air Intake Gate - - Throttle Gate - - Stop Cock - - Cork Float - - Gasoline Inlet Needle - - Sediment Bulb - - Feed Pipe - - Carburetor - Drain Cock - - Sediment Bulb - Drain Cock - -Fig. 149. Ford Fuel System] - -_Q._ Why is carburetor adjustment placed on dash? - -_A._ For the convenience of the driver in adjusting the carburetor. -After the new car has become thoroughly worked in, the driver should -observe the angle of the carburetor adjustment rod at which the -engine runs most satisfactorily. In cold weather it will probably be -found necessary to turn the dash adjustment one-quarter turn to the -left, particularly in starting a cold engine. As gasoline vaporizes -readily in warm weather, the driver will find it economical to reduce -the quantity of gasoline in the mixture by turning the carburetor -adjustment to the right as far as possible without reducing the speed. -This is particularly true when taking long drives where conditions -permit a fair rate of speed to be maintained, and accounts for the -excellent gasoline mileage obtained by good drivers. - -_Q._ What is meant by a “lean” and a “rich” mixture? - -_A._ A lean mixture has too much air and not enough gasoline. A rich -mixture has too much gasoline and not enough air. A rich mixture will -not only quickly cover the cylinders, pistons and valves with soot, -but will tend to overheat the cylinders, and is likewise wasteful of -the fuel. It will often choke the engine and cause misfiring at slow -speeds, although at high speeds the engine will run perfectly. The -mixture should be kept as lean as possible without the sacrifice of -any of the power of the motor. A lean mixture will often result in -backfiring through the carburetor, for the reason that the gas burns -slowly in the cylinder, and is still burning when the inlet valve opens -again, which causes the gas in the intake to ignite. A rich mixture is -shown by heavy, black exhaust smoke with a disagreeable smell. Proper -mixture will cause very little smoke or odor. - -_Q._ How is the carburetor adjusted? - -_A._ The usual method of regulating the carburetor is to start the -motor, advancing the throttle lever to about the sixth notch, with the -spark retarded to about the fourth notch. The flow of gasoline should -now be cut off by screwing the needle valve down to the right until -the engine begins to misfire. Then gradually increase the gasoline -feed by opening the needle valve until the motor picks up and reaches -its highest speed and no trace of black smoke comes from the exhaust. -Whenever it is necessary to turn the adjusting needle down more than a -quarter turn below its normal position, the lock nut on the top of the -carburetor at the point through which the needle passes should first -be loosened, as otherwise it is impossible to tell when the needle is -turned down in its seat too far. Turning the needle down too tightly -will result in its becoming grooved and the seat enlarged. When those -parts are damaged it is difficult to maintain proper adjustment of the -carburetor. Having determined the point where the motor runs at its -maximum speed, the needle valve lock nut should be tightened to prevent -the adjustment being disturbed. For average running a lean mixture will -give better results than a rich one. - -_Q._ Why does water clog the carburetor? - -_A._ The presence of water in the carburetor or gasoline tank, even in -small amounts, will prevent easy starting and the motor will misfire -and stop. As water is heavier than gasoline it settles to the bottom of -the tank and into the sediment bulb along with other foreign matters. -As it is difficult nowadays to get gasoline absolutely free from -impurities, especially water, it is advisable to frequently drain the -sediment bulb under the gasoline tank. During cold weather the water -which accumulates in the sediment bulb is likely to freeze and prevent -the flow of gas through the pipe leading to the carburetor. Should -anything of this kind happen it is possible to open the gasoline line -by wrapping a cloth around the sediment bulb and keeping it saturated -with hot water for a short time. Then the water should be drained off. -In event of the water getting down into the carburetor and freezing, -the same treatment may be applied. - -_Q._ What makes the carburetor leak? - -_A._ The flow of gasoline entering the carburetor through the feed -pipe is automatically regulated by the float needle raising and -lowering in its seat. Should any particle of dirt become lodged in -the seat, which prevents the needle from closing, the gasoline will -overflow in the bowl of the carburetor and leak out upon the ground. - -_Q._ What should be done when there is dirt in the carburetor? - -_A._ The spraying nozzle of the carburetor having a very small opening, -a minute particle of dirt or other foreign matter will clog up the -orifice. The result is that the motor will begin to misfire and slow -down as soon as it has attained any considerable speed. This is -accounted for by the fact that at high speeds the increased suction -will draw the particles of dust, etc., into the nozzle. By opening the -valve needle half a turn and giving the throttle lever two or three -quick pulls the dirt or sediment will often be drawn through, when -the needle may be turned back to its original place. If this does not -accomplish the purpose, the carburetor should be drained. - -_Q._ If the engine runs too fast or chokes with throttle retarded, what -is to be done? - -_A._ If the engine runs too fast with throttle fully retarded, unscrew -the carburetor throttle lever adjusting screw until the engine idles -at suitable speed. If the motor chokes or stops when throttle is fully -retarded, the adjusting screw should be screwed until it strikes -the boss, preventing the throttle from closing too far. When proper -adjustment has been made, tighten lock screw so that adjustment will -not be disturbed. - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the hot air pipe? - -_A._ It takes the hot air from around the exhaust pipe and conducts -it to the carburetor where the heat facilitates the vaporizing of -the gasoline. It is usually advisable to remove this pipe in the hot -season, but it is an absolutely necessary feature during cold weather. - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the cork float? - -_A._ It automatically controls the flow of gasoline into the -carburetor. If it floats too low, starting will be difficult; if too -high, the carburetor will flood and leak. A cork float which has become -fuel soaked should be removed and replaced by a new one or thoroughly -dried and then given a couple of coats of shellac varnish to make it -waterproof. - -_Q._ Should priming rod be used in cranking when motor is warm? - -_A._ No. The carburetor does not ordinarily require priming when the -motor is warm, and cranking with the rod pulled out is apt to “flood” -the engine with an over rich mixture of gas, which does not readily -explode. This naturally causes difficulty in starting. If you should -accidentally flood the engine, turn the carburetor adjusting needle -down (to the right) until it seats; then turn the engine over a few -times with the starting crank in order to exhaust the rich gas. As soon -as the motor starts, turn back the needle to the left and readjust the -carburetor. - - -V - -THE FORD IGNITION SYSTEM - - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the ignition system? - -_A._ It furnishes the electric spark which explodes the charge in the -combustion chamber, thus producing the power which runs the engine. It -is important that the charge be correctly ignited at the proper time, -in order to obtain satisfactory results in running the car. In the -Ford car the ignition system is as simple as it is possible for human -invention to make it. - -_Q._ How does the magneto generate the current? - -_A._ In revolving at the same rate of speed as the motor, the -magnets on the flywheel passing the stationary coil spools create an -alternating low tension electric current in coils of wire which are -wound around spools fastened to the stationary part of the magneto, and -is carried from these coils to the magneto connection (wire) leading to -the coil box on the dash. - -_Q._ Should the coil vibrator adjustment be disturbed? - -_A._ The present style of coil unit is properly adjusted when it leaves -the factory and this adjustment should not be disturbed unless to -install new points or to reduce the gap between the points which may -have increased from wear. When adjustments are necessary they should, -whenever possible, be made by one of the Ford service stations who -have special equipment for testing and adjusting units and will gladly -furnish expert service. If the points are pitted they should be filed -flat with a fine double-faced file and the adjusting thumb nut turned -down so that with the spring held down the gap between the points will -be a trifle less than ¹⁄₃₂ of an inch. Then set the lock nut so that -the adjustment cannot be disturbed. Do not bend or hammer on the -vibrators, as this would affect the operation of the cushion spring of -the vibrator bridge and reduce the efficiency of the unit. - -_Q._ How is a weak unit detected? - -_A._ With the vibrators properly adjusted, if any particular cylinder -fails or seems to develop only a weak action, change the position of -the unit to determine if the fault is actually in the unit. The first -symptom of a defective unit is the buzzing of the vibrator with no -spark at the plug. Remember that a loose wire connection, faulty spark -plug, or worn commutator may cause irregularity in the running of the -motor. These are points to be considered before laying the blame on the -coil. - -_Q._ How may short circuit in commutator wiring be detected? - -_A._ Should the insulation of the primary wires (running from coil -to commutator) become worn to such an extent that the copper wire is -exposed, the current will leak out (i. e., short circuit) whenever -contact with the engine pan or other metal parts is made. A steady -buzzing of one of the coil units will indicate a “short” in the wiring. -When driving the car the engine will suddenly lag and pound on account -of the premature explosion. Be careful not to crank the engine downward -against compression when the car