diff options
39 files changed, 17 insertions, 19270 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a5c23a --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69442 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69442) diff --git a/old/69442-0.txt b/old/69442-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 735900d..0000000 --- a/old/69442-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7452 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Medical symbolism in connection with -historical studies in the arts of healing and hygiene, by Thomas S. -Sozinskey - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Medical symbolism in connection with historical studies in the - arts of healing and hygiene - -Author: Thomas S. Sozinskey - -Contributor: Edward S. Power - -Release Date: November 28, 2022 [eBook #69442] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Emmanuel Ackerman, Evander Cobban and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This - file was produced from images generously made available by - The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL SYMBOLISM IN -CONNECTION WITH HISTORICAL STUDIES IN THE ARTS OF HEALING AND -HYGIENE *** - - - - - - -[Illustration] - - - - - No. 9 IN THE PHYSICIANS’ AND STUDENTS’ READY - REFERENCE SERIES. - - MEDICAL SYMBOLISM - - IN CONNECTION WITH - - HISTORICAL STUDIES IN THE ARTS OF - HEALING AND HYGIENE. - - ILLUSTRATED. - - BY - THOMAS S. SOZINSKEY, M.D., PH.D., - AUTHOR OF “THE CULTURE OF BEAUTY,” “THE CARE AND CULTURE OF - CHILDREN,” ETC. - - [Illustration] - - PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON: - F. A. DAVIS, PUBLISHER. - 1891. - - Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1891, by - EDWARD S. POWER, M.D., -In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C., U. S. A. - - Philadelphia: - The Medical Bulletin Printing House, - 1231 Filbert Street. - - - - -DEDICATION. - - -The medical profession is often spoken of as non-progressive. As a -practical member of it, the author is of a different opinion. He knows -full-well not only that, to many, age does not tend to make anything -medical more worthy of attention, but that the old is apt to be wilfully -overlooked. He discovered some time ago that in the library of the -College of Physicians of Philadelphia—the centre, probably, of medical -learning in the United States—Adams’ edition of the works of Hippocrates -had rested with the leaves uncut for over twenty years. New things are -far too much in vogue. If Bacon were alive to-day he might still say, -with too much truth, as he said three hundred years ago: “Let a man look -into physicians’ prescripts and ministrations and he will find them but -inconstancies and every-day devices, without any settled providence or -project” (“Advancement of Learning”). The age is too much one of trial, -of incoherency, to be either eminently scientific or highly successful -in practice. Beyond question, the medicine of the past is harmfully -neglected; for its literature few have a desirable taste, and fewer yet -a sufficient knowledge. Deploring this state of things, the author would -gladly assist in bringing about a change. Hence, it affords him pleasure -to dedicate this essay to his professional brethren. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In this essay I have treated, as the title indicates, of medical -symbolism in connection with studies, essentially historical, in the -arts of healing and hygiene. Some parts of it bear only indirectly on -the main subject; but they serve to render the whole more complete and -interesting. Doubtless the reader will not be inclined to find much fault -with any of the apparent digressions. - -In the score of chapters into which the essay is divided, attention -is invited to numerous more or less remarkable matters pertaining to -medicine, most of them of very ancient date, and some of practical -importance. Medical mythology is treated of very fully; and, on this, -as indeed on all points, the results of the most recent archæological -and other investigations are given. All I have said is deserving, I -believe, of the consideration of educated physicians.[1] “The wise -man will seek out the wisdom of all the ancients,” says the author of -“Ecclesiasticus,”[2] one who had the tastes of a cultivated medical man. - -Although the essay is mainly on old things, I venture to hold that it -contains much which a fairly well-read physician will find fresh. The -ground gone over has been little trodden before. It may be said, as -Pliny did, by way of suggestion of difficulties to be overcome, when -he sat down to write his sketch of the history of the art of medicine, -“that no one has hitherto treated of this subject.”[3] But just as Pliny -overlooked what Celsus had done, and done well, so in this case, some -worthy author may have been overlooked; still, this is improbable. What -is here presented, and in part coherently, is gathered from manifold -sources. I have limited my references as much as possible to works in the -English language, or translations. The statements of authors are given in -their own words; but quotations of wearisome length have been avoided. - -The possibility of research in respect to the themes treated of, and -allied ones, not being limited, the essay cannot be expected to be either -perfect or complete. Whatever its merits or shortcomings may be, however, -it is an outcome of congenial studies pursued for their own sake. I -believe it contains a fund of information which deserves to be widely -known. The perusal of it may, at least, serve to excite an interest in -the ample literature and long and remarkable history of the benevolent -and learned profession of medicine. - - T. S. S. - - - - -BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THOMAS S. SOZINSKEY, M.D., PH.D. - - -Thomas S. Sozinskey, M.D., Ph.D., the author of this interesting little -volume, was born in County Derry, Ireland, and died in the city of -Philadelphia, April 18, 1889, in the thirty-seventh year of his age. -He came to this country when seventeen years of age, and settled in -Philadelphia. Entering the University of Pennsylvania some years later, -he graduated from that institution, and afterward began the study of -medicine, receiving the degree of Doctor of Medicine in the year 1872. He -also received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the same faculty. - -Dr. Sozinskey immediately entered upon his career as medical practitioner -in Philadelphia, where he remained until his marriage to Miss Abby W. -Johnson, a daughter of Luke Johnson, who was a descendant of one of the -founders of Germantown. - -Shortly after his marriage Dr. Sozinskey decided to visit Kansas City, -partly with the idea of locating there; but after a sojourn of about -one year in the West he returned to Philadelphia, and began again the -practice of his chosen profession, succeeding in a few years in building -up a very extensive and lucrative practice in the northwestern section of -the city. - -Dr. Sozinskey was a man highly intellectual, studious, and scholarly. -He was a frequent contributor to a number of leading medical journals, -as well as the author of several well-known works, among which may be -mentioned “The Care and Culture of Children.” Also, a little volume -entitled “Personal Appearance and the Culture of Beauty.” - -His last literary effort, “Medical Symbolism,” which is a work showing -a vast amount of research, was completed just before his death. He was -induced to undertake “Medical Symbolism” after the appearance of an -article bearing this title in the _Medical and Surgical Reporter_, which -attracted considerable attention, both in this country and in Europe. - -He received so many letters from men prominent in the medical profession, -suggesting that a book be written upon this subject, that the task was -undertaken. - -By his untimely death three small children became orphans, the mother -having died one year earlier, after a short illness. - -His readiness to attend the sick, regardless of compensation, greatly -endeared him to a large number of the poor. - -Containing, as it does, so much that is unique, and in a field not -often touched by previous writers, “Medical Symbolism” is sure to -find appreciative readers, not only among the fraternity to which Dr. -Sozinskey belonged, but among the scientific and literary generally; and, -from the encouragement already received, the publishers feel confident of -a large and wide-spread demand for this little volume. - - E. S. P. - -PHILADELPHIA, October 27, 1890. - - - - -COMMENDATORY LETTERS. - - - PHILADELPHIA, Jan, 24, 1884. - - DR. T. S. SOZINSKEY: - - DEAR SIR:—Please accept my thanks for your paper on “Medical - Symbolism,” received this morning. I have read it with great - interest, more especially as it is in the direction of the - higher education of physicians. The preponderance of the - so-called practical (empirical) in medical literature, which - appeals strongly to the _trade_ element in the profession, - makes such a contribution all the more enjoyable. - - Very truly yours, - - FRANCES EMILY WHITE. - - 1427 N. SIXTEENTH ST. - - DR. SOZINSKEY: - - DEAR DOCTOR:—Many thanks. You ought to enlarge the article to - a little book. It interested me greatly. In a _bas-relief_ of - myself by St. Gaudens, New York, he has set beside the head the - caduceus and twin serpents as symbolical; at all events, they - will symbolize my relation to snakes. - - Yours truly, - - WEIR MITCHELL. - - 1524 WALNUT ST., PHILA. - - PHILADELPHIA, Jan. 23, 1884. - - DR. T. S. SOZINSKEY: - - MY DEAR DOCTOR:—I write to thank you for a copy of your - interesting and instructive paper on “Medical Symbolism.” In - Fergusson, on “Tree and Serpent Worship,” which you quote, - you can readily trace the connection between the emblems - of religion and medicine. I recognize that, as priest and - physician were once the same person, medicine is yet justly - termed “the divine art.” It affords me much pleasure to see - your studious interest in your profession. - - Yours truly, - - HENRY H. SMITH. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - DEDICATION, iii - - PREFACE, v - - BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF T. S. SOZINSKEY, M.D., PH.D., vii - - COMMENDATORY LETTERS, ix - - CHAPTER I. - - REMARKS ON THE MEANING OF SYMBOLS, 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - THE SERPENTINE GOD OF MEDICINE AT ROME, 5 - - CHAPTER III. - - THE ÆSCULAPIAN SERPENT, 13 - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE EPIDAURIAN ORACLE, 17 - - CHAPTER V. - - ASCLEPIA AND THE ASCLEPIADES, 23 - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE GRECIAN GOD OF MEDICINE, 31 - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE IMAGE OF ÆSCULAPIUS, 45 - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE ÆSCULAPIAN STAFF AND SERPENT, 49 - - CHAPTER IX. - - ÆSCULAPIUS AND THE SERPENT, 59 - - CHAPTER X. - - VARIOUS ATTRIBUTES OF ÆSCULAPIUS, 83 - - CHAPTER XI. - - GODS ANALOGOUS TO ÆSCULAPIUS, 89 - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE PINE-CONE AS AN ATTRIBUTE OF ÆSCULAPIUS, 111 - - CHAPTER XIII. - - DIBBARA, A GOD OF PESTILENCE, 119 - - CHAPTER XIV. - - HYGEIA, THE GODDESS OF HEALTH, 123 - - CHAPTER XV. - - MEDICAL TALISMANS, 129 - - CHAPTER XVI. - - MEDICAL AMULETS, 137 - - CHAPTER XVII. - - PHARMACISTS’ SYMBOLS, 149 - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - MISCELLANEOUS MEDICAL SYMBOLS, 155 - - CHAPTER XIX. - - MEDICAL SYMBOLISM IN PRACTICE, 161 - - CHAPTER XX. - - THE PENTACLE, 165 - - - - -MEDICAL SYMBOLISM. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -REMARKS ON THE MEANING OF SYMBOLS. - - -A symbol is an illustration of a thing which, to use a poetic phrase, -is “not what it seems.” When a familiar object, or figure of any kind, -from some cause or other, has attached to it a meaning different from -the obvious and ordinary one, it is symbolic. Thus, if one take a -poppy-head to convey the idea of sleep, it is a symbol; one may regard -it as symbolic of sleep, or, if he choose, of Hypnos (Somnus), the god -of sleep. The illustration on the next page will afford a still more apt -example. To the eye, it appears to be simply a partly coiled serpent -resting on a pedestal. That is, in truth, what it is. But, regarded from -the stand-point of the student of medical symbolism, it has another and -very different signification. Before such a figure many a human being, -diseased and suffering, has bowed in reverence and piously offered to it -petitions for relief; to many a noble Greek and haughty Roman, indeed, to -generations of such, it was a god, the great god of “the divine art,” as -medicine was often beautifully called in ancient times. The serpent is -the most important of medical symbols. - -In any composite figure the elements of it are spoken of as _attributes_; -and of these some are _essential_ and some _conventional_. The essential -ones only are, strictly speaking, symbols. Thus, in a representation of -the Goddess of Liberty, the cap is not a symbol; it is a conventional -attribute. Says the learned and distinguished historian of ancient -art, C. O. Müller, “The essence of the symbol consists in the supposed -real connections of the sign with the thing signified.”[4] In some -authoritative works, as, for instance, that of Fairholt,[5] the serpent -in medical art is said not to be a symbol; but this is not true if it be -taken to represent the god of medicine, which, as I have already stated, -was done by both Greeks and Romans. Evidently, if taken as of this narrow -meaning, there are not many comprehensive medical symbols. But I will -take it in a wider sense; I will take it to mean any mystic figure or any -kind of attribute. In doing so I do no more than Fairholt holds should -be done. Referring to the words _symbol_, _image_, and _allegorical -figure_ as well as _attribute_, he says, “Their shades of difference -are so slight that it would be most convenient to regard them all under -the general term _symbol_.”[6] I may add these remarks of Tiele: “A -symbol is a simple or complex thought clothed in a sensuous form. A myth -is a phenomenon of nature represented as the act of a person. Usually -symbols originate in myths, and in every case mythology is antecedent to -symbolism.”[7] There are many symbols, however, which never had anything -to do with myths, as will become evident later. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.—A MEDICAL SYMBOL.] - -In the wide sense in which I propose to use it, symbol is almost or quite -synonymous with _emblem_, as popularly used. Mackenzie[8] and other -authorities, however, state that the word emblem is properly applicable -only to a mystic object or figure of two or more parts. Thus, it is -more correct to speak of “a skull and cross-bones” as emblematic than -symbolic of a poison or of death. Again, while a serpent might properly -be called a symbol, one in connection with a staff is an emblem. In this -restricted sense, emblem is closely allied in meaning to _allegory_. -But in an allegorical representation most of the elements of it are apt -to be symbolic, and beauty of the whole is a consideration. The great -Epidaurian representation of Æsculapius is an example. A simple image or -_statue_ is essentially a symbol. - -I need hardly say that any figure may or may not be a symbol; but a mere -_figure_ is simply a representation of any object regarded as void of any -other than its ordinary meaning. A conventional representation of any -idea may be nothing more than a figure. In this sense, it is sometimes -called an _ideograph_. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE SERPENTINE GOD OF MEDICINE AT ROME. - - -As I have already intimated, the god of medicine—that is, -Æsculapius[9]—was not only on familiar terms, so to speak, with the -serpent, but at times given a serpentine form. Pausanias expressly -informs us that he often appeared in such singular shape.[10] The visitor -to imperial Rome about two thousand years ago saw this divinity in -reptilian guise an object of high regard and worship. It is worth while -to enter into a short study of the matter. - -Now, at the outset, I may observe that it is a noteworthy fact that in -their regard for medical men the early Greeks and others contrasted -remarkably with the Romans. The Greeks would seem to have duly prized -the class. One has but to turn to Homer to find evidence of the fact. A -passage suggested by Machaon’s splendid exercise of his beneficent art, -spoken by Idomeneus when the “offspring of the healing god” was wounded -by a dart fired by “the spouse of Helen” (Paris), and “trembling Greece -for her physician fear’d,” runs:— - - “A wise physician skill’d our wounds to heal, - Is more than armies to the public weal.”[11] - -Cowper translates this interesting couplet more literally than Pope:— - - “One so skill’d in medicine and to free - The inherent barb is worth a multitude.” - -This is a very noble tribute to the physician; in fact, I know of but few -as good, among them being the one in “Ecclesiasticus” which reads: “The -skill of the physician shall lift up his head and in the sight of great -men he shall be praised.”[12] The latter is Hebræo-Egyptian in origin, -and its date is about two hundred years before our era. The early Romans -did not look on doctors with any such favor.[13] - -It is a well-known fact that the art of medicine was never very -enthusiastically or successfully cultivated by the Romans. It was not -until a comparatively late date that medical practitioners existed -among them at all. Pliny has left us some interesting notes on the -matter. After the statement that many nations have gotten along without -physicians, he says: “Such, for instance, was the Roman people for a -period of more than six hundred years; a people, too, which has never -shown itself slow to adopt all useful arts, and which even welcomed the -medical art with avidity until, after a fair experience of it, there was -found good reason to condemn it.”[14] He himself was not a great friend -of it. - -Cato, who died in the year of the city of Rome 605, said, -authoritatively: “They (the Greeks) have conspired among themselves -to murder all barbarians with their medicine, a profession which they -exercise for lucre, in order that they may win our confidence and -despatch us all the more easily. I forbid you to have anything to do with -physicians.”[15] Notwithstanding this, the imperious old Roman had not -a personal dislike to taking medicine; “far from it, by Hercules,” says -Pliny, “for he subjoins an account of the medical prescriptions by the -aid of which he had ensured to himself and his wife a ripe old age.”[16] - -It appears that the first physician who exercised his profession at Rome -was “Archagathus, the son of Lysanias, who came over from Peloponnessus -in the year of the city 335.” He was kindly welcomed, and, from his -special line of practice, was called “Vulnerarius;” but, from cruelty -displayed “in cutting and searing his patients, he brought the art and -physicians into disrepute.”[17] It is this experience to which Pliny -refers in the foregoing quotation. - -There is reason to believe that the Romans never regarded medicine as -an art appreciatively. They have transmitted to posterity little that -is original and valuable. Besides what is found in Pliny’s work, the -production of Celsus[18] is about all that calls for special mention, -and it is possible that the latter, as well as the former, was only a -compiler. Pliny significantly says: “The art of medicine at the present -time even teaches us in numerous instances to have recourse to the -oracles for aid.”[19] He lived from 23 to 79 A.D. - -The Roman people had no special god of medicine until the year 292 -B.C. In the preceding year, the prevalence of a pestilence caused much -consternation. This led to a consultation of the Delphian Oracle, or, -according to Livy (see page 9), the Sibylline Books, as to what should be -done, and the command of “the Delphic Oracle, or of the Sibylline Books,” -to use the language of an authoritative work,[20] was given, to send an -embassy to procure the aid of the Grecian god of healing, Æsculapius. - -The story of the bringing of Æsculapius to Rome, like that of the -bringing of Cybele from Pessinus in Galatia, is an interesting one, and -must be known if one would fully appreciate the fact of the god being -given the serpentine form, the serpent being generally regarded as only -an attribute of him at his chief seat, the great Epidaurian Asclepion, or -Temple of Health. It is graphically told by Ovid. - -Ovid begins his poem[21] with an invocation to the “melodious maids of -Pindus;” and, addressing them, continues:— - - “Say, whence the isle which Tiber flows around, - Its altars with a heavenly stranger grac’d, - And in our shrines the God of Physic plac’d?” - -We are then told that— - - “A wasting plague infected Latium’s skies. - ... - In vain were human remedies apply’d. - Weary’d with death, they seek celestial aid, - And visit Phœbus in his Delphic shade.” - -The reply of the Oracle is this:— - - “Relief must be implor’d and succour won - Not from Apollo, but Apollo’s son. - My son to Latium borne shall bring redress; - Go with good omens, and expect success.” - -The Senate appointed an embassy to carry out the order:— - - “Who sail to Epidaurus’ neighbouring land.” - -To it the god (Æsculapius) is represented as saying:— - - “I come and leave my shrine. - This serpent view, that with ambitious play - My staff encircles, mark him every way; - His form, though larger, nobler, I’ll assume, - And, changed as gods should be, bring aid to Rome.” - -In due time “the salutary serpent,[22] the god, reached the Island of the -Tiber and assumed again his form divine”:— - - “And now no more the drooping city mourns; - Joy is again restor’d and health returns.” - -There is little or no reason to doubt that there was really a formal -bringing of Æsculapius to Rome, a cosmopolitan city which, indeed, as -Gibbon states without much exaggeration, bestowed its freedom “on all -the gods of mankind.”[23] Livy, the historian, speaks of the matter as -follows:— - -“The many prosperous events of the year (459) were scarcely sufficient to -afford consolation for one calamity, a pestilence, which afflicted both -the city and country and caused a prodigious mortality. To discover what -end or what remedy was appointed by the gods for that calamity, the Books -were consulted, and there it was found that Æsculapius must be brought -to Rome from Epidaurus. However, as the Consuls had full employment -in the wars, no farther steps were taken in that business during this -year, except the performing of a supplication to Æsculapius of one day’s -continence.”[24] Elsewhere[25] he says that the god was brought the -following year,—that is, A.U.C. 460, or 292 B.C. - -The Island of the Tiber (_Insula Tiberina_, now _Isola Tiberina_), the -“_inter duos pontes_” of the early centuries of our era, where Æsculapius -was worshipped, and which was sometimes called by his name (_Insula -Æsculapii_), is within the limits of the city of Rome. According to -tradition, it originated from alluvial accumulations within the period -of Roman history.[26] It is rather remarkable that, excepting the one at -the mouth (_Insula Sacra_, now _Isola Sacra_), there is no other along -the whole course of the famous river. It is ship-shaped, and quite small -in size, being only about a quarter of a mile in length,[27] and has been -called “San Bartolomeo,” from the church which has long occupied the site -of the ancient Temple of Health.[28] Mr. Davies speaks of it at length in -his interesting book. After an account of the origin of the worship of -Æsculapius on it, he says:— - -“It was in commemoration of this event that the island was fashioned in -the form of a ship. Huge blocks of travertine and peperino still remain -about the prow (pointing down the stream), imitating on a grand scale -the forms of the planks, upon which are chiseled the figure of a serpent -twined around a rod, and, farther down, the head of an ox. A temple was -raised to Æsculapius, in which his statue was placed, which probably -stood in the fore part of the simulated vessel, hospitals for the sick -occupying the sides, a tall column or obelisk rising in the midst to -represent a mast. Temples were also dedicated to Jupiter and Faunus.[29] -To these were added a prison in the days of Tiberius.”[30] - -Whether the establishment of the worship of the healing divinity on the -island at Rome was brought about by chance, or deliberately, is not -very clear. Pliny would seem to think that it was elsewhere at first -when he says, “The Temple of Æsculapius, even after he was received as -a divinity, was built without the city and afterward on an island.”[31] -The abhorrence of the people for physicians is given as the reason for -isolating the institution. The noble Romans had no love for a class that -made a trade of curing the sick, enriching themselves off the misfortunes -of their fellow-men; they were shocked, says Pliny, “more particularly -that man should pay so dear for the enjoyment of life.”[32] There may -have been other and better reasons. The Greeks themselves placed their -asclepia in rural and often insular places. Thus, the great Epidaurian -Asclepion was in a secluded vale, and two very celebrated ones, those of -Cos and Rhodes, were, as the names indicate, on islands. It is needless -to say that there are excellent sanitary reasons for placing sanatory -institutions in the country, and especially on insular sites. It will be -a long step in the right direction when we somewhat unwise moderns cease -to have our medical institutions within the built-up parts of our cities -and towns, and treat the sick, especially those affected with contagious -diseases, at a distance from the well. - -Devotion to the serpentine healer appears to have lingered long in -sunny Italy.[33] A bronze serpent in the basilica of St. Ambrose was -worshipped as late as the year 1001, but the precise import of it is not -known. Referring to it, De Gubernatis says: “Some say that it was the -serpent of Æsculapius, others that of Moses, others that it was an image -of Christ. For us it is enough to remark here that it was a mythical -serpent before which Milanese mothers brought their children when they -suffered from worms in order to relieve them, as we learn from the -depositions of the visit of San Carlo Borromeo to this basilica.”[34] San -Carlo suppressed the superstitious practice.[35] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE ÆSCULAPIAN SERPENT. - - -It is not to be presumed that many in our day would seriously believe -that Æsculapius assumed the form of a large serpent, in the famous -legendary voyage to Rome; but it is hardly to be doubted, as I have -already remarked, that there was actually a serpent brought from -Epidaurus on the occasion. It is very probable that the Roman embassy -deliberately brought one with them; still, the coming of the reptile on -board the ship may have been accidental.[36] The latter was the case, -according to one tradition. At any rate, there was sufficient ground -on which a superstitious people could easily construct a mythical -superstructure to please their fancy. - -The assumption of the form of a serpent by the god of medicine was not an -extraordinary thing, according to ancient beliefs. Plenty of instances -might be cited. I may give one. Alexander the Great was believed by many -to have been not the son of Philip, but of Jupiter Ammon, who appeared to -Olympias in reptilian shape. Plutarch tells the story. It is amusingly -related of Philip that “he lost one of his eyes as he applied it to the -chink of the door, when he saw the god, in the form of a serpent, in -his wife’s embraces.”[37] The ability to take on at pleasure any animal -or other form was regarded as one of the distinguishing prerogatives of -divinity. - -Taking it for granted, then, that there was really a serpent transferred -from Epidaurus to Rome, which was regarded as Æsculapius, the interesting -question arises, of what species was it? A very conclusive answer may be -given. - -It is known that at the Epidaurian Asclepion a species of serpent existed -in considerable numbers by permission. After stating that all serpents, -“but particularly those of a more yellow color, are considered as sacred -to Æsculapius, and are gentle and harmless toward men,” Pausanias says: -“They are alone nourished in the land of the Epidaurians; and I find -that the same circumstance takes place in other regions.”[38] Here, -then, is proof that there was a species of serpent which deserved to be -characterized as Æsculapian. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.—THE ÆSCULAPIAN SERPENT.] - -It being reasonably certain that only one kind of serpent “was nourished -in the land of the Epidaurians,” and regarded as sacred to Æsculapius, -the following passage from Pliny is interesting: “The Æsculapian snake -was first brought to Rome from Epidaurus, but at the present day it is -very commonly reared, in our houses even; so much so, indeed, that, if -the breed were not kept down by the frequent conflagrations, it would -be impossible to make head against the rapid increase of them.”[39] -It is evident from this statement that the serpent in question was -not venomous, that its presence was prized, and that people would not -wilfully kill it. - -Now, a pretty species of oviparous, non-venomous serpent, still common -in Italy, is believed to be the “Æsculapian snake” of Pliny, called -_Paroas_ by Greek writers.[40] I have examined a number of specimens. -Several are to be seen in the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, -Philadelphia. It has been described by Shaw under the name of _Coluber -Æsculapii_, but it is now often called _Elaphis Æsculapii_. A cut of it -is given in Brehm’s great popular work,[41] which is very good, except -that it gives one the impression that the animal is decidedly large. The -Æsculapian serpent is comparatively small, being from three to four and -one-half feet in length, and about as thick as a stout walking-cane. It -is orange-brown above, or, as Shaw puts it, “rufous colour on the upper -parts, more or less deep in different individuals.”[42] Beneath it is of -a straw color. The scales of the back are oval and carinated, and those -of the sides are smooth. The tapering tail measures about nine inches. -Movement takes place through vertical waves or swellings. It is very -active and can climb trees with facility. When attacked it will defend -itself; but it is by nature gentle and is easily tamed. - -In his brief description of it, Cuvier follows Shaw. He adds: “It is that -which the ancients have represented in their statues of Æsculapius; and -it is probable that the serpent of Epidaurus was of this species. (The -_Coluber Æsculapii_ of Linnæus[43] is of a totally different species, and -belongs to America.)”[44] - -The Æsculapian serpent is closely related to the ringed snake (_Natrix -torquata_), the only British member of the family; and the common black -snake (_Coluber constrictor_) of America is of the same genus; but -it should not be classed, as was done by Linnæus, with the decidedly -venomous viperine serpent, the _Viper communis_, or _Pelias berus_, of -which Figuier says: “It is not improbable that it is the _echis_ (εχις) -of Aristotle and the _vipera_ of Virgil, as it is the _manasso_ of the -Italians, the _adder_ of the country-people of England and Scotland, and -the _vipère_ of France. It is found in all these countries and in Europe -generally.”[45] - -In an article contributed to a medical journal[46] I have said, in -reference to the Æsculapian serpent, that it is the one “which should -always be shown in medical symbolism.” This would hardly be questioned by -many; yet I am disposed to think that the restriction is too exclusive. -Another species of coluber, the uræus, or asp, has played a significant -rôle, as a symbol of life and healing, especially in Egypt, as will be -seen later. Our medical traditions, however, being mainly derived from -the Greeks, it would therefore seem but right that we should confine -ourselves very exclusively to the symbolism in use by them. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE EPIDAURIAN ORACLE. - - -In speaking of the god of medicine at Rome, mention was made of -Epidaurus, the original great seat of worship of Æsculapius. In the -Peloponnesian place of that name, in the district of Argolis, on the -western shore of the Saronic Gulf, I will now pause a while; for here is -a spot of earth of special interest, dearer than Salerno, or even Cos, to -every lover of the annals, historical and legendary, of the healing art. - -Very different is Epidaurus now from what it was in other days; there -has been a change, and for the worse. Here was once the scene of teeming -life; the home of a people of culture and renown. It is not so at -present. As with many other parts of Greece, time has dealt harshly with -Epidaurus. But for the ruins and the imperishable records we have of -them, one could find very little there worthy of much attention. - -It is chiefly in the work of Pausanias, before mentioned, that the -great medical institution of Epidaurus, the Æsculapian Temple, with its -auxiliaries, survives. This observing and inquisitive old Greek traveler -has left an interesting account of it. He lived in the second century of -our era. - -The ruins have been carefully studied and described by Mr. Leake.[47] - -Under a commission from the Archæological Society of Athens, Mr. -P. Kavvadias, in 1881 and forward to the present time (1885), has -been making exploratory excavations, for full accounts of which the -“Proceedings of the Society” must be consulted.[48] - -Although the Asclepion was not within the town of Epidaurus, it was -generally spoken of as part and parcel of the latter. Thus, Strabo -says: “Epidaurus was a distinguished city, remarkable particularly on -account of the fame of Æsculapius, who was supposed to cure every kind of -disease, and whose temple is crowded constantly with sick persons, and -its walls covered with votive tablets, which are hung thereon and contain -accounts of the cures in the same manner as is practiced at Cos and at -Tricca.”[49] In the time of the Romans, the town was regarded as “little -more than the harbor”[50] of the Æsculapian Oracle. Still, at one time -it was of considerable importance. Pausanias speaks favorably of it. In -it there were statues of Æsculapius and his reputed wife, Epione, and of -Diana, Venus, and others. There were public accommodations for persons -dying and lying-in women. This was necessary, because births and deaths -were not allowed to occur within the Sacred Grove. The exclusion was, -according to Pausanias, “agreeable to a law which is established in the -island of Delos.”[51] - -Epidaurus was open to intercourse with the Phœnicians and other peoples. -Its citizens were enterprising. It is interesting to note that they -colonized the island of Cos. - -Under the name of Pidhavro the ancient town remains in existence; but it -is a mere hamlet of a few dozen families, most of which are engaged in -raising vegetables for the Athenian market. - -Proceeding in a southwesterly direction from the site of Epidaurus, one -comes, after a journey of about five Roman miles, to the location of the -famous Epidaurian Oracle of Æsculapius. It is a little vale, bordered -almost all around with shrubbery-clad hills, notable among which are -Mounts Titthium, Cynortium, and Coryphæus, the first and second to the -north, and the third to the southeast. At a little distance down it, -flowing westerly and emptying into the river of Lessa, is a rivulet -formed by two main branches, one of which springs from about Mount -Coryphæus and traverses the sacred Ἀλσος, or Grove. - -To the Sacred Grove, the name of Hierum, or, rather, Sto Hieron,[52] a -synonym, is applied. It is less than a mile in circumference. Within it -are found remains of most of the structures which it formerly contained. -In the centre stood the Temple, or Sanctuary, of Æsculapius; in the -southeast, at the foot of Mount Coryphæus, the theatre,[53] which -afforded accommodation for twelve thousand people, and which is one of -the finest ruins of ancient Grecian buildings; and southwest of the -temple was the place devoted to athletic games, the Stadium, to the -north of which were the Cistrum and the Tholus, or circular cell, about -thirty feet in circumference, which contained paintings and other works -of art, and probably served as a place of reunion of the officials of the -sanctuary, and for certain sacrifices and ceremonies. Water-pipes have -been unearthed; and there are remnants of the peribolus, or enclosure, -which, according to Leake, however, was present only on two sides, the -steep hills answering the purpose on the others. The somewhat remarkable -state of preservation of these ruins is largely due to the seclusion of -the place. - -Of course, the most notable building within the sacred grounds was the -Temple.[54] This was the abode of the god; here was his oracle. His -statue was of great splendor and highly renowned. It was formed of ivory -and gold—chryselephantine—and was by Thrasymedes, of Parus. Æsculapius -was represented as a man somewhat advanced in life, but of attractive -presence, seated on a throne. His hair and beard were given long, perhaps -too long for an ideal physician.[55] In his left hand he held a staff, -and the other he held over the head of a serpent. At his feet was the -figure of a dog. On the throne were wrought illustrations of the works -of the Argive heroes. Bellerophon was shown in the act of slaying the -Chimæra, and Perseus cutting off the head of Medusa. - -Besides the temple, the theatre, gymnasium, and other buildings mentioned -above, there were still others to meet the manifold needs of the numerous -visitors. As those who came to consult the oracle remained a night or -longer, there must have been an extensive dormitory. It is referred to -by Pausanias.[56] Those, however, who approached the god, always, I -believe, passed the night in the sanctuary. - -When at the height of its glory the Hierum was surely a place full of -life. Being the most famous sanatory retreat, multitudes flocked to it -from all parts of Greece and beyond. Many who came were, doubtless, -invalids, but likely far more could not be classed as such. In fact, -this Æsculapian Grove, although mainly a medical institution, a sort of -hospital, might reasonably be taken as a prototype of modern popular -health resorts. - -The glory of the Epidaurian Oracle was not short-lived. In the year 292 -B.C., the time when the Roman embassy paid the historic visit, it was -very great; and five centuries later—that is, in the time of Pausanias—it -had not passed away; the worship of the serpentine divinity had not then -ceased. - -With years the oracle accumulated riches, so that it became noted for -its treasures. When, in the year 167 B.C., it was visited by L. Æmilius -Paulus, after his conquest of Macedonia, it was rich in gifts presented -by those who had obtained relief there from their afflictions. A century -and a half later many of the valuable offerings had disappeared. - -The visitors to the great oracle in search of health placed themselves -under the care of the asclepiades, or disciples of the god. A special -course of regimen (treatment) was followed. It is said that it was -directed by Æsculapius, through dreams,—not necessarily a truth. The plan -pursued was more or less scientific and free from superstition. Mr. Leake -rather ungraciously remarks that the advisors, being “equally dexterous -as priests and physicians, provided themselves with resources in either -capacity, which they could turn to the benefit of their patients’ -infirmities and their own profit.”[57] The rules were decidedly strict. -Records of patients were preserved, and the tablets on which they were -placed were hung up in the temple and elsewhere. Some of those surviving -from the stelæ, mentioned by Pausanias,[58] have been unearthed recently -by Mr. Kavvadias. They are mostly statements of miraculous cures.[59] - -Famous and immensely popular as the Epidaurian Oracle was, it cannot -be said to have had notable natural advantages in its favor. The site -was not one of the best, being low and hill-bounded,—conditions closely -related to unhealthy states of humidity and heat of the atmosphere. The -supply of water was not good, dependence having to be placed at times on -cisterns. The locations of many other, but less noted, asclepia, were -certainly far more sanatory. At Cos there was pure, mild sea-air; and, -of those in the mountains or by fountains, each had one or more special -natural attractions. Indeed, there could seemingly be few much worse -sites than this close little Epidaurian valley, without even a mineral -spring, or, in fact, a good spring of ordinary water to recommend it. -But, greater than any one, or all climatic or other influences in power -to attract the multitude, was the belief that at his birthplace and -primary seat and oracle the influence of the god of medicine could be -most effectively brought to bear to remove disease and restore health. As -in this case, a pleasing superstition may work wonders. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -ASCLEPIA AND THE ASCLEPIADES. - - -Many asclepia, or temples of health, were in time established throughout -Greece and her colonies and elsewhere. A recent writer states that at -least three hundred and twenty are known “to have existed in antiquity; -so that every town of importance must have had its sanctuary.”[60] In -success and length of existence they, of course, varied greatly. The -one at Epidaurus has been spoken of, and others of great celebrity were -those of Tricca, Cnidus, and Cos, to say nothing of some only a little -less deserving of mention, such as those at Rhodes, Pergamus, Carthage, -Athens,[61] and Rome. - -The asclepion at Tricca, in Thessaly, was probably started by the sons of -Æsculapius, Machaon and Podalirius. At any rate, according to Homer, they -were attendants there. This was enough to bring it into repute, but its -situation in the mountains was much in its favor as a popular sanatory -resort. - -The Coan and Cnidian asclepia were favorably located; the former on the -island of the name, which Pliny speaks of as “flourishing and powerful in -the highest degree and consecrated to Æsculapius,”[62] and the latter not -far distant, on a site decidedly maritime, in Asia Minor. These temples -were both very distinguished, and a degree of rivalry prevailed between -them. In them there was undoubtedly much highly creditable medical -knowledge in exercise. The same was probably the case in most, or perhaps -all, others, especially in later times; but it is in respect to those -only that we have indubitable evidence of the fact. Of the two schools, -the adherents of the Cnidian paid special attention to the symptoms of -individual cases, and avoided, as much as possible, powerful cathartics, -bleeding, and other active means of cure. - -Whatever may have been the success of the various asclepia, institutions -which were finally blotted out in the early part of the fourth century by -Constantine, the first Christian emperor,[63] that of Cos was destined -to make the greatest impress on the medicine of the future. It was the -good fortune of this institution to have in connection with it, at the -acme of its career, a great author as well as physician. Hippocrates, a -native of the island, rendered the fame of the Coan school imperishable, -and gave to his fellow-men throughout the world, in all time to come, a -legacy of incalculable value. Through this early and great medical writer -his _alma mater_ has been made, in a manner, that of the medical man of -all ages. From Cos sprang forth at the touch of a humble man, afterward -called appreciatively “the divine old man,” a mass of medical knowledge, -wonderfully pure and good, which constitutes the main body of the real -medical science of our own day. - -An asclepion[64] consisted essentially of a building with a more or -less hygienical site, usually in the country and near a fountain,[65] -sometimes a mineral one, in which the arts of healing were practiced -by priests or disciples of Æsculapius, called asclepiades. In all, the -influence of the god was generally believed to be an essential factor; -and hence in each an image of him was to be found. But the fully-equipped -institution had many appliances, as has been shown in the account given -of the one at Epidaurus. Arrangements for exercises, baths, and other -means which were brought to bear to restore people to health were duly -provided and were in many instances elaborate. - -The asclepiades claimed that they were descended directly from the god of -whom they were the disciples. They were not, at any time, mere priests; -that is, ministers of religion. Indeed, it has been asserted that “there -is no sign in the Homeric poems of the subordination of medicine to -religion.”[66] - -The asclepiades constituted a special class, and they were oath-bound -to preserve the mysteries of the art from the uninitiated. The oath is -preserved in the Hippocratic Collection,[67] and is usually called by his -name. It begins thus: “I swear by Apollo, the physician, and Æsculapius, -and Health, and All-Heal,[68] and all the gods and goddesses that, -according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this oath and this -stipulation.” In it occurs this passage: “I will follow that system of -regimen[69] which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for -the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and -mischievous.” Here is another: “With purity and with holiness I will pass -my life and practice my art.” Cutting for the stone is left to those who -make a special business of it. What is learned about patients, in the -exercise of the art, which should be kept secret is not to be divulged. -Mr. Adams well says that it is most honorable to the profession that -so ancient a document pertaining to it as this, “instead of displaying -narrow-minded and exclusive selfishness, inculcates a generous line of -conduct, and enjoins an observance of the rules of propriety and of the -laws of domestic morality.”[70] - -It has been said, in a learned article[71] on ancient medicine, that “the -asclepiadæ of Greece were the true originators” of scientific medicine. -This claim might be questioned, but it is, doubtless, in the main just. -Certainly all physicians were not connected with asclepia; and in later -times the asclepiades proper were avoided by the more intelligent and -rational. - -Unfortunately, the records of the practice of the asclepiades have been -almost entirely lost. This is to be regretted, and more especially -because what is preserved is of a decidedly high order of merit.[72] -However, it is probable that at least the _crême_ of the whole has been -handed down to us by Hippocrates. - -It seems certain that in the first “Prorrhetics” and the “Prænotiones -Coacae,” which are transmitted to us in the Hippocratic Collection, we -have fragments and excerpts from the histories of diseases and cures -which were formerly found on the votive tablets of the Coan Temple. From -these records Hippocrates drew largely in composing his highly valuable -“Book of Prognostics.” In reference to the matter Adams says: “It is -as clear as the light of day that Hippocrates composed this work from -them.”[73] - -It is more than probable that, except for a short time at first, the -system of treatment pursued by the asclepiades varied within wide limits; -and it is equally certain that the superstitious element lessened as time -passed. Between the principles of practice of Æsculapius and those of -Hippocrates[74] there is a very wide difference. Those of the former will -be given later; but of those of the latter I may say here that they were -essentially scientific.[75] To Hippocrates every disease had a natural -cause, and was to be cured by natural means. He was wont “to consult -Nature herself about Nature,” as Bacon has somewhere wisely advised. -He did not attribute any morbid condition to any spiritual power, good -or bad, and hence in his practice did not resort to conjuration or any -related means of cure. Even of epilepsy, the so-called “sacred disease,” -he said: “It is thus with regard to the disease called sacred: It appears -to me to be nowise more divine nor more sacred than other diseases, but -has a natural cause from which it originates like other affections.” And -again: “Men regard its nature and cause as divine, from ignorance and -wonder.”[76] As regards holding disease to be divinely inflicted, he very -properly remarks: “I do not count it a worthy opinion to hold that the -body of man is polluted by God.”[77] - -Not only in the principles of medicine, but in its practice, Hippocrates -was wonderfully sound, even when judged from the stand-point of the art -in our day. In truth, for extent and profundity of medical knowledge and -philosophy, between him and what modern would one think of instituting -a comparison? Sydenham has been likened to him; but, although I am an -admirer of the English physician, I do not hesitate to say that he was -neither in breadth nor depth any such man as the Coan. As a writer on the -prevention and cure of disease, Hippocrates remains _facile princeps_. - -Let it not be hastily supposed that my admiration for Hippocrates is -unreasonably great. His works are truly a surprise to even the well-read -modern. Very many of the so-called discoveries of recent times may be -learned by turning to them. I speak advisedly. I will cite instances:— - -Thus, of the treatment of open sores, he says: “In these cases no part -is to be exposed to the air.” Dressings of “wine and oil” and “pitched -cerate[78]” are directed to be used. - -Again, in treating fractures, in connection with certain splints, he -advises that “a soft, consistent, and clean cerate should be rubbed -into the folds of the bandage;”[79] and he says, “If you see that the -bones are properly adjusted by the first dressing, and that there is no -troublesome pruritus in the part, nor any reason to suspect ulceration, -you may allow the arm to remain bandaged in the splints until after the -lapse of more than twenty days.”[80] - -Still again, in regard to the reduction of a dislocation at the -hip-joint, he says, “In some the thigh is reduced with no preparation, -with slight extension, directed by the hands, and with slight movement; -and in some the reduction is effected by bending the limb at the joint -and making rotation.”[81] - -In the three preceding paragraphs we have the practical side of the germ -theory of disease, the permanent dressing of fractures, and the reduction -of dislocations by manipulation. - -I might go on and recount numerous other matters alleged to be new, and -of which we hear much; but it is not necessary. I may add, however, a few -items of interest:— - -“Bleed,” says the old Greek, “in the acute affections, if the disease -appears strong, and if the patients be in the vigor of life, and if they -have strength.” Has any modern spoken more wisely on the subject?[82] - -Here is a statement worthy of the attention of unbalanced theorists -of our day: In fevers and pneumonia, heat “is not the sole cause of -mischief.”[83] - -He gives directions for the use of effusions with “water of various -temperatures” in “cases of pneumonia,” of “ardent fevers,” and of -other diseases. This treatment, he thinks, “suits better with cases of -pneumonia than in ardent fevers.”[84] - -In that inimitable book, his “Aphorisms,” it is said: “In general, -diseases are cured by their contraries.” There is no exclusive allopathy -or homœopathy, or dogma of any kind, in that statement; it is the -sentiment of a scientific physician. - -Medicine was evidently far advanced in the days of Hippocrates;[85] and -he was certainly a learned and sensible practitioner of it, even the -“Prince of Physicians,” as Galen, I think, somewhere characterizes him, -as well as one who did much to make it what he pronounced it himself to -be, namely, “of all arts the most noble.”[86] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE GRECIAN GOD OF MEDICINE. - - -During most of the earlier part of their history it is safe to say the -Greeks regarded Apollo as their main god of medicine. Being possessed -of the eminent qualities of a sun-god, replacing Helios as such, and -both mighty and popular, this was to be expected. Nothing could be more -natural than to accord to a deification of the orb of day a direct -concern with matters pertaining to life and death.[87] Who so blind and -stupid as not to see and know that all vital activity is intimately -connected with the presence and movements (apparent) of this great light- -and heat-producing heavenly body! - -In an old Chaldean hymn the power of the sun over health and disease is -recognized. He is petitioned to relieve a patient. The petitioner, after -saying that “the great lord, Hea, had sent him,” continues:— - - “Thou at thy coming, cure the race of man; - Cause a ray of health to shine upon him; - Cure his disease.”[88] - -However, the reader of Homer is well aware that medical affairs were -regarded by the Greeks as subject to the will of Phœbus. The epidemic -which affected the Grecian forces, spoken of in the beginning of his -great work, was held to be caused by the god. Being moved to anger by the -words of his daughter-robbed priest— - - “Latona’s son a dire contagion spread - And heap’d the camp with mountains of the dead.”[89] - -Chryses, having received the maiden[90] back from her kingly -abductor,[91] then addressed Apollo again, saying, among other things:— - - “If fir’d to vengeance at thy priest’s request, - Thy direful darts inflict the raging pest, - Once more attend! Avert the wasteful woe - And smile propitious and unbend thy bow.”[92] - -The prayer was heard and answered as desired. - -Surgical as well as purely medical aid was sought and received from -Apollo. Thus, when the Lycian chief, Sarpedon, was killed, Glaucus, -himself sorely wounded and unable to protect his friend’s remains, -petitioned the “god of health,” the “god of every healing art,” and - - “Apollo heard; and suppliant as he stood, - His heavenly hand restrain’d the flux of blood; - He drew the dolours from the wounded part, - And breath’d a spirit in his rising heart.”[93] - -One of the names often applied to Apollo,[94] and subsequently to his -son,[95] was distinctly medical, viz., Pæon, or Paieon.[96] Homer always -uses it in referring to the physician of the Olympian gods, as where he -speaks of the Pharian race as “from Pæon sprung.”[97] “Pæonian herbs”[98] -is the phrase used by Virgil in his account of the restoration to life -of Hippolytus. And this leads me to say that Apollo was believed to have -a special knowledge of medicinal plants. By Ovid he is represented as -saying:— - - “What herbs and simples grow - In fields, in forests, all their power I know.”[99] - -It may be further said that Apollo always continued to have healing -powers accorded him. No more proof of this is wanting than the first -clause of the Hippocratic oath—“I swear by Apollo, the physician.” - -It would seem to have been about the time of the Trojan war that the -special god of medicine began to be viewed as such by the Greeks. Strong -reason for so believing is found in the fact that Homer refers to -Æsculapius as simply “a blameless doctor,”[100]—a mortal, the adjective -used never being applied to a god. A well-informed writer remarks that -“the kernel out of which the whole myth has grown is, perhaps, the -account we read in Homer.”[101] This opinion is open to question. Even -the title of Archegetes, or Primeval Divinity, was sometimes given to -Æsculapius, and, indeed, under that title he was worshipped by the -Phocians in a temple situated eighty stadia[102] from Tithorea. This name -was also given, it must be said, to Apollo, from whom probably it was -received by the son. I may add here the suggestion of the Abbé Banier, -that likely a distinguished physician, called Æsculapius,[103] of the age -of Hercules and Jason, being highly honored, was in time confounded with -the old Phœnician and Egyptian god, Esmun; “so that in process of time -the worship of the latter came to be quite forgotten, and the new god -substituted altogether in his room.”[104] - -Galen expresses doubt whether the divinity of Æsculapius was the result -of a gradual development from a human basis; but Pausanias says: “That -Æsculapius was from the first considered as a god, and that his fame -was not owing to length of time, I find confirmed by various arguments, -and even by the authority of Homer, in the following verses, in which -Agamemnon thus speaks of Machaon:— - - ‘Talthibius, hither swift, Machaon bring, - Who from the blameless Æsculapius sprung;’[105] - -which is just as much as if he had said, ‘Call a man who is a son of a -god.’”[106] - -In the indulgence of their myth-forming fancies it was very reasonable, -very wise, on the part of the Greeks to make Æsculapius the offspring -of Apollo. If the god of medicine be viewed as a personification of the -healing powers of nature, what more rational, as has been observed, -than to take him to be “the son, the effects of Helios, Apollo, or the -sun.”[107] - -The mythological history of the Grecian god of medicine is strange and -interesting. One must know it, or he will remain in the dark about many -things bearing on the symbolism and other features of the physician’s art. - -Æsculapius was the result, so the story runs, of a criminal _liaison_ -between Apollo and a young virgin, named Coronis, a native of -Thessaly—something which the myth-makers apparently did not regard as -discreditable. The morals of many of the gods were exceedingly bad. “Our -manners have been corrupted by communication with the saints,”[108] -is a candid remark of Thoreau. It would appear that the ancients were -corrupted by communication with the gods. - -It is recorded of Coronis that she was, like too many of the sex, fickle, -and did not prove faithful to her divine paramour; she stealthily -cultivated a criminal intimacy with an Arcadian youth, named Ischys. -The fact of her infidelity becoming known to Apollo, either through a -message of a raven,[109] or his own divine powers, he, naturally enough, -was greatly displeased. And the wrath of the divinity was followed by a -series of remarkable events. - -At this point it may be well to state that the parentage of Æsculapius -was a question which early excited attention. A belief existed that “he -was the offspring of Arsinoë” and “a citizen of the Messenians,” as -Pausanias informs us. Apollophanes, an Arcadian,[110] being interested in -the matter, went to Delos, and, putting the question of its truth to the -Pythian deity, received this reply:— - - “O Æsculapius! source of mighty joy - To mortal natures; whom Coronis fair, - Daughter of Phlegyas, once with me conjoin’d, - In Epidauria’s barren region bore.”[111] - -According to this dictum, he was, indeed, born in Epidaurus. Pausanias, -by way of proof of the truth of it, says: “I find that the most -illustrious rites of Æsculapius were derived from Epidaurus.”[112] From -that point the worship seems to have spread. It is said, however, by -Strabo,[113] that his birthplace was Tricca, in Thessaly.[114] - -However, to return to our story: the time of the delivery of Coronis was -not far off, when the news of her perfidy reached Apollo. Notwithstanding -this, he, being seemingly under the influence of the “green-eyed -monster” to an ungodly degree, cruelly resolved on having revenge at -once. Artemis,[115] the goddess of chastity, was directed to slay the -unfaithful maid with a thunderbolt, and the order was duly executed. On -coins of Pergamus the unfortunate Thessalian appears entirely veiled. - -After the fatal thunderbolt had descended on the _enceinte_ Coronis, and -her body was being consumed in the merciless pyre, Apollo’s paternal -feelings became stirred, and saying, as Pindar tells us, - - “I may not bear to slay my child - With his sad mother, sin-defiled,”[116] - -proceeded forthwith to save his unborn offspring. - -To what manner of operation did he resort? I leave it to some all-knowing -specialist to find out; but, at any rate, by some method or other, the -child was rescued.[117] Another version of the affair, preserved by -Pausanias, robs the god of any possible skill as a gynæcologist—surgical, -I mean. According to it, when Coronis was undergoing cremation, after -being slain by Artemis, “the boy is said to have been snatched by -Hermes from the flames.”[118] And of this I may observe that it was -not inappropriate to have Hermes, the Grecian metamorphosis of the -thrice-great god of wisdom and knowledge of the Egyptians, present at the -unnatural _accouchement_, and in such close relation to Æsculapius at the -very beginning of his wonderful career. - -It was, then, the unhappy fate of Æsculapius to be an orphan from his -birth, if birth he had, to speak correctly; and it is possible that his -advent was decidedly premature—in a medical sense. Apollo was puzzled -to know what to do with his tender son; nor did he do for him all that -could be expected, for baby Æsculapius was heartlessly exposed on -Mount Titthium. Here the little unfortunate fell into the keeping of -a friendly goat and dog. The goat gave the precious _enfant trouvé_ -nourishment,[119] as Amalthea had done Zeus, and the dog kept guard over -him.[120] Splendid services, indeed, on the part of two humble animals, -in the interest of medicine and humanity! - -On Epidaurian coins, the infantile god of medicine is appropriately -represented under a she-goat on Mount Titthium, with Aresthanas -approaching. This person was the shepherd of whom Pausanias says that, -coming to the rescue, “he beheld a splendor beaming from the infant, and, -thinking that it was something divine, as indeed it was, departed from -the place. But a report,” he continues, “was immediately spread through -every land and sea that such as were afflicted with any kind of disease -were healed by the boy, and that even the dead were raised to life.”[121] -The reader need hardly be informed that accounts parallel to this are -common enough in ancient records. - -How it happened that the child of Coronis, a Thessalian, first saw the -light in Epidauria, a country which became particularly sacred to him, is -a question which should be answered. It appears that Coronis came there -with her warlike father, Phlegyas, who gave, as a reason for his visit, -a desire to see the country, but, “in reality,” Pausanias says, “that he -might inspect the multitude of the inhabitants, and learn whether there -was a great quantity of fighting men.”[122] - -Pindar states that Apollo, on rescuing his child, bore him at once to -Chiron— - - “To learn of human woes the healing lore,”[123] - -which does away with the fabled discreditable exposure of him; but -whether this be so or not, in progress of time, he did put him under the -care and instruction of “the beneficent leech,”[124] Cheiron (to use the -archaic expression of the historian, Grote[125]), the Thessalian Centaur, -or fabulous monster, whose figure from the waist down was like the body -of a horse.[126] Under the direction of this strangely-formed creature, -Æsculapius proceeded to study the medical virtues of plants; for Chiron -was a great herbalist, being called by Homer, in the words of Pope, “the -sire of pharmacy.”[127] In time the pupil exceeded the teacher in his -knowledge of drugs. - -Chiron was regarded, Pindar tells us,[128] as the son of Saturn and -the sea-nymph Philyra; and hence was a brother of Zeus. Saturn changed -himself into a horse to conceal his amour with the nymph from his wife, -Rhea. This would account for the form of the Centaur. - -Chiron lived in a cave on Mount Pelion, in Thessaly. It will be -remembered that it was from there that he got the ashen spear[129] for -Peleus, which the son brought into use, a ponderous spear, which— - - “Stern Achilles only wields, - The death of heroes and the dread of fields.”[130] - -According to Homer,[131] Hercules received instruction in medicine from -Chiron; and it is stated, by Pindar,[132] that Jason was another pupil -of his. With these Æsculapius went, as physician, on the celebrated -Argonautic expedition. - -At the end of his career, the Centaur became, it is said, the sign of the -zodiac, Sagittarius.[133] - -In treating the sick, Æsculapius soon proved himself a master. His -patients did not die, and it appears that he recalled a few from “the -shades below.” But, sad to relate, the great success he had in curing the -sick, and especially his recalling some from the other world, led to his -destruction. Pluto, the god of the nether regions, not wishing a sparse -population,[134] became displeased with him and complained to Zeus, who, -probably believing that he was becoming too powerful, so much so as to -make man undying,[135] cut short his career with a thunderbolt,—a tragedy -which caused his father, Apollo, to wander away to the land of the -Hyperboreans and to shed tears of gold. At the request of Apollo he was -placed among the stars.[136] The eighth day of the Eleusinian Mysteries -was devoted to sacrifices to him, and was called Epidauria. - -From what Virgil says, it would seem that it was not because of the -direct exercise of his power to restore life that Æsculapius was -destroyed, but because of the degree of perfection to which he had -brought the medical art. The event, “the fable,”[137] as Pliny designates -it, is connected with the restoration of Hippolytus or Virbius, and is -thus referred to by the Roman poet:— - - “But chaste Diana who his death deplor’d - With Æsculapian herbs his life restor’d; - Then Jove, who saw from high with just disdain - The dead inspired with vital breath again, - Struck to the centre with his flaming dart - The unhappy founder of the god-like art.”[138] - -The plan of treatment pursued by Æsculapius was variable. After speaking -of the sick, “a host forlorn” that flocked to him, Pindar says:— - - “Some spells brought back to life; - These drank the potion plan’d; for these he bound - With drugs the aching wound; - Some leaped to strength beneath the helpful knife.”[139] - -The lines just given certainly serve to disprove the statement of Pliny, -that in Homeric times “the healing art confined itself solely to the -treatment of wounds.”[140] It is doubtless true, however, that nothing is -said in Homer’s works about particular diseases. - -It has been held that Æsculapius, like More’s Utopians, did not think -it wise to bring to bear the art of healing in the case of any one who -might not be restored to health and to usefulness to himself and others. -Says Plato: “He thought medical treatment ill bestowed upon one who could -not live in his regular round of duties, and so was of no use either to -himself or to the State.”[141] The great philosopher accordingly regarded -him as “a profound politician.” For, in his ideal state, this celebrated -theorizer would have physicians “bestow their services on those only of -the citizens whose bodily and mental constitutions are sound and good, -leaving those that are otherwise, as to the state of their body, to -die, and actually putting to death those who are naturally corrupt and -incurable in soul.”[142] Some excellent reasons might be advanced in -favor of such a harsh policy, but, while human love of life and human -sympathy remain as now, it will never be brought into play.[143] As -an ideal physician, Æsculapius could hardly have been an advocate of -it.[144] - -I may say a word about the charge of Pindar, that the efforts of -Æsculapius to recall the dead to life were inspired by temptation with -gold. The poet says:— - - “Alas! that filthy gain can blind the wise! - The glittering gold betrayed the noble leech, - From the dark prison-house to bid arrive - A captive thrall of death! - But Jove with wrathful hand refused to each - The hallowed breath. - Down came the bolt of fire.”[145] - -Making such an ugly charge is probably unjust to the great healer. The -historian, Grote, thinks so, and expresses the opinion that Pindar was -disposed “to extenuate the cruelty of Zeus by imputing guilty and sordid -views to Æsculapius.”[146] Long ago the accusation was met by Plato. -Says he: “While they[147] assert that Æsculapius was the son of Apollo, -they declare that he was induced by a bribe of gold to raise to life a -rich man who was dead, which was the cause of his being smitten with -a thunderbolt. But we, with our principles, cannot believe both these -statements of theirs. We shall maintain that, if he was the son of a -god, he was not covetous; if he was covetous, he was not the son of -Apollo.”[148] He was the son of Apollo. - -To conclude this imperfect sketch of the life of Æsculapius, I may add -that he was married, as every wise as well as respectable physician -should be,[149] and, as was desirable in an exemplar, the father of at -least six children,—two sons and four daughters. The two sons, Machaon -and Podalirius, taught by their “parent god,” as Homer informs us, -became “famed surgeons,” “divine professors of the healing art,”[150] -and were also distinguished warriors under Agamemnon. Of the daughters, -Hygeia, Panacea, Jaso, and Ægle, the first became the goddess of health, -of whom more anon. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE IMAGE OF ÆSCULAPIUS. - - -A simple image of a god may be regarded as a symbol. When the image -has connected with it one or more figures to indicate the qualities -or functions of the divinity, we have then, strictly speaking, an -allegorical representation. Æsculapius was sometimes shown in the one way -and sometimes in the other. Thus, he was occasionally to be seen at Rome, -and elsewhere, in the form of a serpent; and, at the Epidaurian Grove, -for example, as a man having in connection with him a serpent, a dog, and -other things. - -As is implied in what I have just said, there was no set, invariable mode -of portrayal of Æsculapius. This fact should be clearly understood. But -let it not be supposed that it is by any means singular. It will occur -to the well-informed reader that the same holds true in regard to Zeus, -Apollo, Venus, and, indeed, all other divinities. Says Müller: “The -so-called ideals of the Grecian gods are not types; they do not preclude -the freedom of the artist; they rather contain the strongest impulse to -new, genial creations.”[151] It is, perhaps, self-evident that a statue -of a god must necessarily be quite ideal; and, of course, an ideal is -without absolute permanency. Still, it remains true that in the case of -Æsculapius, as well as that of every other deity, there was a more or -less definite conventional way of representing him. This, however, was -largely dependent on the presence of attributes. Thus, it would be not -only inconsistent with custom, but almost futile, to attempt to delineate -him without the presence of a serpent. - -The most magnificent representation of Æsculapius was the one at -Epidaurus. A description of it has already been given. This fine work of -art disappeared at an early day. The vandals could not be expected to -spare it; the gold in its composition was fatal to its permanency. It was -borne on coins of Epidaurus. According to Strabo,[152] a copy of it was -taken to the Galatian town, Pessinus, not Rome, as is often said. Several -other places were similarly favored. - -There was a very celebrated statue of Æsculapius at the renowned -Asclepion of Pergamus, the production of the artist Pyromachus, as well -as one similar to that of Epidaurus. It became the prevailing type -in art. In it the god was represented as a mature man of benevolent -expression, with his rather long hair bound with a fillet, and in -his right hand he held a staff enwreathed with a serpent. He wore a -himation[153] drawn tight over the left arm and breast. The whole right -side from the waist up was uncovered. His attitude was that of a person -ready to render assistance. “We can recognize,” says Müller, “the figure -with tolerable certainty as the most usual representation of the god on -numerous coins of Pergamus.”[154] - -The well-known statue of Æsculapius at Berlin resembles that at Pergamus; -and the same is true of one at Florence, and others. That of Berlin has -the serpent-wreathed staff, or support, placed on the left side. This -appears to have been frequently done. An instance of it I have observed -in a gem bearing Æsculapius and Hygeia, taken from a tomb at Thron,—a -piece of work of the Roman period. It is shown in General Di Cesnola’s -interesting work.[155] - -While Æsculapius was made to appear aged in some instances, as in the -Epidaurian representation, he was sometimes presented in youthful form, -and beardless, like his father, Apollo. And this reminds me of the story -told of Dyonysius, King of Sicily, that, on conquering the Morea, he -ordered the beard to be taken off the Epidaurian statue of the god, for -the reason that it was unbecoming and unjust for the son to have a beard -when the father had none. Possibly if it had not been a golden one it -would not have been molested. - -I may venture to say that both aged and youthful representations of -Æsculapius are open to criticism. An ideal physician should be, as in -the statue at Pergamus, a man in his prime, or, in other words, mature, -but neither young nor old. The immature man is apt to be defective in -judgment, and the superannuated one is nearly always of excessively -routine practice and ignorant of recent advances in his profession. - -By way of conclusion, I will say a few words about the famous -colossal head of Æsculapius, originally colored and decorated with -a bronze wreath, now in the British Museum, where it has been since -1866. It represents, with marked freedom and breadth of execution, a -finely-developed man of middle age, with a cast of countenance similar to -that of the Phidian Zeus. The beard is of moderate length and is waved -like the somewhat long hair. This is really one of the noblest remnants -of Grecian art. Nichols, in whose work[156] an engraving of it is given -as a frontispiece, just as it is in this one, regards it “as scarcely -less remarkable” than the celebrated “Venus of Milo” in the Louvre, both -of which were found, the former in 1828, on the island of Melos. It is -considered to be the work of an artist of the Macedonian period, about -B.C. 300,—a time when the Greek sculptor had attained perfect mastery of -his art. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE ÆSCULAPIAN STAFF AND SERPENT. - - -The staff[157] and serpent of Æsculapius being of special emblematic -significance, I deem it proper to speak of it at some length. The -confusion of ideas which appears to prevail extensively in regard to it -implies that a definite, explicit account of it is much needed. - -Although, as will be remembered, Ovid makes Æsculapius refer to his -serpent-enwreathed staff when addressing the commission which came from -Rome to Epidaurus, in the famous representation of him given there, none -was present. The poet may possibly have been misled by what had become -familiar to him at home; for one was to be seen in connection with the -statue of the god at Rome. It is probable, however, that it was a common -occurrence for a living serpent, one of the species kept and viewed as -sacred in the Hierum, to climb the staff in the hand of the Epidaurian -statue. - -It is very likely that the staff bearing a serpent became a -characteristic emblem of the god of medicine through the great work of -the sculptor, Pyromachus, at the Asclepion of Pergamus, which I have -already described. The appropriateness of it was widely recognized, but -it was not always adopted, as is attested by the remains of ancient art. - -Apart from the serpent, the import of which will be fully treated of in -the succeeding chapter, the staff as an attribute of Æsculapius merits -study. Like many other apparently simple things in art, it may stand for -a great deal more than one would suppose on first view. - -The object encircled by a serpent held in the hand of the Æsculapian -statue by Pyromachus, at Pergamus, is evidently a walking-stick. The -Epidaurian statue has a similar object in one of the hands, and the same -is the case in many others. Hence, as the representations of the gods -of the ancients had rarely or never anything but significant attributes -attached to them, it is pertinent to ask an explanation of its presence. -Was there an historical basis for it? In other words, was Æsculapius -notoriously in the habit of carrying a staff? If so, it is possible that -this was why Pyromachus, Thrasymedes, and other artists connected one -with figures of him. But there is no special reason for believing that -such was the case.[158] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.—CLUB OR STAFF OF ÆSCULAPIUS. (_From Maffei._)] - -Then, did the artists place a staff in the hand of Æsculapius of their -own accord to indicate the perambulatory character of the physician’s -calling? Such an attribute was doubtless deemed appropriate by them; -but, before one could believe that they gave it on the score of apparent -appropriateness, it would have to be shown that it was in the power of -artists to design gods at pleasure,—something which could not be done. -They evolved it, I may venture to say, from something allied in form. - -There is little or no ground for believing that the staff of Æsculapius -was a wonder-working object. I am not aware that such a thing was -placed intentionally in his hand by any artist. Hence, the references -often made to the mystic wand of the god spring from misapprehension, a -walking-staff being something very different. - -One can obtain, I believe, from an examination of the Berlin statue and -others,—in which Æsculapius is represented leaning on, or standing by, a -post of variable thickness and more or less regular in shape,—a clue to -an explanation of the origin of the staff. Between the two objects the -difference is not great, certainly not radical; and as attributes they -might be expressive of the same thing. The club shown in the picture -(Fig. 3), from Maffei, might be viewed as intermediate. - -Of course, I do not say that the prototype of the staff was the post -present in some representations of Æsculapius, although the idea would -not be entirely unreasonable. There is more ground for the opinion that -both were, so to speak, the offspring of something else. - -Any one familiar with the antique representations of Æsculapius, and who -has also seen different ones of Apollo, might well be inclined to believe -that both gods have essentially the same thing by their side, namely, a -post with a clinging serpent. And when it is recalled that Æsculapius -was the son of Apollo, the opinion might be advanced with some degree of -reasonableness, that the emblem of the former was, in reality, that of -the latter, somewhat modified. - -Tracing thus the origin of the staff of Æsculapius to the related symbol -possessed by his father, Apollo, it would not be satisfactory to rest -here; one naturally wants to know something about the latter. A few -words, however, on the subject must suffice. - -Although it was not an uncommon thing for artists to give posts by -the side of statues, the one bearing the serpent in, say, the Apollo -Belvedere, was, it is thought, meant to represent the Omphalos, to which -the Grecians attached much significance. - -The Omphalos,[159] in the form of a conical stone, was kept, and was -present within historical times, as Strabo explicitly states, at Delphi, -a place which, he says, “was supposed to be the centre of the habitable -earth, and was called the navel of the earth.”[160] Plato refers to -Apollo as “the god whose seat is the middle point of the earth, its very -navel.”[161] According to a legend,[162] Delphi was esteemed the centre -of the earth, because two eagles sent out by Zeus, one from the east and -the other from the west, met at that point. Says Strabo: “In the temple -is seen a sort of navel, wrapped in bands and surmounted by figures -representing the birds of the fable.”[163] - -The etymology of the word _Omphalos_ casts light on its meaning. Olympos, -the mount of the gods, is a corruption of it. _Omphi-el_[164] is the -oracle of the sun-god. _Al-omphi_ was used to designate hills, or -mountains. Holwell says that the word came from Egypt, and was originally -_Ompha-el_, and related to the oracle of Ham, or the sun.[165] The idea -of a sacred mount or elevation is thus the original meaning of the word. -And here I may say that in Hindu mythology considerable is said of a -mountain encircled by a great serpent.[166] - -Let it not be supposed that the reasons in favor of the idea that the -Omphalos became the staff of Æsculapius are entirely insubstantial. -Remains of ancient art furnish excellent proof of it. Müller says: “In -a Pompeian picture, Æsculapius has beside him the Omphalos, which is -entwisted with the well-known net, composed of στέμµατα. We see from this -that this symbol of Apollo was also transferred to his son. On the coins -of the gens Rubria, likewise, it is not an egg, as is usually asserted, -but _the Omphalos placed on a circular altar that is encircled by the -Æsculapian serpent_.”[167] - -To one versed in the history of Phœnicia and other Oriental countries, -the Omphalos is very certain to be viewed in another light than as a -symbol of a “high place,” or mount[168] of worship. In the great Tyrian -Temple of Baal Melkarth, which Herodotus went to see and admired much, -and of which that of Solomon, or, rather, of Jehovah on Mount Moriah -was almost a copy, even to the two pillars in front,—symbols of the -sun-god,—were certain similar stones, carefully preserved and duly -reverenced. These, it is well known, were of procreative import; they -were phallic in character.[169] Was the Omphalos of similar significance? -There is little reason to doubt that it was often regarded in that light. -“In the earliest times,” says Müller, “a conical pillar, placed in the -street and called Apollo Agyicus, sufficed to keep in remembrance the -protecting and health-bringing power of the god.”[170] - -The staff, then, in the hand of Æsculapius may have had its prototype -in the Phallus,—truly both an expressive and sublime symbol, when -contemplated by pure, enlightened minds. - -But, notwithstanding what I have said, one might present some arguments -in favor of the view that the staff of Æsculapius had its true prototype -in a magic wand or symbol of office. As will be pointed out later, the -Accadio-sumerian, Silik-mulu-khi, the beneficent son of Hea, subsequently -Marodach or Marduk of the Babylonians and Assyrians, a healing divinity, -from whom the conception of Æsculapius may have partly sprung, carried a -reed when attending to his duties. - -I may say, too, that some hold the staff in the hand of the Egyptian -Thoth to have been the original of the one accorded Æsculapius. Thus, -in an excellent and finely illustrated essay, W. R. Cooper says: “When -once the uræus had been associated with the idea of divinity, the -Theban priests, rightly desiring to ascribe the gift of life and the -power of healing to the Deity alone, significantly enough twined the -serpent around the trident of Jupiter Ammon and the staff of Thoth or -Hermes Trismegistus, the author of medicine, to imply the source from -which that subordinate demigod’s virtues were derived. From this, in -the later periods of her history, Egypt remitted to Greece, along with -the so-called forty-six hermetic treatises, the traditional _caduceus_ -or serpent-sceptre of Cyllenius[171] and Æsculapius, and, by subsequent -transformation of the same deities into a feminine form, the snake and -bowl of Hygeia, the goddess of health.”[172] The “serpent-sceptre” which -Egypt “remitted” to Cyllenius and to Æsculapius must have changed greatly -in the passage, for it is anything but alike as seen in the hands of the -two, and in neither case is it very similar to the asserted original. As -well or better to take the staff and serpent to be the serpent-bearing -tree,—the tree of life in miniature. - -However, the fact remains, as already stated, that Æsculapius had no -wand; that is, a rod of magic power. The very different personage, -Hermes, as also Iris, the female messenger of the goddesses, had a -wand or, rather, _caduceus_, which, strange to say, is taken by many -to be a symbol of medicine; that is, the caduceus of Hermes, which is -not of medical import at all, is accorded to Æsculapius, who really -had none. I repeat: there is no such thing as an Æsculapian wand, if -wand be taken to mean a rod possessed of wonder-working power. But, of -course, the serpent-bearing staff of Æsculapius is an expressive medical -emblem.[173] I give an example after one in a plate in De Wilde’s rare -old book.[174] One might take the serpent to be a symbol of the god and -the staff as symbolic of the moving of the physician from house to house -in the exercise of his profession. Regarding the knots as expressive -of difficulties in the art and practice of medicine is very fanciful, -but not infrequently done. It is proper to observe, however, that the -physician’s staff in modern times is smooth, as will be pointed out later. - -I deem it not amiss to give a cut of the caduceus of Hermes, in the -hope of better removing misapprehension in regard to it. I give it as -shown on the seal of the United States Marine-Hospital Service. It is -an appropriate trade symbol, Hermes being the god of commerce[175] as -well as the messenger of the gods; but it is more especially a symbol of -peace, the god being the great peace-maker. (See Fig. 5.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.—STAFF AND SERPENT OF ÆSCULAPIUS.] - -Traditional history relates that, in his rambles one day, Hermes saw -two snakes fighting, and, laying his wand—which was originally an -olive-branch received from Apollo—between them, was delighted to discover -that it had the power of putting an end to the encounter, and of turning -the two into friends. Hence the presence of the two serpents on the wand, -the _virga_ of the Romans. The tradition was likely in the nature of an -after-thought. If the two serpents be taken to represent two contending -persons, or nations, the mission of the ambassador with his wand or mace, -the symbol of authority, is well indicated. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.—THE CADUCEUS OF HERMES.] - -The two serpents on the caduceus have been taken to be male and female, -and in an amatory mood.[176] Thus, says Aubrey, “The caduceus of Mercurie -is adorned with two serpents in the posture of generation.”[177] Pliny -expressed an opinion similar to that of Aubrey.[178] This view was -adopted by the London medical publishers, the Churchills, as will be seen -on looking at the title-page of their books issued until recently. For -instance, on the title-page of Pettigrew’s “Superstitions Connected with -Medicine and Surgery,” issued in 1844, between two concentric circles -surrounding the caduceus, are the words, _Irrupta tenet copula_, with -_Literis medicina_ on the serpents. Later, the first phrase was dropped -and the other put in its place. For some years caduceus and all have very -properly been left out. - -Hermes was accorded some functions by the Greeks which may well cause the -physician to feel that it is not very complimentary to associate either -him or the caduceus with his art, even if he be one who regards it -chiefly as a trade. Thus, Hermes, being an adept thief, was classed as -the god of rogues. And this brings to mind the remark of some one, that, -if medicine be a trade, it is the trade of all others the most exactly -cut out for a rogue. Again, it was the function of Hermes, very like that -of the archangel Michael, “to draw the souls from hollow graves,” and -“drive them down the Stygian waves,” with his caduceus, as we are told by -Virgil.[179] It is hardly a part of the physician’s function, I submit, -to drive souls “down the Stygian waves;” certainly, no one professes to -do it. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -ÆSCULAPIUS AND THE SERPENT. - - -The serpent is undoubtedly the most significant of all medical symbols. -Even Æsculapius assumed such a form, and was sometimes so represented by -sculptors. It was to him the most sacred of all animals. Down through the -ages this remarkable fact has been kept in view, and to-day it is almost -as patent as ever. - -Now, what is the explanation of the serpent as a symbol in medicine? How -many medical men can say? Several explanations have currency; but I may -candidly state that none of these are quite satisfactory; and I could not -refer to an acceptable one in all the volumes in which such information -might be expected to be found, with which I am familiar. Here, then, is -a highly interesting and obvious fact to physicians, which few or none -completely understand. Can I cast any light on it? Some, certainly; but -just how much I must leave to the intelligent reader to judge, after -perusing this brief but comprehensive chapter. - -The serpent in medicine is meant to symbolize prudence, something very -requisite in the physician. This opinion is one often expressed. It is -not necessarily baseless. To be “as wise as a serpent,” and to have “the -subtlety of the serpent,” are every-day phrases. The reptile has been -accorded such qualities from a very early date. De Gubernatis remarks -that in India it is still “revered as a symbol of every species of -learning.”[180] - -It is often said that the serpent in medicine is meant to symbolize -the power of the art to produce renovation or rejuvenescence. This is -not an absurd notion. The basis of it is believed to be the periodical -renewal of the skin of the animal. This has long attracted attention. -In a precious extant fragment of the very ancient Phœnician book of -Sanchoniathon it is said of the serpent, “It is very long lived, and -has the quality not only of putting off its age and assuming a second -youth, but it receives a greater increase. And when it has fulfilled the -appointed measure of its existence it consumes itself.”[181] Referring -to its reputed longevity, one intelligent writer says: “This quality was -no doubt the cause why this animal entwined round a staff was the symbol -of health and the distinctive attribute of the classical Æsculapius and -Hygeia.”[182] At any rate, to restore people to health and renew their -age would be worthy employment for any one. - -Another prevalent idea is, that the serpent in medicine is meant to -symbolize convalescence. The remarkable change from a state of lethargy -to one of active life, which the reptile undergoes every spring, -affords some ground for it. It is taken advantage of in the device of -the Rinovati Academy, as will be seen by turning to Mrs. Pelliser’s -interesting book.[183] Three serpents are represented on a bank -gathering vigor in the sunshine, in the strengthening rays of Apollo. -The educational interpretation is evidently quite as reasonable as the -medical. - -Of the three foregoing explanations of the symbolic import of the serpent -in medicine, it must be said that there is good reason to hold that -they are largely, or entirely, mere after-thoughts. Any one of ingenious -mind could suggest several others just as worthy of acceptance. But, of -course, such a mode of interpretation is decidedly illegitimate. - -The idea has been advanced that the commonest of the species of serpent, -_Elaphis Æsculapii_, described above, at Epidaurus, where the myth of the -Grecian god of medicine first took definite shape, affords an adequate -explanation of the association of the reptile with medicine. This may -have had a little to do with it. I cannot admit, however, that it did -more than, perhaps, emphasize somewhat the association. If such were its -origin, the association could not be viewed otherwise than as incidental, -and hence the serpent might be without any special meaning. - -After referring to some strange curative virtue attributed to -serpents, Pliny says: “Hence it is that the snake is consecrated to -Æsculapius.”[184] Here is a specimen of them given by the rather -credulous old Roman: “It is a well-known fact that for all injuries -inflicted by serpents, and those even of an otherwise incurable nature, -it is an excellent remedy to apply the entrails of the serpent itself to -the wound.”[185] The principle is obviously the same as that illustrated -in the old custom of applying a hair of the dog to cure the wound caused -by the bite of the animal. In many parts of the world, the serpent has -been accorded great virtue as a medicine, and in China and elsewhere -such is the case even to this day. In fact, apart from the preposterous -and numerous uses to which it is put by homœopathic doctors, is not the -venom of the most deadly species declared by leading members of the -profession to be a capital cure for various serious ills? However, -Dr. D. G. Brinton quotes the rather striking observation of Agassiz, -that “the Maues Indians, who live between the Upper Tapajos and Madeira -Rivers in Brazil, whenever they assign a form to any ‘remedio,’ give it -that of a serpent.”[186] But, in spite of the wide belief in the virtue -of the serpent as a medicine, I cannot accept the opinion of Pliny, -that it affords a sufficient explanation of the matter in question. Its -actual healing properties were assuredly too equivocal to merit such -distinction. With all its virtues, _soma_ itself received little or no -more. - -The fabled power of the serpent to discover herbs of curative virtues -has been suggested as an explanation of the association of it with -medicine. This is based on a traditional episode in the history of -Æsculapius, which reminds one of the German story of the Snake Leaves, -told by Grimm.[187] As regards the Æsculapian fable, it seems that on one -occasion, while thinking what treatment to resort to in the case of a -patient of his, Glaucus, a serpent appeared and twined itself around his -staff; he killed it, whereupon another came bearing in its mouth an herb -with which it restored the dead one to life. The god used the same herb -with similar effect on the human subject.[188] The extremely miraculous -feature of this explanation is an obstacle in the way of its acceptance. - -It may be safely held that one must go back to a time long anterior to -that of Æsculapius of the Greeks to acquire the true medical import of -the serpent, which has been so closely associated with him. There is -excellent reason for believing that we have in it a remnant of that -ancient and wonderfully wide-spread cultus, serpent-worship, which is -still kept up by the Nagas[189] of India and others. Epidaurus was -favorably situated for communication with Egypt, a country in which the -serpent played a great religious rôle “from the very earliest period,” -as shown by both “written and monumental evidence,” to use the words of -Cooper,[190] as well as in later times, even within the Christian era, -when the special sect of Gnostics, who called themselves Ophitæ, were in -their glory. But, in truth, serpent-worship in Greece did not begin in -the time of Æsculapius. Bryant maintains that it was brought into Greece -by Cadmus, who, under the name of Taautus, or Thoth, took it also to both -Egypt and Phœnicia from Babylonia.[191] - -One can advance sufficient evidence to indicate with considerable -conclusiveness that the Egyptians were in the habit of looking to a -serpentine divinity for the cure of disease. In his interesting little -book,[192] Sharpe gives a figure of a serpent wearing the double -crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, on a pole or standard, a cut of which -is reproduced (Fig. 6), which was carried in the periodical airing -processions of the Egyptian divinities. Now, it is quite certain that -Moses, and his people, too, were very familiar with this figure and its -import; but, at any rate, we find him making an imitation of it, in his -journey with the Israelites in the Wilderness; and for what purpose? The -story is told in the Bible, and runs thus: “And Moses made a serpent of -brass and put it upon a pole; and it came to pass that if a serpent had -bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass he lived.”[193] - -Verily, there is the Healer in essentially the same form in which he was -sometimes embodied by the Greeks and Romans. Hence, it is sure that the -serpent, as a medical symbol, took shape before the time of Æsculapius; -long before, for Moses lived nearly four hundred years earlier than he, -and, as we have just seen, it was likely far from new, far from being -unfamiliar in his day. Fergusson has this to say of it: “It is the first -record we have of actual worship being performed to the serpent; and it -is also remarkable, as the cause of this adoration is said to have been -its healing powers.”[194] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.—THE SERPENT-HEALER.] - -The opinion has been widely entertained that the prototype of the brazen -serpent of Moses, simply “Nehushtan”[195] in later times, was the _bonus -dæmon_, the _Agathodæmon_[196] of the Greeks, Egyptians, and others. This -“good genius” was regarded with great favor, and doubtless many were in -the habit of according it power over disease. In the grove of Epidaurus, -as in Indian temples and elsewhere among early peoples, the serpent was -the _genius loci_, and hence the Agathodæmon, the bringer of health and -good fortune, the teacher of wisdom, the oracle of future events. One was -kept in the Erechtheum, close to the sacred olive-tree, and in each of -many other temples. One was to be found, according to Ebers, “in every -temple”[197] in Egypt. - -Evidence has recently been brought forward which goes to show that -the serpent called the “good genius” in Egypt, in general, was in the -part familiar to the Israelites, in the district of Suket, called also -the dwelling-place of Ankh, “the Living One,” whose chief city was -Piton,[198] regarded as the simulacrum of the sun-god Ra, or, rather, -Atum, Tum, or Tom, the sun as he sets.[199] Brugsch, who has studied -the matter carefully, says: “The god Tom represents solely the Egyptian -type, corresponding to the divinity of Piton, who is called by the name -of Ankh, and surnamed ‘the great god.’... A serpent to which the Egyptian -texts give the epithet of ‘the Magnificent,’ ‘the Splendid,’ was regarded -as the living symbol of the god of Piton. It bore the name of Kereh; -that is, ‘the Smooth.’ And this serpent again transports us into the -camp of the Children of Israel in the Wilderness; it recalls to us the -brazen serpent of Moses, to which the Hebrews offered the perfumes of -incense, until the time when King Hezekiah[200] decreed the abolition -of this ancient serpent-worship.”[201] He further says: “I will not -venture to decide the question whether the god, ‘He who lives,’ of the -Egyptian text is identical with the Jehovah of the Hebrews, but, at all -events, everything tends to this belief when we remember that the name -of Jehovah[202] contains the same meaning as the Egyptian word Ankh, ‘He -who lives.’”[203] These are highly interesting statements of this learned -Egyptologist. - -Bearing in mind what has just been said, it is interesting to turn to -what Solomon (?) says about the “brazen serpent,” and the cures wrought -by it. In the “Book of Wisdom,” it is spoken of as a symbol, “a sign of -salvation;”[204] and, it is said: “For it was neither herb nor molifying -plaster that healed them, but thy word, O Lord, which healeth all -things.”[205] And to this it is added: “For it was thou, O Lord, that -hath power of life and death and leadest down to the gates of death and -bringest back again.”