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diff --git a/old/69434-h/69434-h.htm b/old/69434-h/69434-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index e374f88..0000000 --- a/old/69434-h/69434-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4309 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta charset="UTF-8"> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Herder’s Conception of “Das Volk”, by Georgiana R. Simpson. - </title> - - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> - - <style> - -a { - text-decoration: none; -} - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1,h2,h3,h4 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; -} - -h2.nobreak { - page-break-before: avoid; -} - -hr.chap { - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - clear: both; - width: 65%; - margin-left: 17.5%; - margin-right: 17.5%; -} - -div.chapter { - page-break-before: always; -} - -ul { - list-style-type: none; -} - -li { - margin-top: .5em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -p { - margin-top: 0.5em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: 0.5em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -table { - margin: 1em auto 1em auto; - max-width: 40em; - border-collapse: collapse; -} - -td { - padding-left: 2.25em; - padding-right: 0.25em; - vertical-align: top; - text-indent: -2em; - text-align: justify; -} - -.tdr { - text-align: right; -} - -.tdpg { - vertical-align: bottom; - text-align: right; -} - -.blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 10%; -} - -.center { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.dedication { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0em; - line-height: 2em; - margin: 3em auto; -} - -.footnotes { - margin-top: 1em; - border: dashed 1px; -} - -.footnote { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; -} - -.footnote .label { - position: absolute; - right: 84%; - text-align: right; -} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; -} - -.gothic { - font-family: 'Old English Text MT', 'Old English', serif; -} - -div.hanging { - margin-bottom: 1em; -} - -p.hanging, div.hanging p { - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -.larger { - font-size: 150%; -} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - right: 4%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; -} - -.poetry-container { - text-align: center; -} - -.poetry { - display: inline-block; - text-align: left; -} - -.poetry .stanza { - margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; -} - -.poetry .verse { - padding-left: 3em; -} - -.poetry .indent0 { - text-indent: -3em; -} - -.poetry .indent16 { - text-indent: 5em; -} - -.poetry .indent18 { - text-indent: 6em; -} - -.right { - text-align: right; -} - -.smaller { - font-size: 80%; -} - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps; - font-style: normal; -} - -.titlepage { - text-align: center; - margin-top: 3em; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .poetry { - display: block; - margin-left: 1.5em; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 5%; -} - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Herder's conception of "das Volk", by Georgiana R. Simpson</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Herder's conception of "das Volk"</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Georgiana R. Simpson</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 27, 2022 [eBook #69434]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Mary Glenn Krause and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by the Library of Congress)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERDER'S CONCEPTION OF "DAS VOLK" ***</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> - -<p class="center larger gothic">The University of Chicago</p> - -<h1>HERDER’S CONCEPTION OF<br> -“DAS VOLK”</h1> - -<p class="titlepage">A DISSERTATION<br> -<br> -SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY<br> -OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND LITERATURE<br> -IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF<br> -DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY</p> - -<p class="center smaller">DEPARTMENT OF GERMANICS</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br> -GEORGIANA R. SIMPSON</p> - -<p class="titlepage">Private Edition, Distributed By<br> -THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LIBRARIES<br> -CHICAGO, ILLINOIS<br> -1921</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">Composed and Printed By<br> -The University of Chicago Press<br> -Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> - -<p class="dedication">DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY<br> -OF MY<br> -FRIEND AND TEACHER<br> -FRÄULEIN AGNES BURCHARD<br> -OF<br> -ROSTOCK, GERMANY</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NOTE">NOTE</h2> - -</div> - -<p>I wish to express my sincere thanks to all my Professors, but especially -to Professors Starr W. Cutting, Martin Schütze, and Francis A. -Wood, under whom the major portion of my work in the Graduate School -has been pursued.</p> - -<p>This particular study, however, is the outcome of interest awakened -by Professor Schütze while I was a member of his seminars.</p> - -<p>I owe a special debt of gratitude to him, not only for his guidance in -this endeavor, but for the inspiration and encouragement which has come -to me from the very beginning of my work under him.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Georgiana R. Simpson</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2> - -</div> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="tdr smaller">CHAPTER</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Semasiology of the Word</span>, <i>Volk</i>—<span class="smcap">The Idea in Other Words</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Conceptions of</span> <i>Volk</i> <span class="smcap">as Seen in Herder’s Use of the Term</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">4</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Conceptions of</span> <i>Volk</i> <span class="smcap">as Gathered from Herder’s Collection of</span> <i>Volkslieder</i></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">15</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Conceptions of</span> <i>Volk</i> <span class="smcap">in Herder’s Discussion of “Ossian’s People” and the Ancient Hebrews</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">22</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Foundations of Individuality and Personality in Herder</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"> 31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Eighteenth-Century Thought in Herder’s Conception of</span> <i>Das Volk</i></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">36</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">54</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"></td> - <td><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">58</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br> -<span class="smaller">SEMASIOLOGY OF <i>VOLK</i>—THE IDEA IN OTHER WORDS</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Before going directly to the main discussion of our theme, a background -is sought in a brief semasiological study of the word <i>Volk</i>. The -word is widespread in the Germanic languages; Gothic, however, offers -no examples. Among the earliest recorded Germanic forms are those in -Old English and in Old High German. Old English <i>folc</i> meant people, -common people, multitude, a people, tribe, family, army:</p> - -<p>“He sloh folces Denigea fyftyne men”—<i>Beowulf</i>.</p> - -<p>“Folces hyrde”—<i>Beowulf</i>.</p> - -<p>It was particularly used originally of a crowd of people. Skeat’s -<i>Etymological Dictionary</i> suggests the possibility of its being related to -both flock and full.</p> - -<p>Old High German <i>folc</i> meant people, body of warriors, servants, -crowd, mass. The oldest meaning here suggests forces of war: <i>dhazs -himiliscâ folc</i>.</p> - -<p>The word occurs in Old Frisian as <i>folk</i>; in Old Saxon, <i>folc</i>; and in Old -Norse, <i>folk</i>; with meanings equivalent to those found in Old High German -and Old English.</p> - -<p>Kluge’s <i>Etymological Dictionary</i> says that the meaning “division of -an army” seems to be the fundamental meaning of the family group, -from which Lithuanian <i>pulkas</i>, heap mass, Old Slavonic <i>plŭkŭ</i>, host of -war, are borrowed forms.</p> - -<p>In Middle English the word took on the additional meaning of an -aggregation of people in relation to a superior; e.g., God, a king, or priest; -further it began to mean also the vulgar or lower classes, this use easily -rising out of the meaning “mass” or “the many.” Such expressions -occur as <i>beboden waes Godes folce</i>, <i>Folkes Mass Book</i>.</p> - -<p>In Middle High German the meaning was people, hosts of war, army, -servants, subjects, multitude: <i>er das Volk gewan</i> (<i>Gudrun</i>, 1162, 2).</p> - -<p>In Modern English the word is chiefly colloquial, being superseded -in more formal use by “people.”</p> - -<p>In numerous combinations (following German precedent) it has the -sense of pertaining to, current among, or existing among the masses of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> -people or the common people. Such expressions as folk-belief, folk-custom, -folk-literature, folk-name, folk-song, and folk-speech are prevalent.</p> - -<p>Modern High German has retained the word with nearly all of its -primitive meanings: <i>die schottischen Völker empören sich und drohen -abzuziehen</i>;<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> <i>Mein Volk zu mindern</i>;<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> <i>Was rennt das Volk?</i>;<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> <i>du weisst, -wir alten fahren, und ihr junges Volk reitet</i>;<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> <i>den Teufel spürt das Völkchen -nie</i>.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<p>The large number of compounds in which the word is used limit its -connotation to either “the masses” or “the common people”: <i>Volksbuch</i>, -<i>Volksdichter</i>, <i>Volksgeist</i>, <i>Volkslehrer</i>, <i>Volksschule</i>, etc. Kluge in his <i>Etymological -Dictionary</i> says: “Connection with Latin <i>vulgus</i> is uncertain; -for it is questionable whether the Latin word together with the Germanic -family group would come from an original <i>qelgos</i>, <i>qolgos</i>.”</p> - -<p>Weigand, <i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i> says: “The earlier comparison with -the Latin, <i>volgus</i>, is not possible. Rather to be compared here are the -word <i>voll</i> and roots related to the Greek πλῆθος.”</p> - -<h3>THE IDEA IN OTHER WORDS</h3> - -<p>The ideas conveyed by the fundamental meanings found in the word -<i>Volk</i> appear in other words and in various languages:</p> - -<h4>GREEK</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>πλῆθος—a great number, a throng, a crowd, multitude, especially of people.</p> - -<p>πολύς—properly of number, many; opposed to ὀλίγος.</p> - -<p>οἱ πολλοί—the many; that is, the greater number.</p> - -<p>ὄχλος—a moving crowd, a throng, irregular crowd, in a political sense, the -populace or mob, opposed to δῆμος.</p> - -<p>γένος—race, stock, family, whether by blood or by nationality: αἷμα τε καὶ γένος</p> - -<p>―—a race in regard to number, γένος ἀνδρῶν, mankind.</p> - -<p>φῦλον—a set of men or any living beings as naturally distinct from others; a -race or tribe; in a closer sense, a race of people or a nation.</p> - -<p>ἔθνος—a number of people living together, a company, a body of men.</p> - -<p>ἔθνος ἑταίρων—a band of comrades.</p> - -<p>ἔθνος λαῶν—a host of men.</p> - -<p>ὁ δῆμος—a district, country, land. Also the people of such a district, hence (as -in early times the common people were scattered through the country -while the chiefs held the city) the commons, common people. δήμου ἀνήρ -opposed to βασιλεύς.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> - -<h4>LATIN</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p><i>Vulgus</i>—people collectively or without distinction, the public or people generally: -<i>Non est consilium in vulgo</i>. The multitude, the common people, the -populace.</p> - -<p><i>Populus</i>—a people, the commons in contradistinction to the senate and knights: -<i>senatus populusque Romanus</i>. The inhabitants of a country or town, a -nation, a whole people: <i>Populus Romanus victor dominusque omnium gentium</i>. -A large number of people, a crowd, throng: <i>populus fratrum</i>.</p> - -<p><i>Plebs</i>—The common people, commonality, the ignoble opposed to <i>patricii</i>, -<i>patres</i> or <i>senatus</i>; whereas <i>populus</i> comprises both classes. When the -knights, <i>equites</i>, were raised to a separate class, the <i>plebs</i> formed the third; -i.e., the last or lowest class; hence, the lower class of people, the populace, -the mass.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>FRENCH</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p><i>Peuple</i>—a multitude of people of the same country and living under the same -laws: <i>Les peuples ne souffrent que par les fautes des rois</i>.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<p><i>Peuple</i>—a multitude of people who, although not occupying the same country, -have the same religion or the same origin: <i>et je serai leur Dieu, et eux ils -seront mon peuple</i>.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p><i>Peuple</i>—that part of a nation considered as opposed to the classes among whom -there is either more ease or more education: <i>Il y a le peuple qui est opposé -aux grands. C’est la populace et la multitude.</i><a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -</div> - -<p>In Middle English the word people was already a synonym for <i>folc</i>: -“A Blysful lyf, Ledden the peoples in the former age” (Chaucer).</p> - -<p>In Modern English the word people has almost entirely displaced -<i>Volk</i> except in colloquial or archaic speech. Like <i>Volk</i> in its fundamental -sense we have:</p> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>People—a body of persons composing a community, tribe, race, or nation.</p> - -<p>People—persons in relation to a superior, or to some one to whom they -belong.</p> - -<p>People—the common people, the commonality; the mass of the community -as distinguished from the nobility and ruling, or official, -classes, etc. “A people’s voice! We are a people yet” (Tennyson).</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br> -<span class="smaller">CONCEPTIONS OF <i>VOLK</i> AS SEEN IN HERDER’S USE OF THE TERM</span></h2> - -</div> - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p><i>Volk</i> is that part of a nation which is the governed class as distinct -from those who are above them in authority and who stand as the ruling -class; i.e., the governed as separate from the governing.</p> - -<p>I, 16: “Man weiss dass nach den Staatsplänen Lykurgs und Solons, -die als die Muster der übrigen glänzten, die Stimme des Volks, eine -Stimme des Staats, ja beinahe selbst Gott war.” <i>Volk</i> here is the collective -mass of individuals constituting the state as opposed to the ruling -heads.</p> - -<p>I, 16: “Dies konnte das Volk beantworten, nicht aus Staatseinsichten, -sondern weil jeder Bürger streiten musste.” Herder is discussing -the power which the people have in the simplest democratic form of government -to declare or to forbid war. <i>Volk</i> is here the collection of citizens -which make up the state as opposed to nominal rulers.</p> - -<p>I, 188: “Cicero ärgert sich, dass er dem Volk zu gefallen, ‘pulcher’ -und ‘triumphus’ statt ‘pulcer’ und ‘triumpus’ aussprechen müsste.” -In similar connotation are such phrases as: “fraget das Volk”; “die -niemand als das Volk geben wird”; “worauf das Volk hinkte, wenn es -nicht gehen konnte”; “bloss weil das Volk sie vor Drüsen ansahe.”</p> - -<p>I, 18: “Selbst das Volk ist nicht mehr dasselbe. Dort war dieser -Name ehrwürdig: er begriff alle Bürger, Rath und Priester ausgenommen.” -The collective mass of citizens who form the state in contradistinction -to the individuals who were nominal rulers.</p> - -<p>I, 22: “So sieht man, dass ihre Schutzgötter, und ihre Gottesdienste, -dass Orakelsprüche und Ceremonien blos heiliger Nebel und Opferrauch -waren, die Augen des Volks zu blenden.” Herder here mentions Cicero -as augur and writer on religious subjects; <i>Volk</i> are the citizens, exclusive -of those occupying the official rank such as that held by Cicero, for -example.</p> - -<p>XIV, 34: “So ist ein Unterschied zwischen Cultur der Gelehrten und -Cultur des Volks.” Herder speaks here concerning the organization of -the state among ancient peoples. The <i>Gelehrten</i> were the teaching and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span> -priestly class—those who were in possession of certain secret knowledge. -The <i>Volk</i>, while not having this knowledge, were nevertheless not without -culture. We may take <i>Volk</i> to mean nation or people in the same sense -in which a modern people might be considered as such and include its -clergymen and lawyers who had special professional training.</p> - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>Quotations in which <i>Volk</i> is used as synonymous with nation. The -ideas of collective personality and of <i>Nationalgeist</i> are prominent here.</p> - -<p>I, 23: “Der Charakter unseres Volks ist nicht mehr die dreiste Wildheit -der Alten; sondern eine feinere und mässigere Freiheit; die Freiheit -des Gewissens.” Herder discusses the question of freedom in the fatherland -and uses “fatherland” as synonymous with <i>Volk</i>; <i>Volk</i> is nation.</p> - -<p>I, 147: “Ein Volk das ohne Poetische Sprache grosse Dichter ... -gehabt hätte ist ein Unding.” <i>Volk</i> is nation.</p> - -<p>I, 261: “So sehr sich immer Voltaire, und die seines Theils sind, -beklagen, dass wir ein eckles dummes Volk aus einem Winkel der Erde -so sehr erheben.” <i>Wir</i> here refers to the German people in the eighteenth -century. <i>Volk</i>, then, means a nation.</p> - -<p>I, 262: “singen wir denn für Juden? die sich für das einzige Volk -Gottes hielten? die von dem feurigsten Nationalstolz belebt wurden?” -<i>Volk</i>, here, in the light of <i>Nationalstolz</i>, clearly means nation. In the -same connection and with the same meaning he says: “Unser Gott ist -ein Vater der Menschen nicht eines Volks.”</p> - -<p>I, 276: “Ein Rabbi, der für sein Volk Patriotismus, Känntniss seiner -Gebräuche.” <i>Volk</i> here refers to the Jews, hence means nation.</p> - -<p>II, 8: “Allerdings ist auch die Sprache einer Nation ein beträchtliches -Stück in der Litteratur derselben.... Man kann die Litteratur -eines Volks, ohne seine Sprache nicht übersehen.” <i>Volk</i> is clearly -a synonym with nation.</p> - -<p>I, 13: “ein Vorrath, der freilich oft durch Raub und Beute Nachbarn -bereichert, aber so wie er ist doch eigentlich der Nation zugehört, die ihn -hat ... der Gedankenschatz eines ganzen Volks.” In this passage, -language (<i>Sprache</i>) is the word <i>Vorrath</i>, to which reference is made. -<i>Volk</i> is the same as nation.</p> - -<p>II, 28: “Der ganzen Nation wäre ein solches Buch ein Schatz: -... denn der Genius, der über die Wissenschaften eines Volks wachet -ist zugleich der Schutzgott der Sprache desselben.” <i>Volk</i> is nation.</p> - -<p>II, 32: “Und was dörfen wir uns unserer Consonanten schämen, wenn -sie Concente der Tapferkeit sind, um Götter und Stammväter unseres -Volks, Helden und Erretter der Nation zu preisen.” <i>Volk</i> is nation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span></p> - -<p>II, 160: “Gemeiniglich waren die grössesten Schriftsteller zugleich -die grössesten Nationalautoren. Den Geist ihrer Zeit, die Denkart ihres -Volks, die Natur ihrer Sprache, wusten sie.” <i>Volk</i> is nation.