is in this condition, as the “short” -is apt to cause a vigorous kick back. - -_Q._ Does coil adjustment affect starting? - -_A._ Yes. When the vibrators are not properly adjusted more current -is required to make and break the contact between the points, and, as -a result, at cranking speeds you would not get a spark between the -spark plug points. Do not allow the contact points to become “ragged,” -otherwise they are apt to stick and cause unnecessary difficulty in -starting, and when running they are apt to produce an occasional “miss” -in the engine. - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the commutator? - -_A._ The commutator (or timer) determines the instant at which the -spark plugs must fire. It affects the “make and break” in the primary -circuit. The grounded wire in the magneto allows the current to -flow through the metal parts to the metal roller in the commutator. -Therefore, when the commutator roller in revolving, touches the -four commutator contact points, to each of which is attached a wire -connected with the coil unit, an electrical circuit is passed through -the entire system of primary wires. This circuit is only momentary, -however, as the roller passes over the contact point very rapidly and -sets up the circuit in each unit as the roller touches the contact -point connected with that unit. The commutator should be kept clean and -well oiled at all times. - -_Q._ What about the spark plug? - -_A._ One is located at the top of each cylinder and can be taken out -easily with the spark plug wrench included with every car, after the -wire connection is removed. The high voltage current flows out of the -secondary coils in the coil box and on reaching the contact points on -each spark plug it is forced to jump ¹⁄₃₂″ gap, thereby forming a spark -which ignites the gasoline charge in the cylinders. - -The spark plug should be kept clean (i. e., free from carbon) and -should be replaced if they persist in not working properly. There is -nothing to be gained by experimenting with different makes of plugs. -The make of plug with which Ford engines are equipped when they -leave the factory are best adapted to the requirements of our motor, -notwithstanding the opinion of various garage men to the contrary. All -wire connections to spark plugs, coil box and commutator should, of -course, at all times be kept in perfect contact. - -_Q._ What are the indications of ignition trouble? - -_A._ The uneven sputter and bang of the exhaust means that one or -more cylinders are exploding irregularly or not at all, and that the -trouble should be promptly located and overcome. Misfiring, if allowed -to continue, will in time injure the engine and the entire mechanism. -If you would be known as a good driver you will be satisfied only with -a soft, steady purr from the exhaust. If anything goes wrong, stop and -fix it if possible. Do not wait until you get home. - -_Q._ How can one tell which cylinder is missing? - -_A._ This is done by manipulating the vibrators on the spark coils. -Open the throttle until the engine is running at a good speed and -then hold down the two outside vibrators, No. 1 and No. 4, with the -fingers, so they cannot buzz. This cuts out the two corresponding -cylinders, No. 1 and No. 4, leaving only No. 2 and No. 3 running. If -they explode regularly it is obvious the trouble is in either No. 1 or -No. 4. Relieve No. 4 and hold down No. 2 and No. 3 and also No. 1; if -No. 4 cylinder explodes evenly it is evident the misfiring is in No. -1. In this manner all of the cylinders in turn can be tested until the -trouble is located. Examine both the spark plug and the vibrator of the -missing cylinder. - -_Q._ If the coil and plug are right, what? - -_A._ The trouble is probably due to an improperly seated valve, worn -commutator, or short circuit in the commutator wiring. Weakness in -the valves may be easily determined by lifting the starting crank -slowly the length of the stroke of each cylinder in turn, a strong or -weak compression in any particular valve being easily detected. It -sometimes happens that the cylinder head gasket (packing) becomes leaky -permitting the gas under compression to escape, a condition that can -be detected by running a little lubricating oil around the edge of the -gasket and noticing whether bubbles appear or not. - -_Q._ Does a worn commutator ever cause misfiring? - -_A._ Yes. If misfiring occurs when running at high speed, inspect the -commutator. The surface of the circle around which the roller travels -should be clean and smooth, so that the roller makes a perfect contact -at all points. If the roller fails to make a good contact on any of -the four points, its corresponding cylinder will not fire. Clean these -surfaces if dirty. In case the fiber, contact points, and roller of the -commutator are badly worn, the most satisfactory remedy is to replace -them with new parts. The trouble is probably caused by short circuited -commutator wires. The spring should be strong enough to make a firm -contact between the roller points if they are worn or dirty. - -_Q._ How is the commutator removed? - -_A._ Remove cotter pin from spark rod and detach latter from -commutator. Loosen the cap screw which goes through breather pipe on -top of time gear cover. This will release the spring which holds the -commutator case in place and this part can be readily removed. Unscrew -lock nut; withdraw steel brush cap and drive out the retaining pin. The -brush can then be removed from the cam shaft. - -In replacing the brush, care must be exercised to see that it is -reinstated so that the exhaust valve on the first cylinder is closed -when the brush points upward. This may be ascertained by removing the -valve door and observing the operation of No. 1 valve. - -_Q._ Does cold weather affect the commutator? - -_A._ It is a well known fact that in cold weather the best grades of -lubricating oil are apt to congeal to some extent. If this occurs -in the commutator it is very apt to prevent the roller from making -perfect contact with the contact points imbedded in the fiber. This, -of course, makes difficult starting, as the roller arm spring is not -stiff enough to brush away the film of oil which naturally forms over -the contact points. To overcome this, as well as any liability to the -contact points to rust, we recommend a mixture of 25% kerosene with the -commutator lubricating oil, which will thin it sufficiently to prevent -congealing, or freezing, as it is commonly called. You have probably -noticed in starting your car in cold weather that perhaps only one or -two cylinders will fire for the first minute or so, which indicates -that the timer is in the condition described above and as a consequence -a perfect contact is not being made on each of the four terminals. - -_Q._ How is the magneto removed? - -_A._ It is necessary to take the power plant out of the car in order -to remove the magneto. Then remove crank case and transmission cover. -Take out the four cap screws that hold the flywheel to the crank shaft. -You will then have access to the magnets and entire magneto mechanism. -In taking out these parts, or any parts of the car, the utmost care -should be taken to make sure that the parts are marked in order that -they may be replaced properly. - -_Q._ What is to be done when the magneto gets out of order? - -_A._ A Ford magneto is made of permanent magnets and there is very -little likelihood of their ever losing their strength unless acted -upon by some outside force. For instance, the attachments of a storage -battery to the magneto terminal will demagnetize the magnets. If -anything like this happens, it is not advisable to try to recharge -them, but rather install a complete set of new magnets. The new magnets -will be sent from the nearest agent or branch house, and will be placed -on a board in identically the same manner as they should be when -installed on the flywheel. Great care should be taken in assembling the -magnets and lining up the magneto so that the faces of the magnets are -separated from the surface of the coil spool just ¹⁄₃₂ of an inch. To -take out the old magnets, simply remove the cap screw and bronze screw -which hold each in place. The magneto is often blamed when the trouble -is a weak current caused by waste or other foreign matter accumulating -under the contact spring cover. Remove the three screws which hold the -binding post in place; remove binding post and spring and replace after -foreign substance has been removed. - - -VI - -THE FORD TRANSMISSION - - -_Q._ What is the function of the transmission? - -_A._ It is that part of the mechanism of an automobile which lies -between the engine shaft and the propeller shaft and by which one is -enabled to move at different speeds from the other. It is the speed -gear of the car. It sends the car forward at low and high speeds and by -it the car is reversed. - -_Q._ What is meant by the term “planetary transmission”? - -_A._ One in which the groups of gears always remain in mesh and revolve -around a main axis. The different sets of gears are brought into action -by stopping the revolution of the parts which support the gears. By -means of bands (similar to brake bands) the rotation of the different -parts is stopped. The planetary transmission is the simplest and most -direct means of speed control and is a distinct advantage to the Ford -car. - -_Q._ What is the purpose of the clutch? - -_A._ If the crank shaft of the engine ran without break straight -through to the differential and through it applied its power direct -to the rear wheels, the car would start forward immediately upon the -starting of the engine (were it possible to get it started under such -conditions). To overcome this difficulty the shaft is divided by means -of the clutch. The part of the shaft to which the running engine is -delivering its power is enabled to take hold of the unmoving part -gradually and start the car without jolt or jar. The forward part of -the shaft is referred to as the crank shaft, the rear part as the drive -shaft. - -_Q._ How is the clutch controlled? - -_A._ By the left pedal at the driver’s feet. If the clutch pedal, -when pushed forward into slow speed, has a tendency to stick and not -to come back readily into high, tighten up the slow speed band. Should -the machine have an inclination to creep forward when cranking, it -indicates that the clutch lever screw which bears on the clutch lever -cam has worn, and requires an extra turn to hold the clutch in neutral -position. When the clutch is released by pulling back the hand lever -the pedal should move forward the distance of 1³⁄₄″ in passing from -high speed to neutral. See that the hub brake shoe and connections are -in proper order so that the brake will act sufficiently to prevent the -car creeping very far ahead. Also be sure that the slow speed band does -not bind on account of being adjusted too tight. Do not use too heavy -a grade of oil in cold weather, as it will have a tendency to congeal -between the clutch discs and prevent proper action of the clutch. - -_Q._ How is the clutch adjusted? - -_A._ Remove the plate on the transmission cover under the floor boards -at the driver’s seat. Take out the cotter key on the first clutch -finger and give the set screw one-half to one complete turn to the -right with a screw driver. Do the same to the other finger set screw. -But be sure to give each the same number of turns and do not forget to -replace the cotter key. And after a considerable period of service the -wear in the clutch may be taken up by installing another pair of clutch -discs, rather than by turning the adjusting screw in too far. - -=Caution.