[206] - -Christian writers have generally explained the brazen serpent to be a -symbol of God, or the Savior. The writer of the article on medicine, -in Smith’s “Dictionary of the Bible,” says that even in the Talmud it -is acknowledged “that the healing power lay not in the brazen serpent -itself, but as soon as they feared the Most High and uplifted their -hearts to the heavenly father they were healed, and in default of this -they were brought to nought.” Thus the brazen serpent was symbolical -only. A serpent clinging to a cross was formerly much used as an emblem -of Christ. In fact, a sort of Christian serpent-worship was for a long -period greatly in vogue among many besides the professed Ophitæ. - -In this connection it is well to say, that the _naja_ _haje_, _naia_, -or _asp_, the serpent shown in the cut of the brazen serpent, was the -species always, or nearly always, taken to represent the spirit pervading -nature, the Agathodæmon, or Cnuphis, whom the Egyptians were wont to -adore as the creator of the world. It was the Uræus or Basiliskos of -the Pharaohs. It is from three to five feet in length. It is extremely -venomous. In appearance, it resembles the Indian cobra de capello,[207] -but has no spectacle-marking on its head. In hieroglyphics it signifies -“goddess.” - -As to “the serpent of the burning bite which destroyed the Children of -Israel,” I may say, in the words of an authoritative work, “Either the -cerastes or the naja haje or any other venomous species frequenting -Arabia may denote it.”[208] The _Vipera cerastes_ is small, horned, -burrows in sand, and is very venomous. Herodotus was led to believe -that it was “perfectly harmless,”[209]—a great mistake. It was used to -represent the letter f. Says Sir Gardner Wilkinson: “As Herodotus does -not notice the asp, it is possible that he may have attributed to the -cerastes the honor that really belonged to that sacred snake.”[210] This -mistake is still frequently made. - -But the association of the serpent with Æsculapius, as a remnant of -serpent-worship, can be explained without going to the Egyptian Tum, or -any other foreign sun-god. One has but to turn to Apollo, to whom, as in -the case of, perhaps, all sun-gods, the reptile was sacred.[211] - -The question now is, then, what was the reason for the association of -the serpent with Apollo? The usual reply is: the destruction by him of -the Python, which is essentially the same as the Aub or Ob, or, as it is -often given, Typhon, of the Egyptians, an evil monster which was probably -taken primarily to represent harm resulting from the periodical overflow -of the Nile. Homer says:— - - “With his shining shaft Apollo slew - That ugly dragon, hideous to the view, - Which grew, long nourished in its slimy den, - A monster horrible, the dread of men.”[212] - -Admitting, however, that Apollo overcame a mythical serpent, like many -related divinities, from the Vedic sun-god, Indra, the destroyer of -Ahis down, does not afford a satisfactory solution of the matter under -discussion. The Agathodæmon is infinitely preferable to Typhon as the -prototype of the serpent of Æsculapius. It, indeed, was the reptile -sacred to Apollo as well as Tum. - -A study of the origin of the association of the good serpent with Apollo -and Ra-Tum and other sun-gods is interesting. In the search for it one -may get a clue to it in comparative mythology. The close resemblance to -one another of Apollo, Ra, Baal-Samen of the Phœnicians, Shamas of the -Assyrians, and other sun-gods, would lead one to think that there was an -archetypal one; and to find this original one the intelligent mind would -naturally look to the East, to the region about the lower waters of the -Tigris and Euphrates, and with a reasonable expectation of discovering -it there.[213] For among the Turanians, in that locality, the worship -of the heavenly bodies undoubtedly first acquired prominence; and in -the same locality, too, among the same people, the worship of serpents, -according to Bryant,[214] who has written learnedly on the subject, -began, and, as Fergusson says, not only originated but “spread thence, -as from a centre, to every country or land of the old world in which a -Turanian people settled,”[215] becoming adopted to some extent also by -Semites and Aryans. From Hea, one of the three great gods (Ana, Hea, and -Bel) of the Accadio-Sumerians, and, later, of the people of Babylonia, -doubtless sprang some features of the Apollo myth, and possibly in -part through Horus of the Egyptians. To Baal-Samen, the baal of the -heavens, of the Phœnicians, Apollo had many points of resemblance. It -has been maintained, however, that Apollo was “a pure growth of the Greek -mind.”[216] He was so in part. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.—A SYMBOL OF HEA.] - -Speaking of Hea, Lenormant says that it was he “that animated matter -and rendered it fertile, that penetrated the universe and directed and -inspired it with life.”[217] As water was believed to be the vehicle -of all life and the source of generation, he sprung from the ocean and -was regarded as amphibious. Oannes[218] was the name by which he was -known by the Greeks. Like Dagon, of the Philistines, whose prototype he -was, it was usual to give him the combined form of a fish and a man. -One of the symbols of him, according to Rawlinson,[219] was a serpent, -an illustration of which is reproduced here. He was the god of life, -and, significantly enough, the literal meaning of his name is serpent -as well as life. Here, then, we have the serpent signifying life. This -is a very noteworthy fact. In an interesting paper read in 1872 before -the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, by Mr. C. S. Wake, it is -very properly said: “It is probable that the association with the serpent -of the idea of healing arose from the still earlier recognition of that -animal as a symbol of life.”[220] - -It is not amiss to remark, in this connection, that it is curious fact -that the American Indians associated a serpent with the great sun-god, -or, rather, the god of light, Manabozho,[221] a healing divinity, the -one that instituted the sacred Medicine-Feast. It is observed by Miss -Emerson that “Apollo, as a god of medicine, was originally worshipped -under the form of a serpent,[222] and men worshipped him as a helper; and -we trace a similar idea among the Indians relative to Manabozho. And a -further association of ideas suggests the mystic god, Unk-ta-he, the god -of waters, pictured as a serpent, who was believed to have power over -diseases.”[223] To this I may add that Hea sprang from the Persian Gulf, -and was regarded as the god of waters as well as of life. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.—MANABOZHO.] - -A great deal has been written on serpent-worship, “the first variation,” -says Bryant, “from the purer Sabaism;”[224] and the number of suggested -explanations of the curious cultus is almost legion. I hesitate about -touching on the subject; but some statements on it are called for, to -render the treatment of the matter on hand reasonably complete. - -In a recent able work, Mr. C. F. Keary, of the British Museum, presents -some interesting facts and inferences on the origin of the worship. -He maintains that the tree, mountain, and river were the three great -primitive fetich-gods, and forcibly argues that a serpent was the symbol -of the last, which, it may be noted, is nearly always a life-giving -power, an early and substantial type of the _fontaine de jouvence_. -Without pretending to account for their original worship, he “takes it -for certain that, at a very early time, rivers became through symbolism -confounded with serpents.”[225] - -Remnants of the three fetich-gods of Mr. Keary are preserved in later -and more abstract cults, and may be largely found in Indo-European -mythologies. The Greeks and Romans appear to have regarded rivers and -mountains with particular favor, while the Celts and Teutons were more -especially devoted to trees. The wells of knowledge and of magic and -the fountains of youth which are met with in myth and legend are simply -the narrowing to particular instances of the magic, the sacredness, and -the healing gifts which were once universally attributed to streams. -The monstrous python which Apollo encountered and destroyed at Delphi -was, according to Mr. Keary, a river, and a harmful one,—the river of -death. “The reptile was, we know,” says he, “before all things, sacred -to Æsculapius, and was kept in his house, as, for example, in the great -temple at Epidaurus. It would seem that the sun-god has the special -mission of overcoming and absorbing unto himself this form of fetich. -This is why Apollo slays the python, and why the snake is sacred to -Æsculapius.”[226] - -Mr. Keary was by no means the first, I may say, to emphasize the -association of serpents with rivers. The fact has been dwelt on by Dr. -Brinton. Says this distinguished student of American archæology: “The -sinuous course of the serpent is like nothing so much as that of a -winding river; which, therefore, we often call serpentine. So did the -Indians. Kennebec, a stream in Maine, in the Algonkin, means snake, -and Antietam, the creek in Maryland of tragic celebrity, in an Iroquois -dialect, has the same significance. How easily could savages, construing -the figure literally, make the serpent a river- or water-god.”[227] - -I believe, however, that it would be a mistake to hold that the serpent -was at any time exclusively a symbol of the river. Both Mr. Keary and -Dr. Brinton say as much. In the old world, as well as in the new, it was -widely recognized as a symbol of lightning, and believed to have power -over wind and rain. - -Some have turned to the heavens for an explanation of serpent-worship. -Thus, Mr. Arthur Lillie, in an interesting little work, says: “Like -all old religious ideas, the serpent-symbol was, probably, in the -first instance, astronomical.[228] Two thousand eight hundred and -thirty-six years before Christ, a large star was within one degree of -the celestial pole. This was the _A_ of Draco.”[229] Much interest was -taken in this star of Draco, formerly, as Mr. Proctor says, “the polar -constellation”[230] in different countries,[231] as, for instance, in -Egypt. In their studies of the great pyramid Jizeh, both Proctor and -Piazzi Smyth[232] dwell on the subject at length.[233] The passage from -the north, which slants downward at an angle of 26° 17´ into the immense -structure, would seem to have been constructed so that _A_ of Draco shone -down it. When this was the case, the star was 3° 42´ from the pole, -which was its position both about 2170 and 3350 B.C. “We conclude,” says -Proctor, “with considerable confidence, that it was about one of the two -dates, 3350 and 2170 B.C., that the erection of the great pyramid began, -and from the researches of Egyptologists it has become all but certain -that the earlier of these dates is very near the correct epoch.”[234] -Smyth takes 2170 B.C. as the correct date, but his unscientific method -of study renders him an unreliable authority. The question is highly -interesting and important. - -However, the constellation of Draco was represented in ancient astronomy -by a tortuous serpent, either alone or in connection with a tree. Those -familiar with the description of the shield of Hercules,[235] attributed -to Hesiod, and which, it is believed, was suggested by a Zodiac -temple[236] of the Chaldeans, imitations of which were to be found in -Egypt and elsewhere, will recall the reference to Draco,[237] as follows:— - - “The scaly terror of a dragon coil’d - Full in the central field; unspeakable; - With eyes oblique, retorted, that aslant - Shot gleaming flame; his hollow jaw was fill’d - Dispersedly with jagged fangs of white, - Grim, unapproachable.”[238] - -It is hardly to be inferred from this description, I may remark, that -the worship of Draco would be one of love. Yet, Rawlinson says: “The -stellar name of Hea was Kimmut; and it is suspected that in this aspect -he was identified with the constellation Draco, which is perhaps the -Kimmah[239] of Scripture.”[240] This is an interesting statement when -taken in connection with what has been already said about Hea. To the -Accadians and others the north was a favorable point, being the source of -cool, vivifying breezes. - -But, whether from fear or not, Draco inspired wide-spread attention and -worship. Lillie remarks that the serpent of the “three precious gems” of -the Buddhist, the serpent, sun, and tree, the A. U. M., is Draco at the -pole. The Tria Ratna, or three precious symbols of the faith, have, in -the representation given, their earliest emblem, except, perhaps, the -swastika,[241] or cross, which was doubtless formed at one time of two -serpents.[242] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.—THE BUDDHIST TRIA RATNA.] - -In the illustration, the serpent represents the male and the staff the -female or negative principle. It has been asserted that we have in it the -prototype of the caduceus of Hermes. - -The assumption of the serpent as a totem,[243] or symbol, of a family -or tribe has been held—as, for example, by Mr. McLennan[244] and Sir -John Lubbock[245]—to afford an explanation of the origin and practice of -serpent-worship. This honor was no doubt accorded the reptile at a very -early period and in different parts of the world; and it is still done -by the Nagas of India and others. In speaking of Parium, a city of the -Troad, Strabo says: “It is here the story is related that the Ophiogeneis -have some affinity with the serpent tribe.... According to fable the -founder of the race of Ophiogeneis, a hero, was transformed from a -serpent into a man. He was, perhaps, one of the African Psylli.” The -power of curing by touch persons bitten by serpents[246] was claimed by -this tribe. David would seem to have belonged to the serpent family, as -appears from the name of his ancestor, Naasson; and it has been suggested -that the brazen serpent found by Hezekiah, in the Temple of Solomon, was -a symbol of it. The friendliness of David to the king of Ammon is thus -explained.[247] Speaking of rattlesnakes, it is said, in Miss Emerson’s -work, “These creatures were so highly esteemed that to have a serpent as -his totem elevated an Indian chief above his brothers.”[248] - -The fact of the same word meaning both serpent and life has been believed -to cast light on the origin of the worship of serpents. After stating -that the reptile was always a symbol of life and health in Egypt and -other countries, the Abbé Pluche gives as the reason, “because among -most of the Eastern nations, as the Phœnicians, Hebrews, Arabians, -and others, with the language of which that of Egypt had an affinity, -the word _heve_ or _hava_ equally signifies the life and the serpent. -The name of _Him who is_, the great name of God, _Jov_ or _Jehova_, -thence draws its etymology. _Heve_, or the name of the common mother of -mankind, comes likewise from the same word. Life could not be painted, -but it might be marked out by the figure of the animal which bears its -name.”[249] According to Lenormant,[250] one of the generic names in -the Assyrian-Semitic tongue is _havon_, like the Arabian _hiyah_, both -derived from the root _hâvah_, to live. From the same root came the Latin -_ave_, a wish of good health, and also _ævum_, the life. The asp still -bears the name of _naja haje_. - -It is interesting to observe that the American Indians, as well as -Eastern peoples, made use of the serpent as a symbol of life. The -belief that the animal had power over the fertilizing summer showers -was probably at the bottom of it, as well as its title to god of -fruitfulness. Says Dr. Brinton: “Because the rattlesnake, the lightning -symbol, is thus connected with the food of man, and itself seems -never to die, but annually to renew its youth, the Algonkins called -it ‘grandfather,’ and king of snakes. They feared to injure it. They -believed it could grant prosperous breezes or raise disastrous tempests. -Crowned with the lunar crescent, it was the constant symbol of life in -their picture-writing.”[251] In the language of the Algonkins and of the -Dakotas, the words _manito_ and _waken_, which express divinity in its -widest sense, also signify serpent. - -Mr. Wake entertains the opinion that the mainspring of serpent-worship -was a belief that the animal was really the embodiment of a deceased -human being; or, in other words, that the worship was ancestral in -character. He says: “The serpent has been viewed with awe or veneration -from primeval times and almost universally as a re-embodiment of -a deceased human being; and as such there were ascribed to it the -attributes of life and wisdom and the power of healing.”[252] - -But little, however, in what has been said throws much light on the main -point at issue, namely, why the serpent should be yielded worship. The -cause must be sought for, to some extent, in peculiarities of the animal -itself. And it has peculiarities enough. Remarkable in form and in mode -of locomotion, and in some species possessed of deadly venom, one might -well regard it with admiration and awe. Then, its longevity and apparent -power of renewing its age serve to make it a very extraordinary creature. -The opinion has been expressed[253] that its power to glide along without -limbs, like the heavenly bodies, was the reason why it was held to be -sacred. No doubt its remarkable power of motion in the absence of limbs -forcibly impressed the ancients.[254] Solomon himself said that one of -the four things he could not understand was “the way of a serpent upon a -rock.”[255] - -Herbert Spencer maintains that the first step toward the worship of -serpents and other animals was the naming or, rather, nicknaming of men -after creatures to which they bore some points of resemblance. Thus, from -having apparently, like Holmes’s Elsie Venner, some of the qualities of a -snake, one might be compared with the animal, and so named after it. Then -the descendants, out of regard for their ancestor,[256] might take the -name, or, in other words, accept the snake as their totem. - -Although the Æsculapian serpent was innocent, it was mostly a harmful -species which received worship. The asp of the Egyptians and the cobra -of the East Indians are decidedly venomous. Under the name of _uræus_ -the asp was a symbol of royalty in ancient Egypt. Ebers makes Rameses -say: “My predecessors chose the poisonous _uræus_ as the emblem of -their authority, for we can cause death as quickly and as certainly -as the venomous snake.”[257] The American Indians were devoted to the -rattlesnake, which is extremely venomous. Thus, says Dr. Brinton: “The -rattlesnake was the species almost exclusively honored by the red race. -It is slow to attack, but venomous in the extreme, and possesses the -power of the basilisk to attract within its spring small birds and -squirrels.”[258] Evidently the worship of such reptiles must have been -inspired, in a measure at least, by fear. Still, it appears certain, -as the author just quoted believes, that, as employed to express the -divine element in atmospheric and other natural phenomena, it far more -frequently typified what was favorable and agreeable than the reverse. -Ebers gives it as his opinion that “mythological figures of snakes have -quite as often a benevolent as a malevolent signification.”[259] - -A word must be said about the phallic explanation of the origin of -serpent-worship. Mr. Cox, an excellent writer on mythology, is friendly -to this theory. After speaking of the phallus as a symbol, he says: -“When we add that from its physical characteristics the Ashêrah, which -the Greeks called the phallus, suggested the emblem of the serpent, we -have the key to the tree- and serpent-worship.”[260] Beyond question, a -phallus-serpent comes frequently into view in studying mythology, but it -would be very hard to prove that every serpent met with had its prototype -in the phallus. It is to be regarded as beneficent, a life-giving power. -The Agathodæmon is frequently so represented. - -Probably the possibility of charming serpents has had something to -do with the remarkable uses to which these animals have been put. A -person who could handle without danger a venomous reptile, and control -its actions at pleasure, might easily lead many to believe him to be -possessed of some miraculous power. Aaron resorted to this artifice when -he appeared before Pharaoh with his cataleptic serpent, in the form of a -rod.[261] - -The reason just given seems better than the one Plutarch gives for the -association of the serpent with certain great men, when he says, in -his “Life of Cleomanes,” that it was from a belief that after death -evaporation of “the marrow”[262] produces serpents;[263] that the -ancients appropriated the serpent, rather than any other animal, to -heroes. - -I believe it is vain to attempt to trace the origin of serpent-worship to -one and the same source. This appears plain when it is remembered that -some serpents represented good, while others stood for the opposite, -evil. The Bible furnishes a marked instance of contrasts: in one place -a serpent was used, as has been pointed out, as a symbol of God, or -Christ, while elsewhere one represents cunning, envy, lying, and even -“the devil and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world.”[264] In the -nature of things, one would expect the same species of reptile to -produce a very similar impression on primitive peoples everywhere. This, -probably, accounts largely for the resemblance to one another of most -serpent-legends. The different impressions produced by different species -would, to some extent, explain the unlike significance of serpent-symbols -among different peoples. The signification, however, was often of very -fanciful origin, as, for example, where a serpent in the form of a circle -symbolized eternity, or, rather, endless life. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -VARIOUS ATTRIBUTES OF ÆSCULAPIUS. - - -In this chapter I will speak briefly of various attributes, more or less -generally accorded to Æsculapius. Some of them are decidedly significant, -but none so much so as the staff and serpent of which I have fully -treated. - -In many, indeed most, of the representations of Æsculapius, he is -crowned with A WREATH OF LAUREL. This mark of merit, like rays of light -which were given in some instances, has been commonly held to have been -accorded him because he was the son of Apollo, to whom the tree was -sacred. According to this view, one has in it a remnant of the oracular -laurel at Delphi. Another way of accounting for it is, to use the words -of Tooke, “because that tree is powerful in curing many diseases,”[265] -an exaggerated claim. The ancients regarded it as effective against evil -spirits.[266] - -A BUNCH OF HERBS was at times represented in one of the hands of the -god. This was very appropriate. The district of Greece[267] in which, -according to the legend, he studied under Chiron, was famous for its -medicinal plants. - -A BOWL was occasionally shown in connection with figures of Æsculapius. -It was indicative of the administration by him of medicinal potions. - -A SCROLL was an attribute of some Æsculapian figures. It is an admirable -one for an ideal physician. In modern times it should certainly be -regarded as an indispensable one. Medicine has been evolved from recorded -experience, and its progress is dependent on the same. - -An unpublished discovery of any kind is, in a manner, none at all. -Curiously enough the name of the Egyptian god of medicine, Imhotep, -means, “I bring the offering,” the ideograph for _hotep_, or offering, -being a papyrus roll. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.—TELESPHORUS.] - -I will now say a few words about a remarkable attribute of some -representations of the god of medicine. I refer to TELESPHORUS, -EUEMERION, or ACESIUS,[268] a small figure, a boy, but not a son, as is -sometimes stated. As will be seen in the cut of him given, and which is -copied from one given by Tooke,[269] as seen in a statue in the Louvre, -he is wrapped in a mantle and is barefooted. Figures of him, however, -vary considerably in appearance. In him we have, according to some, a -sort of dæmon or familiar spirit, such as that which Socrates is said to -have had. It is better, I think, to regard him as a genius,[270] meant to -symbolize the hidden sustaining vital force, the _vis medicatrix naturæ_, -or _anima medica_, upon which greatly depends the recovery of the sick. -It has been suggested that the careful wrapping may be intended to -indicate the need of such protection during convalescence. - -The DOG was prominent in connection with the Epidaurian and other statues -of Æsculapius. The fidelity and watchfulness of this friendly animal -render it a very fit attribute of the god. The part played with the goat, -according to the legend, has been taken by some to afford an explanation -of the connection. Another is furnished by the name, which, as will be -pointed out in the next chapter, apparently means man-dog. - -The Parsis believed that dogs with four eyes could drive away the -death-fiend; but such not being procurable, one “with two spots above -the eyes” was used for the purpose. In their great sacred book,[271] the -animal is represented to be the special one of Ormazd. Herodotus states -that the Magi do not hesitate to kill all animals, “excepting dogs and -men.”[272] - -The Oriental Mardux, in whom was assimilated the more ancient -Silik-mulu-khi, a healing divinity, was attended by dogs, as was Nimrod, -the hunter, with whom he may have been identical.[273] - -The COCK, as well as the dog, was a prominent attribute in many -representations of Æsculapius. This alert bird, a bird watchful of the -returning light, was very properly associated with a sun-god. It was a -common object of sacrifice to the god, by patients who were grateful -for relief or cure. Socrates has, through Plato, made this memorable. -Said the dying sage, as he felt his limbs growing cold: “When the poison -reaches the heart, that will be the end.” Feeling his body gradually -losing its vital heat, and realizing that relief from his troubles was at -hand, he said, as he passed away, “Crito, I owe a cock to Æsculapius; -will you remember to pay the debt?” “The debt shall be paid,” responded -his friend.[274] - -The practice of sacrificing[275] a cock for the restoration of health -was not exclusively practiced by the votaries of Æsculapius. In his -“Life of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus,” Plutarch says that “a white cock” was -sacrificed generally by each of the patients he touched “for swelling -of the spleen.” The full quotation will be given in a succeeding -chapter. The bird is still sacrificed in some parts of Scotland and -other countries, for the removal of at least one disease,—epilepsy. Dr. -Mitchell, of Edinburgh, states that the practice is very familiar to -him. In the northern part of his native country, “on the spot,” says he, -“where the epileptic first falls, a black cock is buried alive, along -with a lock of the patient’s hair and some parings of his nails.”[276] - -There is yet another animal associated with the god of medicine,—the -GOAT. It was especially by the Cyrenians that the connection was much -emphasized. Pausanias remarks that “the Cyrenians sacrifice goats, -although this rite was not delivered by the Epidaurians.”[277] Still, -as already pointed out, on Epidaurian coins, Æsculapius was represented -sucking a goat,—an illustration of the legend. - -Why the goat was connected in sacrifice with the god is explained by -Tooke thus: “A goat is always in a fever, and, therefore, a goat’s -constitution is very contrary to health.”[278] Shakespeare, in “King -Lear,” uses the phrase “goatish disposition” in reference to a -“whoremaster man.” The fabled satyrs were in part goats in form. I am not -aware that there was anything of the Biblical scape-goat principle[279] -about the sacrifice, a superstition similar to the one which prevailed -“all over Egypt,” as we are told by Herodotus,[280] of praying that evils -impending over the people might fall on the head of the sacrificial -victim, and then casting it into the Nile, if there was no Greek at hand -to whom it could be sold. - -The great prominence of the goat in the Æsculapian rites in Cyrene may -have been due, to some extent at least, to the proximity of Egypt, a -country in which the animal played a prominent part. In the goat of -Mendes,[281] the incarnation of Khem or Min, was personified, says -Lenormant, “in the most brutish manner the reproductive power.”[282] Both -the goat and the cock were often associated with the Egyptian Hermes. - -I may add that the cause of the association of the goat with Æsculapius -has been referred to the name. The Abbé Banier states the case thus: -“_Es_ or _ex_, which begins the name of the god, signifies a goat in the -language of the Phœnicians,[283] and, with a little variation, the same -thing in Greek;[284] and this had given rise to the fable of Æsculapius -being nursed by that animal.”[285] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -GODS ANALOGOUS TO ÆSCULAPIUS. - - -The great eminence acquired by the Æsculapian myth among the Grecians -might reasonably lead to the belief that it was one entirely special to -that imaginative people. Like many other gods, however, of both high -and low degree, this one was only in part “to the manor born.” There is -good ground for believing that there was what might justly be called a -prototype of the divinity of much repute in both Phœnicia and Egypt. -Dr. Mayo does not hesitate to say that “Æsculapius was actually known -in the Oriental countries before he was in Greece, whither his worship -was brought from Phœnicia by the colony of Cadmus and from Egypt by that -of Danaus.”[286] It is not improbable that the main conception of the -healing god did really long antedate not only the Grecian but both the -Phœnician and Egyptian embodiments of it. Evidence of this will be found -later in the chapter. - -The ESMUN “the Eighth” of the Phœnicians, especially worshipped at -Berytus,[287] has been regarded[288] as essentially the same as the -Grecian Æsculapius. He was probably that and something more. Little -definite is known of this personage, of whom the serpent was a symbol, -save what we are told of him in the fragment of an historical work by -Sanchoniathon, preserved by Eusebius, an early Christian writer. “To -Sydyk, called the Just,” it is said, “one of the Titanides[289] bore -Esmun.”[290] He is represented to have been the eighth and chief of those -spared by the deluge, and also of the Cabiri, or Cabeiri,[291] “the seven -sons of Sydyk,”[292] the mighty ones, named, it has been said,[293] after -mountains in Phrygia, and divinities widely, but in general secretly, -adored, in Phœnicia, Carthage,[294] Egypt,[295] and elsewhere. - -The belief has been expressed that Noah and his family and the Cabiri -were originally the same.[296] Mr. Faber entertained this view, and -it is fully set forth by him in an interesting work,—one, by the way, -in which is ably presented the so-called Arkite symbolism,[297] which -has excited considerable attention, but which Mr. Tylor, as well as -many others, declares to be “arrant nonsense.”[298] In reference to -Æsculapius he says: “This deity connects the first and second tables of -the Phœnician genealogies, his father, Sydyk, occupying a conspicuous -place in the one, while his mother, Titanis, is enumerated among the -daughters of Cronus, in the other. I am much inclined to think that the -imaginary god of health is in reality the very same person as his reputed -father, Sydyk, both of them being equally the patriarch, Noah, worshipped -in connection with the sun. Macrobius, accordingly, informs us that -Æsculapius was one of the many names of the solar deity, and that he was -usually adored along with Salus, or the Moon.[299] Salus, however, was -no less a personification of the ark than of the moon, those two objects -of idolatrous veneration being allied to each other in consequence of -the union of the Arkite and Sabian superstitions. Thus, while Noah -was revered as the god of health and as one of the eight Cabiri, the -vessel in which he was preserved was honored with the title of Salus, or -Safety.”[300] - -Lenormant regards the Cabiri as the seven planets of the ancients; that -is, the Sun, Moon, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Venus, and Mercury. “Esmun,” -says he, “invisible to mortal eyes, was supposed to be the connecting -link of the seven others and the one approaching nearest to the -primordial Baal.[301] He presided over the whole sideral system, and was -supposed to preside over the laws and harmonies of the universe, and in -this respect was the same as Taaut.”[302] - -Although secret, the worship of the Cabiri was participated in by persons -of either sex and of all ages. In Lemnos and other places the fires were -put out, sacrifices to the dead were made, and fire was brought from -Delos in a sacred vessel and given to the people, who, with it, began a -new and regenerated existence. Phallic rites formed an inseparable part -of the worship, which was indulged in at stated periods. - -As showing that Æsculapius was of Phœnician origin, Mr. Faber lays -emphasis on the fact that in the edition of Virgil by Servius the line -telling of the destruction of the god makes him a Phœnician:— - - “_Fulmine Pœnigenam Stygias detrusit ad undas._”[303] - -The usual and, doubtless, the right reading makes _Pœnigenam_, -_Phœbigenam_. - -The opinion that Æsculapius was essentially the same as ANUBIS among the -early Egyptians has been advanced. Both were viewed as simply divine -personifications of Sirius, or Sothis, the dog-star.[304] This view is -well presented by M. Pluche. - -A study of the name[305] Æsculapius may or may not afford evidence in -favor of the idea that there was originally a connection between the god -and the dog-star. Although decidedly a Grecian god, Asklepios does not -appear to be a Greek word. Keightly goes so far as to say, “Of his name -no satisfactory derivation has as yet been offered.”[306] He ventures, -however, to suggest that it may be from the root σχάλλω, the original -meaning of which may have been to cut, whence the Latin _scalpo_ and our -own word _scalpel_. Mr. Keightly forgot that the name was not necessarily -Greek; for that, like nearly all others, was largely a derivative -language. In the Greek as well as the Latin form, it may be Hebrew, or, -what was essentially the same, Phœnician. Taking it to be compounded of -_esh_, _aish_, _isch_, or _ish_,[307] a man, and _caleb_,[308] _caleph_, -or _culap_, a dog, the literal meaning of it is _vir-canis_, or man-dog. -But, as some remarks already made indicate, it may be interpreted to mean -_goat-dog_.[309] - -ANUBIS, ANUP, or ANUPU, who in very early times was possibly the same as -Thoth, was regarded as symbolic of that brightest of the fixed stars, -Sirius, “the burning,” whose first appearance in the morning was the -signal of the advent of the warm season, and the Etesian or periodic wind -from the north, as well as the beginning of the year.[310] The rising -of this notable star heliacally—that is, with the sun[311]—told the -Egyptians to prepare at once for the overflow of the waters of the Nile. -By many it was believed to be the cause of the flood. The watch-dog was -evidently a very appropriate symbol for this star of warning. Then, from -the fact that Sirius gave warning of danger, and thus saved the lives -of the people, to the symbols of it the serpent, the life-symbol, was -often and very properly attached. “On this account it was,” says Pluche, -“that Anubis and Æsculapius passed for the inventors of physic and the -preservers of life.”[312] - -Others besides the Egyptians regarded Sirius with favor;[313] as, for -example, the Parsis, to whom it was “Tystria, the bright and glorious -star.”[314] In Greece, however, it was not regarded as propitious. To it -were attributed certain diseases. Thus, Homer, who calls it Orion’s dog, -says:— - - “His burning breath - Taints the red air with fevers, plagues, and death.”[315] - -Remembering the medical history of Sirius, it is worth while recalling -that the “dog-days,” those extending from about the 22d of July to the -23d of August, are often spoken of as the physician’s holiday. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.—ANUBIS.] - -One very often hears that THOTH was to the Egyptians the god of medicine, -just as Æsculapius was to the Greeks and Romans. Even the late Dr. Aitken -Meigs, a scholarly physician, accepted this idea. In an address, to be -referred to later, he says: “Æsculapius is, doubtless, the Egyptian -Thoth, or Hermes Trismegistus, whose symbols, the staff and twining -serpent, surmounted with the mystic hawk of Horus-Ra and the solar -uræus,[316] appear in the ancient temple Pselcis, near Dakkeh, in Nubia.” -The Doctor is about as wide of the mark as Forbes Winslow, when he says -that the Grecian “Apollo and Minerva answered to the Isis and Osiris of -the Egyptians; and Orpheus, the priest, poet, and physician, usurped the -place of Thoth.”[317] - -HERMES, THOTH, or THOT, the TET or TAAUTES of the Phœnicians, was not the -god of medicine among the Egyptians, any more than he was the god of any -other special branch of knowledge. He was the patron god of all kinds of -learning. - -Says Ebers: “The discovery of nearly every science is attributed to the -ibis-headed god, Thoth, the writer or clerk of heaven, whom the Greeks -compared to their god, Hermes.”[318] - -It is no doubt true, however, that Hermes was credited with taking -considerable interest in medical matters. He was said to have been the -author of six books on the healing art, in which anatomy, pathology, and -therapeutics were treated of, together with diseases of the eye,—a part -of the body which has always suffered much in Egypt. Ebers remarks that -“the book on the use of medicine has been preserved to the present day in -the ‘Papyrus-Ebers.’”[319] - -Having referred to the “Papyrus-Ebers,” it may be well to say a few -words about it. It was discovered a few years ago by the learned and -versatile Egyptologist, Herr Ebers, and is the best preserved of all the -ancient Egyptian manuscripts extant. It was written at Sais during the -eighteenth dynasty; that is, in the sixteenth century before our era. It -consists of 110 pages. In it we have the hermetic medical work of the -ancient Egyptians, with the contents of which the Alexandrian Greeks -were familiar. The god Thoth is called in it “the Guide” of physicians, -and the composition of it is attributed to him. This venerable document -treats of many internal and external diseases of most parts of the body. -Special attention is given to the visual organs. Drugs belonging to all -the kingdoms of nature are used, and with those prescribed are numbers -according to which they are weighed with weights and measured with hollow -vessels. Accompanying the prescriptions are noted the pious axioms to -be repeated by the physician while compounding and giving them to the -patient. The German government has published the work in _fac-simile_, -a copy of which I have examined. There is a copy of it, I think, in the -Astor Library, New York. - -Medicine certainly consisted of more than charms and the like, at a very -early period, in Egypt. Indeed, in the remains of Manetho’s history of -the country, it is said of the successor of Menes, the first king of -the first dynasty, which dates back to about 4000 years before our era: -“Athothis, his son, reigned 57 years; he built the palaces at Memphis, -and left the anatomical books, for he was a physician.”[320] The custom -of embalming the dead necessarily led to at least a rough knowledge of -the anatomy of the body. - -SESOSTRIS, or SESORTOSIS, the second king of the third dynasty, sometimes -gets credit for being “the actual founder of medicine.”[321] Manetho -says of him: “He is called Asclepius by the Egyptians, for his medical -knowledge.”[322] - -According to Herodotus and Diodorus, medical practice was carried on in -a highly rational way at an early period in Egypt. Mr. Sayce ventures -to say that in the period of the eighteenth dynasty medicine was “in -almost as advanced a state as in the age of Galen; the various diseases -known were carefully distinguished from one another, and their symptoms -were minutely described, as well as their treatment. The prescriptions -recommended in each case are made out in precisely the same way as the -prescriptions of a modern doctor.”[323] Mr. Sayce bases these statements -on the “Papyrus-Ebers.” However, we are informed by Herodotus that -specialists were common when he visited the country, which was about -450 years before our era; but this must not be accepted as proof that -medicine was necessarily in a very advanced state. Here is what the -Grecian historian says: “Medicine is practiced among them on a plan of -separation; each physician treats a single disorder, and no more. Thus, -the country swarms with medical practitioners, some undertaking to cure -diseases of the eye; others, of the head; others, again, of the teeth; -others, of the intestines; and some, those which are not local.”[324] -As to their philosophy of morbid conditions, he says: “They have a -persuasion that every disease to which men are liable is occasioned by -substances whereon they feed.” This doctrine led them “to purge the body -by means of emetics and clysters” for “three successive days in each -month.”[325] - -In respect to medical specialism in Egypt, I may further say that, -according to Ebers,[326] as early as 1500 before our era, any one -requiring a physician sent for him, not to his house, but to the -temple. There a statement was obtained from the messenger concerning -the complaint from which the sick person was suffering; and then it was -left to the principal of the medical staff of the sanctuary to select -that master of the healing art whose special knowledge and experience -qualified him to be best suited for the treatment of the case. No -honorarium was expected from the patient. The fee was paid by the State. - -According to Canon Rawlinson, it is an open question whether, as is often -said, the physicians of ancient Egypt formed a special division of the -sacerdotal order; “though, no doubt, some of the priests were required -to study medicine.”[327] It is interesting to connect with this the -following statement from an authoritative work: “There is no sign in the -Homeric poems of the subordination of medicine to religion, which is seen -in ancient Egypt and India.”[328] - -It has been asserted that “medicine in Egypt was a mere art, or -profession.”[329] That this assertion is ridiculously untrue any one -knows who is competent to form an opinion on medical subjects, and who -has read the Pentateuch. Moses, whose learning was Egyptian, had a -wonderful knowledge of hygiene,—the most important part of medicine. The -manner of dealing with contagious diseases described in the thirteenth -and fourteenth chapters of Leviticus is far in advance of our practice -to-day. So intent were the Egyptians on knowing the nature of diseases -that _post-mortem_ examinations were, it is said by Pliny, resorted to -for the purpose. Unlike the religion of the Hebrews, theirs did not teach -them to dread touching the dead. But one has the authority of Celsus -for saying that the latter physicians, those of the Alexandrian school, -were not satisfied with the dissection of the dead; they went so far as -to make _ante-mortem_ examinations of criminals. In truth, Mr. Sayce -properly observes that it was “in medicine that Egypt attained any real -scientific eminence.”[330] - -Jeremiah, speaking of “the daughter of Egypt,” says: “In vain shalt -thou use many medicines; for thou shalt not be cured.”[331] This remark -indicates that the skillful use of medicines by the Egyptians was widely -noised abroad over five centuries before our era. Both Cyrus and Darius -sent to Egypt for physicians.[332] Hippocrates, however, who lived nearly -two centuries later than the prophet, gives no prominence to Egyptian -medicine. But much earlier, indeed, than this time, it is evident from -the works of Homer that it was in repute among the Greeks. Thus, to -remove the grief and rage caused by the death of brave Antilochus, we are -told that the famous Helen of Sparta, who takes on the occasion the rôle -of _une femme médecin_,— - - “Mix’d a mirth-inspiring bowl, - Temper’d with drugs of sovereign power t’ assuage - The boiling bosom of tumultuous rage. - ... - These drugs so friendly to the joys of life - Bright Helen learn’d from Thone’s imperial wife,[333] - Who sway’d the sceptre, where prolific Nile - With various simples clothes the fatten’d soil.”[334] - -Again, it is said of the Pharian or Egyptian race:— - - “From Pæon sprung, their patron god imparts - To all the Pharian race his healing arts.”[335] - -Such statements as those just made would seem to render it more than -probable that not a little of Grecian medicine was of Egyptian origin. -Pliny, indeed, says that it was claimed that the study of medicine was -begun in Egypt.[336] Blakie, however, ventures to affirm that “the -knowledge of medicine came to the Greeks originally from Thessaly, one -of the earliest seats of Hellenic civilization, as is evident from the -pedigree of Coronis.”[337] At any rate, it is certain that, for some time -before and after the beginning of the Christian era, Alexandria was a -great medical centre. There it was that Herophilus and Erasistratus lived -and imperishably distinguished themselves two centuries or so B.C. - -But I must return to Hermes, from whom I have been wandering, perhaps, -too far and too long. Although I am not disposed to give the medical -position to him that some have questionably done, I deem it wise to -say a few words especially about him. Lenormant believes that he was -originally the angel of Baal, Malâk-Baal, who, like him, assimilated with -the Agathodæmon.[338] It is generally believed that he came to Egypt from -Phœnicia.[339] He was usually represented[340] with the head of, not a -hawk, but an ibis, a heart-shaped bird with the plumage white, except -the pinions and tail, which are black, and with long legs and beak, the -latter crooked. This bird was the symbol of him made use of in writing. -Both it[341] and a species[342] black in color are well described by -Herodotus. Mummified specimens of it are to be seen in an excellent state -of preservation in museums, as, for instance, in that of the Academy of -Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. - -I may observe in this connection that an Ibis Society would be the same -as a Hermes Society. Neither title is very suitable for a medical one. I -have heard of an Ibex Society; but, of course, the ibis and the ibex are -entirely different creatures. - -Horus himself, whose “face is in the shape of the divine hawk,”[343] and -who, in some respects, resembles Apollo, was believed to possess medical -power.[344] Murray even says, “Horus was reputed to have been deeply -versed in the practice of medicine, and, accordingly, was compared with -Æsculapius.”[345] - -CHONSU, or CHONSU-NEFER-HOTEP,[346] the son of Amun and Mut, the third of -the great Theban triad, was regarded as a healing divinity. Says Tiele: -“He was resorted to for the cure of all diseases, or for the exorcism of -all the evil spirits who inflict them.”[347] He resembled Thoth somewhat. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.—THOTH.] - -From the third century before our era forward SERAPIS was highly esteemed -for his healing power.[348] He was in part a Grecian conception, being -first prominent in Pontus, and his worship became popular in many -sections of Greece and Rome; but Alexandria was his chief seat, and -his serapeum there was of great magnificence and renown.[349] He was -represented in various ways, often as a man encircled by a serpent. - -The special personage corresponding to Æsculapius, among the Egyptians, -would seem to have been IMHOTEP, EIMOPTH, IMOTHPH, EIMOTHPH, or EMEPH, -a god whose shrine was first discovered by Salt,[350] the Egyptologist, -at Philæ. A Greek inscription on the shrine reads: “Æsculapius, who is -Imuthes, son of Vulcan.” In accordance with the inscription, Sir Erasmus -Wilson says: “Imhotep, the IMUTHES of the Greeks, corresponded with their -Æsculapius.”[351] Ebers, probably the best of authorities on the subject, -says of Imhotep: “He was the son of Ptah, and named Asklepios by the -Greeks. Memphis[352] was the chief city of his worship. He is usually -represented with a cap on his head and a book on his knee. There are -fine statues of him at Berlin, the Louvre, and other museums.”[353] It -is said by Tiele that “he is a personification of the sacrificial fire,” -that “the texts designate him as the first of the Cher-hib,” a class of -priests who were at the same time choristers and physicians, for the -sacred hymns were believed to have a magical power as remedies, and that -his worship, although of ancient date, “does not seem ever to have taken -a prominent place.”[354] - -Of Imhotep I may further say, in the way of biography, that he was the -son of Ptah and Sekhet, and was possibly a king of the sixth dynasty. In -the Egyptian system of mythology, Ptah, “he who forms,” the god of fire, -was regarded as the father of the gods and the great artificer of the -world. He bore a resemblance to Hephæstus,[355] a god, indeed, who had -the gift of healing. - -After all, it is necessary to say that there is but little evidence -to establish the claim of Imhotep to the title of god of medicine. As -Kenrick says, “He has no attribute which specially refers to the art -of healing, and it may be an arbitrary interpretation of the Greeks -which gave him the name of Æsculapius, as some applied the same to -Serapis.”[356] Whether he was a medical worthy or not, it appears from -quotations from his teachings given in a song, recently translated from a -papyrus in the British Museum, that he was of decidedly epicurean views. -“Fulfill,” says he, “thy desire whilst thou livest;” and again: “Feast in -tranquility, seeing that there is no one who carries away his good things -with him.”[357] - -However, as a matter of interest, I will give the name of the god in -the Egyptian characters.[358] The double reed stands for a long _i_, or -_ei_, the owl for _m_, and the other three figures—the table, semicircle, -and square—for _h_ _t_ _p_. As will be observed, the _o_ and _e_ of the -ideographic combination, _hotep_,[359] are not given. The reason of this -is, that in writing, the Egyptians, like the Hebrews and others, commonly -omitted the vowels, except at the beginning and end of words. The meaning -of the name is rendered by Bunsen, “I come with the offering.”[360] - -An early Aryan divinity has been stated to be an analogue or even the -prototype of Æsculapius. Mr. Faber refers to Captain Wilford as holding -that the classical health and life restorer “is the Hindoo ASWICULAPA, -or the chief of the race of the horse, and he further intimates that -Aswiculapa was very nearly related to the two hero-gods who are evidently -the same as Castor and Pollux. These were believed to be the children of -the sun and the goddess Devi, the sun at the time of their intercourse -having assumed the form of a horse and Devi that of a mare.”[361] He -hardly presents the real opinion expressed by the Captain, but, at any -rate, what he has to say is not extremely important.[362] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.—IMHOTEP.] - -The ASWI, ASVI, or ASVINS were two, and were possibly the prototypes of -the Dioscuri,[363] Castor and Pollux. They were connected with the sun as -horses. Taking them to be forms of the Dioscuri, they might be related to -the two sons of Æsculapius, Machaon and Podalirius, for these have been -regarded as such,—“nothing more than a specific form of the Dioscuri,” to -use the words of De Gubernatis.[364] The conception of Chiron may have -been in part derived from the Asvins. - -The Asvins were worshipped from an early period by the Hindus, reference -to them being made in the oldest hymns. Cox says of them, “As ushering -in the healthful light[365] of the sun, they are like Asclepios and his -children, healers and physicians; and their power of restoring the aged -to youth re-appears in Medeia, the daughter of the sun.”[366] In the -“Rig-Veda” they are characterized as “givers of happiness,”[367] and are -said “to be most ready to come to the aid of the destitute.”[368] They -were believed to be conversant with all medicaments. - -THRITA of the Parsis, the TRITA of the Hindus, is a remarkable healing, -semi-divine personage, of whom a great deal is said in the “Zend Avesta” -and other sacred books of Aryan peoples of the east. According to the -“Zend Avesta,” which is from a common source with the “Vedas,” he is the -curer of the diseases caused by the great evil spirit, Ahriman. In the -“Vedas” he is said to extinguish illness in men as the gods extinguished -it in him, and he can grant long life. He drinks Sôma, as did Indra, to -acquire strength to kill the demon Vritra. - -In the Parsi system of religion, Thrita received from the supreme god, -Ahura-Mazda,[369] ten thousand healing-plants, which had been growing -around the tree of life, the white Hôm,[370] the Sôma of the Hindus. - -Thrita appears to have been one of the first priests of the personified -source of life and health,—“the enlivening, healing, fair, lordly, -golden-eyed Hâoma.”[371] The destruction of a great serpent, Azi Dahâka, -the most dreadful Drug,[372] created by Angra-Mainyu, himself a serpent, -to which diseases were attributed, was one of his fabled feats. - -There is much that is interesting to the physician in the “Zend Avesta,” -but I cannot present it here. One interesting passage I may quote. -Ahura-Mazda is addressed thus: “O Maker of the material world, thou Holy -One! If a worshipper of Mazda want to practice the art of healing, on -whom shall he first prove his skill? On the worshippers of Mazda, or on -the worshippers of the Dævas?”[373] The reply is: “On the worshippers of -the Dævas he shall first prove himself.” If on these the surgeon use the -knife three times with success, “then is he fit to practice the art of -healing for ever and ever.”[374] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.—SILIK-MULU-KHI.[375]] - -SILIK-MULU-KHI, the son of Hea, was a remarkable divinity, of whom I -feel it desirable to speak. In him we have one kindly disposed toward -man, a special friend of humanity, largely medical in character. What -he was has been unveiled, mainly of late, through the decipherment of -cuneiform inscriptions. The Babylonians prized him highly.[376] He became -assimilated with Mardux,[377] or Marodach, of the Babylono-Assyrians, -and Bel, of later times.[378] Space forbids me to give a long account of -him. Much can be learned about him _passim_ in the admirable works of M. -François Lenormant,[379] and in the “Records of the Past.”[380] - -Silik-mulu-khi—that is, “He who distributes good among men”[381]—was, as -already stated, the son of Hea, to whom he remained subject. He overcame -the dragon of the deep, and is spoken of as the Redeemer of mankind, the -Restorer of life, and the Raiser from the dead. He took shape among the -Accadio-Sumerians. - -Hea, or Ea,[382] “the master of the eternal secrets,” “the god who -presides over theurgical action,” revealed to Silik-mulu-khi “the -mysterious rite, the formula, or the all-powerful hidden name which shall -thwart the efforts of the most formidable powers of the Abyss.”[383] Like -Apollo, he had special medical functions; indeed, Mr. Sayce observes that -“he was emphatically the god of healing, who had revealed medicine to -mankind.”[384] - -As the symbol of his office, Silik-mulu-khi carried a reed, which took -the place of both the royal sceptre and magic wand, and which was -transmitted to the Assyrian Mardux.[385] In a hymn it is said:— - - “Golden reed, great reed, tall reed of the marshes, sacred bed of - the gods, - ... - I am the messenger of Silik-mulu-khi, who causes all to grow young - again.”[386] - -Although Silik-mulu-khi’s functions were largely medical, it is not to be -supposed that he resorted much to the use of medicaments. For it has not -yet been made very apparent that medicine, properly so called, was much -esteemed by the early Babylono-Assyrian peoples. Not long ago Mr. H. F. -Talbot, in an interesting article on Assyrian talismans and exorcisms, -said: “Diseases were attributed to the influence of spirits. Exorcisms -were used to drive away those tormentors; and this seems to have been the -sole remedy employed, for I believe that no mention has yet been found of -medicine.”[387] This statement does not hold good now, as will be shown -later.[388] - -In the cure of diseases the Babylono-Assyrian practitioners first duly -guarded the entrance to the patient’s chamber. Images or guardian statues -of Hea and Silik-mulu-khi were placed one to the right and the other to -the left. Texts were put on the threshold and on the statues, after the -manner spoken of in Deuteronomy.[389] These were also placed on the brow -of the patient and about the room. In bad cases recourse was had to the -“mamit,” something which the evil spirits could not resist. Talbot gives -the following prescription from an Accadian tablet:— - - “Take a white cloth. In it place the mamit in the sick man’s right - hand; - And take a black cloth and wrap it round his left hand. - Then all the evil spirits, and the sins which he has committed, - Shall quit their hold of him and shall never return.”[390] - -M. Lenormant gives a translation of an interesting magic tablet. Here is -a passage from it which the conjurer, the Shaman, is supposed to speak, -ending with the usual adjuration:— - - “Disease of the bowels, the disease of the heart, - The palpitation of the heart, - Disease of the vision, disease of the head, - Malignant dysentery - The humor which swells, - Ulceration of the veins, the micturition which wastes,[391] - Cruel agony which never ceases, - Nightmare,— - Spirit of the Heavens,[392] conjure it; - Spirit of the Earth,[393] conjure it.”[394] - -What follows is part of an incantation against “the diseases of the -head”:— - - “The diseases of the head, like doves to their dove-cots, like - grasshoppers into the sky, - Like birds into space,— - May they fly away! - May the invalid be replaced in the protecting hands of his - god.”[395] - -Here is the remedy for “diseases of the head,” as given by Hea to -Silik-mulu-khi:— - - “Come my son, Silik-mulu-khi, - Take a sieve: draw some water from the surface of the river, - Place thy sublime lip upon the water; - Make it shine with purity from thy sublime breath, ... - Help the man, son of his god.... - Let the disease of his head depart; - May the disease of his head be dispersed like a nocturnal dew.”[396] - -I have already stated that Silik-mulu-khi became in time assimilated with -the god possessing beauty or splendor, Mardux.[397] Here are extracts -from a hymn addressed to him after the change:— - - “Merciful one among the gods, - Generator who brought back the dead to life, - Silik-mulu-khi, king of heaven and of earth. - ... - To thee is the lip of life! - To thee are death and life! - I have invoked thy name, I have invoked thy sublimity. - ... - May the invalid be delivered from his disease; - Cure the plague, the fever, the ulcer.”[398] - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE PINE-CONE AS AN ATTRIBUTE OF ÆSCULAPIUS. - - -The fruitful results of studies in oriental history, industriously and -intelligently pursued by able and learned men in recent times, are making -more and more apparent the borrowed character of many features of the -civilization of Greece and other western nations. Greek, Latin, German, -Irish, and other languages of the Indo-European races, have been shown -to be largely derived from Sanskrit, or a source similar to it, and the -various mythologies have also been proved to be more or less evolutions. - -Of late, the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Accadio-Sumerians, but -especially the last, who were, as is said in the Bible, both “a mighty” -and “an ancient nation,”[399] have been accorded a greater influence -than formerly on other peoples. There is little or no ground for doubt -that the first forms of belief, as well as art, came from the East. It -is certain that in the fertile region, about the lower waters of the -Euphrates and Tigris, there was, at very early period, a remarkable -unfoldment of intellectual, social, and other elements of progress, from -the savage state. The ideas brought with them three thousand years or -more before our era, to the rich plains southward of Mesopotamia, and -gathered there by the early inhabitants of the hills of Elam and their -kin, the earlier inhabitants of Sumer,[400] have been potent everywhere -to the westward. - -These Turanians, a dark-complexioned people, were conquered by the -Semites settled in parts to the west of Babylonia, by whom their culture -and civilization were appropriated.[401] - -The Accadio-Sumerians undoubtedly gave direction and shape to the -religions of Babylonia, Assyria, Phœnicia, and other countries, including -Egypt. This means a great deal, for in the earlier stages of civilization -the religion, such as it may be, is a matter of the greatest possible -significance, both in itself and its influence on everything else. The -language of the Accadio-Sumerians long served as the sacred one in -Babylonia and Assyria,[402] and has been characterized by Mr. Sayce as -“the Sanskrit of the Turanian family.”[403] In it are the important early -cuneiform inscriptions, all the originals of which were written eighteen -hundred years or so before our era. - -The medical ideas of the Accadio-Sumerian were closely related to his -religion; to him the cause and cure of disease were, to a great extent, -in fact essentially, supernatural affairs. And thus, indeed, it has been -among all early peoples. Nor is it probable that it will ever be entirely -otherwise anywhere. The same feelings which prompted the dweller in -Elam, or in the plains to the westward, to formulate his religion and -philosophy are still experienced by humanity. Even the myth-formers are -not all dead. The spirit of all the mythologies is yet alive. There are -gods of fancy to-day, as there were when Ana and Hea and Bel were in the -ascendant. And they are not very different. The _nomen_, the name, may -vary much, but the _numen_, the thing, for the most part, does not. - -The science of the nineteenth century has not cleared away from the -minds of a large majority, in even the most highly civilized nations, -the belief that health and sickness are largely subject to mysterious -spiritual powers. They are matters of which the populace are still apt to -entertain preposterous notions. Cullen well remarks somewhere that he had -found even men with trained logical faculties, such as lawyers, satisfied -with reasons of any kind, advanced to explain medical phenomena. And in -truth the physician deals with matters not readily understood. In the -very first paragraph of his book of books, has not Hippocrates himself -said: “Experience is fallacious and judgment difficult”? - -However, it is not to be denied that there are many who sincerely and -firmly believe that both health and disease are entirely dependent on the -will of spiritual powers. Doubtless every physician has seen instances -of perfect resignation, on the death of even a near relative, brought -about by the notion that the bereavement was “the will of God.” An -innocent child, cut off by diphtheria, or scarlet fever, or some other -pestilential disease, which exists only by tolerance, with a tearless -mother bending over it, calm and full of the idea that it was the will -of the Almighty to destroy it in the bud, as it were, is not an uncommon -sight, and one which cannot fail to impress both deeply and sadly the -intelligent observer. Impious and erroneous doctrine, to be sure; but, -nevertheless, part and parcel of many, nay, most of the creeds of the -day. - -My statements are not rashly made and baseless. I might almost ask in -vain for a creed in which an absolute declaration of the life and death -of mortals being entirely in the hands of supra-mundane powers is not -made. For example, in the chapter of the “Book of Common Prayer,” on -“the order for the visitation of the sick,” it is said: “Dearly beloved, -know this, that Almighty God is the Lord of life and death, and of all -things to them pertaining, as youth, strength, health, age, weakness, -and sickness. Wherefore, whatsoever your sickness be, know you certainly -that it is God’s visitation.” For relief, the means is indicated in this -petition: “O Lord! look down from heaven, behold, visit, and relieve this -thy servant.” There is no doubt about the meaning of these passages; and -it is certain that the ideas contained in them are essentially those -which were current among various peoples of remote antiquity. Of course, -to one who sincerely entertains such ideas there can be no such thing -as a science and art of medicine. But we know that they rarely or never -stand in the way of a due resort to rational medical treatment. Truly, -the human mind is, in many instances, “many-sided.” - -What has just been said will indicate that it is very improbable that -the so-called religious literature of early times fairly represents the -state of medical practice. Assuredly, one could form no idea of the state -of the healing art at present from the perusal of a manual of orthodox -religious literature. - -However, as I have intimated above, the prevalence of an ostensible -belief in the cause and cure of diseases by supernatural powers does not -stand in the way of the existence and practice of a more or less rational -art of healing. - -The Chaldean[404] looked to the gods for the removal of the evils which -afflicted him; and he had his set earthly ways by which to bring about -the result desired. Supplication, sacrifice, and the like were practiced, -but material means were not entirely neglected. In the sacred book of the -Parsis it is said: “If several healers offer themselves together, namely, -one who heals with the knife, one who heals with herbs, and one who heals -with the Holy Word, it is this one who will _best_ drive away sickness -from the body of the faithful.”[405] In another place the “Holy Word” is -pronounced “the best healing of all remedies.”[406] Evidently, one might -resort to other means, if he chose. And here I may remark, that in the -practices of Æsculapius there was precisely the same threefold means of -cure, as will be seen by referring to the chapter on the god. - -It may be affirmed with confidence that no people in either ancient or -modern times has relied exclusively on the good offices of supernatural -powers for the cure of diseases. According to Catlin, the Indian doctors -first prescribed “roots and herbs, of which they have a great variety -of species; and when these have all failed, their last resort is to -medicine.”[407] A reverse plan was the more common. In that interesting -book, “Ecclesiasticus,” written by one well informed, and even at a time -when medicine was far advanced, the sick man is curiously advised to pray -and sacrifice to God first, and then to give place to the physician.[408] -The old Hebrew conveys the idea that, when nothing else could be done, -resort should be had to medical men. He thoughtfully remarks that “there -is a time when thou must fall into their hands.”[409] - -Now, as was to be expected, the Grecian god of medicine was viewed by -some through a veil of superstition brought from the East. In connection -with statues of him were things the meaning of which would be entirely -unintelligible without a previous knowledge of ideas entertained in -Assyria and other countries. One of these, the special theme of this -chapter, is very interesting because of its historical connections. A -study of it brings to light much exceedingly interesting information. - -The pine- or cedar-cone, or, as some have spoken of it, the pine-apple, -was figured in the hand of the cryselephantine statue of Æsculapius, made -by Calamis for the temple at Sicyon, in Arcadia, as in representations -of Mardux. What was the meaning of this peculiar object? Some have taken -it to have been a phallic symbol. The presence of it on the thyrsus of -Dionysus,[410] brought by him from the East, would seem to support that -view. It has also been regarded as a flame.[411] - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.—THE PINE- OR CEDAR-CONE AS SEEN IN THE HAND OF A -WINGED FIGURE FROM NIMROUD.] - -Whether the cedar-cone of the Sicyonian statue of Æsculapius was -representative of the reproductive organ or of fire or not, it is certain -that it was largely in use by the Babylonians, Assyrians, and others, -to restore health as well as to overcome witchcraft and the like. One -sees it in the hand of the winged, eagle-headed figure from Nimroud, -now in the British Museum, and a cut of the same is given here. Two -similar genii or figures, very like the gryphon of Greek mythology -connected with Apollo, are represented watching, like the cherubim at -the gate of Eden, over the priests who attend about the sacred tree of -life,—that apple-, fig-, palm-, or somo-tree, serpent-guarded, which -yields fruit or ambrosia, in which, as De Gubernatis says, “the life, the -fortune, the glory, the strength, and the riches of the hero have their -beginning,”[412] and which is so prominent in the sculptures and records -of Oriental peoples. The object is often seen extended under the king’s -nose, apparently that he may inhale the vitalizing emanations from it, -after the manner of the ancients’ notion of the mode of reception of the -“breath of life.”[413] It even appears on the tree of life in some of -its conventional forms. Thus, Layard says: “The flowers at the end of -the branches are frequently replaced in later Assyrian monuments and on -cylinders by the fir- or pine-cone, and sometimes by a fruit or ornament -resembling the pomegranate.”[414] - -In connection with what he has to say about the cones on the tree of -life, George Smith expresses the opinion that “the Accadians brought the -tradition of the fir-cones with them from their original seat in the -colder, mountainous land of Media, where the fir[415] was plentiful.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.—THE TREE OF LIFE.] - -The use of the fir-cone in the cure of disease has been made evident -by recent translations of cuneiform inscriptions.[416] It is said by -Lenormant that in a magic fragment as yet inedited the god Hea, the -_averruncus par excellence_, the vivifier and preserver of the human -race which he has created, prescribes to his son Marduk, the mediator, a -mysterious rite which will cure a man whose malady is caused by an attack -of demons. “Take,” says he, “to him the fruit of the cedar, and hold it -in front of the sick person; the cedar is the tree which gives the pure -charm and repels the inimical demons, who lay snares.”[417] - -In the cedar-cone, then, in the hand of the figure of Æsculapius we have -the symbol and instrument of “the life charm,” of which the god Hea was -the master and the son the dispenser; and I may add (as Lenormant has -suggested) that when fruits of this nature adorn the sacred plant they -characterize it more emphatically than ever as the tree of life. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -DIBBARA,[418] A GOD OF PESTILENCE. - - -There does not appear to be an exception to the rule, that every people -has, to a greater or less extent, referred the causation of epidemic -and other diseases to supernatural powers.[419] In Oriental countries -evil spirits were believed to be accountable for it; and, indeed, in the -West, the Red Indians entertained the same notion, as the reader of Mr. -Dorman’s interesting book[420] is well aware. The uncultured mind cannot, -it would seem, grasp the idea that things which the senses cannot readily -perceive may, nevertheless, be entirely natural. - -The Babylono-Assyrians, like the American Indians, believed in the -existence of innumerable bad as well as good spirits; in fact, to them -every object and force in nature was believed to have a _zi_, or spirit, -more or less subject to control.[421] The bad ones, of whom there were -seven emphatically such, delighted in injuring man and afflicting him -with diseases, often taking possession of him. Evidently this doctrine, -when fully developed,—that is, when the bad spirits were almost or quite -as free to act as the good ones, as among the Parsis,—afforded a simple -and very satisfactory explanation of the existence of apparent good and -evil in the world. The practice of medicine, based on such views, could, -at best, be little better than mere Shamanism. - -I may here observe that the Chaldeans and others regarded imprecations -as effective in causing diseases, as well as other evils. In a quotation -from a tablet, given by Lenormant, it is said:— - - “The malevolent imprecation acts on man like a wicked demon; - The voice which curses has power over him.”[422] - -I need hardly say that a very similar belief is still all but universal. -It appears to be instructive. At any rate, it is practiced enormously. -From the “damn you” of the street-urchin to the formal and solemn -“anathema” of the Pope of Rome, we are familiar with all grades of it. - -There has always and everywhere been a tendency to accord great -divinities power to dispense both evil and good. Men have made their -chief gods like themselves, anthropomorphic, variable in their feelings -and actions. Apollo could cause disease and he could remove it.[423] -Of the Hebrews’ God the same is true. Offense at the “sins” of men in -both cases inspires the infliction of pestilential and other diseases. -The numbering of the people by David, although forbidden, leads to the -occurrence of a destructive epidemic.[424] In “Ecclesiasticus” it is -explicitly said, “He that sinneth in the sight of his Maker shall fall -into the hands of the physician.”[425] - -Among those who clothed one evil spirit with imperial power, so to speak, -that spirit has been mainly held accountable for the occurrence of -disease. The Iranian, Angra-Mainyu, furnishes an example. And since the -notion of the “devil” (our devil) began,[426] he has been often charged -with the offense. Thus, we are told in the Bible that it was he that -“smote Job with sores, from the sole of his foot unto his crown.”[427] -Still, in this case he was subject to orders, so to speak. - -Now, it would be strange if, among the evil spirits the exuberant fancy -of uncultured man has called into existence, there were not a leading -one with the special function of causing, at least, pestilential -diseases. Such a one is not met with in the mythology of the Romans, -Greeks, or even the Egyptians;[428] but a remarkable one is found in the -Accadio-Sumerian, Dibbara, the leader of the plague-demons.[429] He was -subject to the orders of Ana and Hea. In the Izdhubar legend of the flood -it is said: “Let Dibbara appear, and let men be mown down.” - -Our knowledge of Dibbara, or Lubara, is largely of modern date. Until -the recent translations of cuneiform inscriptions were made, the records -of him had almost faded out of sight. On his exploits there is an -interesting chapter in George Smith’s “Chaldean Account of Genesis.”[430] -His history promises to throw considerable light on passages in the Bible -and elsewhere. Thus, his title of “the darkening one” appears to have -suggested to the Psalmist the phrase, “The pestilence that walketh in -darkness.”[431] He was, probably, the prototype of the destroying “angel” -spoken of in the Bible.[432] - -Dibbara, like many other personifications of evil, partook of the -serpentine form. Not unlikely he was originally, to a great degree, -similar to, if not identical with, the fabulous dragon combated by -Marduk. This was an embodiment of the chaos of the deep, the principle of -chaos and darkness. He was the serpent of the night, and may have been -primarily the darkness overcome by the sun. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -HYGEIA, THE GODDESS OF HEALTH. - - -The need of a special divinity to preserve people in a state of health -was widely felt, even in very early times. In Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and -elsewhere, this need found pronounced expression. Isis and Istar[433] and -Athene were each, in one way or another, accorded great power over bodily -or mental health. But the Greeks, in their Hygeia, markedly emphasized -and entirely specialized the conception. Here we have an exclusively -health divinity, who had more or less of a counterpart in the SALUS of -the Romans,—a goddess highly esteemed, worshipped on set days, and to -whom a fine temple was devoted at the Eternal City, situated near the -gate called from it Porta Salutaris. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.—SERPENT AND BOWL OF HYGEIA.[434]] - -From the preceding statements, the reader will observe that the -divinities who were specially interested in the preservation of health -were all females. This is an exceedingly interesting fact. It is not an -incongruous one, either. The ancients were keenly alive to the sense of -fitness in things; and hence it is hardly likely that they made a mistake -in Hygeia, the health goddess. From the exercise of the great function of -nurturing and caring for the young of the species, woman has sufficient -claim to the distinction of being, _par excellence_, the guardian of -health. Why the goddess should be a maid rather than a matron is not -extremely clear. Likely the idea was to present in her a woman just -mature and free from blemish, in a typically perfect state. - -However, we have in Hygeia, “daughter of Pæon, queen of every joy,” -to use the appropriate words with which Armstrong starts off in the -invocation to her, at the beginning of his fine poem,[435] a very -interesting and beautiful conception. It is easy to understand why this -divinity became very popular. O Goddess! if— - - “But for thee, - Nature would sicken, nature soon would die,” - -as the author just quoted declares, thy worship might well have become -universal, for without health life is burdensome, a gift of doubtful -value! Health and long life are things mortals have always craved and -always prized. In that interesting Hebræo-Chaldean history, “Tobias,” -Sara, with her husband, gives utterance to a truly human prayer: “Have -mercy on us, O Lord, have mercy on us, and let us grow old both together -in health.”[436] “At heart,” says Dr. Brinton, “all prayers are for -preservation; the burden of all litanies is a begging for life.”[437] - -The symbolic representation of the myth of Hygeia afforded a fine subject -for the sculptors and other artists. Extremely attractive figures of -her were produced. One of them, at least, is doubtless familiar to the -reader. I have reference to the one in which she is represented as a -blooming girl with a serpent twined around her left arm[438] and feeding -out of a _patera_ or chalice held in her right hand. With this ideal -in his mind, the late Dr. Aitken Meigs, in a remarkable address[439] -delivered in 1879, pronounces “the high-born maid” to be “of beauty’s -types, the highest, best idea,” and continues:— - - “Nor fragile she, nor pale, but ruddy, strong, - And gladsome as a tuneful, joyous song; - Her comely form, in swelling curves designed, - Is perfect grace, with glowing strength combined; - Crimson and white in her fair face contend, - Upon her cheeks in sweet confusion blend; - Her rosy lips excel the coral’s brightness, - Brow, nose, and chin are fleecy ways of whiteness; - Loose, flowing, falls her hair, a golden spray; - Forth from her lustrous eyes she scatters day. - ... - In one small hand a cup she deftly holds, - Whilst round her soft, white arm, in many folds - A serpent twines and from the chalice drinks. - Low crouches sometimes, at her feet, a sphinx. - From these strange emblems learn her character: - How very cunning she, and how exact her - Knowledge and profound; how with wondrous skill - Her youth renews, and is discreet and still.” - -As will be observed, Dr. Meigs gives an explanation of the symbols -usually connected with figures of Hygeia, whom he regarded as to the -physician what the chosen maid was to the knight of old,—the patron -saint. The view taken of the serpent is not satisfactory, although better -than that held by Cuvier, namely, that it is “to show that temperance -is the source of lengthened life.”[440] And if one take the reptile to -be symbolic of the art of healing, why it should be connected with the -goddess of health is not clear. In this connection its presence might -imply that it is only through medicine that health can be preserved. -Taking it as symbolic of life, one has little difficulty in understanding -its appropriateness. Closely attached to her, and drawing nourishment -from a chalice held in her hand, the meaning might be, that health and -life are intimately related to each other, the former sustaining the -latter. Regarding it, however, as simply a _bonus genius_ is not out -of the way. The mode of representing it at Rome and elsewhere strongly -supports this view, namely, encircling the altar of the goddess, with the -head extending over it.[441] In Teutonic mythology, “the white lady with -the snake” was associated with medicinal springs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.—HYGEIA. (As given in Murray’s Mythology.)] - -According to the mythological record, Hygeia[442] was the daughter of the -god of medicine, Æsculapius. Of her personal history one might almost -say that it is a blank. - -Numerous representations of Hygeia were to be found in Greece, and later -in Rome. One was usually placed by the side of each of Æsculapius. - -The worship of Hygeia began soon after that of Æsculapius and became -wide-spread and popular. The Romans were quite as devoted in their -attentions to her as the Greeks. - -I have said sufficient already to indicate that there was no divinity -precisely similar to Hygeia in Egypt, or any eastern country. Some of the -great goddesses were believed to exercise functions akin to hers.[443] -Indeed, many of the prominent divinities, from the spouse of Hea down, -had accorded to them more or less control over affairs of health and -life. Dr. Meigs conveys a wrong impression when he says:— - - “Hygeia, daughter of Asclepios, - Descended from Apollo Delios, - Adored as Maut[444] beside the mystic Nile, - With Amen-Ra in Theban peristyle.”[445] - -There is about as much reason to say that Athene was Hygeia, as that Maut -was, or Isis, although, as Ebers says, she was the divinity “to be called -on to destroy the germs of disease.”[446] Arguments could be advanced in -favor of the idea that Hygeia sprang into existence as a personification -of the great serpent-accompanied virgin, river-mist, or cloud-goddess, -Pallas Athene, in her capacity of health-preserver. The claim in regard -to Isis is little or no better; and, in fact, one form of Isis, called -Neith, or Neit, the great mother of the sun-god, Ra, and the titular -goddess of Sais, has always[447] been believed to correspond closely with -Athene. The former was not only usually accompanied by a serpent, like -the latter, but was often represented by one; still, the same might be -said of, perhaps, all the Egyptian goddesses. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -MEDICAL TALISMANS. - - -It is well at the start to form a definite conception of what a -talisman means. It is a species of charm; it differs from an amulet. -Both are of the character of fetiches; that is, objects in nature, or -of art, believed to possess magical power. If the object be ascribed -consciousness and other mental attributes, it is, properly speaking, an -idol. Unlike the amulet, the talisman, to be effective, need not be kept -about the person. But the main characteristic feature of the talisman is -astronomical, or, rather, astrological; it is accorded virtue principally -because made when two planets are in conjunction, or when a star has -reached its culminating point. As one would expect, it has been customary -to have something about the talisman to indicate that it is such; but -many engravings found on them have no astronomical import at all. - -The talisman[448] has a long history. To know when it came into use -one must go back to the time when the study of the stars and their -influence, real or supposed, on mundane affairs began. Although it has -been asserted[449] that Adam acquired a knowledge of astrology through -inspiration, it is safe to hold that the Accadian[450] star-gazers, -inhabitants of the hills of Elam, first gave shape to this, in great -part, pseudo-philosophy of nature, which was widely believed in by many -peoples, and still has numerous sincere adherents everywhere. Mr. Proctor -ventures to declare that “the idea that the stars in their course rule -the fate of men and nations”[451] is a predominant one of the race.[452] -In Babylonia, Assyria, Phœnicia, Egypt, and elsewhere, it received much -attention; indeed, it was part and parcel of the prevailing religions, -most of the Oriental systems being largely astronomical in origin. And -the Chaldean or, rather, Accadian astrologer’s work is obvious enough to -this day;[453] it is seen in the division of time into the week of seven -days, with the seventh one of rest, the Sabbath,[454] and the mode of -regulation of religious times and seasons,[455] to say nothing of the -signs of the zodiac, and so on. - -It is stated by Vitruvius[456] that astrology[457] was brought from the -East to Greece[458] by the Chaldeans, of whom Berosus, the historian, -“the first of them,” settled at Cos and opened a school there. However -this may be, it is stated in Ptolemy’s remarkable book[459] that medical -astrology originated in Egypt. - -Hippocrates, who lived a century or so before Berosus, had certainly a -knowledge of astrology. Galen wrote a book on it, and, like Hippocrates, -gives special prominence to the influence of the moon, dwelling -particularly on its production of critical changes in diseases. Many -another physician thought it necessary to master it,[460] including -Chaucer’s “Doctor of Physick,” who was “grounded in astronomie.”[461] - -From the fact that astrology and religion were closely connected, it -almost necessarily followed that medical talismans possessed more or less -of a religious significance. - -Among the talismanic gems pictured in De Wilde’s book[462] is one -which has on one side the Greek letters ΙΑΩ, signifying the Creator -of the world, or Jehovah; and on the other a representation of an -extremely _erotic_ and rather misshapen lion rampant. This, worn in a -ring, was said to prevent renal and other diseases. De Wilde observes, -in accordance with a belief of ancient date, that in this figure one -has health symbolized. Says he: “_Leo erectus verum signum sanitatis -protendit._” - -What has just been said leads me to remark that the phallus, which was a -common form of the _genius loci_, or Agathodæmon, was widely believed -to have great power to protect against harm. In it was a sovereign -preventive of malign fascination, or the influence of the evil eye. The -Roman god, Fascinus,[463] had it as his chief symbol. It is well known -that this charm was sometimes placed on houses[464] in Pompeii, with the -inscription, _hic habitat felicitas_. Aubrey says: “In the digging of the -ruins and foundations of London, after the great conflagration, there -were found several little Priapusses of copper, about an inch long, wᶜʰ -the Romans did weare about their necks.”[465] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.—THE DIVINE NAME. (As seen on a talismanic gem, -copied from De Wilde’s book.)] - -In regard to the ΙΑΩ, JΑΩ, or JAO, a variation of JAH,[466] the name -of the Deity, the demiurge, the Sabaoth of the Phœnicians and others, -I may say that it was regarded as possessing in itself irresistible -talismanic power. Fort remarks that “as a talisman of medical properties -it was carried about the person in tubes, or, more generally, on -parchment.”[467] Let me add that the Tetragrammaton—that is, J H V H, -or, as it is commonly rendered, Jehovah—was the same thing as the ΙΑΩ. -Much could be said about it, as those familiar with Masonic legends and -occult literature are aware. Lenormant states, of the wide belief in the -power of the hidden “name of the Lord,” that “we now see clearly that it -came from Chaldea.”[468] Elsewhere, reference is made to the potent word -which Hea bore in his heart. - -In this connection I may say a word on the “triliteral monosyllable” of -the Brahmin and Buddhist, AUM, to which still, as in the past, great -potency is attached. Being a symbol of the Supreme, it is characterized -as “that which passes not away.” Dr. Birdwood remarks that it is “the -identical formula of every Hindu god. The letter A is the _vija-mantra_ -of the male Buddha, the generative power; U, the ditto of the female -_dharma_ (law), the type of productive power; and M, the _sanga_ -(congregation) or union of the essences of both.”[469] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.—FORMS OF THE PRESCRIPTION SYMBOL.] - -The symbol placed at the head of medical prescriptions, and which is -usually believed to stand for _recipe_, may be regarded as a sort of -obsolete talisman. The original form of it appears to have been a figure -like a Z, with the lower horizontal part crossed with a sceptre-shaped -line. This, or a modification of it, has been from time immemorial the -symbol of the planet Jupiter. Hence the reason, it has been asserted, -for placing it at the head of prescriptions; for the great planet, the -bearer of the name of the father of life, was believed in other days to -have a favorable influence over diseases. And here I may observe that in -another chapter I have spoken of the interesting fact that Marduk[470] -of the Babylono-Assyrians stood for Jupiter, and that in him was -assimilated the benignant mediator and healer of the Accadio-Sumerians, -Silik-mulu-khi. - -The symbol is generally described as being simply the initial letter -of Zeus, the Greek name of Jupiter. But this leaves part of it out of -account, a part which might be taken to be a sceptre, an object which, -accompanied by a serpent, as the symbol of life, was prominent in -representations of Jupiter. But one might with some reason regard it as -made up of the initial and terminal letters of Zadykiel, or Zadakiel, -the angel and the spirit of the great planet, according to astrologers -and others. And again, by taking it to be composed of an R and an l, one -might hold it to be derived from the name of Raphael, the angel of the -sun. But, as already stated, it is probable that the body of the original -figure was not an R. I may add that Mr. Taylor says that this ideogram -“resolves itself into an arm grasping a thunderbolt.” - -If the prescription-mark be a thing of astrological origin, it is a -remnant of an extensive body of facts and theories, long highly prized. -Shakspere makes _King Lear_, in an interesting passage, characterize -the reference of man’s destiny “to the sun, the moon, and the stars,” -as “the excellent foppery of the world;”[471] but no doubt innumerable -hosts of believers in the system were thoroughly sincere. From the days -when the Accadians became distinguished for their observations of the -heavens, down to very recent times, medical astrology occupied a position -in popular thought and esteem which almost exceeds the power of credence -of the modern scientific physician. Not only in administering medicines, -but in gathering medicinal herbs, the position of the planets had to be -considered; for it was believed that the herbs got their virtues from -them. Without the benign influence of the “host of heaven,” no good could -be expected from the physician, or his remedies. - -The belief in the power of the different constellations of the zodiac -over special parts of the body and their diseases is still indicated by -the curious figure often seen in almanacs. - -ABRAXAS-STONES are largely medical in character—medical talismans.[472] -Much might be said of them. Fort remarks: “These gems, endowed with -omnipotent curative and talismanic power, quickly acquired a celebrity -undiminished for ages, and whose possible interpretation even yet -attracts erudite attention.”[473] - -Each of these remarkable objects consisted of a piece of glass, paste, -or other mineral substance, occasionally a metallic one, on which was -usually some figure, often a serpent, or inscription, together with the -word “abraxas,” which constituted their distinctive feature. - -The Greek letters of the mystical word, “abraxas,” equaled in numerical -value 365,[474] the number of days in the year. After speaking of the -serpent of evil on one, Sharpe says: “Underneath it is written the -magical word Abrasa, _hurt me not_, an Egyptian word, which the Greeks -made use of, as believing that the evil spirits were better acquainted -with the Egyptian language than with the Greek.”[475] Not a few, however, -believe that the word is not such at all. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.—ABRAXAS-STONE. (From De Wilde.)] - -The abraxas-stones are believed to have originated with the Basilidian -Gnostics, a sect which Basilides, a Syrian by birth, who lived under -Trajan and his successor, in the latter half of the first century, was -instrumental in originating. Whether they were intended at first to be -simply a means of recognition is an undecided question. Those given to -magic adopted them largely. The opinion has been expressed that doubtless -the greater part of the stones were made in the middle ages.[476] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -MEDICAL AMULETS. - - -Any object believed to be possessed of a mysterious power of warding off -or removing evil of any kind may be regarded as an amulet. A medical -amulet is one capable of warding off or of removing a disease or -diseases. The prevention of disease, or, what is much the same thing, the -preservation of health, is the use to which it has been chiefly put. This -is quite as true of its use to-day as formerly. - -In speaking of medical amulets one has no reason to use only the past -tense. They are still much used, as the reader of Brande, or of the -publications of the Folk-Lore Society, or of _Notes and Queries_, well -knows. Nor are the patrons of them of the illiterate class only. Every -physician has, doubtless, met with instances of their use by persons of -intelligence. Here is a clergyman who carries a chestnut in his pocket to -keep off rheumatism; and there is an attorney-at-law who keeps a stolen -potato about him for the same purpose. In ancient times, however, their -use was extremely common, all but universal. - -Of the practical value of amulets I may say, without hesitancy, that it -is very great. Of course it would be irrational to hold that they act, to -any extent, otherwise than through impressions made by them on the mind. -Such impressions may undoubtedly be powerful for good. That this is the -case few competent to form an opinion on the subject will question. The -intelligent reader of history, as well as the scientific psychologist -and physician, has abundant reason to know that it is true. I repeat what -I have deliberately said elsewhere: “Amulets do serve, in a measure, to -prevent disease. Anything which inspires confidence and hope is sanative -in its effects. Faith is a powerful healer.”[477] - -A gem with a symbol of one kind or another engraved on it was, from an -early period, an ordinary medical amulet. A common symbol was a figure of -Hygeia; and one of Serapis was long quite as common. The name of Raphael -(literally healer of God), the patron angel of the early Christians, was -often shown on both amulets and talismans. This angel had a reputation -as a healer,[478] as the reader familiar with “Tobias” is aware. In that -historical book, it is said that when Tobias and Sara were afflicted “the -holy angel of the Lord, Raphael, was sent to heal them both.”[479] Tobias -was told by him that if he put a little piece of a fish’s heart upon -coals the smoke thereof would drive away all kinds of devils, either from -man or woman, and that they would not return.[480] - -A serpent was a very familiar object on gems used as amulets. The later -Egyptians, who were great believers in such things, were very partial -to it. Among the objects found by General Di Cesnola, in Cypress, was -a scarabæoid of banded agate, on which are engraved two asps with a -cartouche between, inscribed with the word εχις. In reference to this -word he says: “It can be no other than έχις, the old form of εχιδνα, and -may possibly be a proper name after the analogy of Draco, not uncommon -in Greece; and Echidna, whose amour with Hercules Herodotus relates. Or, -if taken in its primary sense the word may constitute an amulet against -the asps, still so plentiful in Cyprus, and to be of the nature of those -prophylactic rings against snake-bites alluded to by Aristophanes.[481] -Arab amulets, at the present day, bear the figure of the thing against -which they exert their virtue, and all Oriental practices in this line -come down from immemorial antiquity.”[482] - -I may remark that the use of images of things feared to save from them -has, indeed, been extensively practiced. The cause and the effect, in -many afflictions, might be so used. The golden emerods and mice, spoken -of in the Bible, are instances.[483] The same idea may have had something -to do with the use of the brazen serpent of Moses. The Chaldeans, in -resorting to this peculiar plan of dealing with their evil spirits, -represented them, says Lenormant, “under such hideous forms that they -believed that it was sufficient for them to be shown their own image to -cause them to flee away alarmed.”[484] And this leads me to say that -great medical virtues have been held to spring from things repulsive. -Thus, water drank from the skull of a suicide has received credit for the -cure of many a case of epilepsy. Tasting the blood of a murderer has been -resorted to successfully in cases of the same disease. - -A word in this connection about ADDER-STONES may not be amiss. These -objects have long been regarded by many as charms or amulets of great -power. They are simply the whorls or rude fly-wheels put on spindles -of spinning-wheels. Dr. A. Mitchell discusses them at length in his -interesting archæological work.[485] - -Under the head of medical amulets are to be classed many things, such -as BLESSED OBJECTS and RELICS of various kinds. The extent to which -these were used, century after century, down even to our own day, is -surprising. The interested reader may advantageously turn to Fort’s -learned work.[486] The sprinkling of “holy water”[487] over patients by -pious Catholics is familiar to every physician. I have seen a few drops -of water from Lourdes given by a priest to his mother, sinking from -lung disease. A few weeks ago I saw a cup of water in which a little -earth from Knock, in the south of Ireland, was mixed, given with great -confidence in its power for good, in a case of difficult labor. In the -“Zend Avesta” wonderful virtue is ascribed to _gomez_;[488] and the same -thing is equally lauded in the sacred books of the Hindus. What strange -beliefs mortals may have! - -Certain NUMERALS have had remarkable properties accorded them by -philosophical and other speculators. SEVEN has occupied a prominent -position. The primitive Chaldeans, in their study of the heavens, became -acquainted with seven planets, including the sun and moon, and their week -consisted of seven days. With the Egyptians and others the same was the -case. Pythagoras saw in this number the three of the triangle and the -four of the square,—the two perfect figures. It was considered sacred -to Helios and also Apollo. The Hebrew _sheba_ means seven, and was the -symbol of a deity[489] before it came to signify an oath. As a charm or -amulet, the number was believed to be possessed of great potency. Health -was assured by carrying it about the person on a gem or the like. Ebers -illustrates this superstition in one of his splendid historical novels; -he makes Boges, in giving a ring to Crœsus, speak thus:— - -“Take this ring. It has never left my finger since I quitted Egypt, -and it has a significance far beyond its outward worth. Pythagoras, -the noblest of the Greeks, gave it to my mother when he was tarrying -in Egypt to learn the wisdom of our priests, and it was her parting -gift to me. The number seven is engraved upon the simple stone. This -indivisible number represents perfect health, both to soul and body, -for health is likewise one and indivisible. The sickness of one member -is the sickness of all; one evil thought allowed to take up its abode -within our heart destroys the entire harmony of the soul. When you see -this seven, therefore, let it recall my heart’s wish that you may ever -enjoy undisturbed bodily health and long retain that loving gentleness -which has made you the most virtuous and, therefore, the healthiest of -men.”