</p> - -<p>III, 30: “sie werden Thränen und Thaten wecken: ein Schatz des -Vaterlandes, und das Gefühl, das sie besingen und wirken, Gefühl des -Volks, Nationalgeist.” <i>Volk</i> here is nation.</p> - -<p>III, 62: “ihn sollte ein Held anstimmen, der zugleich König war, der -dadurch die Griechen rettete, der ihnen die Opferung versprochen hatte: -dieser also sein Wort brechen, sein Volk nicht lieben, dafür auch nicht -etwas Saures thun wollen?” <i>Volk</i> here refers to the ancient Greeks, and -therefore has the meaning of nation.</p> - -<p>III, 398: “Wo, unsre Religion noch sinnlichen Vorstellungen Raum -gibt; wo sie sich einer Poetischen Bildersprache bequemt: da ist sie—Orientalisch. -Unter einem Volke gebildet, das ihr Gott auf alle Art von -Bildnissen abwenden wollte, in Gegenden, die das Uebermenschliche -suchten, in Nationen, die Verhüllungen des Körpers, und Geheimnisse -des Geistes lieber verehren als das offne Schöne lieben wollten—im Geist -und in der Sprache dieses Volks die sinnliche Bildersprache unsrer Religion -also geoffenbaret.” <i>Volk</i> is nation.</p> - -<p>III, 414: “Wenn er durch Dichter gebildet war, wenn einem Publikum -in Griechenland Dichterverse und Poetische Bilder ihrer Mythologie im -Kopfe schwebten, ohngefähr auf die Art, als unserm Volke Kirchenlieder, -Bibelsprüche (eine Vergleichung die hier blos Nationalunterschied seyn -soll).” <i>Volk</i> is nation.</p> - -<p>III, 425: “eine Nation, deren Merkwürdigkeiten eben so verwickelt -von der Politischen Wissenschaft sind, dass eine einzelne Münzensymbole -sie nicht vorstellen kann, ein Volk, das aus der verblümten Bilderzeit -hinaus, Wahrheit suchet, und Wahrheit findet: ein Volk endlich, in dem -die Münzen und der Geschmack auf denselben durchaus für keine Produktion -des Publikum gelten kann—ein solches Volk soll sich seine Geschichte -des Geschmacks und der Kunst aus Münzen weissagen, sich ein Buch -durch mit einem andern, dessen Numismatik Himmelweit von der ihrigen -abliegt, hämisch vergleichen lassen? wer ist Bürger dieses Volks, und -sagt nicht: <i>unde mihi lapides?</i>” This passage shows <i>Volk</i> to be synonymous -with nation.</p> - -<p>There are frequent uses of the word <i>Volk</i> in the plural, <i>Völker</i>, with -the same connotation:</p> - -<p>II, 19: “Die Litteratur fremder Völker und Sprachen ist oft als eine -fremde Colonie unter andere Nationen eingeführt.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p> - -<p>II, 23: “Was haben Völker und Sprachen für Vor- und Nachtheile -gegen einander?”</p> - -<p>II, 79: “das Namenregister ... das mich aus allen Zungen und -Sprachen und Völkern und Gesellschaften der Erde überführen soll.”</p> - -<p>III, 32: “eine Ader des Gefühls, die die besten Dichtungen und -Geschichte, nicht blos der Griechen, sondern aller Völker durchströmt.”</p> - -<p>III, 52: “warum die Griechen in Bildung des Schönen so hoch gekommen, -um allen Völkern der Erde hierinn den Preis abzulaufen?”</p> - -<p>IV, 168: “der das Schöne unter allen Völkern und Zeitaltern sucht.”</p> - -<p>V, 86: “der Erste Kopf der an eine wahre Philosophie der Grammatik -... denkt, muss gewiss erst die Geschichte derselben durch Völker -und Stuffen hinab überdacht haben.”</p> - -<p>I, 2: “Gestorbene Sprachen.... Glücklich, dass die Völker denen -sie eigen waren, verlebt sind.”</p> - -<p>I, 3: “Hier knüpft die Politik des Staats die Sprachen zur allgemeinen -Kette der Völker.”</p> - -<p>I, 262: “Von allen Völkern der Erde abgesondert, brachte es seinem -Schutzgott Nationalgesänge.” (Jews.)</p> - -<p>V, 500: “Der Stamm des Baums zu seiner grössern Höhe erwachsen, -strebte, Völker und Nationen unter seinen Schatten zu nehmen, in -Zweige.”</p> - -<p>V, 501: “Wenn alle Völker unter dem Römischen Joche gewissermaasse -die Völker zu seyn aufhörten, die sie waren?”</p> - -<p>V, 514: “Norden wars. Und was man auch nun über den Zustand -dieser Völker für Ursprünge und Systeme ersinnen mag.”</p> - -<p>VI, 115: “Kannte Noah diese ganz? Konnte er allen Völkern die -Warnung Gottes bekannt machen?”</p> - -<p>VI, 128: “Ich bleibe bei den Umwandlungen dieser Philosophie bei -spätern benachbarten Völkern, und dünkts mich kein Traum.”</p> - -<p>“Aber dass sich die Geheimnisse mit Ideen dieser Gattung unter allen -Völkern beschäftigt.”</p> - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p><i>Volk</i>, a special group, less cultured, unaltered in certain respects by -the influence of civilization. There are marked implications of theories -of universalism and democracy here. The largest part of the people are -the most important and respectable.</p> - -<p>In the following two passages we have a degree of characterization -of the rabble:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span></p> - -<p>XVII, 91: “den leider ist es nur Ein Ding, Poebelsinn und Tyrannei, -mit zwei Namen genannt, wie die rechte und linke Seite.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 323: “Volk heisst nicht der Poebel auf den Gassen, der singt -und dichtet niemals, sondern schreyt und verstümmelt.”</p> - -<p>These characterizations of <i>Poebel</i> suggest not a lack of culture but -culture of a sort that has had a warping effect. If <i>Volk</i> is not this rabble -and, yet, not the learned class, it must stand in some respects, at least, -between the two. It is more dignified and respectable than the rabble; -it has certain intellectual aptitudes and moral traits found among primitive -peoples, but which are usually effaced by a high degree of civilization -and culture.</p> - -<p>I, 392: “O eine Schrift, die das ist, was eine Erbauungs—eine Bildungsschrift -für den grössten, nutzbarsten und ehrwürdigsten Theil der Menschen, -das Volk sein soll.” The author has been regretting that the -weekly journals, religious books, and sermons are not suited to the common -man, and suggests the kind of literature that would meet his needs. -<i>Volk</i> is here the largest, most useful, and most respectable part of mankind. -These people are to be edified and cultivated.</p> - -<p>VII, 246: “die bei dem grossen ehrwürdigen Haufen Volk erregt werden -müssen, wenn etwas würken soll. Dies Volk noch nicht zu Raisonnement -gebildet, glaubt und handelt.” These are too naïve to have -reason; <i>Volk</i> are the naïve, simple people.</p> - -<p>VI, 294: Herder here calls the Bible “Orakel Gottes für den besten, -grössten Theil der Menschheit, Kinder und Volk.”</p> - -<p>VI, 309: “über den Euch noch immer Kind und Volk, der edelste -Theil der Menschheit.”</p> - -<p>VI, 443: “wie die Kindes- und Volkswelt sich das ursprünglich denken -konnte.”</p> - -<p>In these last three passages the mental capacity of <i>Volk</i> is that of a -child, and the thought therefore implies for <i>Volk</i> a meager degree of education -and culture.</p> - -<p>VI, 104: “Wo sind in allen unsern Ländern Weisheitsschulen für den -ehrwürdigen Theil unsers Publikum, den man das Volk nennet?” -Herder says these are human beings who form the stock of the nation -and distinguishes them from the nobility who would refuse to enlighten -the <i>Volk</i> that these might be the better utilized by the nobility and the -better become the subjects of their tyranny. <i>Volk</i> is here a class beneath -the nobility, but ideally they are enlightened and made better by social -contact and religious observances.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p> - -<p>VI, 301: “Zu dem schrieb er fürs Volk; ich verstehe unter diesem -Namen die Menge derer, die sich nicht durch die Sprachlehre zu Deutschen -gebildet hatten.” Herder here refers to Luther and the people for -whom he wrote; these were the less cultured people.</p> - -<p>I, 298: “Weil damals noch nicht ein Unterschied zwischen der -Sprache der Weisen und des Volks, zwischen der Denkart der Vornehmen -und Geringen war; was Homer sang war die Sprache der Götter und -zugleich eine veredelte Sprache des Pöbels.” Herder is speaking of -Homer’s language and times. In the parallel the wise are the aristocratic; -the <i>Volk</i> are those of humble rank.</p> - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p><i>Volk</i> meaning a special group characterized by primitivism in various -forms.</p> - -<p>II, 25: “wie die Denkart des Volks mit der gelehrten Denkart neben -und in einander laufe?” “Was giebt die Denkart und Sprache des Volks -dem Philosophen, Dichter und Redner für Masse?” “Was hat dies für -Vortheile und Nachtheile für die Weisen und dem Schüler des Volks?” -Here Herder discusses two separate manners of thinking, designating -one as being peculiar to the <i>Volk</i> and the other as being that of the <i>Gelehrten</i>; -one as belonging to the <i>Volk</i>, the other to the <i>Philosophen</i>, <i>Dichter</i> -and <i>Redner</i>. Here is a clear implication that the <i>Volk</i> is a class apart -from philosophers, poets, and orators; a class different from the sages. -Not being wise and learned, they must be those upon whom artificial -methods of training and culture have had less effect than upon the -philosophers, poets, and orators. They are therefore more nearly the -natural man.</p> - -<p>I, 157: “So wie das Völkerrecht jetzt im Staat zum Gesez ward: so -in der Sprache.... Es entstand ein Adel ein Pöbel und ein Mittelstand -unter den Völkern wie er in der Gesellschaft entstand.” Herder here has -traced the development of prose out of poetry. He finds that the language -of passion gave way to that of mediocre wit, and this in turn became -the speech of reason. Here is suggested a parallel between the rights of -the people, which passed into state laws, and the language which passes -from <i>Poebel</i> to <i>Mittelstand</i> and then to <i>Adel</i>. If we make parallel the -<i>Völkerrecht</i> in the development of law with the <i>Mittelstand</i> in the social -status, then <i>Volk</i> is a class between the rabble and the nobility. If we -follow the analogy suggested in the second sentence of the quotation, we -shall make the rabble those who have the language of passion; the <i>Volk</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> -those who have the language of mediocre wit; and the nobility those -whose language is that of reason. Herder’s <i>Volk</i> here would be a middle -class.</p> - -<p><i>Volk</i> is used commonly to mean primitive peoples, i.e., people who -have reached only an early stage of civilization. Among those to whom -frequent reference is made as such are: Greenlanders, Laplanders, Early -Scandinavians, Early Germans, Greeks of Homer’s time, Ancient -Hebrews, Ancient Celts in Scotland and Ireland, and American Indians. -The moral standards and intellectual equipment found among these are -eulogized and idealized whenever these peoples as groups are compared -with civilized communities.</p> - -<p>V, 189: “In mehr als einer Provinz sind mir Volkslieder, Provinziallieder, -Bauerlieder bekannt, die an Lebhaftigkeit und Rhythmus und -Naivetät und Stärke der Sprache vielen derselben gewiss nichts nachgeben -würden.” Here <i>Volk</i> is put in apposition with that which is provincial, -which has a peasant character. A meaning which is equivalent to the -less cultured. Herder is discussing the whereabouts of <i>Volkslieder</i> which -he locates among the <i>Volk</i>, and <i>Volk</i> are to be found in the lanes, in the -fish markets, and in the country.</p> - -<p>V, 185: “Zuerst sollten also wohl für die Seele des Volks die doch nur -fast sinnlicher Verstand und Einbildung ist.” ... Herder here considers -the <i>Volk</i> as having the kind of soul which would be formed by contact -with the forces of nature, unaltered by the hand of man, and, especially, -little touched by reflection, the reasoning faculty.</p> - -<p>II, 349: “Alles was für das Volk redete und schrieb, Redner, und -Geschichtsschreiber, musste populär sprechen; alles was für Gebildetere -schrieb, Dichter, und Philosoph, und Redner, und Briefschreiber war -freyer.” This statement clearly opposes <i>Volk</i> to those more cultured. -The adjective, “populär,” used with reference to that which would befit -them, gives a shading to the meaning of <i>Volk</i>, derived from the meaning -of “popular,” that which partakes of a quality peculiar to the populace. -<i>Volk</i> here are the less cultured.</p> - -<h3>V<br> -<span class="smaller">CONNATIONS ARISING FROM USES WITH ADJECTIVES</span></h3> - -<p>These imply an emphasis on a group in which crudeness, the natural -as opposed to the cultured and polished, are eulogized.</p> - -<p>XIII, 299: “Jedes eingebohrne <i>sinnliche Volk</i> hat sich also mit seinen -Begriffen auch in seine Gegend umschränkt.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></p> - -<p>XIII, 303: “Was ich auszuzeichnen habe sind einige allgemeine -Wahrnehmungen aus diesem Schattenreich <i>phantasierender Völker</i>.”</p> - -<p>Herder gives as an example of the <i>phantasierender Völker</i> the people -of Greenland, India, Lappland, Japan, Peru, and Africa at a period of -their existence when they have a mythology. The mythology he calls -a philosophical effort of the human soul, which dreams before it awakens -and gladly remains in its childhood.</p> - -<p>XIII, 328: “Auch unter den <i>wildesten Völkern</i> unterscheidet sich -das Weib vom Mann.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 389: “Daher ist auch bei den <i>rohesten Völkern</i> die Sprache der -Religion immer die älteste.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 392: “die göttlichen Gesetze und Regeln der Humanität, die -sich wenn auch nur in Resten bei dem <i>wildesten Volk</i> äussern.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 393: “Von den <i>rohen Völkern</i> der Vorwelt.”</p> - -<p>V, 681: “.... wie die Römische Staatskunst mit den Deutschen -Fürsten spielte; und die Grundverfassung dieser <i>Barbarischen Völker</i> in -Freiheit und Einigung zu erschüttern suchte.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 7: “Rohe Gesänge eines <i>rohen Volks</i>! Barbarische Töne und -Märchen, der Grundsuppe einer Nation.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 7: “Ohne Zweifel war das <i>Gallische</i>, <i>Englische</i> und noch mehr -das <i>Nordischere Volk</i> blos Volk!”</p> - -<p>XXV, 8: “Und wenn man sich nun diese Lieder..... in die <i>lebendige -Rührung des Volks</i> zurückdenkt.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 9: “die Denkart der Nation selbst National; das Volk mit -ein so <i>ansehnlicher Theil des Volks</i> dessen Namen man also nicht so -Schaamroth oder eckelnd und betroffen ansah und abscheute.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 11: “die Reste aller <i>lebendigen Volksdenkart</i> rollen mit beschleunigtem -letzten Sturze in Abgrund der Vergessenheit hinab. Das Licht -der sogenannten Kultur frisst wie der Krebs um sich.”</p> - -<h3>COMPOUNDS WITH VOLK</h3> - -<p>Words compounded with <i>Volk</i> show all the various meanings distinguished -in the following simple usages.</p> - -<p>XXIV, 268: “Wenn Du Deine Ballade einem jungen Bauermädchen -aus einem Thale .... gäbest die ausser den Kirchenliedern .... -oder sonst einem alten schlichten Gesang nie eine Musik gehört dabei -jedoch von Natur eine angenehmere und für den Zweck deines Gedichts -<i>passendere Volks-Melodie</i> wählen als irgend einer unserer grössten Virtuosen.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p> - -<p>XXIV, 280: “Ein engerer Bund zwischen Gott und dem Stammvater -eines Hirtenvolks wird darauf dieses Volks Losung.” This <i>Hirtenvolk</i> is -the Hebrews.</p> - -<p>XXIV, 305: “dieser grosse <i>Völkerstamm</i> sich nicht von Nord nach -Süden hinab sondern von Gallien Nordwärts.” This <i>Völkerstamm</i> is the -Irish and Scotch.</p> - -<p>XXIV, 307: “nur so viel ist gewiss dass die allgemeine Volkssage -Ossian einige Jahrhunderte später leben lässt.”</p> - -<p>XXIV, 399: “und da sie Gesetzgeber, Volksleiter waren.”</p> - -<p>I, 86: “Die herumschweifenden Beduinen sind noch solche Rhapsodisten -als Homer war: sie sammeln einen <i>Volkhaufen</i> um sich.”</p> - -<p>I, 157: “so wie das <i>Völkerrecht</i> jetzt im Staat zum Gesez ward.”</p> - -<p>V, 8: “Eigentlich ist diese Sprache der Natur eine <i>Völkersprache</i> für -jede Gattung unter sich und so hat auch der Mensch die Seinige.”</p> - -<p>V, 132: “Eine Morgenländische Urkunde über die Trennung der -Sprachen (die ich hier nur als ein Poetisches Fragment zur Archäologie -der <i>Völkergeschichte</i> betrachte).”</p> - -<p>V, 218: “Shakespeare .... fand keinen so einfachen <i>Volks</i>- und -<i>Vaterlandscharakter</i>.”</p> - -<p>V, 486: “Wie tausendmal mehr thöricht wenn du einem Kinde .... -deine allgemeine <i>Völkerliebe</i> voll tolerante Unterjochung .... gönnen -wolltest!”</p> - -<p>V, 493: “ob der Phönicier gleich nicht aus Menschenliebe, Nationen -besuchte, es ward eine Art von <i>Völkerliebe</i>, <i>Völkerbekanntschaft</i>, <i>Völkerrecht</i> -sichtbar.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 5: “Dünkts mich indessen recht, dass wenn auch diese nie -ganz erwünschbare Vaterlandsschätze gefunden würden, sie doch kaum -<i>Volks-Vaterlands-Lieder</i> für uns im strengern Verstande wären.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 6: “nur mit den Augen sehen und mit dem Herzen verstehen -.... wie es allemal <i>Volksrührung</i> ist und seyn sollte.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 10: “Natürlich musste auch die Denkart und ruhige <i>Volksart</i> -der Deutschen an dem ewigen Zwistgewitter theilnehmen.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 313: “ganz <i>Volksartig</i>, d.i. leicht, einfach, aus Gegenständen -und in der Sprache der Menge.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 314: “Der grösste Sänger der Griechen Homerus ist zugleich -der grösste Volksdichter. Sein herrliches Ganze ist .... Sage lebendige -<i>Volksgeschichte</i>.”</p> - -<p>XXV, 316: “und doch ist überall der alte ehrwürdige <i>Volkssänger</i> -der einfältige Hirt.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span></p> - -<p>XXV, 323: “Zum Volkssänger gehört nicht, dass er aus dem Pöbel -sein muss, oder für den Pöbel singt.”</p> - -<p>XXIV, 263: “Heisst also die Romanze, obwohl ihr nachher der -Gebrauch eine engere Bedeutung gegeben eigentlich nichts als Muttersprache -der südlichen Länder Europens und in ihnen <i>Volksrede</i>, <i>Volksgesang</i>.”</p> - -<p>XXIV, 265: “die alten Englischen und Schottischen <i>Volksgesänge</i>.”</p> - -<p>XXIV, 267: “Und so wäre mit echten <i>Volksgesange</i> abermals nicht -etwa nur ein Hauptzweig alter, edler, rühmlicher und Ruhmweckender -Poesie sondern der Grund aller Poesie die innere <i>Rechtschaffenheit und -Honnettetät im Herzen des Volks</i>—ermordet.”</p> - -<p>XXIV, 411: “Ungebundenheit (License) soll Endzweck der Regierung -sein: <i>Volkslaune</i> (<i>populare humour</i>) Ursprung der Regierung.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 39: “Die Abessinier sind ein Arabischer ‘<i>Völkerstamm</i>’ -(race).”</p> - -<p>XIII, 214: “<i>Völkerschaften</i> die den Dörfern und Städten nah sind -mildern und mischen auch mehr ihre Sitten und Züge.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 231: “Kennten wir nun noch die zahlreichen <i>Völkerschaften</i> -die über ihren dürren Gegenden .... wohnen.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 392: “so ist dieser Begriff, als allgemeiner <i>Volksglaube</i> auf der -Erde.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 427: “Priester- und <i>Volkstradition</i>.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 437: “Geschlechtstafel dieser Stämme .... hält sich in den -Schranken ihrer <i>Völkerkunde</i> und ihres Erdstrichs.”