= Let us warn you against placing any small tools or objects -over or in the transmission case without a good wire or cord attached -to them. It is almost impossible to recover them without taking off the -transmission cover. - -_Q._ How are the bands adjusted? - -_A._ The slow speed bands may be tightened by loosening the lock nut at -the right side of the transmission cover, and turning up the adjusting -screw to the right. To tighten the brake and reverse bands, remove -the transmission case cover door and turn the adjusting nuts on the -shaft to the right. See that the bands do not drag on the drums when -disengaged, as they exert a brake effect, and tend to overheat the -motor. However, the foot brake should be adjusted so that a sudden -pressure will stop the car immediately, or slide the rear wheels in -case of emergency. The bands, when worn to such an extent that they -will not take hold properly, should be relined, so that they will -engage smoothly without causing a jerky movement of the car. The lining -is inexpensive and may be had at any of the eight thousand Ford service -stations at small cost. - -[Illustration: - - Slow Speed Drum and Gear - - Triple Gear - - Brake Drum - - Reverse Drum - and Gear - - Clutch Disks - - Driven Gear - - Disk Drum - - Triple Gear Pin - - Clutch Push Ring - - Trans. Shaft - - Driving Plate - - Flywheel - - Group 1 - - Clutch Push Ring - - Clutch Finger - - Driving Plate - - Triple Gear - - Reverse Gear - - Slow Speed Gear - - Driven Gear - - Clutch Shift - - Clutch Spring - - Clutch Spring Support - - Group 5 - - Clutch Spring Support Pin - - Group 4 - - Group 3 - - Group 2 - -Fig. 150. Ford Transmission Assembly] - -_Q._ How are the bands removed? - -_A._ Take off the door on top of transmission cover. Turn the reverse -adjustment nut and the brake adjustment nut to the extreme ends of the -pedal shafts, then remove the slow speed adjusting screw. Remove the -bolts holding the transmission cover to the crank case and lift off -the cover assembly. Slip the band nearest the flywheel over the first -of the triple gears, then turn the band around so that the opening is -downward. The band may now be removed by lifting upward. The operation -is more easily accomplished if the three sets of triple gears are so -placed that one set is about ten degrees to the right of center at -top. Each band is removed by the same operation. It is necessary to -shove each band forward on to the triple gears as at this point only is -there sufficient clearance in the crank case to allow the ears of the -transmission bands to be turned downward. By reversing this operation -the bands may be installed. After being placed in their upright -position on the drums pass a cord around the ears of the three bands, -holding them in the center so that when putting the transmission cover -in place no trouble will be experienced in getting the pedal shafts to -rest in the notches in the band ears. The clutch release ring must be -placed in the rear groove of the clutch shaft. With the cover in place -remove the cord which held the bands in place while the cover was being -installed. - -_Q._ How is transmission assembled? - -_A._ Cut No. 150 shows the transmission parts in their relative -assembling positions and grouped in their different operations of -assembling. - -The first operation is the assembling of group No. 2, which is as -follows: Place the brake drum on table with the hub in a vertical -position. Place the slow speed plate over the hub with the gear -uppermost. Then place reverse plate over the slow speed plate so that -the reverse gear surrounds the slow speed gear. Fit the two keys in the -hub just above the slow speed gear. Put the driven gear in position -with the teeth downward so that they will come next to the slow speed -gear. Take the three triple gears and mesh them with the driven gear -according to the punch marks on the teeth, the reverse gear or smallest -of the triple gear assembly being downward. After making sure that the -triple gears are properly meshed tie them in place by passing a cord -around the outside of the three gears. Take the flywheel and place -it on the table with the face downward and the transmission shaft in -vertical position. Then invert the group which you have assembled over -the transmission shaft, setting it in position so that the triple gear -pins on the flywheel will pass through the triple gears. This will -bring the brake drum on top in a position to hold the clutch plates, -etc. The next step is to fit the clutch drum key in the transmission -shaft. Press the clutch disc drum over the shaft and put the set screw -in place to hold the drum. Put the large disc over the clutch drum, -then the small disc, alternating with large and small discs until the -entire set of discs are in position, ending up with a large disc on -top. If a small disc is on top it is liable to fall over the clutch -in changing the speed from high to low and as a result you would be -unable to change the speed back into high. Next put the clutch push -rings over the clutch drum, and on top of the discs, with the three -pins projecting upward (_see_ group No. 4, cut No. 149). You will note -the remaining parts are placed as they will be assembled. Next bolt the -driving plate in position so that the adjusting screws of the clutch -fingers will bear against the clutch push ring pins. Before proceeding -further it would be a good plan to test the transmission by moving the -plates with the hands. If the transmission is properly assembled the -flywheel will revolve freely while holding any of the drums stationary. -The clutch parts may be assembled on the driving plate hub as follows: -Slip the clutch shift over the hub so that the small end rests on the -ends of the clutch fingers. Next put on the clutch spring, placing the -clutch supports inside so that the flange will rest on the upper coil -of the spring and press into place, inserting the pin in the driving -plate hub through the holes in the side of the spring support. Then -turn the clutch spring support until the pin fits into the lugs on the -bottom of the support. The easiest method of compressing the spring -sufficiently to insert the pin is to loosen the tension of the clutch -finger by means of the adjusting screws. When tightening up the clutch -again the spring should be compressed to within a space of two or two -and one-sixteenth inches to insure against the clutch spring slipping. -Care should be exercised to see that the screws in the fingers are -adjusted so the spring is compressed evenly all around. - - -VII - -THE REAR AXLE ASSEMBLY - - -_Q._ How is the rear axle removed? - -_A._ Jack up car and remove rear wheels as instructed below. Take out -the four bolts connecting the universal ball cap to the transmission -case and cover. Disconnect brake rods. Remove nuts holding spring -perches to rear axle housing flanges. Raise frame at the rear end, and -the axle can be easily withdrawn. - -_Q._ How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive shaft? - -_A._ Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting and turn -shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out pin and joint can be -pulled or forced away from the shaft and out of the housing. - -_Q._ How are the rear axle and differential disassembled? - -_A._ With the universal joint disconnected, remove nuts in front end -of radius rods and the nuts on studs holding drive shaft tube to rear -axle housing. Remove bolts which hold the two halves of differential -together. If necessary to disassemble differential a very slight -mechanical knowledge will permit one to immediately discern how to do -it once it is exposed to view. Care must be exercised to get every pin, -bolt and key lock back in its correct position when reassembling. - -_Q._ How is the drive shaft pinion removed? - -_A._ The end of the drive shaft, to which the pinion is attached, is -tapered to fit the tapered hole in the pinion, which is keyed onto the -shaft, and then secured by a cotter pinned “castle” nut. Remove the -castle nut, and drive the pinion off. - -_Q._ How are the differential gears removed? - -_A._ The compensating gears are attached to the inner ends of the rear -axle shaft. They work upon the spider gears when turning a corner, -so that the axle shaft revolves independently, but when the car is -moving in a straight line the spider gears and compensating gears and -axle shaft move as an integral part. If you will examine the rear -axle shafts you will notice that the gears are keyed on, and held in -position by a ring which is in two halves and fits in a groove in the -rear axle shaft. To remove the compensating gears, force them down on -the shaft, that is, away from the end to which they are secured, drive -out the two halves of ring in the grooves in shaft with screw driver or -chisel, then force the gears off the end of the shafts. - -[Illustration: - - Universal Joint Knuckle (Male) - Joint