[490] - -As already intimated, the Chaldeans attributed special virtues to -certain numbers, of which seven would seem to have been the most highly -esteemed. Unfortunately, none of their numerical formulæ have as yet -been discovered. The “mamit” or “number” has been referred to before. -Lenormant remarks: “More powerful than the incantations were conjurations -wrought by the power of numbers. In this way the supreme secret which -Hea taught to his son, Silik-mulu-khi, when he consulted him in his -distress, was always called ‘the number.’”[491] - -A remnant of the old belief in the relation of seven to health is the -wide-spread superstitious notion that the seventh son of the seventh son -is possessed of special healing powers. Curiously enough, I had a visit -from such a person, just before writing this; and he as firmly believes -that he can cure “the evil” and other ills with certainty as any king -that ever exercised the royal gift. - -The color RED has long served the purpose of an amulet. To this day a red -string is occasionally seen around the necks of children to protect them -against scarlet fever and other pestilential diseases; and the belief -in the special virtue of red flannel is almost universal. Says Aubrey: -“Johannes Medicus, who lived and wrote in the time of Edward II, and was -Physition to that king, gives an account of his curing the prince of ye -small-pox, a disease but then lately known in England, by ordering his -bed, his room, and his attendants to be all in scarlet, and imputes ye -cure in great measure to the virtue of ye colour.”[492] The same was done -in the case of the Emperor Francis I, in 1765. - -Of red it is certainly true that it is a warm color; and the impression -of it on the mind is stimulating. Experiments have shown that different -colors exert various influences over living forms, including man. - -But, although medical virtues have been ascribed to red, it has been -looked on as anything but good. Says Ebers: “In the ‘Papyrus-Ebers’ all -injurious and evil things are called red.”[493] The scorching sands of -the desert, likely, gave the Egyptian his dislike to the color. In the -Hindu book of the law,[494] a man is forbidden to marry a girl with -reddish hair, but why is not stated. Satan is usually given a suit of -fiery hue. - -The ANKH was a symbol of the Egyptians signifying life. It received the -Latin name of _crux ansata_, or handled cross, from its shape. Sometimes -it is spoken of as the key of life. Each of the great divinities carries -one. “We do not know,” says Kenrick, “the reason why life was represented -by the _crux ansata_.”[495] It seems, however, that the object was at -first simply a crossed pole, used to measure the degree of rise in the -waters of the Nile during the period of flood, an annual occurrence of -vital importance to the inhabitants of the historic region. From this -originated, according to Pluche and others, the meaning of life attached -to it. In the hand of Thoth, a serpent was sometimes twined around it. -From it has sprung, according to Gerald Massey, many modern symbols and -words. “It is extant,” says he, “in the great seals of England, in a -reversed position, as the token of power and authority;”[496] and he -ventures to affirm that “to be anxious is to be very much alive.”[497] - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.—ANKH, OR CRUX ANSATA.] - -Regarded as a TAU or T[498] with a link attached, it was often -interpreted as Typhon chained. As such it was customary to suspend it -as an amulet from the necks of children and sick people; and it was -connected with the wrappings of mummies. M. Pluche, who has gone at -length into this interesting subject, says: “This custom of bridling the -powers of the enemy, and of hanging a captive Typhon about the necks of -children, of sick persons, and of the dead, appeared so beneficial and -so important that it was adopted by other nations. The children and the -sick most commonly wore a ticket, whereon was a T, which they looked -upon as a powerful preventive. In process of time, other characters were -substituted in the room of the letter T, which was at first engraved -on this ticket, but of which the other nations understood neither the -meaning nor intention. They often put a serpent on it, an Harpocrates, or -the object of the devotions in vogue; nay, sometimes ridiculous figures, -or even some that were of the utmost indecency. But the name of _amulet_ -that was given to the ticket, and which signifies the removal of evil, -most naturally represents the intention of the Egyptians, from whom this -practice came.”[499] - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.—HEALTH, IN HIEROGLYPHICS.] - -A SCEPTRE (Tem), which, alone, may signify strong, in connection with the -ankh stands for strong life, or health. This combination is seen on one -of the faces of the obelisk now in London. - -TOUCH-PIECES, or golden eagles, were special coins first issued by King -Henry VII to persons “touched for the evil.” One side of the piece bore -an angel standing on a dragon, with the inscription, _Soli Deo gloria_, -and the other a ship in full sail. Some had other designs. A hand -extending from above was often given,—an old symbol of healing, being -in use in Egypt, and generally having in connection with it a serpent, -or a figure of Serapis.[500] The hand of the Lord so frequently spoken -of in the Bible may have suggested it. Specimens of those issued by -Charles II and James II are to be seen in the collection of coins now -in the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Memorial Hall, -Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. There are cuts of several in Pettigrew’s -work.[501] - -The touch-pieces were carefully preserved and used as amulets. - -The practice of touching for the evil by English sovereigns, from -Edward the Conqueror down to Queen Anne, did not originate with them. -Tacitus[502] gives an interesting account of the cure of a case of -blindness and of one of paralysis, in the same way, by Vespasian. Every -Bible-reader knows that it was resorted to in Palestine. But it was in -vogue in Greece three centuries before our era. In his “Life of Pyrrhus,” -Plutarch says: “It was believed that he cured the swelling of the spleen -by sacrificing a white cock, and with his right foot gently pressing the -part affected, the patients lying upon their backs for the purpose. There -was no person, however poor or mean, to whom this relief, if requested, -was refused. He received no reward except the cock for sacrifice, and -this present was very agreeable to him.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.—A MEDICINE-BAG.] - -The MEDICINE-BAG of the North American Indians has been almost -universally regarded by that race as of wonderful virtue in warding off -harmful influences of all kinds. It has served them as a preventive, and -also, like Prince Ahmed’s apple, as a cure for every disease. Catlin says -he found that “every [male] Indian, in his primitive state, carries his -medicine-bag in some form or other, to which he pays the greatest homage -and to which he looks for safety and protection through life.”[503] -The same writer, who, I may remark, had a very wide acquaintance -among Indians, pronounces it to be “the key to Indian life and Indian -character.”[504] - -The contents of this mysterious bag, this “bag of wonders,” are preserved -a secret, one which none wishes to discover. These consist of a medicinal -herb, or the like, with some packing-material, such as dried grass or -moss. - -The medicine-bag is formed from the skin of a human being or some -reptile, bird, or other creature. The suggestion of the substance to be -used was left to a dream, inspired by the “great spirit,” and experienced -during the fast indulged in about puberty, the time when the Indian -“makes his medicine;” that is, learns what animal is to be his guardian, -as it were. Various ornaments are attached to it. - -The medicine-bag is attached to the belt or carried in the hand. No other -possession could be compared with it in value, and money could not buy -one. It is buried with its owner. - -As already hinted, the medicine-bag is not considered of medical import -only; it is believed to have a power over all injurious influences. By -“medicine” the Indian has reference to everything he cannot understand. -Catlin and others are doubtless right in their opinion that it came from -the French word for doctor, _médecin_. It is the _manito_ or _manitou_ -of the Algonkin, the _oki_ of the Iroquois, and the _teotl_ of the Aztec. -And, curious to observe, these words also mean serpent. - -I may also explain here that the “medicine-man” is not alone the -physician; he deals with the mysterious generally. There were three -kinds: the Jossakeeds, or seers or prophets; the Medas, or medical -practitioners; and the Wabenos, a class that indulged in night orgies. - -In Miss Emerson’s book it is said that “the dress of the Medas of the -celebrated Mandan Indians, whose tribe is now extinct, was a medley of -the animal and vegetable kingdom. All anomalies in nature were used as -of great medical effect in the construction of this professional guard. -The skin of the yellow bear usually formed the most important feature of -the dress, and to this was sometimes attached the skins of snakes and -the hoofs of deer, goats, and antelopes.”[505] The appearance of such a -“doctor” was surely sufficient to frighten away most of the evil spirits -which were the source of human ills. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -PHARMACISTS’ SYMBOLS. - - -The art of the pharmacist is old; it is assuredly of prehistoric origin. -The reader of Dioscorides or of Pliny is astonished at the number of -herbs and other things used as medicines and the complexness of many -popular prescriptions. Referring to the pharmacist, it is curiously -observed, in “Ecclesiasticus,” that “of his works there shall be no -end.”[506] In other days than ours there was evidently a morbid taste for -the multiplication of remedies of doubtful worth,—a deplorable infirmity -of many physicians. - -It is stated by Ebers, in his “Egyptian Princess,” that each of the -Egyptian temples had its laboratory and apothecary. There is a list of -two hundred drugs which were kept in the temple of Edfu. But just when -the preparation and sale of medicines became a special business cannot -be stated. In early times it was customary for the physician to compound -his own prescriptions, as is done in rural places yet. Mr. Fort remarks -that “toward the conclusion of the third century the first indications -present themselves of the existence of a class of [Roman] citizens to -whose vigilant care was confided the preparation of medicaments ordered -by attendant physicians.”[507] The same writer says: “The storage of -medicinal supplies seems to have approximated the pharmacy in the twelfth -century, although even earlier the word _apothecary_ appears to have -been interchangeable with the booth where assorted wares were offered at -public sale.”[508] At the end of the twelfth century the Bishop of London -was named _apothecarius_, or pharmacist, to King Henry,—a fact which -proves that the art of Bolus was then, at least, highly esteemed. - -Now, although the establishment of the pharmacist has mysteries in -abundance connected with it, the special symbols pertaining to the -business are but few. The chief and most characteristic one is the MORTAR -AND PESTLE. In Larwood and Hotten’s interesting book it is said: “One -of the signs originally used exclusively by apothecaries was the mortar -and pestle, their well-known implements for pounding drugs.”[509] In an -attractive form and generally gilded, it is to be seen at nearly all -pharmacies in this country. Only occasionally is it pictured. I know an -instance in Philadelphia where Cupid is represented in connection with -it; but this is as absurd an addition as the negro youth who is using the -pestle in another. An eagle—the national bird—is sometimes represented -hovering over it. The pestle used for grinding corn was deified by the -Romans under the name of Pilumnus. In connection with the mortar it is -highly spoken of in the sacred books of the Hindus. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.—MORTAR AND PESTLE.] - -The skull and cross-bones has come to be of pharmaceutical significance. -Placed on the label of a vial, it implies that the contents are -poisonous, and should be used with intelligence and care. It has been -in use from an early date as an emblem of death. Formerly, it was often -placed on tombstones. - -BOTTLES or VASES, colored or containing colored liquids, are of -pharmaceutic import. The question of the origin of their use as signs is -often asked. It cannot be definitely answered. But, as to how the custom -originated one may confidently say that it arose from the common-sense -desire of the dealer in medicinal wares to make the fact obvious to the -passer-by. The confectioner does essentially the same thing, and so, -indeed, do the grocer and many others. - -By turning to Larwood and Hotten’s book it will be seen that a golden -bottle has been used as a banker’s and a goldsmith’s sign; also, that -bottles of various kinds have in other days, as now, decorated many a -tavern-front. - -Hence, a bottle or vase can hardly be regarded as a symbol, and much less -the exclusive symbol of a dealer in medicines. If it were similar in -every instance, and had something special in its form or color, or both, -it might be so regarded. - -As it is, one cannot very well regard it in any other light than as a -part of the dealer’s ordinary stock. Still, it must be said that there -is something decidedly distinct and special about it, as seen in the -pharmacist’s window. - -In this country, at least, the shape of the vase or vases (for there are -generally three or four) and their color are not subject to any rule; -and, in fact, there are a few stores in Philadelphia in which there are -none. The favorite colors seem to be light green, claret, light blue, and -amber. - -It is very probable that the presence of special colored liquids in -show-bottles does not date back much farther than, if as far as, -1617,—the time when the apothecaries became a distinct class from -grocers, in England. Certainly, some of the beautiful shades of color -are very modern. - -Exhibiting bottles containing actual medicines is doubtless a much more -ancient practice than that of exhibiting them for the sake of their own -showiness or that of the solutions placed therein. That has, in all -probability, been customary from the time when dealing in drugs began. -When was that? - -It is known that the art of the pharmacist and trading in drugs were -practiced at an early period in Egypt. Thus, in the “Papyrus-Ebers,” -which was written 1600 years before our era, we learn that for most -diseases remedies were prescribed, drawn from all three kingdoms of -nature, and in some instances were brought from distant lands. The -prescriptions, I may add, were compounded according to exact weights and -measures. Two recipes for pills are given: one with honey for women, and -one without it for men. One for the preparation of a hair-dye, ascribed -to the mother-in-law[510] of the first king of Egypt is given, which -Ebers states[511] to be the earliest of all recipes preserved to us, the -date of its origin being about 4000 B.C. - -I could give many Egyptian and other ancient references to fancy vessels -of glass and other materials used in the pursuit of ministering to the -sick. One extremely interesting direct reference to the use of medicinal -vases at a very early date has recently been brought to the attention of -the public. I refer to a translation of an Assyrian fragment made by Mr. -J. Halevy, given in “The Records of the Past.”[512] It is so interesting -from several points of view that I will give it here in its entirety:— - - “For the eruptions and humors which afflict the body: - Fill a vase which has held drugs with water from an inexhaustible - well; - Put in it a shoot of ⸺ a ⸺ reed, some date-sugar, some urine, - some bitter hydromel - Add to it some ⸺; - Saturate it with pure water [and] - Pour upon it the water of the [sick] man. - Cut reeds in an elevated meadow; - Beat some pure date-sugar with some pure honey; - Add some sweet oil which comes from the mountain; - Mix them together. - Rub [with this ointment] the body of the [sick man].” - -The reference to the “art of the apothecary” made in the Bible[513] has -been regarded as “the first recorded notice upon the subject of medicine -and pharmacy,”—as, for example, by the late professor, Dr. George B. -Wood;[514] but here we have explicit evidence that farther back, say -1000 years before the time of Moses, people were in the habit of having -medicines stored in vases of a set kind, and that the Babylonians had -considerable pharmaceutical knowledge, as well as that their medical -practice was not exclusively magical; or, as Mr. Halevy puts it, “it -proves that the Babylonians were in the possession of a rational medicine -as well as a magical one.”[515] He further remarks that it is “the only -known specimen of an Assyro-Babylonian prescription.” - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -MISCELLANEOUS MEDICAL SYMBOLS. - - -THE BARBER’S AND SURGEON’S POLE.—The peculiar pole made use of by barbers -as a sign seems to have been medical in origin. For a long time the -barber performed all the duties of the surgeon. It was in the year 1461 -that, on petition, King Edward IV granted “the freemen of the Mystery of -Barbers of the city of London, using the mystery or faculty of surgery,” -“the mystery,” which constituted the beginning of the present Royal -College of Surgeons of England.[516] It was not, however, until the -middle of the eighteenth century (1745) that each began to limit his -functions. - -The sign is generally explained thus: The pole represents a stick, -usually held in his hand by the patient while getting bled, and the -red and white spiral stripes, blood and a bandage, respectively. The -colors, it may be observed, are not always arranged in spiral parallel -stripes; nor are the colors limited to red and white. The use of blue -with, or even without, red is partly allowable, on account of venous -blood being somewhat bluish in hue. Mr. Jeaffreson, indeed, says that -“the chirurgical pole, properly tricked out, ought to have a line of blue -paint, another of red, and a third of white,”[517] spirally arranged. - -On the top of the pole there is usually placed, in Great Britain, France, -and other European countries, a brass basin, with a semicircular gap in -one side. This vessel is used by the barber to keep the clothes of his -patrons from being soiled. With a gallipot, instead of the basin, one -has the real pole of the surgeon, which has been extensively used as a -sign. Without either, it is in use by the barbers in this country. Lord -Thurlow, a member of the House of Commons, delivered a speech on the 17th -of July, 1797, in opposition to the Surgeons’ Incorporation Bill, in -which he said: “By a statute, still in force, the barbers and surgeons -were each to use a pole. The barbers were to have theirs blue and white -striped, with no appendage; but the surgeons’, which was the same in -other respects, was likewise to have a gallipot and a red flag, to denote -the particular nature of their vocation.” - -THE COLOR YELLOW.—It is a well-known fact that yellow is a -characteristically medical color. A flag of this color is in use at -lazarettos, and it is often placed at plague-stricken spots, as a warning -to the observer to keep away. How is the medical import of the color to -be accounted for? In Christian symbolism it signifies faith, but one -must turn, I believe, to astrology to learn the reason of its medical -significance. To the astrologer, yellow was the color of the sun; and -it was to this planet, anciently so regarded, that the possession of -greatest influence over disease was accorded. - -THE PHYSICIAN’S CONVEYANCE.—It is said that Asclepiades, the ancient -quack, perambulated the world on a cow’s back, living on her milk as -he went along. We have no reason to believe that such a mode of moving -from point to point ever became a professional custom; but physicians in -recent times have always had, in most places, characteristic methods of -travel, in their rounds among their patients. - -It appears that, previous to the reign of Charles II, it was customary -for the English doctors to visit on horseback, “sitting,” as Jeaffreson -says, “sideways on foot-cloths, like women.”[518] At any rate, Aubrey -says that Harvey “rode on horseback with a foot-cloth, his men following -on foot, as the fashion then was, which was very decent, now quite -discontinued.”[519] Later, carriages of various kinds, some very showy, -came into vogue. - -For many years the physicians of Philadelphia, as of other prominent -American cities, have been known, as they have gone about their duties, -by their use of a special form of phaeton. It is a four-wheeled -conveyance, with a fixed top, and is drawn by one horse. Riding in it -is pleasant, and its generous top protects well in bad weather. Several -years ago a two-wheeled modification of it was introduced, but it did not -become popular, and of late has been disappearing. By a few of the more -well-to-do in the profession, two-horse carriages of various styles are -used; but there is nothing characteristic about them. - -THE PHYSICIAN’S GOLD-HEADED CANE.—Much might be written about the -gold-headed cane of the physician. Although it has had its day, it -was long considered an important part of a medical outfit. Jeaffreson -ventures to affirm that formerly “no doctor would have presumed to pay -a professional visit, or even to be seen in public, without this mystic -wand.”[520] What was its history? Did it come down to our time as a -representative of the one placed in the hand of the god of medicine -by the artists? Jeaffreson expresses the opinion that it is “a relic -of the conjuring paraphernalia with which the healer in ignorant and -superstitious times always worked upon the imagination of the credulous,” -and that “it descended to him from Hermes and Mercurius.” “It was a -relic,” he adds, “of old jugglery, and of yet older religion.”[521] -As the reader is aware, these statements are open to criticism. But, -whatever its origin may have been, it was almost universally used by -physicians until recently. - -The physician’s cane was generally smooth, of moderate weight, and with -a gold head in the form of a knob. A gold head! What was the meaning -of that? Was it used because of the bearer’s reputed love of the -precious metal? Chaucer says, and with charming casuistry, in the famous -description of his doctor:— - - “For gould in physike is a cordial; - Therefore, he lovede gould in special.”[522] - -It may, then, have been its medicinal virtues, virtues still occasionally -lauded by therapeutic prospectors, which suggested the use of it in the -cane. But, after all, the desire to make a good appearance may have been -the reason for its use. - -The head of the cane was not always solid; on the contrary, it was often, -like many a one’s, doubtless, who carried it, hollow. In the cavity, it -was customary to keep something medicinal, such as ammonia. About this -there was much mystery in the minds of the populace. Jeaffreson, who may -very properly be regarded as of this class, says that the doctor “always -held it to his nose, when he approached a sick person, so that its fumes -might protect him from the noxious exhalations of his patient.”[523] -Something of the kind is still supposed by many to be done. The idea -was entertained by more than a few, that within the head of the cane -existed, in some cases at least, a familiar spirit which gave the owner -extraordinary power. Paracelsus was reputed to have within the pummel of -his long sword, which he used instead of a cane, a genius, in the form of -a bird, which enabled him to perform wonders. Butler speaks of it thus:— - - “Bombastus kept a devil’s bird, - Shut up in the pummel of his sword, - That taught him all the cunning pranks - Of past and future mountebanks.”[524] - -Alchemists said that it was the philosopher’s stone, but it has been with -better reason conjectured[525] that it was laudanum,—an agent which the -bold, talented quack was in the habit of using much with striking results. - -There is preserved, in the College of Physicians of London, a cane which -was carried successively by Drs. Radcliffe, Mead, Askew, Pitcairn, and -Baillie. On it are coats-of-arms used by the distinguished carriers of -it. The gold head of it is in the form of a crooked cross-bar, and not a -knob,—the orthodox one. A book has been written with it for the title, -treating of its several owners.[526] - -THE PHYSICIAN’S DRESS.—At the present time there is nothing about the -dress of the physician symbolic of his calling. Formerly the case was -different. Until less than a century ago, the dress of the members of the -medical profession was both decidedly typical and remarkable. It was worn -last, it is said, by Dr. Henry Revell Reynolds, one of the physicians -of George III. The items of it were: a well-powdered three-tailed wig, -a silk coat, breeches, stockings, buckled shoes, and lace ruffles. Says -Jeaffreson: “Next to his cane, the physician’s wig was the most important -of his accoutrements. It gave profound learning and wise thought to lads -just out of their teens.”[527] If this were the case it should be coaxed -into use again. - -THE PHYSICIAN’S RING.—Among the ancients, rings were held in high -esteem. The signet of Solomon, which had considerable to do with the -building of the great temple, and the ring of Gyges, the shepherd of the -king of Lydia, through which he could become invisible and see people -at pleasure, are examples of the surprising powers often accorded to -them. One was, until a period not far distant, an important item of the -insignia of the medical man. It is spoken of in one of the spurious -Hippocratic works. The seal variety was the orthodox one. Different -stones were used, and on these were engraved various designs. As -indicative of his position, a learned writer says that the doctor wore -the ring “on the third finger of the right hand.”[528] - -The physician’s ring was viewed generally in the light of an amulet, -or talisman. The engraving it bore had much to do with its supposed -virtues; and the stone also gave it special value. Aubrey thus refers to -a sapphire ring: “They say it preserves from infection and pestilential -diseases. See Albertus Magnus _de hoc_. I warrant he has recited virtues -enough of it.”[529] Red carnelian was believed to be curative of -hæmorrhage, and coral of nervous affections. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -MEDICAL SYMBOLISM IN PRACTICE. - - -It is hardly necessary to say to the reader who has followed me this far -that the scope of medical symbolism is not very restricted. In extent -it is obviously not limited; nor is it without variety and the means of -variety enough. Yet how little use does one see made of it! How seldom -do publishers take any advantage whatever of it, on the covers of their -books or anywhere else! And what little is here and there attempted is -apt to be a trifle preposterous, on a par with the misuse of the serpent -by the quack-medicine man, who confounds the most obvious religious -(Christian) significance of it with the medical. - -Examples without limit of questionable medical symbols might be given. -Here is a publisher who makes use of the caduceus of Hermes; there is one -who displays the club of Hercules, with a rather venomous-looking serpent -crawling down it from aloft; and yonder one who exhibits a skull on a -closed book, suggestive of a hopeless meditation on death,—the reverse of -what the physician should indulge in. But, at a time when the absence of -symbols is almost the rule, perhaps one should try to be a little blind -to the faults of those which are met with. - -Of a collection of medical symbols on hand, few are notably good. I may -instance a fair specimen. On the title-page of a journal edited by the -late Dr. Dunglison, a learned and sensible man, _The American Medical -Intelligencer_, which had a brief existence in the latter half of the -fourth decade of this century, appears the figure a copy of which is here -given (Fig. 26). The idea is better than its execution. - -Ideas for symbolic designs of medical import are not scarce. The -instruments and drugs used by the disciples of Æsculapius afford a host, -if one does not wish to turn to mythology or anything allied. But, -although the scientific physician might properly hesitate about using, -say, an emblem of St. Luke, the patron saint of physicians, there are -mythological and related conceptions, many of which might be utilized to -good purpose. Thus, if it be desired to give an Egyptian design on the -cover of a book, say, on obstetrics, the main part of an admirable one -may be found ready at hand on the wall of the great temple at Luxor.[530] -It is the scene—and a sufficiently chaste one, too—of the maiden mother -giving birth to the future king, Amunotoph III, for whom the temple or -palace was erected about 1400 B.C. She is seated on the midwife’s stool, -as described in the Bible,[531] while two nurses have her by the hands, -doing what they can to ease the pains of labor. Or, a representation -of Pasht, Bubastis, or Sekhet, the sister of Horus and mother of -Imhotep,—who generally appeared cat-headed because the cat, a most sacred -animal, was consecrated to her,—would not be inappropriate; for, to use -the words of Ebers, “she seems to have been honored as the deity who -conferred the blessing of children and watched over their birth.”[532] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.—A MEDICAL SYMBOL.] - -But, for a design of obstetrical import, there could probably be few -better than one in which prominence were given to the good housewifery -symbols,—the pestle, hatchet, and broom; those, respectively, of -Pilumnus, a god of children; Intercidona, the goddess who first taught -the art of cutting firewood; and Deverra, the goddess who invented the -broom, that great instrument of cleanness and enemy of the Typhon, or, -I may say, Hydra, of many modern doctors,—the disease-germ: the deities -that saved the pregnant woman from harm from her special enemies, the -unclean sylvan gods. The broom! Wise old Romans! Wiser than the unsteady -enthusiasts of our time, with bottles of carbolic acid in their hands -yesterday and of corrosive sublimate to-day. And with these symbols, -especially if the design were for a work by a female author, there might -be given a figure of Juno Lucina, the special friend of women in labor, -the type of the Eileithyiai, the handmaids of Hera, of the Greeks. - -And here I may observe that, according to ancient custom, the goddess -Juno Lucina should be represented with one hand empty and, as it were, -ready to receive the coming infant, and with the other holding a lighted -torch, a symbol of life. The torch should be erect, for when the flame -is turned downward it signifies death. In the seal of the American -Gynæcological Society, a woman, possibly meant for Juno, is represented -with a torch in her right hand and in the other a sprig of evergreen, -with a baby resting on the arm. This is of obstetric import. The members -of the society, however, consider themselves something else than -midwives. Judging from their title, they might be _petits maîtres_. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -THE PENTACLE. - - -By way of conclusion, and at the risk of running too deep into occult -learning, I will give some account of a remarkable magic figure, of -interest to the physician, about which little appears to be generally -known, but which is often referred to in certain out-of-the-way lines -of study. I refer to the pentacle, or triple triangle, the pentalpha -of Pythagoras, the formulator of a celebrated system of philosophy, -the basal idea of which is that all things sprang from numbers. A -representation of it in its simple form is given herewith. On inspection, -it will be observed that the figure has five arms, or points, five -double triangles, with five acute angles within and five obtuse ones -without; so that, if five—a number made up of the first even (2) and -the first[533] odd one (3)—be possessed of the virtue which the occult -philosophers have asserted, the pentacle must have much. It is, in fact, -the famous legendary key of Solomon, which has played a remarkable rôle -in history. Tennyson, one of the few well-known authors by whom reference -to it is made, speaks of it when he makes one of his characters (Katie) -thoughtlessly draw (it can be done through one stroke)— - - “With her slender-pointed foot, - Some figure like a wizard’s pentagram, - On garden gravel.”[534] - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.—THE PENTACLE.] - -I have said that little is generally known about the pentacle. Here -is some evidence: Ruskin defines it to be “a five-pointed star, or -a double-triangle ornament, the symbol of the trinity”[535]—a wrong -definition, but not quite as bad as that given in Mollett’s handsome -work, to wit: “A figure formed of two triangles, intersected so as to -form a six-pointed star.”[536] The opinion is expressed by Bayard Taylor -that the magical powers attributed to it could be explained by the fact -that, being made up of three triangles, it was a “triple symbol of the -trinity.”[537] This may be true, but it was regarded as possessing -mysterious powers long before Christianity originated. - -A common mistake—the one evidently made by Mollett—of even learned -writers (as, for example, Oliver[538] and Fairholt[539]) is to confound -the pentacle with the seal of Solomon (called also the shield of David), -which consists of two equilateral triangles so arranged as to form a -six-pointed star. - -By the German writers on magic and kindred subjects, the pentacle -is often called _Drudenfuss_,—that is, wizard’s foot,—a term which -Mackey[540] takes to be a corruption of the word for Druid’s foot, by -which people it was in use, being often worn, as a symbol of deity, -on their sandals. As Bayard Taylor, however, says: “_Drud_, from the -same root as Druid, was the old German word for wizard.” In Mr. Blake’s -interesting book,[541] a representation of a very old coin is given, on -which the mystic figure appears. - -The pentacle has been observed on a figure of Anubis, in Egypt. It -is stated[542] that it was used on coins of Antiochus Epiphanes, and -also[543] of Lysimachus. I have seen it stated somewhere that it is one -of the old sect marks of the Hindus; but this is an error, I believe. By -referring to Coleman’s[544] or Birdwood’s[545] work, it will be found -that it is Solomon’s seal which has been so used. It was one of the -totems of the American Indians. Dawson[546] gives a picture of it as seen -sculptured on the Roches Percées, a remarkable solitary mass of sandstone -on the plains west of Manitoba. - -I have said that the pentacle has been observed on a figure of Anubis. -It would appear to have been well known and highly prized by the early -Egyptians, or rather, perhaps, I should say Egypto-Chaldeans, if a recent -writer, Mr. Robert Ballard, is to be believed. He declares that “it is -the geometric emblem of extreme and mean ratio, and the symbol of the -Egyptian pyramid, Cheops.”[547] Let a pentacle be formed within a circle. -Around the interior pentagon of it describe a circle. Around this circle -form a square. “Then will the square represent the base of Cheops.” -Again, draw two diameters to the outer circle, intersecting at right -angles, and each parallel to a side of the square. “Then will the parts -of those diameters, between the square and the outer circle, represent -the four apothems of the four slant-sides of the pyramid.” Still again, -connect by lines the angles of the square with the outer circle at the -four points indicated by the ends of the diameters. Then “the star of -the pyramid is formed, which, when closed as a solid, will be a correct -model of Cheops.” - -Mr. Ballard, it is to be feared, like Mr. Piazzi Smyth, has not the -power to perceive coincidences and after-thoughts. His book, however, is -decidedly original and interesting. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.—THE PENTACLE AND THE GREAT PYRAMID.] - -I may observe that if the plan of the great pyramid was fashioned after -the pentacle, and Mr. Proctor be right in saying that it is identical -with “the ordinary square scheme of nativity,”[548] the figure of the -astrologers used in casting horoscopes, it follows that the pentacle -furnishes also a key to the latter. Then, if it be a fact that the -pyramid was designed by and constructed under the superintendence of -early Chaldeans, one has reason to infer that the pentacle was of -Oriental origin. Probably it was at first a symbol of the sun,—a purpose -for which it has been used by different bodies of mystics, and others. - -It is interesting to notice that the figure was one of the symbols of -the great hero-myth, Quetzalcoatl, a light-god according to some, but -really, according to Reville,[549] a god of the wind, who was generally -represented in the form of a feathered serpent. Thus Dr. Brinton -says: “In one of the earliest myths he is called _Yahualli ehecatl_, -meaning ‘the wheel of the winds,’ the winds being portrayed in the -picture-writing as a circle or wheel, with a figure with five angles -inscribed upon it, the sacred pentagram. His image carried in the left -hand this wheel, and in the right a sceptre with the end recurved.”[550] - -The pentacle has been accorded great potency, and used extensively to -keep off witches and all sorts of evil influences, including the devil -himself, and hence it has served purposes very similar to those to which -the horseshoe has often been put. Aubrey says that it was formerly -used by the Greek Christians, as the sign of the cross is now, “at the -beginning of letters or books for good luck’s sake,”[551]—something which -old John Evelyn was wont to do in his works, and as Southey placed the -puzzling monogram,[552] meant, perhaps, to have similar significance on -the title-page of his book, “The Doctor.” One is found in the western -window of the south aisle of Westminster Abbey, which, doubtless, -the black monks, as they chanted in the choir, often looked on with -superstitious emotion. It may be seen on many a cradle and threshold at -the present day in the Fatherland. - -The readers of Goethe’s great work will remember that Dr. Faust had one -on his threshold, and that, when he began to perceive that there was -something decidedly suspicious about the character of the “poodle,” he -remarked that - - “Für solche halbe Höllenbrut - Ist Salomonis Schlüssel gut.” - -How Mephistopheles himself got in was afterward explained by his showing -that one of the angles of the “Drudenfuss” was left open. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.—HYGEIA, A SYMBOL OF HEALTH.] - -Disciples of the Samian sage, cabalistic[553] Jews and Arabians, and -others, especially Gnostics, long viewed the pentacle as a symbol of -health, and made use of it as an amulet, calling it Hygeia, the name of -the goddess of health. It was so called, and to some extent, likely for a -similar reason, regarded as a sacred symbol of health, because it could -be resolved, it was believed, into the Greek letters which form the word -Hygeia; and these were placed one on each point of the figure.[554] It -was accepted, in fact, as a sort of rebus of the name of the celebrated -daughter of Æsculapius. The scholarly and ingenious reader may be able -to trace, more or less definitely, this reputed similarity. It is an -interesting feature of what is certainly a very remarkable figure. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] That scholarly old writer, Ashmole, well says: “What some light -braines may esteem as foolish toyes, deeper judgments can and will value -as sound and serious matter.” Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum, 1652. - -[2] Ecclesiasticus, xxxix, 1. - -[3] Natural History, xxi. - -[4] Introduction to a Scientific System of Mythology, p. 197. London, -1844. - -[5] A Dictionary of Terms in Art. London, 1854. - -[6] _Ibid._ Article, “Attribute.” - -[7] History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 219. London, 1882. - -[8] Royal Masonic Cyclopædia. London, 1877. - -[9] The Greek form of the name is Asclepios or Asklepios, Ἀσκληπιὸς. The -Latin form being the one in general use, I will adhere to it in this -essay. - -[10] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. iii, p. 23. - -[11] Iliad, xi. - -[12] Ch. xxxviii, v. 3. - -[13] Cicero would appear to have duly prized the physician. I recall a -passage of his to the effect that in no way can man approach so near to -the gods as by conferring health on his fellows. - -[14] Natural History, xxix, 7. - -[15] _Ibid._, xxix, 8. - -[16] Natural History, xxix, 8. - -[17] _Ibid._ - -[18] De Medicinâ. - -[19] Natural History, xxix, 1. - -[20] Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. - -[21] Metamorphosis, xv. Translation by Mr. Welsted. - -[22] Although there is little evidence to show that serpent-worship was -indigenous in Rome, Fergusson holds that “such an embassy being sent on -the occasion in question indicates a degree of faith on the part of the -people which could only have arisen from previous familiarity.” Tree and -Serpent Worship, p. 19. - -[23] The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. ii. - -[24] Livy, x, 47. - -[25] _Ibid_., xxix, 11. - -[26] In his Life of Publicola, Plutarch gives an interesting account of -its origin. The sacrifice of corn and trees on a field belonging to the -Tarquins, in the Campus Martius, had much to do with it. These being cast -into the river, found lodgment at shallows where the island is, which -favored alluvial accumulations. See also Livy, ii, 5. - -[27] It is stated by Sir George Head that it is twelve hundred feet in -length and four hundred in breadth. Rome—A Tour of Many Days, vol. iii, -p. 106. London, 1849. - -[28] A hospital established by Gregory XIII in 1581 and several -residences are also on the island. - -[29] God of fields and shepherds. The Temple of Æsculapius was the most -ancient, having been dedicated A.U.C. 462. - -[30] Pilgrimage of the Tiber, p. 63. London, 1875. Tiberius ascended -the throne, A.D. 14. Plutarch, writing half a century later, says of -the island: “It is now sacred to religious uses.” Life of Publicola. He -states that several temples and porticoes had been built on it, but makes -no reference to a prison. - -[31] Natural History, xxix, 8. - -[32] _Ibid._ - -[33] The Very Reverend Dr. Jeremiah Donovan states, in his learned work, -that “the temple (of Æsculapius) being recorded by the Regionaries must -have existed in the fifth century.” Rome, Ancient and Modern, and its -Environs, vol. iv, p. 431. Rome, 1842. - -[34] Zoological Mythology, or Legends of Animals, vol. i, p. 416. London -and New York, 1872. - -[35] It appears that the serpent has still devotees in Italy. It is said -that what is called a snake festival is held once a year in a little -mountain-church near Naples. Those attending carry snakes around their -necks, arms, or waists. The purpose of the festival is to preserve the -participants from poison and sudden death, and to bring them good fortune. - -[36] The port of Epidaurus not being within several miles of the grove of -Æsculapius, it is very improbable that a serpent found its own way from -the latter to the Roman ship. - -[37] Lives of Illustrious Men. - -[38] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 213. London, 1794. - -[39] Natural History, xxix, 23. - -[40] As by Aristophanes in Plutus. In Liddell & Scott’s Lexicon Πἁρώας is -defined to be “a reddish-brown snake sacred to Æsculapius.” - -[41] Thierleben. Grosse Auflage. Dritte Abtheilung. Erster Band. Seite -348. Leipzig, 1878. - -[42] General Zoology, part ii, p. 452. London, 1802. - -[43] Coronella venustrissima. - -[44] Animal Kingdom, vol. ix, p. 263. - -[45] Reptiles and Birds, p. 92. New York, 1870. - -[46] The Medical and Surgical Reporter for January 5th and 12th, 1884. - -[47] Travels in the Morea, vol. ii. London, 1830. - -[48] Mr. Thos. W. Ludlow, of Yonkers, N. Y., has two interesting letters -on the subject in the New York Nation, September 28, 1882, and February -15, 1883. No comprehensive account has as yet appeared in either the -English, French, or German language. An interesting article on “Æsculapia -as Revealed by Inscriptions,” by Prof. A. C. Merriam, in Gaillard’s -Medical Journal for May, 1885, partly meets the want. - -[49] Geography, viii. Translation in Bohn’s Library. - -[50] Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. - -[51] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 212. - -[52] Στὸ Ἱερὸν, sacred place. - -[53] Mr. Ludlow says, in one of his letters, and also informs me -privately, that Mr. Kavvadias has found the theatre to be without the -peribolus of the Sacred Grove. Following Pausanias, Mr. Leake states it -to be within the enclosure. - -[54] There is reason to hope that Mr. Kavvadias will make valuable -discoveries in excavating its ruins. - -[55] Anything about a physician which might be the means of conveying -disease from one to another is seriously objectionable. Woolen material -is not the proper thing in the outside clothing, and one attending cases -of contagious diseases should not wear gloves, unless he is wont to wash -his hands well after each visit. - -[56] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 213. - -[57] Travels in Morea, vol. ii, p. 428. The Æsculapian priest is not -represented as an honest personage in the “Plutus” of Aristophanes. He -stealthily gathers the cakes from the altars and “consecrates these into -a sack.” - -[58] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 27. - -[59] See note in succeeding chapter. - -[60] Professor A. C. Merriam, in Gaillard’s Medical Journal, May, 1885. - -[61] Professor Merriam’s article; also L’Asclépieion d’Athenès, by Paul -Girard, Paris, 1882. An interesting little book, in which much may be -learned about asclepia and the asclepiades. The Athenian asclepion was -quite famous, and existed until beyond the fifth century. - -[62] Natural History, xxii, 2. - -[63] In reference to the asclepia or asclepions, as he calls them, Draper -says: “An edict of Constantine suppressed those establishments.” And -again: “The asclepion of Cnidus continued until the time of Constantine, -when it was destroyed along with many other pagan establishments.” -History of the Intellectual Development of Europe, pp. 386 and 397. -Revised edition. New York, 1876. - -[64] Asclepion is from Asclepios, the Greek form of the name of the god -of medicine. In Greek it is ἀσκληπιεῖον, meaning Temple of Asclepios. -Æsculapium is of similar meaning. - -[65] Vitruvius, who flourished in the first century before our era, -expresses the opinion that “natural consistency” suggests the selection -of situations affording the advantages of “salubrious air and water” for -“temples erected to Æsculapius, to the goddess of health, and such other -divinities as possess the power of curing diseases.” It materially helped -the divinities. See second edition of his work on Architecture, p. 11, by -Joseph Swift. London, 1860. - -[66] Encyclopædia Britannica, ninth edition. - -[67] See William Adams’ edition of the Genuine Works of Hippocrates. Two -volumes. London, 1849. - -[68] Hygeia and Panacea, both daughters of Æsculapius. - -[69] Treatment. - -[70] _Op. cit._, p. 777. - -[71] In Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible. - -[72] Most of the votive inscriptions which have been discovered by Mr. -Kavvadias at the Epidaurian Asclepion do not fortify this opinion, -but they do not serve to disprove it, because others of a different -character may be found. Moreover, the practice there may have been less -scientific than at Cnidus, Cos, and elsewhere. However, the inscriptions -brought to light by Mr. Kavvadias are, generally speaking, poor enough. -One runs thus: “Cures of Apollo and Æsculapius. Concerning Kleo, who -was _enceinte_ for five years. This woman, after being _enceinte_ for -five years, came as a suppliant to the god, and lay down to sleep in -the sacred chamber. As soon as she had gone forth from it and from the -sanctuary, she gave birth to a male child. When the baby was born, -he washed himself in the fountain and set to creeping around his -mother.”—See Ἐφημερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική, No. 4, 1883. - -[73] Genuine Works of Hippocrates (Adams), p. 229. - -[74] “The Father of Medicine” was, of course, one of the asclepiades. He -was born, it is believed, in the year 460 B.C., and lived to be very old. -His genealogy is preserved in his works. As given in Adams’ edition, he -is of the fifteenth generation, in a direct line, from Æsculapius. He -was of the Podalirius branch. In this connection I may remark that, if -Hippocrates took the oath of the asclepiades, he must have given it a -decidedly liberal interpretation, for it looks as if he divulged to the -whole world all the mysteries of the healing art of great consequence -then known. - -[75] It is improbable that Hippocrates was but a fair example of the -asclepiades of his day. He has said himself: “Physicians are many in -title, but very few in reality.” (The Law.) - -[76] On the Sacred Disease. - -[77] _Ibid._ - -[78] On Fractures. - -[79] Iatrum. - -[80] On Fractures. - -[81] On Articulations. - -[82] On Regimen in Acute Diseases. - -[83] On Ancient Medicine. - -[84] On Regimen in Acute Diseases. - -[85] In the fifth century B.C. - -[86] The Law. - -[87] It is a beautiful Biblical passage (date about 400 B.C.) which -reads “The sun of righteousness shall arise with healing in his wings.” -Malachi, iv, 2. - -[88] See Chaldean Magic, p. 180. François Lenormant. London, 1877. - -[89] Iliad, i. - -[90] Chryseïs. - -[91] Agamemnon. - -[92] _Op. cit._, i. - -[93] Iliad, xvi. - -[94] It was doubtless from the idea of deliverance from suffering that -the term Pæon was applied to Thanatos, or Death, as was sometimes done. - -[95] Æsculapius. - -[96] Παιών or Παιήων, savior, healer, or physician. - -[97] Odyssey, iv. - -[98] Æneid, vii. - -[99] Metamorphosis, i. - -[100] Ἰητήρ ἀμύμων. - -[101] Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. - -[102] The stadium equals 600 feet; 625 Roman or 606¾ English feet make a -stadium. - -[103] Cicero informs us that there were three distinguished physicians -of the name. “The first Æsculapius,” says he, “the god of Arcadia, who -passes for the inventor of the probe and the manner of binding up wounds, -is the son of Apollo. The second, who was slain by a thunderbolt and -interred at Cynosura (in Arcadia), is a brother to the second Mercury. -The third, who found out the use of purgatives and the art of drawing -teeth, is the son of Arsippus and Arsinoë. His tomb may be seen in -Arcadia and the grove that is consecrated to him, pretty near the river -Lusius.” On the Nature of the Gods, iii. - -[104] The Mythology and Fables of the Ancients Explained from History, -vol. iii, p. 160. London, 1740. Translated from the French. The account -of Æsculapius given is one of the best I have met with. - -[105] Iliad, iv, lines 193-4. _Vide supra._ - -[106] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 212. - -[107] Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. - -[108] Walden, p. 85. - -[109] The Greek for raven or crow is κορώνη. - -[110] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 211. - -[111] _Ibid._ - -[112] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 211. - -[113] Geography, xiv. - -[114] According to Homer, it was at Tricca and round about that his two -sons bore sway. Iliad, ii. - -[115] Diana. - -[116] Pythian Ode, iii. - -[117] As Grimm remarks, children brought into the world, like Macduff, -by abdominal section, usually become heroes. Teutonic Mythology -(translation), p. 383. - -[118] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 210. - -[119] Because of this occurrence it is said that the name of the Mount -was changed from Myrtium to Titthium, from Τιτθη, a nurse. - -[120] Heroes were often indebted to dogs for kind offices. The Hindu -Saramâ is the bitch which aids such when lost in the forests, grottoes, -or darkness. See De Gubernatis’ Zoological Mythology, p. 98. Grimm even -says: “A widely-prevalent mark of the hero-race is their being suckled by -beasts or fed by birds.” Teutonic Mythology, p. 390. - -[121] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 210. - -[122] _Ibid._ - -[123] Pythian Ode, iii. - -[124] Leech was formerly a common name for the physician; such was the -meaning of the Anglo-Saxon _læce_ and the Gothic _leikeis_. - -[125] History of Greece, vol. i, p. 179. - -[126] Lenormant says that the Oriental Gandarvas, or celestial horses, -which represented the rays of the sun, gave the name and the first idea -of the Grecian Centaurs. Ancient History of the East, vol. ii, p. 13. Mr. -Sayce holds that “Hea-bani, the confidant and adviser of Gisdhubar, is -the Kentaur Kheiron.” The Ancient Empires of the East, p. 156. New York, -1884. - -[127] Iliad, xi. - -[128] Pythian Ode, vi. - -[129] This may have been a fraxinus, or true ash,—a famous tree in -mythical history. The mountain-ash, or rowan-tree (_Pyrus aucuparia_), -however, has been believed from time immemorial to possess great magical -powers. It averted fascination, evil spirits, and diseases. Faith in it -is still wide-spread. See Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and -Folk-lore, by Walter K. Kelly, p. 158 _et seq._ London, 1863. - -[130] Iliad, xix. - -[131] _Ibid._, xi. - -[132] Nemean Ode, iii. - -[133] It is worthy of remark that, while the form of Chiron, or Cheiron, -serves as a pharmacist’s symbol, he has, probably, bequeathed his name to -the healer of wounds and the like,—the surgeon. The word surgeon is from -the Latin, _chirurgus_, or, rather, the French, _chirurgien_. Chirurgeon -has some standing as an English word. The Latin, _chirurgus_, is usually -said to have come from the Greek, χειρουργικος, a word compounded of -χειρ, the hand, and ἐργος, worker, meaning one who works with the hand. -It seems likely, however, that the name of the Centaur, χειρων, suggested -the application of the word to the surgeon. - -[134] Diodorus, iv; Pindar’s Pythian Ode, iii. - -[135] Apollodorus, ii. - -[136] Hyginus. Poet. Ast., ii. - -[137] Natural History, xxix. - -[138] Æneid, vii. - -[139] Pythian Ode, iii. - -[140] Natural History, xxix. - -[141] Republic, b. iii. - -[142] _Ibid._ - -[143] This policy is inculcated in the “Institutes of Menu.” The -incurable Hindu is directed to proceed toward the invincible northeast, -living on air and water. Exposure in battle is also advised. - -[144] Herodicus introduced the new practice. He was a sickly trainer, and -did what he could to keep well; “and so,” says Plato, “dying hard by the -help of science, he struggled on to old age.” Republic, b. iii. - -[145] Pythian Ode, iii. - -[146] History of Greece, vol. i, p. 159. - -[147] Pindar and various tragedians. - -[148] Republic. - -[149] Says Ahura-Mazda: “The man who has a wife is far above him who -begets no son; he who keeps a house is far above him who has none; he who -has children is far above the childless man.” Zend Avesta. - -[150] Iliad, ii. - -[151] Hand-Book of Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 12. - -[152] Strabo, xii, 5. - -[153] A toga of limited dimensions. - -[154] Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 131. - -[155] Cyprus. London, 1877. - -[156] Handy-book of the British Museum, 1870. - -[157] βακτηρίον. A bacterion is now a disease-germ. A marked instance of -how the sense of words may become changed. - -[158] Of course, it is possible enough that Æsculapius carried a staff -at times. The Greeks, however, were not so much given to the practice as -some other peoples, as the Egyptians (see Rawlinson’s Egypt and Babylon, -p. 240. New York, 1885), or the Babylonians, of whom Herodotus (i, 195) -says that “every one carries a walking-stick carved at the top into the -form of an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or something similar.” - -[159] Ὀμφαλός means navel. Umbilicus was derived from it. The Jews -regarded Jerusalem as the navel of the earth (see Ezekiel, v, 5), and -also every other people has flattered itself as having it within its -possessions. (See chap. iv of Rev. Dr. William F. Warren’s Paradise -Found. Sixth edition. Boston, 1885.) - -[160] Strabo, ix, 3. - -[161] Republic, iv. - -[162] See Pindar’s Pythian Ode, iv. - -[163] Strabo, ix, 3. - -[164] In most of the Oriental countries, including Egypt, there was -always more or less of a belief in one great divinity. “The Supreme -Omnipotent Intelligence” of the Hindus was “a spirit by no means the -object of any sense, which can only be conceived by a mind wholly -abstracted from matter.” (Institutes of Menu). El was a name given -the Ineffable One by the Phœnicians and other peoples. Il or Ilu and -Jaoh, the “being,” the “Eternal,” the “Jehovah” of the Hebrews, were -designations of him used by the Babylonians, and from him, it was -believed, the great trinity, Anu, Hea, and Bel emanated. Some, however, -especially in early times, confounded him with Anu. Baal, the “Lord,” was -a common designation of him in Syria and elsewhere. - -[165] Dictionary of Mythology. London, 1793. - -[166] Anantas. - -[167] Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 519. - -[168] The reader is doubtless familiar, through the Bible, with -consecrated stones. A Maççeba was a necessary mark of every “high place.” -Jacob set one up (Gen., xxxi, 45). - -[169] See Lenormant’s Ancient History of the East, vol. ii, p. 230. A -pillar, cone, or tree-stem, more or less ornamented, constituted the -Ashêrah of the Syrians and others, which many of the Israelites long -looked on with favor (see Numbers, xxv, and 2 Judges, xxii), and which -is in the authorized version of the Bible translated “grove,” as in the -phrase, “the women wove hangings for the grove” (2 Judges, xxxiii, 7). -It was the image of the goddess of fertility and life, the Istar of the -Babylonians, The Baal-peor of the Moabites, Midianites, and others, and -the Priapus of the Greeks and Romans were practically similar. I may add -that the _Phallus_ (derived from Apis, the Egyptian sacred bull), the -_linga_ of the Hindus, has been taken by many peoples as emblematic of -the widely-worshipped, active, renovating power in nature, the sun; just -as an oval or round figure, the _cteis_ of the Greeks, the _yoni_ of the -Hindus, has been of the passive power, the earth. (See Cox’s Mythology -of the Aryans). The latter is the Mipleçeth, or “abominable image for -an Ashêrah,” spoken of in the Bible (1 Kings, xv, 13, and 2 Chronicles, -xv, 16). The whole subject is well presented in a little book by Messrs. -Westropp and Wake,—Ancient Symbol Worship. New York, 1874. - -[170] Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 442. - -[171] A name given to Hermes. - -[172] Transactions of the Victoria Institute, vol. vi, p. 329. London, -1873. - -[173] “Aaron’s rod” is similarly constituted, but of different import. - -[174] Gemmæ Selectae. Amsterdam, 1703. - -[175] Mercury of the Romans was not much, except the god of commerce. - -[176] The posture only approximates that assumed in the act of -generation. In this act the two serpents, in the words of Aristotle, -“are folded together with the abdomens opposite.... They roll themselves -together so closely that they seem to be one serpent with two heads.” -Natural History, p. 103. Bohn’s edition. London, 1862. - -[177] Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 38. - -[178] Natural History, xxix, 12. - -[179] Æneid, iv. - -[180] Zoological Mythology, p. 406. - -[181] See Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 23. Edition by Hodges. London, -1876. - -[182] McClintock and Strong’s Cyclopædia of Biblical and Religious -Literature. - -[183] Historic Devices, Badges, and War-Cries. London, 1870. - -[184] Natural History, xxix. - -[185] _Ibid._ - -[186] Myths of the New World, p. 3. New York, 1868. - -[187] Household Tales. - -[188] See Hyginus. Poet. Astr., ii, 14. - -[189] The literal meaning of _nagas_ is snakes. In his Indian Arts -(London, 1882), Dr. Birdwood says: “The worship of the snake still -survives everywhere in India, and at Nagpur was, until very recently, -a public danger, from the manner in which the city was allowed to be -overrun with cobras.” p. 83. - -[190] “Serpent-Myths of Ancient Egypt,” in Transactions of the Victoria -Institute, vol. vi, p. 321. London, 1873. - -[191] Mythology, vol. ii, p. 460. - -[192] Egyptian Mythology, p. 36. London, 1863. - -[193] Numbers, xxi, 9. - -[194] Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 8. A splendid illustrated publication, -issued by the government. It treats principally of East Indian matters. -London, 1873. - -[195] Brazen. See 2 Kings, xviii, 4. - -[196] From the Greek ἀγαθός, good, and δαίμων, god, soul, fortune. - -[197] Uarda, vol. ii, p. 38. - -[198] One of the Pharaoh’s “treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.” Exodus, -i, 11. - -[199] On the Egyptian obelisk, originally from On (Heliopolis), the -great seat of learning, now in the city of New York, in whose shadow, -doubtless, Joseph at times made love to the high-priest’s daughter, and -Moses learned the meaning of hieroglyphics, occurs the phrase, “Tum, lord -of the city of On;” and, what is of more interest in this connection, one -which reads, “The god Tum, who gives life.” I may add a stanza from a -hymn addressed to Tum:— - - “Come to me, O thou sun; - Horus of the horizon, give me help. - Thou art he that giveth help; - There is no help without thee.” - - —Records of the Past, vol. vi, p. 100. - -[200] See 2 Kings, xviii, 5. - -[201] Egypt Under the Pharaohs, vol. ii, p. 376. Second edition. London, -1881. - -[202] It is well known that this is not the correct form of the name. It -was lost at an early day, and is not to be found in the New Testament in -any form. It was not to be spoken. Much interest has always been taken -in this remarkable word. According to a recently-translated Assyrian -inscription, the correct form of the name is Ya-u, or Yâhu. Mr. Hodges -dwells on this highly-interesting discovery in his edition of Cory’s -Ancient Fragments, p. 28. - -[203] _Op. cit._, p. 377. - -[204] Book of Wisdom, ii, 6. - -[205] _Ibid._, xv, 12. - -[206] The power of healing was a prominent and popular characteristic -of the god of the Hebrews. “I am the Lord that healeth thee” (Ex., xv, -26); “I will restore health unto thee and I will heal thee of thy wounds, -saith the Lord” (Jer., xxx, 17); “He healeth the broken in heart and -bindeth up their wounds” (Ps. cxlvii, 3); “Heal me, O Lord, and I shall -be healed” (Jer., xvii, 14); and other similar passages are met with -in the Bible. Indeed, the curing of diseases has always been largely -resorted to when the claim of divinity has been brought forward. It is a -deceptive test. - -[207] Naia tripudians. - -[208] Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible. - -[209] Herodotus, ii, 74. - -[210] Note to ii, 74, in George Rawlinson’s edition of Herodotus. - -[211] The reader may turn with advantage to Dr. J. S. Phené’s interesting -illustrated essay on “Prehistoric Traditions and Customs in Connection -with Sun and Serpent Worship,” in the Transactions of the Victoria -Institute, vol. viii, p. 321. London, 1875. - -[212] Hymn to Apollo. Translation by C. C. Conwell, M.D. Philadelphia, -1830. - -[213] No doubt the great home of the Indo-Europeans furnishes a closely -corresponding myth. But there is good reason to hold that the main -features of the great astronomical myths antedated the Vedas. Grecian -mythology was largely derived from Egypt and Phœnicia. - -[214] Mythology, vol. ii, p. 197. - -[215] Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 3. - -[216] Murray’s Mythology, p. 117. - -[217] Chaldean Magic, p. 114. - -[218] A graphic account of this mystic creature is given in an extant -fragment of Berosus. He introduced all civilizing arts. See Cory’s -Ancient Fragments, p. 59. Hodges’ edition. - -[219] Five Great Monarchies, vol. i, p. 122. - -[220] “The Origin of Serpent-Worship,” in the Journal of the Victoria -Institute, vol. ii, p. 373. - -[221] Dr. Brinton gives the name as Michabo. He gives an interesting -account of this great Algonkin myth in his American Hero-Myths. -Philadelphia, 1882. - -[222] Partly true. - -[223] Indian Myths, p. 45. Boston, 1884. - -[224] Mythology, vol. ii, p. 458. - -[225] Outlines of Primitive Belief, p. 75. London and New York, 1882. - -[226] _Ibid._, p. 77. - -[227] Myths of the New World, p. 107. - -[228] It is interesting to observe that, according to Miss Emerson, “it -is probable that the Indian derived the sacred symbols of his worship -from the configuration of the constellations.” Indian Myths, p. 316. - -[229] Buddha and Early Buddhism, p. 7. London, 1881. - -[230] The Great Pyramid, p. 100. London, 1883. - -[231] In an article on the “Astronomy and Astrology of the Babylonians,” -Mr. Sayce says: “Next to the planets in importance was the polar star, -called Tir-anna, or Gagan-same, or ‘Judge of the Heaven,’ to which a -special treatise was devoted in Sargon’s Library.” See Transactions of -the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iii, p. 206. - -[232] Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid. - -[233] The constellation of Draco lies near to and to the north of “the -Dipper,” or Great Bear, and is easily distinguished. - -[234] _Op. cit._, p. 101. - -[235] Homer’s description of the shield of Achilles is shorter, and was -probably suggested by the same thing. Iliad, xviii. - -[236] See pictures of such in Astronomical Myths, by Blake, London, 1877. -Also, in Rawlinson’s Five Great Monarchies. - -[237] It is believed that it is referred to in Job, in the verse reading, -“His spirit hath adorned the heavens and his obstetric hand brought forth -the winding serpent” (xxvi, 13, Douai version). The authorized is not -literal. - -[238] The Shield of Hercules. Translation by Elton. - -[239] Translated Pleiades. Job, ix, 9; xxxviii, 31; and Amos, v, 8. - -[240] Five Great Monarchies, vol. i, p. 122. See also his edition of -Herodotus, vol. i, p. 600. - -[241] Those interested in this symbol should consult Schliemann’s Troy -and its Remains. - -[242] The swastika was so formed by Indians. See illustration in -Emerson’s Indian Myths, p. 10. - -[243] Totem is an Algonkin word, signifying to have or possess. It -represented, among the Indians, the social unit or clan, the gens of the -Romans. - -[244] Fortnightly Review, vol. vi and vii. N. S. - -[245] The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man, 1870. - -[246] Strabo, xiii, 1. - -[247] 1 Chronicles, xix, 2. - -[248] Indian Myths, p. 44. - -[249] The History of the Heavens. Translated from the French by J. B. de -Freval. Two volumes. London, 1741, vol. i, p. 42. The first volume is a -very able and interesting mythological production. - -[250] Beginnings of History, p. 114. - -[251] Myths of the New World, p. 120. - -[252] “The Origin of Serpent Worship,” in the Journal of the -Anthropological Institute, vol. ii, p. 373. - -[253] By Plutarch, in Isis and Osiris. - -[254] In an extant fragment from Sanchoniathon, after the statement -that “Taautus first consecrated the basilisk and introduced the worship -of the serpent tribe, in which he was followed by the Phœnicians and -Egyptians,” it is said of the animal that it is “the most inspired of all -the reptiles and of a fiery nature, inasmuch as it exhibits an incredible -celerity, moving by its spirit without either hands or feet or any of -those external organs by which other animals effect their motion.” See -Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 22. Edition by Hodges. - -[255] Proverbs, xxx, 19. - -[256] Mr. Spencer says: “The rudimentary form of all religion is the -propitiation of dead ancestors, who are supposed to be still existing and -to be capable of working good or evil to their descendants.” “Origin of -Animal Worship, etc.,” in Fortnightly Review, vol. vii, p. 536. N. S. - -[257] Uarda, vol. ii, p. 249. - -[258] Myths of the New World, p. 108. - -[259] _Op. cit._, vol. ii, p. 38. - -[260] Comparative Mythology and Folk-lore, p. 148. London, 1881. - -[261] See Exodus, vii, 10-13. - -[262] The spinal marrow was believed by some in ancient times to be the -seat of life. Plato entertained that view. See Timæus, 74, 91. - -[263] In that hoary Egyptian work, The Book of the Dead (ch. 155), occurs -this remarkable passage: “All creation is, when dead, turned into living -reptiles.” - -[264] Rev., xvi, 9. - -[265] Pantheon, p. 271. Am. edition. Baltimore, 1830. - -[266] For much of interest about the laurel, see Plant-lore Legends and -Lyrics, p. 404, by Richard Folkard, Jr. London, 1884. - -[267] Thessaly. - -[268] The literal meaning of Telesphorus is “bringing to an end;” of -Euemerion, “prosperous, or glorious;” and of Acesius, “health-giving.” - -[269] Pantheon. - -[270] Tooke states that by _genius_ is generally meant “that spirit of -nature which produces all things, from which generative power it has its -name.... The images of the genii resembled, for the most part, the form -of a serpent. Sometimes they were described like a boy, a girl, or an old -man.” Pantheon, p. 240. - -[271] Zend Avesta. - -[272] Herodotus, i, 140. - -[273] See Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. ii, p. -245. - -[274] Phædo. - -[275] Grimm justly remarks that sacrifice was a common feature of heathen -medicine; “great cures and the averting of pestilence,” says he, “could -only be effected by sacrifice.” Teutonic Mythology (translation), p. 1150. - -[276] The Past in the Present, p. 164. New York, 1881. - -[277] Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 211. - -[278] Pantheon, p. 271. - -[279] See Levit., xvi _et seq._ - -[280] Ch. ii, 39. - -[281] Ammon, Knuphis, or Agathodæmon of later times. - -[282] Ancient History of the East, vol. i, p. 326. - -[283] The language of the Hebrews is essentially the same: _es_ or _ez_ -means a goat. - -[284] ἀίξ. - -[285] The Mythology and Fables of the Ancients Explained from History, -vol. iii, p. 160. London, 1740. - -[286] New System of Mythology, vol. iii, p. 456. Philadelphia, 1819. - -[287] Now called Beyrout. - -[288] Damascius, in his Life of Isidorus, uses the phrase “Esmun, who is -interpreted Asclepius.” - -[289] Daughters of Titan, by Astarte. - -[290] See Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 14. Edition by Hodges. - -[291] From the Semitic word _Kabir_, great. - -[292] Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 19. - -[293] Chambers’s Encyclopædia. - -[294] The temple of the god at Carthage was of great splendor and renown. -See Dr. Davis’s Carthage and its Remains, ch. xvii. London, 1861. Says -the Doctor: “The Temple of Æsculapius was as prominent a feature of -Carthage as the Capitoline hill was at Rome, or as St. Paul’s is in -London” (p. 369). It was on a rocky eminence (the Byrsa). Ruins of the -staircase still remain. - -[295] The city of Hermopolis received also the name of Esmun. In the -Book of the Dead (ch. cxiv) the deceased is represented as saying, while -adoring Thoth, Amset, and Tum: “I have come as a prevailer, through -knowing the spirits of Esmun.” Thoth presided over this nome. - -[296] Bunsen maintains that the Cabiri were the seven archangels of the -Jews, originally “the seven fundamental powers of the visible creation.” -Egypt’s Place in Universal History, vol. iv, p. 256. - -[297] See Prof. Lesley’s interesting work, Man’s Origin and Destiny, -first edition. Philadelphia, 1868. For some reason the chapter on Arkite -symbolism is not given in the second edition. - -[298] Primitive Culture, vol. i, p. 218. London, 1871. - -[299] Saturnal, i, 20. - -[300] The Mysteries of the Cabiri, vol. i, p. 98. Oxford, 1803. - -[301] In Phœnicia he was the seven viewed collectively as “the soul of -the world.” Bunsen’s Egypt’s Place, etc., vol. iv, p. 229. - -[302] Ancient History of the East, vol. ii, p. 221. - -[303] Æneid, vii, line 773. - -[304] Tiele takes such a view of Anubis. See History of the Egyptian -Religion, p. 65. - -[305] Nearly all ancient Hebrew, as well as Assyrian, proper names are -expressive of something about the birth or life of the bearers. - -[306] Mythology of Ancient Greece and Rome. Third edition. London, 1854. - -[307] The Hebrew word, like the Latin _vir_, means man in a distinguished -sense (virile), and may come from the Egyptian _ash_, tree of life. - -[308] Caleb, or city of the dog, on the coast of Phœnicia, has been -accorded the credit of the name of the god. See the Abbé Banier’s -Mythology and Fables of the Ancients, etc. (translation), vol. iii, p. -160. - -[309] Possibly the first syllable of Æsculapius, like the Hebrew _ishi_, -salutary, and _asa_, to heal, may have been from the Egyptian _usha_, -health-bringing,—doctor. See Gerald Massey’s Book of Beginnings, vol. ii, -p. 301. London, 1881. - -[310] Hence the name, Canicular Year. - -[311] It does not now rise heliacally until the middle of August. But, -4000 years ago it rose so about the 20th of June, and just preceded the -annual rising of the Nile. - -[312] History of the Heavens, vol. i, p. 185. Anubis had various -functions which cannot be spoken of here. He bore the souls of men to the -nether world, like Hermes, of the Greeks, and assisted Horus in weighing -them. A passage in the Book of the Dead reads, “He is behind the bier -which holds the bowels of Osiris.” Evidently he might be regarded as the -god of undertakers. - -[313] Typhon, or Set, was regarded, indeed, by the Egyptians as the god -Sothis, or Sirius. See Bunsen’s Egypt’s Place, etc., vol. i, p. 429. But -Typhon was not, in early times, regarded as simply the personification of -evil. See Kenrick’s Ancient Egypt, vol. i, p. 350. - -[314] Zend Avesta. Edition by James Darmesteter, in two parts, or -volumes, in The Sacred Books of the East, edited by Max Müller, vol. i, -p. 83. Oxford, England, 1883. - -[315] Iliad, xxii. - -[316] Such a staff is, indeed, shown by Wilkinson, and is given by Cooper -in his essay, already quoted. From the presence of the hawk and uræus, -one might more properly accord it to Horus. - -[317] Physic and Physicians, vol. i, p. 6. London, 1839. - -[318] Princess, vol. i, p. 210. - -[319] _Ibid._ - -[320] See Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 112. Edition by Hodges. - -[321] Bunsen, in Egypt’s Place in Universal History, vol. ii, p. 89. - -[322] See Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 113. - -[323] Ancient Empires of the East, p. 76. - -[324] Herodotus, ii, 84. Translation by Rawlinson. - -[325] _Ibid._, ii, 77. - -[326] Princess, vol. i, p. 17. - -[327] History of Ancient Egypt, vol. ii, p. 528. London, 1881. - -[328] Encyclopædia Britannica, ninth ed. - -[329] Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible. - -[330] Ancient Empires of the East, p. 76. - -[331] Jer., xlvi, 11. - -[332] Herodotus, iii, 1, 129. - -[333] Polydamna. Helen’s enforced sojourn in Egypt is fully described by -Herodotus (ii, 113-116), Thone, Thon, or Thonis, the historian speaks of -as the “warden of the Canopic mouth of the Nile.” The town of Heracleum -bore the name. - -[334] Odyssey, iv. - -[335] _Ibid._ - -[336] Natural History, vii. - -[337] Homer and the Iliad, vol. i. - -[338] Beginnings of History, p. 536. - -[339] Bunsen holds that Esmun and he were originally the same; “as the -snake god he must actually be Hermes, in Phœnician, Tet, Taautes.” -Egypt’s Place, etc., vol. iv, p. 256. - -[340] In the cut he appears counting the years on a palm-branch—the -ideograph for year. (Fig. 12, p. 101.) - -[341] Ibis religiosa, Hab of the Ancient Egyptians. - -[342] Ibis falcinellus, the glossy ibis. - -[343] Book of the Dead, ch. lxxviii. Translation by Birch, in vol. v of -Bunsen’s Egypt’s Place, etc. The hawk is the usual symbol of Horus, just -as the ibis is of Thoth. - -[344] Tiele pronounces Horus to be “the God of Light, the Token of Life.” -History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 54. - -[345] Manual of Mythology, p. 346. London, 1873. - -[346] Often spoken of as the Hercules of the Egyptians. - -[347] History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 154. - -[348] See Diodorus Siculus, i, 25; and Tacitus, xiv, 81. - -[349] Says Gibbon: “Alexandria, which claimed his peculiar protection, -glorified in the name of the City of Serapis.” The Decline and Fall of -the Roman Empire, ch. xxviii. - -[350] See his Essay, p. 50. - -[351] Egypt of the Past, p. 15. London, 1881. - -[352] The capital of Lower Egypt. - -[353] Uarda, vol. i, p. 203. - -[354] History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 94. London, 1882. Tiele -remarks that Imhotep was not only called Asklepios by the Greeks, “but -likewise the Eighth, thus showing that they regarded him as one of -the Kabirs” (p. 95). I may add that the worship of the Kabirs, in the -character of cosmic deities, was early established in the region where -Memphis stood. Bunsen, indeed, identifies Ptah and his seven sons with -the Kabirs. See Egypt’s Place, etc., vol. iv, p. 217. - -[355] Vulcan of the Romans. - -[356] Ancient Egypt, vol. i, p. 333. - -[357] Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iii, p. -386. - -[358] See Fig. 13, p. 104. The characters of this name are all phonetic; -but very many are pictorial or symbolic. Examples of symbolic characters -will be given in the chapter on amulets. - -[359] An offering; food, peace, welcome. - -[360] Egypt’s Place in Universal History, vol. i, p. 400. - -[361] Mysteries of the Cabiri, vol. i, p. 99. - -[362] See his work on Egypt, etc., in Asiatic Researches, vol. iii, p. -392. - -[363] Cooper says that they were the two deities of the morning and -evening twilight, and “were the origin of the Dioscuri of the Greeks.” -Archæic Dictionary. London, 1876. - -[364] Zoological Mythology, vol. i, p. 353. - -[365] Evil has always been associated with darkness. Harmful demons have -always disliked light. - -[366] Mythology of the Aryans, vol. i, p. 391. - -[367] See Wilson’s edition, vol. iii, p. 307. - -[368] _Ibid._, p. 103. - -[369] Ormazd, believed to have been originally identical with Varuna of -the Vedas. - -[370] Believed to be the Asclepias acida, or Sarcostemma viminalis, whose -juice yields an intoxicating liquor. - -[371] Zend Avesta, vol. i, p. 141. - -[372] Demon. - -[373] Evil Spirits. - -[374] Zend Avesta. Translation by Darmesteter, vol. ii, p. 92. - -[375] The name is given in the cuneiform characters as found in Norris’s -Assyrian Dictionary, p. 853. It is spelled phonetically. The first three -wedges are the sign or determinative of deities. - -[376] The devotion of Nebuchadnezzar to him is indicated in the Bible -(see 2 Chron. xxxvi, 7, and Daniel, i, 2). The great king went so far as -to say: “Merodach deposited my germ in my mother’s womb.” Records of the -Past, vol. v, p. 113. - -[377] In an article entitled “Nemrod et les Ecritures Cuneiformes,” M. -Joseph Grivel has occasion to speak of the names of the god. Amar-ud, -which is apparently the same as Nimrod, is a synonym of Merodach. See -Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iii, p. 136. - -[378] The older Bel was Elum, father of the gods. - -[379] Chaldean Magic, and the Beginnings of History. To M. Lenormant -mainly belongs the credit of opening up the valuable stores of learning -wrapped in the Accadian and closely allied idioms. - -[380] A series of small volumes, twelve in number, issued a few years -ago, in London. - -[381] Silik-mulu-khi is rather a descriptive title than a name. It is the -designation used in the magical and mythological texts of the Accadian -inscriptions. - -[382] Of this serpentine god of life and revealer of knowledge, Sir Henry -Rawlinson remarks that “there is very strong grounds for connecting Hea, -or Hoa, with the serpent of Scripture and the paradisiacal traditions of -the tree of life.” See George Rawlinson’s second edition of Herodotus, -vol. i, p. 600. - -[383] Chaldean Magic, p. 19. - -[384] Assyria, its Princes, Priests, and People, p. 59. London, 1885. - -[385] Another symbol of this god was the thunderbolt in the form of a -sickle, with which he slew the dragon of the deep. - -[386] Chaldean Magic, p. 190. - -[387] Records of the Past, vol. iii, p. 139. - -[388] Herodotus, who visited the country, states that the Babylonians -“have no physicians; but when a man is ill they lay him in the public -square and the passers-by come up to him; and if they ever had his -disease themselves, or have known any one who has suffered from it, they -give him advice, recommending him to do whatever they found good in -their own case or in the case known to them; and no one is allowed to -pass the sick man in silence, without asking him what his ailment is” -(i, 197). From this it would seem that Herodotus might rather have said -that the Babylonians were all doctors, or presumed to be. However, it is -thought that Jeremiah refers to the practice in Lamentations, i, 12, when -he says: “Is it nothing to you, all ye that pass by? Behold and see if -there be any sorrow like unto my sorrow.” A similar plan was certainly -practiced elsewhere than in Babylonia. Strabo says that the Egyptians -resorted to it (xvi), and in St. Mark it is said that the people “laid -the sick in the streets” (vi, 56) in order to be healed by Jesus as he -passed along. - -[389] Deuteronomy, xi, 18. - -[390] Records of the Past, vol. iii, p. 140. - -[391] Was this gonorrhœa or diabetes? See Leviticus, xv. - -[392] Ana. - -[393] Hea. - -[394] Chaldean Magic, p. 4. - -[395] Chaldean Magic, p. 20. - -[396] _Ibid._, p. 22. - -[397] Lenormant remarks that the assimilation was probably made when -Mardux had become emphatically the god of the planet Jupiter, “the great -fortune” of the astrologers, which justified them in connecting with his -other attributes the favorable and protecting office of Silik-mulu-khi. -He was originally a solar deity. - -[398] Chaldean Magic, p. 190. - -[399] Jeremiah, v, 15. - -[400] Or Shinar. See Gen., xi, 2. Essentially Babylonia. - -[401] See Smith’s Chaldean Account of Genesis, p. 19. Revised edition, by -Mr. Sayce, 1880. - -[402] The Semitic language, called Assyrian, as the one spoken by the -Babylonians, including part of the Chaldeans, before the people of Assur -(see Gen., x, 11) became a nation, which was later than the time of -the great King Sargon (B.C. 2000); and here I may say that cuneiform -inscriptions are largely Assyrian. I may add that Lenormant takes Assur -to be Nimrod, and the latter Mardux, reduced to the position of a hero. - -[403] Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iii, p. -466. - -[404] Kaldu, or Kaldi, was the name of a tribe of Accadio-Sumerians that -rose to prominence about nine centuries before our era. The title was -subsequently given to the whole race. - -[405] Zend Avesta, vol. i, p. 85. - -[406] _Ibid._, vol. ii, p. 44. - -[407] North American Indians, vol. i, p. 78. - -[408] Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 13. - -[409] Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 13. - -[410] Bacchus. - -[411] Fire was duly esteemed by the ancients. The worship was closely -related to that of the sun. Atar of the Zend Avesta means fire, and -a personification of it, spoken of as the son of Ahura-Mazda, is -characterized as “the god who is a full source of glory, the god who is a -full source of healing” (vol. ii, p. 8). The Parsis and also the Hindus -were forbidden to blow a fire lest the effete emanations from the system, -present in the breath, might contaminate the flame. Menstruating women -were forbidden even to look at it. - -[412] Zoological Mythology, vol. i, p. 410. - -[413] See Gen., ii, 7. Hippocrates appears to take _pneuma_, the breath, -and the soul and vital principle to be the same. It is still a common -thing to hear the breath spoken of as the divine and immortal element in -man. - -[414] Ninevah and its Remains, vol. ii, p. 233. London, 1849. See Ex., -xxviii, 33-34, and 1 Kings, vii, 41-42. - -[415] Fir-trees were regarded with much favor in the East. Ezekiel likens -the Assyrian nation to a great cedar, envied by “all the trees of Eden,” -none being “like unto him in his beauty.” Ez., xxxi, _passim_. - -[416] Medical virtues are inherent in fir-trees. Hence, there was a good -foundation for the Accadian superstition. It is curious to observe that -“among the Dakotah tribe of Indians the white cedar-tree is believed -to have a supernatural power, and its leaves are burned as incense to -propitiate the gods.” See Emerson’s Indian Myths, p. 241. - -[417] Beginnings of History, p. 90. - -[418] Mr. Sayce gives the name as Lubara. See Ancient Empires of the -East, p. 157. - -[419] According to Mr. Black, disease and death have been referred by -the unscientific to three great sources, namely: (1) the anger of an -offended external spirit; (2) the supernatural powers of a human enemy; -(3) the displeasure of the dead. See Folk-medicine, p. 4, published by -the Folk-lore Society. London, 1883. - -[420] The Origin of Primitive Superstitions. Philadelphia, 1881. - -[421] See Sayce’s Ancient Empires of the East, p. 146. - -[422] Chaldean Magic, p. 64. - -[423] Says Tiele: “The operation or the sun is two-fold, beneficial -and terrible; it quickens or it destroys life. The Greeks united both -characteristics in Phœbus Apollo.” History of the Egyptian Religion, p. -45. - -[424] 2 Samuel, xxiv. - -[425] Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 15. - -[426] It appears that the idea of the devil is first brought into clear -relief in the Book of Wisdom, where it is said: “By the envy of the devil -death came into the world” (ii, 25). The Hebrew demonology is usually -said to be of Iranian origin, but it may just as likely have sprung -from a Turanian source, either directly or through their Semitic kin in -Babylonia. - -[427] Job, ii, 7. - -[428] Set, called Typhon by the Greeks, the embodiment of physical and -moral evil, was regarded as the Egyptian god of death. Plagues were -attributed to him. - -[429] The plague maiden of Teutonic folk-lore is somewhat like Dibbara. -See Grimm’s Teutonic Mythology (translation), p. 1185. - -[430] Chaldean Account of Genesis, vol. viii. - -[431] Psalms, xci, 6. - -[432] 2 Sam., xxiv, 13 _et seq._, and 2 Kings, xix, 35. - -[433] The wife of Hea, the queen of the gods, Davkina, was a health -goddess. In an inscription Marduk is sent to a dying man, and it is -further said:— - - “Sprinkle holy water over him. - He shall hear the voice of Hea. - Davkina shall protect him; - And Marduk, eldest son of Heaven, shall find him a happy habitation.” - -See Records of the Past, vol. iii, p. 142. She was invoked by women in -labor. - -[434] This figure is copied from one given by W. R. Cooper in his essay -on “Serpent Myths of Ancient Egypt.” See Transactions of the Victoria -Institute, vol. vi, p. 321. London, 1873. - -[435] The Art of Preserving Health. First published in 1744. One of the -very few great medical poems. - -[436] Tobias, viii, 10. - -[437] American Hero-Myths, p. 19. 1882. - -[438] This arrangement of the serpent is seen in an Egyptian priestess, a -picture of which is given in Cooper’s essay, already referred to. - -[439] It has been published, I think, in pamphlet form, but the copy I -have was issued in 1882 in connection with the March and April numbers of -a monthly published in the interest of Jefferson Medical College and her -alumni, The College and Clinical Record. There are a dozen octavo pages -of it. - -[440] Animal Kingdom, vol. ix, p. 309. - -[441] See Tooke’s Pantheon, p. 296. - -[442] See Grimm’s Teutonic Mythology (translation), pp. 588, 1150. - -[443] For Cooper’s view of her origin, see quotation, p. 93. - -[444] Maut, Mat, or Mut, is to Amen-Ra what Artemis was to Zeus, and Juno -to Jupiter. She might be viewed as a form of the more familiar Isis, and -from close relationship is often confounded with Neith. - -[445] From address referred to on page 125. - -[446] Princess, vol. ii, p. 296. - -[447] See Plato’s Timæus. - -[448] The famous one brought from the East to Scotland and called the -“Lee-Penny” has an interesting history. Sir Walter Scott speaks at length -of it in his work, “The Talisman.” Says the great novelist: “Its virtues -are still applied to for stopping blood and in cases of canine madness” -(p. 287). - -[449] By Josephus. - -[450] The name signifies highland. - -[451] The Great Pyramid, p. 159. - -[452] It stands out prominent in the first chapter of Genesis. The whole -host of heaven was created for earthly purposes. - -[453] The reader of the Book of Daniel learns much of the repute of the -Chaldeans as astrologers. The Romans were in the habit of calling all -astrologers Chaldeans. That people, I may say, never gave the class legal -countenance. - -[454] In an old Accadian tablet bearing on the observance of the Sabbath -by the king, it is said, among other things: “Medicine for his sickness -of body he may not apply.” See Smith’s Chaldean Account of Genesis, p. 89. - -[455] According to the Bible narrative, which Lenormant says is “a -tradition whose origin is lost in the night of the remotest ages and -which all the great nations of Western Asia possessed in common, with -some variations” (Beginnings of History, p. xv), the luminaries were -placed in the heavens “to divide the day from the night and to be signs -for the time of festivals, the days and the years” (Gen., i, 14). This -is from the Elohist version, which, with the Jehovist, may be found in -Lenormant’s work. The ordinary version was drawn from the two. - -[456] Architecture, p. 219, 2d ed. By Joseph Swift. London, 1860. - -[457] It is well to state that the astrologer was the forerunner of the -astronomer. In his interesting book on The Astronomy of the Ancients, -Sir J. Cornwall Lewes says: “The word ἀστρολογος signifies an astronomer -in the Greek writers. The word _astrologus_ has the same sense in the -earlier Latin writers. In later times the distinction which now obtains -between the words astrology and astronomy was introduced” (p. 292). - -[458] The Greeks generally gave Atlas the credit of introducing it. See -Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 82. Hodges’ edition. - -[459] Tetrabiblos, i, 2. - -[460] In “A Plea for Urania,” issued in 1854, it is said that “less than -two hundred years ago an individual who entered upon the profession of -doctor of medicine, either in England or any of the European countries, -was obliged to pass an astrological examination” (p. 246). - -[461] Canterbury Tales. - -[462] Gemmæ Selectae. Amsterdam, 1703. - -[463] Fascinum and penis are Latin synonyms. - -[464] This is still done in parts of China and elsewhere in the East. - -[465] Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 32. London, 1880. -Republication by the Folk-lore Society. First issued 1686-’87. - -[466] See Psalms, lxviii, 4, and lxxxix, 8. - -[467] Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, p. 92. - -[468] Chaldean Magic, p. 43. - -[469] Indian Arts, p. 104. - -[470] The star of Babylon is frequently spoken of in the Inscriptions. -The star of Marduk is the same. It is Dilgan, or Jupiter. - -[471] Act I, Scene 2. - -[472] ABRACADABRA is not the same as abraxas, but may have been derived -from it. In the third century, and later, it was regarded as a capital -remedy for malarial fevers. - -[473] Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, p. 94. - -[474] The letter Alpha = 1, Beta = 2, Rho = 100; Alpha = 1, Xi = 60; -Alpha = 1, and Sigma = 200. - -[475] Egyptian Mythology, p. 93. - -[476] Chambers’ Encyclopædia. - -[477] The Care and Culture of Children, Philadelphia, 1880. - -[478] It is worth while to observe that Raphael was, according to the -Cabbala, the angel of the sun. - -[479] Tobias, iii, 25. - -[480] Nearly all savage and semi-civilized peoples have viewed the heart -as a very mysterious organ. Not a few have regarded it as the epitome or -soul of the individual. In sacrifice it has played an important rôle. See -Albert Reville’s work on The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, p. 43. -New York, 1884. - -[481] There is the ring of the Zend Avesta and the cuneiform inscriptions -about it also. - -[482] Cyprus, p. 384. London, 1877. - -[483] 1 Sam., vi, 4 _et seq._ - -[484] Chaldean Magic, p. 50. - -[485] The Past in the Present, p. 19 _et seq._ 1881. - -[486] Medical Economy during the Middle Ages. New York, 1883. - -[487] A practice long in use. See p. 110. - -[488] Urine of oxen. The supposed virtue sprang from certain mythological -notions. - -[489] It was probably connected with the god Sbat and the Egyptian Seb or -Cronus, the father of Osiris. See Transactions of the Victoria Institute, -vol. xvi, pp. 136 and 160. London, 1883. - -[490] The Princess, vol. i, p. 210. - -[491] Chaldean Magic, p. 41. - -[492] Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 49. - -[493] Uarda, p. 118. - -[494] Institute of Menu, p. 154. - -[495] Ancient Egypt, vol. i, p. 254. - -[496] A Book of Beginnings. London, 1881. - -[497] _Ibid._, p. 101. - -[498] T served some as a symbol of the generative power. John Davenport -says that it was “used indiscriminately with the Phallus: it was, in -fact, the Phallus.” Aphrodisiacs and Anti-Aphrodisiacs, p. 13. London, -1869. Privately printed. Payne Knight states that the male organs -represented as “the cross, in the form of the letter T, sometimes served -as the emblem of creation and generation.” Worship of Priapus, p. 48. - -[499] History of the Heavens, vol. i, p. 259. - -[500] See Occult Sciences, p. 222. A volume of the Encyclopædia -Metropolitana. London, 1855. - -[501] Superstitions Connected with Medicine and Surgery. London, 1843. - -[502] Historiaum, iv, 81. - -[503] North American Indians, vol, i, p. 70. Philadelphia, 1857. - -[504] _Ibid._ - -[505] Indian Myths, p. 230. - -[506] Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 7. - -[507] Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, p. 27. - -[508] Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, p. 307. - -[509] History of Sign-Boards, p. 341. Second edition. London, 1866. - -[510] Schesch. - -[511] Princess, vol. i, p. 296. - -[512] The Records of the Past, vol. xi, p. 159. London, 1878. - -[513] Ex., xxx, 25-35. In the revised translation apothecary becomes -perfumer. - -[514] Introductory Lectures and Addresses on Medical Subjects, p. 54. -Philadelphia, 1859. - -[515] Mr. Sayce, writing in 1884, states that “the fragments of a work on -medicine closely resembling the Egyptian Papyrus-Ebers have recently been -found” (at Babylon). Ancient Empires of the East, p. 173. - -[516] Incorporated in the year 1800. Date of the present charter, 1843. - -[517] A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 7. London, 1860. - -[518] A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 13. - -[519] Letters and Lives of Eminent Persons, vol. ii, p. 386. London, 1813. - -[520] A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 2. - -[521] A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 2. - -[522] Canterbury Tales. - -[523] A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 3. - -[524] Hudibras. - -[525] Occult Sciences, p. 40. - -[526] The Gold-Headed Cane. By Dr. McMichael. London, 1828. - -[527] A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 11. - -[528] Finger-Ring Lore. By William Jones, p. 191. London, 1877. - -[529] Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 210. - -[530] See Sharpe’s Egyptian Mythology, p. 19. - -[531] Exodus, i, 16. - -[532] Princess, vol. i, p. 37. - -[533] One was not regarded as a number. - -[534] The Brook. - -[535] Art Culture, p. 468. New York, 1874. - -[536] Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archæology. Boston, 1882. - -[537] In his notes to Faust. - -[538] The Pythagorean Triangle. London, 1875. - -[539] Dictionary of Terms in Art. - -[540] Encyclopædia of Freemasonry. Philadelphia, 1875. - -[541] Astronomical Myths. London, 1877. - -[542] Broughton’s Italy, vol. ii. - -[543] Notes and Queries, vol. ix, p. 511, third series. - -[544] Mythology of the Hindus. London, 1832. - -[545] Indian Arts. London, 1880. - -[546] Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives, p. 272. London, 1880. - -[547] The Solution of the Pyramid Problem, p. 92. New York, 1882. - -[548] The Great Pyramid, p. 35. - -[549] The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, p. 57. New York, 1884. - -[550] American Hero-Myths, p. 121. - -[551] Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 51. - -[552] An equilateral triangle divided into three equal triangles by lines -meeting from the three angles. - -[553] Professors of the Cabbala, a mystic philosophy, believed that -there was a secret meaning in Holy Writ and a higher meaning in the law, -and pretended to be able to perform miracles by the use of names and -incantations. Auerbach gives an interesting account of them in his novel, -“Spinoza.” He gives this as an instance of their mode of reasoning: “The -Hebrew word for Messiah contains the same number as the Hebrew word for -serpent, in which form Satan seduced Eve; the Messiah will, therefore, -bruise the head of the serpent and banish sin and death from the world.” - -[554] The word _Salus_, the synonymous Latin name, was also used in the -same way. In Mrs. Pelliser’s work it is thus seen. It is there spoken of -as a device used by Marguerite of France, wife of Henry IV and the last -of the Valois. - - - - -CATALOGUE OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF F. A. DAVIS, - -Medical Publisher and Bookseller, - -1231 FILBERT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. - - -BRANCH OFFICES: - -NEW YORK CITY: 117 W. Forty-second Street. - -CHICAGO: 24 Lakeside Building, 214-220 S. Clark St. - -ATLANTA: 25 Old Capitol. - -LONDON, ENG.: 40 Berners Street, Oxford Street, W. - -ORDER FROM NEAREST OFFICE. - -FOR SALE BY ALL BOOKSELLERS. - -Prices of books, as given in our catalogue or circulars, include full -prepayment of postage, freight, or express charges. Customers in -Canada and Mexico must pay the cost of duty, in addition, at point of -destination. - -=N. B.—Remittances should be made by Express Money-Order, Post-Office -Money-Order, Registered Letter, or Draft on New York City, Philadelphia, -Boston, or Chicago.= - -We do not hold ourselves responsible for books sent by mail; to insure -safe arrival of books sent to distant parts, the package should be -registered. Charges for registering (at purchaser’s expense), 10 cents -for every four pounds or less. - - -=BASHORE—Improved Clinical Chart.