</p> - -<p>XIII, 438: “.... widerspricht nicht nur der Zeitrechnung und -der gesammten <i>Völkergeschichte</i>.”</p> - -<p>XV, 124: “Damit ich mich des altdeutschen <i>Volksausdrucks</i> bediene.” -“Aus dem Latein kam er ins Englische ins Deutsche, wie mehrere Wörter -und noch ist er in der <i>Volkssprache</i>.” Herder is discussing the word -<i>Priamel</i> which he says is perhaps from the Latin praeambulum. <i>Volk</i> in -the two compounds must mean the less learned.</p> - -<p>V, 493: “nun müsste der Bewohner des Schiffs und der Küste der -expatrirte Seestreicher und <i>Völkerläufer</i> dem Bewohner des Zelts und der -Ackerhütte ein ganz anderes Geschöpf dünken.”</p> - -<p>V, 501: “Völkerrecht.”</p> - -<p>V, 515: “Ihre Feudaleinrichtung wie untergrub sie das Gewühl <i>Volkreicher</i> -üppiger Städte.”</p> - -<p>The foregoing citations indicate two distinct senses in which Herder -uses the term <i>Volk</i>:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span></p> - -<p><i>Volk</i> is equivalent to nation; nation carrying the idea of a group -bound together by blood or language or government, or by all three. As -such, a <i>Volk</i> is a collective personality, has a marked individuality, and -is characterized by a national spirit.</p> - -<p>2. (<i>a</i>) <i>Volk</i> is a race or a nation that never advanced beyond primitive -grades of culture; that therefore never was subject to what he considers -the deteriorating and degrading effects of higher civilization; (<i>b</i>) <i>Volk</i> is -a group to be found within a civilized nation; a group which has retained -the primitivism just noted above. Primitivism then is characteristic of -all <i>Volk</i> included in section II. This primitivism whether in the entire -race or in a special portion is always eulogized. These primitive specimens -have the most pronounced racial individuality because civilization -has not interfered with the influences of environment.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br> -<span class="smaller">CONCEPTIONS OF <i>VOLK</i> AS GATHERED FROM HERDER’S COLLECTION OF VOLKSLIEDER</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>That Herder’s conception of that group of people which he calls <i>Volk</i> -bears relationship to a certain genre of poetry is implied in the fact that -he first coined the word <i>Volkslied</i>:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>“<i>Volkslied</i>, n. von Herder, August, 1771 geprägt.” F. L. K. Weigand, -<i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>, Giessen; Verlag von Alfred Töpelmann, 1909.</p> - -<p>“<i>Volkslied</i> zuerst von Herder.” M. Heyne, <i>Deutsches Wörterbuch</i>, Leipzig; -Verlag von S. Hirzel, 1895.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Herder himself has made a collection of specimens of this peculiar -type of song. According to his own statements these poems bear the -distinguishing marks of that sort of people which he has in mind as being -distinctively <i>Volk</i>. In his essay, <i>Ähnlichkeit der mittlern englischen und -deutschen Dichtkunst</i>, he says:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Alle unpolizirte Völker singen und handeln; was sie handeln singen sie -und singen Abhandlung. Ihre Gesänge sind das Archiv des Volks der Schatz -ihrer Wissenschaft und Religion ihrer Theogonie und Kosmogenien der Thaten -ihrer Väter und der Begebenheiten ihrer Geschichte, Abdruck ihres Herzens, -Bild ihres häuslichen Lebens in Freude und Leid, beim Brautbett und Grabe.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Herder’s collections are from national bodies of people. We ought -to find among these groups of songs common factors which would not be -found as such in that body of poetry which Herder excludes as not being -<i>Volk</i> songs.</p> - -<p>Further, we should be able to reduce these common factors to lowest -terms which would embody some interpretation of Herder’s conception -of <i>Volk</i>: “Das sind einmal alte Nationalstücke die das Volk singt, und -sang, woraus man also die Denkart des Volks, ihre Sprache der -Empfindung kennen lernet.”</p> - -<h3>VOLK SONGS COLLECTED BY HERDER</h3> - -<h4>DANISH—FOUR PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: love, marriage, fairy tales.</p> - -<p>Form—rhythm and rhyme marked; often irregular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span></p> - -<h4>GERMAN—SIXTY-TWO PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: love, war, religion, dance, court life, rural life, fairy tales, -domestic life.</p> - -<p>Form—rhythm and rhyme marked; often irregular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete pictures; abstract thinking.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>ENGLISH AND SCOTCH—THREE PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: love, war, religion, domestic life, idyllic scenes, court life, -vengeance, ghost and fairy tales.</p> - -<p>Form—marked rhyme and rhythm; blank verse, irregular rhyme and rhythm.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete pictures; abstract thinking; deep reflecting; -dramatic presentations.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>ESTHONIAN—FIVE PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: love, war, marriage, tyranny.</p> - -<p>Form—marked rhythm and rhyme.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—somewhat concrete.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>FRENCH—THIRTEEN PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: love, idyllic scenes, court life, domestic life, phenomena of -nature, classic mythology.</p> - -<p>Form—marked rhyme and rhythm.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete pictures, abstract thinking.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>GALLIC (OSSIAN)—SIX PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: love, war, religion, death, personified nature.</p> - -<p>Form—little rhyme, rhythm often marked but irregular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete, vivid visual and auditory pictures, dramatic -presentations.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>GREEK—SEVEN PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: friendship, freedom, marriage, love.</p> - -<p>Form—rhyme and rhythm, sometimes irregular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—direct and concrete.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>GREENLAND—ONE PIECE</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—theme: death.</p> - -<p>Form—parallelism.</p> - -<p>Methods of appeal—concrete.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>ITALIAN—FIVE PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—theme: hope, care, springtime, love.</p> - -<p>Form—rhythm regular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete and abstract.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span></p> - -<h4>LAPLAND—TWO PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—theme: love for animals, love.</p> - -<p>Form—rhythm regular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>LATIN—SIX PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—theme: temptation, marriage, religion.</p> - -<p>Form—rhythm, rhyme, sometimes irregular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete, abstract.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>LETTIC—FIVE PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—theme: love, marriage, springtime, lordship.</p> - -<p>Form—rhythm and rhyme.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>LITHUANIAN—NINE PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—love, marriage, war, idyllic scenes, fairy tales.</p> - -<p>Form—rhythm, rhyme, often irregular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete pictures, abstract thinking.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>SKALDIC—TEN PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: mythology, battle.</p> - -<p>Form—rhythm is regular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—concrete, rugged.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>PERUVIAN—TWO PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—theme: mythological, love.</p> - -<p>Form—rhyme irregular, rhythm.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—somewhat concrete.</p> - -</div> - -<h4>SPANISH—THIRTY-FOUR PIECES</h4> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p>Content—themes: love, war, religion, court and city life.</p> - -<p>Form—rhyme and rhythm quite regular.</p> - -<p>Method of appeal—moralizing and abstract thinking. Few concrete pictures.</p> - -</div> - -<p>This investigation of these poems leads to the following: Each group -of poems embodies an expression of personality, individuality which grows -out of peculiar environment; not merely physical environment, but also -social, political, and religious environment. Each, either in content, -form, or in its method of appeal, sometimes in all three, bears traces of the -milieu out of which it sprung.</p> - -<p>The notes of waning glory and ancestral lament of Ossian gain their -character from a different period in the life of the nation from that -recorded in the Moorish battle songs in the Spanish collection.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span></p> - -<p>The ruggedness of the Skaldic poetry bespeaks a roughness in climate -and scenery not to be found in the French poems.</p> - -<p>The mythology of the Scotch Highlanders and of the Norsemen, -depicted in their poetry, is different indeed from the Mohammedanism of -which the Spanish pieces speak.</p> - -<p>The English and German songs which are characterized by Christian -customs are colored neither by Mohammedanism, Gallic, nor Classic -mythology. The deep reflective moods of the Shakespeare specimens -grew out of a social and intellectual environment entirely the opposite -of that in which the concrete and vivid pictures of many of Percy’s -Reliques had their birth.</p> - -<p>In all this difference, the common feature is that individuality is -expressed. Individual traits appear within each group. Racial consciousness -distinguishes one group from the other.</p> - -<p>Now personality and individuality are corner stones in Herder’s -system of thought. His discussion of Lessing’s “Laokoon” sets forth -the principle that true art will be characterized by these.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> - -<p>Herder’s philosophy is also emphatic in showing that all art is shaped -by the environment out of which it grew. The essays “Shakespeare,” -“Homer und Ossian,” and “Vom Geist der Ebräischen Poesie” are replete -with such thought.</p> - -<p>The art of every nation then will bear national imprint. The national -stamp, this expression of personality and individuality, both products of -various kinds of environment, belongs to Herder’s conception of <i>Volk</i> -wherever the idea is identical with that of nation or race.</p> - -<p>Now the preceding chapter has shown that however often Herder -uses the term as synonymous with nation or race, he has also a distinctive -and a sort of esoteric use.</p> - -<p>The evidence that poetry has been shaped by environment and -expresses the individual consciousness of a group of people cannot be -taken as conclusive evidence that the group from which it emanated -belongs to Herder’s <i>Volk</i> of the specific type, for Herder excludes from -the category of <i>Volkslieder</i> that poetry which bears the imprint of scholastic -and pedantic cultural milieu to the extent that certain primitive traits -find no expression.</p> - -<p>Another common factor, then, must be sought which is distinctive -of people in this more restricted sense.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span></p> - -<p>The way in which the material is presented is what I have called in my -analysis of the pieces “the method of appeal.” There is no common basis -on which we can place the specimens viewing them from this side. Many -of them present vivid visual and auditory pictures. Many others are -marked by abstract thinking or sober reflection. Some are dramatic -presentations, others are simple descriptions. Some are cold moralizing; -others expressions of strong emotions.</p> - -<p>All of these selections are in some kind of rhythmic form. It may be -parallelism, rhythmical blank verse, or marked feet and rhyme. But -we cannot make use of this as a very definite factor, since many specimens -are translations which cannot preserve the original exactly. However, -we have in the original the English and Scotch, the Ossian and the German -collections. All of these present a form of rhythm which is usually -so irregular that it would not meet the demands for measured feet, verses, -and rhyme to be found in the highly polished and formal poetry. Now -in his discussion of rhythmic forms in poetry Herder indicates that the -human love for rhythm has its foundations in the physiological processes -and symmetry of the body: <i>Der Pulsschlag der Natur, dies Athemholen -der Empfindung ist in allen Reden des Affekts ... in der Poesie ... -die doch eigentlich Rede des Affekts seyn soll</i>.</p> - -<p>The people who produced this poetry, then, were close to nature in -their forms of rhythmical speech.</p> - -<p>The content of these poems remains to be considered.</p> - -<p>Among the Esthonian pieces is a little love song which Herder has -heard the harvesters sing at work. It is idyllic in setting. Thoughts of -love are all-abounding. Happiness amidst rural scenes is common among -all nations.</p> - -<p>“König Ludwig” is an Old High German battle song which interweaves -thoughts of God and religion; subjects which never cease to -engage the attention of mankind.</p> - -<p><i>Wiegenlied einer unglücklichen Mutter</i>, a Scotch mother’s song of -unfaithful love; the poem has a setting in domestic life. <i>Litthauische -Daina</i>—song of the departure of a young bride who goes to her new home; -domestic life and custom are the themes. There is sadness at leaving -the home of her girlhood.</p> - -<p>These embody expressions of common, human feelings.</p> - -<p>A number of the Spanish songs have their scenes laid in the city and -at court; but they sing of love, vengeance, and jealousy—all of which are -intensely human.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span></p> - -<p><i>Erlkönigs Tochter</i>, is a Danish piece which sings of elves. Thoughts -of the supernatural are among all mankind.</p> - -<p><i>Frühlingslied</i>, is an Italian piece which rejoices at the coming of the -flowers and birds and the budding of the trees. This season always -awakens human happiness.</p> - -<p><i>Röschen auf der Heide</i> presents personified nature. Such personification -is among all men.</p> - -<p><i>Totenlied</i> comes from Greenland. All peoples bemoan and eulogize -their dead in song.</p> - -<p><i>Tanzlied</i> is German. Nearly every collection has pieces which present -the rhythm and joyous emotions of the dance. This kind of pleasure is -common among all races.</p> - -<p>The songs from Ossian tell of departed ancestors and heroes. The -sentiment expressed is universal.</p> - -<p>From Shakespeare appears such things as Hamlet’s <i>Probe einer -schauderhaften Metaphysik über Tod und Leben</i>.</p> - -<p><i>Macbeths schreckliche Dolchscene</i>; is there any human breast in which -the sentiments involved in these deep reflections have not sometimes -found a place?</p> - -<p>Now it is what Herder himself says in introducing these selections -from Shakespeare which justifies us in making the content, the theme of -his whole collection of <i>Volk</i> songs, the common ground upon which they -all meet.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>“In Shakespear gibts von jeder kleinen Nuance der menschlichen Denkart -und Stimme Proben oder vielmehr lebende Naturartungen: und so fange das -berühmte Selbstgespräch Hamlets an, was man schon Prosaisch in unsrer -Sprache hat.”</p> - -</div> - -<p>Herder’s collection of <i>Volk</i> poetry embraces as themes: love, war, -religion, domestic life, idyllic scenes, vengeance, court life, ghost tales, -fairy tales, marriage, mythology, phenomena of nature, death, personified -nature, freedom, the dance, the seasons, and hero and ancestral -veneration.</p> - -<p>These embody sentiments universal among mankind; feelings which -are fundamental in the human breast; thoughts which are innate in -humanity. That which is universal, fundamental, and innate is natural. -These songs find a response among the people from whom they arose -because these people are products of unhampered nature. Both rhythm -and content lead to this conclusion according to Herder’s conception. -<i>Volk</i> as seen from this angle, then, are either a primitive people or a group<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -within a people representing advanced stages of civilization, which group -has still retained the methods of thinking, the feelings, the modes of -expression, and the tastes of primitive people.</p> - -<p>We get from Herder’s collection of <i>Volkslieder</i>, then, two conceptions -of <i>Volk</i>: (1) <i>Volk</i>, a collective personality resulting from the development -of individual consciousness into community individuality and consciousness; -(2) <i>Volk</i>, a primitive people or, within a civilized nation, a -section, which has maintained certain natural fundamental and primitive -characteristics.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br> -<span class="smaller">CONCEPTIONS OF <i>VOLK</i> IN HERDER’S DISCUSSION OF “OSSIAN’S PEOPLE” AND OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Herder has discussed, in connection with two groups of poetry which -he distinctly calls <i>Volkspoesie</i>, each race from which the particular collection -arose. Both directly and indirectly he presents in each of these -peoples the peculiar characteristics by which he identifies a community -with his ideal conception of <i>Volk</i>.</p> - -<p>In his collection of <i>Volk</i> songs he has presented literature from many -and varied peoples of the earth, but he has discussed at length, to show -the traits which stamp their <i>Volkspoesie</i> as such, only two of these groups.</p> - -<p>An examination of the common factors which the author sees as essential -elements of each of these races ought to give us in one form his conception -of <i>Das Volk</i>.</p> - -<p>The two races are: (1) Those whom he believes to be the ancient -Gauls, from whom we have the collection known as “The Songs of -Ossian”<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>; (2) the ancient Hebrews.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<h3>OSSIAN</h3> - -<p>Herder places the people among whom this body of literature arose -in the islands known as the “Hebrides,” in the highlands of Scotland, -and in Ireland.</p> - -<p>Rugged mountains covered with roaring forests or spotted with desert -tracts surround the inhabitants. Mists and clouds, midnight and storm, -abound both on mountain tops and in the intervening valleys. Their -huts are bordered by rocks and narrowly shut in by foggy darkness or -from rough cliffs; they overlook the sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span></p> - -<p>At the time at which we see them these highland dwellers look often -upon wilderness full of sacred views, upon battlefields, lonesome graves, -and blotted-out footsteps.