Housing - Joint Coupling Ring - Universal Joint Knuckle (Female) - - Radius Rod Castle Nut - Radius Rod Lock Nut - Drive Shaft Front Bushing - Rear Radius Rod - Drive Shaft Tube - Drive Shaft - - Ball Race - Ball Thrust Collar - Drive Shaft Pinion - Driving Gear - Drive Gear Screws - Drive Shaft - Drive Shaft Tube - Ball Bearing - Ball Bearing Housing - Roller Bearing - Roller Bearing Sleeve - Castle Nut - Differential Pinion - Differential Spider - Differential Gear - Rear Axle Housing (Right) - Thrust Washers - - Rear Radius Rod - Rear Axle Brake Drum - Hub Brake Cam Shaft - Hub Brake Cam Shaft Lever - Radius Rod Bolt and Nut - Lock Wire - Thrust Washer (Steel) - Thrust Washer (Babbitt) - Thrust Washer (Steel) - Gear Case (Left) - - Mud Cap - Cotter Pin - Castle Nut - Hub Key - Hub - Hub Flange - Roller Bearing Sleeve - Roller Bearing - Axle Housing Cap - Axle Roller Bearing Steel Washer - Brake Shoe Support Bolt and Nut - Rear Axle Shaft - Rear Axle Roller Bearing Sleeve - Rear Axle Roller Bearing - Rear Axle Housing (Left) - - Gear Case (Right) - Differential Case Stud - Grease Plug - -Fig. 151. Ford Rear Axle System] - -_Q._ How is the rear axle shaft removed? - -_A._ Disconnect rear axle as directed above, then unbolt the -drive shaft assembly where it joins the rear axle housing at the -differential. Disconnect the two radius rods at the outer end of the -housing. Take out the bolts which hold the two halves of the rear axle -housing together at the center. Take the inner differential casing -apart and draw the axle shaft through the housing at the center. After -replacing the axle shaft be sure that the rear wheels are firmly wedged -on at the outer end of the axle shaft and the key in proper position. -When the car has been driven thirty days or so, make it a point to -remove the hub cap and set up the lock nut to overcome any play that -might have developed. It is extremely important that the rear wheels -are kept tight, otherwise the constant rocking back and forth against -the key may in time cause serious trouble. If the rear axle or wheel -is sprung by skidding against the curb, or other accident, it is false -economy to drive the car, as tires, gears and all other parts will -suffer. If the axle shaft is bent, it can, with proper facilities, be -straightened, but it is best to replace it. - -[Illustration: - - Axle Housing Cap - Hub Key - Lock Nut - Hub Brake Drum - - Coil Spring - Hub Brake Cam - Axle Shaft - Hub Brake Shoe - -Fig. 152. Ford Brake] - - -VIII - -THE FORD MUFFLER - - -_Q._ Why is the muffler necessary? - -_A._ The exhaust as it comes from the engine through the exhaust pipe -would create a constant and distracting noise were it not for the -muffler. From the comparatively small pipe, the exhaust is liberated -into the larger chambers of the muffler, where the force of the -exhaust is lessened by expansion and discharged out of the muffler -with practically no noise. The Ford muffler construction is such that -there is very little back pressure of the escaping gases, consequently -there is nothing to be gained by putting a cut-out on the exhaust pipe -between the engine and the muffler. - -_Q._ How is the muffler kept in order? - -_A._ It should be cleaned occasionally. Remove it and take off nuts on -ends of rods which hold it together, and disassemble. - -In reassembling muffler, be careful not to get the holes in the inner -shells on the same side or end. - -_Q._ How is the muffler disconnected? - -_A._ To disconnect the muffler it is not necessary to disconnect the -exhaust pipe from the motor (although it is a good plan and a simple -matter, necessitating only unscrewing the union). To disconnect muffler -from frame, unscrew union at formed end of pipe, drop it down so it -will clear the frame and slip it back off the tube. If the muffler from -any cause becomes materially damaged it will probably be cheaper to -replace it with a new one than to attempt to repair it. - - -IX - -THE RUNNING GEAR - - -_Q._ What care should the running gear have? - -_A._ In the first place it at all times should have proper lubrication -(_see_ chapter on Lubrication). Once in every thirty days the front and -rear axles should be carefully gone over to see that every moving part, -such as the bushings in spring connections, spring hangers, steering -knuckles and hub bearings, are thoroughly lubricated, and that all -nuts and connections are secured with center pins in place. The spring -clips, which attach the front spring to the frame, should be inspected -frequently to see that every thing is in perfect order. - -[Illustration: - - Spindle oiler - - Spindle Bolt - - Spindle Body Bushing - - Spindle Con. Rod Bolt - - Spindle Con. Rod Yoke - - Spindle Arm - - Spoke - - Felt Washer - - Hub Bolt - - Large Ball Race - - Hub Flange - - Hub - - Spindle - - Grease Chamber - - Ball Bearings - - Adjusting Cone - - Lock Nut - - Hub Cap - - Washer - - Ball Retainer - - Small Ball Race - - Clamp Bolt - - Spindle Arm Nut - - Spindle Body Bushing - - Spidle Bolt Nut - - Stationary Cone - - Ball Retainer - - Dust Ring - -Fig. 153. Ford Spindle] - -_Q._ How is the front axle removed? - -_A._ Jack up front of car so wheels can be removed. Disconnect steering -gear arm from the spindle connecting rod, disconnect radius rod at -ball joint, and remove two cotter pin bolts from spring shackle on each -side, so detaching front spring. - -To disconnect radius rod entirely, take the two bolts out of the ball -joint and remove lower half of cap. - -_Q._ In case of accident, how is the front axle straightened? - -_A._ Should the axle or spindle become bent, extreme care must be used -to straighten the parts accurately. Do not heat the forgings, as this -will distemper the steel, but straighten them cold. If convenient -it would be better to return such parts to the factory, where they -may be properly straightened in jigs designed for that purpose. It -is very essential that the wheels line up properly. The eye is not -sufficiently accurate to determine whether the parts have been properly -straightened, and excessive wear of the front tires will occur if -everything is not in perfect alignment. - -_Q._ What about the wheels? - -_A._ The wheels should be jacked up periodically and tested, not only -for smoothness of running, but for side play as well. If in spinning -a front wheel a sharp click is heard, now and then, and the wheel -is momentarily checked, it is probable that there is a chipped or -split ball in the bearing which should be removed, otherwise it may -necessitate the removal of the entire bearing. A wheel in perfect -adjustment should after spinning, come to rest with the tire valve -directly below the hub. Undue wear of the hub bearings, such as cones, -balls and races, is usually caused by lack of lubrication and excessive -friction, due to the adjusting cone being drawn up too tight. It is a -good plan to clean the bearing frequently and keep the hub well filled -with grease. - -_Q._ How are the wheels removed? - -_A._ _Front wheels._ Take off hub cap, remove cotter pin and unscrew -castle nut and spindle washer. The adjustable bearing cone can then be -taken out and the wheel removed. Care should be taken to see that the -cones and lock nuts are replaced on the same spindle from which they -were removed, otherwise there is a liability of stripping the threads -which are left on the left spindle and right on the opposite as you -stand facing the car. _Back wheels._ They should not be removed unless -absolutely necessary, in which case proceed as above. Then with a wheel -puller remove the wheel from the tapered shaft to which it is locked -with a key. In replacing rear wheels be sure that nut on axle shaft is -as tight as possible and cotter pin in place. The hub caps of the rear -wheels should be removed occasionally and the lock nuts which hold the -hub in place tightened. If these nuts are allowed to work loose, the -resulting play on the hub key may eventually twist off the axle shaft. - -_Q._ How does the setting of the front wheels differ from that of the -rear wheels? - -_A._ It will be observed that the front wheels are “dished”; that is, -the spokes are given a slight outward flare to enable them to meet -side stresses with less rigid resistance, while the spokes of the rear -wheels are straight. The front wheels are also placed at an angle, that -is to say, the distance between the tops of the front wheels is about -three inches greater than between the bottoms. This is to give perfect -steering qualities and to save wear on tires when turning corners. -The front wheels should not, however, “toe-in” at the front, at least -not more than a quarter of an inch. Lines drawn along the outside of -the wheels when the latter are straight in a forward position should -be parallel. All wheels should always be kept in proper alignment, -otherwise steering will be difficult and tire wear will be greatly -increased. Adjustment can be made by turning the yoke at the left end -of the spindle connecting rod, to draw the wheels into a parallel -position. - -_Q._ What care do the springs need? - -_A._ The springs should be lubricated frequently with oil or graphite. -To do this, pry the leaves apart near the ends and insert the lubricant -between them. Whenever a car is given a general overhauling, the -springs should be disassembled and the leaves polished with emery -cloth, afterwards packing them with graphite when reassembling. Rust -can be prevented from accumulating on the springs by painting them -when necessary with a quick drying black paint. You will find that -these suggestions if carried out will not only improve the riding -qualities of the car but prolong the life of the parts as well. - -_Q._ Should spring clips be kept tight? - -_A._ Yes. If the spring clips are allowed to work loose the entire -strain is put on the tie bolt which extends through the center of the -spring. This may cause the bolt to be sheared off and allow the frame -and body to shift to one side. It is a good plan to frequently inspect -the clips which hold the springs to the frame and see that they are -kept tight. - -_Q._ What about the steering apparatus? - -_A._ It is exceedingly simple and will need little care except, of -course, proper lubrication. The post gears which are arranged in the -“sun and planet” form are located at