= _For the Separate Plotting of -Temperature, Pulse, and Respiration._ - -But one color of ink necessary. Designed for the Convenient, Accurate, -and Permanent Daily Recording of Cases in Hospital and Private Practice. -By HARVEY B. BASHORE, M.D. Fifty Charts, in Tablet Form. Size, 8 × 12 -inches. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, 50 cents, net; Great -Britain, 3s. 6d.; France, 3 fr. 60.= - - -=BOWEN—Hand-Book of Materia Medica, Pharmacy, and Therapeutics.= - -By CUTHBERT BOWEN, M.D., B.A., Editor of “Notes on Practice.” One 12mo -volume of 370 pages. Handsomely Bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. _No. 2 in the -Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.40, net; Great -Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 25.= - - -=BURET—Syphilis: To-Day and in Antiquity.= - -By DR. F. BURET (Paris). Translated from the French, with the author’s -permission, by A. H. OHMANN-DUMESNIL, A.M., M.D., Professor of -Dermatology and Syphilology in the St. Louis College of Physicians and -Surgeons. To be completed in three 12mo. volumes. Volume 1, Syphilis in -Antiquity. IN PRESS. - - -=CAPP—The Daughter.= _Her Health, Education, and Wedlock. Homely -Suggestions to Mothers and Daughters._ - -By WILLIAM M. CAPP, M.D., Philadelphia. This is just such a book as a -family physician would advise his lady patients to obtain and read. It -answers many questions which every busy practitioner of medicine has put -to him in the sick-room at a time when it is neither expedient nor wise -to impart the information sought. - -It will not mar the most proper womanly modesty or refined feelings, and -may wisely be put into the hands of any woman or girl; is a book for the -family; will bear repeated readings, and will be useful to refer to in -emergencies. In one beautifully printed (large, clear type) 12mo volume -of 150 pages. Attractively bound in Extra Cloth. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; Great -Britain, 5s. 6d.; France, 6 fr. 20.= - - -=CATHELL—Book on the Physician Himself, and Things that Concern His -Reputation and Success.= - -By D. W. CATHELL, M.D., Baltimore, Md. Being the Ninth Edition (enlarged -and thoroughly revised) of “The Physician Himself, and What He Should -Add to His Scientific Acquirements in Order to Secure Success.” In one -handsome Octavo volume of 298 pages, bound in Extra Cloth. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.00, net; Great -Britain, 11s. 6d.; France, 12 fr. 40.= - -This remarkable book has passed through eight (8) editions in less -than five years, has met with the unanimous and hearty approval of the -profession, and is practically indispensable to every young graduate -who aims at success in his chosen profession. It has just undergone a -thorough revision by the author, who has added much new matter, covering -many points and elucidating many excellent ideas not included in former -editions. - - -=CLEVENGER—Spinal Concussion.= _Surgically Considered as a Cause of -Spinal Injury, and Neurologically Restricted to a Certain Symptom Group, -for which is Suggested the Designation “Erichsen’s Disease,” as One Form -of the Traumatic Neuroses._ - -By S. V. CLEVENGER, M.D., Consulting Physician, Reese and Alexian -Hospitals; Late Pathologist, County Insane Asylum, Chicago; Member -of numerous American Scientific and Medical Societies; Collaborator -American Naturalist, Alienist, and Neurologist, Journal of Neurology -and Psychiatry, Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases; Author of -“Comparative Physiology and Psychology,” etc. - -For more than twenty years this subject has occasioned bitter contention -in law courts between physicians as well as attorneys, and in that time -no work has appeared that reviewed the entire field judicially until -Dr. Clevenger’s book was written. It is the outcome of five years’ -special study and experience in legal circles, clinics, hospital and -private practice, in addition to twenty years’ labor as a scientific -student, writer, and teacher. _Every Physician and Lawyer should own this -work._ In one handsome Royal Octavo volume of nearly 400 pages, with 30 -Wood-Engravings. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.50, net; Great -Britain, 14s.; France, 15 fr.= - - -=DAVIS—Consumption: How to Prevent it, and How to Live with it.= _Its -Nature, Causes, Prevention, and the Mode of Life, Climate, Exercise, Food -and Clothing Necessary for its Cure._ - -By N. S. DAVIS, JR., A.M., M.D., Professor of Principles and Practice of -Medicine in Chicago Medical College; Physician to Mercy Hospital; Member -of the American Medical Association, Illinois State Medical Society, -etc., etc. 12mo. IN PRESS. - - -=DAVIS—Diseases of the Heart, Lungs, and Kidneys.= - -By N. S. DAVIS, JR., A.M., M.D., Professor of Principles and Practice -of Medicine in the Chicago Medical College, Chicago, Ill., etc. In one -neat 12mo volume. _No. ⸺ in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference -Series._ IN PREPARATION. - - -=DEMARQUAY—Essay on Medical Pneumatology and Aerotherapy.= _A Practical -Investigation of the Clinical and Therapeutic Value of the Gases in -Medical and Surgical Practice, with Especial Reference to the Value and -Availability of Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen Monoxide._ - -By J. N. DEMARQUAY, Surgeon to the Municipal Hospital, Paris, and -of the Council of State; Member of the Imperial Society of Surgery; -Correspondent of the Academies of Belgium, Turin, Munich, etc.; Officer -of the Legion of Honor; Chevalier of the Orders of Isabella-the-Catholic -and of the Conception, of Portugal, etc. Translated, with notes, -additions, and omissions, by SAMUEL S. WALLIAN, A.M., M.D., Member of the -American Medical Association; Ex-President of the Medical Association of -Northern New York; Member of the New York County Medical Society, etc. In -one handsome Octavo volume of 316 pages, printed on fine paper, in the -Best Style of the Printer’s Art, and Illustrated with 21 Wood-Cuts. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, Cloth, $2.00, net; -Half-Russia, $3.00, net. Great Britain, Cloth, 11s. 6d.; Half-Russia, -17s. France, Cloth, 12 fr. 40; Half-Russia, 18 fr. 60.= - - -=EDINGER—Twelve Lectures on the Structure of the Central Nervous System.= -_For Physicians and Students._ - -By DR. LUDWIG EDINGER, Frankfort-on-the-Main. Second Revised Edition. -With 133 illustrations. Translated by WILLIS HALL VITTUM, M.D., St. -Paul, Minn. Edited by C. EUGENE RIGGS, A.M., M.D., Professor of Mental -and Nervous Diseases, University of Minnesota; Member of the American -Neurological Association. The illustrations are exactly the same as those -used in the latest German edition (with the German names translated into -English), and are very satisfactory to the Physician and Student using -the book. The work is complete in one Royal Octavo volume of about 250 -pages, bound in Extra Cloth. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.75, net; Great -Britain, 10s.; France, 12 fr. 20.= - - -=EISENBERG—Bacteriological Diagnosis.= _Tabular Aids for Use in Practical -Work._ - -By JAMES EISENBERG, Ph.D., M.D., Vienna. Translated and augmented, -with the permission of the author, from the latest German Edition, by -NORVAL H. PIERCE, M.D., Surgeon to the Out-Door Department of Michael -Reese Hospital; Assistant to Surgical Clinic, College of Physicians and -Surgeons, Chicago, Ill. In one Octavo volume, handsomely bound in Cloth. -IN PRESS. - - -=GOODELL—Lessons in Gynæcology.= - -By WILLIAM GOODELL, A.M., M.D., etc., Professor of Clinical Gynæcology in -the University of Pennsylvania. With 112 illustrations. Third Edition, -thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged. One volume, large Octavo, 578 -pages. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, Cloth, $5.00; Full Sheep, $6.00, -Discount, 20 per cent., making it, net, Cloth, $4.00; Sheep, $4.80. -Postage, 27 cents extra. Great Britain, Cloth, 22s. 6d.; Sheep, 28s. -France, 30 fr. 80.= - -This exceedingly valuable work, from one of the most eminent specialists -and teachers in gynæcology in the United States, is now offered to the -profession in a much more complete condition than either of the previous -editions. It embraces all the more important diseases and the principal -operations in the field of gynæcology, and brings to bear upon them all -the extensive practical experience and wide reading of the author. It -is an indispensable guide to every practitioner who has to do with the -diseases peculiar to women. - - -=GUERNSEY—Plain Talks on Avoided Subjects.= - -By HENRY N. GUERNSEY, M.D., formerly Professor of Materia Medica and -Institutes in the Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia; Author of -Guernsey’s “Obstetrics,” including the Disorders Peculiar to Women and -Young Children; Lectures on Materia Medica, etc. The following Table of -Contents shows the scope of the book:— - -CONTENTS.—Chapter I. Introductory. II. The Infant. III. Childhood. IV. -Adolescence of the Male. V. Adolescence of the Female. VI. Marriage: The -Husband. VII. The Wife. VIII. Husband and Wife. IX. To the Unfortunate. -X. Origin of the Sex. In one neat 16mo volume, bound in Extra Cloth. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00; Great Britain, 6s. -6d.; France, 6 fr. 20.= - - -=HARE—Epilepsy: its Pathology and Treatment.= _Being an Essay to which -was Awarded a Prize of Four Thousand Francs by the Académie Royal de -Médecine de Belgique, December 31, 1889._ - -By HOBART AMORY HARE, M.D. (University of Pennsylvania), B.Sc., Clinical -Professor of the Diseases of Children, and Demonstrator of Therapeutics -in the University of Pennsylvania; Laureate of the Royal Academy of -Medicine in Belgium, of the Medical Society of London, etc. 12mo. 228 -pages. Neatly bound in Dark-blue Cloth. _No. 7 in the Physicians’ and -Students’ Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.25, net; Great -Britain, 6s. 6d.; France, 7 fr. 75.= - -“This little work is an admirably condensed statement of the clearest -authenticated facts on this subject known. The author is evidently a -master in the art of clear, condensed statements of what is known, and -he could do a great service to science by ‘boiling down’ some of the -thousand-page volumes that are coming from the press. This work is of -great value to all physicians who wish to have the facts concerning -epilepsy in the most available form,”—_Quarterly Journal of Inebriety._ - -“It is representative of the most advanced views of the profession, and -the subject is pruned of the vast amount of superstition and nonsense -that generally obtains in connection with epilepsy.”—_Medical Age._ - - -=HARE—Fever: its Pathology and Treatment.= _Being the Boylston Prize -Essay of Harvard University for 1890; containing Directions and the -Latest Information Concerning the Use of the So-Called Antipyretics in -Fever and Pain._ - -By HOBART AMORY HARE, M.D. (University of Pennsylvania), B.Sc., Clinical -Professor of the Diseases of Children and Demonstrator of Therapeutics -in the University of Pennsylvania; Physician to St. Agnes’ Hospital and -to the Children’s Dispensary of the Children’s Hospital; Laureate of the -Royal Academy of Medicine in Belgium, of the Medical Society of London; -Member of the Association of American Physicians, etc. Illustrated with -more than 25 new plates of tracings of various fever cases, showing -beautifully and accurately the action of the antipyretics. The work also -contains 35 carefully-prepared statistical tables of 249 cases, showing -the untoward effects of the antipyretics. 12mo. Neatly bound in Dark-Blue -Cloth. _No. 10 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.25, net; Great -Britain, 6s. 6d.; France, 7 fr. 75.= - - -=JAMES—American Resorts, with Notes upon Their Climate.= - -By BUSHROD W. JAMES, A.M., M.D., Member of the American Association for -the Advancement of Science, the American Public Health Association, the -Pennsylvania Historical Society, the Franklin Institute, and the Academy -of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Society of Alaskan Natural History -and Ethnology, Sitka, Alaska, etc. With a translation from the German, by -MR. S. KAUFFMANN, of those chapters of “Die Klimate der Erde,” written by -DR. A. WOEIKOF, of St. Petersburg, Russia, that relate to North and South -America, and the islands and oceans contiguous thereto. In one Octavo -volume, handsomely bound in Cloth. Nearly 300 pages. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.00, net; Great -Britain, 11s. 6.; France, 12 fr. 40.= - - -=KEATING—Record-Book of Medical Examinations for Life-Insurance.= - -Designed by JOHN M. KEATING, M.D. This record-book is small, neat, -and complete, and embraces all the principal points that are required -by the different companies. It is made in two sizes, viz.: No. 1, -covering one hundred (100) examinations, and No. 2, covering two hundred -(200) examinations. The size of the book is 7 × 3¾ inches, and can be -conveniently carried in the pocket. - -=Prices, post-paid: No. 1, for 100 Examinations, bound in Cloth, United -States and Canada, 50 Cents, net; Great Britain, 3s. 6d.; France, 3 fr. -60. No. 2, for 200 Examinations, bound in Full Leather, with Side-Flap, -United States and Canada, $1.00, net; Great Britain, 6s. 6d.; France, 6 -fr. 20.= - - -=KEATING AND EDWARDS—Diseases of the Heart and Circulation in Infancy and -Adolescence.= _With an Appendix entitled “Clinical Studies on the Pulse -in Childhood.”_ - -By JOHN M. KEATING, M.D., Obstetrician to the Philadelphia Hospital and -Lecturer on Diseases of Women and Children; Surgeon to the Maternity -Hospital; Physician to St. Joseph’s Hospital; Fellow of the College of -Physicians of Philadelphia, etc.: and WILLIAM A. EDWARDS, M.D., formerly -Instructor in Clinical Medicine and Physician to the Medical Dispensary -in the University of Pennsylvania; Physician to St. Joseph’s Hospital; -Fellow of the College of Physicians; formerly Assistant Pathologist -to the Philadelphia Hospital, etc. Illustrated by Photographs and -Wood-Engravings. About 225 pages. 8vo. Bound in Cloth. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.50, net; Great -Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 35.= - - -=KELLER—Perpetual Clinical Index to Materia Medica, Chemistry, and -Pharmacy Charts.= - -By A. H. KELLER, PH.G., M.D., consisting of (1) the “Perpetual Clinical -Index,” an oblong volume, 9 × 6 inches, neatly bound in Extra Cloth; (2) -a Chart of “Materia Medica,” 32 × 44 inches, mounted on muslin, with -rollers; (5) a Chart of “Chemistry and Pharmacy,” 32 × 44 inches, mounted -on muslin, with rollers. - -=Price for the Complete Work, United States, $5.00 net; Canada (duty -paid) $5.50, net; Great Britain, 28s.; France, 30 fr. 30.= - - -=LIEBIG and ROHÉ—Practical Electricity in Medicine and Surgery.= - -By G. A. LIEBIG, JR., PH.D., Assistant in Electricity, Johns Hopkins -University; Lecturer on Medical Electricity, College of Physicians and -Surgeons, Baltimore; Member of the American Institute of Electrical -Engineers, etc.; and GEORGE H. ROHÉ, M.D., Professor of Obstetrics -and Hygiene, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Baltimore; Visiting -Physician to Bay View and City Hospitals; Director of the Maryland -Maternité; Associate Editor “Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences,” -etc. Profusely Illustrated by Wood-Engravings and Original Diagrams, and -published in one handsome Royal Octavo volume of 383 pages, bound in -Extra Cloth. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.00, net; Great -Britain, 11s. 6d.; France, 12 fr. 40.= - -The constantly increasing demand for this work attests its thorough -reliability and its popularity with the profession, and points to the -fact that it is already THE standard work on this very important subject. -The part on Physical Electricity, written by Dr. Liebig, one of the -recognized authorities on the science in the United States, treats fully -such topics of interest as Storage Batteries, Dynamos, the Electric -Light, and the Principles and Practice of Electrical Measurement in -their Relations to Medical Practice. Professor Rohé, who writes on -Electro-Therapeutics, discusses at length the recent developments of -Electricity in the treatment of stricture, enlarged prostate, uterine -fibroids, pelvic cellulitis, and other diseases of the male and female -genito-urinary organs, etc., etc. - - -=MANTON—Childbed; its Management; Diseases and their Treatment.= - -By WALTER P. MANTON, M.D., Visiting Physician to the Detroit Woman’s -Hospital; Consulting Gynæcologist to the Eastern Michigan Asylum; -President of the Detroit Gynæcological Society; Fellow of the American -Society of Obstetricians and Gynæcologists, and of the British -Gynæcological Society; Member of Michigan State Medical Society, etc. -In one neat 12mo volume. _No. ⸺ in the Physicians’ and Students’ -Ready-Reference Series._ IN PREPARATION. - - -=MASSEY—Electricity in the Diseases of Women.= _With Special Reference to -the Application of Strong Currents._ - -By G. BETTON MASSEY, M.D., Physician to the Gynæcological Department -of the Howard Hospital; Late Electro-Therapeutist to the Philadelphia -Orthopædic Hospital and Infirmary for Nervous Diseases; Member of the -American Neurological Association, of the Philadelphia Neurological -Society, of the Franklin Institute, etc. SECOND EDITION. Revised and -enlarged. With New and Original Wood-Engravings. Handsomely bound in -Dark-Blue Cloth. 240 pages. 12mo. _No. 5 in the Physicians’ and Students’ -Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.50, net; Great -Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 35.= - -“A new edition of this practical manual attests the utility of its -existence and the recognition of its merit. The directions are -simple, easy to follow and to put into practice, the ground is well -covered, and nothing is assumed, the entire book being the record of -experience.”—_Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases._ - -“It is only a few months since we noticed the first edition of this -little book; and it is only necessary to add now that we consider it the -best treatise on this subject we have seen, and that the improvements -introduced into this edition make it more valuable still.”—_Boston -Medical and Surgical Journ._ - -“The style is clear, but condensed. Useless details are omitted, the -reports of cases being pruned of all irrelevant material. The book is -an exceedingly valuable one, and represents an amount of study and -experience which is only appreciated after a careful reading.”—_Medical -Record._ - - -=MEARS—Practical Surgery.= - -By J. EWING MEARS, M.D., Lecturer on Practical Surgery and Demonstrator -of Surgery in Jefferson Medical College; Professor of Anatomy and -Clinical Surgery in the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery, etc. -THIRD EDITION. Revised and Enlarged. IN PREPARATION. - - -=Medical Bulletin Visiting List, or Physicians’ Call Record.= _Arranged -upon an Original and Convenient Monthly and Weekly Plan for the Daily -Recording of Professional Visits._ - -This is, beyond question, the best and most convenient time- and -labor-saving physicians’ pocket record-book ever published. Physicians -of many years’ standing and with large practices pronounce this the best -list they have ever seen. It is handsomely bound in fine, strong leather, -with flap, including a pocket for loose memoranda, etc., and is furnished -with a Dixon lead-pencil of excellent quality and finish. It is compact -and convenient for carrying in the pocket. Size, 4 × 6⅞ inches. In three -styles. _Send for Descriptive Circular._ - -=Net Price, post-paid; No. 1, Regular Size, for 70 patients daily each -month for one year, United States and Canada, $1.25; France, 7 fr. 75. -No. 2, Large Size, for 105 patients daily each month for one year, United -States and Canada, $1.50; France, 9 fr. 35. No. 3, in which “The Blanks -for Recording Visits in” are in six (6) removable sections, United States -and Canada, $1.75; France, 12 fr. 20.= - -_Special Edition for Great Britain only, 4s. 6d._ - - -=MICHENER—Hand-Book of Eclampsia=; _or, Notes and Cases of Puerperal -Convulsions_. - -By E. MICHENER, M.D.; J. H. STUBBS, M.D.; R. B. EWING, M.D.; B. THOMPSON, -M.D.; S. STEBBINS, M.D. 16mo. Cloth. - -=Price, 60 cents, net; Great Britain, 4s. 6d.; France, 4 fr. 20.= - - -=NISSEN—A Manual of Instruction for Giving Swedish Movement and Massage -Treatment.= - -By PROF. HARTVIG NISSEN, Director of the Swedish Health Institute, -Washington, D.C.; late Instructor in Physical Culture and Gymnastics -at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.; Author of “Health -by Exercise without Apparatus.” Illustrated with 29 Original -Wood-Engravings. In one 12mo volume of 128 pages. Neatly bound in Cloth. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; Great -Britain, 6s.; France, 6 fr. 20.= - - -=Physicians’ All-Requisite Time- and Labor-Saving Account-Book.= _Being a -Ledger and Account-Book for Physicians’ Use, Meeting all the Requirements -of the Law and Courts._ - -Designed by WILLIAM A. SEIBERT, M.D. of Easton, Pa. There is no -exaggeration in stating that this Account-Book and Ledger reduces the -labor of keeping your accounts more than one-half, and at the same time -secures the greatest degree of accuracy. - -To all physicians desiring a quick, accurate, and comprehensive method -of keeping their accounts, we can safely say that no book as suitable as -this one has ever been devised. - -=Prices, Shipping Expenses Prepaid: No. 1, 300 Pages, for 900 Accounts -per Year, Size 10 × 12, Bound in ¾-Russia, Raised Back-Bands, Cloth -Sides, in United States, $5.00; Canada (duty paid), $5.50, net; Great -Britain, 28s.; France, 30 fr. 30. No. 2, 600 Pages, for 1800 Accounts per -Year, Size 10 × 12, Bound in ¾-Russia, Raised Back-Bands, Cloth Sides, -in United States, $8.00; Canada (duty paid), $8.80, net; Great Britain, -42s.; France, 49 fr. 40.= - -A circular showing the plan of the book will be sent free to any address -on application. - - -=Physicians’ Interpreter=: _In Four Languages (English, French, German, -and Italian)_. - -Specially arranged for diagnosis by M. VON V. The object of this little -work is to meet a need often keenly felt by the busy physician, namely, -the need of some quick and reliable method of communicating intelligibly -with patients of those nationalities and languages unfamiliar to the -practitioner. The plan of the book is a systematic arrangement of -questions upon the various branches of Practical Medicine, and each -question is so worded that the only answer required of the patient is -merely YES or NO. The questions are all numbered, and a complete Index -renders them always available for quick reference. The book is written by -one who is well versed in English, French, German, and Italian, being an -excellent teacher in those languages, and who has also had considerable -hospital experience. Bound in full Russia Leather, for carrying in the -pocket. Size, 5 × 2⅔ inches. 206 pages. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; Great -Britain, 6s.; France, 6 fr. 20.= - - -=PRICE AND EAGLETON—Three Charts of the Nervo-Vascular System.= _Part -I.—The Nerves. Part II.—The Arteries. Part III.—The Veins._ - -A New edition, Revised and Perfected. Arranged by W. HENRY PRICE, -M.D., and S. POTTS EAGLETON, M.D. Endorsed by leading Anatomists. “The -Nervo-Vascular System of Charts” far excels every other system in their -completeness, compactness, and accuracy. Clearly and beautifully printed -upon extra-durable paper. Each chart measures 19 × 24 inches. - -=Price, in the United States and Canada, post-paid, 50 cents, net, -Complete; Great Britain, 3s. 6d.; France, 3 fr. 60.= - - -=PURDY—Diabetes: its Cause, Symptoms, and Treatment.= - -By CHAS. W. PURDY, M.D. (Queen’s University), Honorary Fellow of the -Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Kingston; Member of the -College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario; Author of “Bright’s -Disease and Allied Affections of the Kidneys;” Member of the Association -of American Physicians; Member of the American Medical Association; -Member of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, etc., etc. With Clinical -Illustrations. In one neat 12mo volume. Handsomely bound in Dark-Blue -Cloth. _No. 8 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference series._ - -=Price, United States and Canada, $1.25, net; Great Britain, 6s. 6d.; -France, 7 fr. 75; post-paid.= - - -=REMONDINO—Circumcision: its History, Modes of Operation, etc.= _From -the Earliest Times to the Present; with a History of Eunuchism, -Hermaphrodism, etc., as Observed Among All Races and Nations; also -a Description of the Different Operative Methods of Modern Surgery -Practiced upon the Prepuce._ - -By P. C. REMONDINO, M.D. (Jefferson); Member of the American Medical -Association; Member of the American Public Health Association; Member of -the State Medical Society of California, and of the Southern California -Medical Society. IN PRESS. NEARLY READY. _No. 11 in the Physicians’ and -Students’ Ready-Reference Series._ - - -=ROHÉ—Text-Book of Hygiene.= _A Comprehensive Treatise on the Principles -and Practice of Preventive Medicine from an American Stand-point._ - -By GEORGE H. ROHÉ, M.D., Professor of Obstetrics and Hygiene in the -College of Physicians and Surgeons, Baltimore; Member of the American -Public Health Association, etc. - -SECOND EDITION, thoroughly revised and largely rewritten, with many -illustrations and valuable tables. In one handsome Royal Octavo volume of -over 400 pages, bound in Extra Cloth. - -=Price, United States, post-paid, $2.50, net; Canada (duty paid) $2.75, -net; Great Britain, 14s.; France, 16 fr. 20.= - -Every Sanitarian should have Rohé’s “Text-Book of Hygiene” as a work -of reference. Of this new (second) edition, one of the best qualified -judges, namely, Albert L. Gihon, M.D., Medical Director of U.S. Navy, in -charge of U.S. Naval Hospital, Brooklyn, N. Y., and ex-President of the -American Public Health Association, writes: “It is the most admirable, -concise _résumé_ of the facts of Hygiene with which I am acquainted. -Professor Rohé’s attractive style makes the book so readable that no -better presentation of the important place of Preventive Medicine, among -their studies, can be desired for the younger members, especially, of our -profession.” - - -=SAJOUS—Hay Fever and its Successful Treatment by Superficial Organic -Alteration of the Nasal Mucous Membrane.= - -By CHARLES E. SAJOUS, M.D., formerly Lecturer on Rhinology and -Laryngology in Jefferson Medical College; Vice-President of the American -Laryngological Association; Officer of the Academy of France and of -Public Instruction of Venezuela; Corresponding Member of the Royal -Society of Belgium, of the Medical Society of Warsaw (Poland), and of -the Society of Hygiene of France; Member of the American Philosophical -Society, etc., etc. With 13 Engravings on Wood. 12mo. Bound in Cloth. -Beveled edges. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, $1.00, net; Great Britain, 6s.; -France, 6 fr. 20.= - - -=SANNE—Diphtheria, Croup: Tracheotomy and Intubation.= - -From the French of A. SANNE. Translated and enlarged by HENRY Z. GILL, -M.D., LL.D. Diphtheria having become such a prevalent, wide-spread, and -fatal disease, no general practitioner can afford to be without this -work. It will aid in preventive measures, stimulate promptness in the -application of and efficiency in treatment, and moderate the extravagant -views which have been entertained regarding certain specifics in the -disease diphtheria. - -A full Index accompanies the enlarged volume, also a list of authors, -making, altogether, a very handsome ILLUSTRATED volume of over 680 pages. - -=Price, United States, post-paid, Cloth, $4.00, Leather, $5.00. Canada -(duty paid), Cloth, $4.40; Leather, $5.50, net. Great Britain, Cloth, -22s. 6d.; Leather, 28s. France, Cloth, 24 fr. 60; Leather, 30 fr. 30.= - - -=SENN—Principles of Surgery.= - -By N. SENN, M.D., PH.D., Professor of Principles of Surgery and Surgical -Pathology in Rush Medical College, Chicago. Ill.; Professor of Surgery -in the Chicago Polyclinic; Attending Surgeon to the Milwaukee Hospital; -Consulting Surgeon to the Milwaukee County Hospital and to the Milwaukee -County Insane Asylum. - -In one handsome Royal Octavo volume, with 109 fine Wood-Engravings and -624 pages. - -=Price, in United States, Cloth, $4.50; Sheep or Half-Russia, $5.50, net. -Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $5.00; Sheep or Half-Russia, $6.10, net; Great -Britain, Cloth, 24s. 6d.; Sheep or Half-Russia, 30s. France, Cloth, 27 -fr. 20; Sheep or Half-Russia, 33 fr. 10.= - -This work, by one of America’s greatest surgeons, is thoroughly COMPLETE; -its clearness and brevity of statement are among its conspicuous merits. -The author’s long, able, and conscientious researches in every direction -in this important field are a guarantee of unusual trustworthiness, that -every branch of the subject is treated authoritatively and in such a -manner as to bring the greatest gain in knowledge to the Practitioner and -Student. Physicians and Surgeons alike should not deprive themselves of -this very important work. - -_A critical examination of the Wood-Engravings (109 in number) will -reveal the fact that they are thoroughly accurate and produced by the -best artistic ability._ - -Stephen Smith, M.D., Professor of Clinical Surgery in Medical Department -of University of the City of New York, writes: “I have examined the work -with great satisfaction, and regard it as a most valuable addition to -American Surgical literature. There has long been great need of a work -on the principles of Surgery which would fully illustrate the present -advanced state of knowledge of the various subjects embraced in this -volume. The work seems to me to meet this want admirably.” - -“The achievements of Modern Surgery are akin to the marvelous, and Dr. -Senn has set forth the principles of the science with a completeness -that seems to leave nothing further to be said until new discoveries -are made. The work is systematic and compact, without a fact omitted or -a sentence too much, and it not only makes instructive but fascinating -reading. A conspicuous merit of Senn’s work is his method, his persistent -and tireless search through original investigations for additions -to knowledge, and the practical character of his discoveries. This -combination of the discoverer and the practical man gives a special value -to all his work, and is one of the secrets of his fame. No physician, -in any line of practice, can afford to be without Senn’s ‘Principles of -Surgery.’”—_The Review of Insanity and Nervous Diseases._ - - -=SHOEMAKER—Heredity, Health, and Personal Beauty.= _Including the -Selection of the Best Cosmetics for the Skin, Hair, Nails, and All Parts -Relating to the Body._ - -By JOHN V. SHOEMAKER, A.M., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica, -Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Clinical Medicine, and Clinical -Professor of Diseases of the Skin in the Medico-Chirurgical College -of Philadelphia; Physician to the Medico-Chirurgical Hospital, etc., -etc. _This is just the book to place on the waiting-room table of every -physician, and a work that will prove useful in the hands of your -patients._ - -The health of the skin and hair, and how to promote them, are discussed; -the treatment of the nails; the subjects of ventilation, food, clothing, -warmth, bathing; the circulation of the blood, digestion, ventilation; in -fact, all that in daily life conduces to the well-being of the body and -refinement is duly enlarged upon. To these stores of popular information -is added a list of the best medicated soaps and toilet soaps, and a whole -chapter of the work is devoted to household remedies. - -The work is largely suggestive, and gives wise and timely advice as to -when a physician should be consulted. - -Complete in one handsome Royal Octavo volume of 425 pages, beautifully -and clearly printed, and bound in Extra Cloth, Beveled Edges, with side -and back gilt stamps and Half-Morocco Gilt Top. - -=Price, in United States, post-paid, Cloth, $2.50; Half-Morocco, $3.50 -net. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $2.75; Half-Morocco, $3.90, net. Great -Britain, Cloth, 14s.; Half-Morocco, 19s. 6d. France, Cloth, 15 fr.; -Half-Morocco, 22 fr.= - - -=SHOEMAKER—Materia Medica and Therapeutics.= _With Especial Reference to -the Clinical Application of Drugs._ - -Being the second and last volume of a treatise on Materia Medica, -Pharmacology, and Therapeutics, and an independent volume upon drugs. - -By JOHN V. SHOEMAKER, A.M., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica, -Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Clinical Medicine, and Clinical -Professor of Diseases of the Skin in the Medico-Chirurgical College of -Philadelphia; Physician to the Medico-Chirurgical Hospital, etc., etc. - -This is the long-looked-for second volume of Shoemaker’s Materia -Medica, Pharmacology, and Therapeutics. It is wholly taken up with the -consideration of drugs, each remedy being studied from three points of -view, viz.: the Preparations, or Materia Medica; the Physiology and -Toxicology, or Pharmacology; and, lastly, its Therapy. Dr. Shoemaker -has finally brought the work to completion, and now this second volume -is ready for delivery. It is thoroughly abreast of the progress of -Therapeutic Science, and is really an indispensable book to every student -and practitioner of medicine. Royal Octavo, about 675 pages. Thoroughly -and carefully indexed. - -=Price, in United States, post-paid, Cloth, $3.50; Sheep, $4.50, net. -Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $4.00; Sheep, $5.00, net. Great Britain, -Cloth, 20s.; Sheep, 26s. France, Cloth, 22 fr. 40; Sheep, 28 fr. 60.= - -The first volume of this work is devoted to Pharmacy, General -Pharmacology, and Therapeutics, and remedial agents not properly classed -with drugs. Royal Octavo, 353 pages. Price of Volume I, post-paid, in -United States, Cloth, $2.50, net; Sheep, $3.25, net. Canada, duty paid, -Cloth, $2.75, net; Sheep, $3.60, net. Great Britain, Cloth, 14s., Sheep, -18s. France, Cloth, 16 fr. 20; Sheep, 20 fr. 20. _The volumes are sold -separately._ - - -=SHOEMAKER—Ointments and Oleates, Especially in Diseases of the Skin.= - -By JOHN V. SHOEMAKER, A.M., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica, -Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Clinical Medicine, and Clinical -Professor of Diseases of the Skin in the Medico-Chirurgical College of -Philadelphia, etc., etc. SECOND EDITION, revised and enlarged. 298 pages. -12mo. Neatly bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. _No. 6 in the Physicians’ and -Students’ Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.50, net; Great -Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 35.= - -The author concisely concludes his preface as follows: “The reader may -thus obtain a conspectus of the whole subject of inunction as it exists -to-day in the civilized world. In all cases the mode of preparation is -given, and the therapeutical application described seriatim, in so far as -may be done without needless repetition.” - -It is invaluable as a ready reference when ointments or oleates are to be -used, and is serviceable to both druggist and physician.—_Canada Medical -Record._ - -To the physician who feels uncertain as to the best form in which to -prescribe medicines by way of the skin the book will prove valuable, -owing to the many prescriptions and formulæ which dot its pages, while -the copious index at the back materially aids in making the book a useful -one.—_Medical News._ - - -=SMITH—The Physiology of the Domestic Animals.= _A Text-Book for -Veterinary and Medical Students and Practitioners._ - -By ROBERT MEADE SMITH, A.M., M.D., Professor of Comparative Physiology -in University of Pennsylvania; Fellow of the College of Physicians -and Academy of the Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; of the American -Physiological Society; of the American Society of Naturalists; Associé -Étranger de la Société Française d’Hygiène, etc. In one handsome Royal -Octavo volume of over 950 pages. Profusely illustrated with more than 400 -fine Wood-Engravings and many Colored Plates. - -=Price, in United States, Cloth, $5.00; Sheep, $6.00, net. Canada (duty -paid), Cloth, $5.50; Sheep, $6.60, net. Great Britain, Cloth, 28s.; -Sheep, 32s. France, Cloth, 30 fr. 30; Sheep, 36 fr. 20.= - -This new and important work is the most thoroughly complete in the -English language on the subject. In it the physiology of the domestic -animals is treated in a most comprehensive manner, especial prominence -being given to the subject of foods and fodders, and the character -of the diet for the herbivora under different conditions, with a -full consideration of their digestive peculiarities. Without being -overburdened with details, it forms a complete text-book of physiology, -adapted to the use of students and practitioners of both veterinary and -human medicine. This work has already been adopted as the Text-Book -on Physiology in the Veterinary Colleges of the United States, Great -Britain, and Canada. - - -=SOZINSKEY—Medical Symbolism.= _Historical Studies in the Arts of Healing -and Hygiene._ - -By THOMAS S. SOZINSKEY, M.D., PH.D., Author of “The Culture of Beauty,” -“The Care and Culture of Children,” etc. 12mo, Nearly 200 pages. Neatly -bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. Appropriately illustrated with upward of -thirty (30) new Wood-Engravings. _No. 9 in the Physicians’ and Students’ -Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; Great -Britain, 6s.; France, 6 fr. 20.= - - -=STEWART—Obstetric Synopsis.= - -By JOHN S. STEWART, M.D., Demonstrator of Obstetrics and Chief Assistant -in the Gynæcological Clinic of the Medico-Chirurgical College of -Philadelphia; with an introductory note by WILLIAM S. STEWART, A.M., -M.D., Professor of Obstetrics and Gynæcology in the Medico-Chirurgical -College of Philadelphia. 42 Illustrations. 202 pages. 12mo. Handsomely -bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. _No. 1 in the Physicians’ and Students’ -Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00 net; Great Britain, -6s. 6d.; France, 6 fr. 20.= - - -=ULTZMANN—The Neuroses of the Genito-Urinary System in the Male.= _With -Sterility and Impotence._ - -By DR. R. ULTZMANN, Professor of Genito-Urinary Diseases in the -University of Vienna. Translated, with the author’s permission, by -GARDNER W. ALLEN, M.D., Surgeon in the Genito-Urinary Department, Boston -Dispensary. Illustrated. 12mo. Handsomely bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. _No. -4 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; Great -Britain, 6s.;. France, 6 fr. 20.= - -SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.—First Part—I. Chemical Changes in the Urine in -Cases of Neuroses. II. Neuroses of the Urinary and of the Sexual Organs, -classified as: (1) Sensory Neuroses; (2) Motor Neuroses; (3) Secretory -Neuroses. Second Part—Sterility and Impotence. The treatment in all cases -is described clearly and minutely. - - -=WHEELER—Abstracts of Pharmacology.= - -By H. A. WHEELER, M.D. (Registered Pharmacist, No. 3468, Iowa). Prepared -for the use of Physicians and Pharmacists, and especially for the use of -Students of Medicine and Pharmacy, who are preparing for Examination in -Colleges and before State Boards of Examiners. - -This book does not contain questions and answers, but solid pages of -abstract information. It will bean almost indispensable companion to the -practicing Pharmacist and a very useful reference-book to the Physician. -It contains a brief but thorough explanation of all terms and processes -used in practical pharmacy, an abstract of all that is essential to be -known of each officinal drug, its preparations and therapeutic action, -with doses: in Chemistry and Botany, much that is useful to the Physician -and Pharmacist; a general working formula for each class and an abstract -formula for each officinal preparation, and many of the more popular -unofficinal ones, together with their doses; also many symbolic formulas; -a list of abbreviations used in prescription writing; rules governing -incompatibilities; a list of Solvents; tests for the more common drugs; -the habitat and best time for gathering plants to secure their medical -properties. - -The book contains 180 pages, 5½ × 8 inches, closely printed and on the -best paper, nicely and durably bound, containing a greater amount of -information on the above topics than any other work for the money. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.50, net; Great -Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 35.= - - -=WITHERSTINE—International Pocket Medical Formulary.= _Arranged -Therapeutically._ - -By C. SUMNER WITHERSTINE, M.S., M.D., Associate Editor of the “Annual -of the Universal Medical Sciences;” Visiting Physician of the Home -for the Aged, Germantown, Philadelphia; late House-Surgeon to Charity -Hospital, New York. Including more than 1800 formulæ from several hundred -well-known authorities. With an Appendix containing a Posological -Table, the newer remedies included; Important Incompatibles; Tables on -Dentition and the Pulse; Table of Drops in a Fluidrachm and Doses of -Laudanum graduated for age; Formulæ and Doses of Hypodermatic Medication, -including the newer remedies; Uses of the Hypodermatic Syringe; Formulæ -and Doses for Inhalations, Nasal Douches, Gargles, and Eye-washes; -Formulæ for Suppositories; Use of the Thermometer in Disease; Poisons, -Antidotes, and Treatment; Directions for Post-Mortem and Medico-Legal -Examinations; Treatment of Asphyxia, Sun-stroke, etc.; Anti-emetic -Remedies and Disinfectants; Obstetrical Table; Directions for Ligation -of Arteries; Urinary Analysis; Table of Eruptive Fevers; Motor Points -for Electrical Treatment, etc. This work, the best and most complete -of its kind, contains about 275 printed pages, besides extra blank -leaves. Elegantly printed, with red lines, edges, and borders; with -illustrations. Bound in leather, with Side-Flap. - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.00, net; Great -Britain, 11s. 6d.; France, 12 fr. 40.= - - -=YOUNG—Synopsis of Human Anatomy.= _Being a Complete Compend of Anatomy, -including the Anatomy of the Viscera, and Numerous Tables._ - -By JAMES K. YOUNG, M.D., Instructor in Orthopædic Surgery and Assistant -Demonstrator of Surgery, University of Pennsylvania; Attending Orthopædic -Surgeon, Out-Patient Department, University Hospital, etc. Illustrated -with 76 Wood-Engravings. 390 pages. 12mo. _No. 8 in the Physicians’ and -Students’ Ready-Reference Series._ - -=Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.40, net; Great -Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 25.= - -While the author has prepared this work especially for students, -sufficient descriptive matter has been added to render it extremely -valuable to the busy practitioner, particularly the sections on the -Viscera, Special Senses, and Surgical Anatomy. - -The work includes a complete account of Osteology, Articulations and -Ligaments, Muscles, Fascias, Vascular and Nervous Systems, Alimentary, -Vocal, and Respiratory and Genito-Urinary Apparatus, the Organs of -Special Sense, and Surgical Anatomy. - -In addition to a most carefully and accurately prepared text, wherever -possible, the value of the work has been enhanced by tables to facilitate -and minimize the labor of students in acquiring a thorough knowledge of -this important subject. The section on the teeth has also been especially -prepared to meet the requirements of students of dentistry. - -In its preparation, Gray’s “Anatomy” (last edition), edited by Keen, -being the anatomical work most used, has been taken as the standard. - - -_The following Publications sold only by Subscription, or Sent Direct on -Receipt of Price, Shipping Expenses Prepaid._ - - -=Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences.= _A Yearly Report of the -Process of the General Sanitary Sciences Throughout the World._ - -Edited by CHARLES E. SAJOUS, M.D., formerly Lecturer on Laryngology -and Rhinology in Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, etc., and -Seventy Associate Editors, assisted by over Two hundred Corresponding -Editors and Collaborators. In Five Royal Octavo Volumes of about 500 -pages each, bound in Cloth and Half-Russia, Magnificently Illustrated -with Chromo-Lithographs, Engravings, Maps, Charts, and Diagrams. Being -intended to enable any physician to possess, at a moderate cost, a -complete Contemporary History of Universal Medicine, edited by many of -America’s ablest teachers, and superior in every detail of print, paper, -binding, etc., a befitting continuation of such great works as “Pepper’s -System of Medicine,” “Ashhurst’s International Encyclopædia of Surgery,” -“Buck’s Reference Hand-Book of the Medical Sciences.” - -=SUBSCRIPTION PRICE Per Year (Including the “SATELLITE” for one year): -in United States, Cloth, 5 Vols., Royal Octavo, $15.00, Half-Russia, -5 Vols., Royal Octavo, $20.00. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $16.50; -Half-Russia, $22.00. Great Britain, Cloth, £4 7s; Half-Russia, £5 15s. -France, Cloth, 93 fr. 95; Half-Russia, 124 fr. 35.= - -THE SATELLITE of the “Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences.” A -Monthly Review of the most important articles upon the practical branches -of Medicine appearing in the medical press at large, edited by the Chief -Editor of the ANNUAL and an able staff. Published in connection with the -ANNUAL, and for its Subscribers Only. - - -=Lectures on Nervous Diseases.= _From the Stand-point of Cerebral and -Spinal Localization, and the Later Methods Employed in the Diagnosis and -Treatment of these Affections._ - -By AMBROSE L. RANNEY, A.M., M.D., Professor of the Anatomy and Physiology -of the Nervous System in the New York Post-Graduate Medical School -and Hospital; Professor of Nervous and Mental Diseases in the Medical -Department of the University of Vermont, etc.; Author of “The Applied -Anatomy of the Nervous System,” “Practical Medical Anatomy,” etc., etc. -Profusely Illustrated with Original Diagrams and Sketches in Color by the -author, carefully selected Wood-Engravings, and Reproduced Photographs of -Typical Cases. One handsome Royal Octavo volume of 780 pages. - -=Price, in United States, Cloth, $5.50; Sheep, $6.50; Half-Russia, $7.00. -Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $6.05; Sheep, $7.15; Half-Russia, $7.70. Great -Britain, Cloth, 32s.; Sheep, 37s. 6d.; Half-Russia, 40s. France, Cloth, -34 fr. 70; Sheep, 40 fr. 45; Half-Russia, 43 fr. 30.= - - -=Lectures on the Diseases of the Nose and Throat.= _Delivered at the -Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia._ - -By CHARLES E. SAJOUS, M.D., formerly Lecturer on Rhinology and -Laryngology in Jefferson Medical College; Vice-President of the American -Laryngological Association; Officer of the Academy of France and of -Public Instruction of Venezuela; Corresponding Member of the Royal -Society of Belgium, of the Medical Society of Warsaw (Poland), and of -the Society of Hygiene of France; Member of the American Philosophical -Society, etc., etc. Illustrated with 100 Chromo-Lithographs, from -Oil-Paintings by the author, and 93 Engravings on Wood. One handsome -Royal Octavo volume. - -=Price, in United States, Cloth, Royal Octavo, $4.00; Half-Russia, Royal -Octavo, $5.00. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $4.40; Half-Russia, $5.50. -Great Britain, Cloth, 22s. 6d.; Sheep or Half-Russia, 28s. France, Cloth, -24 fr. 60; Half-Russia, 30 fr. 30.= - - -=Stanton’s Practical and Scientific Physiognomy; or How to Read Faces.= - -By MARY OLMSTED STANTON. Copiously Illustrated. Two large Octavo volumes. - -The author, MRS. MARY O. STANTON, has given over twenty years to the -preparation of this work. Her style is easy, and, by her happy method of -illustration of every point, the book reads like a novel and memorizes -itself. To physicians the diagnostic information conveyed is invaluable. -To the general reader each page opens a new train of ideas. (This book -has no reference whatever to Phrenology.) - -=Price, in United States, Cloth, $9.00; Sheep, $11.00; Half-Russia, -$13.00. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $10.00; Sheep, $12.10; Half-Russia, -$14.30. Great Britain, Cloth, 56s.; Sheep, 68s.; Half-Russia, 80s. -France, Cloth, 30 fr. 30; Sheep, 36 fr. 40; Half-Russia, 43 fr. 30.= - -Sold only by Subscription, or sent direct on receipt of price, shipping -expenses prepaid. - - -=Journal of Laryngology and Rhinology.= - -Issued on the First of Each Month. Edited by DR. NORRIS WOLFENDEN, of -London, and DR. JOHN MACINTYRE, of Glasgow, with the active aid and -co-operation of DRS. DUNDAS GRANT, BARCLAY J. BARON, HUNTER MACKENZIE, -and SIR MORELL MACKENZIE. Besides those specialists in Europe and America -who have so ably assisted in the collaboration of the Journal, a number -of new correspondents have undertaken to assist the Editors in keeping -the Journal up to date, and furnishing it with matters of interest. -Amongst these are: DRS. SAJOUS, of Philadelphia; MIDDLEMASS HUNT, of -Liverpool; MELLOW, of Rio Janeiro; SEDZIAK, of Warsaw; DRAISPUL, of St. -Petersburg, etc. DRS. MICHAEL, JOAL, HOLGER MYGIND, PROF. MASSEI, and -DR. VALERIUS IDELSON will still collaborate the literature of their -respective countries. - -=Price, 13s. or $3.00 per annum (inclusive of Postage). For single -copies, however, a charge of 1s. 3d. (30 Cents) will be made. Sample -Copy, 25 Cents.= - - -=The Medical Bulletin.= - -Edited by JOHN V. SHOEMAKER, A.M., M.D. Monthly; $1.00 a year. Bright, -Original, and Readable. Articles by the best practical writers -procurable. Every article as brief as is consistent with the preservation -of its scientific value. Therapeutic notes by the leaders of the medical -profession throughout the world. These and many other unique features -help to keep THE MEDICAL BULLETIN in its present position as the leading -low-priced Medical Monthly of the world. Subscribe now! - -=TERMS, $1.00 A YEAR IN ADVANCE= - -In United States, Canada, and Mexico. - -=Foreign Subscription Terms.= - - =ENGLAND, 5 Shillings.= - =AUSTRALIA, 5 Shillings.= - =FRANCE, 6 Francs.= - =JAPAN, 1 Yen.= - =GERMANY, 5 Marks.= - =HOLLAND, 3 Florins.= - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL SYMBOLISM IN CONNECTION -WITH HISTORICAL STUDIES IN THE ARTS OF HEALING AND HYGIENE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/69442-0.zip b/old/69442-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1cdc27e..0000000 --- a/old/69442-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h.zip b/old/69442-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9248f4e..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/69442-h.htm b/old/69442-h/69442-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 00ec857..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/69442-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11818 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta charset="UTF-8"> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Medical symbolism in connection with historical studies in the arts of healing and hygiene, by Thomas S. Sozinskey. - </title> - - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> - - <style> - -a { - text-decoration: none; -} - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1,h2 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; -} - -h2.nobreak { - page-break-before: avoid; -} - -hr { - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap { - width: 65%; - margin-left: 17.5%; - margin-right: 17.5%; -} - -hr.r15 { - width: 15%; - margin-left: 42.5%; - margin-right: 42.5%; -} - -img.w100 { - width: 100%; -} - -div.chapter { - page-break-before: always; -} - -ul { - list-style-type: none; -} - -li { - margin-top: .5em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -p { - margin-top: 0.5em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: 0.5em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -table { - margin: 1em auto 1em auto; - max-width: 40em; - border-collapse: collapse; -} - -td { - padding-left: 2.25em; - padding-right: 0.25em; - vertical-align: top; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -.pad-top td { - padding-top: 0.75em; -} - -.tdc { - text-align: center; - padding-top: 0.75em; -} - -.tdpg { - vertical-align: bottom; - text-align: right; -} - -.blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 10%; -} - -.caption { - text-align: center; - margin-bottom: 1em; - font-size: 90%; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.center { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -.figleft { - float: left; - clear: left; - margin-left: 0; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; -} - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-right: 0; - padding: 0; - text-align: center; -} - -.footnotes { - margin-top: 1em; - border: dashed 1px; -} - -.footnote { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; -} - -.footnote .label { - position: absolute; - right: 84%; - text-align: right; -} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; -} - -.hanging { - margin-top: 1.5em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -.larger { - font-size: 150%; -} - -.noindent { - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - right: 4%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; -} - -.poetry-container { - text-align: center; -} - -.poetry { - display: inline-block; - text-align: left; -} - -.poetry .stanza { - margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; -} - -.poetry .verse { - padding-left: 3em; -} - -.poetry .indent0 { - text-indent: -3em; -} - -.poetry .indent16 { - text-indent: 5em; -} - -.poetry .indent22 { - text-indent: 8em; -} - -.poetry .indent32 { - text-indent: 13em; -} - -.right { - text-align: right; -} - -.smaller { - font-size: 80%; -} - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps; - font-style: normal; -} - -.allsmcap { - font-variant: small-caps; - font-style: normal; - text-transform: lowercase; -} - -.titlepage { - text-align: center; - margin-top: 3em; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.x-ebookmaker img { - max-width: 100%; - width: auto; - height: auto; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .poetry { - display: block; - margin-left: 1.5em; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 5%; -} - -/* Illustration classes */ -.illowp100 {width: 100%;} -.illowp20 {width: 20%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp20 {width: 100%;} -.illowp22 {width: 22%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp22 {width: 100%;} -.illowp25 {width: 25%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp25 {width: 100%;} -.illowp28 {width: 28%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp28 {width: 100%;} -.illowp30 {width: 30%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp30 {width: 100%;} -.illowp33 {width: 33%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp33 {width: 100%;} -.illowp37 {width: 37%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp37 {width: 100%;} -.illowp46 {width: 46%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp46 {width: 100%;} -.illowp50 {width: 50%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp50 {width: 100%;} -.illowp56 {width: 56%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp56 {width: 100%;} -.illowp60 {width: 60%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp60 {width: 100%;} -.illowp75 {width: 75%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp75 {width: 100%;} -.illowp90 {width: 90%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp90 {width: 100%;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Medical symbolism in connection with historical studies in the arts of healing and hygiene, by Thomas S. Sozinskey</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Medical symbolism in connection with historical studies in the arts of healing and hygiene</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Thomas S. Sozinskey</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Contributor: Edward S. Power</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 28, 2022 [eBook #69442]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Emmanuel Ackerman, Evander Cobban and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL SYMBOLISM IN CONNECTION WITH HISTORICAL STUDIES IN THE ARTS OF HEALING AND HYGIENE ***</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="frontispiece" style="max-width: 23.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> - -<p class="center">No. 9 IN THE PHYSICIANS’ AND STUDENTS’ READY<br> -REFERENCE SERIES.</p> - -<p class="titlepage larger"><span class="smcap larger">Medical Symbolism</span><br> -<span class="smaller">IN CONNECTION WITH</span><br> -HISTORICAL STUDIES IN THE ARTS OF<br> -HEALING AND HYGIENE.</p> - -<p class="titlepage">ILLUSTRATED.</p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br> -<span class="smcap">THOMAS S. SOZINSKEY, M.D., Ph.D.</span>,<br> -<span class="smaller">AUTHOR OF “THE CULTURE OF BEAUTY,” “THE CARE AND CULTURE OF CHILDREN,” ETC.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter titlepage illowp100" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/snake.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smcap smaller">Philadelphia and London</span>:<br> -F. A. DAVIS, PUBLISHER.<br> -1891.</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1891, by<br> -EDWARD S. POWER, M.D.,<br> -In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C., U. S. A.</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">Philadelphia:<br> -The Medical Bulletin Printing House,<br> -1231 Filbert Street.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="DEDICATION">DEDICATION.</h2> - -</div> - -<p>The medical profession is often spoken of as non-progressive. -As a practical member of it, the author -is of a different opinion. He knows full-well not only -that, to many, age does not tend to make anything -medical more worthy of attention, but that the old is -apt to be wilfully overlooked. He discovered some -time ago that in the library of the College of Physicians -of Philadelphia—the centre, probably, of medical -learning in the United States—Adams’ edition of the -works of Hippocrates had rested with the leaves uncut -for over twenty years. New things are far too much in -vogue. If Bacon were alive to-day he might still say, -with too much truth, as he said three hundred years -ago: “Let a man look into physicians’ prescripts and -ministrations and he will find them but inconstancies -and every-day devices, without any settled providence -or project” (“Advancement of Learning”). The age -is too much one of trial, of incoherency, to be either -eminently scientific or highly successful in practice. -Beyond question, the medicine of the past is harmfully -neglected; for its literature few have a desirable taste, -and fewer yet a sufficient knowledge. Deploring this -state of things, the author would gladly assist in bringing -about a change. Hence, it affords him pleasure to -dedicate this essay to his professional brethren.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> - -</div> - -<p>In this essay I have treated, as the title indicates, -of medical symbolism in connection with studies, essentially -historical, in the arts of healing and hygiene. -Some parts of it bear only indirectly on the main -subject; but they serve to render the whole more complete -and interesting. Doubtless the reader will not -be inclined to find much fault with any of the apparent -digressions.</p> - -<p>In the score of chapters into which the essay is -divided, attention is invited to numerous more or less -remarkable matters pertaining to medicine, most of -them of very ancient date, and some of practical importance. -Medical mythology is treated of very fully; -and, on this, as indeed on all points, the results of the -most recent archæological and other investigations are -given. All I have said is deserving, I believe, of the -consideration of educated physicians.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> “The wise man -will seek out the wisdom of all the ancients,” says the -author of “Ecclesiasticus,”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> one who had the tastes of -a cultivated medical man.</p> - -<p>Although the essay is mainly on old things, I venture -to hold that it contains much which a fairly well-read -physician will find fresh. The ground gone over -has been little trodden before. It may be said, as Pliny -did, by way of suggestion of difficulties to be overcome,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span> -when he sat down to write his sketch of the history of -the art of medicine, “that no one has hitherto treated -of this subject.”<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> But just as Pliny overlooked what -Celsus had done, and done well, so in this case, some -worthy author may have been overlooked; still, this is -improbable. What is here presented, and in part coherently, -is gathered from manifold sources. I have -limited my references as much as possible to works in -the English language, or translations. The statements -of authors are given in their own words; but quotations -of wearisome length have been avoided.</p> - -<p>The possibility of research in respect to the themes -treated of, and allied ones, not being limited, the essay -cannot be expected to be either perfect or complete. -Whatever its merits or shortcomings may be, however, -it is an outcome of congenial studies pursued -for their own sake. I believe it contains a fund of information -which deserves to be widely known. The -perusal of it may, at least, serve to excite an interest -in the ample literature and long and remarkable history -of the benevolent and learned profession of medicine.</p> - -<p class="right">T. S. S.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIOGRAPHICAL_SKETCH">BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH<br> -<span class="smaller">OF</span><br> -<span class="smcap">THOMAS S. SOZINSKEY, M.D., Ph.D.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Thomas S. Sozinskey, M.D., Ph.D., the author of -this interesting little volume, was born in County Derry, -Ireland, and died in the city of Philadelphia, April 18, -1889, in the thirty-seventh year of his age. He came to -this country when seventeen years of age, and settled in -Philadelphia. Entering the University of Pennsylvania -some years later, he graduated from that institution, and -afterward began the study of medicine, receiving the -degree of Doctor of Medicine in the year 1872. He -also received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from -the same faculty.</p> - -<p>Dr. Sozinskey immediately entered upon his career -as medical practitioner in Philadelphia, where he remained -until his marriage to Miss Abby W. Johnson, a -daughter of Luke Johnson, who was a descendant of -one of the founders of Germantown.</p> - -<p>Shortly after his marriage Dr. Sozinskey decided to -visit Kansas City, partly with the idea of locating there; -but after a sojourn of about one year in the West he -returned to Philadelphia, and began again the practice -of his chosen profession, succeeding in a few years in -building up a very extensive and lucrative practice in the -northwestern section of the city.</p> - -<p>Dr. Sozinskey was a man highly intellectual, studious, -and scholarly. He was a frequent contributor to a -number of leading medical journals, as well as the author -of several well-known works, among which may be mentioned<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span> -“The Care and Culture of Children.” Also, a -little volume entitled “Personal Appearance and the -Culture of Beauty.”</p> - -<p>His last literary effort, “Medical Symbolism,” which -is a work showing a vast amount of research, was completed -just before his death. He was induced to undertake -“Medical Symbolism” after the appearance of an -article bearing this title in the <i>Medical and Surgical -Reporter</i>, which attracted considerable attention, both -in this country and in Europe.</p> - -<p>He received so many letters from men prominent in -the medical profession, suggesting that a book be written -upon this subject, that the task was undertaken.</p> - -<p>By his untimely death three small children became -orphans, the mother having died one year earlier, after -a short illness.</p> - -<p>His readiness to attend the sick, regardless of compensation, -greatly endeared him to a large number of -the poor.</p> - -<p>Containing, as it does, so much that is unique, and -in a field not often touched by previous writers, “Medical -Symbolism” is sure to find appreciative readers, not -only among the fraternity to which Dr. Sozinskey belonged, -but among the scientific and literary generally; -and, from the encouragement already received, the publishers -feel confident of a large and wide-spread demand -for this little volume.</p> - -<p class="right">E. S. P.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span>, October 27, 1890.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[ix]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="COMMENDATORY_LETTERS">COMMENDATORY LETTERS.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span>, Jan, 24, 1884.</p> - -<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Dr. T. S. Sozinskey</span>:</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>:—Please accept my thanks for your paper -on “Medical Symbolism,” received this morning. I -have read it with great interest, more especially as it is -in the direction of the higher education of physicians. -The preponderance of the so-called practical (empirical) -in medical literature, which appeals strongly to the <i>trade</i> -element in the profession, makes such a contribution all -the more enjoyable.</p> - -<p class="center">Very truly yours,</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Frances Emily White</span>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">1427 N. Sixteenth St.</span></p> - -</div> - -<hr class="r15 x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Dr. Sozinskey</span>:</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dear Doctor</span>:—Many thanks. You ought to enlarge -the article to a little book. It interested me greatly. -In a <i>bas-relief</i> of myself by St. Gaudens, New York, he -has set beside the head the caduceus and twin serpents -as symbolical; at all events, they will symbolize my -relation to snakes.</p> - -<p class="center">Yours truly,</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Weir Mitchell</span>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">1524 Walnut St., Phila.</span></p> - -</div> - -<hr class="r15 x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span>, Jan. 23, 1884.</p> - -<p class="noindent"><span class="smcap">Dr. T. S. Sozinskey</span>:</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">My Dear Doctor</span>:—I write to thank you for a copy -of your interesting and instructive paper on “Medical -Symbolism.” In Fergusson, on “Tree and Serpent -Worship,” which you quote, you can readily trace the -connection between the emblems of religion and medicine. -I recognize that, as priest and physician were -once the same person, medicine is yet justly termed -“the divine art.” It affords me much pleasure to see -your studious interest in your profession.</p> - -<p class="center">Yours truly,</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Henry H. Smith</span>.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[x]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[xi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> - -</div> - -<table> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr class="pad-top"> - <td><span class="smcap">Dedication</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#DEDICATION">iii</a></td> - </tr> - <tr class="pad-top"> - <td><span class="smcap">Preface</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#PREFACE">v</a></td> - </tr> - <tr class="pad-top"> - <td><span class="smcap">Biographical Sketch of T. S. Sozinskey, M.D., Ph.D.</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#BIOGRAPHICAL_SKETCH">vii</a></td> - </tr> - <tr class="pad-top"> - <td><span class="smcap">Commendatory Letters</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#COMMENDATORY_LETTERS">ix</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER I.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Remarks on the Meaning of Symbols</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER II.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Serpentine God of Medicine at Rome</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">5</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER III.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Æsculapian Serpent</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">13</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER IV.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Epidaurian Oracle</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">17</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER V.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Asclepia and the Asclepiades</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">23</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER VI.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Grecian God of Medicine</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER VII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Image of Æsculapius</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">45</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER VIII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Æsculapian Staff and Serpent</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">49</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[xii]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER IX.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Æsculapius and the Serpent</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">59</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER X.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Various Attributes of Æsculapius</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">83</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XI.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Gods Analogous to Æsculapius</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">89</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Pine-Cone as an Attribute of Æsculapius</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">111</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XIII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Dibbara, a God of Pestilence</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">119</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XIV.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Hygeia, the Goddess of Health</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">123</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XV.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Medical Talismans</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">129</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XVI.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Medical Amulets</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">137</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XVII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Pharmacists’ Symbols</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">149</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XVIII.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Medical Symbols</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">155</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XIX.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Medical Symbolism in Practice</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">161</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td colspan="2" class="tdc">CHAPTER XX.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Pentacle</span>,</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">165</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<h1>MEDICAL SYMBOLISM.</h1> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br> -<span class="smaller">REMARKS ON THE MEANING OF SYMBOLS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>A symbol is an illustration of a thing which, to -use a poetic phrase, is “not what it seems.” When a -familiar object, or figure of any kind, from some cause -or other, has attached to it a meaning different from the -obvious and ordinary one, it is symbolic. Thus, if one -take a poppy-head to convey the idea of sleep, it is a -symbol; one may regard it as symbolic of sleep, or, if -he choose, of Hypnos (Somnus), the god of sleep. The -illustration on the next page will afford a still more apt -example. To the eye, it appears to be simply a partly -coiled serpent resting on a pedestal. That is, in truth, -what it is. But, regarded from the stand-point of the -student of medical symbolism, it has another and very -different signification. Before such a figure many a -human being, diseased and suffering, has bowed in -reverence and piously offered to it petitions for relief; -to many a noble Greek and haughty Roman, indeed, to -generations of such, it was a god, the great god of “the -divine art,” as medicine was often beautifully called in -ancient times. The serpent is the most important of -medical symbols.</p> - -<p>In any composite figure the elements of it are spoken -of as <i>attributes</i>; and of these some are <i>essential</i> and -some <i>conventional</i>. The essential ones only are, strictly -speaking, symbols. Thus, in a representation of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> -Goddess of Liberty, the cap is not a symbol; it is a -conventional attribute. Says the learned and distinguished -historian of ancient art, C. O. Müller, “The -essence of the symbol consists in the supposed real -connections of the sign with the thing signified.”<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> In -some authoritative works, as, for instance, that of Fairholt,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> -the serpent in medical art is said not to be a -symbol; but this is not true if it be taken to represent -the god of medicine, which, as I have already stated, -was done by both Greeks and Romans. Evidently, if -taken as of this narrow meaning, there are not many -comprehensive medical symbols. But I will take it in -a wider sense; I will take it to mean -any mystic figure or any kind of attribute. -In doing so I do no more -than Fairholt holds should be done. -Referring to the words <i>symbol</i>, <i>image</i>, -and <i>allegorical figure</i> as well as <i>attribute</i>, -he says, “Their shades of -difference are so slight that it would -be most convenient to regard them -all under the general term <i>symbol</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -I may add these remarks of Tiele: “A symbol is a simple -or complex thought clothed in a sensuous form. A myth -is a phenomenon of nature represented as the act of a -person. Usually symbols originate in myths, and in -every case mythology is antecedent to symbolism.”<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> -There are many symbols, however, which never had -anything to do with myths, as will become evident -later.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp50" id="figure01" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure01.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—A Medical -Symbol.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> - -<p>In the wide sense in which I propose to use it, -symbol is almost or quite synonymous with <i>emblem</i>, as -popularly used. Mackenzie<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and other authorities, -however, state that the word emblem is properly applicable -only to a mystic object or figure of two or more -parts. Thus, it is more correct to speak of “a skull and -cross-bones” as emblematic than symbolic of a poison -or of death. Again, while a serpent might properly be -called a symbol, one in connection with a staff is an -emblem. In this restricted sense, emblem is closely -allied in meaning to <i>allegory</i>. But in an allegorical -representation most of the elements of it are apt to be -symbolic, and beauty of the whole is a consideration. -The great Epidaurian representation of Æsculapius is -an example. A simple image or <i>statue</i> is essentially a -symbol.</p> - -<p>I need hardly say that any figure may or may not be -a symbol; but a mere <i>figure</i> is simply a representation -of any object regarded as void of any other than its -ordinary meaning. A conventional representation of -any idea may be nothing more than a figure. In this -sense, it is sometimes called an <i>ideograph</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br> -<span class="smaller">THE SERPENTINE GOD OF MEDICINE AT ROME.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>As I have already intimated, the god of medicine—that -is, Æsculapius<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>—was not only on familiar terms, so -to speak, with the serpent, but at times given a serpentine -form. Pausanias expressly informs us that he often -appeared in such singular shape.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The visitor to -imperial Rome about two thousand years ago saw this -divinity in reptilian guise an object of high regard and -worship. It is worth while to enter into a short study -of the matter.</p> - -<p>Now, at the outset, I may observe that it is a noteworthy -fact that in their regard for medical men the -early Greeks and others contrasted remarkably with the -Romans. The Greeks would seem to have duly prized -the class. One has but to turn to Homer to find evidence -of the fact. A passage suggested by Machaon’s -splendid exercise of his beneficent art, spoken by Idomeneus -when the “offspring of the healing god” was -wounded by a dart fired by “the spouse of Helen” -(Paris), and “trembling Greece for her physician fear’d,” -runs:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“A wise physician skill’d our wounds to heal,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Is more than armies to the public weal.”<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Cowper translates this interesting couplet more -literally than Pope:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“One so skill’d in medicine and to free</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The inherent barb is worth a multitude.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span></p> - -<p>This is a very noble tribute to the physician; in -fact, I know of but few as good, among them being the -one in “Ecclesiasticus” which reads: “The skill of the -physician shall lift up his head and in the sight of great -men he shall be praised.”<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The latter is Hebræo-Egyptian -in origin, and its date is about two hundred years -before our era. The early Romans did not look on -doctors with any such favor.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> - -<p>It is a well-known fact that the art of medicine was -never very enthusiastically or successfully cultivated by -the Romans. It was not until a comparatively late date -that medical practitioners existed among them at all. -Pliny has left us some interesting notes on the matter. -After the statement that many nations have gotten along -without physicians, he says: “Such, for instance, was -the Roman people for a period of more than six hundred -years; a people, too, which has never shown itself -slow to adopt all useful arts, and which even welcomed -the medical art with avidity until, after a fair experience -of it, there was found good reason to condemn it.”<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> He -himself was not a great friend of it.</p> - -<p>Cato, who died in the year of the city of Rome 605, -said, authoritatively: “They (the Greeks) have conspired -among themselves to murder all barbarians with -their medicine, a profession which they exercise for -lucre, in order that they may win our confidence and despatch -us all the more easily. I forbid you to have anything -to do with physicians.”<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> Notwithstanding this, -the imperious old Roman had not a personal dislike to -taking medicine; “far from it, by Hercules,” says Pliny,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span> -“for he subjoins an account of the medical prescriptions -by the aid of which he had ensured to himself and his -wife a ripe old age.”<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> - -<p>It appears that the first physician who exercised his -profession at Rome was “Archagathus, the son of Lysanias, -who came over from Peloponnessus in the year -of the city 335.” He was kindly welcomed, and, from -his special line of practice, was called “Vulnerarius;” -but, from cruelty displayed “in cutting and searing his -patients, he brought the art and physicians into disrepute.”<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> -It is this experience to which Pliny refers in -the foregoing quotation.</p> - -<p>There is reason to believe that the Romans never regarded -medicine as an art appreciatively. They have -transmitted to posterity little that is original and valuable. -Besides what is found in Pliny’s work, the production -of Celsus<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> is about all that calls for special -mention, and it is possible that the latter, as well as the -former, was only a compiler. Pliny significantly says: -“The art of medicine at the present time even teaches -us in numerous instances to have recourse to the oracles -for aid.”<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> He lived from 23 to 79 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span></p> - -<p>The Roman people had no special god of medicine -until the year 292 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> In the preceding year, the -prevalence of a pestilence caused much consternation. -This led to a consultation of the Delphian Oracle, or, -according to Livy (see page 9), the Sibylline Books, -as to what should be done, and the command of “the -Delphic Oracle, or of the Sibylline Books,” to use the -language of an authoritative work,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> was given, to send -an embassy to procure the aid of the Grecian god of -healing, Æsculapius.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span></p> - -<p>The story of the bringing of Æsculapius to Rome, -like that of the bringing of Cybele from Pessinus in -Galatia, is an interesting one, and must be known if -one would fully appreciate the fact of the god being -given the serpentine form, the serpent being generally -regarded as only an attribute of him at his chief seat, -the great Epidaurian Asclepion, or Temple of Health. -It is graphically told by Ovid.</p> - -<p>Ovid begins his poem<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> with an invocation to the -“melodious maids of Pindus;” and, addressing them, -continues:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Say, whence the isle which Tiber flows around,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Its altars with a heavenly stranger grac’d,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And in our shrines the God of Physic plac’d?”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>We are then told that—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“A wasting plague infected Latium’s skies.</div> - <div class="center">...</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In vain were human remedies apply’d.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Weary’d with death, they seek celestial aid,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And visit Phœbus in his Delphic shade.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The reply of the Oracle is this:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Relief must be implor’d and succour won</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Not from Apollo, but Apollo’s son.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">My son to Latium borne shall bring redress;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Go with good omens, and expect success.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The Senate appointed an embassy to carry out the -order:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Who sail to Epidaurus’ neighbouring land.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>To it the god (Æsculapius) is represented as -saying:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“I come and leave my shrine.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">This serpent view, that with ambitious play</div> - <div class="verse indent0">My staff encircles, mark him every way;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">His form, though larger, nobler, I’ll assume,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And, changed as gods should be, bring aid to Rome.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p> - -<p>In due time “the salutary serpent,<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> the god, reached -the Island of the Tiber and assumed again his form -divine”:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“And now no more the drooping city mourns;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Joy is again restor’d and health returns.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>There is little or no reason to doubt that there was -really a formal bringing of Æsculapius to Rome, a cosmopolitan -city which, indeed, as Gibbon states without -much exaggeration, bestowed its freedom “on all the -gods of mankind.”<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> Livy, the historian, speaks of the -matter as follows:—</p> - -<p>“The many prosperous events of the year (459) -were scarcely sufficient to afford consolation for one -calamity, a pestilence, which afflicted both the city and -country and caused a prodigious mortality. To discover -what end or what remedy was appointed by the -gods for that calamity, the Books were consulted, and -there it was found that Æsculapius must be brought to -Rome from Epidaurus. However, as the Consuls had -full employment in the wars, no farther steps were taken -in that business during this year, except the performing -of a supplication to Æsculapius of one day’s continence.”<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> -Elsewhere<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> he says that the god was brought -the following year,—that is, <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span> 460, or 292 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The Island of the Tiber (<i>Insula Tiberina</i>, now <i>Isola -Tiberina</i>), the “<i>inter duos pontes</i>” of the early centuries -of our era, where Æsculapius was worshipped, and which -was sometimes called by his name (<i>Insula Æsculapii</i>), -is within the limits of the city of Rome. According to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> -tradition, it originated from alluvial accumulations within -the period of Roman history.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> It is rather remarkable -that, excepting the one at the mouth (<i>Insula Sacra</i>, -now <i>Isola Sacra</i>), there is no other along the whole -course of the famous river. It is ship-shaped, and quite -small in size, being only about a quarter of a mile in -length,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and has been called “San Bartolomeo,” from the -church which has long occupied the site of the ancient -Temple of Health.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Mr. Davies speaks of it at length -in his interesting book. After an account of the origin -of the worship of Æsculapius on it, he says:—</p> - -<p>“It was in commemoration of this event that the -island was fashioned in the form of a ship. Huge blocks -of travertine and peperino still remain about the prow -(pointing down the stream), imitating on a grand scale -the forms of the planks, upon which are chiseled the -figure of a serpent twined around a rod, and, farther -down, the head of an ox. A temple was raised to -Æsculapius, in which his statue was placed, which probably -stood in the fore part of the simulated vessel, -hospitals for the sick occupying the sides, a tall column -or obelisk rising in the midst to represent a mast. -Temples were also dedicated to Jupiter and Faunus.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> -To these were added a prison in the days of Tiberius.”<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></p> - -<p>Whether the establishment of the worship of the healing -divinity on the island at Rome was brought about -by chance, or deliberately, is not very clear. Pliny -would seem to think that it was elsewhere at first when -he says, “The Temple of Æsculapius, even after he was -received as a divinity, was built without the city and -afterward on an island.”<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The abhorrence of the people -for physicians is given as the reason for isolating the -institution. The noble Romans had no love for a class -that made a trade of curing the sick, enriching themselves -off the misfortunes of their fellow-men; they were -shocked, says Pliny, “more particularly that man should -pay so dear for the enjoyment of life.”<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> There may have -been other and better reasons. The Greeks themselves -placed their asclepia in rural and often insular places. -Thus, the great Epidaurian Asclepion was in a secluded -vale, and two very celebrated ones, those of Cos and -Rhodes, were, as the names indicate, on islands. It is -needless to say that there are excellent sanitary reasons -for placing sanatory institutions in the country, and -especially on insular sites. It will be a long step in -the right direction when we somewhat unwise moderns -cease to have our medical institutions within the built-up -parts of our cities and towns, and treat the sick, -especially those affected with contagious diseases, at a -distance from the well.</p> - -<p>Devotion to the serpentine healer appears to have -lingered long in sunny Italy.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> A bronze serpent in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> -basilica of St. Ambrose was worshipped as late as the -year 1001, but the precise import of it is not known. -Referring to it, De Gubernatis says: “Some say that it -was the serpent of Æsculapius, others that of Moses, -others that it was an image of Christ. For us it is enough -to remark here that it was a mythical serpent before -which Milanese mothers brought their children when -they suffered from worms in order to relieve them, as -we learn from the depositions of the visit of San Carlo -Borromeo to this basilica.”<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> San Carlo suppressed the -superstitious practice.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br> -<span class="smaller">THE ÆSCULAPIAN SERPENT.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>It is not to be presumed that many in our day -would seriously believe that Æsculapius assumed the -form of a large serpent, in the famous legendary voyage -to Rome; but it is hardly to be doubted, as I have -already remarked, that there was actually a serpent -brought from Epidaurus on the occasion. It is very -probable that the Roman embassy deliberately brought -one with them; still, the coming of the reptile on board -the ship may have been accidental.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> The latter was the -case, according to one tradition. At any rate, there was -sufficient ground on which a superstitious people could -easily construct a mythical superstructure to please -their fancy.</p> - -<p>The assumption of the form of a serpent by the god -of medicine was not an extraordinary thing, according -to ancient beliefs. Plenty of instances might be cited. -I may give one. Alexander the Great was believed by -many to have been not the son of Philip, but of Jupiter -Ammon, who appeared to Olympias in reptilian shape. -Plutarch tells the story. It is amusingly related of -Philip that “he lost one of his eyes as he applied it to -the chink of the door, when he saw the god, in the form -of a serpent, in his wife’s embraces.”<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The ability to -take on at pleasure any animal or other form was regarded -as one of the distinguishing prerogatives of -divinity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span></p> - -<p>Taking it for granted, then, that there was really a -serpent transferred from Epidaurus to Rome, which -was regarded as Æsculapius, the interesting question -arises, of what species was it? A very conclusive -answer may be given.</p> - -<p>It is known that at the Epidaurian Asclepion a -species of serpent existed in considerable numbers by -permission. After stating that all serpents, “but particularly -those of a more yellow color, are considered as -sacred to Æsculapius, and are gentle and harmless -toward men,” Pausanias says: “They are alone nourished -in the land of the Epidaurians; and I find that -the same circumstance takes place in other regions.”<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> -Here, then, is proof that -there was a species of serpent -which deserved to be -characterized as Æsculapian.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure02" style="max-width: 23.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure02.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—The Æsculapian Serpent.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>It being reasonably certain -that only one kind of -serpent “was nourished in the land of the Epidaurians,” -and regarded as sacred to Æsculapius, the following -passage from Pliny is interesting: “The Æsculapian -snake was first brought to Rome from Epidaurus, but -at the present day it is very commonly reared, in our -houses even; so much so, indeed, that, if the breed were -not kept down by the frequent conflagrations, it would -be impossible to make head against the rapid increase -of them.”<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> It is evident from this statement that the -serpent in question was not venomous, that its presence -was prized, and that people would not wilfully kill it.</p> - -<p>Now, a pretty species of oviparous, non-venomous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -serpent, still common in Italy, is believed to be the -“Æsculapian snake” of Pliny, called <i>Paroas</i> by Greek -writers.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> I have examined a number of specimens. -Several are to be seen in the museum of the Academy -of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. It has been described -by Shaw under the name of <i>Coluber Æsculapii</i>, -but it is now often called <i>Elaphis Æsculapii</i>. A cut of it -is given in Brehm’s great popular work,<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> which is very -good, except that it gives one the impression that the animal -is decidedly large. The Æsculapian serpent is comparatively -small, being from three to four and one-half feet -in length, and about as thick as a stout walking-cane. -It is orange-brown above, or, as Shaw puts it, “rufous -colour on the upper parts, more or less deep in different individuals.”<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> -Beneath it is of a straw color. The scales of -the back are oval and carinated, and those of the sides are -smooth. The tapering tail measures about nine inches. -Movement takes place through vertical waves or swellings. -It is very active and can climb trees with facility. -When attacked it will defend itself; but it is by nature -gentle and is easily tamed.</p> - -<p>In his brief description of it, Cuvier follows Shaw. -He adds: “It is that which the ancients have represented -in their statues of Æsculapius; and it is probable -that the serpent of Epidaurus was of this species. (The -<i>Coluber Æsculapii</i> of Linnæus<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> is of a totally different -species, and belongs to America.)”<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> - -<p>The Æsculapian serpent is closely related to the -ringed snake (<i>Natrix torquata</i>), the only British member<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -of the family; and the common black snake (<i>Coluber constrictor</i>) -of America is of the same genus; but it should -not be classed, as was done by Linnæus, with the decidedly -venomous viperine serpent, the <i>Viper communis</i>, -or <i>Pelias berus</i>, of which Figuier says: “It is not improbable -that it is the <i>echis</i> (εχις) of Aristotle and the <i>vipera</i> -of Virgil, as it is the <i>manasso</i> of the Italians, the <i>adder</i> -of the country-people of England and Scotland, and the -<i>vipère</i> of France. It is found in all these countries and -in Europe generally.”<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> - -<p>In an article contributed to a medical journal<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> I have -said, in reference to the Æsculapian serpent, that it is -the one “which should always be shown in medical -symbolism.” This would hardly be questioned by -many; yet I am disposed to think that the restriction -is too exclusive. Another species of coluber, the -uræus, or asp, has played a significant rôle, as a symbol -of life and healing, especially in Egypt, as will be seen -later. Our medical traditions, however, being mainly -derived from the Greeks, it would therefore seem but -right that we should confine ourselves very exclusively -to the symbolism in use by them.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br> -<span class="smaller">THE EPIDAURIAN ORACLE.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>In speaking of the god of medicine at Rome, mention -was made of Epidaurus, the original great seat of -worship of Æsculapius. In the Peloponnesian place of -that name, in the district of Argolis, on the western -shore of the Saronic Gulf, I will now pause a while; for -here is a spot of earth of special interest, dearer than -Salerno, or even Cos, to every lover of the annals, historical -and legendary, of the healing art.</p> - -<p>Very different is Epidaurus now from what it was in -other days; there has been a change, and for the worse. -Here was once the scene of teeming life; the home of a -people of culture and renown. It is not so at present. -As with many other parts of Greece, time has dealt -harshly with Epidaurus. But for the ruins and the -imperishable records we have of them, one could find -very little there worthy of much attention.</p> - -<p>It is chiefly in the work of Pausanias, before mentioned, -that the great medical institution of Epidaurus, -the Æsculapian Temple, with its auxiliaries, survives. -This observing and inquisitive old Greek traveler has left -an interesting account of it. He lived in the second century -of our era.</p> - -<p>The ruins have been carefully studied and described -by Mr. Leake.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> - -<p>Under a commission from the Archæological Society -of Athens, Mr. P. Kavvadias, in 1881 and forward to -the present time (1885), has been making exploratory<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -excavations, for full accounts of which the “Proceedings -of the Society” must be consulted.