</p> - -<p>These old Highlanders believed in an all-high Being, whom they conceived -to be self-existing. The cloud was the dwelling place of patriotism -and love. The voice of renown, that is of song sung by friends yet alive -to the honor of their departed ones, still highly esteemed, introduced -these departed to their ancestors. With a sigh and tear as password, -they were received at once into the smiling presence of their forefathers, -who had clear, transparent figures like to the curled clouds. Their hands -were weak, their voices deep and soft. They swayed themselves over -the entire abode of their race and rejoiced in boundless space. Space -they prized above everything else. Fright and horror were considered as -narrow and shut in. Hence they called the grave the narrow house, -and weak courage, the breath of a narrow soul.</p> - -<p>The noble dead never became old, but grew constantly wiser because -they conversed with the good of other times. On the other hand, the -souls of the wicked were driven whirling into a thick fog which always -hung over an offensive smelling morass. They never came out of this -fog, and never saw the sun. One did not know the name of the other. -The black water of the morass lake was their only converse; the voice of -the Heron and the quacking of ducks their music.</p> - -<p>Ossian’s folk attributed every sudden death to an invisible hand -which threw a stone out of the clouds and which they called an “arrow -of the destroying woman.”</p> - -<p>“Their chief conception of the highest being was that it governs the -clouds and heavenly bodies and rejoices at bravery and fortune of mankind; -that it remained ever invisible ... that the entire earth out of -fear would like to catch and imprison it.”</p> - -<p>The dead were mourned in funeral dirges sung on the graves of the -departed; in the case of heroes, often amid battle tumult, these songs -were directed to ancestral heroes who awaited the dead in the clouds.</p> - -<p>One of their myths which Herder extracts from Ossian shows a certain -phase of their religion:</p> - -<p>“As they sing in the moonlight to the moon goddess, Mona, this maiden -of the heavens comes with gentle movement, with silent, beautiful cheek; -her playmates, the stars, stand in rows to receive her; the clouds bordered -with gold trip before them as servants; she outshines all her rivals so that -they blush and conceal themselves in veils. On such an occasion as this -the hero Ossian turns his sad song to the thought, How would it be if she<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -should once disappear from the heavens, if she should then go into her -little hut to cry and cry as he does? He wonders if she like him has lost -friends, and he begins to comfort the beautiful girl and to cheer her up so -that she quite joyfully smiles again.”</p> - -<p>The family feeling is strong, and it is the foundation of nearly all -good feeling toward fatherland and friend, tribe and neighbor. There -are common among these people scenes full of innocence, of friendship, -of fatherly, brotherly, in fact family, love in general. Fingal is hero and -leader but also lover, bridegroom, husband, friend, father. Ossian is -warrior, but also son of noble Fingal, and in this very relation the -singer of the praises of his ancestors, of his friends, of his brothers, of his -sons.</p> - -<p>It is out of the sadness of separated loved ones that we hear the most -touching tones and the harp is made to resound to praises sung to ancestors. -Although these tribes are said to be wild, they are in many respects -closely bound to customs and forms. The harp is their musical instrument -to whose touching tones their legends are fitted into song.</p> - -<p>Herder points out that the stage in the history of Ossian’s people from -which this collection of poetry wins its character is the time of the extinction -of the race of heroes of whom Ossian the brave is the chief and sad -singer. He is the last of his courageous tribe; the witness to the deeds -of noted Fingal and his colleagues; the departing voice of a heroic age -to its weaker descendants. His mournful strains are accompanied by no -awakening call for an age yet to come. His race was not, like Homer’s -on Ionian shores, a growing people in the dawn of splendor looking toward -a flowering in the future.</p> - -<p>The cause of the mournful strain in the life of Ossian’s race may have -been subjection by a foreign power or the invasion of monks bringing the -Christian religion. The poems suggest both. Ossian’s songs must have -had a powerful effect upon the people out of whose midst they grew. As -long as there were bards this people’s strength was irrepressible. But -now we see a patient, subject race trying to revive itself on the renown -and happy existence of departed ancestors.</p> - -<p>When Herder brings to our attention the difference between the -mournful tones of Ossian and the arousing strains of Homer, when he -reminds us of the differing stages of history commemorated by each, the -points entirely unlike at which each writer halts and from which he -extracts for his art character, he sets forth a definite theory; namely, -that each writer, speaking as his people would speak, characterizes his -poetry with the individual content and feeling of his race; that each race<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -has its personality, and each spontaneously expresses this personality in -its song:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Und Ossian? Es ist ungerecht von einem Baume Früchte zu erwarten, -die er, seiner Art nach, nicht bringen kann; Ossian sei an seinem Orte das -was Homer war; nur stand er auf einer ganz andern Stelle. In jedem Lande -bildet sich der Volksgesang nach innnern und äussern Veranlassungen der -Nation.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The eye and the ear of these people are wide open to every sight and -sound which their physical environment presents. The ear is strong, -quick, lasting; the eye keen, embracing, receptive. A certain perceptual -power expressed in alertness, boldness, and noble aspect pervaded their -entire being. According to Herder’s philosophy, as expressed in <i>Erkennen -und Empfinden</i>, the senses present to the mind pictures which receive -the stamp of feeling and which in turn are given back through some -medium of expression.</p> - -<p>In Ossian, the material for these pictures is first and foremost Nature; -Nature robed in the peculiar majesty of the north. The sun is a rash -youth, the moon a maiden who has had as sisters other moons in the -heavens. The evening star is a lovely boy who comes out, winks, and -goes away again. All objects are personified, filled with life and movement, -whether it be wind or wave, or even the down of a thistle. As soon -as possible the object itself becomes a voice, and we hear moanings of sadness -and songs of the harp. These figures are often of the mist, coming -out of clouds through which the stars twinkle.</p> - -<p>Ossian sings, also, deeds, happenings of history, the bygone fates of -forefathers, and old legends.</p> - -<p>In outline all these pictures are delineations, which are snappy, strong, -manly, abrupt, wild, lively. They are not painted in detail, and their -content does not stream forth slowly in regular and measured intervals. -Less harsh and wild are they, however, than the songs of the so-called -“Northmen,” because Ossian’s soul possesses a charm giving out lonesomeness, -love, and gentleness mingled with courage and strength of -feeling.</p> - -<p>The language is crisp, short, true, and exact, and penetrates by its -simplicity. A single word literally seizes a whole thought and the two -break forth together upon a voice tender and sad. When the singer -would exhort his comrades to courage, he painted his pictures through -tones that fell upon the ear.</p> - -<p>In general, Ossian makes us see and hear the living world in scenes -that pass quickly, singly, one by one, without arranging themselves in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -a regular and formal procession. Rough, strong sublimity is their character. -The colors which burst upon the eye and the tones which storm -the ear come forth without premeditation and polish; the natural outlet -of a people to whom nature has given an eye and heart and mind for wild -beauty, and in whom manners, customs, and language of civilization have -wrought no marring effects. These peoples see and feel, but they do not -think and ponder. Here Herder makes spontaneity a child of unwarped -nature.</p> - -<h3>THE ANCIENT HEBREWS</h3> - -<p>Herder applies his studies to the Hebrew people as he finds them in -their earliest habitations. From his analysis of formative forces and of -the peculiar personality resulting from these influences we have what -follows: The physical features of the lands with which the Hebrews were -familiar were varied enough to give them a rather complete natural history -of the earth. They understood the subsiding of water that left -mountains above them and valleys in between these. They saw that -waters coursed through the valleys and made fertile plains. They knew -how springs gush forth from rocks and trees grow on the banks of rivers. -They knew both the sea and the desert. The summer sun brought calm -waters and the cold winds forged fetters of ice. The palm tree and the -cedar, the olive and the grape, grew in these lands. The variety of animals -seems to imply a wide and varied expanse of territory.</p> - -<p>The crane, the turtledove, the eagle, the raven, the stork, the ostrich, -the lion, the wild ox, perhaps the elephant and the rhinoceros, as well as -most of our common domestic birds and other animals, frequented these -environments.</p> - -<p>Herder conceives of this entire milieu as a world in which the dawn -of human life was arising out of dark night, and giving way to the broad -daylight in which water and air, earth and sea, mountain and forest, were -in the fullest view and most powerful working. The strong contrasts of -oriental skies wrought through light and darkness their sharpest outlines.</p> - -<p>The mild climate was perhaps the most beautiful in the world, and -produced the simplest needs of life with little labor on the part of the -inhabitants. With fertile river valleys in addition, which furnished grazing -lands, it was natural that one of the earliest grades of civilization -should arise here—the shepherd folk.</p> - -<p>Although these people had a civilization that was early circumscribed, -it nevertheless presupposes some cultivation. Even the shepherd state -cannot exist without arts and fixed customs. The Hebrews in this shepherd -state had developed family bonds and fixed the ruling power of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -father in domestic life. They had domesticated animals, and developed -tender feelings toward them.</p> - -<p>Let us look at the moral and mental traits due to this physical and -social environment.</p> - -<p>The eye developed clearness and acuteness, a vivid sensitiveness; it -saw every leaf, every blade of grass, the plains and valleys, the waters in -outline and expanse, the planets and the broad ether in which they hung, -and it distinguished every movement. The ear heard the delicate rustlings -of branches and bows, as well as the roar of winds, the smallest raindrop, -and the rush of mighty waters. Every sense was thus developed -to a finesse which left no phenomenon of nature unobserved.</p> - -<p>These sense impressions were impregnated with the feelings and -carrying these effects of feelings they passed onward to the mind and made -mental pictures of a kind which correspond to the character of the imprint -made by the feelings. Then these made-over pictures were given back -to the world in the sublime language found in the Old Testament. It is -in these pictures, in this investing of free nature with the power to feel, -that we see the texture and depth of feeling which are an essential part -of the personality of this group.</p> - -<p>They saw the dawn rising out of darkness. They felt that the phenomenon -was due to a cause superior to any power in man. They could -not account for the beginnings of mankind. The consciousness of limitations -of their own knowledge and the awe for the unknown first cause -turned the actual darkness and dawn and full daylight into chaotic emptiness, -a ray of light at the beginning of creation and a completed work at -the end of six days—a wonderful personality directing it all. They saw -the trees and the plants thriving in their own spheres, and they attributed -to them life impulses given them by the sympathy and love and directing -force of special geniuses, the messengers of God. The stars were light; -they had undeceiving brightness and constant courses. They stamped -the sense impression of them with the feeling of worshipful joy, of rhythm -which became music and dancing, and so it was that the stars became the -daughters that shouted about the throne of the Great Ruler. At times -they assigned to them the sense of power for defense in well-ordered numbers -of individuals, and the stars became an army ready to do battle for -God. Again they were his willing servants and messengers. They saw -the heavens stretching from horizon to horizon, and everything in creation -working in its own sphere with regularity and order. Their own feeling -for system, harmonious working in family and tribal circles, pictured God -in paternal relations; a householder who stretched his great tent by fastening<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -it to the outmost borders of the earth, and opened and arranged -therein the treasures of his household. They heard a light rustle of -leaves and imprinted upon it the feeling of gentleness and kindness, and -it became a messenger of God, an angel. They heard the thunder and -their shuddering gloom translated it into the voice of an angry God. -They listened to their own heartbeats and transferred their rhythm to their -own speech, for we may account for the free light rhythm in their songs -by comparing it with the systole and diastole of the heart and the movements -of the breath in the physiological processes of inspiration and expiration.</p> - -<p>Their national pride and national joy found expression in collective -song which might either glorify God or invoke their own well-being. -Such song is at one and the same time inspiration and expression.</p> - -<p>In general, their poetic language draws concise analogy between the -objects of creation and the qualities and attributes of the creator of these -things. It lingers over single images, repeats them, wonders at them, and -finally gives them forth with a vigorous tongue incapable of empty words.</p> - -<p>These souls so entirely formed by the sights and sounds of nature -blended with inner feeling give a secret, mystical significance touched with -the finest spiritual sense to the pictures and parallels which they produce. -We have here a peculiar race type living close to crude nature, an individuality -which is shaped by this primitive milieu and which expresses itself -in sharp and strong outlines in its art. The most marked feature of this -individuality is the spontaneity in its expression.</p> - -<p>The common factors to be drawn from this exposition, which contribute -to the interpretation of Herder’s general conception of <i>Volk</i> are:</p> - -<p>1. The physical environment of both groups was primeval nature; -i.e., a material world that had undergone very few of the changes which -may be wrought by the arts and crafts of what we term higher stages of -civilization.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Kurz wir sind mit Denkart, Sprache, Sitten des Jahrhunderts so weit -aus Ossians Natur heraus, als unsre Städte, Höfe, Palläste, Schulgebäude keine -Schottische rauhen Gebürge, unsre Gesellschaftskreise und Zerstreuungen -im Museum kein Tanz unter rauschenden Bäumen.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - -<p>Als Gesetzgeber wirkte Moses auf den Geist seines Volks mit Riesenstärke. -Dass er sie zum Acker- und Hirtenvolk machte, und so viel es seyn konnte, -Handel u. Eroberung ausschloss. Land- und Hirtenmässig ist ihre Poesie -dem grössten Theile nach. Ländlich sind ihre Bilder, im Hirten- und Ackerleben -der grösste Reichtum ihrer Sprache.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p> - -<p>2. Both races were subject to powerful control by this physical -environment:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Alle Gesänge solcher wilden Völker weben um daseiende Gegenstände, -Handlungen, Begebenheiten, um eine lebendige Welt.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<p>Und alle hat das Auge gesehen! Die Seele stellt sie sich vor! Das setzt -Sprünge und Würfe:<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> - -<p>Ihre Ideen sind voll starker Contraste, voll Licht und Dunkel, voll Ruhe -und Arbeit: dies ist der Character des morgenländischen Himmels, und des -Genius seiner Nationen.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> - -<p>Wenn die Biblischen Dichter von den Schneegüssen des Libanon; vom -Thau des Hermon; von den Eichen Basans; vom prächtigen Libanon, und -angenehmen Carmel reden; so geben sie Bilder, die ihnen die Natur selbst -vorgestellt hat.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> - -</div> - -<p>3. Among both, their ideas of God and their religion were interwoven -with personified nature:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Darthula. Ein Gesang an die Mondgöttin (Mona, Mana, μήνη) vielleicht -der schönste, der je im Mondschein gesungen worden.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> - -<p>Solche Bilder und Ideen, als uns auch nur die ersten Kapitel Moses -gewähren. Hier ist als ob Einer der Elohim selbst, der Genius der Menschheit -unsichtbar lehrte .... und singet den Menschen, seinem unsichtbaren -Vater und Schöpfer gleich.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> - -</div> - -<p>4. Both were races of people with keen, strong, exact senses:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>.... der rauhe Schotte Ossian? Er sang lebendig, und stürmte also in -den kurzen Augenblicken lebendiger Stimme auf Herz und Ohr; für matte -Augen im Lehnstuhl, .... wollte er nie in der Welt solche schöne klassische -Augenweide schaffen.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> - -<p>Bilderrede und Gesang also sind die beiden Hauptforten der Poesie der -Ebräer; .... sie sind Poesie fürs Auge und Ohr, durch welche beide sie das -Herz besänftigen oder bestürmen.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> - -</div> - -<p>5. The members of both races had, as innate characteristics, rapid and -direct interaction between sensation, feeling, imagination, and expression:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Wir sind freilich in der ganzen Denkart unsres Jahrhunderts zu weit von -Ossian ab. Mehr an eine Kette raffinirter Vorstellungen, leichter Abstraktionen -angenehmer <i>Pensées</i> und Reflexionen gewöhnt, fals an den rauhen Schrei der<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -Leidenschaft, kühner Hinwürfe einer starkgetrofnen Einbildung, und einer -wüsten, starken Gestalt der Seele.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - -<p>Seine Muse ist Tochter der Natur auf ihren wildesten Höhen erzogen, aber -rasch, kühn, edeln Ansehens, nur mit natürlichem Reitze geschmückt und im -Tanze der Natur hinfliegend.<a id="FNanchor_22b" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - -<p>Sehen Sie Hiob. Die Erde war ein Pallast.... Der Ocean ward, wie ein -Kind, gebohren und gewindelt: das Morgenroth handelte, die Blitze sprachen.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -</div> - -<p>6. In general, the texture resulting from control of the individual by -forces of nature unchanged by human interference is in both peoples -fitly correlated with functioning; i.e., spontaneity is innately and intrinsically -their nature.