the top of the post just below the -hub of the wheel. By loosening the set screw and unscrewing the cap -after having removed the steering wheel they may readily be inspected -and replenished with grease. To remove the steering wheel unscrew the -nut on top of the post and drive the wheel off the shaft with a block -of wood and hammer. - -_Q._ How is the steering gear tightened? - -_A._ Should the steering gear become loose, that is, so that a slight -movement of the wheel does not produce immediate results, it may be -tightened in the following manner: Disconnect the two halves of the -ball sockets which surround the ball arm at the lower end of the -steering post and file off the surface until they fit snugly around the -ball. If the ball is badly worn it is best to replace it with a new -one. Also tighten the ball caps at the other end of the steering gear -connecting rod in the same manner. If the bolts in the steering spindle -arms appear to be loose, the brass bushings should be replaced with new -ones. Excessive play in the front axle may be detected by grasping one -of the front wheels by the spokes and jerking the front axle back and -forth. After the car has been in service two or three years excessive -play in the steering gear may make necessary the renewal of the little -pinions, as well as the brass internal gear just underneath the -steering wheel spider. - -It is also advisable to inspect the front spring hangers occasionally -to determine whether or not new bushings are necessary to overcome any -excessive vibration. - - -X - -THE FORD LUBRICATING SYSTEM - - -_Q._ How does the Ford lubricating system differ from others? - -_A._ It is simplified,--and there are fewer places to oil. Practically -all of the parts of the engine and transmission are oiled by the Ford -splash system, from the one big oil reservoir in the crank case. Fig. -154 shows the principal points of lubrication, and specifies when -replenishment should be made, according to mileage. This chart should -be studied carefully and often. It is a good plan to frequently supply -all oil cups with the same oil used in the engine (any good light grade -lubricating oil will answer) and the dope cups with good grease. Be -sure to see that the commutator is kept freely supplied with oil at all -times. - -_Q._ Which is the best way to fill the dope cups? - -_A._ When it is advisable to fill the dope cup covers screw them down, -refill with grease and repeat the operation two or three times. Always -open oil cups by turning to the right, as this keeps tightening them -rather than loosening them. Occasionally remove front wheels and supply -dope to wearing surface. A drop of oil now and then in crank handle -bearing is necessary, also on fan belt pulleys and shaft. The axles, -drive shaft, and universal joint are well supplied with lubricant when -the car leaves the factory, but it is well to examine and oil them -frequently. - -[Illustration: - - A--Oil Every 200 Miles. - - C--Grease Every 200 Miles. - - B--Oil Every 500 Miles. - - D--Grease Every 500 Miles. - - E--Grease Every 1000 Miles. - - F--Oil Motor Daily. Keep oil level between - crank case pet cocks. - - G--Grease Every 5000 Miles. - -Fig. 154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart] - -_Q._ What kind of oil should be used? - -_A._ We recommend only light high grade gas engine oil for use in -the model T motor. A light grade of oil is preferred as it will -naturally reach the bearings with greater ease and consequently less -heat will develop on account of friction. The oil should, however, -have sufficient body so that the pressure between the two bearing -surfaces will not force the oil out and allow the metal to come in -actual contact. Heavy and inferior oils have a tendency to carbonize -quickly, also “gum up” the piston rings, valve stems and bearing. In -cold weather a light grade of oil having a low cold test is absolutely -essential for the proper lubrication of the car. The nearest Ford -branch will advise you concerning the lubricating oil this company -has found best suited for its cars, both for summer and winter -weather. Graphite should not be used as a lubricant in the engine or -transmission as it will have a tendency to short circuit the magneto. - -_Q._ How often should the oil be drained from crank cases? - -_A._ It is advisable to clean out the crank case by draining out the -dirty oil when the new car has been driven four or five hundred miles; -thereafter it will only be necessary to repeat this operation about -every thousand miles. Remove plug underneath the flywheel casing and -drain off the oil. Replace the plug and pour in a gallon of kerosene -oil through the breather pipe. Turn the engine over by hand fifteen or -twenty times so that the splash from the kerosene oil will thoroughly -clean the engine. Remove crank case plug and drain off kerosene oil. In -order to get all of the kerosene out of the depressions in the crank -case the car should be run up a little incline, about the height of the -ordinary street curbing. Refill with fresh oil. - -_Q._ How often should the commutator be oiled? - -_A._ Keeping the commutator well oiled is a matter of far greater -importance than many drivers believe, and is necessary in order to -have a smooth operating engine. Do not be afraid to put a little oil -into the commutator every other day--at least every two hundred miles. -Remember that the commutator roller revolves very rapidly, and without -sufficient oil the parts soon become badly worn. When in this condition -perfect contact between the roller and the four contact points is -impossible, as a result the engine is apt to misfire when running at a -good rate of speed. - -_Q._ What about lubricating the differentials? - -_A._ Do not make the mistake of putting too much grease in the -differential housing. The housing should not be more than one-third -full. The differential is supplied with the required amount of -lubricant when the car leaves the factory. The oil plug should be -removed about every 1000 miles and more grease added if necessary. If a -fluid is used the level should be approximately one and one-half inches -below the oil hole. - - -XI - -CARE OF TIRES - - -_Q._ How are Ford tires removed? - -_A._ First, jack up the wheel clear of the road. The valve cap should -be unscrewed, the lock nut removed and the valve stem pushed into -the tire until its bead is flush with the rim. This done, loosen up -the head of the shoe in the clinch of the rim by working and pushing -with the hands, then insert one of the tire irons or levers under the -beads. The tire iron should be pushed in just enough to get a good hold -on the under side of the bead, but not so far as to pinch the inner -tube between the rim and the tool. A second iron should be inserted -in the same fashion some seven or eight inches from the first, and a -third tool the same distance from the second. As a cylinder tire must -be pried over the clinch, three or four levers will come in handy in -a case of a “one man job,” and the knee of the driver can be used to -good advantage to hold down one lever while the other two are being -manipulated in working the shoe clear of the rim. After freeing a -length of the bead from the clinch, the entire outer edge of the casing -may be readily detached with the hand, and the damaged inner tube -removed and “patched” or a spare tube inserted. Always use plenty of -soapstone in replacing an inner tube. - -_Q._ How are casings repaired? - -_A._ Should the casing be cut so there is danger of the inner tube -being blown through it, a temporary repair can be made by cementing a -canvas patch on the inside of the casing. Before applying the patch the -part of the casing affected should be cleaned with gasoline and when -dry, rubber cement applied to both casing and patch. This will answer -as an emergency repair, but the casing should be vulcanized at the -first opportunity. - -To prolong the life of the tire casings, any small cuts in the tread -should be filled with patching cement and a specially prepared -“plastic” sold by tire companies. - -_Q._ How may tire expense be reduced? - -_A._ Tire cost constitutes one of the most important items in the -running expenses of an automobile. To get the most service at the least -expense, the tire should be inspected frequently and all small cuts -or holes properly sealed or repaired,--thus preventing dirt and water -working in between the rubber tread and the fabric, causing blisters or -sand boils. - -Tires should never be run partially deflated, as the side walls are -unduly bent and the fabric is subject to stress, which is known as rim -cutting. The chances of getting a puncture will be greatly reduced by -keeping your tires properly inflated, as a hard tire exposes much less -surface to the road than a soft tire, and also deflects sharp objects -that would penetrate a soft tire. - -Running a flat tire, even for a short distance, is sure to be costly. -Better run on the rim, very slowly and carefully, rather than on a flat -tire. - -Remember that fast driving and skidding shorten the life of the tires. -Avoid locking the wheels with the brakes,--no tire will stand the -strain of being dragged over the pavement in this fashion. - -Avoid running in street car tracks, in ruts, or bumping the side of the -tire against the curbing. - -The wheel rims should be painted each season and kept free from rust. - -When a car is idle for any appreciable length of time, it should be -jacked up to take the load off the tires. If the car is laid up for -many months, it is best to remove the tires, and wrap up the outer -casings and inner tubes separately, and store them in a dark room not -exposed to extreme temperature. Remove oil or grease from the tires -with gasoline. Remember that heat, light and oil are three natural -enemies to rubber. - -_Q._ How is a puncture in the inner tube repaired? - -_A._ After locating the puncture, carefully clean the rubber around -the leak with benzine or gasoline. Then rough the surface with sand -paper from your tire repair kit to give a hold for the cement. Apply -the cement to both patch and tube, allowing it to dry for about five -minutes, repeating the application twice with like intervals between -for drying. When the cement is dry and sticky press the patch against -the