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> - -<p>Although the Asclepion was not within the town of -Epidaurus, it was generally spoken of as part and parcel -of the latter. Thus, Strabo says: “Epidaurus was a -distinguished city, remarkable particularly on account -of the fame of Æsculapius, who was supposed to cure -every kind of disease, and whose temple is crowded constantly -with sick persons, and its walls covered with -votive tablets, which are hung thereon and contain -accounts of the cures in the same manner as is practiced -at Cos and at Tricca.”<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> In the time of the Romans, -the town was regarded as “little more than the harbor”<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> -of the Æsculapian Oracle. Still, at one time it was of -considerable importance. Pausanias speaks favorably -of it. In it there were statues of Æsculapius and his -reputed wife, Epione, and of Diana, Venus, and others. -There were public accommodations for persons dying -and lying-in women. This was necessary, because births -and deaths were not allowed to occur within the Sacred -Grove. The exclusion was, according to Pausanias, -“agreeable to a law which is established in the island -of Delos.”<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> - -<p>Epidaurus was open to intercourse with the Phœnicians -and other peoples. Its citizens were enterprising. -It is interesting to note that they colonized the island -of Cos.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span></p> - -<p>Under the name of Pidhavro the ancient town remains -in existence; but it is a mere hamlet of a few -dozen families, most of which are engaged in raising -vegetables for the Athenian market.</p> - -<p>Proceeding in a southwesterly direction from the site -of Epidaurus, one comes, after a journey of about five -Roman miles, to the location of the famous Epidaurian -Oracle of Æsculapius. It is a little vale, bordered -almost all around with shrubbery-clad hills, notable -among which are Mounts Titthium, Cynortium, and -Coryphæus, the first and second to the north, and the -third to the southeast. At a little distance down it, -flowing westerly and emptying into the river of Lessa, -is a rivulet formed by two main branches, one of which -springs from about Mount Coryphæus and traverses -the sacred Ἀλσος, or Grove.</p> - -<p>To the Sacred Grove, the name of Hierum, or, rather, -Sto Hieron,<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> a synonym, is applied. It is less than a -mile in circumference. Within it are found remains of -most of the structures which it formerly contained. In -the centre stood the Temple, or Sanctuary, of Æsculapius; -in the southeast, at the foot of Mount Coryphæus, the -theatre,<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> which afforded accommodation for twelve thousand -people, and which is one of the finest ruins of ancient -Grecian buildings; and southwest of the temple was the -place devoted to athletic games, the Stadium, to the north -of which were the Cistrum and the Tholus, or circular -cell, about thirty feet in circumference, which contained -paintings and other works of art, and probably served -as a place of reunion of the officials of the sanctuary,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -and for certain sacrifices and ceremonies. Water-pipes -have been unearthed; and there are remnants of -the peribolus, or enclosure, which, according to Leake, -however, was present only on two sides, the steep hills -answering the purpose on the others. The somewhat -remarkable state of preservation of these ruins is largely -due to the seclusion of the place.</p> - -<p>Of course, the most notable building within the -sacred grounds was the Temple.<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> This was the abode -of the god; here was his oracle. His statue was of -great splendor and highly renowned. It was formed of -ivory and gold—chryselephantine—and was by Thrasymedes, -of Parus. Æsculapius was represented as a -man somewhat advanced in life, but of attractive presence, -seated on a throne. His hair and beard were -given long, perhaps too long for an ideal physician.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> In -his left hand he held a staff, and the other he held over -the head of a serpent. At his feet was the figure of a -dog. On the throne were wrought illustrations of the -works of the Argive heroes. Bellerophon was shown -in the act of slaying the Chimæra, and Perseus cutting -off the head of Medusa.</p> - -<p>Besides the temple, the theatre, gymnasium, and -other buildings mentioned above, there were still others -to meet the manifold needs of the numerous visitors. -As those who came to consult the oracle remained a night -or longer, there must have been an extensive dormitory. -It is referred to by Pausanias.<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> Those, however, who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -approached the god, always, I believe, passed the night -in the sanctuary.</p> - -<p>When at the height of its glory the Hierum was -surely a place full of life. Being the most famous sanatory -retreat, multitudes flocked to it from all parts of -Greece and beyond. Many who came were, doubtless, -invalids, but likely far more could not be classed as -such. In fact, this Æsculapian Grove, although mainly -a medical institution, a sort of hospital, might reasonably -be taken as a prototype of modern popular health -resorts.</p> - -<p>The glory of the Epidaurian Oracle was not short-lived. -In the year 292 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, the time when the Roman -embassy paid the historic visit, it was very great; and -five centuries later—that is, in the time of Pausanias—it -had not passed away; the worship of the serpentine -divinity had not then ceased.</p> - -<p>With years the oracle accumulated riches, so that it -became noted for its treasures. When, in the year 167 -<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, it was visited by L. Æmilius Paulus, after his conquest -of Macedonia, it was rich in gifts presented by -those who had obtained relief there from their afflictions. -A century and a half later many of the valuable -offerings had disappeared.</p> - -<p>The visitors to the great oracle in search of health -placed themselves under the care of the asclepiades, or -disciples of the god. A special course of regimen -(treatment) was followed. It is said that it was directed -by Æsculapius, through dreams,—not necessarily a -truth. The plan pursued was more or less scientific -and free from superstition. Mr. Leake rather ungraciously -remarks that the advisors, being “equally dexterous -as priests and physicians, provided themselves -with resources in either capacity, which they could turn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -to the benefit of their patients’ infirmities and their own -profit.”<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> The rules were decidedly strict. Records of -patients were preserved, and the tablets on which they -were placed were hung up in the temple and elsewhere. -Some of those surviving from the stelæ, mentioned by -Pausanias,<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> have been unearthed recently by Mr. Kavvadias. -They are mostly statements of miraculous -cures.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> - -<p>Famous and immensely popular as the Epidaurian -Oracle was, it cannot be said to have had notable natural -advantages in its favor. The site was not one of the -best, being low and hill-bounded,—conditions closely related -to unhealthy states of humidity and heat of the -atmosphere. The supply of water was not good, dependence -having to be placed at times on cisterns. The -locations of many other, but less noted, asclepia, were -certainly far more sanatory. At Cos there was pure, -mild sea-air; and, of those in the mountains or by -fountains, each had one or more special natural attractions. -Indeed, there could seemingly be few much -worse sites than this close little Epidaurian valley, without -even a mineral spring, or, in fact, a good spring of -ordinary water to recommend it. But, greater than any -one, or all climatic or other influences in power to attract -the multitude, was the belief that at his birthplace -and primary seat and oracle the influence of the god of -medicine could be most effectively brought to bear to -remove disease and restore health. As in this case, a -pleasing superstition may work wonders.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br> -<span class="smaller">ASCLEPIA AND THE ASCLEPIADES.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Many asclepia, or temples of health, were in time -established throughout Greece and her colonies and elsewhere. -A recent writer states that at least three hundred -and twenty are known “to have existed in antiquity; -so that every town of importance must have had -its sanctuary.”<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> In success and length of existence they, -of course, varied greatly. The one at Epidaurus has -been spoken of, and others of great celebrity were those -of Tricca, Cnidus, and Cos, to say nothing of some only -a little less deserving of mention, such as those at -Rhodes, Pergamus, Carthage, Athens,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> and Rome.</p> - -<p>The asclepion at Tricca, in Thessaly, was probably -started by the sons of Æsculapius, Machaon and Podalirius. -At any rate, according to Homer, they were -attendants there. This was enough to bring it into repute, -but its situation in the mountains was much in its -favor as a popular sanatory resort.</p> - -<p>The Coan and Cnidian asclepia were favorably -located; the former on the island of the name, which -Pliny speaks of as “flourishing and powerful in the -highest degree and consecrated to Æsculapius,”<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> and -the latter not far distant, on a site decidedly maritime, -in Asia Minor. These temples were both very distinguished, -and a degree of rivalry prevailed between them.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -In them there was undoubtedly much highly creditable -medical knowledge in exercise. The same was probably -the case in most, or perhaps all, others, especially -in later times; but it is in respect to those only that we -have indubitable evidence of the fact. Of the two -schools, the adherents of the Cnidian paid special attention -to the symptoms of individual cases, and avoided, -as much as possible, powerful cathartics, bleeding, and -other active means of cure.</p> - -<p>Whatever may have been the success of the various -asclepia, institutions which were finally blotted out in -the early part of the fourth century by Constantine, the -first Christian emperor,<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> that of Cos was destined to -make the greatest impress on the medicine of the future. -It was the good fortune of this institution to have in -connection with it, at the acme of its career, a great -author as well as physician. Hippocrates, a native of -the island, rendered the fame of the Coan school imperishable, -and gave to his fellow-men throughout the -world, in all time to come, a legacy of incalculable -value. Through this early and great medical writer his -<i>alma mater</i> has been made, in a manner, that of the -medical man of all ages. From Cos sprang forth at the -touch of a humble man, afterward called appreciatively -“the divine old man,” a mass of medical knowledge, -wonderfully pure and good, which constitutes the main -body of the real medical science of our own day.</p> - -<p>An asclepion<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> consisted essentially of a building<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -with a more or less hygienical site, usually in the country -and near a fountain,<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> sometimes a mineral one, in which -the arts of healing were practiced by priests or disciples -of Æsculapius, called asclepiades. In all, the influence -of the god was generally believed to be an essential -factor; and hence in each an image of him was to be -found. But the fully-equipped institution had many -appliances, as has been shown in the account given of -the one at Epidaurus. Arrangements for exercises, -baths, and other means which were brought to bear to -restore people to health were duly provided and were -in many instances elaborate.</p> - -<p>The asclepiades claimed that they were descended -directly from the god of whom they were the disciples. -They were not, at any time, mere priests; that is, ministers -of religion. Indeed, it has been asserted that -“there is no sign in the Homeric poems of the subordination -of medicine to religion.”<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> - -<p>The asclepiades constituted a special class, and -they were oath-bound to preserve the mysteries of the -art from the uninitiated. The oath is preserved in the -Hippocratic Collection,<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> and is usually called by his -name. It begins thus: “I swear by Apollo, the physician, -and Æsculapius, and Health, and All-Heal,<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> and -all the gods and goddesses that, according to my -ability and judgment, I will keep this oath and this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -stipulation.” In it occurs this passage: “I will follow -that system of regimen<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> which, according to my ability -and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, -and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous.” -Here is another: “With purity and with holiness -I will pass my life and practice my art.” Cutting -for the stone is left to those who make a special business -of it. What is learned about patients, in the exercise -of the art, which should be kept secret is not to be -divulged. Mr. Adams well says that it is most honorable -to the profession that so ancient a document pertaining -to it as this, “instead of displaying narrow-minded -and exclusive selfishness, inculcates a generous -line of conduct, and enjoins an observance of the rules -of propriety and of the laws of domestic morality.”<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - -<p>It has been said, in a learned article<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> on ancient -medicine, that “the asclepiadæ of Greece were the true -originators” of scientific medicine. This claim might -be questioned, but it is, doubtless, in the main just. -Certainly all physicians were not connected with -asclepia; and in later times the asclepiades proper -were avoided by the more intelligent and rational.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately, the records of the practice of the -asclepiades have been almost entirely lost. This is to -be regretted, and more especially because what is preserved -is of a decidedly high order of merit.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> However,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -it is probable that at least the <i>crême</i> of the whole -has been handed down to us by Hippocrates.</p> - -<p>It seems certain that in the first “Prorrhetics” and -the “Prænotiones Coacae,” which are transmitted to us -in the Hippocratic Collection, we have fragments and -excerpts from the histories of diseases and cures which -were formerly found on the votive tablets of the Coan -Temple. From these records Hippocrates drew largely -in composing his highly valuable “Book of Prognostics.” -In reference to the matter Adams says: “It -is as clear as the light of day that Hippocrates composed -this work from them.”<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<p>It is more than probable that, except for a short -time at first, the system of treatment pursued by the -asclepiades varied within wide limits; and it is equally -certain that the superstitious element lessened as time -passed. Between the principles of practice of Æsculapius -and those of Hippocrates<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> there is a very wide -difference. Those of the former will be given later; but -of those of the latter I may say here that they were -essentially scientific.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> To Hippocrates every disease -had a natural cause, and was to be cured by natural<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -means. He was wont “to consult Nature herself about -Nature,” as Bacon has somewhere wisely advised. -He did not attribute any morbid condition to any -spiritual power, good or bad, and hence in his practice -did not resort to conjuration or any related means of -cure. Even of epilepsy, the so-called “sacred disease,” -he said: “It is thus with regard to the disease called -sacred: It appears to me to be nowise more divine nor -more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause -from which it originates like other affections.” And -again: “Men regard its nature and cause as divine, -from ignorance and wonder.”<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> As regards holding -disease to be divinely inflicted, he very properly -remarks: “I do not count it a worthy opinion to hold -that the body of man is polluted by God.”<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> - -<p>Not only in the principles of medicine, but in its -practice, Hippocrates was wonderfully sound, even when -judged from the stand-point of the art in our day. In -truth, for extent and profundity of medical knowledge -and philosophy, between him and what modern would -one think of instituting a comparison? Sydenham has -been likened to him; but, although I am an admirer of -the English physician, I do not hesitate to say that he -was neither in breadth nor depth any such man as the -Coan. As a writer on the prevention and cure of disease, -Hippocrates remains <i>facile princeps</i>.</p> - -<p>Let it not be hastily supposed that my admiration -for Hippocrates is unreasonably great. His works are -truly a surprise to even the well-read modern. Very -many of the so-called discoveries of recent times may be -learned by turning to them. I speak advisedly. I will -cite instances:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p> - -<p>Thus, of the treatment of open sores, he says: “In -these cases no part is to be exposed to the air.” Dressings -of “wine and oil” and “pitched cerate<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>” are -directed to be used.</p> - -<p>Again, in treating fractures, in connection with certain -splints, he advises that “a soft, consistent, and clean -cerate should be rubbed into the folds of the bandage;”<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> -and he says, “If you see that the bones are properly -adjusted by the first dressing, and that there is no -troublesome pruritus in the part, nor any reason to -suspect ulceration, you may allow the arm to remain -bandaged in the splints until after the lapse of more -than twenty days.”<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> - -<p>Still again, in regard to the reduction of a dislocation -at the hip-joint, he says, “In some the thigh is reduced -with no preparation, with slight extension, directed by -the hands, and with slight movement; and in some the -reduction is effected by bending the limb at the joint -and making rotation.”<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - -<p>In the three preceding paragraphs we have the practical -side of the germ theory of disease, the permanent -dressing of fractures, and the reduction of dislocations -by manipulation.</p> - -<p>I might go on and recount numerous other matters -alleged to be new, and of which we hear much; but it -is not necessary. I may add, however, a few items of -interest:—</p> - -<p>“Bleed,” says the old Greek, “in the acute affections, -if the disease appears strong, and if the patients be in -the vigor of life, and if they have strength.” Has any -modern spoken more wisely on the subject?<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> - -<p>Here is a statement worthy of the attention of unbalanced<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -theorists of our day: In fevers and pneumonia, -heat “is not the sole cause of mischief.”<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> - -<p>He gives directions for the use of effusions with -“water of various temperatures” in “cases of pneumonia,” -of “ardent fevers,” and of other diseases. This -treatment, he thinks, “suits better with cases of pneumonia -than in ardent fevers.”<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> - -<p>In that inimitable book, his “Aphorisms,” it is said: -“In general, diseases are cured by their contraries.” -There is no exclusive allopathy or homœopathy, or -dogma of any kind, in that statement; it is the sentiment -of a scientific physician.</p> - -<p>Medicine was evidently far advanced in the days of -Hippocrates;<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> and he was certainly a learned and sensible -practitioner of it, even the “Prince of Physicians,” -as Galen, I think, somewhere characterizes him, as well -as one who did much to make it what he pronounced it -himself to be, namely, “of all arts the most noble.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br> -<span class="smaller">THE GRECIAN GOD OF MEDICINE.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>During most of the earlier part of their history it -is safe to say the Greeks regarded Apollo as their main -god of medicine. Being possessed of the eminent -qualities of a sun-god, replacing Helios as such, and -both mighty and popular, this was to be expected. -Nothing could be more natural than to accord to a -deification of the orb of day a direct concern with -matters pertaining to life and death.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> Who so blind -and stupid as not to see and know that all vital activity -is intimately connected with the presence and movements -(apparent) of this great light- and heat-producing -heavenly body!</p> - -<p>In an old Chaldean hymn the power of the sun over -health and disease is recognized. He is petitioned to -relieve a patient. The petitioner, after saying that “the -great lord, Hea, had sent him,” continues:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Thou at thy coming, cure the race of man;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Cause a ray of health to shine upon him;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Cure his disease.”<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>However, the reader of Homer is well aware that -medical affairs were regarded by the Greeks as subject to -the will of Phœbus. The epidemic which affected the -Grecian forces, spoken of in the beginning of his great -work, was held to be caused by the god. Being moved -to anger by the words of his daughter-robbed priest—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Latona’s son a dire contagion spread</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And heap’d the camp with mountains of the dead.”<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Chryses, having received the maiden<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> back from her -kingly abductor,<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> then addressed Apollo again, saying, -among other things:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“If fir’d to vengeance at thy priest’s request,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Thy direful darts inflict the raging pest,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Once more attend! Avert the wasteful woe</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And smile propitious and unbend thy bow.”<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The prayer was heard and answered as desired.</p> - -<p>Surgical as well as purely medical aid was sought -and received from Apollo. Thus, when the Lycian -chief, Sarpedon, was killed, Glaucus, himself sorely -wounded and unable to protect his friend’s remains, -petitioned the “god of health,” the “god of every healing -art,” and</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Apollo heard; and suppliant as he stood,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">His heavenly hand restrain’d the flux of blood;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">He drew the dolours from the wounded part,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And breath’d a spirit in his rising heart.”<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>One of the names often applied to Apollo,<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> and -subsequently to his son,<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> was distinctly medical, viz., -Pæon, or Paieon.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Homer always uses it in referring -to the physician of the Olympian gods, as where he -speaks of the Pharian race as “from Pæon sprung.”<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> -“Pæonian herbs”<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> is the phrase used by Virgil in his -account of the restoration to life of Hippolytus. And -this leads me to say that Apollo was believed to have a -special knowledge of medicinal plants. By Ovid he is -represented as saying:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“What herbs and simples grow</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In fields, in forests, all their power I know.”<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It may be further said that Apollo always continued -to have healing powers accorded him. No more proof -of this is wanting than the first clause of the Hippocratic -oath—“I swear by Apollo, the physician.”</p> - -<p>It would seem to have been about the time of the -Trojan war that the special god of medicine began to -be viewed as such by the Greeks. Strong reason for -so believing is found in the fact that Homer refers to -Æsculapius as simply “a blameless doctor,”<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a>—a mortal, -the adjective used never being applied to a god. A -well-informed writer remarks that “the kernel out of -which the whole myth has grown is, perhaps, the account -we read in Homer.”<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> This opinion is open to question. -Even the title of Archegetes, or Primeval Divinity, was -sometimes given to Æsculapius, and, indeed, under that -title he was worshipped by the Phocians in a temple situated -eighty stadia<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> from Tithorea. This name was also -given, it must be said, to Apollo, from whom probably -it was received by the son. I may add here the suggestion -of the Abbé Banier, that likely a distinguished -physician, called Æsculapius,<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> of the age of Hercules -and Jason, being highly honored, was in time confounded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -with the old Phœnician and Egyptian god, Esmun; “so -that in process of time the worship of the latter came -to be quite forgotten, and the new god substituted -altogether in his room.”<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> - -<p>Galen expresses doubt whether the divinity of -Æsculapius was the result of a gradual development -from a human basis; but Pausanias says: “That -Æsculapius was from the first considered as a god, and -that his fame was not owing to length of time, I find -confirmed by various arguments, and even by the authority -of Homer, in the following verses, in which -Agamemnon thus speaks of Machaon:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">‘Talthibius, hither swift, Machaon bring,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Who from the blameless Æsculapius sprung;’<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">which is just as much as if he had said, ‘Call a man who -is a son of a god.’”<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> - -<p>In the indulgence of their myth-forming fancies it -was very reasonable, very wise, on the part of the Greeks -to make Æsculapius the offspring of Apollo. If the -god of medicine be viewed as a personification of the -healing powers of nature, what more rational, as has -been observed, than to take him to be “the son, the -effects of Helios, Apollo, or the sun.”<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> - -<p>The mythological history of the Grecian god of -medicine is strange and interesting. One must know -it, or he will remain in the dark about many things -bearing on the symbolism and other features of the -physician’s art.</p> - -<p>Æsculapius was the result, so the story runs, of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -criminal <i>liaison</i> between Apollo and a young virgin, -named Coronis, a native of Thessaly—something which -the myth-makers apparently did not regard as discreditable. -The morals of many of the gods were exceedingly -bad. “Our manners have been corrupted by communication -with the saints,”<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> is a candid remark of Thoreau. It -would appear that the ancients were corrupted by communication -with the gods.</p> - -<p>It is recorded of Coronis that she was, like too many -of the sex, fickle, and did not prove faithful to her -divine paramour; she stealthily cultivated a criminal -intimacy with an Arcadian youth, named Ischys. The -fact of her infidelity becoming known to Apollo, either -through a message of a raven,<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> or his own divine powers, -he, naturally enough, was greatly displeased. And the -wrath of the divinity was followed by a series of remarkable -events.</p> - -<p>At this point it may be well to state that the parentage -of Æsculapius was a question which early excited -attention. A belief existed that “he was the offspring -of Arsinoë” and “a citizen of the Messenians,” as Pausanias -informs us. Apollophanes, an Arcadian,<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> being -interested in the matter, went to Delos, and, putting the -question of its truth to the Pythian deity, received this -reply:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“O Æsculapius! source of mighty joy</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To mortal natures; whom Coronis fair,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Daughter of Phlegyas, once with me conjoin’d,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In Epidauria’s barren region bore.”<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>According to this dictum, he was, indeed, born in -Epidaurus. Pausanias, by way of proof of the truth of -it, says: “I find that the most illustrious rites of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -Æsculapius were derived from Epidaurus.”<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> From -that point the worship seems to have spread. It is said, -however, by Strabo,<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> that his birthplace was Tricca, in -Thessaly.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p> - -<p>However, to return to our story: the time of the -delivery of Coronis was not far off, when the news of -her perfidy reached Apollo. Notwithstanding this, he, -being seemingly under the influence of the “green-eyed -monster” to an ungodly degree, cruelly resolved on -having revenge at once. Artemis,<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> the goddess of -chastity, was directed to slay the unfaithful maid with -a thunderbolt, and the order was duly executed. On -coins of Pergamus the unfortunate Thessalian appears -entirely veiled.</p> - -<p>After the fatal thunderbolt had descended on the -<i>enceinte</i> Coronis, and her body was being consumed in -the merciless pyre, Apollo’s paternal feelings became -stirred, and saying, as Pindar tells us,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“I may not bear to slay my child</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With his sad mother, sin-defiled,”<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">proceeded forthwith to save his unborn offspring.</p> - -<p>To what manner of operation did he resort? I leave -it to some all-knowing specialist to find out; but, at any -rate, by some method or other, the child was rescued.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> -Another version of the affair, preserved by Pausanias, -robs the god of any possible skill as a gynæcologist—surgical, -I mean. According to it, when Coronis was -undergoing cremation, after being slain by Artemis, “the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -boy is said to have been snatched by Hermes from the -flames.”<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> And of this I may observe that it was not -inappropriate to have Hermes, the Grecian metamorphosis -of the thrice-great god of wisdom and knowledge -of the Egyptians, present at the unnatural <i>accouchement</i>, -and in such close relation to Æsculapius at the -very beginning of his wonderful career.</p> - -<p>It was, then, the unhappy fate of Æsculapius to be -an orphan from his birth, if birth he had, to speak correctly; -and it is possible that his advent was decidedly -premature—in a medical sense. Apollo was puzzled to -know what to do with his tender son; nor did he do for -him all that could be expected, for baby Æsculapius -was heartlessly exposed on Mount Titthium. Here the -little unfortunate fell into the keeping of a friendly goat -and dog. The goat gave the precious <i>enfant trouvé</i> -nourishment,<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> as Amalthea had done Zeus, and the dog -kept guard over him.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> Splendid services, indeed, on the -part of two humble animals, in the interest of medicine -and humanity!</p> - -<p>On Epidaurian coins, the infantile god of medicine -is appropriately represented under a she-goat on Mount -Titthium, with Aresthanas approaching. This person -was the shepherd of whom Pausanias says that, coming -to the rescue, “he beheld a splendor beaming from the -infant, and, thinking that it was something divine, as -indeed it was, departed from the place. But a report,” -he continues, “was immediately spread through every<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -land and sea that such as were afflicted with any kind of -disease were healed by the boy, and that even the dead -were raised to life.”<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> The reader need hardly be informed -that accounts parallel to this are common enough -in ancient records.</p> - -<p>How it happened that the child of Coronis, a Thessalian, -first saw the light in Epidauria, a country which -became particularly sacred to him, is a question which -should be answered. It appears that Coronis came there -with her warlike father, Phlegyas, who gave, as a reason -for his visit, a desire to see the country, but, “in reality,” -Pausanias says, “that he might inspect the multitude of -the inhabitants, and learn whether there was a great -quantity of fighting men.”<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p> - -<p>Pindar states that Apollo, on rescuing his child, bore -him at once to Chiron—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“To learn of human woes the healing lore,”<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">which does away with the fabled discreditable exposure -of him; but whether this be so or not, in progress of time, -he did put him under the care and instruction of “the -beneficent leech,”<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> Cheiron (to use the archaic expression -of the historian, Grote<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a>), the Thessalian Centaur, or fabulous -monster, whose figure from the waist down was like -the body of a horse.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> Under the direction of this -strangely-formed creature, Æsculapius proceeded to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -study the medical virtues of plants; for Chiron was a -great herbalist, being called by Homer, in the words of -Pope, “the sire of pharmacy.”<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> In time the pupil exceeded -the teacher in his knowledge of drugs.</p> - -<p>Chiron was regarded, Pindar tells us,<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> as the son of -Saturn and the sea-nymph Philyra; and hence was a -brother of Zeus. Saturn changed himself into a horse -to conceal his amour with the nymph from his wife, Rhea. -This would account for the form of the Centaur.</p> - -<p>Chiron lived in a cave on Mount Pelion, in Thessaly. -It will be remembered that it was from there that he got -the ashen spear<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> for Peleus, which the son brought into -use, a ponderous spear, which—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent16">“Stern Achilles only wields,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The death of heroes and the dread of fields.”<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>According to Homer,<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> Hercules received instruction -in medicine from Chiron; and it is stated, by Pindar,<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> -that Jason was another pupil of his. With these Æsculapius -went, as physician, on the celebrated Argonautic -expedition.</p> - -<p>At the end of his career, the Centaur became, it is -said, the sign of the zodiac, Sagittarius.<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span></p> - -<p>In treating the sick, Æsculapius soon proved himself -a master. His patients did not die, and it appears -that he recalled a few from “the shades below.” But, -sad to relate, the great success he had in curing the sick, -and especially his recalling some from the other world, -led to his destruction. Pluto, the god of the nether regions, -not wishing a sparse population,<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> became displeased -with him and complained to Zeus, who, probably -believing that he was becoming too powerful, so much so -as to make man undying,<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> cut short his career with -a thunderbolt,—a tragedy which caused his father, -Apollo, to wander away to the land of the Hyperboreans -and to shed tears of gold. At the request of -Apollo he was placed among the stars.<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> The eighth -day of the Eleusinian Mysteries was devoted to sacrifices -to him, and was called Epidauria.</p> - -<p>From what Virgil says, it would seem that it was -not because of the direct exercise of his power to restore -life that Æsculapius was destroyed, but because -of the degree of perfection to which he had brought the -medical art. The event, “the fable,”<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> as Pliny designates -it, is connected with the restoration of Hippolytus -or Virbius, and is thus referred to by the Roman poet:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“But chaste Diana who his death deplor’d</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With Æsculapian herbs his life restor’d;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Then Jove, who saw from high with just disdain</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The dead inspired with vital breath again,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Struck to the centre with his flaming dart</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The unhappy founder of the god-like art.”<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The plan of treatment pursued by Æsculapius was -variable. After speaking of the sick, “a host forlorn” -that flocked to him, Pindar says:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Some spells brought back to life;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">These drank the potion plan’d; for these he bound</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With drugs the aching wound;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Some leaped to strength beneath the helpful knife.”<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The lines just given certainly serve to disprove the -statement of Pliny, that in Homeric times “the healing -art confined itself solely to the treatment of wounds.”<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> -It is doubtless true, however, that nothing is said in -Homer’s works about particular diseases.</p> - -<p>It has been held that Æsculapius, like More’s Utopians, -did not think it wise to bring to bear the art of -healing in the case of any one who might not be restored -to health and to usefulness to himself and others. -Says Plato: “He thought medical treatment ill bestowed -upon one who could not live in his regular round of duties, -and so was of no use either to himself or to the -State.”<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> The great philosopher accordingly regarded -him as “a profound politician.” For, in his ideal state, -this celebrated theorizer would have physicians “bestow -their services on those only of the citizens whose bodily -and mental constitutions are sound and good, leaving -those that are otherwise, as to the state of their body, -to die, and actually putting to death those who are -naturally corrupt and incurable in soul.”<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> Some excellent -reasons might be advanced in favor of such a -harsh policy, but, while human love of life and human -sympathy remain as now, it will never be brought into -play.<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> As an ideal physician, Æsculapius could hardly -have been an advocate of it.<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span></p> - -<p>I may say a word about the charge of Pindar, that -the efforts of Æsculapius to recall the dead to life were -inspired by temptation with gold. The poet says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Alas! that filthy gain can blind the wise!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The glittering gold betrayed the noble leech,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">From the dark prison-house to bid arrive</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A captive thrall of death!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">But Jove with wrathful hand refused to each</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The hallowed breath.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Down came the bolt of fire.”<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Making such an ugly charge is probably unjust to -the great healer. The historian, Grote, thinks so, and -expresses the opinion that Pindar was disposed “to extenuate -the cruelty of Zeus by imputing guilty and sordid -views to Æsculapius.”<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> Long ago the accusation -was met by Plato. Says he: “While they<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> assert that -Æsculapius was the son of Apollo, they declare that he -was induced by a bribe of gold to raise to life a rich -man who was dead, which was the cause of his being -smitten with a thunderbolt. But we, with our principles, -cannot believe both these statements of theirs. We -shall maintain that, if he was the son of a god, he was -not covetous; if he was covetous, he was not the son of -Apollo.”<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> He was the son of Apollo.</p> - -<p>To conclude this imperfect sketch of the life of -Æsculapius, I may add that he was married, as every -wise as well as respectable physician should be,<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> and, -as was desirable in an exemplar, the father of at least -six children,—two sons and four daughters. The two -sons, Machaon and Podalirius, taught by their “parent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -god,” as Homer informs us, became “famed surgeons,” -“divine professors of the healing art,”<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> and were also -distinguished warriors under Agamemnon. Of the -daughters, Hygeia, Panacea, Jaso, and Ægle, the first -became the goddess of health, of whom more anon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br> -<span class="smaller">THE IMAGE OF ÆSCULAPIUS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>A simple image of a god may be regarded as a -symbol. When the image has connected with it one or -more figures to indicate the qualities or functions of the -divinity, we have then, strictly speaking, an allegorical -representation. Æsculapius was sometimes shown in -the one way and sometimes in the other. Thus, he was -occasionally to be seen at Rome, and elsewhere, in the -form of a serpent; and, at the Epidaurian Grove, for -example, as a man having in connection with him a -serpent, a dog, and other things.</p> - -<p>As is implied in what I have just said, there was no -set, invariable mode of portrayal of Æsculapius. This -fact should be clearly understood. But let it not be -supposed that it is by any means singular. It will -occur to the well-informed reader that the same holds -true in regard to Zeus, Apollo, Venus, and, indeed, all -other divinities. Says Müller: “The so-called ideals of -the Grecian gods are not types; they do not preclude -the freedom of the artist; they rather contain the -strongest impulse to new, genial creations.”<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> It is, -perhaps, self-evident that a statue of a god must necessarily -be quite ideal; and, of course, an ideal is without -absolute permanency. Still, it remains true that in -the case of Æsculapius, as well as that of every other -deity, there was a more or less definite conventional -way of representing him. This, however, was largely -dependent on the presence of attributes. Thus, it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -would be not only inconsistent with custom, but almost -futile, to attempt to delineate him without the presence -of a serpent.</p> - -<p>The most magnificent representation of Æsculapius -was the one at Epidaurus. A description of it has -already been given. This fine work of art disappeared -at an early day. The vandals could not be expected to -spare it; the gold in its composition was fatal to its -permanency. It was borne on coins of Epidaurus. -According to Strabo,<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> a copy of it was taken to the -Galatian town, Pessinus, not Rome, as is often said. -Several other places were similarly favored.</p> - -<p>There was a very celebrated statue of Æsculapius at -the renowned Asclepion of Pergamus, the production of -the artist Pyromachus, as well as one similar to that of -Epidaurus. It became the prevailing type in art. In it -the god was represented as a mature man of benevolent -expression, with his rather long hair bound with a fillet, -and in his right hand he held a staff enwreathed with a -serpent. He wore a himation<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> drawn tight over the left -arm and breast. The whole right side from the waist -up was uncovered. His attitude was that of a person -ready to render assistance. “We can recognize,” says -Müller, “the figure with tolerable certainty as the most -usual representation of the god on numerous coins of -Pergamus.”<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></p> - -<p>The well-known statue of Æsculapius at Berlin -resembles that at Pergamus; and the same is true of -one at Florence, and others. That of Berlin has the -serpent-wreathed staff, or support, placed on the left -side. This appears to have been frequently done. An -instance of it I have observed in a gem bearing Æsculapius<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -and Hygeia, taken from a tomb at Thron,—a piece -of work of the Roman period. It is shown in General -Di Cesnola’s interesting work.<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p> - -<p>While Æsculapius was made to appear aged in some -instances, as in the Epidaurian representation, he was -sometimes presented in youthful form, and beardless, -like his father, Apollo. And this reminds me of the -story told of Dyonysius, King of Sicily, that, on conquering -the Morea, he ordered the beard to be taken off -the Epidaurian statue of the god, for the reason that it -was unbecoming and unjust for the son to have a beard -when the father had none. Possibly if it had not been -a golden one it would not have been molested.</p> - -<p>I may venture to say that both aged and youthful -representations of Æsculapius are open to criticism. An -ideal physician should be, as in the statue at Pergamus, -a man in his prime, or, in other words, mature, but -neither young nor old. The immature man is apt to be -defective in judgment, and the superannuated one is -nearly always of excessively routine practice and ignorant -of recent advances in his profession.</p> - -<p>By way of conclusion, I will say a few words -about the famous colossal head of Æsculapius, originally -colored and decorated with a bronze wreath, -now in the British Museum, where it has been since -1866. It represents, with marked freedom and breadth -of execution, a finely-developed man of middle age, with -a cast of countenance similar to that of the Phidian -Zeus. The beard is of moderate length and is waved -like the somewhat long hair. This is really one of the -noblest remnants of Grecian art. Nichols, in whose -work<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> an engraving of it is given as a frontispiece, just<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> -as it is in this one, regards it “as scarcely less remarkable” -than the celebrated “Venus of Milo” in the -Louvre, both of which were found, the former in 1828, -on the island of Melos. It is considered to be the work -of an artist of the Macedonian period, about <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 300,—a -time when the Greek sculptor had attained perfect -mastery of his art.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br> -<span class="smaller">THE ÆSCULAPIAN STAFF AND SERPENT.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The staff<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> and serpent of Æsculapius being of special -emblematic significance, I deem it proper to speak of it -at some length. The confusion of ideas which appears -to prevail extensively in regard to it implies that a definite, -explicit account of it is much needed.</p> - -<p>Although, as will be remembered, Ovid makes Æsculapius -refer to his serpent-enwreathed staff when addressing -the commission which came from Rome to -Epidaurus, in the famous representation of him given -there, none was present. The poet may possibly have -been misled by what had become familiar to him at -home; for one was to be seen in connection with the -statue of the god at Rome. It is probable, however, -that it was a common occurrence for a living serpent, -one of the species kept and viewed as sacred in the -Hierum, to climb the staff in the hand of the Epidaurian -statue.</p> - -<p>It is very likely that the staff bearing a serpent became -a characteristic emblem of the god of medicine -through the great work of the sculptor, Pyromachus, at -the Asclepion of Pergamus, which I have already described. -The appropriateness of it was widely recognized, -but it was not always adopted, as is attested by -the remains of ancient art.</p> - -<p>Apart from the serpent, the import of which will be -fully treated of in the succeeding chapter, the staff as -an attribute of Æsculapius merits study. Like many<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span> -other apparently simple things in art, it may stand for a -great deal more than one would suppose on first view.</p> - -<p>The object encircled by a serpent held in the hand -of the Æsculapian statue by Pyromachus, at Pergamus, -is evidently a walking-stick. The Epidaurian -statue has a similar object in one of the hands, and the -same is the case in many others. Hence, as the representations -of the gods of the ancients had rarely or -never anything but significant attributes attached to -them, it is pertinent to ask an explanation -of its presence. Was there an historical -basis for it? In other words, was -Æsculapius notoriously in the habit of -carrying a staff? If so, it is possible -that this was why Pyromachus, Thrasymedes, -and other artists connected one -with figures of him. But there is no -special reason for believing that such -was the case.<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p> - -<div class="figleft illowp25" id="figure03" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure03.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.—Club -or Staff of -Æsculapius.</span> -(<i>From Maffei.</i>)</p> -</div> - -<p>Then, did the artists place a staff in -the hand of Æsculapius of their own -accord to indicate the perambulatory -character of the physician’s calling? -Such an attribute was doubtless deemed -appropriate by them; but, before one could believe that -they gave it on the score of apparent appropriateness, it -would have to be shown that it was in the power of -artists to design gods at pleasure,—something which -could not be done. They evolved it, I may venture to -say, from something allied in form.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> - -<p>There is little or no ground for believing that the -staff of Æsculapius was a wonder-working object. I -am not aware that such a thing was placed intentionally -in his hand by any artist. Hence, the references often -made to the mystic wand of the god spring from misapprehension, -a walking-staff being something very -different.</p> - -<p>One can obtain, I believe, from an examination of -the Berlin statue and others,—in which Æsculapius is -represented leaning on, or standing by, a post of variable -thickness and more or less regular in shape,—a clue -to an explanation of the origin of the staff. Between -the two objects the difference is not great, certainly not -radical; and as attributes they might be expressive of -the same thing. The club shown in the picture (<a href="#figure03">Fig. 3</a>), -from Maffei, might be viewed as intermediate.</p> - -<p>Of course, I do not say that the prototype of the -staff was the post present in some representations of -Æsculapius, although the idea would not be entirely -unreasonable. There is more ground for the opinion -that both were, so to speak, the offspring of something -else.</p> - -<p>Any one familiar with the antique representations of -Æsculapius, and who has also seen different ones of -Apollo, might well be inclined to believe that both gods -have essentially the same thing by their side, namely, a -post with a clinging serpent. And when it is recalled -that Æsculapius was the son of Apollo, the opinion -might be advanced with some degree of reasonableness, -that the emblem of the former was, in reality, that of -the latter, somewhat modified.</p> - -<p>Tracing thus the origin of the staff of Æsculapius -to the related symbol possessed by his father, Apollo, it -would not be satisfactory to rest here; one naturally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -wants to know something about the latter. A few words, -however, on the subject must suffice.</p> - -<p>Although it was not an uncommon thing for artists -to give posts by the side of statues, the one bearing the -serpent in, say, the Apollo Belvedere, was, it is thought, -meant to represent the Omphalos, to which the Grecians -attached much significance.</p> - -<p>The Omphalos,<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> in the form of a conical stone, was -kept, and was present within historical times, as Strabo -explicitly states, at Delphi, a place which, he says, “was -supposed to be the centre of the habitable earth, and -was called the navel of the earth.”<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> Plato refers to -Apollo as “the god whose seat is the middle point of -the earth, its very navel.”<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> According to a legend,<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> -Delphi was esteemed the centre of the earth, because two -eagles sent out by Zeus, one from the east and the -other from the west, met at that point. Says Strabo: -“In the temple is seen a sort of navel, wrapped in bands -and surmounted by figures representing the birds of the -fable.”<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a></p> - -<p>The etymology of the word <i>Omphalos</i> casts light on -its meaning. Olympos, the mount of the gods, is a corruption -of it. <i>Omphi-el</i><a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> is the oracle of the sun-god.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> -<i>Al-omphi</i> was used to designate hills, or mountains. -Holwell says that the word came from Egypt, and was -originally <i>Ompha-el</i>, and related to the oracle of Ham, -or the sun.<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> The idea of a sacred mount or elevation -is thus the original meaning of the word. And here I -may say that in Hindu mythology considerable is said -of a mountain encircled by a great serpent.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> - -<p>Let it not be supposed that the reasons in favor of -the idea that the Omphalos became the staff of Æsculapius -are entirely insubstantial. Remains of ancient -art furnish excellent proof of it. Müller says: “In a -Pompeian picture, Æsculapius has beside him the -Omphalos, which is entwisted with the well-known net, -composed of στέμµατα. We see from this that this -symbol of Apollo was also transferred to his son. On -the coins of the gens Rubria, likewise, it is not an egg, as -is usually asserted, but <i>the Omphalos placed on a circular -altar that is encircled by the Æsculapian serpent</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p> - -<p>To one versed in the history of Phœnicia and other -Oriental countries, the Omphalos is very certain to be -viewed in another light than as a symbol of a “high -place,” or mount<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> of worship. In the great Tyrian -Temple of Baal Melkarth, which Herodotus went to see -and admired much, and of which that of Solomon, -or, rather, of Jehovah on Mount Moriah was almost a -copy, even to the two pillars in front,—symbols of the -sun-god,—were certain similar stones, carefully preserved -and duly reverenced. These, it is well known, were of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> -procreative import; they were phallic in character.<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> -Was the Omphalos of similar significance? There is -little reason to doubt that it was often regarded in that -light. “In the earliest times,” says Müller, “a conical -pillar, placed in the street and called Apollo Agyicus, -sufficed to keep in remembrance the protecting and -health-bringing power of the god.”<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p> - -<p>The staff, then, in the hand of Æsculapius may have -had its prototype in the Phallus,—truly both an expressive -and sublime symbol, when contemplated by pure, -enlightened minds.</p> - -<p>But, notwithstanding what I have said, one might -present some arguments in favor of the view that -the staff of Æsculapius had its true prototype in a -magic wand or symbol of office. As will be pointed -out later, the Accadio-sumerian, Silik-mulu-khi, the -beneficent son of Hea, subsequently Marodach or Marduk -of the Babylonians and Assyrians, a healing -divinity, from whom the conception of Æsculapius may -have partly sprung, carried a reed when attending to -his duties.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span></p> - -<p>I may say, too, that some hold the staff in the hand -of the Egyptian Thoth to have been the original of the -one accorded Æsculapius. Thus, in an excellent and -finely illustrated essay, W. R. Cooper says: “When -once the uræus had been associated with the idea of -divinity, the Theban priests, rightly desiring to ascribe -the gift of life and the power of healing to the Deity -alone, significantly enough twined the serpent around -the trident of Jupiter Ammon and the staff of Thoth or -Hermes Trismegistus, the author of medicine, to imply -the source from which that subordinate demigod’s virtues -were derived. From this, in the later periods of -her history, Egypt remitted to Greece, along with the -so-called forty-six hermetic treatises, the traditional -<i>caduceus</i> or serpent-sceptre of Cyllenius<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> and Æsculapius, -and, by subsequent transformation of the same -deities into a feminine form, the snake and bowl of -Hygeia, the goddess of health.”<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> The “serpent-sceptre” -which Egypt “remitted” to Cyllenius and to -Æsculapius must have changed greatly in the passage, -for it is anything but alike as seen in the hands of the -two, and in neither case is it very similar to the asserted -original. As well or better to take the staff and serpent -to be the serpent-bearing tree,—the tree of life in -miniature.</p> - -<p>However, the fact remains, as already stated, that -Æsculapius had no wand; that is, a rod of magic power. -The very different personage, Hermes, as also Iris, the -female messenger of the goddesses, had a wand or, -rather, <i>caduceus</i>, which, strange to say, is taken by many -to be a symbol of medicine; that is, the caduceus of -Hermes, which is not of medical import at all, is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> -accorded to Æsculapius, who really had none. I repeat: -there is no such thing as an Æsculapian wand, if wand -be taken to mean a rod possessed of wonder-working -power. But, of course, the serpent-bearing staff of -Æsculapius is an expressive medical emblem.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> I give -an example after one in a plate in De Wilde’s rare old -book.<a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> One might take the serpent to be a symbol of -the god and the staff as symbolic of the moving of the -physician from house to house in the exercise of his -profession. Regarding the knots as expressive of difficulties -in the art and practice of medicine -is very fanciful, but not infrequently -done. It is proper to observe, however, -that the physician’s staff in modern -times is smooth, as will be pointed out -later.</p> - -<p>I deem it not amiss to give a cut of -the caduceus of Hermes, in the hope of -better removing misapprehension in regard -to it. I give it as shown on the -seal of the United States Marine-Hospital -Service. It is an appropriate trade -symbol, Hermes being the god of commerce<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> -as well as the messenger of the -gods; but it is more especially a symbol of peace, the -god being the great peace-maker. (See <a href="#figure05">Fig. 5</a>.)</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp20" id="figure04" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure04.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.—Staff -and Serpent of -Æsculapius.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Traditional history relates that, in his rambles one -day, Hermes saw two snakes fighting, and, laying his -wand—which was originally an olive-branch received -from Apollo—between them, was delighted to discover -that it had the power of putting an end to the encounter,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> -and of turning the two into friends. Hence the presence -of the two serpents on the wand, the <i>virga</i> of the -Romans. The tradition was likely in the nature of an -after-thought. If the two serpents be taken to represent -two contending persons, or nations, the mission of -the ambassador with his wand or mace, the symbol of -authority, is well indicated.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp60" id="figure05" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure05.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.—The Caduceus -of Hermes.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The two serpents on the caduceus have been taken -to be male and female, and in an amatory mood.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> Thus, -says Aubrey, “The caduceus of Mercurie is adorned -with two serpents in the posture of generation.”<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> Pliny -expressed an opinion similar to that of Aubrey.<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> This -view was adopted by the London -medical publishers, the Churchills, as -will be seen on looking at the title-page -of their books issued until recently. -For instance, on the title-page -of Pettigrew’s “Superstitions Connected -with Medicine and Surgery,” -issued in 1844, between two concentric -circles surrounding the caduceus, are -the words, <i>Irrupta tenet copula</i>, with -<i>Literis medicina</i> on the serpents. Later, the first phrase -was dropped and the other put in its place. For some -years caduceus and all have very properly been left out.</p> - -<p>Hermes was accorded some functions by the Greeks -which may well cause the physician to feel that it is -not very complimentary to associate either him or the -caduceus with his art, even if he be one who regards it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -chiefly as a trade. Thus, Hermes, being an adept thief, -was classed as the god of rogues. And this brings to -mind the remark of some one, that, if medicine be a -trade, it is the trade of all others the most exactly cut -out for a rogue. Again, it was the function of Hermes, -very like that of the archangel Michael, “to draw the -souls from hollow graves,” and “drive them down the -Stygian waves,” with his caduceus, as we are told by -Virgil.<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> It is hardly a part of the physician’s function, -I submit, to drive souls “down the Stygian waves;” -certainly, no one professes to do it.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br> -<span class="smaller">ÆSCULAPIUS AND THE SERPENT.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The serpent is undoubtedly the most significant of -all medical symbols. Even Æsculapius assumed such a -form, and was sometimes so represented by sculptors. -It was to him the most sacred of all animals. Down -through the ages this remarkable fact has been kept in -view, and to-day it is almost as patent as ever.</p> - -<p>Now, what is the explanation of the serpent as a -symbol in medicine? How many medical men can say? -Several explanations have currency; but I may candidly -state that none of these are quite satisfactory; and I -could not refer to an acceptable one in all the volumes -in which such information might be expected to be -found, with which I am familiar. Here, then, is a highly -interesting and obvious fact to physicians, which few or -none completely understand. Can I cast any light on -it? Some, certainly; but just how much I must leave -to the intelligent reader to judge, after perusing this -brief but comprehensive chapter.</p> - -<p>The serpent in medicine is meant to symbolize prudence, -something very requisite in the physician. This -opinion is one often expressed. It is not necessarily -baseless. To be “as wise as a serpent,” and to have -“the subtlety of the serpent,” are every-day phrases. -The reptile has been accorded such qualities from a -very early date. De Gubernatis remarks that in India -it is still “revered as a symbol of every species of -learning.”<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> - -<p>It is often said that the serpent in medicine is meant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -to symbolize the power of the art to produce renovation -or rejuvenescence. This is not an absurd notion. The -basis of it is believed to be the periodical renewal of -the skin of the animal. This has long attracted attention. -In a precious extant fragment of the very ancient -Phœnician book of Sanchoniathon it is said of the serpent, -“It is very long lived, and has the quality not -only of putting off its age and assuming a second youth, -but it receives a greater increase. And when it has fulfilled -the appointed measure of its existence it consumes -itself.”<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> Referring to its reputed longevity, one -intelligent writer says: “This quality was no doubt the -cause why this animal entwined round a staff was the -symbol of health and the distinctive attribute of the -classical Æsculapius and Hygeia.”<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> At any rate, to -restore people to health and renew their age would be -worthy employment for any one.</p> - -<p>Another prevalent idea is, that the serpent in medicine -is meant to symbolize convalescence. The remarkable -change from a state of lethargy to one of active life, -which the reptile undergoes every spring, affords some -ground for it. It is taken advantage of in the device of -the Rinovati Academy, as will be seen by turning to -Mrs. Pelliser’s interesting book.<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> Three serpents are -represented on a bank gathering vigor in the sunshine, -in the strengthening rays of Apollo. The educational -interpretation is evidently quite as reasonable as the -medical.</p> - -<p>Of the three foregoing explanations of the symbolic -import of the serpent in medicine, it must be said that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -there is good reason to hold that they are largely, or -entirely, mere after-thoughts. Any one of ingenious -mind could suggest several others just as worthy of acceptance. -But, of course, such a mode of interpretation -is decidedly illegitimate.</p> - -<p>The idea has been advanced that the commonest -of the species of serpent, <i>Elaphis Æsculapii</i>, described -above, at Epidaurus, where the myth of the Grecian god -of medicine first took definite shape, affords an adequate -explanation of the association of the reptile with medicine. -This may have had a little to do with it. I cannot -admit, however, that it did more than, perhaps, -emphasize somewhat the association. If such were its -origin, the association could not be viewed otherwise -than as incidental, and hence the serpent might be -without any special meaning.</p> - -<p>After referring to some strange curative virtue -attributed to serpents, Pliny says: “Hence it is that -the snake is consecrated to Æsculapius.”<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> Here is a -specimen of them given by the rather credulous old Roman: -“It is a well-known fact that for all injuries inflicted -by serpents, and those even of an otherwise -incurable nature, it is an excellent remedy to apply the -entrails of the serpent itself to the wound.”<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> The -principle is obviously the same as that illustrated in the -old custom of applying a hair of the dog to cure the -wound caused by the bite of the animal. In many parts -of the world, the serpent has been accorded great virtue -as a medicine, and in China and elsewhere such is the -case even to this day. In fact, apart from the preposterous -and numerous uses to which it is put by homœopathic -doctors, is not the venom of the most deadly -species declared by leading members of the profession<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -to be a capital cure for various serious ills? However, -Dr. D. G. Brinton quotes the rather striking observation -of Agassiz, that “the Maues Indians, who live between -the Upper Tapajos and Madeira Rivers in Brazil, whenever -they assign a form to any ‘remedio,’ give it that of -a serpent.”<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> But, in spite of the wide belief in the -virtue of the serpent as a medicine, I cannot accept the -opinion of Pliny, that it affords a sufficient explanation -of the matter in question. Its actual healing properties -were assuredly too equivocal to merit such distinction. -With all its virtues, <i>soma</i> itself received little or no -more.</p> - -<p>The fabled power of the serpent to discover herbs of -curative virtues has been suggested as an explanation -of the association of it with medicine. This is based -on a traditional episode in the history of Æsculapius, -which reminds one of the German story of the Snake -Leaves, told by Grimm.<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> As regards the Æsculapian -fable, it seems that on one occasion, while thinking -what treatment to resort to in the case of a patient of -his, Glaucus, a serpent appeared and twined itself -around his staff; he killed it, whereupon another came -bearing in its mouth an herb with which it restored the -dead one to life. The god used the same herb with similar -effect on the human subject.<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> The extremely miraculous -feature of this explanation is an obstacle in the way -of its acceptance.</p> - -<p>It may be safely held that one must go back to a -time long anterior to that of Æsculapius of the Greeks -to acquire the true medical import of the serpent, which -has been so closely associated with him. There is excellent -reason for believing that we have in it a remnant of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -that ancient and wonderfully wide-spread cultus, serpent-worship, -which is still kept up by the Nagas<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> of India -and others. Epidaurus was favorably situated for communication -with Egypt, a country in which the serpent -played a great religious rôle “from the very earliest -period,” as shown by both “written and monumental -evidence,” to use the words of Cooper,<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> as well as in -later times, even within the Christian era, when the -special sect of Gnostics, who called themselves Ophitæ, -were in their glory. But, in truth, serpent-worship in -Greece did not begin in the time of Æsculapius. Bryant -maintains that it was brought into Greece by Cadmus, -who, under the name of Taautus, or Thoth, took it also -to both Egypt and Phœnicia from Babylonia.<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p> - -<p>One can advance sufficient evidence to indicate with -considerable conclusiveness that the Egyptians were in -the habit of looking to a serpentine divinity for the cure -of disease. In his interesting little book,<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> Sharpe gives -a figure of a serpent wearing the double crown of Upper -and Lower Egypt, on a pole or standard, a cut of which is -reproduced (<a href="#figure06">Fig. 6</a>), which was carried in the periodical -airing processions of the Egyptian divinities. Now, it -is quite certain that Moses, and his people, too, were -very familiar with this figure and its import; but, at any -rate, we find him making an imitation of it, in his journey -with the Israelites in the Wilderness; and for what -purpose? The story is told in the Bible, and runs thus:<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> -“And Moses made a serpent of brass and put it upon a -pole; and it came to pass that if a serpent had bitten -any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass he lived.”<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p> - -<p>Verily, there is the Healer in essentially the same -form in which he was sometimes embodied by the Greeks -and Romans. Hence, it is sure that the serpent, as a -medical symbol, took shape before the time of Æsculapius; -long before, for Moses lived -nearly four hundred years earlier -than he, and, as we have just seen, -it was likely far from new, far from -being unfamiliar in his day. Fergusson -has this to say of it: “It is the -first record we have of actual worship -being performed to the serpent; -and it is also remarkable, as the -cause of this adoration is said to -have been its healing powers.”<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></p> - -<div class="figleft illowp20" id="figure06" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure06.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.—The Serpent-Healer.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The opinion has been widely -entertained that the prototype of -the brazen serpent of Moses, simply -“Nehushtan”<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> in later times, was -the <i>bonus dæmon</i>, the <i>Agathodæmon</i><a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> -of the Greeks, Egyptians, and -others. This “good genius” was -regarded with great favor, and -doubtless many were in the habit of according it power -over disease. In the grove of Epidaurus, as in Indian -temples and elsewhere among early peoples, the serpent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> -was the <i>genius loci</i>, and hence the Agathodæmon, the -bringer of health and good fortune, the teacher of wisdom, -the oracle of future events. One was kept in the -Erechtheum, close to the sacred olive-tree, and in each -of many other temples. One was to be found, according -to Ebers, “in every temple”<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> in Egypt.</p> - -<p>Evidence has recently been brought forward which -goes to show that the serpent called the “good genius” -in Egypt, in general, was in the part familiar to the -Israelites, in the district of Suket, called also the dwelling-place -of Ankh, “the Living One,” whose chief city -was Piton,<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> regarded as the simulacrum of the sun-god -Ra, or, rather, Atum, Tum, or Tom, the sun as he sets.<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> -Brugsch, who has studied the matter carefully, says: -“The god Tom represents solely the Egyptian type, corresponding -to the divinity of Piton, who is called by -the name of Ankh, and surnamed ‘the great god.’... -A serpent to which the Egyptian texts give the epithet -of ‘the Magnificent,’ ‘the Splendid,’ was regarded as -the living symbol of the god of Piton. It bore the -name of Kereh; that is, ‘the Smooth.’ And this serpent -again transports us into the camp of the Children of -Israel in the Wilderness; it recalls to us the brazen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -serpent of Moses, to which the Hebrews offered the perfumes -of incense, until the time when King Hezekiah<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> -decreed the abolition of this ancient serpent-worship.”<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> -He further says: “I will not venture to decide the question -whether the god, ‘He who lives,’ of the Egyptian -text is identical with the Jehovah of the Hebrews, but, -at all events, everything tends to this belief when we -remember that the name of Jehovah<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> contains the same -meaning as the Egyptian word Ankh, ‘He who lives.’”<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> -These are highly interesting statements of this learned -Egyptologist.</p> - -<p>Bearing in mind what has just been said, it is interesting -to turn to what Solomon (?) says about the -“brazen serpent,” and the cures wrought by it. In the -“Book of Wisdom,” it is spoken of as a symbol, “a -sign of salvation;”<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> and, it is said: “For it was neither -herb nor molifying plaster that healed them, but thy -word, O Lord, which healeth all things.”<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> And to this -it is added: “For it was thou, O Lord, that hath power -of life and death and leadest down to the gates of death -and bringest back again.”<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span></p> - -<p>Christian writers have generally explained the brazen -serpent to be a symbol of God, or the Savior. The -writer of the article on medicine, in Smith’s “Dictionary -of the Bible,” says that even in the Talmud it is acknowledged -“that the healing power lay not in the -brazen serpent itself, but as soon as they feared the -Most High and uplifted their hearts to the heavenly -father they were healed, and in default of this they -were brought to nought.” Thus the brazen serpent was -symbolical only. A serpent clinging to a cross was -formerly much used as an emblem of Christ. In fact, -a sort of Christian serpent-worship was for a long period -greatly in vogue among many besides the professed -Ophitæ.</p> - -<p>In this connection it is well to say, that the <i>naja</i> -<i>haje</i>, <i>naia</i>, or <i>asp</i>, the serpent shown in the cut of the -brazen serpent, was the species always, or nearly always, -taken to represent the spirit pervading nature, the Agathodæmon, -or Cnuphis, whom the Egyptians were wont -to adore as the creator of the world. It was the Uræus -or Basiliskos of the Pharaohs. It is from three to five -feet in length. It is extremely venomous. In appearance, -it resembles the Indian cobra de capello,<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> but has -no spectacle-marking on its head. In hieroglyphics it -signifies “goddess.”</p> - -<p>As to “the serpent of the burning bite which destroyed -the Children of Israel,” I may say, in the words -of an authoritative work, “Either the cerastes or the -naja haje or any other venomous species frequenting -Arabia may denote it.”<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> The <i>Vipera cerastes</i> is small, -horned, burrows in sand, and is very venomous. Herodotus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> -was led to believe that it was “perfectly harmless,”<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a>—a -great mistake. It was used to represent the -letter f. Says Sir Gardner Wilkinson: “As Herodotus -does not notice the asp, it is possible that he may have -attributed to the cerastes the honor that really belonged -to that sacred snake.”<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> This mistake is still frequently -made.</p> - -<p>But the association of the serpent with Æsculapius, -as a remnant of serpent-worship, can be explained without -going to the Egyptian Tum, or any other foreign -sun-god. One has but to turn to Apollo, to whom, as -in the case of, perhaps, all sun-gods, the reptile was -sacred.<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p> - -<p>The question now is, then, what was the reason for -the association of the serpent with Apollo? The usual -reply is: the destruction by him of the Python, which -is essentially the same as the Aub or Ob, or, as it is -often given, Typhon, of the Egyptians, an evil monster -which was probably taken primarily to represent harm -resulting from the periodical overflow of the Nile. -Homer says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“With his shining shaft Apollo slew</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That ugly dragon, hideous to the view,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Which grew, long nourished in its slimy den,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A monster horrible, the dread of men.”<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Admitting, however, that Apollo overcame a mythical -serpent, like many related divinities, from the Vedic -sun-god, Indra, the destroyer of Ahis down, does not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -afford a satisfactory solution of the matter under discussion. -The Agathodæmon is infinitely preferable to -Typhon as the prototype of the serpent of Æsculapius. -It, indeed, was the reptile sacred to Apollo as well as -Tum.</p> - -<p>A study of the origin of the association of the good -serpent with Apollo and Ra-Tum and other sun-gods -is interesting. In the search for it one may get a clue -to it in comparative mythology. The close resemblance -to one another of Apollo, Ra, Baal-Samen of the Phœnicians, -Shamas of the Assyrians, and other sun-gods, -would lead one to think that there was an archetypal -one; and to find this original one the intelligent mind -would naturally look to the East, to the region about -the lower waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, and with -a reasonable expectation of discovering it there.<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> For -among the Turanians, in that locality, the worship of -the heavenly bodies undoubtedly first acquired prominence; -and in the same locality, too, among the same -people, the worship of serpents, according to Bryant,<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> -who has written learnedly on the subject, began, and, as -Fergusson says, not only originated but “spread thence, -as from a centre, to every country or land of the old -world in which a Turanian people settled,”<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> becoming -adopted to some extent also by Semites and Aryans. -From Hea, one of the three great gods (Ana, Hea, and -Bel) of the Accadio-Sumerians, and, later, of the people -of Babylonia, doubtless sprang some features of the -Apollo myth, and possibly in part through Horus of the -Egyptians. To Baal-Samen, the baal of the heavens,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span> -of the Phœnicians, Apollo had many points of resemblance. -It has been maintained, however, that -Apollo was “a pure growth of the Greek mind.”<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> He -was so in part.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp28" id="figure07" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure07.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.—A Symbol -of Hea.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Speaking of Hea, Lenormant says that it was he “that -animated matter and rendered it fertile, that penetrated -the universe and directed and inspired it with life.”<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> As -water was believed to be the vehicle of all life and the -source of generation, he sprung from the ocean and was -regarded as amphibious. Oannes<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> was the name by -which he was known by the Greeks. Like Dagon, of -the Philistines, whose prototype he was, -it was usual to give him the combined form -of a fish and a man. One of the symbols -of him, according to Rawlinson,<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> was a -serpent, an illustration of which is reproduced -here. He was the god of life, and, -significantly enough, the literal meaning -of his name is serpent as well as life. -Here, then, we have the serpent signifying -life. This is a very noteworthy -fact. In an interesting paper read in -1872 before the Anthropological Institute of Great -Britain, by Mr. C. S. Wake, it is very properly said: -“It is probable that the association with the serpent of -the idea of healing arose from the still earlier recognition -of that animal as a symbol of life.”<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a></p> - -<p>It is not amiss to remark, in this connection, that it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -is curious fact that the American Indians associated a -serpent with the great sun-god, or, rather, the god of -light, Manabozho,<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> a healing divinity, the one that instituted -the sacred Medicine-Feast. It is observed by -Miss Emerson that “Apollo, as a god of medicine, was -originally worshipped under the form of a serpent,<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> and -men worshipped him as a helper; and we trace a similar -idea among the Indians relative to Manabozho. And a -further association of ideas suggests the mystic god, -Unk-ta-he, the god of waters, pictured as a serpent, who -was believed to have power over -diseases.”<a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> To this I may add -that Hea sprang from the Persian -Gulf, and was regarded as the god -of waters as well as of life.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp60" id="figure08" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure08.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.—Manabozho.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>A great deal has been written -on serpent-worship, “the first variation,” -says Bryant, “from the -purer Sabaism;”<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> and the number -of suggested explanations of the -curious cultus is almost legion. I -hesitate about touching on the subject; but some statements -on it are called for, to render the treatment of -the matter on hand reasonably complete.</p> - -<p>In a recent able work, Mr. C. F. Keary, of the British -Museum, presents some interesting facts and inferences -on the origin of the worship. He maintains that the -tree, mountain, and river were the three great primitive -fetich-gods, and forcibly argues that a serpent was the -symbol of the last, which, it may be noted, is nearly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> -always a life-giving power, an early and substantial type -of the <i>fontaine de jouvence</i>. Without pretending to account -for their original worship, he “takes it for certain -that, at a very early time, rivers became through symbolism -confounded with serpents.”<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a></p> - -<p>Remnants of the three fetich-gods of Mr. Keary are -preserved in later and more abstract cults, and may be -largely found in Indo-European mythologies. The Greeks -and Romans appear to have regarded rivers and mountains -with particular favor, while the Celts and Teutons -were more especially devoted to trees. The wells of -knowledge and of magic and the fountains of youth -which are met with in myth and legend are simply the -narrowing to particular instances of the magic, the sacredness, -and the healing gifts which were once universally -attributed to streams. The monstrous python which -Apollo encountered and destroyed at Delphi was, according -to Mr. Keary, a river, and a harmful one,—the river -of death. “The reptile was, we know,” says he, “before -all things, sacred to Æsculapius, and was kept in his -house, as, for example, in the great temple at Epidaurus. -It would seem that the sun-god has the special mission -of overcoming and absorbing unto himself this form of -fetich. This is why Apollo slays the python, and why -the snake is sacred to Æsculapius.”<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Keary was by no means the first, I may say, to -emphasize the association of serpents with rivers. The -fact has been dwelt on by Dr. Brinton. Says this distinguished -student of American archæology: “The -sinuous course of the serpent is like nothing so much as -that of a winding river; which, therefore, we often call -serpentine. So did the Indians. Kennebec, a stream in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -Maine, in the Algonkin, means snake, and Antietam, the -creek in Maryland of tragic celebrity, in an Iroquois -dialect, has the same significance. How easily could -savages, construing the figure literally, make the serpent -a river- or water-god.”<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a></p> - -<p>I believe, however, that it would be a mistake to hold -that the serpent was at any time exclusively a symbol of -the river. Both Mr. Keary and Dr. Brinton say as much. -In the old world, as well as in the new, it was widely -recognized as a symbol of lightning, and believed to -have power over wind and rain.</p> - -<p>Some have turned to the heavens for an explanation -of serpent-worship. Thus, Mr. Arthur Lillie, in an interesting -little work, says: “Like all old religious ideas, -the serpent-symbol was, probably, in the first instance, -astronomical.<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> Two thousand eight hundred and thirty-six -years before Christ, a large star was within one degree -of the celestial pole. This was the <i>A</i> of Draco.”<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> Much -interest was taken in this star of Draco, formerly, as Mr. -Proctor says, “the polar constellation”<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> in different -countries,<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> as, for instance, in Egypt. In their studies -of the great pyramid Jizeh, both Proctor and Piazzi -Smyth<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> dwell on the subject at length.<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> The passage -from the north, which slants downward at an angle of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> -26° 17´ into the immense structure, would seem to have -been constructed so that <i>A</i> of Draco shone down it. -When this was the case, the star was 3° 42´ from the -pole, which was its position both about 2170 and 3350 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> -“We conclude,” says Proctor, “with considerable confidence, -that it was about one of the two dates, 3350 and -2170 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, that the erection of the great pyramid began, -and from the researches of Egyptologists it has become -all but certain that the earlier of these dates is very near -the correct epoch.”<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> Smyth takes 2170 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> as the correct -date, but his unscientific method of study renders -him an unreliable authority. The question is highly -interesting and important.</p> - -<p>However, the constellation of Draco was represented -in ancient astronomy by a tortuous serpent, either alone -or in connection with a tree. Those familiar with the -description of the shield of Hercules,<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> attributed to -Hesiod, and which, it is believed, was suggested by a -Zodiac temple<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> of the Chaldeans, imitations of which -were to be found in Egypt and elsewhere, will recall the -reference to Draco,<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> as follows:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“The scaly terror of a dragon coil’d</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Full in the central field; unspeakable;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With eyes oblique, retorted, that aslant</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Shot gleaming flame; his hollow jaw was fill’d</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Dispersedly with jagged fangs of white,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Grim, unapproachable.”<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It is hardly to be inferred from this description, I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> -may remark, that the worship of Draco would be one of -love. Yet, Rawlinson says: “The stellar name of Hea -was Kimmut; and it is suspected that in this aspect he -was identified with the constellation Draco, which is perhaps -the Kimmah<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> of Scripture.”<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> This is an interesting -statement when taken in connection with what has been -already said about Hea. To the Accadians and others -the north was a favorable point, being the source of cool, -vivifying breezes.</p> - -<p>But, whether from fear or not, Draco inspired wide-spread -attention and worship. Lillie remarks that the -serpent of the “three precious -gems” of the Buddhist, the serpent, -sun, and tree, the A. U. M., is Draco -at the pole. The Tria Ratna, or -three precious symbols of the faith, -have, in the representation given, -their earliest emblem, except, perhaps, -the swastika,<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> or cross, which -was doubtless formed at one time -of two serpents.<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p> - -<div class="figright illowp50" id="figure09" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure09.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.—The Buddhist -Tria Ratna.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>In the illustration, the serpent -represents the male and the staff the female or negative -principle. It has been asserted that we have in it the -prototype of the caduceus of Hermes.</p> - -<p>The assumption of the serpent as a totem,<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> or symbol, -of a family or tribe has been held—as, for example,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> -by Mr. McLennan<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> and Sir John Lubbock<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a>—to afford an -explanation of the origin and practice of serpent-worship. -This honor was no doubt accorded the reptile at a very -early period and in different parts of the world; and it -is still done by the Nagas of India and others. In speaking -of Parium, a city of the Troad, Strabo says: “It is -here the story is related that the Ophiogeneis have some -affinity with the serpent tribe.... According to -fable the founder of the race of Ophiogeneis, a hero, was -transformed from a serpent into a man. He was, perhaps, -one of the African Psylli.” The power of curing by -touch persons bitten by serpents<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> was claimed by this -tribe. David would seem to have belonged to the serpent -family, as appears from the name of his ancestor, -Naasson; and it has been suggested that the brazen -serpent found by Hezekiah, in the Temple of Solomon, -was a symbol of it. The friendliness of David to the -king of Ammon is thus explained.<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> Speaking of rattlesnakes, -it is said, in Miss Emerson’s work, “These creatures -were so highly esteemed that to have a serpent -as his totem elevated an Indian chief above his -brothers.”<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p> - -<p>The fact of the same word meaning both serpent and -life has been believed to cast light on the origin of the -worship of serpents. After stating that the reptile was -always a symbol of life and health in Egypt and other -countries, the Abbé Pluche gives as the reason, “because -among most of the Eastern nations, as the Phœnicians, -Hebrews, Arabians, and others, with the language of -which that of Egypt had an affinity, the word <i>heve</i> or -<i>hava</i> equally signifies the life and the serpent. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> -name of <i>Him who is</i>, the great name of God, <i>Jov</i> or -<i>Jehova</i>, thence draws its etymology. <i>Heve</i>, or the name -of the common mother of mankind, comes likewise from -the same word. Life could not be painted, but it might -be marked out by the figure of the animal which bears -its name.”<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> According to Lenormant,<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> one of the -generic names in the Assyrian-Semitic tongue is <i>havon</i>, -like the Arabian <i>hiyah</i>, both derived from the root -<i>hâvah</i>, to live. From the same root came the Latin -<i>ave</i>, a wish of good health, and also <i>ævum</i>, the life. -The asp still bears the name of <i>naja haje</i>.