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Homers Rhapsodien und Ossians Lieder waren gleichsam impromptus, weil -man damals noch von Nichts als impromptus der Rede wusste.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - -<p>Nun ist bei den Ebräern beinahe Alles Verbum: d.i. alles lebt und handelt.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> -Alles in ihr ruft: ... ich lebe, bewege mich, wirke. Mich erschuffen Sinne -und Leidenschaften, nicht abstrakte Denken und Philosophen.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> - -</div> - -<p>With all these points in common, Ossian’s people and the ancient -Hebrews, as portrayed in Herder’s analysis of their poetry, differ from -each other as races in religion and in social customs. They show us different -habitats. They depict different historical epochs and scenes. But -that which is common in all this difference is, according to Herder, that -each has a personality of its own which characterizes its art.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>In jedem Lande bildet sich der Volksgesang nach innern und äussern -Veranlassungen der Nation. Ossians Gedichte bezeichnen den Herbst seines -Volkes. Die Blätter färben und krümmen sich; sie falben und fallen. Der -Lufthauch, der sie ablöset, hat keine Erguickung des Frühlinges in sich; -sein Spiel indessen ist traurig ... angenehm mit den sinkenden Blättern.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - -<p>Gesetzt, wir konnten alles dies wissen; singen wir denn für Juden die -sich für das einzige Volk Gottes hielten?... Von allen Völkern der Erde -abgesondert, brachte es seinem Schutzgott Nationalgesänge.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> - -<p>Es verdient fast nicht bemerkt zu werden ... dass man die poetischen -Bilder und Empfindungen keines Volks und keiner Zeit nach dem Regelmaas -eines andern Volks, einer andern Zeit zu beurteilen, zu tadeln, zu verwerfen -habe.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br> -<span class="smaller">FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUALITY AND PERSONALITY IN HERDER</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Herder as philosopher was concerned more with practical and concrete -applications of his principles than with dogmas and abstract theories. -The following brief investigation of purely philosophical discussions -is made with a view of determining how he applies his philosophy -to this definite anthropological conception.</p> - -<p>In his <i>Gespräche über Spinozas System</i> Herder sets forth much of his -own religious philosophy. A passage in the second dialogue substitutes -for the word “attributes” the word “forces” in expounding one of Spinoza’s -postulates. The passage then reads: “The Godhead reveals itself -in an infinite number of forces and in an infinite number of ways.” It is -with the word for forces that we are concerned at this point—<i>Kraft</i>, -<i>Kräfte</i>.</p> - -<p>This same word Herder uses in discussing the fundamental life-principle -in the world at large, which is the theme of his first few sections -in the essay entitled: <i>Vom Erkennen und Empfinden in ihrem menschlichen -Ursprunge und den Gesetzen ihrer Würkung</i>. These <i>Kräfte</i>, these -“modifications of God,” find their impulse to operate in a stimulus, -beyond the material form of which Herder cannot go.</p> - -<p>Herder’s philosophy plants itself from the beginning quite firmly on -material foundations. He says that in the qualities which are constantly -designated by such words as heavy, thrust, fall, movement, rest, strength, -even power of inertia, is implied a life-principle, a soul. Any close observation -of nature must show that the great working power of nature is -everywhere the same, and it is the analogy between the processes of the -material world in general and the phenomena in the human organism -in particular which can give the clearest insight into the great life-principle. -This study by analogous reasoning is not artificial, Man cannot -avoid feeling the similarity between himself and external nature. Human -beings must of necessity, he continues, vitalize everything about them -with their own feelings.</p> - -<p>The feelings then are strongly instrumental in man’s interpretation -of the world about him.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p> - -<h3>I. STIMULUS</h3> - -<p>The first phase of feeling which Herder considers is <i>Reiz</i> or stimulus. -The peculiar phenomenon of stimulus says he, which may be seen in the -smallest, most delicate filaments of plants, causing them to contract and -expand, and bespeaking a sort of feeling is due to the same law which -controls the most complicated feelings and passions of the human being. -This all-pervading law of stimulus Herder finds in the action of physical -heat and cold, which he makes parallel in its working with pleasure and -pain respectively. Pain, disturbance by something foreign, contracts; -the strength collects, increases for resistance, and takes its stand again. -Well-being and pleasure—warmth—expands, makes for calmness, placidity, -enjoyment, and release.</p> - -<p>That which is expansion and contraction in dead nature, the result -of warmth and cold, seems to be here the obscure seed of stimulus and -feeling in man. The “world-all,” the entire feeling, nature of human -beings and animals moves in this ebb and flood of warmth and cold. The -power to expand and contract which is the effect of this heat and cold, -pleasure and pain, Herder makes the fundamental principle of the power -for self-nutriment.</p> - -<p>This power is nothing external or mechanical, in which case it would -not be life. The plant structure of organic fibers which takes in life from -the surrounding elements does so through its own activities. The power -to escape its enemies and to make over all its nourishment into differentiated -parts lies within the plant. The complicated body of the animal -likewise has this stimulus to seek the nutrition essential for life within: -hunger and thirst are powerful exciting forces. When he applies his -theories to man, he calls love the most powerful stimulus to life.</p> - -<p>Herder ascribes to the plant something in addition to the stimulus -to seek nutrition when he recognizes that intelligence in plant structures -which selects only such elements as fit the peculiar needs for its development -after its kind. He does not succeed in getting rid entirely of the -external in operating the organism; he sees in breathing a kind of time-beating -by which nature swings the machine, and here nature is without, -for she breathes upon the machine, in this harmonious way, the spirit of -life.</p> - -<p>Thus far Herder has recognized the existence of a stimulus in the -vegetable and animal kingdoms, which is in reality a life-principle. This -life-principle is not only the monitor over the feelings, but merges into -them and becomes the stuff of which feelings are made.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span></p> - -<p>What is the relation of these indefinable and unanalyzed stimuli to -the feelings? Since the passions which surround the heart find their -roots in the finest fibers of the physical structure, the degree to which -these fibers are stimulated determines the degree to which the feelings -will be excited and will express themselves. Love, courage, anger, and -bravery are in proportion to the stimulus of the heart and the collaborating -parts: “Die Innigkeit, Tiefe und Ausbreitung mit der wir Leidenschaften -empfangen, verarbeiten und fortpflanzen macht uns zu den flachen oder -tiefen Gefässen die wir sind.”</p> - -<p>The forcefulness of thought is likewise dependent upon the vigor of -this obscure stimulus, for no thought, says he, can reach the brain unless -feeling in its proper physical connection has preceded it.</p> - -<p>And just here our philosopher lays the very roots of individuality. -The degree to which the fibers are stimulated is the beginning of the operations -which will end in producing an aggregate of properties peculiar to -an individual.</p> - -<h3>II. SENSES</h3> - -<p>By this inductive method, which develops fundamentally a philosophy -of evolution, Herder finds that the senses are a nerve-structure developed -to meet the waves of stimulus from without and feeling from within and -to differentiate them more finely than did the fibers which worked only -in a general way. But the law is the same. The nerves of every sense -operate according to the same law by which the fibers contract and -expand. The nerves advance to meet pleasant agreeable things, but -recede from and resist unpleasant things.</p> - -<p>Now Herder observes that something other than the organ of sense -and the external objects must operate to produce sensation in at least -two of the senses. He sees a certain mental bond without which sight -and hearing could not go to the object nor the object to the senses; this -common substance, he says, is light, a substance which has the peculiarity -of taking just so much from creation as the two end organs can receive. -But this light as a medium is a requisite for the finer senses only. There -are coarser senses, fibers, and stimuli which cannot be brought into action -thus. They can feel only in themselves, for the object must come to -them, touch them, and, to a certain extent, be one with them.</p> - -<p>Herder is explicit in connecting individual character with the senses. -The contribution which each sense makes to the soul cannot with any -two human beings be the same in kind, strength, depth, and breadth. -There are many proofs of this. Seeing and hearing, which furnish most<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -of the material for thinking, are seldom in one individual with the same -degree of training or of natural force. This will not only account for -inequalities of the senses evinced in all forms of expression in a single -individual, but for such inequalities among groups and races. For, he -continues, imaginative power in which thoughts and feelings disport -themselves is made of the flowing together of sense impressions.</p> - -<p>This is Plato’s thought also when he objects to making knowledge -mere sense-perception because it would make a different standard of -knowledge for each man. Socrates in <i>Theaetetus</i> quotes Protagoras on -the same point: “Sensations are relative and individual.” One scarcely -needs to be reminded here of Herder’s thorough acquaintance with Greek -philosophy.</p> - -<p>The way from a sensation to thought is through the nerve-structure -of sense organs, these nerve-structures furnishing just such a medium -between the object of sensation on the one hand and thinking and willing -on the other, as does light between the object of sense and the visual and -auditory organs.</p> - -<p>Never losing sight of the physiological element in his psychology, -Herder tells us that the soul has grown out of the body, and has so outgrown -the body that soul has become the monarch over that, without -which soul could not exist. All its thinking grows out of feeling, and this -feeling out of a body having in its command manifold obscure forces -administered to by variously endowed “servants” and “messengers.”</p> - -<h3>III. KNOWING AND WILLING</h3> - -<p>Herder denies that anything in the way of knowledge comes back to -the soul out of the platonic fore-world, and abstract egoism, he says, is -opposed to truth and the open course of nature. Just as all of the soul’s -knowing depends upon obscure stimuli and forces having their foundations -in the body and leading to sensations and then to reasoning, so her -willing comes from these as a natural sequence of her knowing. Any -knowing without willing would be false and incomplete. If knowing is -only a deep feeling of truth, who is going to see truth and at the same -time be blind to it—know goodness and not will to do it? Every single -passion or feeling thus knowing the good would at the same time will the -good. Herder is emphatic about the interdependence of these two. Just -as no knowing is without willing, no willing is without knowing; they -are only one energy of the soul.</p> - -<p>This suggests Socrates in the <i>Protagoras</i>, as he argues that men would -always do good if they knew the good. “No man voluntarily pursues<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -evil or that which he thinks to be evil. To prefer evil to good is not in -human nature.”</p> - -<p>Briefly summarizing: Herder finds his <i>stimulus</i> the same everywhere -in the material world. It is the principle of life since it impels to self-nutriment -and reproduction. It works by the same law in both body and -soul. Variations of it in degree are the foundations for individuality -and personality. All that is true of feeling for essentially stimulus -becomes feeling. Out of all this Herder arrives at the conclusion: “Der -tiefste Grund unseres Daseyns ist individuell, sowohl in Empfindungen -als Gedanken.”</p> - -<p>The distinctive personal and individual character whose foundations -have just been traced, according to our author, can not come to its fullest -development except as a component part in a larger self-conscious and -self-directing entity which he calls “humanity.”</p> - -<p>This humanity as a whole, and the relation of the individual to it, -is discussed in the collections <i>Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanität</i>. An -emphatic tone regarding personality and individuality as characteristics -of the group pervades these letters.</p> - -<p>Existence as a self-conscious being which develops into group consciousness -Herder finds rooted in human frailty.</p> - -<p>Primitive man, to himself and enigma, he observes, when comparing -his visible condition, his natural capacities, his will-power with enduring -nature, was forced to a feeling of weakness, to a sense of mortal existence; -he finds himself of the earth, a fragile house of clay. Sympathy then and -the realization of one’s duty to one’s fellow-men began here.</p> - -<p>But the consciousness of frailty led also to a knowledge of our powers -and abilities, to a sense of our calling and our duties, and brought us to -a deep consideration of human nature.</p> - -<p>The group is always striving toward an ideal pattern which is “the -character of the race,” and, again, this character is in the individual; for, -says Herder, he who does not make the best of himself cannot assist the -sum total of the race.</p> - -<p>The author states the idea when he says that it is according to the -sacred laws of nature that man is a complete unit in himself, and at the -same time an important element of groups each a consistent part of -larger groups which make the sum total of humanity. Man is friend, -citizen, husband, father; fellow-citizen, finally, in the great city of God -on earth.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br> -<span class="smaller">EIGHTEENTH CENTURY IN HERDER’S CONCEPTION OF <i>DAS VOLK</i></span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Herder, by numerous references and discussions, in which he is definite -and explicit as to name and theories, shows a thorough acquaintance -with the various schools of philosophy which were influential throughout -the century in which he lived. Among those whose names occur many -times in his works are:</p> - -<ul> -<li>Roger Bacon</li> -<li>Francis Bacon</li> -<li>Baumgarten</li> -<li>Berkeley</li> -<li>Boileau</li> -<li>Bolingbroke</li> -<li>Condillac</li> -<li>Descartes</li> -<li>Diderot</li> -<li>Hume</li> -<li>Kant</li> -<li>Leibniz</li> -<li>Locke</li> -<li>Montaigne</li> -<li>Montesquieu</li> -<li>Newton</li> -<li>Rousseau</li> -<li>Shaftesbury</li> -<li>Spinoza</li> -<li>Voltaire</li> -<li>Wolf</li> -</ul> - -<p>These are philosophers whose expressions of thought left their traces -either vaguely or deeply upon the enlightenment period and, as already -said, whom Herder knew well. But the doctrines of many of these men -converged. Of others, the principles were developed and amplified by -successors. The main ideas of the period which enter into Herder’s conception -of <i>Volk</i> are found in three great exponents: Leibniz, Shaftesbury, -and Rousseau. The influence of each upon Herder will be examined here.</p> - -<h3>LEIBNIZ AND HERDER</h3> - -<p>IV, 224: Herder calls Leibniz the greatest man that Germany has -produced in later times.</p> - -<p>IV, 361: Herder calls Leibniz and Plato the two greatest heads for -hypotheses.</p> - -<p>VIII, 178: Herder says that no one says it better than Leibniz, that -bodies as such are only phenomena of substances, as the Milky Way is of -stars and the clouds of drops.</p> - -<p>IX, 493: Herder regrets that Leibniz was not sufficiently appreciated -by the Germans; most of them in the city in which he lies did not even -know where his grave was.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span></p> - -<p>IX, 534: Herder cites Leibniz as saying that human wit and humor -are never more effective than in play, and uses this in support of his own -belief that the human heart expresses itself most effectively in the nature -songs of primitive people.</p> - -<p>X, 305: Herder sees the flower of Leibniz in Shaftesbury.</p> - -<p>XIII, 199: Herder agrees with Leibniz that the soul is a mirror of the -“world-all” and he believes there is a deeper truth in Leibniz’ statement -than is usually recognized; i.e., all the forces of a “world-all” lie hidden -in the soul, and they need only an organization or a succession of organizations -to set them into activity.</p> - -<p>XIV, 417: Herder finds support in Leibniz for the statement that -the Catholic Church considered the king a protective magistrate under the -supremacy of the Pope.</p> - -<p>XV, 180: Herder says Leibniz pointed out weak sides of Locke’s -philosophy.</p> - -<p>XVI, 450: Herder makes the following statements:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>1. In Leibniz’ mind were associated fruitful conceptions of all sciences and -of all the realms of nature.</p> - -<p>2. Leibniz said that one must finally, so far as conceptions of bodies are -concerned, come to simple substances, which he calls “Monads.”</p> - -<p>3. I (Herder) am convinced that among the three ingenious hypotheses -with which he has enriched metaphysics the monad is the most fundamental, -and will sometime win a place.</p> - -<p>4. Without this indivisible working element, the nature of physical bodies -cannot be explained.</p> - -</div> - -<p>XVI, 458: Herder calls Leibniz a “Proteus of Science,” who has done -much to unify philosophical truths.</p> - -<p>XVI, 606: Herder calls Leibniz, “our immortal Leibniz.”</p> - -<p>XVII, 331 ff.: Herder eulogizes Leibniz, emphasizing his theories of -play, his mildness and sympathy in criticizing others his youthful, impartial -soul.</p> - -<p>XVIII, 126: Herder says that Leibniz was the most modest among -all the reformers of philosophical thought; he thought that all systems -of the ancients could be united because each held something good.</p> - -<p>XXI, 19: Herder quotes Leibniz as saying that language is the mirror -of human understanding.</p> - -<p>XXI, 70 ff.: Herder translates Leibniz’ <i>Ueber Philosophie in der -Deutschen Sprache</i>.</p> - -<p>XXI, 145: Herder mentions Leibniz’ principles of <i>Identity and -Causality</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span></p> - -<p>XXI, 319: Herder translates Leibniz’ <i>Vom philosophischen Vortrag</i>.</p> - -<p>XXII, 190: Herder translates Leibniz’ <i>Ueber Macht und Anwendung -der Musik</i>.</p> - -<p>XXIII, 132: Herder recommends Leibniz’ <i>Neue Versuche über den -menschlichen Verstand</i> to young men.