tube firmly and thoroughly to remove all air bubbles beneath it -and insure proper adherence to the surface. Then spread some soapstone -or talc powder over the repair so as to prevent the tube sticking to -the casing. Before the tube is put back into the casing plenty of -talc powder should be sprinkled into the latter. A cement patch is -not usually permanent and the tube should be vulcanized as soon as -possible. In replacing the tire on the rim be very careful not to pinch -the tube. - - -XII - -POINTS ON MAINTENANCE - - -_Q._ What is the proper way to wash the car? - -_A._ Always use cold or lukewarm water,--never hot water. If a hose -is used, do not turn on the water at full force, as this drives the -dirt into the varnish and injures the finish. After the surplus mud -and grime have been washed off, take a sponge and clean the body and -running gear with a tepid solution of water and ivory or linseed oil -soap. Then rinse off with cold water; then rub dry and polish the body -with a chamois skin. A body or furniture polish of good quality may -be used to add luster to the car. Grease on the running gear may be -removed with a gasoline soaked sponge or rag. The nickeled parts may be -polished with any good metal polish. - -_Q._ What care does the top need? - -_A._ When putting the top down be careful in folding to see that the -fabric is not pinched between the bow spacers, as they will chafe a -hole through the top very quickly. Always slip the hood over the top -when folded to keep out dust and dirt. Applying a good top dressing -will greatly improve the appearance of an old top. - -_Q._ What should be done when the car is stored? - -_A._ Drain the water from the radiator, and then put in about a quart -of denatured alcohol to prevent freezing of any water that may possibly -remain. Remove cylinder head and clean out any carbon deposits in -combustion chamber. Draw off all the gasoline. Drain the dirty oil from -the crank case and cleanse the engine with kerosene as directed above. -Refill the crank case with fresh oil and revolve the engine enough to -cover the different parts with oil. Remove the tires and store them -away. Wash up the car, and if possible cover the body with a sheet of -muslin to protect the finish. - -_Q._ What attention do the electric headlights require? - -_A._ Very little. When the cars leave our factory the lamps are -properly focussed and unless the bulb burns out there should be no -occasion for removing the door, as there is nothing to get out of -order. Should the door be removed for any reason care should be -exercised not to touch the silver-plated reflector or the bulb with -anything but a soft, clean rag, preferably flannel. To focus the lamps -turn the adjusting screw in the back of the lamp in either direction -until the desired focus is attained. The bulbs we are furnishing in -electric head lamps are 8 volts, 2 amperes, and best results will -be obtained by securing lamps of this voltage and amperage when -replacement is necessary. - - -XIII - -THE FORD MODEL T ONE TON TRUCK - - -_Q._ Do the instructions relative to the car apply to the truck? - -_A._ The answers pertaining to the car are applicable to the truck. - -_Q._ How is the rear axle removed? - -_A._ Jack up the truck, place supports under rear axle housings, -and remove the rear wheels. Take out the four bolts connecting the -universal ball cap to the transmission case and cover. Disconnect brake -rods. Remove nuts holding spring perches to rear axle housing flanges. -Raise frame by placing a long iron bar or gas pipe under the frame just -in front of rear spring, one end resting on a substantial support of -the proper height. Two workmen at the other end of the bar can raise -the frame and place the end of the bar on another support. The rear -axle assembly can then be easily removed. - -_Q._ How is the universal joint disconnected from the drive shaft? - -_A._ Remove two plugs from top and bottom of ball casting and turn -shaft until pin comes opposite hole, drive out pin and the joint can be -pulled or forced away from the shaft and out of the housing. - -_Q._ How are the rear axle and differential disassembled? - -_A._ With the universal joint disconnected, remove the bolt in front -end of radius rods and the cap screws which hold the drive shaft -tube to the rear axle housing. Then remove the rear axle housing -cap; also the bolts which hold the two halves of the differential -housing together. With the differential exposed to view, the manner of -disassembling it will be apparent. Care must be exercised to get every -part back in its correct position when reassembling, being sure to use -new paper liners. - -_Q._ How is the worm removed? - -_A._ To remove the worm, drive out the pins which hold the coupling to -the worm and drive shaft. Then remove the felt washer, roller bearing -sleeve, and roller bearing by slipping them over the coupling. Drive -the coupling off from the drive shaft and then force the worm from -the coupling. Removing the worm nut will permit the removal of the -retaining washer, thrust bearing and rear worm roller bearing. In -reassembling be sure that the pin which holds the retaining washer -stationary is in place. - -_Q._ How is the rear axle shaft removed? - -_A._ Remove the rear axle assembly as directed above. Disconnect brake -rods and radius rods at rear axle housing flange; also remove nuts -holding spring perches to flanges. Take out the cap screws holding the -drive shaft tube to the rear axle housing and remove the rear axle -housing cap and the bolts which hold the two halves of the differential -housing together, then pull or force the housing from the shafts and -disassemble differential. After replacing the axle shaft be sure that -the rear wheels are firmly wedged on at the outer end of the axle shaft -and the key in proper position. When the truck has been driven thirty -days or so make it a point to remove the hub cap and set up the lock -nut to overcome any play that might have developed. It is extremely -important that the rear wheels are kept tight, otherwise the constant -rocking back and forth against the keyway may in time cause serious -trouble. - -_Q._ How is the differential gear removed from the shaft? - -_A._ The differential gear is fastened to the inner end of the rear -axle shaft by means of splines, and is held in position by a ring which -is in two halves and fits in a groove in the rear axle shaft. To remove -the gear, force it down on the shaft, that is, away from the end to -which it is fastened, drive out the two halves of the ring in groove in -shaft with screw driver or chisel, and force the gear off the end of -the shaft. - -_Q._ What about lubricating the rear axle? - -_A._ Extreme care must be used in lubricating the differential. An -A-1 heavy fluid or semi-fluid oil, such as Mobiloil C or Whittemore’s -Worm Gear Protective, should be used and cared at a level with the -upper oil plug. The differential is supplied with the required amount -of lubricant when the car leaves the factory and the supply should be -maintained by replenishments as required. After running the truck about -500 miles, the oil should be drained off by removing the lower oil -plug, and the differential filled with fresh lubricant. This operation -should be repeated at approximately 1000 miles, and after that whenever -necessary. The rear axle outer roller bearings are lubricated by means -of dope cups. These cups should be kept filled with a good grade of -grease and given a full turn every 100 miles. Before putting the truck -back into service after the rear axle has been taken out fill the -differential with oil, jack up the axle and run it for five or ten -minutes to insure proper lubricant of all bearings. - - -XIV - -THE F. A. STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEM INSTALLED ON SEDANS AND COUPÉS - - -_Q._ Of what does the starting and lighting system consist? - -_A._ The starting and lighting system is of the two unit type and -consists of the starting motor, generator, storage battery, charging -indicator, and lights, together with the necessary wiring and -connections. - -_Q._ Where is the starter located? - -_A._ The starting motor is mounted on the left hand side of the engine -and bolted to the transmission cover. When in operation the pinion on -the Bendix drive shaft engages with the teeth on the flywheel. - -_Q._ What must be done before starting the engine? - -_A._ The spark and the throttle levers should be placed in the same -position on the quadrant as when cranking by hand, and the ignition -switch turned on. Current from either battery or magneto may be used -for ignition. When starting, especially when the engine is cold the -ignition switch should be turned to battery. As soon as the engine is -warmed up, turn switch back to magneto. The magneto was designed to -furnish ignition for the Model T engine and better results will be -obtained by operating in this way. Special attention must be paid to -the position of the spark lever as a too advanced spark will cause -serious backfiring which in turn will bend or break the shaft in the -starter. The starting motor is operated by a push button, conveniently -located in the floor of the car at the driver’s feet. With the spark -and throttle levers in the proper position, and the ignition switch -turned on, press on the push button with the foot. This closes the -circuit between the battery and the starting motor, causing the pinion -of the Bendix drive shaft to engage with the teeth on the flywheel, -thus turning over the crank shaft. When the engine is cold it may be -necessary to prime it by pulling out the carburetor priming rod, which -is located on the instrument board. In order to avoid flooding the -engine with an over rich mixture of gas, the priming rod should only be -held out for a few seconds at a time. - -_Q._ What if the engine fails to start? - -_A._ If the starting motor is turning the crank shaft over and the -engine fails to start, the trouble is not in the starting system. In -this event, release the button at once so as not to unnecessarily -discharge the battery and inspect the carburetor and ignition system to -determine the trouble. - -_Q._ What if the starting motor fails to act? - -_A._ If the starting motor fails to act, after pushing the button, -first