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to observe that the American -Indians, as well as Eastern peoples, made use of the -serpent as a symbol of life. The belief that the animal -had power over the fertilizing summer showers was -probably at the bottom of it, as well as its title to god -of fruitfulness. Says Dr. Brinton: “Because the rattlesnake, -the lightning symbol, is thus connected with the -food of man, and itself seems never to die, but annually -to renew its youth, the Algonkins called it ‘grandfather,’ -and king of snakes. They feared to injure it. -They believed it could grant prosperous breezes or -raise disastrous tempests. Crowned with the lunar -crescent, it was the constant symbol of life in their -picture-writing.”<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> In the language of the Algonkins -and of the Dakotas, the words <i>manito</i> and <i>waken</i>, which -express divinity in its widest sense, also signify serpent.</p> - -<p>Mr. Wake entertains the opinion that the mainspring -of serpent-worship was a belief that the animal was -really the embodiment of a deceased human being; or,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -in other words, that the worship was ancestral in -character. He says: “The serpent has been viewed -with awe or veneration from primeval times and almost -universally as a re-embodiment of a deceased human -being; and as such there were ascribed to it the attributes -of life and wisdom and the power of healing.”<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p> - -<p>But little, however, in what has been said throws -much light on the main point at issue, namely, why the -serpent should be yielded worship. The cause must be -sought for, to some extent, in peculiarities of the animal -itself. And it has peculiarities enough. Remarkable -in form and in mode of locomotion, and in some species -possessed of deadly venom, one might well regard it -with admiration and awe. Then, its longevity and -apparent power of renewing its age serve to make it a -very extraordinary creature. The opinion has been -expressed<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> that its power to glide along without limbs, -like the heavenly bodies, was the reason why it was -held to be sacred. No doubt its remarkable power of -motion in the absence of limbs forcibly impressed the -ancients.<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> Solomon himself said that one of the four -things he could not understand was “the way of a -serpent upon a rock.”<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a></p> - -<p>Herbert Spencer maintains that the first step toward -the worship of serpents and other animals was the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -naming or, rather, nicknaming of men after creatures to -which they bore some points of resemblance. Thus, -from having apparently, like Holmes’s Elsie Venner, -some of the qualities of a snake, one might be compared -with the animal, and so named after it. Then the -descendants, out of regard for their ancestor,<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> might -take the name, or, in other words, accept the snake as -their totem.</p> - -<p>Although the Æsculapian serpent was innocent, it -was mostly a harmful species which received worship. -The asp of the Egyptians and the cobra of the East -Indians are decidedly venomous. Under the name of -<i>uræus</i> the asp was a symbol of royalty in ancient Egypt. -Ebers makes Rameses say: “My predecessors chose -the poisonous <i>uræus</i> as the emblem of their authority, -for we can cause death as quickly and as certainly as -the venomous snake.”<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> The American Indians were -devoted to the rattlesnake, which is extremely venomous. -Thus, says Dr. Brinton: “The rattlesnake was the -species almost exclusively honored by the red race. It -is slow to attack, but venomous in the extreme, and -possesses the power of the basilisk to attract within its -spring small birds and squirrels.”<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> Evidently the -worship of such reptiles must have been inspired, in a -measure at least, by fear. Still, it appears certain, as -the author just quoted believes, that, as employed to -express the divine element in atmospheric and other -natural phenomena, it far more frequently typified what -was favorable and agreeable than the reverse. Ebers -gives it as his opinion that “mythological figures of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> -snakes have quite as often a benevolent as a malevolent -signification.”<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></p> - -<p>A word must be said about the phallic explanation -of the origin of serpent-worship. Mr. Cox, an excellent -writer on mythology, is friendly to this theory. After -speaking of the phallus as a symbol, he says: “When -we add that from its physical characteristics the Ashêrah, -which the Greeks called the phallus, suggested the -emblem of the serpent, we have the key to the tree- and -serpent-worship.”<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> Beyond question, a phallus-serpent -comes frequently into view in studying mythology, but -it would be very hard to prove that every serpent met -with had its prototype in the phallus. It is to be regarded -as beneficent, a life-giving power. The Agathodæmon -is frequently so represented.</p> - -<p>Probably the possibility of charming serpents has had -something to do with the remarkable uses to which these -animals have been put. A person who could handle -without danger a venomous reptile, and control its -actions at pleasure, might easily lead many to believe -him to be possessed of some miraculous power. Aaron -resorted to this artifice when he appeared before Pharaoh -with his cataleptic serpent, in the form of a rod.<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p> - -<p>The reason just given seems better than the one -Plutarch gives for the association of the serpent with -certain great men, when he says, in his “Life of Cleomanes,” -that it was from a belief that after death -evaporation of “the marrow”<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> produces serpents;<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -the ancients appropriated the serpent, rather than any -other animal, to heroes.</p> - -<p>I believe it is vain to attempt to trace the origin of -serpent-worship to one and the same source. This -appears plain when it is remembered that some serpents -represented good, while others stood for the opposite, -evil. The Bible furnishes a marked instance of contrasts: -in one place a serpent was used, as has been pointed out, -as a symbol of God, or Christ, while elsewhere one -represents cunning, envy, lying, and even “the devil and -Satan, which deceiveth the whole world.”<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> In the nature -of things, one would expect the same species of reptile -to produce a very similar impression on primitive peoples -everywhere. This, probably, accounts largely for the -resemblance to one another of most serpent-legends. -The different impressions produced by different species -would, to some extent, explain the unlike significance of -serpent-symbols among different peoples. The signification, -however, was often of very fanciful origin, as, -for example, where a serpent in the form of a circle -symbolized eternity, or, rather, endless life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br> -<span class="smaller">VARIOUS ATTRIBUTES OF ÆSCULAPIUS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>In this chapter I will speak briefly of various attributes, -more or less generally accorded to Æsculapius. -Some of them are decidedly significant, but none so -much so as the staff and serpent of which I have fully -treated.</p> - -<p>In many, indeed most, of the representations of -Æsculapius, he is crowned with <span class="smcap">a wreath of laurel</span>. -This mark of merit, like rays of light which were given -in some instances, has been commonly held to have been -accorded him because he was the son of Apollo, to -whom the tree was sacred. According to this view, -one has in it a remnant of the oracular laurel at Delphi. -Another way of accounting for it is, to use the words -of Tooke, “because that tree is powerful in curing many -diseases,”<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> an exaggerated claim. The ancients regarded -it as effective against evil spirits.<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a></p> - -<p>A <span class="smcap">bunch of herbs</span> was at times represented in one -of the hands of the god. This was very appropriate. -The district of Greece<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> in which, according to the -legend, he studied under Chiron, was famous for its -medicinal plants.</p> - -<p>A <span class="smcap">bowl</span> was occasionally shown in connection with -figures of Æsculapius. It was indicative of the administration -by him of medicinal potions.</p> - -<p>A <span class="smcap">scroll</span> was an attribute of some Æsculapian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span> -figures. It is an admirable one for an ideal physician. -In modern times it should certainly be regarded as an -indispensable one. Medicine has been evolved from -recorded experience, and its progress is dependent on -the same.</p> - -<p>An unpublished discovery of any kind is, in a -manner, none at all. Curiously enough the name of -the Egyptian god of medicine, Imhotep, means, “I -bring the offering,” the ideograph for <i>hotep</i>, or offering, -being a papyrus roll.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp30" id="figure10" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure10.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.—Telesphorus.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>I will now say a few words about a remarkable attribute -of some representations of the god -of medicine. I refer to <span class="smcap">Telesphorus</span>, -<span class="smcap">Euemerion</span>, or <span class="smcap">Acesius</span>,<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> a small figure, a -boy, but not a son, as is sometimes stated. -As will be seen in the cut of him given, -and which is copied from one given by -Tooke,<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> as seen in a statue in the Louvre, -he is wrapped in a mantle and is barefooted. -Figures of him, however, vary -considerably in appearance. In him we -have, according to some, a sort of dæmon -or familiar spirit, such as that which -Socrates is said to have had. It is better, I think, to regard -him as a genius,<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> meant to symbolize the hidden -sustaining vital force, the <i>vis medicatrix naturæ</i>, or -<i>anima medica</i>, upon which greatly depends the recovery -of the sick. It has been suggested that the careful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> -wrapping may be intended to indicate the need of such -protection during convalescence.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">dog</span> was prominent in connection with the Epidaurian -and other statues of Æsculapius. The fidelity -and watchfulness of this friendly animal render it a very -fit attribute of the god. The part played with the goat, -according to the legend, has been taken by some to -afford an explanation of the connection. Another is -furnished by the name, which, as will be pointed out in -the next chapter, apparently means man-dog.</p> - -<p>The Parsis believed that dogs with four eyes could -drive away the death-fiend; but such not being procurable, -one “with two spots above the eyes” was used -for the purpose. In their great sacred book,<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> the -animal is represented to be the special one of Ormazd. -Herodotus states that the Magi do not hesitate to kill -all animals, “excepting dogs and men.”<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p> - -<p>The Oriental Mardux, in whom was assimilated the -more ancient Silik-mulu-khi, a healing divinity, was -attended by dogs, as was Nimrod, the hunter, with -whom he may have been identical.<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a></p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">cock</span>, as well as the dog, was a prominent attribute -in many representations of Æsculapius. This -alert bird, a bird watchful of the returning light, was -very properly associated with a sun-god. It was a common -object of sacrifice to the god, by patients who were -grateful for relief or cure. Socrates has, through Plato, -made this memorable. Said the dying sage, as he felt -his limbs growing cold: “When the poison reaches the -heart, that will be the end.” Feeling his body gradually -losing its vital heat, and realizing that relief from his -troubles was at hand, he said, as he passed away, “Crito, I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> -owe a cock to Æsculapius; will you remember to pay the -debt?” “The debt shall be paid,” responded his friend.<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a></p> - -<p>The practice of sacrificing<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> a cock for the restoration -of health was not exclusively practiced by the -votaries of Æsculapius. In his “Life of Pyrrhus, King -of Epirus,” Plutarch says that “a white cock” was -sacrificed generally by each of the patients he touched -“for swelling of the spleen.” The full quotation will -be given in a succeeding chapter. The bird is still -sacrificed in some parts of Scotland and other countries, -for the removal of at least one disease,—epilepsy. Dr. -Mitchell, of Edinburgh, states that the practice is very -familiar to him. In the northern part of his native -country, “on the spot,” says he, “where the epileptic -first falls, a black cock is buried alive, along with a lock -of the patient’s hair and some parings of his nails.”<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></p> - -<p>There is yet another animal associated with the god -of medicine,—the <span class="smcap">goat</span>. It was especially by the -Cyrenians that the connection was much emphasized. -Pausanias remarks that “the Cyrenians sacrifice goats, -although this rite was not delivered by the Epidaurians.”<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> -Still, as already pointed out, on Epidaurian coins, -Æsculapius was represented sucking a goat,—an illustration -of the legend.</p> - -<p>Why the goat was connected in sacrifice with the -god is explained by Tooke thus: “A goat is always in -a fever, and, therefore, a goat’s constitution is very contrary -to health.”<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> Shakespeare, in “King Lear,” uses<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span> -the phrase “goatish disposition” in reference to a -“whoremaster man.” The fabled satyrs were in part -goats in form. I am not aware that there was anything -of the Biblical scape-goat principle<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> about the sacrifice, -a superstition similar to the one which prevailed “all -over Egypt,” as we are told by Herodotus,<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> of praying -that evils impending over the people might fall on the -head of the sacrificial victim, and then casting it into -the Nile, if there was no Greek at hand to whom it could -be sold.</p> - -<p>The great prominence of the goat in the Æsculapian -rites in Cyrene may have been due, to some extent at -least, to the proximity of Egypt, a country in which the -animal played a prominent part. In the goat of Mendes,<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> -the incarnation of Khem or Min, was personified, says -Lenormant, “in the most brutish manner the reproductive -power.”<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> Both the goat and the cock were often -associated with the Egyptian Hermes.</p> - -<p>I may add that the cause of the association of the -goat with Æsculapius has been referred to the name. -The Abbé Banier states the case thus: “<i>Es</i> or <i>ex</i>, which -begins the name of the god, signifies a goat in the -language of the Phœnicians,<a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> and, with a little variation, -the same thing in Greek;<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> and this had given rise -to the fable of Æsculapius being nursed by that -animal.”<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br> -<span class="smaller">GODS ANALOGOUS TO ÆSCULAPIUS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The great eminence acquired by the Æsculapian -myth among the Grecians might reasonably lead to the -belief that it was one entirely special to that imaginative -people. Like many other gods, however, of both high -and low degree, this one was only in part “to the manor -born.” There is good ground for believing that there -was what might justly be called a prototype of the -divinity of much repute in both Phœnicia and Egypt. -Dr. Mayo does not hesitate to say that “Æsculapius -was actually known in the Oriental countries before he -was in Greece, whither his worship was brought from -Phœnicia by the colony of Cadmus and from Egypt by -that of Danaus.”<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> It is not improbable that the main -conception of the healing god did really long antedate -not only the Grecian but both the Phœnician and -Egyptian embodiments of it. Evidence of this will be -found later in the chapter.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Esmun</span> “the Eighth” of the Phœnicians, -especially worshipped at Berytus,<a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> has been regarded<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> -as essentially the same as the Grecian Æsculapius. He -was probably that and something more. Little definite -is known of this personage, of whom the serpent was a -symbol, save what we are told of him in the fragment -of an historical work by Sanchoniathon, preserved by -Eusebius, an early Christian writer. “To Sydyk, called<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span> -the Just,” it is said, “one of the Titanides<a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> bore -Esmun.”<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> He is represented to have been the eighth -and chief of those spared by the deluge, and also of the -Cabiri, or Cabeiri,<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> “the seven sons of Sydyk,”<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> the -mighty ones, named, it has been said,<a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> after mountains -in Phrygia, and divinities widely, but in general secretly, -adored, in Phœnicia, Carthage,<a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> Egypt,<a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> and elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The belief has been expressed that Noah and his -family and the Cabiri were originally the same.<a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> Mr. -Faber entertained this view, and it is fully set forth by -him in an interesting work,—one, by the way, in which -is ably presented the so-called Arkite symbolism,<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> which -has excited considerable attention, but which Mr. Tylor, -as well as many others, declares to be “arrant nonsense.”<a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> -In reference to Æsculapius he says: “This -deity connects the first and second tables of the Phœnician -genealogies, his father, Sydyk, occupying a -conspicuous place in the one, while his mother, Titanis,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> -is enumerated among the daughters of Cronus, in the -other. I am much inclined to think that the imaginary -god of health is in reality the very same person as his -reputed father, Sydyk, both of them being equally the -patriarch, Noah, worshipped in connection with the sun. -Macrobius, accordingly, informs us that Æsculapius -was one of the many names of the solar deity, and that -he was usually adored along with Salus, or the Moon.<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> -Salus, however, was no less a personification of the ark -than of the moon, those two objects of idolatrous veneration -being allied to each other in consequence of the -union of the Arkite and Sabian superstitions. Thus, -while Noah was revered as the god of health and as one -of the eight Cabiri, the vessel in which he was preserved -was honored with the title of Salus, or Safety.”<a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a></p> - -<p>Lenormant regards the Cabiri as the seven planets -of the ancients; that is, the Sun, Moon, Jupiter, Saturn, -Mars, Venus, and Mercury. “Esmun,” says he, “invisible -to mortal eyes, was supposed to be the connecting -link of the seven others and the one approaching nearest -to the primordial Baal.<a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> He presided over the whole -sideral system, and was supposed to preside over the -laws and harmonies of the universe, and in this respect -was the same as Taaut.”<a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a></p> - -<p>Although secret, the worship of the Cabiri was participated -in by persons of either sex and of all ages. -In Lemnos and other places the fires were put out, -sacrifices to the dead were made, and fire was brought -from Delos in a sacred vessel and given to the people, -who, with it, began a new and regenerated existence.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -Phallic rites formed an inseparable part of the worship, -which was indulged in at stated periods.</p> - -<p>As showing that Æsculapius was of Phœnician -origin, Mr. Faber lays emphasis on the fact that in the -edition of Virgil by Servius the line telling of the -destruction of the god makes him a Phœnician:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“<i>Fulmine Pœnigenam Stygias detrusit ad undas.</i>”<a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The usual and, doubtless, the right reading makes -<i>Pœnigenam</i>, <i>Phœbigenam</i>.</p> - -<p>The opinion that Æsculapius was essentially the -same as <span class="smcap">Anubis</span> among the early Egyptians has been -advanced. Both were viewed as simply divine personifications -of Sirius, or Sothis, the dog-star.<a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> This view -is well presented by M. Pluche.</p> - -<p>A study of the name<a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> Æsculapius may or may not -afford evidence in favor of the idea that there was -originally a connection between the god and the dog-star. -Although decidedly a Grecian god, Asklepios -does not appear to be a Greek word. Keightly goes so -far as to say, “Of his name no satisfactory derivation -has as yet been offered.”<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> He ventures, however, to -suggest that it may be from the root σχάλλω, the original -meaning of which may have been to cut, whence the -Latin <i>scalpo</i> and our own word <i>scalpel</i>. Mr. Keightly -forgot that the name was not necessarily Greek; for -that, like nearly all others, was largely a derivative language. -In the Greek as well as the Latin form, it may -be Hebrew, or, what was essentially the same, Phœnician. -Taking it to be compounded of <i>esh</i>, <i>aish</i>, <i>isch</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -or <i>ish</i>,<a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> a man, and <i>caleb</i>,<a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> <i>caleph</i>, or <i>culap</i>, a dog, the -literal meaning of it is <i>vir-canis</i>, or man-dog. But, as -some remarks already made indicate, it may be interpreted -to mean <i>goat-dog</i>.<a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Anubis</span>, <span class="smcap">Anup</span>, or <span class="smcap">Anupu</span>, who in very early times -was possibly the same as Thoth, was regarded as symbolic -of that brightest of the fixed stars, Sirius, “the -burning,” whose first appearance in the morning was -the signal of the advent of the warm season, and the -Etesian or periodic wind from the north, as well as the -beginning of the year.<a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> The rising of this notable star -heliacally—that is, with the sun<a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a>—told the Egyptians -to prepare at once for the overflow of the waters of the -Nile. By many it was believed to be the cause of the -flood. The watch-dog was evidently a very appropriate -symbol for this star of warning. Then, from the fact that -Sirius gave warning of danger, and thus saved the lives -of the people, to the symbols of it the serpent, the life-symbol, -was often and very properly attached. “On -this account it was,” says Pluche, “that Anubis and -Æsculapius passed for the inventors of physic and the -preservers of life.”<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></p> - -<p>Others besides the Egyptians regarded Sirius with -favor;<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> as, for example, the Parsis, to whom it was -“Tystria, the bright and glorious star.”<a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> In Greece, -however, it was not regarded as propitious. To it were -attributed certain diseases. Thus, Homer, who calls it -Orion’s dog, says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent32">“His burning breath</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Taints the red air with fevers, plagues, and death.”<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Remembering the medical history of Sirius, it is -worth while recalling that the “dog-days,” those extending -from about the 22d of July to the 23d of -August, are often spoken of as the physician’s holiday.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp37" id="figure11" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure11.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.—Anubis.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>One very often hears that <span class="smcap">Thoth</span> was to the Egyptians -the god of medicine, just as Æsculapius -was to the Greeks and Romans. Even -the late Dr. Aitken Meigs, a scholarly -physician, accepted this idea. In an address, -to be referred to later, he says: -“Æsculapius is, doubtless, the Egyptian -Thoth, or Hermes Trismegistus, whose -symbols, the staff and twining serpent, -surmounted with the mystic hawk of -Horus-Ra and the solar uræus,<a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> appear in the ancient -temple Pselcis, near Dakkeh, in Nubia.” The Doctor is -about as wide of the mark as Forbes Winslow, when he -says that the Grecian “Apollo and Minerva answered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> -to the Isis and Osiris of the Egyptians; and Orpheus, -the priest, poet, and physician, usurped the place of -Thoth.”<a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermes</span>, <span class="smcap">Thoth</span>, or <span class="smcap">Thot</span>, the <span class="smcap">Tet</span> or <span class="smcap">Taautes</span> of -the Phœnicians, was not the god of medicine among the -Egyptians, any more than he was the god of any other -special branch of knowledge. He was the patron god -of all kinds of learning.</p> - -<p>Says Ebers: “The discovery of nearly every science -is attributed to the ibis-headed god, Thoth, the writer -or clerk of heaven, whom the Greeks compared to their -god, Hermes.”<a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a></p> - -<p>It is no doubt true, however, that Hermes was credited -with taking considerable interest in medical matters. -He was said to have been the author of six books on the -healing art, in which anatomy, pathology, and therapeutics -were treated of, together with diseases of the -eye,—a part of the body which has always suffered much -in Egypt. Ebers remarks that “the book on the use of -medicine has been preserved to the present day in the -‘Papyrus-Ebers.’”<a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a></p> - -<p>Having referred to the “Papyrus-Ebers,” it may be -well to say a few words about it. It was discovered a -few years ago by the learned and versatile Egyptologist, -Herr Ebers, and is the best preserved of all the ancient -Egyptian manuscripts extant. It was written at Sais -during the eighteenth dynasty; that is, in the sixteenth -century before our era. It consists of 110 pages. In -it we have the hermetic medical work of the ancient -Egyptians, with the contents of which the Alexandrian -Greeks were familiar. The god Thoth is called in it -“the Guide” of physicians, and the composition of it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -attributed to him. This venerable document treats of -many internal and external diseases of most parts of the -body. Special attention is given to the visual organs. -Drugs belonging to all the kingdoms of nature are used, -and with those prescribed are numbers according to -which they are weighed with weights and measured with -hollow vessels. Accompanying the prescriptions are -noted the pious axioms to be repeated by the physician -while compounding and giving them to the patient. The -German government has published the work in <i>fac-simile</i>, -a copy of which I have examined. There is a copy of -it, I think, in the Astor Library, New York.</p> - -<p>Medicine certainly consisted of more than charms -and the like, at a very early period, in Egypt. Indeed, -in the remains of Manetho’s history of the country, it is -said of the successor of Menes, the first king of the -first dynasty, which dates back to about 4000 years -before our era: “Athothis, his son, reigned 57 years; -he built the palaces at Memphis, and left the anatomical -books, for he was a physician.”<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> The custom of embalming -the dead necessarily led to at least a rough knowledge -of the anatomy of the body.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sesostris</span>, or <span class="smcap">Sesortosis</span>, the second king of the third -dynasty, sometimes gets credit for being “the actual -founder of medicine.”<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> Manetho says of him: “He is -called Asclepius by the Egyptians, for his medical -knowledge.”<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a></p> - -<p>According to Herodotus and Diodorus, medical practice -was carried on in a highly rational way at an early -period in Egypt. Mr. Sayce ventures to say that in the -period of the eighteenth dynasty medicine was “in almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> -as advanced a state as in the age of Galen; the various -diseases known were carefully distinguished from one -another, and their symptoms were minutely described, -as well as their treatment. The prescriptions recommended -in each case are made out in precisely the same -way as the prescriptions of a modern doctor.”<a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> Mr. -Sayce bases these statements on the “Papyrus-Ebers.” -However, we are informed by Herodotus that specialists -were common when he visited the country, which was -about 450 years before our era; but this must not be -accepted as proof that medicine was necessarily in a -very advanced state. Here is what the Grecian historian -says: “Medicine is practiced among them on a plan of -separation; each physician treats a single disorder, and -no more. Thus, the country swarms with medical practitioners, -some undertaking to cure diseases of the -eye; others, of the head; others, again, of the teeth; -others, of the intestines; and some, those which are -not local.”<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> As to their philosophy of morbid conditions, -he says: “They have a persuasion that every disease -to which men are liable is occasioned by substances -whereon they feed.” This doctrine led them “to purge -the body by means of emetics and clysters” for “three -successive days in each month.”<a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a></p> - -<p>In respect to medical specialism in Egypt, I may -further say that, according to Ebers,<a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> as early as 1500 -before our era, any one requiring a physician sent for him, -not to his house, but to the temple. There a statement was -obtained from the messenger concerning the complaint -from which the sick person was suffering; and then it -was left to the principal of the medical staff of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> -sanctuary to select that master of the healing art whose -special knowledge and experience qualified him to be -best suited for the treatment of the case. No honorarium -was expected from the patient. The fee was paid by the -State.</p> - -<p>According to Canon Rawlinson, it is an open question -whether, as is often said, the physicians of ancient -Egypt formed a special division of the sacerdotal order; -“though, no doubt, some of the priests were required to -study medicine.”<a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> It is interesting to connect with this -the following statement from an authoritative work: -“There is no sign in the Homeric poems of the subordination -of medicine to religion, which is seen in ancient -Egypt and India.”<a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a></p> - -<p>It has been asserted that “medicine in Egypt was a -mere art, or profession.”<a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> That this assertion is ridiculously -untrue any one knows who is competent to form -an opinion on medical subjects, and who has read the -Pentateuch. Moses, whose learning was Egyptian, had a -wonderful knowledge of hygiene,—the most important -part of medicine. The manner of dealing with contagious -diseases described in the thirteenth and fourteenth chapters -of Leviticus is far in advance of our practice to-day. -So intent were the Egyptians on knowing the nature of -diseases that <i>post-mortem</i> examinations were, it is said -by Pliny, resorted to for the purpose. Unlike the religion -of the Hebrews, theirs did not teach them to dread -touching the dead. But one has the authority of Celsus -for saying that the latter physicians, those of the Alexandrian -school, were not satisfied with the dissection of -the dead; they went so far as to make <i>ante-mortem</i> examinations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span> -of criminals. In truth, Mr. Sayce properly -observes that it was “in medicine that Egypt attained -any real scientific eminence.”<a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a></p> - -<p>Jeremiah, speaking of “the daughter of Egypt,” -says: “In vain shalt thou use many medicines; for thou -shalt not be cured.”<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> This remark indicates that the -skillful use of medicines by the Egyptians was widely -noised abroad over five centuries before our era. Both -Cyrus and Darius sent to Egypt for physicians.<a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> Hippocrates, -however, who lived nearly two centuries later -than the prophet, gives no prominence to Egyptian -medicine. But much earlier, indeed, than this time, it -is evident from the works of Homer that it was in repute -among the Greeks. Thus, to remove the grief and rage -caused by the death of brave Antilochus, we are told -that the famous Helen of Sparta, who takes on the -occasion the rôle of <i>une femme médecin</i>,—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Mix’d a mirth-inspiring bowl,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Temper’d with drugs of sovereign power t’ assuage</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The boiling bosom of tumultuous rage.</div> - <div class="center">...</div> - <div class="verse indent0">These drugs so friendly to the joys of life</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Bright Helen learn’d from Thone’s imperial wife,<a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a></div> - <div class="verse indent0">Who sway’d the sceptre, where prolific Nile</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With various simples clothes the fatten’d soil.”<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Again, it is said of the Pharian or Egyptian race:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“From Pæon sprung, their patron god imparts</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To all the Pharian race his healing arts.”<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Such statements as those just made would seem to -render it more than probable that not a little of Grecian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span> -medicine was of Egyptian origin. Pliny, indeed, says -that it was claimed that the study of medicine was -begun in Egypt.<a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> Blakie, however, ventures to affirm -that “the knowledge of medicine came to the Greeks -originally from Thessaly, one of the earliest seats of -Hellenic civilization, as is evident from the pedigree of -Coronis.”<a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> At any rate, it is certain that, for some time -before and after the beginning of the Christian era, -Alexandria was a great medical centre. There it was -that Herophilus and Erasistratus lived and imperishably -distinguished themselves two centuries or so <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>But I must return to Hermes, from whom I have -been wandering, perhaps, too far and too long. Although -I am not disposed to give the medical position -to him that some have questionably done, I deem it wise -to say a few words especially about him. Lenormant -believes that he was originally the angel of Baal, -Malâk-Baal, who, like him, assimilated with the Agathodæmon.<a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> -It is generally believed that he came to -Egypt from Phœnicia.<a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> He was usually represented<a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> -with the head of, not a hawk, but an ibis, a heart-shaped -bird with the plumage white, except the pinions and -tail, which are black, and with long legs and beak, the -latter crooked. This bird was the symbol of him -made use of in writing. Both it<a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> and a species<a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> black -in color are well described by Herodotus. Mummified -specimens of it are to be seen in an excellent state of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> -preservation in museums, as, for instance, in that of the -Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.</p> - -<p>I may observe in this connection that an Ibis Society -would be the same as a Hermes Society. Neither title -is very suitable for a medical one. I have heard of an -Ibex Society; but, of course, the ibis and the ibex are -entirely different creatures.</p> - -<p>Horus himself, whose “face is in the shape of the -divine hawk,”<a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> and who, in some respects, resembles -Apollo, was believed to possess medical -power.<a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> Murray even says, “Horus -was reputed to have been deeply versed -in the practice of medicine, and, accordingly, -was compared with Æsculapius.”<a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Chonsu</span>, or <span class="smcap">Chonsu-nefer-hotep</span>,<a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> -the son of Amun and Mut, the third -of the great Theban triad, was regarded -as a healing divinity. Says -Tiele: “He was resorted to for the -cure of all diseases, or for the exorcism -of all the evil spirits who inflict -them.”<a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> He resembled Thoth somewhat.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp33" id="figure12" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure12.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.—Thoth.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>From the third century before our era forward -<span class="smcap">Serapis</span> was highly esteemed for his healing power.<a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> -He was in part a Grecian conception, being first prominent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span> -in Pontus, and his worship became popular in -many sections of Greece and Rome; but Alexandria -was his chief seat, and his serapeum there was of great -magnificence and renown.<a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> He was represented in -various ways, often as a man encircled by a serpent.</p> - -<p>The special personage corresponding to Æsculapius, -among the Egyptians, would seem to have been <span class="smcap">Imhotep</span>, -<span class="smcap">Eimopth</span>, <span class="smcap">Imothph</span>, <span class="smcap">Eimothph</span>, or <span class="smcap">Emeph</span>, a god whose -shrine was first discovered by Salt,<a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a> the Egyptologist, -at Philæ. A Greek inscription on the shrine reads: -“Æsculapius, who is Imuthes, son of Vulcan.” In -accordance with the inscription, Sir Erasmus Wilson -says: “Imhotep, the <span class="smcap">Imuthes</span> of the Greeks, corresponded -with their Æsculapius.”<a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> Ebers, probably the -best of authorities on the subject, says of Imhotep: -“He was the son of Ptah, and named Asklepios by the -Greeks. Memphis<a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> was the chief city of his worship. -He is usually represented with a cap on his head and a -book on his knee. There are fine statues of him at -Berlin, the Louvre, and other museums.”<a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> It is said -by Tiele that “he is a personification of the sacrificial -fire,” that “the texts designate him as the first of the -Cher-hib,” a class of priests who were at the same time -choristers and physicians, for the sacred hymns were -believed to have a magical power as remedies, and that -his worship, although of ancient date, “does not seem -ever to have taken a prominent place.”<a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span></p> - -<p>Of Imhotep I may further say, in the way of biography, -that he was the son of Ptah and Sekhet, and was -possibly a king of the sixth dynasty. In the Egyptian -system of mythology, Ptah, “he who forms,” the god -of fire, was regarded as the father of the gods and the -great artificer of the world. He bore a resemblance to -Hephæstus,<a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> a god, indeed, who had the gift of healing.</p> - -<p>After all, it is necessary to say that there is but little -evidence to establish the claim of Imhotep to the title -of god of medicine. As Kenrick says, “He has no attribute -which specially refers to the art of healing, and -it may be an arbitrary interpretation of the Greeks -which gave him the name of Æsculapius, as some applied -the same to Serapis.”<a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> Whether he was a medical -worthy or not, it appears from quotations from his -teachings given in a song, recently translated from a -papyrus in the British Museum, that he was of decidedly -epicurean views. “Fulfill,” says he, “thy desire whilst -thou livest;” and again: “Feast in tranquility, seeing -that there is no one who carries away his good things -with him.”<a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a></p> - -<p>However, as a matter of interest, I will give the -name of the god in the Egyptian characters.<a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> The -double reed stands for a long <i>i</i>, or <i>ei</i>, the owl for <i>m</i>, and -the other three figures—the table, semicircle, and -square—for <i>h</i> <i>t</i> <i>p</i>. As will be observed, the <i>o</i> and <i>e</i> of -the ideographic combination, <i>hotep</i>,<a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> are not given. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> -reason of this is, that in writing, the Egyptians, like the -Hebrews and others, commonly omitted the vowels, except -at the beginning and end of words. The meaning -of the name is rendered by Bunsen, “I come with the -offering.”<a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a></p> - -<p>An early Aryan divinity has been stated to be an -analogue or even the prototype of Æsculapius. Mr. -Faber refers to Captain Wilford as holding that the -classical health and life restorer “is the Hindoo <span class="smcap">Aswiculapa</span>, -or the chief of the race of the horse, and he -further intimates that Aswiculapa was very nearly related -to the two hero-gods who are evidently the same -as Castor and Pollux. These were believed to be the -children of the sun and the goddess Devi, the sun at the -time of their intercourse having assumed the form of -a horse and Devi that of a mare.”<a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> -He hardly presents the real opinion -expressed by the Captain, but, at -any rate, what he has to say is not -extremely important.<a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a></p> - -<div class="figleft illowp100" id="figure13" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure13.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.—Imhotep.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Aswi</span>, <span class="smcap">Asvi</span>, or <span class="smcap">Asvins</span> were two, and were possibly -the prototypes of the Dioscuri,<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> Castor and Pollux. -They were connected with the sun as horses. Taking -them to be forms of the Dioscuri, they might be related -to the two sons of Æsculapius, Machaon and Podalirius, -for these have been regarded as such,—“nothing -more than a specific form of the Dioscuri,” to use the -words of De Gubernatis.<a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> The conception of Chiron -may have been in part derived from the Asvins.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span></p> - -<p>The Asvins were worshipped from an early period by -the Hindus, reference to them being made in the oldest -hymns. Cox says of them, “As ushering in the healthful -light<a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> of the sun, they are like Asclepios and his -children, healers and physicians; and their power of -restoring the aged to youth re-appears in Medeia, the -daughter of the sun.”<a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> In the “Rig-Veda” they are -characterized as “givers of happiness,”<a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> and are said -“to be most ready to come to the aid of the destitute.”<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> -They were believed to be conversant with all medicaments.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thrita</span> of the Parsis, the <span class="smcap">Trita</span> of the Hindus, is a -remarkable healing, semi-divine personage, of whom a -great deal is said in the “Zend Avesta” and other sacred -books of Aryan peoples of the east. According to the -“Zend Avesta,” which is from a common source with -the “Vedas,” he is the curer of the diseases caused by -the great evil spirit, Ahriman. In the “Vedas” he is -said to extinguish illness in men as the gods extinguished -it in him, and he can grant long life. He drinks -Sôma, as did Indra, to acquire strength to kill the demon -Vritra.</p> - -<p>In the Parsi system of religion, Thrita received from -the supreme god, Ahura-Mazda,<a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> ten thousand healing-plants, -which had been growing around the tree of life, -the white Hôm,<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> the Sôma of the Hindus.</p> - -<p>Thrita appears to have been one of the first priests -of the personified source of life and health,—“the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span> -enlivening, healing, fair, lordly, golden-eyed Hâoma.”<a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> -The destruction of a great serpent, Azi Dahâka, the -most dreadful Drug,<a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> created by Angra-Mainyu, himself -a serpent, to which diseases were attributed, was one of -his fabled feats.</p> - -<p>There is much that is interesting to the physician in -the “Zend Avesta,” but I cannot present it here. One -interesting passage I may quote. Ahura-Mazda is addressed -thus: “O Maker of the material world, thou -Holy One! If a worshipper of Mazda want to practice -the art of healing, on whom shall he first prove his skill? -On the worshippers of Mazda, or on the worshippers of -the Dævas?”<a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> The reply is: “On the worshippers of -the Dævas he shall first prove himself.” If on these the -surgeon use the knife three times with success, “then is -he fit to practice the art of healing for ever and ever.”<a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure14" style="max-width: 34.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure14.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.—Silik-mulu-khi.</span><a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Silik-mulu-khi</span>, the son of Hea, was a remarkable -divinity, of whom I feel it desirable to speak. In him -we have one kindly disposed toward man, a special -friend of humanity, largely medical in character. What -he was has been unveiled, mainly of late, through the -decipherment of cuneiform inscriptions. The Babylonians -prized him highly.<a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> He became assimilated with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> -Mardux,<a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> or Marodach, of the Babylono-Assyrians, and -Bel, of later times.<a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> Space forbids me to give a long -account of him. Much can be learned about him <i>passim</i> -in the admirable works of M. François Lenormant,<a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> and -in the “Records of the Past.”<a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a></p> - -<p>Silik-mulu-khi—that is, “He who distributes good -among men”<a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a>—was, as already stated, the son of Hea, to -whom he remained subject. He overcame the dragon of -the deep, and is spoken of as the Redeemer of mankind, -the Restorer of life, and the Raiser from the dead. He -took shape among the Accadio-Sumerians.</p> - -<p>Hea, or Ea,<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> “the master of the eternal secrets,” “the -god who presides over theurgical action,” revealed to -Silik-mulu-khi “the mysterious rite, the formula, or the -all-powerful hidden name which shall thwart the efforts -of the most formidable powers of the Abyss.”<a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> Like -Apollo, he had special medical functions; indeed, Mr. -Sayce observes that “he was emphatically the god of -healing, who had revealed medicine to mankind.”<a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span></p> - -<p>As the symbol of his office, Silik-mulu-khi carried a -reed, which took the place of both the royal sceptre and -magic wand, and which was transmitted to the Assyrian -Mardux.<a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a> In a hymn it is said:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Golden reed, great reed, tall reed of the marshes, sacred bed of the gods,</div> - <div class="center">...</div> - <div class="verse indent0">I am the messenger of Silik-mulu-khi, who causes all to grow young again.”<a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Although Silik-mulu-khi’s functions were largely -medical, it is not to be supposed that he resorted much -to the use of medicaments. For it has not yet been -made very apparent that medicine, properly so called, -was much esteemed by the early Babylono-Assyrian -peoples. Not long ago Mr. H. F. Talbot, in an interesting -article on Assyrian talismans and exorcisms, -said: “Diseases were attributed to the influence of -spirits. Exorcisms were used to drive away those tormentors; -and this seems to have been the sole remedy -employed, for I believe that no mention has yet been -found of medicine.”<a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> This statement does not hold -good now, as will be shown later.<a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span></p> - -<p>In the cure of diseases the Babylono-Assyrian practitioners -first duly guarded the entrance to the patient’s -chamber. Images or guardian statues of Hea and -Silik-mulu-khi were placed one to the right and the -other to the left. Texts were put on the threshold and -on the statues, after the manner spoken of in Deuteronomy.<a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a> -These were also placed on the brow of the -patient and about the room. In bad cases recourse was -had to the “mamit,” something which the evil spirits -could not resist. Talbot gives the following prescription -from an Accadian tablet:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Take a white cloth. In it place the mamit in the sick man’s right hand;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And take a black cloth and wrap it round his left hand.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Then all the evil spirits, and the sins which he has committed,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Shall quit their hold of him and shall never return.”<a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>M. Lenormant gives a translation of an interesting -magic tablet. Here is a passage from it which the conjurer, -the Shaman, is supposed to speak, ending with -the usual adjuration:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Disease of the bowels, the disease of the heart,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The palpitation of the heart,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Disease of the vision, disease of the head,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Malignant dysentery</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The humor which swells,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Ulceration of the veins, the micturition which wastes,<a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a></div> - <div class="verse indent0">Cruel agony which never ceases,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Nightmare,—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Spirit of the Heavens,<a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> conjure it;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Spirit of the Earth,<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> conjure it.”<a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>What follows is part of an incantation against “the -diseases of the head”:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“The diseases of the head, like doves to their dove-cots, like grasshoppers into the sky,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Like birds into space,—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">May they fly away!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">May the invalid be replaced in the protecting hands of his god.”<a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Here is the remedy for “diseases of the head,” as -given by Hea to Silik-mulu-khi:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Come my son, Silik-mulu-khi,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Take a sieve: draw some water from the surface of the river,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Place thy sublime lip upon the water;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Make it shine with purity from thy sublime breath, ...</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Help the man, son of his god....</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Let the disease of his head depart;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">May the disease of his head be dispersed like a nocturnal dew.”<a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>I have already stated that Silik-mulu-khi became in -time assimilated with the god possessing beauty or -splendor, Mardux.<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> Here are extracts from a hymn -addressed to him after the change:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Merciful one among the gods,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Generator who brought back the dead to life,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Silik-mulu-khi, king of heaven and of earth.</div> - <div class="center">...</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To thee is the lip of life!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To thee are death and life!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">I have invoked thy name, I have invoked thy sublimity.</div> - <div class="center">...</div> - <div class="verse indent0">May the invalid be delivered from his disease;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Cure the plague, the fever, the ulcer.”<a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br> -<span class="smaller">THE PINE-CONE AS AN ATTRIBUTE OF ÆSCULAPIUS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The fruitful results of studies in oriental history, industriously -and intelligently pursued by able and learned -men in recent times, are making more and more apparent -the borrowed character of many features of the civilization -of Greece and other western nations. Greek, -Latin, German, Irish, and other languages of the Indo-European -races, have been shown to be largely derived -from Sanskrit, or a source similar to it, and the various -mythologies have also been proved to be more or less -evolutions.</p> - -<p>Of late, the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Accadio-Sumerians, -but especially the last, who were, as is said -in the Bible, both “a mighty” and “an ancient nation,”<a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> -have been accorded a greater influence than -formerly on other peoples. There is little or no ground -for doubt that the first forms of belief, as well as art, -came from the East. It is certain that in the fertile -region, about the lower waters of the Euphrates and -Tigris, there was, at very early period, a remarkable -unfoldment of intellectual, social, and other elements -of progress, from the savage state. The ideas brought -with them three thousand years or more before our era, -to the rich plains southward of Mesopotamia, and gathered -there by the early inhabitants of the hills of Elam -and their kin, the earlier inhabitants of Sumer,<a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> have -been potent everywhere to the westward.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span></p> - -<p>These Turanians, a dark-complexioned people, were -conquered by the Semites settled in parts to the west -of Babylonia, by whom their culture and civilization -were appropriated.<a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a></p> - -<p>The Accadio-Sumerians undoubtedly gave direction -and shape to the religions of Babylonia, Assyria, Phœnicia, -and other countries, including Egypt. This means -a great deal, for in the earlier stages of civilization the -religion, such as it may be, is a matter of the greatest -possible significance, both in itself and its influence on -everything else. The language of the Accadio-Sumerians -long served as the sacred one in Babylonia and -Assyria,<a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> and has been characterized by Mr. Sayce as -“the Sanskrit of the Turanian family.”<a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> In it are the -important early cuneiform inscriptions, all the originals -of which were written eighteen hundred years or so -before our era.</p> - -<p>The medical ideas of the Accadio-Sumerian were -closely related to his religion; to him the cause and -cure of disease were, to a great extent, in fact essentially, -supernatural affairs. And thus, indeed, it has -been among all early peoples. Nor is it probable that -it will ever be entirely otherwise anywhere. The same -feelings which prompted the dweller in Elam, or in the -plains to the westward, to formulate his religion and -philosophy are still experienced by humanity. Even the -myth-formers are not all dead. The spirit of all the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span> -mythologies is yet alive. There are gods of fancy to-day, -as there were when Ana and Hea and Bel were in -the ascendant. And they are not very different. The -<i>nomen</i>, the name, may vary much, but the <i>numen</i>, the -thing, for the most part, does not.</p> - -<p>The science of the nineteenth century has not cleared -away from the minds of a large majority, in even the -most highly civilized nations, the belief that health and -sickness are largely subject to mysterious spiritual -powers. They are matters of which the populace are -still apt to entertain preposterous notions. Cullen well -remarks somewhere that he had found even men with -trained logical faculties, such as lawyers, satisfied with -reasons of any kind, advanced to explain medical phenomena. -And in truth the physician deals with matters -not readily understood. In the very first paragraph of -his book of books, has not Hippocrates himself said: -“Experience is fallacious and judgment difficult”?</p> - -<p>However, it is not to be denied that there are many -who sincerely and firmly believe that both health and -disease are entirely dependent on the will of spiritual -powers. Doubtless every physician has seen instances -of perfect resignation, on the death of even a near -relative, brought about by the notion that the bereavement -was “the will of God.” An innocent child, -cut off by diphtheria, or scarlet fever, or some other -pestilential disease, which exists only by tolerance, with -a tearless mother bending over it, calm and full of the -idea that it was the will of the Almighty to destroy it -in the bud, as it were, is not an uncommon sight, and -one which cannot fail to impress both deeply and sadly -the intelligent observer. Impious and erroneous doctrine, -to be sure; but, nevertheless, part and parcel of -many, nay, most of the creeds of the day.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span></p> - -<p>My statements are not rashly made and baseless. I -might almost ask in vain for a creed in which an absolute -declaration of the life and death of mortals being -entirely in the hands of supra-mundane powers is not -made. For example, in the chapter of the “Book of -Common Prayer,” on “the order for the visitation of -the sick,” it is said: “Dearly beloved, know this, that -Almighty God is the Lord of life and death, and of all -things to them pertaining, as youth, strength, health, age, -weakness, and sickness. Wherefore, whatsoever your -sickness be, know you certainly that it is God’s visitation.” -For relief, the means is indicated in this petition: -“O Lord! look down from heaven, behold, visit, and -relieve this thy servant.” There is no doubt about the -meaning of these passages; and it is certain that the -ideas contained in them are essentially those which were -current among various peoples of remote antiquity. Of -course, to one who sincerely entertains such ideas there -can be no such thing as a science and art of medicine. -But we know that they rarely or never stand in the -way of a due resort to rational medical treatment. -Truly, the human mind is, in many instances, “many-sided.”</p> - -<p>What has just been said will indicate that it is very -improbable that the so-called religious literature of early -times fairly represents the state of medical practice. -Assuredly, one could form no idea of the state of -the healing art at present from the perusal of a manual -of orthodox religious literature.</p> - -<p>However, as I have intimated above, the prevalence -of an ostensible belief in the cause and cure of diseases -by supernatural powers does not stand in the way of the -existence and practice of a more or less rational art of -healing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span></p> - -<p>The Chaldean<a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> looked to the gods for the removal -of the evils which afflicted him; and he had his set -earthly ways by which to bring about the result desired. -Supplication, sacrifice, and the like were practiced, -but material means were not entirely neglected. In -the sacred book of the Parsis it is said: “If several -healers offer themselves together, namely, one who heals -with the knife, one who heals with herbs, and one who -heals with the Holy Word, it is this one who will <i>best</i> -drive away sickness from the body of the faithful.”<a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a> In -another place the “Holy Word” is pronounced “the -best healing of all remedies.”<a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> Evidently, one might -resort to other means, if he chose. And here I may -remark, that in the practices of Æsculapius there was -precisely the same threefold means of cure, as will be -seen by referring to the chapter on the god.</p> - -<p>It may be affirmed with confidence that no people in -either ancient or modern times has relied exclusively on -the good offices of supernatural powers for the cure of -diseases. According to Catlin, the Indian doctors first -prescribed “roots and herbs, of which they have a -great variety of species; and when these have all failed, -their last resort is to medicine.”<a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> A reverse plan was -the more common. In that interesting book, “Ecclesiasticus,” -written by one well informed, and even at a -time when medicine was far advanced, the sick man is -curiously advised to pray and sacrifice to God first, and -then to give place to the physician.<a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> The old Hebrew -conveys the idea that, when nothing else could be done, -resort should be had to medical men. He thoughtfully<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span> -remarks that “there is a time when thou must fall into -their hands.”<a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a></p> - -<p>Now, as was to be expected, the Grecian god of -medicine was viewed by some through a veil of superstition -brought from the East. In connection with -statues of him were things the meaning of which would -be entirely unintelligible without a previous knowledge -of ideas entertained in Assyria and other countries. -One of these, the special theme of this chapter, is very -interesting because of its historical connections. A -study of it brings to light much exceedingly interesting -information.</p> - -<p>The pine- or cedar-cone, or, as some have spoken of -it, the pine-apple, was figured in the hand of the cryselephantine -statue of Æsculapius, made by Calamis for -the temple at Sicyon, in Arcadia, as in representations -of Mardux. What was the meaning of this peculiar -object? Some have taken it to have been a phallic symbol. -The presence of it on the thyrsus of Dionysus,<a id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> -brought by him from the East, would seem to support -that view. It has also been regarded as a flame.<a id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a></p> - -<div class="figright illowp50" id="figure15" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure15.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.—The Pine- or -Cedar-Cone as Seen in -the Hand of a Winged -Figure from Nimroud.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Whether the cedar-cone of the Sicyonian statue of -Æsculapius was representative of the reproductive organ -or of fire or not, it is certain that it was largely in use -by the Babylonians, Assyrians, and others, to restore -health as well as to overcome witchcraft and the like. -One sees it in the hand of the winged, eagle-headed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> -figure from Nimroud, now in the British Museum, and -a cut of the same is given here. Two similar genii or -figures, very like the gryphon of Greek mythology connected -with Apollo, are represented watching, like the -cherubim at the gate of Eden, over the priests who attend -about the sacred tree of life,—that apple-, fig-, palm-, -or somo-tree, serpent-guarded, which yields fruit or -ambrosia, in which, as De Gubernatis says, “the life, the -fortune, the glory, the strength, and the riches of the -hero have their beginning,”<a id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> and which is so prominent -in the sculptures and records of -Oriental peoples. The object is -often seen extended under the -king’s nose, apparently that he -may inhale the vitalizing emanations -from it, after the manner of -the ancients’ notion of the mode -of reception of the “breath of -life.”<a id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> It even appears on the -tree of life in some of its conventional -forms. Thus, Layard says: -“The flowers at the end of the -branches are frequently replaced -in later Assyrian monuments and -on cylinders by the fir- or pine-cone, and sometimes by -a fruit or ornament resembling the pomegranate.”<a id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a></p> - -<p>In connection with what he has to say about the -cones on the tree of life, George Smith expresses the -opinion that “the Accadians brought the tradition of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> -the fir-cones with them from their original seat in the -colder, mountainous land of Media, where the fir<a id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a> was -plentiful.”</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp50" id="figure16" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure16.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.—The Tree -of Life.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The use of the fir-cone in the cure of disease has -been made evident by recent translations of cuneiform -inscriptions.<a id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> It is said by Lenormant that in a magic -fragment as yet inedited the god Hea, the <i>averruncus -par excellence</i>, the vivifier and preserver of the human -race which he has created, prescribes to his son Marduk, -the mediator, a mysterious rite which will cure a -man whose malady is caused by an attack of demons. -“Take,” says he, “to him the fruit of the cedar, and -hold it in front of the sick person; -the cedar is the tree which gives the -pure charm and repels the inimical -demons, who lay snares.”<a id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a></p> - -<p>In the cedar-cone, then, in the -hand of the figure of Æsculapius we -have the symbol and instrument of -“the life charm,” of which the god -Hea was the master and the son the -dispenser; and I may add (as Lenormant has suggested) -that when fruits of this nature adorn the sacred plant -they characterize it more emphatically than ever as the -tree of life.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br> -<span class="smaller">DIBBARA,<a id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> A GOD OF PESTILENCE.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>There does not appear to be an exception to the -rule, that every people has, to a greater or less extent, -referred the causation of epidemic and other diseases to -supernatural powers.<a id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> In Oriental countries evil spirits -were believed to be accountable for it; and, indeed, in -the West, the Red Indians entertained the same notion, -as the reader of Mr. Dorman’s interesting book<a id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a> is well -aware. The uncultured mind cannot, it would seem, -grasp the idea that things which the senses cannot -readily perceive may, nevertheless, be entirely natural.</p> - -<p>The Babylono-Assyrians, like the American Indians, -believed in the existence of innumerable bad as well as -good spirits; in fact, to them every object and force in -nature was believed to have a <i>zi</i>, or spirit, more or less -subject to control.<a id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> The bad ones, of whom there were -seven emphatically such, delighted in injuring man and -afflicting him with diseases, often taking possession of -him. Evidently this doctrine, when fully developed,—that -is, when the bad spirits were almost or quite as free -to act as the good ones, as among the Parsis,—afforded a -simple and very satisfactory explanation of the existence -of apparent good and evil in the world. The practice<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span> -of medicine, based on such views, could, at best, be little -better than mere Shamanism.</p> - -<p>I may here observe that the Chaldeans and others -regarded imprecations as effective in causing diseases, as -well as other evils. In a quotation from a tablet, given -by Lenormant, it is said:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“The malevolent imprecation acts on man like a wicked demon;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The voice which curses has power over him.”<a id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>I need hardly say that a very similar belief is still -all but universal. It appears to be instructive. At any -rate, it is practiced enormously. From the “damn you” -of the street-urchin to the formal and solemn “anathema” -of the Pope of Rome, we are familiar with all grades -of it.</p> - -<p>There has always and everywhere been a tendency to -accord great divinities power to dispense both evil and -good. Men have made their chief gods like themselves, -anthropomorphic, variable in their feelings and actions. -Apollo could cause disease and he could remove it.<a id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> Of -the Hebrews’ God the same is true. Offense at the “sins” -of men in both cases inspires the infliction of pestilential -and other diseases. The numbering of the people by -David, although forbidden, leads to the occurrence of a -destructive epidemic.<a id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> In “Ecclesiasticus” it is explicitly -said, “He that sinneth in the sight of his Maker -shall fall into the hands of the physician.”<a id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a></p> - -<p>Among those who clothed one evil spirit with imperial -power, so to speak, that spirit has been mainly held -accountable for the occurrence of disease. The Iranian,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> -Angra-Mainyu, furnishes an example. And since the -notion of the “devil” (our devil) began,<a id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> he has been -often charged with the offense. Thus, we are told in the -Bible that it was he that “smote Job with sores, from -the sole of his foot unto his crown.”<a id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> Still, in this case -he was subject to orders, so to speak.</p> - -<p>Now, it would be strange if, among the evil spirits -the exuberant fancy of uncultured man has called into -existence, there were not a leading one with the special -function of causing, at least, pestilential diseases. Such -a one is not met with in the mythology of the Romans, -Greeks, or even the Egyptians;<a id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> but a remarkable one -is found in the Accadio-Sumerian, Dibbara, the leader -of the plague-demons.<a id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> He was subject to the orders -of Ana and Hea. In the Izdhubar legend of the flood it is -said: “Let Dibbara appear, and let men be mown down.”</p> - -<p>Our knowledge of Dibbara, or Lubara, is largely of -modern date. Until the recent translations of cuneiform -inscriptions were made, the records of him had almost -faded out of sight. On his exploits there is an interesting -chapter in George Smith’s “Chaldean Account of Genesis.”<a id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> -His history promises to throw considerable light -on passages in the Bible and elsewhere. Thus, his title -of “the darkening one” appears to have suggested to the -Psalmist the phrase, “The pestilence that walketh in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> -darkness.”<a id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> He was, probably, the prototype of the -destroying “angel” spoken of in the Bible.<a id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p> - -<p>Dibbara, like many other personifications of evil, -partook of the serpentine form. Not unlikely he was -originally, to a great degree, similar to, if not identical -with, the fabulous dragon combated by Marduk. This -was an embodiment of the chaos of the deep, the principle -of chaos and darkness. He was the serpent of the -night, and may have been primarily the darkness overcome -by the sun.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br> -<span class="smaller">HYGEIA, THE GODDESS OF HEALTH.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The need of a special divinity to preserve people in -a state of health was widely felt, even in very early -times. In Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and elsewhere, this -need found pronounced expression. Isis and Istar<a id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> -and Athene were each, in one way or another, accorded -great power over bodily or mental -health. But the Greeks, in their -Hygeia, markedly emphasized and -entirely specialized the conception. -Here we have an exclusively health -divinity, who had more or less of -a counterpart in the <span class="smcap">Salus</span> of the -Romans,—a goddess highly esteemed, -worshipped on set days, -and to whom a fine temple was devoted at the Eternal -City, situated near the gate called from it Porta Salutaris.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp75" id="figure17" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure17.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.—Serpent and -Bowl of Hygeia.</span><a id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a></p> -</div> - -<p>From the preceding statements, the reader will -observe that the divinities who were specially interested<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span> -in the preservation of health were all females. This is -an exceedingly interesting fact. It is not an incongruous -one, either. The ancients were keenly alive to the -sense of fitness in things; and hence it is hardly likely -that they made a mistake in Hygeia, the health goddess. -From the exercise of the great function of nurturing and -caring for the young of the species, woman has sufficient -claim to the distinction of being, <i>par excellence</i>, the -guardian of health. Why the goddess should be a maid -rather than a matron is not extremely clear. Likely -the idea was to present in her a woman just mature and -free from blemish, in a typically perfect state.</p> - -<p>However, we have in Hygeia, “daughter of Pæon, -queen of every joy,” to use the appropriate words with -which Armstrong starts off in the invocation to her, at -the beginning of his fine poem,<a id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> a very interesting and -beautiful conception. It is easy to understand why this -divinity became very popular. O Goddess! if—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent22">“But for thee,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Nature would sicken, nature soon would die,”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">as the author just quoted declares, thy worship might -well have become universal, for without health life -is burdensome, a gift of doubtful value! Health and -long life are things mortals have always craved and -always prized. In that interesting Hebræo-Chaldean -history, “Tobias,” Sara, with her husband, gives utterance -to a truly human prayer: “Have mercy on us, O -Lord, have mercy on us, and let us grow old both -together in health.”<a id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> “At heart,” says Dr. Brinton, -“all prayers are for preservation; the burden of all -litanies is a begging for life.”<a id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span></p> - -<p>The symbolic representation of the myth of Hygeia -afforded a fine subject for the sculptors and other artists. -Extremely attractive figures of her were produced. One -of them, at least, is doubtless familiar to the reader. I -have reference to the one in which she is represented as -a blooming girl with a serpent twined around her left -arm<a id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> and feeding out of a <i>patera</i> or chalice held in her -right hand. With this ideal in his mind, the late Dr. -Aitken Meigs, in a remarkable address<a id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> delivered in 1879, -pronounces “the high-born maid” to be “of beauty’s -types, the highest, best idea,” and continues:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Nor fragile she, nor pale, but ruddy, strong,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And gladsome as a tuneful, joyous song;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Her comely form, in swelling curves designed,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Is perfect grace, with glowing strength combined;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Crimson and white in her fair face contend,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Upon her cheeks in sweet confusion blend;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Her rosy lips excel the coral’s brightness,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Brow, nose, and chin are fleecy ways of whiteness;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Loose, flowing, falls her hair, a golden spray;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Forth from her lustrous eyes she scatters day.</div> - <div class="center">...</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In one small hand a cup she deftly holds,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Whilst round her soft, white arm, in many folds</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A serpent twines and from the chalice drinks.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Low crouches sometimes, at her feet, a sphinx.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">From these strange emblems learn her character:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">How very cunning she, and how exact her</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Knowledge and profound; how with wondrous skill</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Her youth renews, and is discreet and still.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>As will be observed, Dr. Meigs gives an explanation -of the symbols usually connected with figures of Hygeia,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span> -whom he regarded as to the physician what the chosen -maid was to the knight of old,—the patron saint. The -view taken of the serpent is not satisfactory, although -better than that held by Cuvier, namely, that it is “to -show that temperance is the source of lengthened life.”<a id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> -And if one take the reptile to be symbolic of the art of -healing, why it should be connected with the goddess -of health is not clear. In this -connection its presence might -imply that it is only through -medicine that health can be -preserved. Taking it as symbolic -of life, one has little -difficulty in understanding its -appropriateness. Closely attached -to her, and drawing -nourishment from a chalice held -in her hand, the meaning might -be, that health and life are intimately -related to each other, -the former sustaining the latter. -Regarding it, however, as -simply a <i>bonus genius</i> is not out -of the way. The mode of representing -it at Rome and elsewhere -strongly supports this -view, namely, encircling the -altar of the goddess, with the head extending over it.<a id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> -In Teutonic mythology, “the white lady with the snake” -was associated with medicinal springs.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp37" id="figure18" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure18.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.—Hygeia.</span> (As given -in Murray’s Mythology.)</p> -</div> - -<p>According to the mythological record, Hygeia<a id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a> was -the daughter of the god of medicine, Æsculapius. Of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span> -her personal history one might almost say that it is a -blank.</p> - -<p>Numerous representations of Hygeia were to be -found in Greece, and later in Rome. One was usually -placed by the side of each of Æsculapius.</p> - -<p>The worship of Hygeia began soon after that of -Æsculapius and became wide-spread and popular. The -Romans were quite as devoted in their attentions to her -as the Greeks.</p> - -<p>I have said sufficient already to indicate that there -was no divinity precisely similar to Hygeia in Egypt, -or any eastern country. Some of the great goddesses -were believed to exercise functions akin to hers.<a id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a> Indeed, -many of the prominent divinities, from the spouse -of Hea down, had accorded to them more or less control -over affairs of health and life. Dr. Meigs conveys a -wrong impression when he says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Hygeia, daughter of Asclepios,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Descended from Apollo Delios,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Adored as Maut<a id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a> beside the mystic Nile,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With Amen-Ra in Theban peristyle.”<a id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>There is about as much reason to say that Athene -was Hygeia, as that Maut was, or Isis, although, as -Ebers says, she was the divinity “to be called on to -destroy the germs of disease.”<a id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> Arguments could be -advanced in favor of the idea that Hygeia sprang into -existence as a personification of the great serpent-accompanied -virgin, river-mist, or cloud-goddess, Pallas -Athene, in her capacity of health-preserver. The claim -in regard to Isis is little or no better; and, in fact, one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span> -form of Isis, called Neith, or Neit, the great mother of -the sun-god, Ra, and the titular goddess of Sais, has -always<a id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> been believed to correspond closely with Athene. -The former was not only usually accompanied by a -serpent, like the latter, but was often represented by -one; still, the same might be said of, perhaps, all the -Egyptian goddesses.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br> -<span class="smaller">MEDICAL TALISMANS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>It is well at the start to form a definite conception -of what a talisman means. It is a species of charm; it -differs from an amulet. Both are of the character of -fetiches; that is, objects in nature, or of art, believed to -possess magical power. If the object be ascribed consciousness -and other mental attributes, it is, properly -speaking, an idol. Unlike the amulet, the talisman, to -be effective, need not be kept about the person. But -the main characteristic feature of the talisman is astronomical, -or, rather, astrological; it is accorded virtue -principally because made when two planets are in conjunction, -or when a star has reached its culminating -point. As one would expect, it has been customary to -have something about the talisman to indicate that it is -such; but many engravings found on them have no -astronomical import at all.</p> - -<p>The talisman<a id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> has a long history. To know when it -came into use one must go back to the time when the -study of the stars and their influence, real or supposed, -on mundane affairs began. Although it has been asserted<a id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> -that Adam acquired a knowledge of astrology -through inspiration, it is safe to hold that the Accadian<a id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> -star-gazers, inhabitants of the hills of Elam, first gave -shape to this, in great part, pseudo-philosophy of nature,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span> -which was widely believed in by many peoples, and still -has numerous sincere adherents everywhere. Mr. Proctor -ventures to declare that “the idea that the stars in -their course rule the fate of men and nations”<a id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> is a predominant -one of the race.<a id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a> In Babylonia, Assyria, -Phœnicia, Egypt, and elsewhere, it received much -attention; indeed, it was part and parcel of the prevailing -religions, most of the Oriental systems being largely -astronomical in origin. And the Chaldean or, rather, -Accadian astrologer’s work is obvious enough to this -day;<a id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> it is seen in the division of time into the week of -seven days, with the seventh one of rest, the Sabbath,<a id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> -and the mode of regulation of religious times and -seasons,<a id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> to say nothing of the signs of the zodiac, and -so on.</p> - -<p>It is stated by Vitruvius<a id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> that astrology<a id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> -brought from the East to Greece<a id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> by the Chaldeans, of -whom Berosus, the historian, “the first of them,” -settled at Cos and opened a school there. However -this may be, it is stated in Ptolemy’s remarkable book<a id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> -that medical astrology originated in Egypt.</p> - -<p>Hippocrates, who lived a century or so before Berosus, -had certainly a knowledge of astrology. Galen -wrote a book on it, and, like Hippocrates, gives special -prominence to the influence of the moon, dwelling particularly -on its production of critical changes in diseases. -Many another physician thought it necessary to -master it,<a id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> including Chaucer’s “Doctor of Physick,” -who was “grounded in astronomie.”<a id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a></p> - -<p>From the fact that astrology and religion were closely -connected, it almost necessarily followed that medical -talismans possessed more or less of a religious significance.</p> - -<p>Among the talismanic gems pictured in De Wilde’s -book<a id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> is one which has on one side the Greek letters -ΙΑΩ, signifying the Creator of the world, or Jehovah; -and on the other a representation of an extremely <i>erotic</i> -and rather misshapen lion rampant. This, worn in a -ring, was said to prevent renal and other diseases. De -Wilde observes, in accordance with a belief of ancient -date, that in this figure one has health symbolized. Says -he: “<i>Leo erectus verum signum sanitatis protendit.</i>”</p> - -<p>What has just been said leads me to remark that the -phallus, which was a common form of the <i>genius loci</i>, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> -Agathodæmon, was widely believed to have great power -to protect against harm. In it was a sovereign preventive -of malign fascination, or the influence of the evil -eye. The Roman god, Fascinus,<a id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a> had it as his chief -symbol. It is well known that this charm was sometimes -placed on houses<a id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> in Pompeii, with the inscription, <i>hic -habitat felicitas</i>. Aubrey says: “In the digging of the -ruins and foundations of London, after the great conflagration, -there were found several little Priapusses of -copper, about an inch long, wᶜʰ the Romans did weare -about their necks.”<a id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure19" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure19.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.—The Divine Name.</span> (As seen on a talismanic gem, copied -from De Wilde’s book.)</p> -</div> - -<p>In regard to the ΙΑΩ, JΑΩ, or JAO, a variation of -JAH,<a id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> the name of the Deity, the demiurge, the Sabaoth -of the Phœnicians and others, I may say that it was -regarded as possessing in itself irresistible talismanic -power. Fort remarks that “as a talisman of medical -properties it was carried about the person in tubes, or, -more generally, on parchment.”<a id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> Let me add that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span> -Tetragrammaton—that is, J H V H, or, as it is commonly -rendered, Jehovah—was the same thing as the ΙΑΩ. -Much could be said about it, as those familiar with -Masonic legends and occult literature are aware. Lenormant -states, of the wide belief in the power of the hidden -“name of the Lord,” that “we now see clearly that it -came from Chaldea.”<a id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> Elsewhere, reference is made to -the potent word which Hea bore in his heart.</p> - -<p>In this connection I may say a word on the “triliteral -monosyllable” of the Brahmin and Buddhist, -AUM, to which still, as in the past, great potency is -attached. Being a symbol of the Supreme, it is characterized -as “that which passes not away.” Dr. Birdwood -remarks that it is “the identical formula of every Hindu -god. The letter A is the <i>vija-mantra</i> of the male -Buddha, the generative power; U, the ditto of the female -<i>dharma</i> (law), the type of productive power; and M, -the <i>sanga</i> (congregation) or union of the essences of -both.”<a id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure20" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure20.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.—Forms of the Prescription Symbol.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The symbol placed at the head of medical prescriptions, -and which is usually believed to stand for <i>recipe</i>, -may be regarded as a sort of obsolete talisman. The -original form of it appears to have been a figure like a -Z, with the lower horizontal part crossed with a sceptre-shaped -line. This, or a modification of it, has been from -time immemorial the symbol of the planet Jupiter. -Hence the reason, it has been asserted, for placing it at -the head of prescriptions; for the great planet, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> -bearer of the name of the father of life, was believed in -other days to have a favorable influence over diseases. -And here I may observe that in another chapter I have -spoken of the interesting fact that Marduk<a id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> of the -Babylono-Assyrians stood for Jupiter, and that in him -was assimilated the benignant mediator and healer of -the Accadio-Sumerians, Silik-mulu-khi.</p> - -<p>The symbol is generally described as being simply -the initial letter of Zeus, the Greek name of Jupiter. -But this leaves part of it out of account, a part which -might be taken to be a sceptre, an object which, accompanied -by a serpent, as the symbol of life, was prominent -in representations of Jupiter. But one might with some -reason regard it as made up of the initial and terminal -letters of Zadykiel, or Zadakiel, the angel and the spirit -of the great planet, according to astrologers and others. -And again, by taking it to be composed of an R and an -l, one might hold it to be derived from the name of -Raphael, the angel of the sun. But, as already stated, -it is probable that the body of the original figure was -not an R. I may add that Mr. Taylor says that this -ideogram “resolves itself into an arm grasping a thunderbolt.”</p> - -<p>If the prescription-mark be a thing of astrological -origin, it is a remnant of an extensive body of facts and -theories, long highly prized. Shakspere makes <i>King -Lear</i>, in an interesting passage, characterize the reference -of man’s destiny “to the sun, the moon, and the -stars,” as “the excellent foppery of the world;”<a id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> but no -doubt innumerable hosts of believers in the system were -thoroughly sincere. From the days when the Accadians -became distinguished for their observations of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> -heavens, down to very recent times, medical astrology -occupied a position in popular thought and esteem which -almost exceeds the power of credence of the modern -scientific physician. Not only in administering medicines, -but in gathering medicinal herbs, the position of -the planets had to be considered; for it was believed -that the herbs got their virtues from them. Without the -benign influence of the “host of heaven,” no good could -be expected from the physician, or his remedies.</p> - -<p>The belief in the power of the different constellations -of the zodiac over special parts of the body and their -diseases is still indicated by the curious figure often -seen in almanacs.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Abraxas-stones</span> are largely medical in character—medical -talismans.<a id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> Much might be said of them. Fort -remarks: “These gems, endowed with omnipotent curative -and talismanic power, quickly acquired a celebrity -undiminished for ages, and whose possible interpretation -even yet attracts erudite attention.”<a id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a></p> - -<p>Each of these remarkable objects consisted of a piece -of glass, paste, or other mineral substance, occasionally -a metallic one, on which was usually some figure, often a -serpent, or inscription, together with the word “abraxas,” -which constituted their distinctive feature.</p> - -<p>The Greek letters of the mystical word, “abraxas,” -equaled in numerical value 365,<a id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a> the number of days in -the year. After speaking of the serpent of evil on one, -Sharpe says: “Underneath it is written the magical -word Abrasa, <i>hurt me not</i>, an Egyptian word, which the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span> -Greeks made use of, as believing that the evil spirits -were better acquainted with the Egyptian language than -with the Greek.”<a id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a> Not a few, however, believe that the -word is not such at all.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure21" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure21.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.—Abraxas-stone.</span> (From De Wilde.)</p> -</div> - -<p>The abraxas-stones are believed to have originated -with the Basilidian Gnostics, a sect which Basilides, a -Syrian by birth, who lived under Trajan and his successor, -in the latter half of the first century, was instrumental -in originating. Whether they were intended at -first to be simply a means of recognition is an undecided -question. Those given to magic adopted them largely. -The opinion has been expressed that doubtless the -greater part of the stones were made in the middle ages.