</p> - -<p>XXIII, 479: Herder says, Leibniz, had he lived to see his original -plans revived in the Scientific Society in Berlin, probably would have -arranged a <i>System der Völker nach Sprachen und Bildungen</i>. This method -of studying history by going to natural environments and to the sources -is sufficiently in accord with Herder’s ideas to call forth the prophecy -that what the past century had omitted in this respect the future would do.</p> - -<p>XXIII, 483: Herder, referring to Leibniz’ system of <i>Monaden, -prästabilirten Harmonie u. f.</i>, says that no one doubts that there is much -that is true and beautiful in it; no one dares deny a world of souls and a -harmony between mind and body; there is no doubt that there are pure -conceptions in which thoughts are considered only as workings or developments -of the soul, and, on the other hand, the laws of the world of bodies -are considered as mechanical and artificial.</p> - -<p>XXIV, 267: Herder notes Leibniz’ romantic attitude, observing -that Leibniz regretted the decline in the feeling of courage and honor and -that he counseled a return to the deeds and voices and models of the past -to reawaken these.</p> - -<p>XXV, 88: Herder says if Leibniz found human wit and humor most -real and effective in play, certainly he (Herder) is justified, in finding the -most faithful reproductions of traditions, language, and customs at the -point where truth and delight meet; i.e., in song.</p> - -<p>XXX, 135: Herder calls Leibniz the greatest man that Germany has -had.</p> - -<p>XXX, 258: Herder has remarked frequently upon Leibniz’ theory -that the human mind is never more clear-sighted and disposed to activity -than in play. He analyzes the thought here, and it is worth considering -because it hinges closely upon Herder’s philosophy which causes him to -seek genuine <i>Volk</i> character in methods of expression which are natural -rather than artificial.</p> - -<p>He asks, Why is it that there is this connection between our innermost -selves and pleasure and joy? Many forms of play are so difficult and -fatiguing, others are subject to such strict rules; just because they demand -this is the form of play interesting for those who like it. It becomes -pleasant because it keeps both soul and body constantly and interchangeably -busied. In the progress of being occupied lies an indefinable pleasure;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -we feel the happy progressiveness by which our forces are strengthened -and grow. The more frequently this interchange takes place, the -more do we realize our forces enriched.</p> - -<p>XXIII, 154: Herder says Shaftesbury sent to Leibniz the former’s -works and that Leibniz found in them his own system.</p> - -<p>XXIII, 461: Herder praises Leibniz’ efforts in behalf of the Royal -Scientific Society in Berlin.</p> - -<p>XXIII, 468 ff.: Herder has written an essay on Leibniz in which he -reviews the work of the latter under the following heads: <i>Gottfried Wilhelm -Leibniz</i>: (1) <i>Theologie und Religion</i>; (2) <i>Rechtsgelehrsamkeit und -Politik</i>; (3) <i>Geschichte, Alterthümer, Sprachen</i>; (4) <i>Mathematik und -Physik</i>; and (5) <i>Die erste Philosophie</i>.</p> - -<p>Herder’s own comments in certain parts of this series of expositions -are important in this connection.</p> - -<p>1. <i>Theology and religion.</i>—Leibniz’ proof of Christianity Herder -finds was based upon natural religion; after firmly laying the foundation -of this natural religion, one should show the necessity of a revealed religion, -then the superior beauty of the Christian religion, surpassing as it -does all other religions. Leibniz sees atheism as well as materialism, to -say nothing of the disparagement or mockery of Christendom, as the -herald of a barbarism with which is bound up the decay of honor and -morality. Herder’s comment upon this is: How faithfully have succeeding -times proved this to be true! Leibniz, he continues, would rejoice if -he could see the Bible so clarified, every one of its books interpreted in -the light and spirit of its own time and above all the subtleties foreign -to the sense and content of Christianity removed—all this, such as it was -in his own day, is Herder’s idea. Important to note here is the return -to nature as a foundation for Christianity, and to natural environment -for the interpretation of Christian teachings.</p> - -<p>2. <i>Jurisprudence and statesmanship.</i>—Here Herder finds that Leibniz -became a real teacher <i>der Völker</i> through his work, <i>Codex des allgemeinen -Völkerrechts</i>. Just as Leibniz in his opposition to Puffendorf -founds man’s natural rights upon eternal principles of right and reason, -so he carries these on into the so-called “voluntary rights of peoples” -to which he adds in the Christian Republic a divine, positive right.</p> - -<p>This divine, positive right Herder admits was, in the beginnings of -the Christian republic, conceived of as being embodied in the emperor as -head of the state. But, says he, Leibniz’ great thought was true; true -in the sense that this divine, positive right is that which made itself evident -long before the French Revolution.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span></p> - -<p>He asks, Does Christendom teach anything other than pure humanity? -It must be founded upon humanity which is also Leibniz’ <i>Codex -des Völkerrechts</i>.</p> - -<p>It is clear, continues the commentator, that what a nation demands or -wishes from another it must also offer; force, faithlessness, and bold arrogance -of one toward the other enrage all nations. This <i>Codex des Völkerrechts</i> -is written in the breasts of all human beings. Wherever his view -was unobstructed, he saw clearly the political relationships of Europe, -and prophesied much that followed.</p> - -<p>The natural rights of mankind to be applied to humanity through -states and nations, then, is what Herder notes at this point in Leibniz.</p> - -<p>3. <i>History, antiquities, languages.</i>—Herder notes here that Leibniz -liked above everything else in History the origins of races, <i>Uranfänge der -Völker</i>, which led to their antiquities and language stocks. This accounts -for his diligence in comparison and derivation of languages and in etymologies. -Herder reminds us that a family tree of languages has been -established since Leibniz’ time through the Russian journeys in Northern -Asia, continuous news from China, the investigations of the English in -India, and other studies made in Tibet, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, -America, and the Southern world.</p> - -<p>XXXII, 226: Herder’s discussion of Leibniz’ monad:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>A monad is said to be able to change its representations (<i>Vorstellungen</i>) -and it must change them in accordance with its fundamental force; now if these -representations are nothing but external rapports, must there not lie in the -fundamental force also the foundation of perceptibility of the external and the -foundation of the constantly changing perceptibility?... If therefore, -the soul is a living mirror of the universe then it must not reflect this universe -from within itself outward.... But there must be an internal cause in every -soul which accounts for the part of the universe which the soul looks upon and -which cannot be sought in a third being, the cause of both.</p> - -<p>Everywhere there is life; everywhere life is connected with organs, and -where would the cause of the connection lie? Not in the life; not in the organ. -Where then? A <i>Deus ex machina</i> must be called which contains the cause of -the connection of both so that neither of these (life, organ) contain anything of -this cause, and that is contradiction. One monad is said to rule over the -others and over many others without there being in any one the cause of change -which is in the other. A monad is said to heighten its forces just so much as -its body heightens its own organization.</p> - -<p>Now still this interconnected increase is to contain nothing in the one for -the other; not <i>causa efficiens</i>, not <i>conditio sine qua non</i>, only simultaneousness. -How unbelieveable! If the adjustment of the organs extends to the making of -a certain relief or difference, then such a relief or difference in the perceptions<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -and all the connecting comes about without internal cause, only one cause to -explain so many effects which are scarcely covered by it. It seems to me the -world would be incomparably simpler and more manifold if in every monad were -the cause for its connection and all of its changes.</p> - -</div> - -<p>It seems evident that Herder accepts much of Leibniz’ theory of the -monad. The important point of departure is expressed in the two sentences:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>1. But there must be <i>an internal cause in every soul</i> which accounts for the -part of the universe which that soul looks over and which cannot be sought in -a third being, the cause of both.</p> - -<p>2. The world would be simpler and more manifold if <i>in every monad were -the cause for its connection and all its changes</i>. It is at this point of departure -that we see Herder’s emphasis on innate potentialities, which are fundamentally -different, taking shape. Here are individuality and spontaneity in incipiency.</p> - -</div> - -<h3>REFERENCES TO LEIBNIZ</h3> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I:</td> - <td>116, 142, 166, 233, 415.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II:</td> - <td>50, 96, 300.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV:</td> - <td>15, 224, 248, 361.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V:</td> - <td>57, 316, 318, 410, 412, 459, 461, 504, 512, 532.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII:</td> - <td>112, 170, 178, 226, 247, 266, 272, 319.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX:</td> - <td>493, 500, 534.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X:</td> - <td>305, 346.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI:</td> - <td>90.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII:</td> - <td>199, 364.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV:</td> - <td>417.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XV:</td> - <td>Note to page 33; 35, 71, 180, 320.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVI:</td> - <td>450, 458, 504, 292, 606.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVII:</td> - <td>158, 210, 265, 267, 274, 326, 331, 334, 336, 338.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVIII:</td> - <td>126, 323.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XX:</td> - <td>358.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXI:</td> - <td>17, 19, 49, 70, 71, 145, 185, 319.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXII:</td> - <td>67, 190.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIII:</td> - <td>67, 88, 132, 154, 461, 468, 472.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIV:</td> - <td>9, 92, 267, 315.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXV:</td> - <td>88.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXVIII:</td> - <td>232, 353.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIX:</td> - <td>581.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXX:</td> - <td>64, 135, 403, 258, 407.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXXII:</td> - <td>32, 221, 225.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3>SHAFTESBURY AND HERDER</h3> - -<p>I, 182: Herder says Shaftesbury knows how to use the dialogue excellently; -he had learned it from Plato and taught Diderot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span></p> - -<p>V, 490: Herder calls Shaftesbury the amiable Plato of Europe.</p> - -<p>X, 232: Herder mentions Shaftesbury’s <i>philosophischen Lobgesang -auf die Natur in seinen “Moralists”</i>.</p> - -<p>X, 305: Herder concedes to Shaftesbury a refined, beautiful, philosophical -intellect. He is impressed with the “Characteristics” and the -“Moralists.” The latter, says he, can be put side by side with the writings -of the Ancients. Herder finds in Shaftesbury the flower of Leibniz’ -philosophy and the teachings of new platonism. He sees traces of -Shaftesbury in Mendelsohn’s <i>Letters concerning Feeling</i>.</p> - -<p>Herder’s tone defends Shaftesbury in the statement that one should -love virtue for her own sake, on the ground that many religious enthusiasts, -including Fénélon, have maintained the same thing. Nor is he -either atheist or pantheist in his <i>Song of Praise to Nature</i>. He further -mentions the following works in German translations: <i>The Moralists; -Investigations Concerning Virtue</i>, Berlin, 1745; <i>Shaftesbury’s Philosophical -Works</i>, translated by Voss, Leipzig, 1776.</p> - -<p>XI, 123: Herder finds Shaftesbury’s <i>Ten Letters to a Student of Theology</i> -excellent in the following points: (1) What he says of real philosophy, -of empty speculation, of academic <i>polyhistorie</i>, of intellectual ambition -and the real freedom of thought, of the writings of the Greek, and of the -beautiful and pure toward which one must aim in studies of all kinds; -(2) what he says of the spirit of endurance and Christian simplicity.</p> - -<p>XI, 220: Herder admires <i>die Grazien des Platonish-Shaftesbury</i> -dialogue.</p> - -<p>XVI, 407: Herder expresses himself by quoting in translation a stanza -from Shaftesbury’s <i>Moralists</i>.</p> - -<p>XVI, 158, 159: Article on Shaftesbury; holds him in high esteem, calls -him <i>Virtuoso der Humanität</i>. Herder declares that Shaftesbury has influenced -the best minds of the eighteenth century.</p> - -<p>XXIII, 143 ff.: Herder shows an intimate acquaintance with the life -and works of Shaftesbury as well as the sources of his philosophy. He -reminds that Shaftesbury influenced both Diderot and Leibniz. Herder -reveals his own inclination to take nature and the feelings as standards: -(1) By criticizing Shaftesbury for overlooking an important principle -in Greek philosophy in one of his discussions; namely, the principle <i>der -Natur zu folgen</i>. (2) By saying an honorable feeling for truth and justice -is a law of our nature.</p> - -<p>XXX, 321: Herder calls Shaftesbury the high priest of the temple of -<i>Grazie</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span></p> - -<p>Shaftesbury’s <i>Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Time</i> -will be used as a reference book.</p> - -<h3>SHAFTESBURY AND HERDER</h3> - -<p>The elevation of human nature, as found in the individual, to something -which has a universal value, to something higher and nobler than -the interests of self alone was one of the prominent tenets of Shaftesbury’s -philosophy. This implied a moral and social system composed of parts -nicely adjusted in each single entity, which in turn was a component part -of a larger whole; the parts of this greater system were likewise in constant -proportion to one another, and so finely and fitly adjusted that any -disarrangement could not fail to effect the harmonious blending and the -unity of the entire design. Out of this, it follows that man can come to -his truest and most natural development in community life only.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>And thus, if there be found in any creature a more than ordinary self-concernment -or regard to private good, which is inconsistent with the interest of -the species or public, this must in every respect be esteemed an ill and vicious -affection. And this is what we commonly call selfishness, and disapprove so -much, in whatever creature we happen to discover it.—<i>Inquiry</i>, Book I.</p> - -<p>When we reflect on any ordinary frame or constitution either of art or -nature, and consider how hard it is to give the least account of a particular part -without a competent knowledge of the whole, we need not wonder to find ourselves -at a loss in many things relating to the constitution and frame of nature -herself.—<i>Inquiry</i>, Book I.</p> - -<p>To love the public, to study universal good, and to promote the interest -of the whole world, as far as lies within our power, is surely the height of -goodness, and makes that temper which we call divine.—<i>Letter Concerning -Enthusiasm</i>, section 4.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The harmonious man is to be the product of a natural unfolding of -innate human nature. The potentialities within are to be allowed to develop -unwarped and unimpeded and to express themselves completely -and symmetrically. There must be no subordination of personality or -individuality to artificial standards, for nature is the sovereign. If no -powers, inclinations, or impulses are thwarted in their trend and activity, -they will, in all their manifold variety, flower into the perfectly beautiful -and therefore the perfectly good.</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Now the variety of nature is such as to distinguish everything she forms by -a peculiar, original character, which, if strictly observed, will make the subject -appear unlike to anything extant in the world besides.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span></p> - -<p>For all beauty is truth. True features make the beauty of a face, and true -proportions the beauty of architecture—<i>Essay on the Freedom of Wit and -Humor</i>, Part IV.</p> - -</div> - -<p>That faculty by which the good and the beautiful are to be recognized -and approved is indeed little different if different at all from an -emotion. The principle of feeling really becomes the criterion of right -and wrong. It is the principle of feeling which forms the essence of -Shaftesbury’s <i>Moral Sense</i>. He admits that this sense may be improved -by cultivation, but its essential part is innate. “Sense of right and -wrong” is as natural to us as natural affection itself, and a first principle -in our constitution.</p> - -<p>The two ideas which we are considering here as a part of Shaftesbury’s -philosophy are the development of the individual and his harmonious -relation to the whole of mankind.</p> - -<p>These ideas are made the nucleus of a collection of writings and -reviews by Herder which he calls <i>Briefe zu Beförderung der Humanität</i>. -These have been considered to some extent in a preceding chapter as a -part of Herder’s system of thought, but the purpose here is to connect the -same with that of Shaftesbury.—<i>Dritte Sammlung</i>, Brief 27 ff.</p> - -<p>At the outset in this letter the author is concerned with the distinction -between the following:</p> - -<div class="blockquote hanging"> - -<p>1. Menschheit: Menschen sind wir allesamt ... wir gehören zur Menschheit.</p> - -<p>2. Mensch, Menschlichkeit: Leider hat man in unserer Sprache dem Wort -Mensch, und noch mehr dem barmherzigen Wort Menschlichkeit so oft -eine Nebenbedeutung von Niedrigkeit, Schwäche und falschem Mitleid -angehängt.</p> - -<p>3. Menschenrechte: Kann ohne Menschenpflichten nicht genannt werden.</p> - -<p>4. Menschenwürde: Das Menschengeschlecht ... hat seinem grössesten -Theil nach keine Würde.... Es soll aber zum Charakter seines Geschlechtes, -mithin auch zu dessen Werth und Würde gebildet werden.</p> - -<p>5. Menschenliebe: Das schöne Wort Menschenliebe is so trivial worden, dass -man meistens die Menschen liebt um keinen unter den Menschen wirksam -zu lieben.</p> - -</div> - -<p>He concludes that the word <i>Humanität</i> will best suit, because among -both ancients and moderns it connotes worthy ideas. The reference to -the ancients reminds us of the common source from which both Herder -and Shaftesbury drew inspiration. Both were schooled in the literature -of the ancients.