inspect the terminal on the starting motor, the two terminals -on the battery and the two terminals on starting switch, making sure -all the connections are tight; then examine the wiring for a break in -the insulation that would cause a short circuit. If the wiring and -connections are O. K. and the starting motor fails to act, test the -battery with the hydrometer. If the hydrometer reading is less than -1.225 the trouble is no doubt due to a weak or discharged battery. - -_Q._ How is the generator operated? - -_A._ The generator is mounted on the right hand side of the engine and -bolted to the cylinder front end cover. It is operated by the pinion on -the armature shaft engaging with the large time gear. The charging rate -of the generator is set so as to cut in at engine speeds corresponding -to ten miles per hour in high speed and reaches a maximum charging rate -at twenty miles per hour. At higher speeds the charge will taper off, -which is a settled characteristic of battery charging. This operation -of cutting in and cutting out at suitable speeds is accomplished by the -cut-out, which is mounted on the dash. This cut-out is set properly at -the factory and should not under any circumstances be tampered with. - -_Q._ What about oiling? - -_A._ The starting motor is lubricated by the Ford splash system, the -same as the engine and the transmission. The generator is lubricated by -a splash of oil from the time gears. In addition an oil cup is located -at the end of the generator housing and a few drops of oil should be -applied occasionally. - -_Q._ What should be done when repairing the ignition? - -_A._ The introduction of a battery current into the magneto will -discharge the magnets and whenever repairing the ignition system or -tampering with the wiring in any way, do not fail to disconnect the -positive wire from the battery. The end of this wire should be wound -with tape to prevent its coming in contact with the ignition system or -metal parts of the car. - -_Q._ How does the charging indicator work? - -_A._ The charging indicator is located on the instrument board. This -indicator registers “charge” when the generator is charging the battery -and “discharge” when the lights are burning and the engine not running -above ten miles per hour. At an engine speed of 15 miles per hour or -more the indicator should show a reading of from 10 to 12 even with the -lights burning. If the engine is running above 15 miles per hour and -the indicator does not show “charge,” first inspect the terminal posts -on the indicator, making sure that the connections are tight, then -disconnect the wire from the terminal on generator, and with the engine -running at a moderate speed, take a pair of pliers or a screw driver -and short circuit the terminal stud on the generator to the generator -housing. If the generator is O.K., a good live spark will be noted. (Do -not run the engine any longer than is necessary with the terminal wire -disconnected.) Next inspect the wiring from the generator through the -charging indicator to the battery for a break in the insulation that -would result in a short circuit. - -_Q._ How are the lights operated? - -_A._ The lighting system consists of two 2-bulb headlights and a tail -light operated by a combination lighting and ignition switch located on -the instrument board. The large bulbs are of 6-8 candle-power type. The -small bulbs of 6-8 volt two candle-power type. The small bulb is also -used in the tail light. All of the lamps are connected in parallel so -that the burning out or removal of any one of them will not effect the -other. Current for the lamps is supplied by the battery. Do not connect -the lights with the magneto as it will result in burning out the bulbs -and might discharge the magnets. - -_Q._ What about repairing starter and generator? - -_A._ If either the starter or generator fails to give proper service, -the owner should at once consult an authorized Ford dealer. If the -trouble is not found in the wiring, connections, etc., as outlined, the -dealer will remove the starter or generator, or both if necessary, and -return them intact to the nearest branch for repair or replacement. -Dealers or owners should not attempt to repair or tamper in any way -with the mechanism of the starter and generator. - -_Q._ How is the starter removed? - -_A._ When removing the starter to replace transmission bands, or for -any other reason, first remove the engine pan and the left hand side -of the engine and with a screw driver remove the four small screws -holding the shaft cover to the transmission cover. Upon removing cover -and gasket, turn the Bendix drive shaft around so that the set screw -on the end of the shaft is in the upward position. Immediately under -the set screw is placed a lock washer, designed with lips or extensions -opposite each other on the outside diameter. One of these is turned -against the collar and the other is turned up against the side of the -screw head. Bend back the lip which has been forced against the screw -and remove the set screw. As the lock washer will no doubt be broken or -weakened in removing the starter, a new one must be used in replacing -it. These washers may be obtained from the nearest branch. Next, pull -the Bendix assembly out of the housing, being careful that the small -key is not misplaced or lost. Remove the four screws which hold the -starter housing to the transmission cover and pull out the starter, -taking same down through the chassis,--this is why it was necessary -to remove the engine pan. Extreme care should be used in removing the -Bendix drive and other parts that none are misplaced nor lost and -that they are replaced in their former positions. In replacing the -starter, be sure that the terminal connection is placed at the top. -If the car is to be operated with the starter removed, be sure to put -the transmission cover plates in position. These plates may also be -obtained from the nearest branch. - -_Q._ How is the generator removed? - -_A._ If it is found necessary to remove the generator, first take out -the three cap screws holding it to the front end cover and by placing -the point of a screw driver between the generator and front end cover; -the generator may be forced off the engine assembly. Always start at -the top of the generator and force it backward and downward at the same -time. Plates may be obtained from the nearest branch to place over the -time gear if the car is to be operated with the generator removed. - -_Q._ Can the engine be run with the generator disconnected from the -battery? - -_A._ If for any reason it is run with the generator disconnected from -the battery, as on a block test, or when battery has been removed for -repair or recharging, be sure that the generator is grounded to the -engine by running a wire from the terminal on generator to one of the -valve cover stud nuts. A piece of wire ¹⁄₁₆″ or more in diameter may -be used for this purpose. Be sure that the connections at both ends of -the wire are tight. Failure to do this when running the engine with the -generator disconnected from the battery will result in serious injury -to the generator. - -_Q._ What about the care of the battery, repairing of recharging? - -_A._ The Ford Starting System uses a 6-volt 13-plate “Exide” battery, -type 3-XC-13-1. The care of the battery in service is summed up in the -following rules: - -1. Add nothing but pure water to the cells and do it often enough -to keep the plates covered at all times. Distilled water, melted -artificial ice or rain water collected in clean receptacles is -recommended. In cold weather add water only just before running the -engine so that the charging may mix the water and the electrolyte and -freezing of the water be avoided. - -2. Take frequent hydrometer readings to make sure that the generator -is keeping the battery charged. To take reading remove filler cap of -cell, insert end of hydrometer syringe in filler opening, squeeze bulb, -and release, drawing up enough liquid to float hydrometer bulb free -in the liquid. The reading of the scale at the surface of the liquid -when hydrometer is floating in the specific gravity (density) of the -electrolyte. A fully charged battery will show a reading of 1.275 to -1.300. A battery half charged will show a reading of 1.225 to 1.250. -A completely discharged battery will show a reading of 1.200 or less. -When taking hydrometer readings remove the filler cap from only one -cell at a time and be sure to return electrolyte to the cell from which -it was taken. Then replace and tighten the filler cap. Hydrometer tests -taken immediately after filling with water and before water has become -thoroughly mixed with the electrolyte will not show the true condition -of the battery. - -3. If hydrometer reading shows battery less than half charged it should -be taken to the nearest Exide Battery Service Station for recharging. -Continued operation in a less than half charged condition is injurious -to the battery, just as running in a soft or deflated condition is -injurious to the tires. - -4. Keep the filler caps in place and screwed tight,--a half turn -tightens them. Keep battery connections tight and clean. A coating of -heavy oil or vaseline will protect the connectors from corrosion. Keep -battery firmly secured in place. If hold-downs are loose battery will -shift about in compartment and result in loose connections, broken -cells or other trouble. - -5. Exide Battery Stations are maintained in principal cities and towns -throughout the country to assist you to obtain good service from your -battery. Do not entrust your battery to the care of a novice. - -_Q._ What about battery guarantee? - -_A._ The Exide batteries are guaranteed by the manufacturers (The -Electric Storage Battery Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) to be free from -defects in material and workmanship. - -At any time within three months from date of delivery to the purchaser -any battery which may prove to be defective or incapable, when fully -charged, of giving its rated capacity, will be repaired or replaced -free of expense upon receipt, transportation charges prepaid, at any -Exide Battery Depot or authorized Exide Battery Service Station. This -guarantee does not cover the free charging of batteries nor the making -good of damage