<a id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br> -<span class="smaller">MEDICAL AMULETS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>Any object believed to be possessed of a mysterious -power of warding off or removing evil of any kind may -be regarded as an amulet. A medical amulet is one -capable of warding off or of removing a disease or -diseases. The prevention of disease, or, what is much -the same thing, the preservation of health, is the use to -which it has been chiefly put. This is quite as true of -its use to-day as formerly.</p> - -<p>In speaking of medical amulets one has no reason -to use only the past tense. They are still much used, -as the reader of Brande, or of the publications of the -Folk-Lore Society, or of <i>Notes and Queries</i>, well knows. -Nor are the patrons of them of the illiterate class only. -Every physician has, doubtless, met with instances of -their use by persons of intelligence. Here is a clergyman -who carries a chestnut in his pocket to keep off -rheumatism; and there is an attorney-at-law who keeps -a stolen potato about him for the same purpose. In -ancient times, however, their use was extremely common, -all but universal.</p> - -<p>Of the practical value of amulets I may say, without -hesitancy, that it is very great. Of course it would -be irrational to hold that they act, to any extent, otherwise -than through impressions made by them on the -mind. Such impressions may undoubtedly be powerful -for good. That this is the case few competent to form -an opinion on the subject will question. The intelligent -reader of history, as well as the scientific psychologist<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> -and physician, has abundant reason to know that it is -true. I repeat what I have deliberately said elsewhere: -“Amulets do serve, in a measure, to prevent disease. -Anything which inspires confidence and hope is sanative -in its effects. Faith is a powerful healer.”<a id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a></p> - -<p>A gem with a symbol of one kind or another engraved -on it was, from an early period, an ordinary -medical amulet. A common symbol was a figure of -Hygeia; and one of Serapis was long quite as common. -The name of Raphael (literally healer of God), the -patron angel of the early Christians, was often shown -on both amulets and talismans. This angel had a -reputation as a healer,<a id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> as the reader familiar with -“Tobias” is aware. In that historical book, it is said -that when Tobias and Sara were afflicted “the holy -angel of the Lord, Raphael, was sent to heal them -both.”<a id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> Tobias was told by him that if he put a little -piece of a fish’s heart upon coals the smoke thereof -would drive away all kinds of devils, either from man -or woman, and that they would not return.<a id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p> - -<p>A serpent was a very familiar object on gems used -as amulets. The later Egyptians, who were great -believers in such things, were very partial to it. Among -the objects found by General Di Cesnola, in Cypress, -was a scarabæoid of banded agate, on which are engraved -two asps with a cartouche between, inscribed -with the word εχις. In reference to this word he says: -“It can be no other than έχις, the old form of εχιδνα,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> -and may possibly be a proper name after the analogy of -Draco, not uncommon in Greece; and Echidna, whose -amour with Hercules Herodotus relates. Or, if taken -in its primary sense the word may constitute an amulet -against the asps, still so plentiful in Cyprus, and to be -of the nature of those prophylactic rings against snake-bites -alluded to by Aristophanes.<a id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a> Arab amulets, at the -present day, bear the figure of the thing against which -they exert their virtue, and all Oriental practices in this -line come down from immemorial antiquity.”<a id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a></p> - -<p>I may remark that the use of images of things feared -to save from them has, indeed, been extensively practiced. -The cause and the effect, in many afflictions, -might be so used. The golden emerods and mice, -spoken of in the Bible, are instances.<a id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a> The same idea -may have had something to do with the use of the -brazen serpent of Moses. The Chaldeans, in resorting -to this peculiar plan of dealing with their evil spirits, -represented them, says Lenormant, “under such hideous -forms that they believed that it was sufficient for them -to be shown their own image to cause them to flee -away alarmed.”<a id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> And this leads me to say that great -medical virtues have been held to spring from things -repulsive. Thus, water drank from the skull of a -suicide has received credit for the cure of many a case -of epilepsy. Tasting the blood of a murderer has been -resorted to successfully in cases of the same disease.</p> - -<p>A word in this connection about <span class="smcap">adder-stones</span> may -not be amiss. These objects have long been regarded -by many as charms or amulets of great power. They -are simply the whorls or rude fly-wheels put on spindles<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> -of spinning-wheels. Dr. A. Mitchell discusses them at -length in his interesting archæological work.<a id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a></p> - -<p>Under the head of medical amulets are to be classed -many things, such as <span class="smcap">blessed objects</span> and <span class="smcap">relics</span> of -various kinds. The extent to which these were used, -century after century, down even to our own day, is -surprising. The interested reader may advantageously -turn to Fort’s learned work.<a id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a> The sprinkling of “holy -water”<a id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a> over patients by pious Catholics is familiar to -every physician. I have seen a few drops of water from -Lourdes given by a priest to his mother, sinking from -lung disease. A few weeks ago I saw a cup of water in -which a little earth from Knock, in the south of -Ireland, was mixed, given with great confidence in its -power for good, in a case of difficult labor. In the -“Zend Avesta” wonderful virtue is ascribed to <i>gomez</i>;<a id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> -and the same thing is equally lauded in the sacred books -of the Hindus. What strange beliefs mortals may -have!</p> - -<p>Certain <span class="smcap">numerals</span> have had remarkable properties -accorded them by philosophical and other speculators. -<span class="smcap">Seven</span> has occupied a prominent position. The primitive -Chaldeans, in their study of the heavens, became -acquainted with seven planets, including the sun and -moon, and their week consisted of seven days. With the -Egyptians and others the same was the case. Pythagoras -saw in this number the three of the triangle and -the four of the square,—the two perfect figures. It was -considered sacred to Helios and also Apollo. The -Hebrew <i>sheba</i> means seven, and was the symbol of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> -deity<a id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a> before it came to signify an oath. As a charm or -amulet, the number was believed to be possessed of -great potency. Health was assured by carrying it -about the person on a gem or the like. Ebers illustrates -this superstition in one of his splendid historical novels; -he makes Boges, in giving a ring to Crœsus, speak -thus:—</p> - -<p>“Take this ring. It has never left my finger since -I quitted Egypt, and it has a significance far beyond its -outward worth. Pythagoras, the noblest of the Greeks, -gave it to my mother when he was tarrying in Egypt to -learn the wisdom of our priests, and it was her parting -gift to me. The number seven is engraved upon the -simple stone. This indivisible number represents perfect -health, both to soul and body, for health is likewise -one and indivisible. The sickness of one member is the -sickness of all; one evil thought allowed to take up its -abode within our heart destroys the entire harmony of -the soul. When you see this seven, therefore, let it -recall my heart’s wish that you may ever enjoy undisturbed -bodily health and long retain that loving gentleness -which has made you the most virtuous and, -therefore, the healthiest of men.”<a id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a></p> - -<p>As already intimated, the Chaldeans attributed -special virtues to certain numbers, of which seven would -seem to have been the most highly esteemed. Unfortunately, -none of their numerical formulæ have as yet been -discovered. The “mamit” or “number” has been -referred to before. Lenormant remarks: “More powerful -than the incantations were conjurations wrought by the -power of numbers. In this way the supreme secret<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span> -which Hea taught to his son, Silik-mulu-khi, when he -consulted him in his distress, was always called ‘the -number.’”<a id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a></p> - -<p>A remnant of the old belief in the relation of seven -to health is the wide-spread superstitious notion that the -seventh son of the seventh son is possessed of special -healing powers. Curiously enough, I had a visit from -such a person, just before writing this; and he as firmly -believes that he can cure “the evil” and other ills with -certainty as any king that ever exercised the royal gift.</p> - -<p>The color <span class="smcap">red</span> has long served the purpose of an -amulet. To this day a red string is occasionally seen -around the necks of children to protect them against -scarlet fever and other pestilential diseases; and the -belief in the special virtue of red flannel is almost universal. -Says Aubrey: “Johannes Medicus, who lived -and wrote in the time of Edward II, and was Physition to -that king, gives an account of his curing the prince of -ye small-pox, a disease but then lately known in England, -by ordering his bed, his room, and his attendants to be -all in scarlet, and imputes ye cure in great measure to -the virtue of ye colour.”<a id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> The same was done in the -case of the Emperor Francis I, in 1765.</p> - -<p>Of red it is certainly true that it is a warm color; -and the impression of it on the mind is stimulating. -Experiments have shown that different colors exert -various influences over living forms, including man.</p> - -<p>But, although medical virtues have been ascribed to -red, it has been looked on as anything but good. Says -Ebers: “In the ‘Papyrus-Ebers’ all injurious and evil -things are called red.”<a id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> The scorching sands of the -desert, likely, gave the Egyptian his dislike to the color.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> -In the Hindu book of the law,<a id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> a man is forbidden to -marry a girl with reddish hair, but why is not stated. -Satan is usually given a suit of fiery hue.</p> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">Ankh</span> was a symbol of the Egyptians signifying -life. It received the Latin name of <i>crux ansata</i>, or -handled cross, from its shape. Sometimes it is spoken -of as the key of life. Each of the great divinities carries -one. “We do not know,” says Kenrick, “the reason why -life was represented by the <i>crux ansata</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> It seems, -however, that the object was at first simply a crossed -pole, used to measure the degree of rise in the waters of -the Nile during the period of flood, an annual occurrence -of vital importance to the inhabitants -of the historic region. From this originated, -according to Pluche and others, -the meaning of life attached to it. In -the hand of Thoth, a serpent was sometimes -twined around it. From it has -sprung, according to Gerald Massey, -many modern symbols and words. “It -is extant,” says he, “in the great seals -of England, in a reversed position, as the token of -power and authority;”<a id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a> and he ventures to affirm that -“to be anxious is to be very much alive.”<a id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a></p> - -<div class="figright illowp37" id="figure22" style="max-width: 6.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure22.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.—Ankh, -or Crux Ansata.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Regarded as a <span class="smcap">Tau</span> or T<a id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a> with a link attached, it was -often interpreted as Typhon chained. As such it was -customary to suspend it as an amulet from the necks of -children and sick people; and it was connected with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> -wrappings of mummies. M. Pluche, who has gone at -length into this interesting subject, says: “This custom -of bridling the powers of the enemy, and of hanging a -captive Typhon about the necks of children, of sick -persons, and of the dead, appeared so beneficial and so -important that it was adopted by other nations. The -children and the sick most commonly wore a ticket, -whereon was a T, which they looked upon as a powerful -preventive. In process of time, other characters were -substituted in the room of the letter T, which was at first -engraved on this ticket, but of which the other nations -understood neither the meaning nor intention. They -often put a serpent on it, an Harpocrates, or the object -of the devotions in vogue; nay, sometimes ridiculous -figures, or even some that were of -the utmost indecency. But the name -of <i>amulet</i> that was given to the -ticket, and which signifies the removal -of evil, most naturally represents -the intention of the Egyptians, from whom this -practice came.”<a id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a></p> - -<div class="figleft illowp60" id="figure23" style="max-width: 6.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure23.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.—Health, in -Hieroglyphics.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>A <span class="smcap">sceptre</span> (Tem), which, alone, may signify strong, -in connection with the ankh stands for strong life, or -health. This combination is seen on one of the faces -of the obelisk now in London.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Touch-pieces</span>, or golden eagles, were special coins -first issued by King Henry VII to persons “touched -for the evil.” One side of the piece bore an angel -standing on a dragon, with the inscription, <i>Soli Deo -gloria</i>, and the other a ship in full sail. Some had other -designs. A hand extending from above was often given,—an -old symbol of healing, being in use in Egypt, and -generally having in connection with it a serpent, or a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> -figure of Serapis.<a id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> The hand of the Lord so frequently -spoken of in the Bible may have suggested it. Specimens -of those issued by Charles II and James II are to -be seen in the collection of coins now in the Pennsylvania -Museum and School of Industrial Art, Memorial -Hall, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. There are cuts of -several in Pettigrew’s work.<a id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></p> - -<p>The touch-pieces were carefully preserved and used -as amulets.</p> - -<p>The practice of touching for the evil by English -sovereigns, from Edward the Conqueror down to Queen -Anne, did not originate with them. Tacitus<a id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> gives an -interesting account of the cure of a case of blindness -and of one of paralysis, in the same way, by Vespasian. -Every Bible-reader knows that it was resorted to in -Palestine. But it was in vogue in Greece three centuries -before our era. In his “Life of Pyrrhus,” Plutarch -says: “It was believed that he cured the swelling of -the spleen by sacrificing a white cock, and with his right -foot gently pressing the part affected, the patients lying -upon their backs for the purpose. There was no person, -however poor or mean, to whom this relief, if requested, -was refused. He received no reward except the cock -for sacrifice, and this present was very agreeable to -him.”</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp22" id="figure24" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure24.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.—A Medicine-Bag.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The <span class="smcap">medicine-bag</span> of the North American Indians -has been almost universally regarded by that race as of -wonderful virtue in warding off harmful influences of -all kinds. It has served them as a preventive, and also, -like Prince Ahmed’s apple, as a cure for every disease. -Catlin says he found that “every [male] Indian, in his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span> -primitive state, carries his medicine-bag in some form or -other, to which he pays the greatest homage and to -which he looks for safety and protection through life.”<a id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> -The same writer, who, I may remark, had a very wide -acquaintance among Indians, pronounces it to be “the -key to Indian life and Indian character.”<a id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a></p> - -<p>The contents of this mysterious bag, this “bag of -wonders,” are preserved a secret, one which none wishes -to discover. These consist of a medicinal herb, or the -like, with some packing-material, such -as dried grass or moss.</p> - -<p>The medicine-bag is formed from the -skin of a human being or some reptile, -bird, or other creature. The suggestion -of the substance to be used was left to -a dream, inspired by the “great spirit,” -and experienced during the fast indulged -in about puberty, the time when the -Indian “makes his medicine;” that is, -learns what animal is to be his guardian, -as it were. Various ornaments are -attached to it.</p> - -<p>The medicine-bag is attached to the -belt or carried in the hand. No other -possession could be compared with it in -value, and money could not buy one. It is buried with -its owner.</p> - -<p>As already hinted, the medicine-bag is not considered -of medical import only; it is believed to have a power -over all injurious influences. By “medicine” the Indian -has reference to everything he cannot understand. -Catlin and others are doubtless right in their opinion -that it came from the French word for doctor, <i>médecin</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span> -It is the <i>manito</i> or <i>manitou</i> of the Algonkin, the <i>oki</i> of -the Iroquois, and the <i>teotl</i> of the Aztec. And, curious -to observe, these words also mean serpent.</p> - -<p>I may also explain here that the “medicine-man” is -not alone the physician; he deals with the mysterious -generally. There were three kinds: the Jossakeeds, or -seers or prophets; the Medas, or medical practitioners; -and the Wabenos, a class that indulged in night orgies.</p> - -<p>In Miss Emerson’s book it is said that “the dress -of the Medas of the celebrated Mandan Indians, whose -tribe is now extinct, was a medley of the animal and -vegetable kingdom. All anomalies in nature were used -as of great medical effect in the construction of this -professional guard. The skin of the yellow bear usually -formed the most important feature of the dress, and -to this was sometimes attached the skins of snakes and -the hoofs of deer, goats, and antelopes.”<a id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> The appearance -of such a “doctor” was surely sufficient to frighten -away most of the evil spirits which were the source of -human ills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br> -<span class="smaller">PHARMACISTS’ SYMBOLS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>The art of the pharmacist is old; it is assuredly of -prehistoric origin. The reader of Dioscorides or of -Pliny is astonished at the number of herbs and other -things used as medicines and the complexness of many -popular prescriptions. Referring to the pharmacist, it -is curiously observed, in “Ecclesiasticus,” that “of his -works there shall be no end.”<a id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a> In other days than ours -there was evidently a morbid taste for the multiplication -of remedies of doubtful worth,—a deplorable infirmity -of many physicians.</p> - -<p>It is stated by Ebers, in his “Egyptian Princess,” -that each of the Egyptian temples had its laboratory -and apothecary. There is a list of two hundred drugs -which were kept in the temple of Edfu. But just when -the preparation and sale of medicines became a special -business cannot be stated. In early times it was customary -for the physician to compound his own prescriptions, -as is done in rural places yet. Mr. Fort remarks -that “toward the conclusion of the third century the -first indications present themselves of the existence of -a class of [Roman] citizens to whose vigilant care was -confided the preparation of medicaments ordered by -attendant physicians.”<a id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> The same writer says: “The -storage of medicinal supplies seems to have approximated -the pharmacy in the twelfth century, although -even earlier the word <i>apothecary</i> appears to have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> -interchangeable with the booth where assorted wares -were offered at public sale.”<a id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> At the end of the twelfth -century the Bishop of London was named <i>apothecarius</i>, -or pharmacist, to King Henry,—a fact which proves that -the art of Bolus was then, at least, highly esteemed.</p> - -<p>Now, although the establishment of the pharmacist -has mysteries in abundance connected with it, the special -symbols pertaining to the business are but few. The -chief and most characteristic one is the <span class="smcap">mortar and -pestle</span>. In Larwood and Hotten’s interesting book it -is said: “One of the signs originally used exclusively -by apothecaries was the mortar and pestle, their well-known -implements for pounding drugs.”<a id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> In an attractive -form and generally gilded, it is to -be seen at nearly all pharmacies in this -country. Only occasionally is it pictured. -I know an instance in Philadelphia -where Cupid is represented in -connection with it; but this is as absurd -an addition as the negro youth who is -using the pestle in another. An eagle—the national -bird—is sometimes represented hovering over it. The -pestle used for grinding corn was deified by the Romans -under the name of Pilumnus. In connection with the -mortar it is highly spoken of in the sacred books of the -Hindus.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp46" id="figure25" style="max-width: 7.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure25.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.—Mortar -and Pestle.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The skull and cross-bones has come to be of pharmaceutical -significance. Placed on the label of a vial, it -implies that the contents are poisonous, and should be -used with intelligence and care. It has been in use from -an early date as an emblem of death. Formerly, it was -often placed on tombstones.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bottles</span> or <span class="smcap">vases</span>, colored or containing colored -liquids, are of pharmaceutic import. The question of -the origin of their use as signs is often asked. It cannot -be definitely answered. But, as to how the custom -originated one may confidently say that it arose from -the common-sense desire of the dealer in medicinal -wares to make the fact obvious to the passer-by. The -confectioner does essentially the same thing, and so, -indeed, do the grocer and many others.</p> - -<p>By turning to Larwood and Hotten’s book it will -be seen that a golden bottle has been used as a banker’s -and a goldsmith’s sign; also, that bottles of various -kinds have in other days, as now, decorated many a -tavern-front.</p> - -<p>Hence, a bottle or vase can hardly be regarded as a -symbol, and much less the exclusive symbol of a dealer -in medicines. If it were similar in every instance, and -had something special in its form or color, or both, it -might be so regarded.</p> - -<p>As it is, one cannot very well regard it in any other -light than as a part of the dealer’s ordinary stock. -Still, it must be said that there is something decidedly -distinct and special about it, as seen in the pharmacist’s -window.</p> - -<p>In this country, at least, the shape of the vase or -vases (for there are generally three or four) and their -color are not subject to any rule; and, in fact, there are -a few stores in Philadelphia in which there are none. -The favorite colors seem to be light green, claret, light -blue, and amber.</p> - -<p>It is very probable that the presence of special -colored liquids in show-bottles does not date back much -farther than, if as far as, 1617,—the time when the -apothecaries became a distinct class from grocers, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span> -England. Certainly, some of the beautiful shades of -color are very modern.</p> - -<p>Exhibiting bottles containing actual medicines is -doubtless a much more ancient practice than that of -exhibiting them for the sake of their own showiness or -that of the solutions placed therein. That has, in all -probability, been customary from the time when dealing -in drugs began. When was that?</p> - -<p>It is known that the art of the pharmacist and trading -in drugs were practiced at an early period in Egypt. -Thus, in the “Papyrus-Ebers,” which was written 1600 -years before our era, we learn that for most diseases -remedies were prescribed, drawn from all three kingdoms -of nature, and in some instances were brought -from distant lands. The prescriptions, I may add, were -compounded according to exact weights and measures. -Two recipes for pills are given: one with honey for -women, and one without it for men. One for the preparation -of a hair-dye, ascribed to the mother-in-law<a id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> of -the first king of Egypt is given, which Ebers states<a id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> to -be the earliest of all recipes preserved to us, the date of -its origin being about 4000 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>I could give many Egyptian and other ancient references -to fancy vessels of glass and other materials used -in the pursuit of ministering to the sick. One extremely -interesting direct reference to the use of medicinal vases -at a very early date has recently been brought to the -attention of the public. I refer to a translation of an -Assyrian fragment made by Mr. J. Halevy, given in -“The Records of the Past.”<a id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a> It is so interesting from -several points of view that I will give it here in its -entirety:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“For the eruptions and humors which afflict the body:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Fill a vase which has held drugs with water from an inexhaustible well;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Put in it a shoot of ⸺ a ⸺ reed, some date-sugar, some urine, some bitter hydromel</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Add to it some ⸺;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Saturate it with pure water [and]</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Pour upon it the water of the [sick] man.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Cut reeds in an elevated meadow;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Beat some pure date-sugar with some pure honey;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Add some sweet oil which comes from the mountain;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Mix them together.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Rub [with this ointment] the body of the [sick man].”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The reference to the “art of the apothecary” made -in the Bible<a id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a> has been regarded as “the first recorded -notice upon the subject of medicine and pharmacy,”—as, -for example, by the late professor, Dr. George B. -Wood;<a id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a> but here we have explicit evidence that farther -back, say 1000 years before the time of Moses, people -were in the habit of having medicines stored in vases -of a set kind, and that the Babylonians had considerable -pharmaceutical knowledge, as well as that their medical -practice was not exclusively magical; or, as Mr. Halevy -puts it, “it proves that the Babylonians were in the -possession of a rational medicine as well as a magical -one.”<a id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> He further remarks that it is “the only known -specimen of an Assyro-Babylonian prescription.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.<br> -<span class="smaller">MISCELLANEOUS MEDICAL SYMBOLS.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Barber’s and Surgeon’s Pole.</span>—The peculiar -pole made use of by barbers as a sign seems to have -been medical in origin. For a long time the barber performed -all the duties of the surgeon. It was in the year -1461 that, on petition, King Edward IV granted “the -freemen of the Mystery of Barbers of the city of London, -using the mystery or faculty of surgery,” “the mystery,” -which constituted the beginning of the present Royal -College of Surgeons of England.<a id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a> It was not, however, -until the middle of the eighteenth century (1745) that -each began to limit his functions.</p> - -<p>The sign is generally explained thus: The pole -represents a stick, usually held in his hand by the patient -while getting bled, and the red and white spiral stripes, -blood and a bandage, respectively. The colors, it may -be observed, are not always arranged in spiral parallel -stripes; nor are the colors limited to red and white. The -use of blue with, or even without, red is partly allowable, -on account of venous blood being somewhat bluish -in hue. Mr. Jeaffreson, indeed, says that “the chirurgical -pole, properly tricked out, ought to have a line of -blue paint, another of red, and a third of white,”<a id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> spirally -arranged.</p> - -<p>On the top of the pole there is usually placed, in -Great Britain, France, and other European countries, a -brass basin, with a semicircular gap in one side. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span> -vessel is used by the barber to keep the clothes of his -patrons from being soiled. With a gallipot, instead of -the basin, one has the real pole of the surgeon, which has -been extensively used as a sign. Without either, it is in -use by the barbers in this country. Lord Thurlow, a -member of the House of Commons, delivered a speech -on the 17th of July, 1797, in opposition to the Surgeons’ -Incorporation Bill, in which he said: “By a statute, still -in force, the barbers and surgeons were each to use a -pole. The barbers were to have theirs blue and white -striped, with no appendage; but the surgeons’, which -was the same in other respects, was likewise to have a -gallipot and a red flag, to denote the particular nature -of their vocation.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Color Yellow.</span>—It is a well-known fact that -yellow is a characteristically medical color. A flag of -this color is in use at lazarettos, and it is often placed -at plague-stricken spots, as a warning to the observer to -keep away. How is the medical import of the color to -be accounted for? In Christian symbolism it signifies -faith, but one must turn, I believe, to astrology to learn -the reason of its medical significance. To the astrologer, -yellow was the color of the sun; and it was to this -planet, anciently so regarded, that the possession of -greatest influence over disease was accorded.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Physician’s Conveyance.</span>—It is said that Asclepiades, -the ancient quack, perambulated the world on a -cow’s back, living on her milk as he went along. We -have no reason to believe that such a mode of moving -from point to point ever became a professional custom; -but physicians in recent times have always had, in most -places, characteristic methods of travel, in their rounds -among their patients.</p> - -<p>It appears that, previous to the reign of Charles II,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span> -it was customary for the English doctors to visit on -horseback, “sitting,” as Jeaffreson says, “sideways on -foot-cloths, like women.”<a id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> At any rate, Aubrey says -that Harvey “rode on horseback with a foot-cloth, his -men following on foot, as the fashion then was, which -was very decent, now quite discontinued.”<a id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> Later, carriages -of various kinds, some very showy, came into -vogue.</p> - -<p>For many years the physicians of Philadelphia, as -of other prominent American cities, have been known, -as they have gone about their duties, by their use of a -special form of phaeton. It is a four-wheeled conveyance, -with a fixed top, and is drawn by one horse. Riding -in it is pleasant, and its generous top protects well in -bad weather. Several years ago a two-wheeled modification -of it was introduced, but it did not become popular, -and of late has been disappearing. By a few of the -more well-to-do in the profession, two-horse carriages of -various styles are used; but there is nothing characteristic -about them.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Physician’s Gold-Headed Cane.</span>—Much might -be written about the gold-headed cane of the physician. -Although it has had its day, it was long considered an -important part of a medical outfit. Jeaffreson ventures -to affirm that formerly “no doctor would have presumed -to pay a professional visit, or even to be seen in public, -without this mystic wand.”<a id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> What was its history? -Did it come down to our time as a representative of the -one placed in the hand of the god of medicine by the -artists? Jeaffreson expresses the opinion that it is “a -relic of the conjuring paraphernalia with which the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> -healer in ignorant and superstitious times always worked -upon the imagination of the credulous,” and that “it -descended to him from Hermes and Mercurius.” “It was -a relic,” he adds, “of old jugglery, and of yet older -religion.”<a id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a> As the reader is aware, these statements are -open to criticism. But, whatever its origin may have -been, it was almost universally used by physicians until -recently.</p> - -<p>The physician’s cane was generally smooth, of moderate -weight, and with a gold head in the form of a knob. -A gold head! What was the meaning of that? Was it -used because of the bearer’s reputed love of the precious -metal? Chaucer says, and with charming casuistry, in -the famous description of his doctor:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“For gould in physike is a cordial;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Therefore, he lovede gould in special.”<a id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It may, then, have been its medicinal virtues, virtues -still occasionally lauded by therapeutic prospectors, -which suggested the use of it in the cane. But, after all, -the desire to make a good appearance may have been the -reason for its use.</p> - -<p>The head of the cane was not always solid; on the -contrary, it was often, like many a one’s, doubtless, who -carried it, hollow. In the cavity, it was customary to -keep something medicinal, such as ammonia. About -this there was much mystery in the minds of the populace. -Jeaffreson, who may very properly be regarded -as of this class, says that the doctor “always held it -to his nose, when he approached a sick person, so that -its fumes might protect him from the noxious exhalations -of his patient.”<a id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> Something of the kind is still -supposed by many to be done. The idea was entertained<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span> -by more than a few, that within the head of the cane existed, -in some cases at least, a familiar spirit which gave -the owner extraordinary power. Paracelsus was reputed -to have within the pummel of his long sword, -which he used instead of a cane, a genius, in the form of -a bird, which enabled him to perform wonders. Butler -speaks of it thus:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Bombastus kept a devil’s bird,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Shut up in the pummel of his sword,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That taught him all the cunning pranks</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of past and future mountebanks.”<a id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Alchemists said that it was the philosopher’s stone, -but it has been with better reason conjectured<a id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a> that -it was laudanum,—an agent which the bold, talented -quack was in the habit of using much with striking -results.</p> - -<p>There is preserved, in the College of Physicians of -London, a cane which was carried successively by Drs. -Radcliffe, Mead, Askew, Pitcairn, and Baillie. On it -are coats-of-arms used by the distinguished carriers of -it. The gold head of it is in the form of a crooked -cross-bar, and not a knob,—the orthodox one. A book -has been written with it for the title, treating of its -several owners.<a id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Physician’s Dress.</span>—At the present time there -is nothing about the dress of the physician symbolic -of his calling. Formerly the case was different. Until -less than a century ago, the dress of the members of the -medical profession was both decidedly typical and remarkable. -It was worn last, it is said, by Dr. Henry -Revell Reynolds, one of the physicians of George -III. The items of it were: a well-powdered three-tailed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> -wig, a silk coat, breeches, stockings, buckled shoes, and -lace ruffles. Says Jeaffreson: “Next to his cane, the -physician’s wig was the most important of his accoutrements. -It gave profound learning and wise thought to -lads just out of their teens.”<a id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> If this were the case it -should be coaxed into use again.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Physician’s Ring.</span>—Among the ancients, rings -were held in high esteem. The signet of Solomon, -which had considerable to do with the building of the -great temple, and the ring of Gyges, the shepherd of the -king of Lydia, through which he could become invisible -and see people at pleasure, are examples of the surprising -powers often accorded to them. One was, until -a period not far distant, an important item of the insignia -of the medical man. It is spoken of in one of the -spurious Hippocratic works. The seal variety was the -orthodox one. Different stones were used, and on these -were engraved various designs. As indicative of his -position, a learned writer says that the doctor wore the -ring “on the third finger of the right hand.”<a id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></p> - -<p>The physician’s ring was viewed generally in the -light of an amulet, or talisman. The engraving it bore -had much to do with its supposed virtues; and the stone -also gave it special value. Aubrey thus refers to a -sapphire ring: “They say it preserves from infection -and pestilential diseases. See Albertus Magnus <i>de hoc</i>. -I warrant he has recited virtues enough of it.”<a id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> Red -carnelian was believed to be curative of hæmorrhage, -and coral of nervous affections.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.<br> -<span class="smaller">MEDICAL SYMBOLISM IN PRACTICE.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>It is hardly necessary to say to the reader who has -followed me this far that the scope of medical symbolism -is not very restricted. In extent it is obviously not -limited; nor is it without variety and the means of variety -enough. Yet how little use does one see made of it! -How seldom do publishers take any advantage whatever -of it, on the covers of their books or anywhere else! -And what little is here and there attempted is apt to be -a trifle preposterous, on a par with the misuse of the -serpent by the quack-medicine man, who confounds the -most obvious religious (Christian) significance of it with -the medical.</p> - -<p>Examples without limit of questionable medical symbols -might be given. Here is a publisher who makes -use of the caduceus of Hermes; there is one who displays -the club of Hercules, with a rather venomous-looking -serpent crawling down it from aloft; and yonder -one who exhibits a skull on a closed book, suggestive -of a hopeless meditation on death,—the reverse of what -the physician should indulge in. But, at a time when -the absence of symbols is almost the rule, perhaps one -should try to be a little blind to the faults of those which -are met with.</p> - -<p>Of a collection of medical symbols on hand, few are -notably good. I may instance a fair specimen. On the -title-page of a journal edited by the late Dr. Dunglison, -a learned and sensible man, <i>The American Medical -Intelligencer</i>, which had a brief existence in the latter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> -half of the fourth decade of this century, appears the -figure a copy of which is here given (<a href="#figure26">Fig. 26</a>). The idea -is better than its execution.</p> - -<p>Ideas for symbolic designs of medical import are not -scarce. The instruments and drugs used by the disciples -of Æsculapius afford a host, if one does not wish -to turn to mythology or anything allied. But, although -the scientific physician might properly hesitate about -using, say, an emblem of St. Luke, the patron saint of -physicians, there are mythological and related conceptions, -many of which might be utilized to good purpose. -Thus, if it be desired to give an Egyptian design on the -cover of a book, say, on obstetrics, the -main part of an admirable one may be -found ready at hand on the wall of the -great temple at Luxor.<a id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> It is the scene—and -a sufficiently chaste one, too—of -the maiden mother giving birth to the -future king, Amunotoph III, for whom -the temple or palace was erected about -1400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> She is seated on the midwife’s -stool, as described in the Bible,<a id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a> while -two nurses have her by the hands, doing what they -can to ease the pains of labor. Or, a representation -of Pasht, Bubastis, or Sekhet, the sister of Horus and -mother of Imhotep,—who generally appeared cat-headed -because the cat, a most sacred animal, was consecrated -to her,—would not be inappropriate; for, to use the -words of Ebers, “she seems to have been honored as the -deity who conferred the blessing of children and watched -over their birth.”<a id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a></p> - -<div class="figleft illowp46" id="figure26" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure26.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.—A Medical -Symbol.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>But, for a design of obstetrical import, there could<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> -probably be few better than one in which prominence -were given to the good housewifery symbols,—the pestle, -hatchet, and broom; those, respectively, of Pilumnus, -a god of children; Intercidona, the goddess who -first taught the art of cutting firewood; and Deverra, -the goddess who invented the broom, that great instrument -of cleanness and enemy of the Typhon, or, I may -say, Hydra, of many modern doctors,—the disease-germ: -the deities that saved the pregnant woman from -harm from her special enemies, the unclean sylvan gods. -The broom! Wise old Romans! Wiser than the unsteady -enthusiasts of our time, with bottles of carbolic -acid in their hands yesterday and of corrosive sublimate -to-day. And with these symbols, especially if the design -were for a work by a female author, there might be -given a figure of Juno Lucina, the special friend of -women in labor, the type of the Eileithyiai, the handmaids -of Hera, of the Greeks.</p> - -<p>And here I may observe that, according to ancient -custom, the goddess Juno Lucina should be represented -with one hand empty and, as it were, ready to receive -the coming infant, and with the other holding a lighted -torch, a symbol of life. The torch should be erect, for -when the flame is turned downward it signifies death. -In the seal of the American Gynæcological Society, a -woman, possibly meant for Juno, is represented with a -torch in her right hand and in the other a sprig of evergreen, -with a baby resting on the arm. This is of obstetric -import. The members of the society, however, -consider themselves something else than midwives. -Judging from their title, they might be <i>petits maîtres</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.<br> -<span class="smaller">THE PENTACLE.</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p>By way of conclusion, and at the risk of running too -deep into occult learning, I will give some account of a -remarkable magic figure, of interest to the physician, -about which little appears to be generally known, but -which is often referred to in certain out-of-the-way lines -of study. I refer to the pentacle, or triple triangle, the -pentalpha of Pythagoras, the formulator of a celebrated -system of philosophy, the basal idea of which is that all -things sprang from numbers. A -representation of it in its simple -form is given herewith. On inspection, -it will be observed that -the figure has five arms, or points, -five double triangles, with five -acute angles within and five obtuse -ones without; so that, if five—a number made up -of the first even (2) and the first<a id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a> odd one (3)—be -possessed of the virtue which the occult philosophers -have asserted, the pentacle must have much. It is, in -fact, the famous legendary key of Solomon, which has -played a remarkable rôle in history. Tennyson, one of -the few well-known authors by whom reference to it is -made, speaks of it when he makes one of his characters -(Katie) thoughtlessly draw (it can be done through one -stroke)—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“With her slender-pointed foot,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Some figure like a wizard’s pentagram,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">On garden gravel.”<a id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="figright illowp75" id="figure27" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure27.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.—The Pentacle.</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span></p> - -<p>I have said that little is generally known about the -pentacle. Here is some evidence: Ruskin defines it to -be “a five-pointed star, or a double-triangle ornament, -the symbol of the trinity”<a id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a>—a wrong definition, but not -quite as bad as that given in Mollett’s handsome work, -to wit: “A figure formed of two triangles, intersected -so as to form a six-pointed star.”<a id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> The opinion is expressed -by Bayard Taylor that the magical powers -attributed to it could be explained by the fact that, being -made up of three triangles, it was a “triple symbol of the -trinity.”<a id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> This may be true, but it was regarded as -possessing mysterious powers long before Christianity -originated.</p> - -<p>A common mistake—the one evidently made by -Mollett—of even learned writers (as, for example, Oliver<a id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> -and Fairholt<a id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a>) is to confound the pentacle with the seal -of Solomon (called also the shield of David), which consists -of two equilateral triangles so arranged as to form -a six-pointed star.</p> - -<p>By the German writers on magic and kindred subjects, -the pentacle is often called <i>Drudenfuss</i>,—that is, -wizard’s foot,—a term which Mackey<a id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> takes to be a -corruption of the word for Druid’s foot, by which people -it was in use, being often worn, as a symbol of deity, on -their sandals. As Bayard Taylor, however, says: “<i>Drud</i>, -from the same root as Druid, was the old German word -for wizard.” In Mr. Blake’s interesting book,<a id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a> a representation -of a very old coin is given, on which the mystic -figure appears.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span></p> - -<p>The pentacle has been observed on a figure of Anubis, -in Egypt. It is stated<a id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a> that it was used on coins of -Antiochus Epiphanes, and also<a id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a> of Lysimachus. I have -seen it stated somewhere that it is one of the old sect -marks of the Hindus; but this is an error, I believe. -By referring to Coleman’s<a id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> or Birdwood’s<a id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a> work, it -will be found that it is Solomon’s seal which has been -so used. It was one of the totems of the American -Indians. Dawson<a id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a> gives a picture of it as seen sculptured -on the Roches Percées, a remarkable solitary mass -of sandstone on the plains west of Manitoba.</p> - -<p>I have said that the pentacle has been observed on -a figure of Anubis. It would appear to have been well -known and highly prized by the early Egyptians, or -rather, perhaps, I should say Egypto-Chaldeans, if a -recent writer, Mr. Robert Ballard, is to be believed. He -declares that “it is the geometric emblem of extreme -and mean ratio, and the symbol of the Egyptian -pyramid, Cheops.”<a id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a> Let a pentacle be formed within a -circle. Around the interior pentagon of it describe a -circle. Around this circle form a square. “Then will -the square represent the base of Cheops.” Again, draw -two diameters to the outer circle, intersecting at right -angles, and each parallel to a side of the square. “Then -will the parts of those diameters, between the square -and the outer circle, represent the four apothems of the -four slant-sides of the pyramid.” Still again, connect -by lines the angles of the square with the outer circle -at the four points indicated by the ends of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span> -diameters. Then “the star of the pyramid is formed, -which, when closed as a solid, will be a correct model -of Cheops.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Ballard, it is to be feared, like Mr. Piazzi Smyth, -has not the power to perceive coincidences and after-thoughts. -His book, however, is decidedly original and -interesting.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure28" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure28.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.—The Pentacle and the Great Pyramid.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>I may observe that if the plan of the great pyramid -was fashioned after the pentacle, and Mr. Proctor be -right in saying that it is identical with “the ordinary -square scheme of nativity,”<a id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> the figure of the astrologers -used in casting horoscopes, it follows that the pentacle -furnishes also a key to the latter. Then, if it be a fact -that the pyramid was designed by and constructed under -the superintendence of early Chaldeans, one has reason -to infer that the pentacle was of Oriental origin. Probably -it was at first a symbol of the sun,—a purpose for -which it has been used by different bodies of mystics, -and others.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to notice that the figure was one of -the symbols of the great hero-myth, Quetzalcoatl, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span> -light-god according to some, but really, according to -Reville,<a id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> a god of the wind, who was generally represented -in the form of a feathered serpent. Thus Dr. -Brinton says: “In one of the earliest myths he is called -<i>Yahualli ehecatl</i>, meaning ‘the wheel of the winds,’ the -winds being portrayed in the picture-writing as a circle -or wheel, with a figure with five angles inscribed upon -it, the sacred pentagram. His image carried in the left -hand this wheel, and in the right a sceptre with the end -recurved.”<a id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a></p> - -<p>The pentacle has been accorded great potency, and -used extensively to keep off witches and all sorts of evil -influences, including the devil himself, and hence it has -served purposes very similar to those to which the -horseshoe has often been put. Aubrey says that it was -formerly used by the Greek Christians, as the sign of -the cross is now, “at the beginning of letters or books -for good luck’s sake,”<a id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a>—something which old John -Evelyn was wont to do in his works, and as Southey -placed the puzzling monogram,<a id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a> meant, perhaps, to -have similar significance on the title-page of his book, -“The Doctor.” One is found in the western window -of the south aisle of Westminster Abbey, which, doubtless, -the black monks, as they chanted in the choir, often -looked on with superstitious emotion. It may be seen -on many a cradle and threshold at the present day in -the Fatherland.</p> - -<p>The readers of Goethe’s great work will remember -that Dr. Faust had one on his threshold, and that, when -he began to perceive that there was something decidedly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> -suspicious about the character of the “poodle,” he remarked -that</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Für solche halbe Höllenbrut</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Ist Salomonis Schlüssel gut.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>How Mephistopheles himself got in was afterward -explained by his showing that one of the angles of the -“Drudenfuss” was left open.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure29" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/figure29.jpg" alt=""> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.—Hygeia, a Symbol of Health.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Disciples of the Samian sage, cabalistic<a id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a> Jews and -Arabians, and others, especially Gnostics, long viewed -the pentacle as a symbol of health, and made use of it as -an amulet, calling it Hygeia, the name of the goddess -of health. It was so called, and to some extent, likely -for a similar reason, regarded as a sacred symbol of -health, because it could be resolved, it was believed, into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span> -the Greek letters which form the word Hygeia; and -these were placed one on each point of the figure.<a id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a> It -was accepted, in fact, as a sort of rebus of the name of -the celebrated daughter of Æsculapius. The scholarly -and ingenious reader may be able to trace, more or less -definitely, this reputed similarity. It is an interesting -feature of what is certainly a very remarkable figure.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> That scholarly old writer, Ashmole, well says: “What some light -braines may esteem as foolish toyes, deeper judgments can and will value -as sound and serious matter.” Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum, 1652.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Ecclesiasticus, xxxix, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Natural History, xxi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Introduction to a Scientific System of Mythology, p. 197. London, -1844.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> A Dictionary of Terms in Art. London, 1854.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> Article, “Attribute.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 219. London, 1882.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Royal Masonic Cyclopædia. London, 1877.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> The Greek form of the name is Asclepios or Asklepios, Ἀσκληπιὸς. -The Latin form being the one in general use, I will adhere to it in this -essay.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. iii, p. 23.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Iliad, xi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Ch. xxxviii, v. 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Cicero would appear to have duly prized the physician. I recall a -passage of his to the effect that in no way can man approach so near to -the gods as by conferring health on his fellows.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> Natural History, xxix, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xxix, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Natural History, xxix, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> De Medicinâ.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Natural History, xxix, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Metamorphosis, xv. Translation by Mr. Welsted.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Although there is little evidence to show that serpent-worship was -indigenous in Rome, Fergusson holds that “such an embassy being sent -on the occasion in question indicates a degree of faith on the part of the -people which could only have arisen from previous familiarity.” Tree and -Serpent Worship, p. 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Livy, x, 47.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> <i>Ibid</i>., xxix, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> In his Life of Publicola, Plutarch gives an interesting account of its -origin. The sacrifice of corn and trees on a field belonging to the Tarquins, -in the Campus Martius, had much to do with it. These being cast into the -river, found lodgment at shallows where the island is, which favored -alluvial accumulations. See also Livy, ii, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> It is stated by Sir George Head that it is twelve hundred feet in -length and four hundred in breadth. Rome—A Tour of Many Days, vol. -iii, p. 106. London, 1849.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> A hospital established by Gregory XIII in 1581 and several residences -are also on the island.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> God of fields and shepherds. The Temple of Æsculapius was the -most ancient, having been dedicated <span class="allsmcap">A.U.C.</span> 462.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Pilgrimage of the Tiber, p. 63. London, 1875. Tiberius ascended the -throne, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 14. Plutarch, writing half a century later, says of the island: -“It is now sacred to religious uses.” Life of Publicola. He states that -several temples and porticoes had been built on it, but makes no reference -to a prison.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> Natural History, xxix, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> The Very Reverend Dr. Jeremiah Donovan states, in his learned -work, that “the temple (of Æsculapius) being recorded by the Regionaries -must have existed in the fifth century.” Rome, Ancient and Modern, and -its Environs, vol. iv, p. 431. Rome, 1842.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> Zoological Mythology, or Legends of Animals, vol. i, p. 416. London -and New York, 1872.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> It appears that the serpent has still devotees in Italy. It is said that -what is called a snake festival is held once a year in a little mountain-church -near Naples. Those attending carry snakes around their necks, -arms, or waists. The purpose of the festival is to preserve the participants -from poison and sudden death, and to bring them good fortune.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> The port of Epidaurus not being within several miles of the grove -of Æsculapius, it is very improbable that a serpent found its own way -from the latter to the Roman ship.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> Lives of Illustrious Men.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 213. London, 1794.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Natural History, xxix, 23.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> As by Aristophanes in Plutus. In Liddell & Scott’s Lexicon Πἁρώας -is defined to be “a reddish-brown snake sacred to Æsculapius.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Thierleben. Grosse Auflage. Dritte Abtheilung. Erster Band. Seite -348. Leipzig, 1878.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> General Zoology, part ii, p. 452. London, 1802.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> Coronella venustrissima.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Animal Kingdom, vol. ix, p. 263.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Reptiles and Birds, p. 92. New York, 1870.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> The Medical and Surgical Reporter for January 5th and 12th, 1884.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Travels in the Morea, vol. ii. London, 1830.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> Mr. Thos. W. Ludlow, of Yonkers, N. Y., has two interesting letters -on the subject in the New York Nation, September 28, 1882, and February -15, 1883. No comprehensive account has as yet appeared in either the English, -French, or German language. An interesting article on “Æsculapia -as Revealed by Inscriptions,” by Prof. A. C. Merriam, in Gaillard’s Medical -Journal for May, 1885, partly meets the want.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Geography, viii. Translation in Bohn’s Library.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 212.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Στὸ Ἱερὸν, sacred place.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Mr. Ludlow says, in one of his letters, and also informs me privately, -that Mr. Kavvadias has found the theatre to be without the peribolus of -the Sacred Grove. Following Pausanias, Mr. Leake states it to be within -the enclosure.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> There is reason to hope that Mr. Kavvadias will make valuable discoveries -in excavating its ruins.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Anything about a physician which might be the means of conveying -disease from one to another is seriously objectionable. Woolen material -is not the proper thing in the outside clothing, and one attending cases of -contagious diseases should not wear gloves, unless he is wont to wash his -hands well after each visit.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 213.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Travels in Morea, vol. ii, p. 428. The Æsculapian priest is not represented -as an honest personage in the “Plutus” of Aristophanes. He -stealthily gathers the cakes from the altars and “consecrates these into -a sack.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 27.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> See <a href="#Footnote_72">note</a> in succeeding chapter.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Professor A. C. Merriam, in Gaillard’s Medical Journal, May, 1885.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Professor Merriam’s article; also L’Asclépieion d’Athenès, by Paul -Girard, Paris, 1882. An interesting little book, in which much may be -learned about asclepia and the asclepiades. The Athenian asclepion was -quite famous, and existed until beyond the fifth century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Natural History, xxii, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> In reference to the asclepia or asclepions, as he calls them, Draper -says: “An edict of Constantine suppressed those establishments.” And -again: “The asclepion of Cnidus continued until the time of Constantine, -when it was destroyed along with many other pagan establishments.” -History of the Intellectual Development of Europe, pp. 386 and 397. -Revised edition. New York, 1876.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Asclepion is from Asclepios, the Greek form of the name of the god -of medicine. In Greek it is ἀσκληπιεῖον, meaning Temple of Asclepios. -Æsculapium is of similar meaning.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Vitruvius, who flourished in the first century before our era, expresses -the opinion that “natural consistency” suggests the selection of -situations affording the advantages of “salubrious air and water” for -“temples erected to Æsculapius, to the goddess of health, and such other -divinities as possess the power of curing diseases.” It materially helped -the divinities. See second edition of his work on Architecture, p. 11, by -Joseph Swift. London, 1860.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> Encyclopædia Britannica, ninth edition.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> See William Adams’ edition of the Genuine Works of Hippocrates. -Two volumes. London, 1849.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Hygeia and Panacea, both daughters of Æsculapius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> Treatment.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 777.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> In Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Most of the votive inscriptions which have been discovered by Mr. -Kavvadias at the Epidaurian Asclepion do not fortify this opinion, but -they do not serve to disprove it, because others of a different character -may be found. Moreover, the practice there may have been less scientific -than at Cnidus, Cos, and elsewhere. However, the inscriptions brought -to light by Mr. Kavvadias are, generally speaking, poor enough. One runs -thus: “Cures of Apollo and Æsculapius. Concerning Kleo, who was -<i>enceinte</i> for five years. This woman, after being <i>enceinte</i> for five years, -came as a suppliant to the god, and lay down to sleep in the sacred chamber. -As soon as she had gone forth from it and from the sanctuary, she -gave birth to a male child. When the baby was born, he washed himself -in the fountain and set to creeping around his mother.”—See Ἐφημερὶς -Ἀρχαιολογική, No. 4, 1883.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Genuine Works of Hippocrates (Adams), p. 229.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> “The Father of Medicine” was, of course, one of the asclepiades. -He was born, it is believed, in the year 460 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, and lived to be very old. -His genealogy is preserved in his works. As given in Adams’ edition, he -is of the fifteenth generation, in a direct line, from Æsculapius. He was -of the Podalirius branch. In this connection I may remark that, if Hippocrates -took the oath of the asclepiades, he must have given it a decidedly -liberal interpretation, for it looks as if he divulged to the whole world all -the mysteries of the healing art of great consequence then known.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> It is improbable that Hippocrates was but a fair example of the -asclepiades of his day. He has said himself: “Physicians are many in -title, but very few in reality.” (The Law.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> On the Sacred Disease.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> On Fractures.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Iatrum.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> On Fractures.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> On Articulations.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> On Regimen in Acute Diseases.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> On Ancient Medicine.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> On Regimen in Acute Diseases.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> In the fifth century <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> The Law.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> It is a beautiful Biblical passage (date about 400 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>) which reads -“The sun of righteousness shall arise with healing in his wings.” Malachi, -iv, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> See Chaldean Magic, p. 180. François Lenormant. London, 1877.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> Iliad, i.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> Chryseïs.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> Agamemnon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, i.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Iliad, xvi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> It was doubtless from the idea of deliverance from suffering that the -term Pæon was applied to Thanatos, or Death, as was sometimes done.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Æsculapius.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Παιών or Παιήων, savior, healer, or physician.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> Odyssey, iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> Æneid, vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Metamorphosis, i.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Ἰητήρ ἀμύμων.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> The stadium equals 600 feet; 625 Roman or 606¾ English feet make -a stadium.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Cicero informs us that there were three distinguished physicians of -the name. “The first Æsculapius,” says he, “the god of Arcadia, who -passes for the inventor of the probe and the manner of binding up -wounds, is the son of Apollo. The second, who was slain by a thunderbolt -and interred at Cynosura (in Arcadia), is a brother to the second -Mercury. The third, who found out the use of purgatives and the art of -drawing teeth, is the son of Arsippus and Arsinoë. His tomb may be -seen in Arcadia and the grove that is consecrated to him, pretty near the -river Lusius.” On the Nature of the Gods, iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> The Mythology and Fables of the Ancients Explained from History, -vol. iii, p. 160. London, 1740. Translated from the French. The account -of Æsculapius given is one of the best I have met with.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Iliad, iv, lines 193-4. <a href="#Page_31"><i>Vide supra.</i></a></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 212.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Walden, p. 85.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> The Greek for raven or crow is κορώνη.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 211.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 211.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Geography, xiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> According to Homer, it was at Tricca and round about that his two -sons bore sway. Iliad, ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> Diana.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Pythian Ode, iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> As Grimm remarks, children brought into the world, like Macduff, -by abdominal section, usually become heroes. Teutonic Mythology -(translation), p. 383.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 210.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> Because of this occurrence it is said that the name of the Mount was -changed from Myrtium to Titthium, from Τιτθη, a nurse.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Heroes were often indebted to dogs for kind offices. The Hindu -Saramâ is the bitch which aids such when lost in the forests, grottoes, -or darkness. See De Gubernatis’ Zoological Mythology, p. 98. Grimm -even says: “A widely-prevalent mark of the hero-race is their being -suckled by beasts or fed by birds.” Teutonic Mythology, p. 390.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 210.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> Pythian Ode, iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> Leech was formerly a common name for the physician; such was the -meaning of the Anglo-Saxon <i>læce</i> and the Gothic <i>leikeis</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> History of Greece, vol. i, p. 179.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> Lenormant says that the Oriental Gandarvas, or celestial horses, -which represented the rays of the sun, gave the name and the first idea of -the Grecian Centaurs. Ancient History of the East, vol. ii, p. 13. Mr. Sayce -holds that “Hea-bani, the confidant and adviser of Gisdhubar, is the Kentaur -Kheiron.” The Ancient Empires of the East, p. 156. New York, 1884.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> Iliad, xi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Pythian Ode, vi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> This may have been a fraxinus, or true ash,—a famous tree in mythical -history. The mountain-ash, or rowan-tree (<i>Pyrus aucuparia</i>), however, -has been believed from time immemorial to possess great magical powers. -It averted fascination, evil spirits, and diseases. Faith in it is still wide-spread. -See Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore, by -Walter K. Kelly, p. 158 <i>et seq.</i> London, 1863.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> Iliad, xix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Nemean Ode, iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> It is worthy of remark that, while the form of Chiron, or Cheiron, -serves as a pharmacist’s symbol, he has, probably, bequeathed his name to -the healer of wounds and the like,—the surgeon. The word surgeon is -from the Latin, <i>chirurgus</i>, or, rather, the French, <i>chirurgien</i>. Chirurgeon -has some standing as an English word. The Latin, <i>chirurgus</i>, is usually -said to have come from the Greek, χειρουργικος, a word compounded of -χειρ, the hand, and ἐργος, worker, meaning one who works with the hand. -It seems likely, however, that the name of the Centaur, χειρων, suggested -the application of the word to the surgeon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> Diodorus, iv; Pindar’s Pythian Ode, iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> Apollodorus, ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> Hyginus. Poet. Ast., ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Natural History, xxix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> Æneid, vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> Pythian Ode, iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> Natural History, xxix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> Republic, b. iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> This policy is inculcated in the “Institutes of Menu.” The incurable -Hindu is directed to proceed toward the invincible northeast, -living on air and water. Exposure in battle is also advised.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> Herodicus introduced the new practice. He was a sickly trainer, -and did what he could to keep well; “and so,” says Plato, “dying hard by -the help of science, he struggled on to old age.” Republic, b. iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> Pythian Ode, iii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> History of Greece, vol. i, p. 159.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> Pindar and various tragedians.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Republic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> Says Ahura-Mazda: “The man who has a wife is far above him who -begets no son; he who keeps a house is far above him who has none; he -who has children is far above the childless man.” Zend Avesta.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Iliad, ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> Hand-Book of Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> Strabo, xii, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> A toga of limited dimensions.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 131.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Cyprus. London, 1877.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> Handy-book of the British Museum, 1870.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> βακτηρίον. A bacterion is now a disease-germ. A marked instance -of how the sense of words may become changed.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> Of course, it is possible enough that Æsculapius carried a staff at -times. The Greeks, however, were not so much given to the practice as -some other peoples, as the Egyptians (see Rawlinson’s Egypt and Babylon, -p. 240. New York, 1885), or the Babylonians, of whom Herodotus (i, 195) -says that “every one carries a walking-stick carved at the top into the -form of an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or something similar.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> Ὀμφαλός means navel. Umbilicus was derived from it. The Jews -regarded Jerusalem as the navel of the earth (see Ezekiel, v, 5), and also -every other people has flattered itself as having it within its possessions. -(See chap. iv of Rev. Dr. William F. Warren’s Paradise Found. Sixth -edition. Boston, 1885.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> Strabo, ix, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> Republic, iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> See Pindar’s Pythian Ode, iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Strabo, ix, 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> In most of the Oriental countries, including Egypt, there was always -more or less of a belief in one great divinity. “The Supreme Omnipotent -Intelligence” of the Hindus was “a spirit by no means the object of any -sense, which can only be conceived by a mind wholly abstracted from -matter.” (Institutes of Menu). El was a name given the Ineffable One by -the Phœnicians and other peoples. Il or Ilu and Jaoh, the “being,” the -“Eternal,” the “Jehovah” of the Hebrews, were designations of him used -by the Babylonians, and from him, it was believed, the great trinity, Anu, -Hea, and Bel emanated. Some, however, especially in early times, confounded -him with Anu. Baal, the “Lord,” was a common designation of -him in Syria and elsewhere.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> Dictionary of Mythology. London, 1793.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> Anantas.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 519.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> The reader is doubtless familiar, through the Bible, with consecrated -stones. A Maççeba was a necessary mark of every “high place.” Jacob -set one up (Gen., xxxi, 45).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> See Lenormant’s Ancient History of the East, vol. ii, p. 230. A pillar, -cone, or tree-stem, more or less ornamented, constituted the Ashêrah -of the Syrians and others, which many of the Israelites long looked on -with favor (see Numbers, xxv, and 2 Judges, xxii), and which is in the -authorized version of the Bible translated “grove,” as in the phrase, “the -women wove hangings for the grove” (2 Judges, xxxiii, 7). It was the -image of the goddess of fertility and life, the Istar of the Babylonians, -The Baal-peor of the Moabites, Midianites, and others, and the Priapus of -the Greeks and Romans were practically similar. I may add that the -<i>Phallus</i> (derived from Apis, the Egyptian sacred bull), the <i>linga</i> of the -Hindus, has been taken by many peoples as emblematic of the widely-worshipped, -active, renovating power in nature, the sun; just as an oval or -round figure, the <i>cteis</i> of the Greeks, the <i>yoni</i> of the Hindus, has been of -the passive power, the earth. (See Cox’s Mythology of the Aryans). The -latter is the Mipleçeth, or “abominable image for an Ashêrah,” spoken of in -the Bible (1 Kings, xv, 13, and 2 Chronicles, xv, 16). The whole subject is -well presented in a little book by Messrs. Westropp and Wake,—Ancient -Symbol Worship. New York, 1874.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Ancient Art and its Remains, p. 442.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> A name given to Hermes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Transactions of the Victoria Institute, vol. vi, p. 329. London, 1873.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> “Aaron’s rod” is similarly constituted, but of different import.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Gemmæ Selectae. Amsterdam, 1703.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> Mercury of the Romans was not much, except the god of commerce.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> The posture only approximates that assumed in the act of generation. -In this act the two serpents, in the words of Aristotle, “are folded -together with the abdomens opposite.... They roll themselves -together so closely that they seem to be one serpent with two heads.” -Natural History, p. 103. Bohn’s edition. London, 1862.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 38.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Natural History, xxix, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> Æneid, iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> Zoological Mythology, p. 406.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> See Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 23. Edition by Hodges. London, -1876.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> McClintock and Strong’s Cyclopædia of Biblical and Religious -Literature.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> Historic Devices, Badges, and War-Cries. London, 1870.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Natural History, xxix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> Myths of the New World, p. 3. New York, 1868.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Household Tales.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> See Hyginus. Poet. Astr., ii, 14.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> The literal meaning of <i>nagas</i> is snakes. In his Indian Arts (London, -1882), Dr. Birdwood says: “The worship of the snake still survives everywhere -in India, and at Nagpur was, until very recently, a public danger, -from the manner in which the city was allowed to be overrun with cobras.” -p. 83.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> “Serpent-Myths of Ancient Egypt,” in Transactions of the Victoria -Institute, vol. vi, p. 321. London, 1873.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> Mythology, vol. ii, p. 460.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> Egyptian Mythology, p. 36. London, 1863.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> Numbers, xxi, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 8. A splendid illustrated publication, -issued by the government. It treats principally of East Indian matters. -London, 1873.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> Brazen. See 2 Kings, xviii, 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> From the Greek ἀγαθός, good, and δαίμων, god, soul, fortune.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> Uarda, vol. ii, p. 38.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> One of the Pharaoh’s “treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.” -Exodus, i, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> On the Egyptian obelisk, originally from On (Heliopolis), the great -seat of learning, now in the city of New York, in whose shadow, doubtless, -Joseph at times made love to the high-priest’s daughter, and Moses learned -the meaning of hieroglyphics, occurs the phrase, “Tum, lord of the city -of On;” and, what is of more interest in this connection, one which reads, -“The god Tum, who gives life.” I may add a stanza from a hymn addressed -to Tum:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Come to me, O thou sun;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Horus of the horizon, give me help.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Thou art he that giveth help;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">There is no help without thee.”</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse right">—Records of the Past, vol. vi, p. 100.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> See 2 Kings, xviii, 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> Egypt Under the Pharaohs, vol. ii, p. 376. Second edition. London, -1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> It is well known that this is not the correct form of the name. It was -lost at an early day, and is not to be found in the New Testament in any -form. It was not to be spoken. Much interest has always been taken in -this remarkable word. According to a recently-translated Assyrian inscription, -the correct form of the name is Ya-u, or Yâhu. Mr. Hodges -dwells on this highly-interesting discovery in his edition of Cory’s Ancient -Fragments, p. 28.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 377.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Book of Wisdom, ii, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, xv, 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> The power of healing was a prominent and popular characteristic -of the god of the Hebrews. “I am the Lord that healeth thee” (Ex., xv, -26); “I will restore health unto thee and I will heal thee of thy wounds, -saith the Lord” (Jer., xxx, 17); “He healeth the broken in heart and -bindeth up their wounds” (Ps. cxlvii, 3); “Heal me, O Lord, and I shall be -healed” (Jer., xvii, 14); and other similar passages are met with in the -Bible. Indeed, the curing of diseases has always been largely resorted to -when the claim of divinity has been brought forward. It is a deceptive -test.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> Naia tripudians.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> Herodotus, ii, 74.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Note to ii, 74, in George Rawlinson’s edition of Herodotus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> The reader may turn with advantage to Dr. J. S. Phené’s interesting -illustrated essay on “Prehistoric Traditions and Customs in Connection -with Sun and Serpent Worship,” in the Transactions of the Victoria -Institute, vol. viii, p. 321. London, 1875.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> Hymn to Apollo. Translation by C. C. Conwell, M.D. Philadelphia, -1830.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> No doubt the great home of the Indo-Europeans furnishes a closely -corresponding myth. But there is good reason to hold that the main -features of the great astronomical myths antedated the Vedas. Grecian -mythology was largely derived from Egypt and Phœnicia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> Mythology, vol. ii, p. 197.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Tree and Serpent Worship, p. 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> Murray’s Mythology, p. 117.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 114.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> A graphic account of this mystic creature is given in an extant -fragment of Berosus. He introduced all civilizing arts. See Cory’s -Ancient Fragments, p. 59. Hodges’ edition.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> Five Great Monarchies, vol. i, p. 122.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> “The Origin of Serpent-Worship,” in the Journal of the Victoria -Institute, vol. ii, p. 373.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> Dr. Brinton gives the name as Michabo. He gives an interesting -account of this great Algonkin myth in his American Hero-Myths. Philadelphia, -1882.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Partly true.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> Indian Myths, p. 45. Boston, 1884.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Mythology, vol. ii, p. 458.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> Outlines of Primitive Belief, p. 75. London and New York, 1882.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 77.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> Myths of the New World, p. 107.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> It is interesting to observe that, according to Miss Emerson, “it is -probable that the Indian derived the sacred symbols of his worship from -the configuration of the constellations.” Indian Myths, p. 316.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> Buddha and Early Buddhism, p. 7. London, 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> The Great Pyramid, p. 100. London, 1883.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> In an article on the “Astronomy and Astrology of the Babylonians,” -Mr. Sayce says: “Next to the planets in importance was the polar star, -called Tir-anna, or Gagan-same, or ‘Judge of the Heaven,’ to which a -special treatise was devoted in Sargon’s Library.” See Transactions of the -Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iii, p. 206.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> The constellation of Draco lies near to and to the north of “the -Dipper,” or Great Bear, and is easily distinguished.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 101.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> Homer’s description of the shield of Achilles is shorter, and was -probably suggested by the same thing. Iliad, xviii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> See pictures of such in Astronomical Myths, by Blake, London, 1877. -Also, in Rawlinson’s Five Great Monarchies.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> It is believed that it is referred to in Job, in the verse reading, “His -spirit hath adorned the heavens and his obstetric hand brought forth the -winding serpent” (xxvi, 13, Douai version). The authorized is not literal.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> The Shield of Hercules. Translation by Elton.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> Translated Pleiades. Job, ix, 9; xxxviii, 31; and Amos, v, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> Five Great Monarchies, vol. i, p. 122. See also his edition of Herodotus, -vol. i, p. 600.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> Those interested in this symbol should consult Schliemann’s Troy -and its Remains.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> The swastika was so formed by Indians. See illustration in Emerson’s -Indian Myths, p. 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Totem is an Algonkin word, signifying to have or possess. It represented, -among the Indians, the social unit or clan, the gens of the Romans.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> Fortnightly Review, vol. vi and vii. N. S.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man, 1870.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> Strabo, xiii, 1.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> 1 Chronicles, xix, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> Indian Myths, p. 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> The History of the Heavens. Translated from the French by J. B. -de Freval. Two volumes. London, 1741, vol. i, p. 42. The first volume -is a very able and interesting mythological production.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> Beginnings of History, p. 114.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> Myths of the New World, p. 120.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> “The Origin of Serpent Worship,” in the Journal of the Anthropological -Institute, vol. ii, p. 373.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> By Plutarch, in Isis and Osiris.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> In an extant fragment from Sanchoniathon, after the statement -that “Taautus first consecrated the basilisk and introduced the worship -of the serpent tribe, in which he was followed by the Phœnicians and -Egyptians,” it is said of the animal that it is “the most inspired of all the -reptiles and of a fiery nature, inasmuch as it exhibits an incredible celerity, -moving by its spirit without either hands or feet or any of those external -organs by which other animals effect their motion.” See Cory’s Ancient -Fragments, p. 22. Edition by Hodges.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> Proverbs, xxx, 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> Mr. Spencer says: “The rudimentary form of all religion is the propitiation -of dead ancestors, who are supposed to be still existing and to be -capable of working good or evil to their descendants.” “Origin of Animal -Worship, etc.,” in Fortnightly Review, vol. vii, p. 536. N. S.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> Uarda, vol. ii, p. 249.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> Myths of the New World, p. 108.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 38.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> Comparative Mythology and Folk-lore, p. 148. London, 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> See Exodus, vii, 10-13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> The spinal marrow was believed by some in ancient times to be the -seat of life. Plato entertained that view. See Timæus, 74, 91.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> In that hoary Egyptian work, The Book of the Dead (ch. 155), occurs -this remarkable passage: “All creation is, when dead, turned into living -reptiles.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> Rev., xvi, 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> Pantheon, p. 271. Am. edition. Baltimore, 1830.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> For much of interest about the laurel, see Plant-lore Legends and -Lyrics, p. 404, by Richard Folkard, Jr. London, 1884.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> Thessaly.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> The literal meaning of Telesphorus is “bringing to an end;” of Euemerion, -“prosperous, or glorious;” and of Acesius, “health-giving.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> Pantheon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> Tooke states that by <i>genius</i> is generally meant “that spirit of nature -which produces all things, from which generative power it has its name.... -The images of the genii resembled, for the most part, the form -of a serpent. Sometimes they were described like a boy, a girl, or an old -man.” Pantheon, p. 240.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> Zend Avesta.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Herodotus, i, 140.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> See Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. ii, p. -245.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> Phædo.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> Grimm justly remarks that sacrifice was a common feature of -heathen medicine; “great cures and the averting of pestilence,” says he, -“could only be effected by sacrifice.” Teutonic Mythology (translation), -p. 1150.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> The Past in the Present, p. 164. New York, 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> Itinerary of Greece (translation), vol. ii, p. 211.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> Pantheon, p. 271.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> See Levit., xvi <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> Ch. ii, 39.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> Ammon, Knuphis, or Agathodæmon of later times.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> Ancient History of the East, vol. i, p. 326.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> The language of the Hebrews is essentially the same: <i>es</i> or <i>ez</i> -means a goat.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> ἀίξ.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> The Mythology and Fables of the Ancients Explained from History, -vol. iii, p. 160. London, 1740.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> New System of Mythology, vol. iii, p. 456. Philadelphia, 1819.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> Now called Beyrout.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> Damascius, in his Life of Isidorus, uses the phrase “Esmun, who is -interpreted Asclepius.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> Daughters of Titan, by Astarte.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> See Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 14. Edition by Hodges.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> From the Semitic word <i>Kabir</i>, great.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> Chambers’s Encyclopædia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> The temple of the god at Carthage was of great splendor and -renown. See Dr. Davis’s Carthage and its Remains, ch. xvii. London, -1861. Says the Doctor: “The Temple of Æsculapius was as prominent a -feature of Carthage as the Capitoline hill was at Rome, or as St. Paul’s is -in London” (p. 369). It was on a rocky eminence (the Byrsa). Ruins of -the staircase still remain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> The city of Hermopolis received also the name of Esmun. In the -Book of the Dead (ch. cxiv) the deceased is represented as saying, while -adoring Thoth, Amset, and Tum: “I have come as a prevailer, through -knowing the spirits of Esmun.” Thoth presided over this nome.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> Bunsen maintains that the Cabiri were the seven archangels of the -Jews, originally “the seven fundamental powers of the visible creation.” -Egypt’s Place in Universal History, vol. iv, p. 256.