</p> - -<p>As Herder lingers on the philological discussion, he gives us the -philosophical reason why the conception of frailty attaches to the idea -expressed in the word for man, <i>Mensch</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span></p> - -<p>The word “humanity,” he says, not only connotes the thought which -he desires to express, but it suits his purpose also on account of its history. -Among the upper classes of the Romans were some who were wont to -temper the execution of justice with mercy when exercising power over -their subjects; such a Roman citizen, Patrician, was <i>humanus</i>, <i>humanissimus</i>. -Now, he thinks, that since with the Romans the word connoted -the idea of mildness in the exercises of citizenship and law, that it would -be well to take over the word and the idea. He makes reference also to -the Greeks whose word, ἂνθρωπος, looking upward, he clothes in Plato’s -words: “As he looks he reasons.” Therefore, says Herder, he does not -fail to notice the human failings that lead to sympathy, consequently to -humanity. The knowledge of our powers and inborn potentialities, of -our calling and our duty arises from an intense study of mankind. He -repeats that the Greeks and Romans led the way in this <i>studium humanitatis</i>. -The only limit which Herder sets to what we shall be is to be found -in the highest possible formation and completion of whatever belongs to -the character of our race.</p> - -<p>Many of the telling thoughts in these letters are scattered in isolated -paragraphs running something like the following: Truth is the bond of -humanity between friends. The purer the thoughts of men are, the more -they agree. The true invisible church is one in all times, in all lands.</p> - -<p>Franklin had a wonderful sense of humanity. He proceeds from the -simple eternal laws of nature, from the most infallible practical rules—the -needs and interests of mankind. Franklin recognized the value of -the common people and thought to teach them by clothing his ideas in -simplicity.</p> - -<p>Companionship is the foundation of humanity and the communion of -human souls, a mutual interchange of acquired ideas (thoughts) and of -traits of understanding which increases the mass of human knowledge and -skill infinitely. If humanity is no empty name, suffering mankind must -rejoice at the advance in medical science. Human society founded on -virtue must stand. The highest and most fruitful wisdom arises from the -(common) people because they have felt need and suffering, they have -been driven here and there, they have tasted the sweet fruit of trouble -and they know how to care for others.</p> - -<p>The kinship to the spirit and philosophy pervading Shaftesbury is -here quite evident.</p> - -<h3>REFERENCES TO SHAFTESBURY</h3> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I:</td> - <td>182, 303, 305, 307, 524.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span>IV:</td> - <td>367.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">V:</td> - <td>284, 316, 388, 390, 396, 490.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII:</td> - <td>113, 236.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII:</td> - <td>218, 311, 461.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX:</td> - <td>306.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X:</td> - <td>Note to page 232; 305.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XI:</td> - <td>123, 205; note to page 220.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XV:</td> - <td>199</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVI:</td> - <td>26, 403, 407.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVII:</td> - <td>154, 249, 274, 326.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XX:</td> - <td>308.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXII:</td> - <td>Note to page 210; note to page 334.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIII:</td> - <td>132<i>d</i>, 132, 136, 144, 151; note to page 155; 396.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIV:</td> - <td>219.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXVII:</td> - <td>397.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXX:</td> - <td>17, 32, 407.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXXII:</td> - <td>33, 199.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3>ROUSSEAU AND HERDER</h3> - -<p>IV, 369: In discussing his ideal book for the development of humanity, -Herder finds that important points would be rules and exhortations -for the development of body and soul; in this he says: <i>ist Rousseau ein -grosser Lehrer</i>.</p> - -<p>IV, 371: He will imitate Rousseau zealously; will read him, contemplate -him, nationalize him.</p> - -<p>V, 37: Herder agrees with Rousseau in that language is not the result -of convention and agreement.</p> - -<p>VI, 250: Reference is made to Rousseau’s <i>Pygmalion</i>.</p> - -<p>VII, 65: Herder in his discussion concerning the fall of man quotes -Rousseau with reference to the tree of knowledge and the fall of man.</p> - -<p>VII, 74: Herder calls Rousseau one of the greatest lights of his times.</p> - -<p>X, 298: Herder says Rousseau’s <i>Confessions</i> and other writings contain -excellent passages for philosophy and natural theology. Many of -these writings have suffered evil repute (<i>übel berüchtigt</i>.)</p> - -<p>XV, 248: Herder calls Rousseau a great, wonderful man.</p> - -<p>XVI, 26: Herder calls Rousseau a teacher of wisdom and morals.</p> - -<p>XVII, 190: Herder speaks of Rousseau as a good man who exaggerates -and who in his phantasy is an idealist for the good.</p> - -<p>XVII, 326: Herder says in his own day (<i>bis in unsern Tagen</i>) Rousseau’s -<i>Social Contract</i> has had an effect that its author had scarcely expected.</p> - -<p>XVIII, 359 and 371: Herder says that in his own time (<i>in unserer -Zeit</i>), Rousseau’s <i>Confessions</i> have aroused a great sensation. He quotes -from them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span></p> - -<p>XVIII, 372: <i>Sein Geist war stolz, seine Grundsätze waren edel</i>, p. 374, -he speaks of Rousseau as a tree having brought forth beautiful fruit and -blossoms.</p> - -<p>XXII, 151: Herder approves Rousseau’s views in the introduction -to <i>Nouvelle Héloise</i>, views on poetic language as a natural human art.</p> - -<p>XXII, 161: He calls Rousseau one with great ability to express the -thoughts of his heart, and Herder considers this ability peculiar to <i>Naturmenschen</i>.</p> - -<p>XXIII, 272: Herder says much that Rousseau has said in <i>Emile</i> -against the use of <i>La Fontaine’s Fables</i> for youth is right.</p> - -<p>XXV, 601: Herder translates from Rousseau’s <i>Consolations</i>.</p> - -<p>XXV, 631: Herder has a translation of Rousseau’s “Shepherd Song,” -<i>Consolations</i>, p. 97, No. 53.</p> - -<p>XXV, 632: Translation of “Song of Desdemona,” <i>Consolations</i>, p. -125, No. 65.</p> - -<p>XXIX, 256: Herder eulogizes Rousseau in the poem <i>Der Mensch</i>.</p> - -<p>XXIX, 265: Herder calls upon Rousseau to help him know himself.</p> - -<p>XXX, 30: In regretting the fact that the taste and desire for overrefinement -was causing wholesome simplicity to be displaced in educational -methods and life in general, Herder calls attention to Rousseau and -interprets him thus:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Rousseau ruft also ein philosophisches Wehe über unser Geschlecht, das -die Tugend, Menschlichkeit und Wahrheit vom Altar gestürzt hat, und statt -dessen eine lächerlich verkleidete Puppe des Wohlstandes anbetet. Dieser -falsche Anstand hat die Schöpfung verdorben; denn was sind seine -Vasallen?</p> - -</div> - -<p>XXXII, 41: Herder calls Rousseau “our patriotic friend of mankind.”</p> - -<p>XXXII, 147: Herder says only Rousseau could dig to the knowledge -of the human heart.</p> - -<h3>“DER MENSCH”</h3> - -<p>Line 45 ff.: Herder shows that he is influenced by the eighteenth-century -demand for a return to nature in general and by Rousseau’s philosophy -in particular in a portion of this poem:</p> - -<p>1. He prizes the universal and fundamental instincts and longings of -man which show him to be a simple product of nature:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Den Menschen der Natur den keiner je gesehen und jeder in sich fühlt -und jeder wünscht zu sehen ... den sing’ ich.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span></p> - -<p>2. The primitivism of this nature-man is eulogized:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent18">den Menschen ohne Kunst</div> - <div class="verse indent0">voll Seele ohne Witz, gut ohne Göttergunst,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">voll Menschheit ohne Scham, voll Wahrheit ohne Lügen</div> - <div class="verse indent0">ohn’ alle Tugend fromm und glücklich ohn’ Vergnügen—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Den sing’ ich.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Sohn der Natur o Mensch—blühst du in Edens Flur?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">halb Pflanze und halb Thier.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>3. The feelings are set up as a standard:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">blos durch Empfindung wahr, schön durch die Wahrheit nur.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Nicht weniger nicht mehr als Mensch! so ist dein Leben</div> - <div class="verse indent0">dir zum Gefühl, zur Ruh, zur Wirksamkeit gegeben.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>4. Physical environment is to have free sway in shaping this ideal -man:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent16">wie zeigt sich deine Spur?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">im Schnee der Eskimaux wo edelfrei die Wilden</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Empfindung und Gesezz nach Jagd und Eis sich bilden.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>5. Rousseau is eulogized:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">gebar dich Rousseaus Geist? sahn dich verblichne Zeiten?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">...</div> - <div class="verse indent0">O Rousseau! den die Welt im Vorurtheil verkandt,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">das wahre grosse Maas des Menschen in der Hand</div> - <div class="verse indent0">wägst du was edel sey wenns gleich das Volk verdammet</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The eulogy continues by praising Rousseau’s condemnation of wealth -and pomp and false glory and, finally:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Du Prediger in der Wüste, fühlst dass du edel bist wenn niemand dich auch grüsste.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<h3>ROUSSEAU AND HERDER</h3> - -<p><i>Discourses.</i>—In his <i>Discourse concerning the Arts and Sciences</i> Rousseau -insists that our outward lives should be true expressions of our inner -feelings. This harmony between expression and feeling began its decline -under the influences of overrefinement and of tastes that had been distorted -by excessive civilization. Therefore, he argues, it is the common -man, the crude rustic, rather than the polished and elegant courtier who -reveals his heart in all purity; we may deal with this common man without -suspicions, fears, reserves, and treacheries. It was the simplicity of -ancient times when men lived in a primitive state that bred innocence and -virtue, courage and genuine humanity. In this discourse there is in general -a pointed attack upon literary and scientific training and polish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p> - -<p>The discourse which deals with the inequality of man is based in -general upon the same doctrine which furnishes the ground for the attack -on the sciences and the arts. It attempts to show us what men would -have been had they remained in their original state. This original state -was one in which man lived much like the dumb animals; forests and -rocks, running brooks and springs, furnished abode by day and bed -and shelter for the night, and among these were to be found the meat -and drink which produced strong healthy bodies; bodies robust because -their nourishment was simple. This was a primitive state which had -remained true to nature by not advancing at all or at least not more -than a single degree beyond the original. In such a state man by reason -of both his physical hardiness and his native animal instincts and alertness -has all his faculties, these operating with a force and fineness unknown to -the highly civilized man. Here, as in the essay on the social contract, -the philosopher is opposed to a superior ruling power and arbitrary establishment -of laws.</p> - -<p><i>Social contract.</i>—In the <i>Social Contract</i> in which Rousseau’s social -state is presented as the superior form of government, men had been -brought to realize their dependence upon one another and to know that -co-operation was the true basis of welfare. The doctrine of individuality -which made of man a self-centered unit was weak in that it offered little -protection for the individual. For this individual, born with natural -freedom, was in danger of exercising this freedom to the detriment of the -rights of others.</p> - -<p>In giving up himself and his rights to the group, the individual became -subject to no one person, but gained certain rights over each member of the -community. In this compact there is a union of individuals, each working -for the good of the body politic, each a sovereign with civil liberty and -moral freedom.</p> - -<p>Thus the restrictions which would be imposed upon members of society -by one supreme authority were avoided. By this means the general -will worked for the general good of humanity.</p> - -<p>But the idea of progress implied not only the teaching that the good -of one must be the good of all, but meant also: (1) That man was not -self-sufficient and therefore could come to fullest development only in -the group. (2) That the seeds of individuality lay within man as a universal -element and were nurtured and brought to flower by the peculiar -touch of him who was expressed in their flowering. The fundamental -tendencies in mankind being allowed to unfold, the man will be good; -this goodness is the essential thing in his manhood, and it is natural.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p> - -<p><i>Emile.</i>—The keynote of Rousseau’s doctrine here is that of absolute -reliance upon nature without impeding or diverting her progress at any -point. He is in accord with the epistemological side of Locke’s philosophy, -and therefore demands that Emile shall have his senses well developed. -He is to have a strong vigorous body, full of courage and hardihood. -Moral education is to be the result of natural discipline carried -on in a sort of laissez-faire way. In general, Emile gets his education -by being thrown into contact with nature and being allowed to observe -and feel the phenomena of a crude environment, and by expressing -directly what he has learned at first hand from this teacher. Emile, -then, is shaped by primitive forces just as the simple, common man in the -<i>Social Contract</i> and the <i>Inequality</i>. These made the simple, common -man the epitome of that which was of greatest worth to humanity.</p> - -<p><i>Origin of language.</i>—In fixing the beginnings of speech, Rousseau says -we can believe that necessities dictated the first movements, and that -passions called forth the first voices. The genius of oriental languages, -the most ancient known to us, have nothing in them that is methodical -or reasoned out; they are vivacious and figurative. It is evident that -the origin of languages is not at all due to the primary needs of man. -The origin is due to the moral needs, to the passions. It is neither hunger -nor thirst, but love, hate, pity, or anger which have called forth from men -the first voices. Fruits do not steal away from our hands at all; one -may nourish one’s self with them without talking; we may follow in -silence the prey of which we wish to make a repast; but to move a young -heart, to repel an unjust aggressor, nature dictates accents, cries, and -tones of resentment. It was for this reason that the oldest words were -invented.</p> - -<p>The following quotations affirm in a general way the preceding statements -of Rousseau’s philosophy:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">L’astronomie est née de la superstition, de la haine,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">de la flatterie, du mensonge;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">la géométrie, de l’avarice;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">la physique, d’une vaine curiosité;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">toute et la morale même de l’orgueil humain.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Les sciences et les arts doivent donc leur naissance à nos vices.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Discours sur les Sciences et les Arts, Part. II:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>O vertu! science sublime des âmes simples, faut-il donc tant de peines et -d’appareil pour te connaître? Tes principes ne sont-ils pas graves dans tous -les coeurs? et ne suffit-il pas pour apprendre tes lois de rentrer en soi-même -et d’écouter la voix de sa conscience dans le silence des passions?</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> - -<p>Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité parmi les -hommes:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Il suit de cet exposé que l’inégalité, étant presque nulle dans l’état de nature -tire sa force et son accroissement du developpement de nos facultés et des -progrès de l’esprit humain, et devient enfin stable et légitime par l’établissement -de la propriété et des lois.</p> - -<p>Il suit encore que l’inégalité morale autorisée par le seul droit positif, est -contraire au droit naturel toutes les fois qu’elle ne concourt pas en même proportion -avec l’inégalité physique; distinction qui détermine suffisamment ce -qu’on doit penser à cet égard de la sorte d’inégalité qui règne parmi tous les -peuples policés, puis-qu’il est manifestement contre la loi de nature.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The primitivism which stands out in Rousseau’s two discourses is to -be seen in a general way in Herder’s dislike for the higher culture that -would discourage spontaneous outbursts of human feelings as they appear -in the so-called cruder forms of literature; a culture that would displace -these by a smoother product born of reflection and regulated by set rules -and formulas.</p> - -<p>He has an admiration for the instinct which to him is always to be -found in women, children, and fools, and which he sees as the foundation -of a naïveté more valuable as a part of mental equipment than anything -which could be substituted by processes of training and culture.</p> - -<p>Rousseau’s attempt to return to nature for concrete everyday life -finds its approval with Herder, but the general idea takes a new turn. He -finds in it the inspiration for scientific methods of studying art, history, -and philosophy. His line of investigation in these will be by way of -nature; i.e., man in his primitive abode; man in the hands of nature; -man as the product of his environment.</p> - -<p>The opposition to a central and superior governing power, which is -found in the <i>Social Contract</i>, to be opposed to the natural method of -community life, finds its echo in Herder in frequent tirades against the -<i>policirte Nationen</i>. It is the <i>unpolicirte Nationen</i> to whom nature has -given a certain solace that can scarcely be found in <i>Menschliche Künsteleien</i>.