resulting from continued lack of filling the cells from -time to time with pure water. No claims on account of alleged defects -can be allowed unless made within three months of date of delivery of -battery to purchaser, and the right is reserved to refuse to consider -claims in the case of batteries opened by other than authorized Exide -Battery Service Stations. - -Purchasers of cars equipped with the “Exide” batteries are earnestly -urged to coöperate with the battery manufacturers to taking their -cars, as promptly as possible after receipt, by the nearest Exide -Battery Service Station in order that the battery may be tested and -its condition and installation checked. No charge is made for this -inspection. - - - - -INDEX - - - PAGE - - Accumulator 99 - - Alignment 229 - - Alternating current 96 - - Ammeter 99 - - Ampere 95 - - Atwater Kent ignition systems 126 - - Automobile arrangement of parts 245 - painting 262 - troubles 264 - - Axles 212 - dead, type 212 - front 214 - full-floating 213 - live, type 212 - semi-floating 212 - - - Battery, storage 99 - - Bearings, types of 236 - - Bijur starter mechanism 151 - - Body, care and washing 253 - - Borg and Beck clutch 192 - - Bosch Magneto, operation of 105 - cutting out ignition 110 - safety spark gap 109 - timing of 106 - - Brakes, operation of 218 - care of 221 - equalizer 220 - - Breaker box and distributor head assembly, N.E. 117 - - - Cam shaft 18 - - Cam shaft drive 19 - - Car, arrangement and parts, cleaning 243 - care, cleaning and washing 253 - - Carburetion 46 - - Carburetor, types, operation 46 - adjustments of 56 - kerosene, principle of operation 76 - adjustment 78 - - Charging rate, adjustment 165 - - Choking coil 97 - - Circuit breaker 100 - - Clutch, construction of 189 - cone type 191 - multiple disc type 192 - leathers and patterns 196 - - Coil, non-vibrating 100 - - Commutator 97 - - Condenser 97 - - Contact breaker 100 - - Cooling system, necessity, types and care 82 - - Crank shaft, counterbalanced 17 - four-throw plain 17 - - Current, high tension, low tension 95 - - Cylinder head 14 - - - Delco, electrical system 96 - - Differential gears 207 - - Direct current 96 - - Disc clutch, cleaning 195 - - Distributor 100 - - - Electric starter and light equipment 147 - - Electrical, equipment 154 - systems 153 - tuning hints 259 - - Electrolyte 99 - - Engine, 4-cycle type, operation of 29 - assembly of 36 - care and cleaning of 253 - construction and parts 12 - - Evaporation 84 - - Exact magneto timing 108 - - - Filling vacuum tank 94 - - Flywheel, types, care of 20 - - Ford car, operation and care of 269 - cooling system 287 - engine, operation and care of 277 - maintenance 280 - valve arrangement 279 - valve grinding 280 - valve timing 279 - gasoline system 290 - ignition system 295 - lubrication system 316 - maintenance points 323 - muffler 310 - one-ton truck 325 - rear axle assembly 307 - running gear 311 - starting and lighting system 328 - - Ford car, tire care 320 - transmission system 301 - - Fuse, construction, use of 97 - - - Gasoline engine construction 12 - parts assembly 36 - - Gear, shifts 200 - box arrangement 201 - - Generator 147 - - Greases 40 - - - Heated manifolds 79 - - High speed 189 - - High tension current 95 - - Hydrometer syringe 99 - - - Induction coil 96 - - Ignition coil, N.E. type 117 - - Ignition distributor, N.E. type 116 - - - Kick switch arrangement 137 - coil 137 - - - Lamp controllers 159 - - Lens, cleaning of 254 - - Lubrication, of spring leaves 224 - systems 39 - - - Magneto, parts, operation of 101 - timing of 113 - washing, repair 111 - - Main bearings 17 - - Manifold, action of 80 - - Mechanical alignment 230 - - Mufflers, design, care of 86 - cleaning 87 - - Multiple cylinders 12 - - - North East Automatic spark advance 121 - breaker cam 120 - breaker contacts 119 - ignition system 114 - starter system 161 - - - Ohm 95 - - Oils, quality, grade of 40 - - Oil reservoir 19 - - One unit, electrical system 148 - - Overhauling car 247 - - Overheating 83 - - Operation of starter 156 - - - Philbrin ignition system 141 - - Pistons 15 - - Piston rings 15 - rod bearings 16 - rods 16 - wrist pins 15 - - Plunger pump oiling system, operation of 42 - - Power stroke 31 - lapping 32 - - Poppet valve, construction 23 - adjustment 23 - operation 23 - - - Radiator, cleaning 83 - freezing 84 - solutions 84 - repairs 84 - - Regulation of generator 100 - - Repair equipment 25 - - Rug cleaning 254 - - Running gear, washing of 253 - - - Schebler-carburetor, model R, adjustment of 63 - Ford “A,” adjustment of 74 - Ford “A,” operation of 73 - - Semi-floating axle, operation of 212 - - Spark plugs, construction of 186 - care of 186 - - Splash oiling system 40 - care of 41 - cleaning of 41 - - Spring, care, tests 225 - types, care of 226 - - Starter-Generator, operation of 163 - - Starting motor, operation of 149 - - Steering gear, types 232 - adjustment of 233 - care of 235 - - Stewart carburetor, operation, care of and maintenance 65 - - Storage battery, operation of 180 - charging 182 - freezing 185 - maintenance 182 - - Strainer for gasoline 93 - - Stroke 31 - - Stromberg carburetor, model M 47 - model L 58 - - Sunderman carburetor, action of 60 - - Switches 100 - - - Three unit, electrical system 148 - - Tire, build, quality 256 - chains 257 - rim care 254 - - Top, care of 254 - - Transmissions 198 - gear shifts 200 - box arrangement 201 - care of 202 - - Tube, care 258 - repairing 258 - - Two unit, electrical system 148 - - - Universal joints 204 - - Upholstering 254 - - - Vacuum systems 89 - cleaning strainer 93 - - Vacuum systems, operation of 90 - troubles 93 - - Valve, types, arrangement of 21 - grinding 25 - setting 24 - sleeve type 26 - setting of 27 - timing marks 25 - - Voltage 95 - - Voltaic cells 99 - - - Water cooling 82 - - Water vents 16 - - Wheels, lining up 229 - - Windshield, cleaning and care 99 - - Wiring 114 - - Wrapping springs 224 - - Wrist pins 15 - bushings 15 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - The text used for this e-text is that as printed in the source - document. Unless listed under Changes below, inconsistent spelling - and hyphenation, the inconsistent use of quote marks surrounding - reference letters or model and type letters, the inconsistent use of - per cent with and without full stop, etc. have not been standardised. - The automobile brand consistently called Jeffrey in the text was - actually called Jeffery. The (minor) differences in wording and - structure between the table of contents and the text have not been - standardised. - - Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their - settings, not all elements may display as intended. - - Page 8: there are no seventeenth and eighteenth items listed; items - nineteen and twenty are cardinal rather than ordinal numbers in the - source document. - - Page 14, Fig. 3: the oddly shaped cylinder head is as printed in the - source document. - - Page 33, ... Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors ... and ... a case - where two, four, or two six cylindered motors are set ...: as printed - in the source document; the commas between Twin and Four and between - two and four are possibly erroneous. - - Page 35, calculation of piston displacement: the calculation results - in 192.42 cubic inches. - - Page 54: Fig. 32 shows an exterior photograph ...: as printed in the - source document; Fig. 32 is obviously a drawing. - - Page 128 and 135: Fig. 68 and Fig. 75 and their captions are - identical in the source document. - - Page 159 and 183: Fig. 91 and Fig. 103 and their captions are - identical in the source document. - - Page 205 Whitemore and page 327 Whittemore: possibly misspellings of - Whitmore. - - - Changes - - Most tables and illustrations have been moved out of text paragraphs. - In some tables and lists the ditto character has been replaced with - the dittoed text. - - Some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been - corrected silently. - - Above or underneath some illustrations indented texts provide - transcriptions of the explanatory and descriptive texts inside the - accompanying illustration. These transcriptions do not occur as - such in the source document but have been provided for the sake of - legibility and searchability. - - Page xii: page number 126 inserted. - - Page 1-2: Daimler was consistently spelled Diamler; this has been - corrected. - - Page 3: Marquis de Doin changed to Marquis de Dion. - - Page 33: ... a staggard position ... changed to ... a staggered - position .... - - Page 47: ... through a verticle channel ... changed to ... through a - vertical channel .... - - Page 47, 48: ... air bled jet ... changed to ... air bleed jet ... (2 - ×). - - Page 70: ... which embodies a radically new principal ... changed to - ... which embodies a radically new principle .... - - Page 82: It acts on the principal that ... changed to It acts on the - principle that .... - - Page 84: ... its freezing point being 8% below zero ... changed to - ... its freezing point being 8° below zero .... - - Page 87: ... are scrapped and rubbed ... changed to ... are scraped - and rubbed .... - - Page 98: reference letters A-F in paragraph Dynamo changed to lower - case as in illustration. - - Page 117: ... the verticle shaft bearing sleeve ... changed to ... - the vertical shaft bearing sleeve .... - - Page 126: ... which eliminate troubles ... changed to ... which - eliminates troubles .... - - Page 152: Figs. 87 (Position 2A) and 87A (Position 3) have been - placed in the right order. - - Page 169: ... in contact with the ear ... changed to ... in contact - with the gear .... - - Page 178: ... shown at D and C (Fig. 99) ... changed to ... shown at - D and C (Fig. 100) .... - - Page 231: ... E-EL lines drawn through the spindles will meet at F - ... changed to ... e-e1 lines drawn through the spindles will meet at - E ...; ... the lines E and E1 meet at different angles ... changed to - ... the lines e and e1 meet at different angles .... - - Page 260: ... the nearest mettle part. changed to ... the nearest - metal part. - - Page 333: ... show a reading of 1,200 or less. changed to ... show a - reading of 1.200 or less. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER'S -GUIDE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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