</p> - -<p>The <i>Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanität</i> carry a constant strain, -which makes the interdependence between the individual and the group -a requisite for well-being. This theory, we have seen, finds a distinct -place in Shaftesbury’s philosophy before Rousseau had voiced it as his -own.</p> - -<p>Emile’s senses have been highly developed by his contact with nature, -and it is this sharpness and exactness of the senses that Herder extols<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -so much in primitive peoples. They are both cause and effect of the -work which nature achieves by her most trusted handmaiden; namely, -environment.</p> - -<p>In discussing the origin of language, even though Herder at certain -points takes issue with Rousseau, it is very clear that he is influenced by -the latter and is in agreement with him to considerable extent.</p> - -<p>Rousseau has pursued the question of the origin of language, not only -in his essay bearing this title, but also in the <i>Discourse on Inequality</i>.</p> - -<p>The first sentences of Herder’s essay <i>Abhandlung über den Ursprung -der Sprache</i> run not unlike a passage in Rousseau’s <i>Discours</i> just mentioned:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>Schon als Thier, hat der Mensch Sprache. Alle heftigen, und die heftigsten -unter den heftigen, die schmerzhaften Empfindungen seines Körpers, alle -starken Leidenschaften seiner Seele äussern sich unmittelbar in Geschrei, in -Töne, in wilde, unartikulirte Laute.</p> - -<p>Le premier langage de l’homme, le langage le plus universel, le plus énergique -et le seul dont il eut besoin avant qu’il fallût persuader des hommes -assemblés est le cri de la nature. Comme ce cri n’était arraché que par une -sorte d’instinct dans les occasions pressantes, pour implorer du secours dans -les grands dangers ou du soulagement dans les maux violents, il n’était pas -d’un grand usage dans le cours ordinaire de la vie, où règnent des sentiments -plus modérés.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Further, in his own essay, Herder says, that as our tones of nature -are for the purpose of expressing passion, it is natural that they should -become also the elements of all that which is emotional, and if we call -this immediate sound of feeling speech, then, says he, it is easy to find -the origin of speech natural.</p> - -<p>But although all animals have a speech by which they sound forth -their feelings, such speech will never become human language until reason, -understanding (<i>Verstand</i>), arises to use these tones with direct intention.</p> - -<p>In so far, then, as the very beginnings of language are cries of passion, -Herder is in accord with Rousseau in both essays in which the latter discusses -the question.</p> - -<h3>REFERENCES TO ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES</h3> - -<table> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">I:</td> - <td>22, 47, 96, 484.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">II:</td> - <td>229, 269, 276, 313.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">III:</td> - <td>279.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV:</td> - <td>52, 145, 369, 371.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span>V:</td> - <td>20, 21, 33, 37, 44, 58, 85, 114, 117, 120, 147, 168, 314, 394, 452, 583, 640, 643.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IV:</td> - <td>163; note to page 250.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VII:</td> - <td>65, 74.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII:</td> - <td>328.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">IX:</td> - <td>354, 474.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">X:</td> - <td>298, 306, 307, 352.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XII:</td> - <td>Note to page 198.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII:</td> - <td>265.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XV:</td> - <td>35, 248, 495.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVI:</td> - <td>26.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVII:</td> - <td>8, 97, 190, 309, 326.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XVIII:</td> - <td>91, 359, 371.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XX:</td> - <td>288, 293.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXII:</td> - <td>151, 161.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIII:</td> - <td>231, 272.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXV:</td> - <td>Note to page 601; 631, 632.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXIX:</td> - <td>256, 265.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXX:</td> - <td>30.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr">XXXII:</td> - <td>17, 33, 41, 75, 147, 185, 233.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h3>CONCLUSION</h3> - -<p>The character and frequency of the references which Herder makes in -his writings to the philosophers of the eighteenth century show that he -knew the predominant lines of thought which characterized the entire -period of the enlightenment. The outstanding eighteenth-century theories -which seem to have a place in Herder’s conception of <i>das Volk</i> are -well epitomized in the teachings of Leibniz, Shaftesbury, and Rousseau.</p> - -<p>Herder’s own exposition of a part of Leibniz’ contribution to thought -shows how he found here some things which were in agreement with his -own fundamental ideas concerning innate potentialities.</p> - -<p>The praise given to Shaftesbury’s principal ideas of the harmonious -development of the individual and of humanity lead us to believe that -Shaftesbury had exercised an influence on the German writer.</p> - -<p>The numerous eulogistic outbursts over Rousseau, the coinciding in -many writings by both men of details concerning the essential elements -in man’s nature, concerning primitivism, liberty, and the ideal state, -show that Herder was fully imbued with the spirit of Rousseau, expressed -in the cry, “back to nature.”</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br> -<span class="smaller">CONCLUSION</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Both the word <i>Volk</i> and the various ideas for which it stands are old -and are to be found among many peoples. The parent tongue, the Indo-European, -seems to have had a form which meant “full,” “many.” -The “many” easily became the “common,” so that the “many” as -opposed to the “few” was parallel with the “common,” “vulgar” as -opposed to the “upper classes,” the “aristocracy.” This meaning seems -to have been a fundamental one in both ancient and modern times.</p> - -<p>The shift in meaning of the Germanic word <i>Volk</i>, which extends the -sense to that of “nation,” has been more general and more permanent -in German than in English. It is with these two main conceptions, that -is <i>Volk</i>, the common people, and <i>Volk</i>, nation, that we are concerned in -this study of Herder. Many examples of Herder’s use of the term <i>Volk</i> -show that he makes the word an exact synonym for nation. In many -other examples it is used as an equivalent term for nation. In both of -these uses “nation” with Herder means those bound together only by -the same laws and customs whether related by consanguinity or not.</p> - -<p>But Herder frequently makes <i>Volk</i> stand more specifically for those -who are of the same blood, and in that sense identifies it with “race.” -We have seen that these are common uses of the term <i>Volk</i> and the idea -conveyed by it, uses which occur in many languages and among many -civilized peoples.</p> - -<p>Now Herder, while using the term <i>Volk</i> in the commonly accepted -sense of nation, has always firmly in mind certain attributes and powers -which characterize groups as such. They have power to rule; they have -power to express themselves in peculiar ways; they have <i>Nationalgeist</i>. -This <i>Nationalgeist</i> in the final analysis is the outgrowth of physical and -social environment and conforms to the dictates of these in all its peculiarities.</p> - -<p>In exercising their powers and general spirit, they act as an entity -according to Herder’s conception. He makes the group a single being, -an individual. In Herder’s day when ideas of nationalism had no definite -shape, this added sense of the meaning of nation meant clearly that he -was a forerunner in the realm of philosophy, and gave to Herder’s conception<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> -of <i>Volk</i>, even in this commonly used sense, a unique place. -Individuality, personality, distinguished nations just as these traits mark -out human beings.</p> - -<p>Herder makes use of the term <i>Volk</i> in a second sense. Here he means -a group within a civilized nation which forms the mass below the aristocracy -and the governing class. This use likewise is to be found in all -languages of civilized peoples.</p> - -<p>But Herder is emphatic in noting that this group has not been -affected by expurgating and eliminating influences to the fullest extent -to which these have operated. It has therefore been more thoroughly -the product of natural environment. In the proportion to which innate -tendencies have not been checked and warped, individual traits have had -free development. Therefore spontaneous personality characterizes -this group to a higher degree than it does the more cultured. Here -Herder makes prominent his philosophy that unhampered nature is the -most potent force in the development of this spontaneous personality.</p> - -<p>In his collection of <i>Volkslieder</i>, Herder does not confine himself to -those which are marked by primitivism, but includes also many selections -of polished literary form. But these all submit to a classification which -takes into account the true expression of universal and fundamental -feelings common to all humanity. Here Herder’s mind is fixed on that -power which the group has to express itself, to express that which is -fundamental and therefore to show forth its personality.</p> - -<p>Ossian’s people and the Ancient Hebrews are products of an environment -which is most effective in shaping Herder’s ideal <i>Volk</i>: namely, -nature unaltered by the hand of man. As a result of such rough, crude -surroundings, these peoples have developed into simple, harmonious beings, -and possess all the elements which Herder considers essential in -man’s nature. He finds they are natural because they are primitive, and -they possess superior traits because they are natural. They have the -power to give expression to their personality and have exercised this -power in a marked way in their unique literatures. The individuality -of each group is sharply defined in the songs of each.</p> - -<p>Now how does Herder arrive at the requirements to which he makes -his <i>Volk</i> conform?</p> - -<p>His philosophy as expressed in <i>Erkennen und Empfindung</i> recognizes -inborn forces in the individual which are potentialities differing in kind -and degree of working power in each person. These varying potentialities -he makes the constituencies of the senses which are accordingly different -in scope and capacity in every human being.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span></p> - -<p>It must be noted that Herder does not regard these original “forces” -as constituted by the senses; they are prior to and more fundamental -than the senses. The phenomenon <i>Reiz</i>, stimulus, which causes the -smallest fiber either in plant or animal to contract or expand, repeats -itself in the nerves of each one of the senses. But this <i>Reiz</i> is in the -beginning, and without it there would be no <i>Kräfte</i>, no nerve, no sense -organ. This <i>Reiz</i>, then, is identical with the innate forces, <i>Kräfte</i>.</p> - -<p>They control and direct the development of the senses and are, therefore, -the very beginning of that variation in sense functioning which -initiates individuality.</p> - -<p>It is in the treatment of these original <i>Kräfte</i> that Herder gives his -own turn to Leibniz’ theory of the monad.</p> - -<p>The principle of the monad was highly abstract, and when Herder -took it over he gave to it a more concrete application. It became the -principle of innate and varying potentialities. The monad was not -controlled and directed by a force outside itself, according to Herder, -but by a power within, and as the power within was never exactly alike -in any two beings, no two could develop just alike. Here are Herder’s -foundations for individuality and personality.</p> - -<p>A perfection resulting from the unfolding of the content of the individual -life and the shaping of its originality are seen in Shaftesbury’s thought -when he makes morality consist of the rich and full expression of individual -powers in a beautiful and sovereign personality. The individual -system as seen in one man in all its physical and mental elements is related -to something external to himself. Altruistic inclinations are an important -part of the natural endowment of every human being.</p> - -<p>Now Herder sees that this unfettered development of natural endowments -will come to its fullest only in relations to others. It is the essence -of his <i>Humanität</i>. He goes further than Shaftesbury in that he finds in -this tie, which unites the individual to the group, that which is universal -and fundamental. He endows his <i>Volk</i> with sentiments which are universal -and fundamental. It is this universal and fundamental which -makes such expressions as “Hamlet’s soliloquy” find a place among the -songs of Herder’s <i>Volk</i>.</p> - -<p>We have seen that when Herder lays emphasis on the feelings, when -he is opposed to arbitrary and restrictive government, when he elevates -the crude and primitive, his system of thought is in agreement with that -of Rousseau. But Herder makes an advance in seeking standards in -processes actually or believed to be found in Nature. His line of investigation -in history, art, and philosophy will be by way of the natural man,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> -i.e., the primitive. His <i>Volk</i>, then, because of their power to express their -personality freely, give him a theory of art; art must be an expression of -personality.</p> - -<p>Both Shaftesbury and Rousseau relate the development of the individual -to the group but neither makes the altruism or interdependence such an -impelling force as does Herder. His <i>Volk</i>, conscious of their own frailty, -will have sympathy and a general regard for the needs and interests of -mankind. This consciousness will be not merely a passive altruism nor an -interdependence of material and economic necessity, but it will be heightened -by an ideal love for humanity, which will force to active and positive -efforts to make humanity the highest possible.</p> - -<p>When we eliminate details, when we regard only those elements upon -which Herder’s thought seems to be continuous, those qualifications of -which he never seems to loose sight, whether he idealizes his <i>Volk</i> through -his philosophy, his song collections, his study of the works of other philosophers, -or through the analysis of concrete examples, we come to the following -as essentials in Herder’s <i>Volk</i>: <i>Das Volk</i> is a group whose innate, -natural tendencies have been allowed to unfold and develop unhindered -and unwarped by civilization. They are people who have come into contact -with various forces of nature in the physical world and have been -strongly influenced by their natural environment.</p> - -<p>They, as an entity, possess: (1) Individuality, personality; (2) a -sense of that which is universal and fundamental among mankind; (3) -common feelings of relationship to humanity; (4) strong religious sentiments.</p> - -<p>They are wont to express themselves freely, fully, truthfully, in various -forms of art, the individual specimens of which find their test of genuineness -in the response which they receive from the group out of which -they arose.</p> - -<p>In this ideal conception Herder sees the best that mankind can produce.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak">FOOTNOTES</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Schiller, <i>Jungfrau von Orleans</i>, I, p. 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> <i>Piccolomini</i>, II, p. 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> <i>Kampf mit dem Drachen.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Wildenbruch.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Goethe, <i>Faust</i>, I.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Fénélon, <i>Télémaque</i>, XXIV.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Bible, <i>Jérémie</i>, XXXI, 33.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> <i>La Bruyère</i>, IX.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Dr. Martin Schütze has analyzed this feature of Herder’s philosophy, “Fundamental -Ideas in Herder’s Thought,” <i>Modern Philosophy</i>, XVIII; June, October, 1920.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> References to these discussions: Herder’s <i>Sämmtliche Werke</i>, Suphan, volume and -page: I, 437; II, 119, 132, 168, 182, 203, 259, 322, 324, 331, 387, 416; VI, 21; VIII, 99, -216, 391; IX, 317, 543; XI, 297; XII, 334; XIV, 103, 263; XVI, 323; XVIII, 446; -XXIII, 569; XXIV, 232, 301, 302; XXVII, 180.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> References to these discussions: Herder’s <i>Sämmtliche Werke</i>, Suphan, volume -and page: I, 258; VI, 1; XI, 215; XII, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Ossian, V, 325.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Ancient Hebrews, XI, 173.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> Ossians Gedichte, <i>Lieder</i> .... V, 196.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Ossians Gedichte, V, 197.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Ancient Hebrews, XII, 28.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> Ancient Hebrews, I, 258.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Ossian, V, 326.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Ancient Hebrews, XII, 27.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Ossian, V, 324.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Ancient Hebrews, XII, 22.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Ossian, V, 324.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Ancient Hebrews, XI, 292.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Ossian, V, 182.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Ancient Hebrews, XI, 227.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Ancient Hebrews, XI, 228. (<i>die Ebräische Sprache</i>).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> Ossian, XVIII, 457.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> Ancient Hebrews, I, 262.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> Ancient Hebrews, XII, 8.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="hanging"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Andress, James Mace.</span> <i>Johann Gottfried Herder as an Educator.</i> New York: -G. E. 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London: George Bell & Sons, 1887.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thann, Elsass.</span> Thanner Druckerei und Zeitungsverlag, 1919.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Windelband, Dr. W.</span> <i>A History of Philosophy.</i> Translated by James H. -Tufts. New York: The Macmillan Co. London: Macmillan & Co., -1919.</p> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HERDER'S CONCEPTION OF "DAS VOLK" ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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