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> See Prof. Lesley’s interesting work, Man’s Origin and Destiny, first -edition. Philadelphia, 1868. For some reason the chapter on Arkite symbolism -is not given in the second edition.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> Primitive Culture, vol. i, p. 218. London, 1871.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> Saturnal, i, 20.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> The Mysteries of the Cabiri, vol. i, p. 98. Oxford, 1803.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> In Phœnicia he was the seven viewed collectively as “the soul of -the world.” Bunsen’s Egypt’s Place, etc., vol. iv, p. 229.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> Ancient History of the East, vol. ii, p. 221.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> Æneid, vii, line 773.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> Tiele takes such a view of Anubis. See History of the Egyptian -Religion, p. 65.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> Nearly all ancient Hebrew, as well as Assyrian, proper names are -expressive of something about the birth or life of the bearers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> Mythology of Ancient Greece and Rome. Third edition. London, -1854.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> The Hebrew word, like the Latin <i>vir</i>, means man in a distinguished -sense (virile), and may come from the Egyptian <i>ash</i>, tree of life.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> Caleb, or city of the dog, on the coast of Phœnicia, has been accorded -the credit of the name of the god. See the Abbé Banier’s Mythology -and Fables of the Ancients, etc. (translation), vol. iii, p. 160.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> Possibly the first syllable of Æsculapius, like the Hebrew <i>ishi</i>, salutary, -and <i>asa</i>, to heal, may have been from the Egyptian <i>usha</i>, health-bringing,—doctor. -See Gerald Massey’s Book of Beginnings, vol. ii, p. 301. -London, 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> Hence the name, Canicular Year.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> It does not now rise heliacally until the middle of August. But, -4000 years ago it rose so about the 20th of June, and just preceded the -annual rising of the Nile.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> History of the Heavens, vol. i, p. 185. Anubis had various functions -which cannot be spoken of here. He bore the souls of men to the nether -world, like Hermes, of the Greeks, and assisted Horus in weighing them. -A passage in the Book of the Dead reads, “He is behind the bier which -holds the bowels of Osiris.” Evidently he might be regarded as the god -of undertakers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> Typhon, or Set, was regarded, indeed, by the Egyptians as the god -Sothis, or Sirius. See Bunsen’s Egypt’s Place, etc., vol. i, p. 429. But -Typhon was not, in early times, regarded as simply the personification of -evil. See Kenrick’s Ancient Egypt, vol. i, p. 350.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> Zend Avesta. Edition by James Darmesteter, in two parts, or volumes, -in The Sacred Books of the East, edited by Max Müller, vol. i, p. 83. -Oxford, England, 1883.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> Iliad, xxii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> Such a staff is, indeed, shown by Wilkinson, and is given by Cooper -in his essay, already quoted. From the presence of the hawk and uræus, -one might more properly accord it to Horus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> Physic and Physicians, vol. i, p. 6. London, 1839.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> Princess, vol. i, p. 210.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> See Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 112. Edition by Hodges.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> Bunsen, in Egypt’s Place in Universal History, vol. ii, p. 89.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> See Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 113.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> Ancient Empires of the East, p. 76.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> Herodotus, ii, 84. Translation by Rawlinson.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, ii, 77.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> Princess, vol. i, p. 17.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> History of Ancient Egypt, vol. ii, p. 528. London, 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> Encyclopædia Britannica, ninth ed.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> Ancient Empires of the East, p. 76.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> Jer., xlvi, 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> Herodotus, iii, 1, 129.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> Polydamna. Helen’s enforced sojourn in Egypt is fully described -by Herodotus (ii, 113-116), Thone, Thon, or Thonis, the historian speaks -of as the “warden of the Canopic mouth of the Nile.” The town of -Heracleum bore the name.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> Odyssey, iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> Natural History, vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> Homer and the Iliad, vol. i.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> Beginnings of History, p. 536.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> Bunsen holds that Esmun and he were originally the same; “as the -snake god he must actually be Hermes, in Phœnician, Tet, Taautes.” -Egypt’s Place, etc., vol. iv, p. 256.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> In the cut he appears counting the years on a palm-branch—the -ideograph for year. (<a href="#figure12">Fig. 12, p. 101.</a>)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> Ibis religiosa, Hab of the Ancient Egyptians.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> Ibis falcinellus, the glossy ibis.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> Book of the Dead, ch. lxxviii. Translation by Birch, in vol. v of -Bunsen’s Egypt’s Place, etc. The hawk is the usual symbol of Horus, just -as the ibis is of Thoth.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> Tiele pronounces Horus to be “the God of Light, the Token of -Life.” History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 54.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> Manual of Mythology, p. 346. London, 1873.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> Often spoken of as the Hercules of the Egyptians.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 154.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> See Diodorus Siculus, i, 25; and Tacitus, xiv, 81.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> Says Gibbon: “Alexandria, which claimed his peculiar protection, -glorified in the name of the City of Serapis.” The Decline and Fall of -the Roman Empire, ch. xxviii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> See his Essay, p. 50.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> Egypt of the Past, p. 15. London, 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> The capital of Lower Egypt.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> Uarda, vol. i, p. 203.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 94. London, 1882. Tiele remarks -that Imhotep was not only called Asklepios by the Greeks, “but -likewise the Eighth, thus showing that they regarded him as one of the -Kabirs” (p. 95). I may add that the worship of the Kabirs, in the character -of cosmic deities, was early established in the region where Memphis -stood. Bunsen, indeed, identifies Ptah and his seven sons with the -Kabirs. See Egypt’s Place, etc., vol. iv, p. 217.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> Vulcan of the Romans.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> Ancient Egypt, vol. i, p. 333.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iii, p. 386.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> See <a href="#figure13">Fig. 13, p. 104</a>. The characters of this name are all phonetic; -but very many are pictorial or symbolic. Examples of symbolic characters -will be given in the chapter on amulets.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> An offering; food, peace, welcome.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> Egypt’s Place in Universal History, vol. i, p. 400.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> Mysteries of the Cabiri, vol. i, p. 99.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> See his work on Egypt, etc., in Asiatic Researches, vol. iii, p. 392.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> Cooper says that they were the two deities of the morning and -evening twilight, and “were the origin of the Dioscuri of the Greeks.” -Archæic Dictionary. London, 1876.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> Zoological Mythology, vol. i, p. 353.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> Evil has always been associated with darkness. Harmful demons -have always disliked light.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> Mythology of the Aryans, vol. i, p. 391.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> See Wilson’s edition, vol. iii, p. 307.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 103.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> Ormazd, believed to have been originally identical with Varuna of -the Vedas.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Believed to be the Asclepias acida, or Sarcostemma viminalis, whose -juice yields an intoxicating liquor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> Zend Avesta, vol. i, p. 141.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> Demon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> Evil Spirits.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> Zend Avesta. Translation by Darmesteter, vol. ii, p. 92.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> The name is given in the cuneiform characters as found in Norris’s -Assyrian Dictionary, p. 853. It is spelled phonetically. The first three -wedges are the sign or determinative of deities.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> The devotion of Nebuchadnezzar to him is indicated in the Bible -(see 2 Chron. xxxvi, 7, and Daniel, i, 2). The great king went so far as to -say: “Merodach deposited my germ in my mother’s womb.” Records of -the Past, vol. v, p. 113.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> In an article entitled “Nemrod et les Ecritures Cuneiformes,” M. -Joseph Grivel has occasion to speak of the names of the god. Amar-ud, -which is apparently the same as Nimrod, is a synonym of Merodach. See -Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iii, p. 136.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> The older Bel was Elum, father of the gods.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> Chaldean Magic, and the Beginnings of History. To M. Lenormant -mainly belongs the credit of opening up the valuable stores of learning -wrapped in the Accadian and closely allied idioms.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> A series of small volumes, twelve in number, issued a few years ago, -in London.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> Silik-mulu-khi is rather a descriptive title than a name. It is the -designation used in the magical and mythological texts of the Accadian -inscriptions.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> Of this serpentine god of life and revealer of knowledge, Sir Henry -Rawlinson remarks that “there is very strong grounds for connecting Hea, -or Hoa, with the serpent of Scripture and the paradisiacal traditions of the -tree of life.” See George Rawlinson’s second edition of Herodotus, vol. i, -p. 600.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> Assyria, its Princes, Priests, and People, p. 59. London, 1885.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> Another symbol of this god was the thunderbolt in the form of a -sickle, with which he slew the dragon of the deep.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 190.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> Records of the Past, vol. iii, p. 139.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> Herodotus, who visited the country, states that the Babylonians -“have no physicians; but when a man is ill they lay him in the public -square and the passers-by come up to him; and if they ever had his -disease themselves, or have known any one who has suffered from it, they -give him advice, recommending him to do whatever they found good in -their own case or in the case known to them; and no one is allowed to pass -the sick man in silence, without asking him what his ailment is” (i, 197). -From this it would seem that Herodotus might rather have said that the -Babylonians were all doctors, or presumed to be. However, it is thought -that Jeremiah refers to the practice in Lamentations, i, 12, when he says: -“Is it nothing to you, all ye that pass by? Behold and see if there be any -sorrow like unto my sorrow.” A similar plan was certainly practiced -elsewhere than in Babylonia. Strabo says that the Egyptians resorted to -it (xvi), and in St. Mark it is said that the people “laid the sick in the -streets” (vi, 56) in order to be healed by Jesus as he passed along.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> Deuteronomy, xi, 18.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> Records of the Past, vol. iii, p. 140.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> Was this gonorrhœa or diabetes? See Leviticus, xv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> Ana.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> Hea.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 4.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 20.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 22.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> Lenormant remarks that the assimilation was probably made when -Mardux had become emphatically the god of the planet Jupiter, “the -great fortune” of the astrologers, which justified them in connecting with -his other attributes the favorable and protecting office of Silik-mulu-khi. -He was originally a solar deity.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 190.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> Jeremiah, v, 15.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> Or Shinar. See Gen., xi, 2. Essentially Babylonia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> See Smith’s Chaldean Account of Genesis, p. 19. Revised edition, -by Mr. Sayce, 1880.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> The Semitic language, called Assyrian, as the one spoken by the -Babylonians, including part of the Chaldeans, before the people of Assur -(see Gen., x, 11) became a nation, which was later than the time of the -great King Sargon (<span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span> 2000); and here I may say that cuneiform inscriptions -are largely Assyrian. I may add that Lenormant takes Assur to be -Nimrod, and the latter Mardux, reduced to the position of a hero.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, vol. iii, p. 466.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> Kaldu, or Kaldi, was the name of a tribe of Accadio-Sumerians that -rose to prominence about nine centuries before our era. The title was -subsequently given to the whole race.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> Zend Avesta, vol. i, p. 85.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, vol. ii, p. 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> North American Indians, vol. i, p. 78.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410" class="label">[410]</a> Bacchus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411" class="label">[411]</a> Fire was duly esteemed by the ancients. The worship was closely -related to that of the sun. Atar of the Zend Avesta means fire, and a -personification of it, spoken of as the son of Ahura-Mazda, is characterized -as “the god who is a full source of glory, the god who is a full source -of healing” (vol. ii, p. 8). The Parsis and also the Hindus were forbidden -to blow a fire lest the effete emanations from the system, present in the -breath, might contaminate the flame. Menstruating women were forbidden -even to look at it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412" class="label">[412]</a> Zoological Mythology, vol. i, p. 410.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413" class="label">[413]</a> See Gen., ii, 7. Hippocrates appears to take <i>pneuma</i>, the breath, -and the soul and vital principle to be the same. It is still a common thing -to hear the breath spoken of as the divine and immortal element in man.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414" class="label">[414]</a> Ninevah and its Remains, vol. ii, p. 233. London, 1849. See Ex., -xxviii, 33-34, and 1 Kings, vii, 41-42.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415" class="label">[415]</a> Fir-trees were regarded with much favor in the East. Ezekiel -likens the Assyrian nation to a great cedar, envied by “all the trees of -Eden,” none being “like unto him in his beauty.” Ez., xxxi, <i>passim</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416" class="label">[416]</a> Medical virtues are inherent in fir-trees. Hence, there was a good -foundation for the Accadian superstition. It is curious to observe that -“among the Dakotah tribe of Indians the white cedar-tree is believed to -have a supernatural power, and its leaves are burned as incense to propitiate -the gods.” See Emerson’s Indian Myths, p. 241.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417" class="label">[417]</a> Beginnings of History, p. 90.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418" class="label">[418]</a> Mr. Sayce gives the name as Lubara. See Ancient Empires of the -East, p. 157.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419" class="label">[419]</a> According to Mr. Black, disease and death have been referred by -the unscientific to three great sources, namely: (1) the anger of an -offended external spirit; (2) the supernatural powers of a human enemy; -(3) the displeasure of the dead. See Folk-medicine, p. 4, published by the -Folk-lore Society. London, 1883.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420" class="label">[420]</a> The Origin of Primitive Superstitions. Philadelphia, 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421" class="label">[421]</a> See Sayce’s Ancient Empires of the East, p. 146.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422" class="label">[422]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 64.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423" class="label">[423]</a> Says Tiele: “The operation or the sun is two-fold, beneficial and -terrible; it quickens or it destroys life. The Greeks united both characteristics -in Phœbus Apollo.” History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 45.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424" class="label">[424]</a> 2 Samuel, xxiv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425" class="label">[425]</a> Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 15.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426" class="label">[426]</a> It appears that the idea of the devil is first brought into clear relief -in the Book of Wisdom, where it is said: “By the envy of the devil death -came into the world” (ii, 25). The Hebrew demonology is usually said to -be of Iranian origin, but it may just as likely have sprung from a Turanian -source, either directly or through their Semitic kin in Babylonia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427" class="label">[427]</a> Job, ii, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428" class="label">[428]</a> Set, called Typhon by the Greeks, the embodiment of physical and -moral evil, was regarded as the Egyptian god of death. Plagues were attributed -to him.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429" class="label">[429]</a> The plague maiden of Teutonic folk-lore is somewhat like Dibbara. -See Grimm’s Teutonic Mythology (translation), p. 1185.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430" class="label">[430]</a> Chaldean Account of Genesis, vol. viii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431" class="label">[431]</a> Psalms, xci, 6.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432" class="label">[432]</a> 2 Sam., xxiv, 13 <i>et seq.</i>, and 2 Kings, xix, 35.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433" class="label">[433]</a> The wife of Hea, the queen of the gods, Davkina, was a health -goddess. In an inscription Marduk is sent to a dying man, and it is -further said:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Sprinkle holy water over him.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">He shall hear the voice of Hea.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Davkina shall protect him;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And Marduk, eldest son of Heaven, shall find him a happy habitation.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>See Records of the Past, vol. iii, p. 142. She was invoked by women -in labor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434" class="label">[434]</a> This figure is copied from one given by W. R. Cooper in his essay on -“Serpent Myths of Ancient Egypt.” See Transactions of the Victoria -Institute, vol. vi, p. 321. London, 1873.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435" class="label">[435]</a> The Art of Preserving Health. First published in 1744. One of the -very few great medical poems.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436" class="label">[436]</a> Tobias, viii, 10.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437" class="label">[437]</a> American Hero-Myths, p. 19. 1882.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438" class="label">[438]</a> This arrangement of the serpent is seen in an Egyptian priestess, a -picture of which is given in Cooper’s essay, already referred to.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439" class="label">[439]</a> It has been published, I think, in pamphlet form, but the copy I have -was issued in 1882 in connection with the March and April numbers of a -monthly published in the interest of Jefferson Medical College and her -alumni, The College and Clinical Record. There are a dozen octavo -pages of it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440" class="label">[440]</a> Animal Kingdom, vol. ix, p. 309.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441" class="label">[441]</a> See Tooke’s Pantheon, p. 296.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442" class="label">[442]</a> See Grimm’s Teutonic Mythology (translation), pp. 588, 1150.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443" class="label">[443]</a> For Cooper’s view of her origin, see quotation, <a href="#Page_93">p. 93</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444" class="label">[444]</a> Maut, Mat, or Mut, is to Amen-Ra what Artemis was to Zeus, and -Juno to Jupiter. She might be viewed as a form of the more familiar -Isis, and from close relationship is often confounded with Neith.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445" class="label">[445]</a> From address referred to on <a href="#Page_125">page 125</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446" class="label">[446]</a> Princess, vol. ii, p. 296.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447" class="label">[447]</a> See Plato’s Timæus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448" class="label">[448]</a> The famous one brought from the East to Scotland and called the -“Lee-Penny” has an interesting history. Sir Walter Scott speaks at -length of it in his work, “The Talisman.” Says the great novelist: “Its -virtues are still applied to for stopping blood and in cases of canine madness” -(p. 287).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449" class="label">[449]</a> By Josephus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450" class="label">[450]</a> The name signifies highland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451" class="label">[451]</a> The Great Pyramid, p. 159.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452" class="label">[452]</a> It stands out prominent in the first chapter of Genesis. The whole -host of heaven was created for earthly purposes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453" class="label">[453]</a> The reader of the Book of Daniel learns much of the repute of the -Chaldeans as astrologers. The Romans were in the habit of calling all -astrologers Chaldeans. That people, I may say, never gave the class legal -countenance.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454" class="label">[454]</a> In an old Accadian tablet bearing on the observance of the Sabbath -by the king, it is said, among other things: “Medicine for his sickness -of body he may not apply.” See Smith’s Chaldean Account of Genesis, -p. 89.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455" class="label">[455]</a> According to the Bible narrative, which Lenormant says is “a tradition -whose origin is lost in the night of the remotest ages and which all -the great nations of Western Asia possessed in common, with some variations” -(Beginnings of History, p. xv), the luminaries were placed in the -heavens “to divide the day from the night and to be signs for the time of -festivals, the days and the years” (Gen., i, 14). This is from the Elohist -version, which, with the Jehovist, may be found in Lenormant’s work. -The ordinary version was drawn from the two.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456" class="label">[456]</a> Architecture, p. 219, 2d ed. By Joseph Swift. London, 1860.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457" class="label">[457]</a> It is well to state that the astrologer was the forerunner of the astronomer. -In his interesting book on The Astronomy of the Ancients, -Sir J. Cornwall Lewes says: “The word ἀστρολογος signifies an astronomer -in the Greek writers. The word <i>astrologus</i> has the same sense in -the earlier Latin writers. In later times the distinction which now obtains -between the words astrology and astronomy was introduced” (p. 292).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458" class="label">[458]</a> The Greeks generally gave Atlas the credit of introducing it. See -Cory’s Ancient Fragments, p. 82. Hodges’ edition.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459" class="label">[459]</a> Tetrabiblos, i, 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460" class="label">[460]</a> In “A Plea for Urania,” issued in 1854, it is said that “less than two -hundred years ago an individual who entered upon the profession of -doctor of medicine, either in England or any of the European countries, -was obliged to pass an astrological examination” (p. 246).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461" class="label">[461]</a> Canterbury Tales.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462" class="label">[462]</a> Gemmæ Selectae. Amsterdam, 1703.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463" class="label">[463]</a> Fascinum and penis are Latin synonyms.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464" class="label">[464]</a> This is still done in parts of China and elsewhere in the East.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465" class="label">[465]</a> Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 32. London, 1880. Republication -by the Folk-lore Society. First issued 1686-’87.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466" class="label">[466]</a> See Psalms, lxviii, 4, and lxxxix, 8.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467" class="label">[467]</a> Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, p. 92.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468" class="label">[468]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 43.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469" class="label">[469]</a> Indian Arts, p. 104.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470" class="label">[470]</a> The star of Babylon is frequently spoken of in the Inscriptions. -The star of Marduk is the same. It is Dilgan, or Jupiter.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471" class="label">[471]</a> Act I, Scene 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472" class="label">[472]</a> <span class="smcap">Abracadabra</span> is not the same as abraxas, but may have been -derived from it. In the third century, and later, it was regarded as a capital -remedy for malarial fevers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473" class="label">[473]</a> Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, p. 94.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474" class="label">[474]</a> The letter Alpha = 1, Beta = 2, Rho = 100; Alpha = 1, Xi = 60; -Alpha = 1, and Sigma = 200.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475" class="label">[475]</a> Egyptian Mythology, p. 93.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476" class="label">[476]</a> Chambers’ Encyclopædia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477" class="label">[477]</a> The Care and Culture of Children, Philadelphia, 1880.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478" class="label">[478]</a> It is worth while to observe that Raphael was, according to the -Cabbala, the angel of the sun.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479" class="label">[479]</a> Tobias, iii, 25.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480" class="label">[480]</a> Nearly all savage and semi-civilized peoples have viewed the heart -as a very mysterious organ. Not a few have regarded it as the epitome or -soul of the individual. In sacrifice it has played an important rôle. See -Albert Reville’s work on The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, p. 43. -New York, 1884.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481" class="label">[481]</a> There is the ring of the Zend Avesta and the cuneiform inscriptions -about it also.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482" class="label">[482]</a> Cyprus, p. 384. London, 1877.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483" class="label">[483]</a> 1 Sam., vi, 4 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484" class="label">[484]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 50.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485" class="label">[485]</a> The Past in the Present, p. 19 <i>et seq.</i> 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486" class="label">[486]</a> Medical Economy during the Middle Ages. New York, 1883.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487" class="label">[487]</a> A practice long in use. See <a href="#Page_110">p. 110</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488" class="label">[488]</a> Urine of oxen. The supposed virtue sprang from certain mythological -notions.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489" class="label">[489]</a> It was probably connected with the god Sbat and the Egyptian Seb -or Cronus, the father of Osiris. See Transactions of the Victoria Institute, -vol. xvi, pp. 136 and 160. London, 1883.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490" class="label">[490]</a> The Princess, vol. i, p. 210.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491" class="label">[491]</a> Chaldean Magic, p. 41.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492" class="label">[492]</a> Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 49.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493" class="label">[493]</a> Uarda, p. 118.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494" class="label">[494]</a> Institute of Menu, p. 154.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495" class="label">[495]</a> Ancient Egypt, vol. i, p. 254.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496" class="label">[496]</a> A Book of Beginnings. London, 1881.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497" class="label">[497]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 101.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498" class="label">[498]</a> T served some as a symbol of the generative power. John Davenport -says that it was “used indiscriminately with the Phallus: it was, in fact, the -Phallus.” Aphrodisiacs and Anti-Aphrodisiacs, p. 13. London, 1869. -Privately printed. Payne Knight states that the male organs represented -as “the cross, in the form of the letter T, sometimes served as the emblem -of creation and generation.” Worship of Priapus, p. 48.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499" class="label">[499]</a> History of the Heavens, vol. i, p. 259.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500" class="label">[500]</a> See Occult Sciences, p. 222. A volume of the Encyclopædia Metropolitana. -London, 1855.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501" class="label">[501]</a> Superstitions Connected with Medicine and Surgery. London, 1843.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502" class="label">[502]</a> Historiaum, iv, 81.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503" class="label">[503]</a> North American Indians, vol, i, p. 70. Philadelphia, 1857.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504" class="label">[504]</a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505" class="label">[505]</a> Indian Myths, p. 230.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506" class="label">[506]</a> Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 7.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507" class="label">[507]</a> Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, p. 27.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508" class="label">[508]</a> Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, p. 307.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509" class="label">[509]</a> History of Sign-Boards, p. 341. Second edition. London, 1866.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510" class="label">[510]</a> Schesch.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511" class="label">[511]</a> Princess, vol. i, p. 296.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512" class="label">[512]</a> The Records of the Past, vol. xi, p. 159. London, 1878.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513" class="label">[513]</a> Ex., xxx, 25-35. In the revised translation apothecary becomes -perfumer.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514" class="label">[514]</a> Introductory Lectures and Addresses on Medical Subjects, p. 54. -Philadelphia, 1859.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515" class="label">[515]</a> Mr. Sayce, writing in 1884, states that “the fragments of a work on -medicine closely resembling the Egyptian Papyrus-Ebers have recently -been found” (at Babylon). Ancient Empires of the East, p. 173.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516" class="label">[516]</a> Incorporated in the year 1800. Date of the present charter, 1843.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517" class="label">[517]</a> A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 7. London, 1860.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518" class="label">[518]</a> A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519" class="label">[519]</a> Letters and Lives of Eminent Persons, vol. ii, p. 386. London, 1813.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520" class="label">[520]</a> A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521" class="label">[521]</a> A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 2.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522" class="label">[522]</a> Canterbury Tales.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523" class="label">[523]</a> A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 3.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524" class="label">[524]</a> Hudibras.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525" class="label">[525]</a> Occult Sciences, p. 40.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526" class="label">[526]</a> The Gold-Headed Cane. By Dr. McMichael. London, 1828.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527" class="label">[527]</a> A Book about Doctors, vol. i, p. 11.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528" class="label">[528]</a> Finger-Ring Lore. By William Jones, p. 191. London, 1877.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529" class="label">[529]</a> Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 210.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530" class="label">[530]</a> See Sharpe’s Egyptian Mythology, p. 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531" class="label">[531]</a> Exodus, i, 16.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532" class="label">[532]</a> Princess, vol. i, p. 37.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533" class="label">[533]</a> One was not regarded as a number.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534" class="label">[534]</a> The Brook.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535" class="label">[535]</a> Art Culture, p. 468. New York, 1874.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536" class="label">[536]</a> Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archæology. Boston, 1882.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537" class="label">[537]</a> In his notes to Faust.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538" class="label">[538]</a> The Pythagorean Triangle. London, 1875.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539" class="label">[539]</a> Dictionary of Terms in Art.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540" class="label">[540]</a> Encyclopædia of Freemasonry. Philadelphia, 1875.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541" class="label">[541]</a> Astronomical Myths. London, 1877.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542" class="label">[542]</a> Broughton’s Italy, vol. ii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543" class="label">[543]</a> Notes and Queries, vol. ix, p. 511, third series.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544" class="label">[544]</a> Mythology of the Hindus. London, 1832.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545" class="label">[545]</a> Indian Arts. London, 1880.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546" class="label">[546]</a> Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives, p. 272. London, 1880.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547" class="label">[547]</a> The Solution of the Pyramid Problem, p. 92. New York, 1882.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548" class="label">[548]</a> The Great Pyramid, p. 35.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549" class="label">[549]</a> The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, p. 57. New York, 1884.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550" class="label">[550]</a> American Hero-Myths, p. 121.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551" class="label">[551]</a> Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme, p. 51.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552" class="label">[552]</a> An equilateral triangle divided into three equal triangles by lines -meeting from the three angles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553" class="label">[553]</a> Professors of the Cabbala, a mystic philosophy, believed that there -was a secret meaning in Holy Writ and a higher meaning in the law, and -pretended to be able to perform miracles by the use of names and incantations. -Auerbach gives an interesting account of them in his novel, -“Spinoza.” He gives this as an instance of their mode of reasoning: “The -Hebrew word for Messiah contains the same number as the Hebrew word -for serpent, in which form Satan seduced Eve; the Messiah will, therefore, -bruise the head of the serpent and banish sin and death from the -world.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554" class="label">[554]</a> The word <i>Salus</i>, the synonymous Latin name, was also used in the -same way. In Mrs. Pelliser’s work it is thus seen. It is there spoken of as -a device used by Marguerite of France, wife of Henry IV and the last of -the Valois.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<p class="center larger">CATALOGUE OF THE PUBLICATIONS<br> -<span class="smaller"><span class="smaller">OF</span><br> -F. A. DAVIS,<br> -Medical Publisher and Bookseller,<br> -1231 FILBERT STREET, PHILADELPHIA.</span></p> - -<p class="center">BRANCH OFFICES:</p> - -<table> -<tr> -<td> -<p class="center">NEW YORK CITY:<br> -117 W. Forty-second Street.</p> -<p class="center">CHICAGO:<br> -24 Lakeside Building, 214-220 -S. Clark St.</p> -</td> -<td> -<p class="center">ATLANTA:<br> -25 Old Capitol.</p> -<p class="center">LONDON, ENG.:<br> -40 Berners Street, Oxford -Street, W.</p> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="center">ORDER FROM NEAREST OFFICE.</p> - -<p class="center">FOR SALE BY ALL BOOKSELLERS.</p> - -<p>Prices of books, as given in our catalogue or circulars, -include full prepayment of postage, freight, or -express charges. Customers in Canada and Mexico -must pay the cost of duty, in addition, at point of -destination.</p> - -<p class="smaller"><b>N. B.—Remittances should be made by Express Money-Order, -Post-Office Money-Order, Registered Letter, or Draft on New York -City, Philadelphia, Boston, or Chicago.</b></p> - -<p>We do not hold ourselves responsible for books sent -by mail; to insure safe arrival of books sent to distant -parts, the package should be registered. Charges for -registering (at purchaser’s expense), 10 cents for every -four pounds or less.</p> - -<hr class="r15 x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_2"></a>[2]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>BASHORE—Improved Clinical Chart.</b> <i>For the Separate -Plotting of Temperature, Pulse, and Respiration.</i></p> - -<p>But one color of ink necessary. Designed for the Convenient, -Accurate, and Permanent Daily Recording of Cases in Hospital and -Private Practice. By <span class="smcap">Harvey B. Bashore</span>, M.D. Fifty Charts, in -Tablet Form. Size, 8 × 12 inches.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, 50 cents, net; -Great Britain, 3s. 6d.; France, 3 fr. 60.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>BOWEN—Hand-Book of Materia Medica, Pharmacy, -and Therapeutics.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Cuthbert Bowen</span>, M.D., B.A., Editor of “Notes on -Practice.” One 12mo volume of 370 pages. Handsomely Bound in -Dark-Blue Cloth. <i>No. 2 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference -Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.40, net; -Great Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 25.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>BURET—Syphilis: To-Day and in Antiquity.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Dr. F. Buret</span> (Paris). Translated from the French, with the -author’s permission, by <span class="smcap">A. H. Ohmann-Dumesnil</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor -of Dermatology and Syphilology in the St. Louis College of -Physicians and Surgeons. To be completed in three 12mo. volumes. -Volume 1, Syphilis in Antiquity. <span class="smcap">In Press.</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>CAPP—The Daughter.</b> <i>Her Health, Education, and -Wedlock. Homely Suggestions to Mothers and -Daughters.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">William M. Capp</span>, M.D., Philadelphia. This is just such a -book as a family physician would advise his lady patients to obtain -and read. It answers many questions which every busy practitioner -of medicine has put to him in the sick-room at a time when it is -neither expedient nor wise to impart the information sought.</p> - -<p>It will not mar the most proper womanly modesty or refined -feelings, and may wisely be put into the hands of any woman or girl; -is a book for the family; will bear repeated readings, and will be useful -to refer to in emergencies. In one beautifully printed (large, clear -type) 12mo volume of 150 pages. Attractively bound in Extra Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; -Great Britain, 5s. 6d.; France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>CATHELL—Book on the Physician Himself, and Things -that Concern His Reputation and Success.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">D. W. Cathell</span>, M.D., Baltimore, Md. Being the Ninth -Edition (enlarged and thoroughly revised) of “The Physician Himself,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_3"></a>[3]</span> -and What He Should Add to His Scientific Acquirements in Order -to Secure Success.” In one handsome Octavo volume of 298 pages, -bound in Extra Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.00, net; -Great Britain, 11s. 6d.; France, 12 fr. 40.</b></p> - -<p>This remarkable book has passed through eight (8) editions in -less than five years, has met with the unanimous and hearty approval -of the profession, and is practically indispensable to every young -graduate who aims at success in his chosen profession. It has just -undergone a thorough revision by the author, who has added much -new matter, covering many points and elucidating many excellent -ideas not included in former editions.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>CLEVENGER—Spinal Concussion.</b> <i>Surgically Considered -as a Cause of Spinal Injury, and Neurologically -Restricted to a Certain Symptom Group, for -which is Suggested the Designation “Erichsen’s -Disease,” as One Form of the Traumatic Neuroses.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">S. V. Clevenger</span>, M.D., Consulting Physician, Reese and -Alexian Hospitals; Late Pathologist, County Insane Asylum, Chicago; -Member of numerous American Scientific and Medical Societies; Collaborator -American Naturalist, Alienist, and Neurologist, Journal of -Neurology and Psychiatry, Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases; -Author of “Comparative Physiology and Psychology,” etc.</p> - -<p>For more than twenty years this subject has occasioned bitter contention -in law courts between physicians as well as attorneys, and in that -time no work has appeared that reviewed the entire field judicially -until Dr. Clevenger’s book was written. It is the outcome of five -years’ special study and experience in legal circles, clinics, hospital -and private practice, in addition to twenty years’ labor as a scientific -student, writer, and teacher. <i>Every Physician and Lawyer should own -this work.</i> In one handsome Royal Octavo volume of nearly 400 pages, -with 30 Wood-Engravings.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.50, net; -Great Britain, 14s.; France, 15 fr.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>DAVIS—Consumption: How to Prevent it, and How to -Live with it.</b> <i>Its Nature, Causes, Prevention, and -the Mode of Life, Climate, Exercise, Food and -Clothing Necessary for its Cure.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">N. S. Davis, Jr.</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor of Principles and -Practice of Medicine in Chicago Medical College; Physician to Mercy -Hospital; Member of the American Medical Association, Illinois -State Medical Society, etc., etc. 12mo. <span class="smcap">In Press.</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_4"></a>[4]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>DAVIS—Diseases of the Heart, Lungs, and Kidneys.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">N. S. Davis, Jr.</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor of Principles and -Practice of Medicine in the Chicago Medical College, Chicago, Ill., -etc. In one neat 12mo volume. <i>No. ⸺ in the Physicians’ and Students’ -Ready-Reference Series.</i> <span class="smcap">In Preparation.</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>DEMARQUAY—Essay on Medical Pneumatology and -Aerotherapy.</b> <i>A Practical Investigation of the Clinical -and Therapeutic Value of the Gases in Medical -and Surgical Practice, with Especial Reference to -the Value and Availability of Oxygen, Nitrogen, -Hydrogen, and Nitrogen Monoxide.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">J. N. Demarquay</span>, Surgeon to the Municipal Hospital, Paris, -and of the Council of State; Member of the Imperial Society of Surgery; -Correspondent of the Academies of Belgium, Turin, Munich, -etc.; Officer of the Legion of Honor; Chevalier of the Orders of Isabella-the-Catholic -and of the Conception, of Portugal, etc. Translated, -with notes, additions, and omissions, by <span class="smcap">Samuel S. Wallian</span>, A.M., -M.D., Member of the American Medical Association; Ex-President of -the Medical Association of Northern New York; Member of the New -York County Medical Society, etc. In one handsome Octavo volume -of 316 pages, printed on fine paper, in the Best Style of the Printer’s -Art, and Illustrated with 21 Wood-Cuts.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, Cloth, $2.00, -net; Half-Russia, $3.00, net. Great Britain, Cloth, 11s. -6d.; Half-Russia, 17s. France, Cloth, 12 fr. 40; Half-Russia, -18 fr. 60.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>EDINGER—Twelve Lectures on the Structure of the -Central Nervous System.</b> <i>For Physicians and -Students.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Dr. Ludwig Edinger</span>, Frankfort-on-the-Main. Second Revised -Edition. With 133 illustrations. Translated by <span class="smcap">Willis Hall -Vittum</span>, M.D., St. Paul, Minn. Edited by <span class="smcap">C. Eugene Riggs</span>, A.M., -M.D., Professor of Mental and Nervous Diseases, University of Minnesota; -Member of the American Neurological Association. The illustrations -are exactly the same as those used in the latest German -edition (with the German names translated into English), and are -very satisfactory to the Physician and Student using the book. The -work is complete in one Royal Octavo volume of about 250 pages, -bound in Extra Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.75, net; -Great Britain, 10s.; France, 12 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_5"></a>[5]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>EISENBERG—Bacteriological Diagnosis.</b> <i>Tabular Aids -for Use in Practical Work.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">James Eisenberg</span>, Ph.D., M.D., Vienna. Translated and -augmented, with the permission of the author, from the latest German -Edition, by <span class="smcap">Norval H. Pierce</span>, M.D., Surgeon to the Out-Door -Department of Michael Reese Hospital; Assistant to Surgical Clinic, -College of Physicians and Surgeons, Chicago, Ill. In one Octavo -volume, handsomely bound in Cloth. <span class="smcap">In Press.</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>GOODELL—Lessons in Gynæcology.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">William Goodell</span>, A.M., M.D., etc., Professor of Clinical -Gynæcology in the University of Pennsylvania. With 112 illustrations. -Third Edition, thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged. One -volume, large Octavo, 578 pages.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, Cloth, $5.00; Full -Sheep, $6.00, Discount, 20 per cent., making it, net, -Cloth, $4.00; Sheep, $4.80. Postage, 27 cents extra. -Great Britain, Cloth, 22s. 6d.; Sheep, 28s. France, 30 -fr. 80.</b></p> - -<p>This exceedingly valuable work, from one of the most eminent -specialists and teachers in gynæcology in the United States, is now -offered to the profession in a much more complete condition than -either of the previous editions. It embraces all the more important -diseases and the principal operations in the field of gynæcology, and -brings to bear upon them all the extensive practical experience and -wide reading of the author. It is an indispensable guide to every -practitioner who has to do with the diseases peculiar to women.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>GUERNSEY—Plain Talks on Avoided Subjects.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Henry N. Guernsey</span>, M.D., formerly Professor of Materia -Medica and Institutes in the Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia; -Author of Guernsey’s “Obstetrics,” including the Disorders -Peculiar to Women and Young Children; Lectures on Materia Medica, -etc. The following Table of Contents shows the scope of the book:—</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents.</span>—Chapter I. Introductory. II. The Infant. III. -Childhood. IV. Adolescence of the Male. V. Adolescence of the -Female. VI. Marriage: The Husband. VII. The Wife. VIII. Husband -and Wife. IX. To the Unfortunate. X. Origin of the Sex. In -one neat 16mo volume, bound in Extra Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00; Great -Britain, 6s. 6d.; France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>HARE—Epilepsy: its Pathology and Treatment.</b> <i>Being -an Essay to which was Awarded a Prize of Four -Thousand Francs by the Académie Royal de Médecine -de Belgique, December 31, 1889.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Hobart Amory Hare</span>, M.D. (University of Pennsylvania), -B.Sc., Clinical Professor of the Diseases of Children, and -Demonstrator of Therapeutics in the University of Pennsylvania;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_6"></a>[6]</span> -Laureate of the Royal Academy of Medicine in Belgium, of the -Medical Society of London, etc. 12mo. 228 pages. Neatly bound in -Dark-blue Cloth. <i>No. 7 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference -Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.25, net; -Great Britain, 6s. 6d.; France, 7 fr. 75.</b></p> - -<p>“This little work is an admirably condensed -statement of the clearest authenticated -facts on this subject known. The -author is evidently a master in the art -of clear, condensed statements of what -is known, and he could do a great service -to science by ‘boiling down’ some -of the thousand-page volumes that are -coming from the press. This work is -of great value to all physicians who -wish to have the facts concerning epilepsy -in the most available form,”—<i>Quarterly -Journal of Inebriety.</i></p> - -<p>“It is representative of the most advanced -views of the profession, and the -subject is pruned of the vast amount of -superstition and nonsense that generally -obtains in connection with epilepsy.”—<i>Medical -Age.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>HARE—Fever: its Pathology and Treatment.</b> <i>Being -the Boylston Prize Essay of Harvard University -for 1890; containing Directions and the Latest -Information Concerning the Use of the So-Called -Antipyretics in Fever and Pain.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Hobart Amory Hare</span>, M.D. (University of Pennsylvania), -B.Sc., Clinical Professor of the Diseases of Children and -Demonstrator of Therapeutics in the University of Pennsylvania; -Physician to St. Agnes’ Hospital and to the Children’s Dispensary of -the Children’s Hospital; Laureate of the Royal Academy of Medicine -in Belgium, of the Medical Society of London; Member of the Association -of American Physicians, etc. Illustrated with more than 25 -new plates of tracings of various fever cases, showing beautifully and -accurately the action of the antipyretics. The work also contains -35 carefully-prepared statistical tables of 249 cases, showing the untoward -effects of the antipyretics. 12mo. Neatly bound in Dark-Blue -Cloth. <i>No. 10 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference -Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.25, net; -Great Britain, 6s. 6d.; France, 7 fr. 75.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>JAMES—American Resorts, with Notes upon Their -Climate.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Bushrod W. James</span>, A.M., M.D., Member of the American -Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Public -Health Association, the Pennsylvania Historical Society, the Franklin -Institute, and the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the -Society of Alaskan Natural History and Ethnology, Sitka, Alaska, -etc. With a translation from the German, by <span class="smcap">Mr. S. Kauffmann</span>, -of those chapters of “Die Klimate der Erde,” written by <span class="smcap">Dr. A. Woeikof</span>, -of St. Petersburg, Russia, that relate to North and South America, -and the islands and oceans contiguous thereto. In one Octavo -volume, handsomely bound in Cloth. Nearly 300 pages.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.00, net; -Great Britain, 11s. 6.; France, 12 fr. 40.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_7"></a>[7]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>KEATING—Record-Book of Medical Examinations for -Life-Insurance.</b></p> - -<p>Designed by <span class="smcap">John M. Keating</span>, M.D. This record-book is small, -neat, and complete, and embraces all the principal points that are -required by the different companies. It is made in two sizes, viz.: -No. 1, covering one hundred (100) examinations, and No. 2, covering -two hundred (200) examinations. The size of the book is 7 × 3¾ -inches, and can be conveniently carried in the pocket.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Prices, post-paid: No. 1, for 100 Examinations, bound in -Cloth, United States and Canada, 50 Cents, net; Great -Britain, 3s. 6d.; France, 3 fr. 60. No. 2, for 200 Examinations, -bound in Full Leather, with Side-Flap, -United States and Canada, $1.00, net; Great Britain, -6s. 6d.; France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>KEATING AND EDWARDS—Diseases of the Heart -and Circulation in Infancy and Adolescence.</b> <i>With -an Appendix entitled “Clinical Studies on the -Pulse in Childhood.”</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">John M. Keating</span>, M.D., Obstetrician to the Philadelphia -Hospital and Lecturer on Diseases of Women and Children; Surgeon -to the Maternity Hospital; Physician to St. Joseph’s Hospital; Fellow -of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, etc.: and <span class="smcap">William A. -Edwards</span>, M.D., formerly Instructor in Clinical Medicine and Physician -to the Medical Dispensary in the University of Pennsylvania; -Physician to St. Joseph’s Hospital; Fellow of the College of Physicians; -formerly Assistant Pathologist to the Philadelphia Hospital, etc. -Illustrated by Photographs and Wood-Engravings. About 225 pages. -8vo. Bound in Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.50, net; -Great Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 35.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>KELLER—Perpetual Clinical Index to Materia Medica, -Chemistry, and Pharmacy Charts.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">A. H. Keller, Ph.G.</span>, M.D., consisting of (1) the “Perpetual -Clinical Index,” an oblong volume, 9 × 6 inches, neatly bound in Extra -Cloth; (2) a Chart of “Materia Medica,” 32 × 44 inches, mounted on -muslin, with rollers; (5) a Chart of “Chemistry and Pharmacy,” -32 × 44 inches, mounted on muslin, with rollers.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price for the Complete Work, United States, $5.00 net; Canada -(duty paid) $5.50, net; Great Britain, 28s.; France, 30 fr. 30.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>LIEBIG and ROHÉ—Practical Electricity in Medicine -and Surgery.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">G. A. Liebig, Jr., Ph.D.</span>, Assistant in Electricity, Johns Hopkins -University; Lecturer on Medical Electricity, College of Physicians -and Surgeons, Baltimore; Member of the American Institute<span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_8"></a>[8]</span> -of Electrical Engineers, etc.; and <span class="smcap">George H. Rohé</span>, M.D., Professor -of Obstetrics and Hygiene, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Baltimore; -Visiting Physician to Bay View and City Hospitals; Director -of the Maryland Maternité; Associate Editor “Annual of the Universal -Medical Sciences,” etc. Profusely Illustrated by Wood-Engravings -and Original Diagrams, and published in one handsome Royal -Octavo volume of 383 pages, bound in Extra Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.00, net; -Great Britain, 11s. 6d.; France, 12 fr. 40.</b></p> - -<p>The constantly increasing demand for this work attests its thorough -reliability and its popularity with the profession, and points to the -fact that it is already <span class="smcap">the</span> standard work on this very important subject. -The part on Physical Electricity, written by Dr. Liebig, one of -the recognized authorities on the science in the United States, treats -fully such topics of interest as Storage Batteries, Dynamos, the Electric -Light, and the Principles and Practice of Electrical Measurement -in their Relations to Medical Practice. Professor Rohé, who writes on -Electro-Therapeutics, discusses at length the recent developments of -Electricity in the treatment of stricture, enlarged prostate, uterine -fibroids, pelvic cellulitis, and other diseases of the male and female -genito-urinary organs, etc., etc.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>MANTON—Childbed; its Management; Diseases and -their Treatment.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Walter P. Manton</span>, M.D., Visiting Physician to the Detroit -Woman’s Hospital; Consulting Gynæcologist to the Eastern -Michigan Asylum; President of the Detroit Gynæcological Society; -Fellow of the American Society of Obstetricians and Gynæcologists, -and of the British Gynæcological Society; Member of Michigan State -Medical Society, etc. In one neat 12mo volume. <i>No. ⸺ in the Physicians’ -and Students’ Ready-Reference Series.</i> <span class="smcap">In Preparation.</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>MASSEY—Electricity in the Diseases of Women.</b> <i>With -Special Reference to the Application of Strong -Currents.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">G. Betton Massey</span>, M.D., Physician to the Gynæcological -Department of the Howard Hospital; Late Electro-Therapeutist to the -Philadelphia Orthopædic Hospital and Infirmary for Nervous Diseases; -Member of the American Neurological Association, of the Philadelphia -Neurological Society, of the Franklin Institute, etc. <span class="smcap">Second -Edition.</span> Revised and enlarged. With New and Original Wood-Engravings. -Handsomely bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. 240 pages. -12mo. <i>No. 5 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.50, net; -Great Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 35.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_9"></a>[9]</span></p> - -<p>“A new edition of this practical -manual attests the utility of its existence -and the recognition of its merit. -The directions are simple, easy to follow -and to put into practice, the ground -is well covered, and nothing is assumed, -the entire book being the record of experience.”—<i>Journal -of Nervous and -Mental Diseases.</i></p> - -<p>“It is only a few months since we -noticed the first edition of this little -book; and it is only necessary to add -now that we consider it the best treatise -on this subject we have seen, and that -the improvements introduced into this -edition make it more valuable still.”—<i>Boston -Medical and Surgical Journ.</i></p> - -<p>“The style is clear, but condensed. -Useless details are omitted, the reports -of cases being pruned of all irrelevant -material. The book is an exceedingly -valuable one, and represents an amount -of study and experience which is only -appreciated after a careful reading.”—<i>Medical -Record.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>MEARS—Practical Surgery.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">J. Ewing Mears</span>, M.D., Lecturer on Practical Surgery and -Demonstrator of Surgery in Jefferson Medical College; Professor of -Anatomy and Clinical Surgery in the Pennsylvania College of Dental -Surgery, etc. <span class="smcap">Third Edition.</span> Revised and Enlarged. <span class="smcap">In Preparation.</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Medical Bulletin Visiting List, or Physicians’ Call -Record.</b> <i>Arranged upon an Original and Convenient -Monthly and Weekly Plan for the Daily -Recording of Professional Visits.</i></p> - -<p>This is, beyond question, the best and most convenient time- and -labor-saving physicians’ pocket record-book ever published. Physicians -of many years’ standing and with large practices pronounce -this the best list they have ever seen. It is handsomely bound in fine, -strong leather, with flap, including a pocket for loose memoranda, etc., -and is furnished with a Dixon lead-pencil of excellent quality and -finish. It is compact and convenient for carrying in the pocket. Size, -4 × 6⅞ inches. In three styles. <i>Send for Descriptive Circular.</i></p> - -<p><b>Net Price, post-paid; No. 1, Regular Size, for 70 patients -daily each month for one year, United States and Canada, -$1.25; France, 7 fr. 75. No. 2, Large Size, for 105 -patients daily each month for one year, United States and -Canada, $1.50; France, 9 fr. 35. No. 3, in which “The -Blanks for Recording Visits in” are in six (6) removable -sections, United States and Canada, $1.75; France, 12 -fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p class="center"><i>Special Edition for Great Britain only, 4s. 6d.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>MICHENER—Hand-Book of Eclampsia</b>; <i>or, Notes and -Cases of Puerperal Convulsions</i>.</p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">E. Michener</span>, M.D.; <span class="smcap">J. H. Stubbs</span>, M.D.; <span class="smcap">R. B. Ewing</span>, -M.D.; <span class="smcap">B. Thompson</span>, M.D.; <span class="smcap">S. Stebbins</span>, M.D. 16mo. Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, 60 cents, net; Great Britain, 4s. 6d.; France, 4 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_10"></a>[10]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>NISSEN—A Manual of Instruction for Giving Swedish -Movement and Massage Treatment.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Prof. Hartvig Nissen</span>, Director of the Swedish Health Institute, -Washington, D.C.; late Instructor in Physical Culture and -Gymnastics at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.; Author -of “Health by Exercise without Apparatus.” Illustrated with 29 -Original Wood-Engravings. In one 12mo volume of 128 pages. Neatly -bound in Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; -Great Britain, 6s.; France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Physicians’ All-Requisite Time- and Labor-Saving -Account-Book.</b> <i>Being a Ledger and Account-Book -for Physicians’ Use, Meeting all the Requirements -of the Law and Courts.</i></p> - -<p>Designed by <span class="smcap">William A. Seibert</span>, M.D. of Easton, Pa. There -is no exaggeration in stating that this Account-Book and Ledger reduces -the labor of keeping your accounts more than one-half, and at -the same time secures the greatest degree of accuracy.</p> - -<p>To all physicians desiring a quick, accurate, and comprehensive -method of keeping their accounts, we can safely say that no book as -suitable as this one has ever been devised.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Prices, Shipping Expenses Prepaid: No. 1, 300 Pages, for -900 Accounts per Year, Size 10 × 12, Bound in ¾-Russia, -Raised Back-Bands, Cloth Sides, in United States, $5.00; -Canada (duty paid), $5.50, net; Great Britain, 28s.; -France, 30 fr. 30. No. 2, 600 Pages, for 1800 Accounts -per Year, Size 10 × 12, Bound in ¾-Russia, Raised Back-Bands, -Cloth Sides, in United States, $8.00; Canada (duty -paid), $8.80, net; Great Britain, 42s.; France, 49 fr. 40.</b></p> - -<p>A circular showing the plan of the book will be sent free to any -address on application.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Physicians’ Interpreter</b>: <i>In Four Languages (English, -French, German, and Italian)</i>.</p> - -<p>Specially arranged for diagnosis by <span class="smcap">M. von V.</span> The object of this -little work is to meet a need often keenly felt by the busy physician, -namely, the need of some quick and reliable method of communicating -intelligibly with patients of those nationalities and languages unfamiliar -to the practitioner. The plan of the book is a systematic -arrangement of questions upon the various branches of Practical -Medicine, and each question is so worded that the only answer required -of the patient is merely <span class="smcap">Yes</span> or <span class="smcap">No</span>. The questions are all -numbered, and a complete Index renders them always available for -quick reference. The book is written by one who is well versed in -English, French, German, and Italian, being an excellent teacher in -those languages, and who has also had considerable hospital experience. -Bound in full Russia Leather, for carrying in the pocket. Size, 5 × 2⅔ -inches. 206 pages.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; -Great Britain, 6s.; France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_11"></a>[11]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>PRICE AND EAGLETON—Three Charts of the Nervo-Vascular -System.</b> <i>Part I.—The Nerves. Part II.—The -Arteries. Part III.—The Veins.</i></p> - -<p>A New edition, Revised and Perfected. Arranged by <span class="smcap">W. Henry -Price</span>, M.D., and <span class="smcap">S. Potts Eagleton</span>, M.D. Endorsed by leading -Anatomists. “The Nervo-Vascular System of Charts” far excels -every other system in their completeness, compactness, and accuracy. -Clearly and beautifully printed upon extra-durable paper. Each chart -measures 19 × 24 inches.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in the United States and Canada, post-paid, 50 cents, net, -Complete; Great Britain, 3s. 6d.; France, 3 fr. 60.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>PURDY—Diabetes: its Cause, Symptoms, and Treatment.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Chas. W. Purdy</span>, M.D. (Queen’s University), Honorary -Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Kingston; -Member of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario; Author -of “Bright’s Disease and Allied Affections of the Kidneys;” Member -of the Association of American Physicians; Member of the American -Medical Association; Member of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, -etc., etc. With Clinical Illustrations. In one neat 12mo volume. -Handsomely bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. <i>No. 8 in the Physicians’ and -Students’ Ready-Reference series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, United States and Canada, $1.25, net; Great Britain, -6s. 6d.; France, 7 fr. 75; post-paid.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>REMONDINO—Circumcision: its History, Modes of -Operation, etc.</b> <i>From the Earliest Times to the -Present; with a History of Eunuchism, Hermaphrodism, -etc., as Observed Among All Races and Nations; -also a Description of the Different Operative Methods -of Modern Surgery Practiced upon the Prepuce.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">P. C. Remondino</span>, M.D. (Jefferson); Member of the American -Medical Association; Member of the American Public Health -Association; Member of the State Medical Society of California, and -of the Southern California Medical Society. <span class="smcap">In Press. Nearly -Ready.</span> <i>No. 11 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>ROHÉ—Text-Book of Hygiene.</b> <i>A Comprehensive -Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Preventive -Medicine from an American Stand-point.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">George H. Rohé</span>, M.D., Professor of Obstetrics and Hygiene -in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Baltimore; Member of the -American Public Health Association, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_12"></a>[12]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Second Edition</span>, thoroughly revised and largely rewritten, with -many illustrations and valuable tables. In one handsome Royal -Octavo volume of over 400 pages, bound in Extra Cloth.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, United States, post-paid, $2.50, net; Canada (duty paid) -$2.75, net; Great Britain, 14s.; France, 16 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p>Every Sanitarian should have Rohé’s “Text-Book of Hygiene” as -a work of reference. Of this new (second) edition, one of the best -qualified judges, namely, Albert L. Gihon, M.D., Medical Director of -U.S. Navy, in charge of U.S. Naval Hospital, Brooklyn, N. Y., and -ex-President of the American Public Health Association, writes: “It -is the most admirable, concise <i>résumé</i> of the facts of Hygiene with -which I am acquainted. Professor Rohé’s attractive style makes the -book so readable that no better presentation of the important place of -Preventive Medicine, among their studies, can be desired for the -younger members, especially, of our profession.”</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>SAJOUS—Hay Fever and its Successful Treatment by -Superficial Organic Alteration of the Nasal Mucous -Membrane.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Charles E. Sajous</span>, M.D., formerly Lecturer on Rhinology -and Laryngology in Jefferson Medical College; Vice-President of the -American Laryngological Association; Officer of the Academy of -France and of Public Instruction of Venezuela; Corresponding Member -of the Royal Society of Belgium, of the Medical Society of Warsaw -(Poland), and of the Society of Hygiene of France; Member of the -American Philosophical Society, etc., etc. With 13 Engravings on -Wood. 12mo. Bound in Cloth. Beveled edges.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, $1.00, net; Great -Britain, 6s.; France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>SANNE—Diphtheria, Croup: Tracheotomy and Intubation.</b></p> - -<p>From the French of <span class="smcap">A. Sanne</span>. Translated and enlarged by -<span class="smcap">Henry Z. Gill</span>, M.D., LL.D. Diphtheria having become such a -prevalent, wide-spread, and fatal disease, no general practitioner can -afford to be without this work. It will aid in preventive measures, -stimulate promptness in the application of and efficiency in treatment, -and moderate the extravagant views which have been entertained regarding -certain specifics in the disease diphtheria.</p> - -<p>A full Index accompanies the enlarged volume, also a list of -authors, making, altogether, a very handsome <span class="smcap">Illustrated</span> volume -of over 680 pages.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, United States, post-paid, Cloth, $4.00, Leather, $5.00. -Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $4.40; Leather, $5.50, net. -Great Britain, Cloth, 22s. 6d.; Leather, 28s. France, -Cloth, 24 fr. 60; Leather, 30 fr. 30.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_13"></a>[13]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>SENN—Principles of Surgery.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">N. Senn</span>, M.D., <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span>, Professor of Principles of Surgery and -Surgical Pathology in Rush Medical College, Chicago. Ill.; Professor -of Surgery in the Chicago Polyclinic; Attending Surgeon to the Milwaukee -Hospital; Consulting Surgeon to the Milwaukee County Hospital -and to the Milwaukee County Insane Asylum.</p> - -<p>In one handsome Royal Octavo volume, with 109 fine Wood-Engravings -and 624 pages.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States, Cloth, $4.50; Sheep or Half-Russia, -$5.50, net. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $5.00; Sheep or -Half-Russia, $6.10, net; Great Britain, Cloth, 24s. 6d.; -Sheep or Half-Russia, 30s. France, Cloth, 27 fr. 20; -Sheep or Half-Russia, 33 fr. 10.</b></p> - -<p>This work, by one of America’s greatest surgeons, is thoroughly -<span class="smcap">complete</span>; its clearness and brevity of statement are among its conspicuous -merits. The author’s long, able, and conscientious researches -in every direction in this important field are a guarantee of unusual -trustworthiness, that every branch of the subject is treated authoritatively -and in such a manner as to bring the greatest gain in knowledge -to the Practitioner and Student. Physicians and Surgeons alike should -not deprive themselves of this very important work.</p> - -<p><i>A critical examination of the Wood-Engravings (109 in number) will -reveal the fact that they are thoroughly accurate and produced by the best -artistic ability.</i></p> - -<p>Stephen Smith, M.D., Professor of -Clinical Surgery in Medical Department -of University of the City of New York, -writes: “I have examined the work -with great satisfaction, and regard it as -a most valuable addition to American -Surgical literature. There has long -been great need of a work on the principles -of Surgery which would fully -illustrate the present advanced state of -knowledge of the various subjects embraced -in this volume. The work seems -to me to meet this want admirably.”</p> - -<p>“The achievements of Modern Surgery -are akin to the marvelous, and Dr. -Senn has set forth the principles of the -science with a completeness that seems -to leave nothing further to be said until -new discoveries are made. The work -is systematic and compact, without a -fact omitted or a sentence too much, -and it not only makes instructive but -fascinating reading. A conspicuous -merit of Senn’s work is his method, his -persistent and tireless search through -original investigations for additions to -knowledge, and the practical character -of his discoveries. This combination -of the discoverer and the practical man -gives a special value to all his work, -and is one of the secrets of his fame. -No physician, in any line of practice, -can afford to be without Senn’s ‘Principles -of Surgery.’”—<i>The Review of -Insanity and Nervous Diseases.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>SHOEMAKER—Heredity, Health, and Personal Beauty.</b> -<i>Including the Selection of the Best Cosmetics for -the Skin, Hair, Nails, and All Parts Relating to the -Body.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">John V. Shoemaker</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor of Materia -Medica, Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Clinical Medicine, and -Clinical Professor of Diseases of the Skin in the Medico-Chirurgical -College of Philadelphia; Physician to the Medico-Chirurgical Hospital, -etc., etc. <i>This is just the book to place on the waiting-room table -of every physician, and a work that will prove useful in the hands of your -patients.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_14"></a>[14]</span></p> - -<p>The health of the skin and hair, and how to promote them, are -discussed; the treatment of the nails; the subjects of ventilation, -food, clothing, warmth, bathing; the circulation of the blood, digestion, -ventilation; in fact, all that in daily life conduces to the well-being -of the body and refinement is duly enlarged upon. To these -stores of popular information is added a list of the best medicated -soaps and toilet soaps, and a whole chapter of the work is devoted to -household remedies.</p> - -<p>The work is largely suggestive, and gives wise and timely advice -as to when a physician should be consulted.</p> - -<p>Complete in one handsome Royal Octavo volume of 425 pages, -beautifully and clearly printed, and bound in Extra Cloth, Beveled -Edges, with side and back gilt stamps and Half-Morocco Gilt Top.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States, post-paid, Cloth, $2.50; Half-Morocco, -$3.50 net. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $2.75; -Half-Morocco, $3.90, net. Great Britain, Cloth, 14s.; -Half-Morocco, 19s. 6d. France, Cloth, 15 fr.; Half-Morocco, -22 fr.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>SHOEMAKER—Materia Medica and Therapeutics.</b> <i>With -Especial Reference to the Clinical Application of -Drugs.</i></p> - -<p>Being the second and last volume of a treatise on Materia Medica, -Pharmacology, and Therapeutics, and an independent volume upon -drugs.</p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">John V. Shoemaker</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor of Materia -Medica, Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Clinical Medicine, and -Clinical Professor of Diseases of the Skin in the Medico-Chirurgical -College of Philadelphia; Physician to the Medico-Chirurgical Hospital, -etc., etc.</p> - -<p>This is the long-looked-for second volume of Shoemaker’s Materia -Medica, Pharmacology, and Therapeutics. It is wholly taken up with -the consideration of drugs, each remedy being studied from three -points of view, viz.: the Preparations, or Materia Medica; the -Physiology and Toxicology, or Pharmacology; and, lastly, its Therapy. -Dr. Shoemaker has finally brought the work to completion, and now -this second volume is ready for delivery. It is thoroughly abreast of -the progress of Therapeutic Science, and is really an indispensable -book to every student and practitioner of medicine. Royal Octavo, -about 675 pages. Thoroughly and carefully indexed.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States, post-paid, Cloth, $3.50; Sheep, $4.50, -net. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $4.00; Sheep, $5.00, -net. Great Britain, Cloth, 20s.; Sheep, 26s. France, -Cloth, 22 fr. 40; Sheep, 28 fr. 60.</b></p> - -<p>The first volume of this work is devoted to Pharmacy, General -Pharmacology, and Therapeutics, and remedial agents not properly -classed with drugs. Royal Octavo, 353 pages. Price of Volume I, -post-paid, in United States, Cloth, $2.50, net; Sheep, $3.25, net. -Canada, duty paid, Cloth, $2.75, net; Sheep, $3.60, net. Great Britain, -Cloth, 14s., Sheep, 18s. France, Cloth, 16 fr. 20; Sheep, 20 fr. 20. -<i>The volumes are sold separately.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_15"></a>[15]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>SHOEMAKER—Ointments and Oleates, Especially in -Diseases of the Skin.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">John V. Shoemaker</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor of Materia -Medica, Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Clinical Medicine, and -Clinical Professor of Diseases of the Skin in the Medico-Chirurgical -College of Philadelphia, etc., etc. <span class="smcap">Second Edition</span>, revised and enlarged. -298 pages. 12mo. Neatly bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. <i>No. 6 -in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.50, net; -Great Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 35.</b></p> - -<p>The author concisely concludes his preface as follows: “The -reader may thus obtain a conspectus of the whole subject of inunction -as it exists to-day in the civilized world. In all cases the mode of -preparation is given, and the therapeutical application described -seriatim, in so far as may be done without needless repetition.”</p> - -<p>It is invaluable as a ready reference -when ointments or oleates are to be -used, and is serviceable to both druggist -and physician.—<i>Canada Medical Record.</i></p> - -<p>To the physician who feels uncertain -as to the best form in which to prescribe -medicines by way of the skin the book -will prove valuable, owing to the many -prescriptions and formulæ which dot -its pages, while the copious index at the -back materially aids in making the book -a useful one.—<i>Medical News.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>SMITH—The Physiology of the Domestic Animals.</b> <i>A -Text-Book for Veterinary and Medical Students -and Practitioners.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Robert Meade Smith</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor of Comparative -Physiology in University of Pennsylvania; Fellow of the College of -Physicians and Academy of the Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; of the -American Physiological Society; of the American Society of Naturalists; -Associé Étranger de la Société Française d’Hygiène, etc. In one -handsome Royal Octavo volume of over 950 pages. Profusely illustrated -with more than 400 fine Wood-Engravings and many Colored -Plates.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States, Cloth, $5.00; Sheep, $6.00, net. -Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $5.50; Sheep, $6.60, net. -Great Britain, Cloth, 28s.; Sheep, 32s. France, Cloth, -30 fr. 30; Sheep, 36 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p>This new and important work is the most thoroughly complete in -the English language on the subject. In it the physiology of the -domestic animals is treated in a most comprehensive manner, especial -prominence being given to the subject of foods and fodders, and the -character of the diet for the herbivora under different conditions, with -a full consideration of their digestive peculiarities. Without being -overburdened with details, it forms a complete text-book of physiology, -adapted to the use of students and practitioners of both veterinary and -human medicine. This work has already been adopted as the Text-Book -on Physiology in the Veterinary Colleges of the United States, -Great Britain, and Canada.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_16"></a>[16]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>SOZINSKEY—Medical Symbolism.</b> <i>Historical Studies -in the Arts of Healing and Hygiene.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Thomas S. Sozinskey</span>, M.D., <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span>, Author of “The -Culture of Beauty,” “The Care and Culture of Children,” etc. -12mo, Nearly 200 pages. Neatly bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. Appropriately -illustrated with upward of thirty (30) new Wood-Engravings. -<i>No. 9 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; -Great Britain, 6s.; France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>STEWART—Obstetric Synopsis.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">John S. Stewart</span>, M.D., Demonstrator of Obstetrics and -Chief Assistant in the Gynæcological Clinic of the Medico-Chirurgical -College of Philadelphia; with an introductory note by <span class="smcap">William S. -Stewart</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor of Obstetrics and Gynæcology in the -Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia. 42 Illustrations. 202 -pages. 12mo. Handsomely bound in Dark-Blue Cloth. <i>No. 1 in the -Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00 net; -Great Britain, 6s. 6d.; France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>ULTZMANN—The Neuroses of the Genito-Urinary System -in the Male.</b> <i>With Sterility and Impotence.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Dr. R. Ultzmann</span>, Professor of Genito-Urinary Diseases in -the University of Vienna. Translated, with the author’s permission, -by <span class="smcap">Gardner W. Allen</span>, M.D., Surgeon in the Genito-Urinary Department, -Boston Dispensary. Illustrated. 12mo. Handsomely bound -in Dark-Blue Cloth. <i>No. 4 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference -Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.00, net; -Great Britain, 6s.;. France, 6 fr. 20.</b></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Synopsis of Contents.</span>—First Part—I. Chemical Changes in -the Urine in Cases of Neuroses. II. Neuroses of the Urinary and of -the Sexual Organs, classified as: (1) Sensory Neuroses; (2) Motor Neuroses; -(3) Secretory Neuroses. Second Part—Sterility and Impotence. -The treatment in all cases is described clearly and minutely.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>WHEELER—Abstracts of Pharmacology.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">H. A. Wheeler</span>, M.D. (Registered Pharmacist, No. 3468, -Iowa). Prepared for the use of Physicians and Pharmacists, and -especially for the use of Students of Medicine and Pharmacy, who -are preparing for Examination in Colleges and before State Boards of -Examiners.</p> - -<p>This book does not contain questions and answers, but solid pages -of abstract information. It will bean almost indispensable companion -to the practicing Pharmacist and a very useful reference-book to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_17"></a>[17]</span> -Physician. It contains a brief but thorough explanation of all terms -and processes used in practical pharmacy, an abstract of all that is -essential to be known of each officinal drug, its preparations and -therapeutic action, with doses: in Chemistry and Botany, much that -is useful to the Physician and Pharmacist; a general working formula -for each class and an abstract formula for each officinal preparation, -and many of the more popular unofficinal ones, together with their -doses; also many symbolic formulas; a list of abbreviations used in -prescription writing; rules governing incompatibilities; a list of -Solvents; tests for the more common drugs; the habitat and best time -for gathering plants to secure their medical properties.</p> - -<p>The book contains 180 pages, 5½ × 8 inches, closely printed and -on the best paper, nicely and durably bound, containing a greater -amount of information on the above topics than any other work for the -money.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.50, net; -Great Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 35.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>WITHERSTINE—International Pocket Medical Formulary.</b> -<i>Arranged Therapeutically.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">C. Sumner Witherstine</span>, M.S., M.D., Associate Editor of the -“Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences;” Visiting Physician of the -Home for the Aged, Germantown, Philadelphia; late House-Surgeon to -Charity Hospital, New York. Including more than 1800 formulæ from -several hundred well-known authorities. With an Appendix containing -a Posological Table, the newer remedies included; Important Incompatibles; -Tables on Dentition and the Pulse; Table of Drops in a -Fluidrachm and Doses of Laudanum graduated for age; Formulæ and -Doses of Hypodermatic Medication, including the newer remedies; Uses -of the Hypodermatic Syringe; Formulæ and Doses for Inhalations, Nasal -Douches, Gargles, and Eye-washes; Formulæ for Suppositories; Use of -the Thermometer in Disease; Poisons, Antidotes, and Treatment; Directions -for Post-Mortem and Medico-Legal Examinations; Treatment of -Asphyxia, Sun-stroke, etc.; Anti-emetic Remedies and Disinfectants; -Obstetrical Table; Directions for Ligation of Arteries; Urinary Analysis; -Table of Eruptive Fevers; Motor Points for Electrical Treatment, -etc. This work, the best and most complete of its kind, contains about -275 printed pages, besides extra blank leaves. Elegantly printed, with -red lines, edges, and borders; with illustrations. Bound in leather, -with Side-Flap.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $2.00, net; -Great Britain, 11s. 6d.; France, 12 fr. 40.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>YOUNG—Synopsis of Human Anatomy.</b> <i>Being a Complete -Compend of Anatomy, including the Anatomy -of the Viscera, and Numerous Tables.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">James K. Young</span>, M.D., Instructor in Orthopædic Surgery -and Assistant Demonstrator of Surgery, University of Pennsylvania;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_18"></a>[18]</span> -Attending Orthopædic Surgeon, Out-Patient Department, University -Hospital, etc. Illustrated with 76 Wood-Engravings. 390 pages. 12mo. -<i>No. 8 in the Physicians’ and Students’ Ready-Reference Series.</i></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States and Canada, post-paid, $1.40, net; -Great Britain, 8s. 6d.; France, 9 fr. 25.</b></p> - -<p>While the author has prepared this work especially for students, -sufficient descriptive matter has been added to render it extremely -valuable to the busy practitioner, particularly the sections on the -Viscera, Special Senses, and Surgical Anatomy.</p> - -<p>The work includes a complete account of Osteology, Articulations -and Ligaments, Muscles, Fascias, Vascular and Nervous Systems, -Alimentary, Vocal, and Respiratory and Genito-Urinary Apparatus, -the Organs of Special Sense, and Surgical Anatomy.</p> - -<p>In addition to a most carefully and accurately prepared text, -wherever possible, the value of the work has been enhanced by tables -to facilitate and minimize the labor of students in acquiring a thorough -knowledge of this important subject. The section on the teeth has -also been especially prepared to meet the requirements of students -of dentistry.</p> - -<p>In its preparation, Gray’s “Anatomy” (last edition), edited by -Keen, being the anatomical work most used, has been taken as the -standard.</p> - -<hr class="r15 x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p class="center"><i>The following Publications sold only by Subscription, -or Sent Direct on Receipt of Price, Shipping -Expenses Prepaid.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences.</b> <i>A Yearly -Report of the Process of the General Sanitary -Sciences Throughout the World.</i></p> - -<p>Edited by <span class="smcap">Charles E. Sajous</span>, M.D., formerly Lecturer on Laryngology -and Rhinology in Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, etc., -and Seventy Associate Editors, assisted by over Two hundred Corresponding -Editors and Collaborators. In Five Royal Octavo Volumes of -about 500 pages each, bound in Cloth and Half-Russia, Magnificently -Illustrated with Chromo-Lithographs, Engravings, Maps, Charts, and -Diagrams. Being intended to enable any physician to possess, at a -moderate cost, a complete Contemporary History of Universal Medicine, -edited by many of America’s ablest teachers, and superior in -every detail of print, paper, binding, etc., a befitting continuation of -such great works as “Pepper’s System of Medicine,” “Ashhurst’s International -Encyclopædia of Surgery,” “Buck’s Reference Hand-Book -of the Medical Sciences.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_19"></a>[19]</span></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>SUBSCRIPTION PRICE Per Year (Including the “SATELLITE” -for one year): in United States, Cloth, 5 Vols., -Royal Octavo, $15.00, Half-Russia, 5 Vols., Royal Octavo, -$20.00. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $16.50; Half-Russia, -$22.00. Great Britain, Cloth, £4 7s; Half-Russia, -£5 15s. France, Cloth, 93 fr. 95; Half-Russia, 124 -fr. 35.</b></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Satellite</span> of the “Annual of the Universal Medical -Sciences.” A Monthly Review of the most important articles upon -the practical branches of Medicine appearing in the medical press at -large, edited by the Chief Editor of the <span class="smcap">Annual</span> and an able staff. -Published in connection with the <span class="smcap">Annual</span>, and for its Subscribers Only.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Lectures on Nervous Diseases.</b> <i>From the Stand-point of -Cerebral and Spinal Localization, and the Later -Methods Employed in the Diagnosis and Treatment -of these Affections.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Ambrose L. Ranney</span>, A.M., M.D., Professor of the Anatomy -and Physiology of the Nervous System in the New York Post-Graduate -Medical School and Hospital; Professor of Nervous and Mental -Diseases in the Medical Department of the University of Vermont, etc.; -Author of “The Applied Anatomy of the Nervous System,” “Practical -Medical Anatomy,” etc., etc. Profusely Illustrated with Original -Diagrams and Sketches in Color by the author, carefully selected -Wood-Engravings, and Reproduced Photographs of Typical Cases. -One handsome Royal Octavo volume of 780 pages.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States, Cloth, $5.50; Sheep, $6.50; Half-Russia, -$7.00. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $6.05; Sheep, -$7.15; Half-Russia, $7.70. Great Britain, Cloth, 32s.; -Sheep, 37s. 6d.; Half-Russia, 40s. France, Cloth, 34 -fr. 70; Sheep, 40 fr. 45; Half-Russia, 43 fr. 30.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Lectures on the Diseases of the Nose and Throat.</b> <i>Delivered -at the Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia.</i></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Charles E. Sajous</span>, M.D., formerly Lecturer on Rhinology -and Laryngology in Jefferson Medical College; Vice-President of the -American Laryngological Association; Officer of the Academy of -France and of Public Instruction of Venezuela; Corresponding Member -of the Royal Society of Belgium, of the Medical Society of Warsaw -(Poland), and of the Society of Hygiene of France; Member of -the American Philosophical Society, etc., etc. Illustrated with 100 -Chromo-Lithographs, from Oil-Paintings by the author, and 93 Engravings -on Wood. One handsome Royal Octavo volume.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States, Cloth, Royal Octavo, $4.00; Half-Russia, -Royal Octavo, $5.00. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, -$4.40; Half-Russia, $5.50. Great Britain, Cloth, 22s. 6d.; -Sheep or Half-Russia, 28s. France, Cloth, 24 fr. 60; -Half-Russia, 30 fr. 30.</b></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Adpage_20"></a>[20]</span></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Stanton’s Practical and Scientific Physiognomy; or How -to Read Faces.</b></p> - -<p>By <span class="smcap">Mary Olmsted Stanton</span>. Copiously Illustrated. Two large -Octavo volumes.</p> - -<p>The author, <span class="smcap">Mrs. Mary O. Stanton</span>, has given over twenty years -to the preparation of this work. Her style is easy, and, by her happy -method of illustration of every point, the book reads like a novel and -memorizes itself. To physicians the diagnostic information conveyed -is invaluable. To the general reader each page opens a new train of -ideas. (This book has no reference whatever to Phrenology.)</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, in United States, Cloth, $9.00; Sheep, $11.00; Half-Russia, -$13.00. Canada (duty paid), Cloth, $10.00; -Sheep, $12.10; Half-Russia, $14.30. Great Britain, -Cloth, 56s.; Sheep, 68s.; Half-Russia, 80s. France, -Cloth, 30 fr. 30; Sheep, 36 fr. 40; Half-Russia, 43 fr. 30.</b></p> - -<p>Sold only by Subscription, or sent direct on receipt of price, shipping -expenses prepaid.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Journal of Laryngology and Rhinology.</b></p> - -<p>Issued on the First of Each Month. Edited by <span class="smcap">Dr. Norris -Wolfenden</span>, of London, and <span class="smcap">Dr. John Macintyre</span>, of Glasgow, with -the active aid and co-operation of <span class="smcap">Drs. Dundas Grant</span>, <span class="smcap">Barclay J. -Baron</span>, <span class="smcap">Hunter Mackenzie</span>, and <span class="smcap">Sir Morell Mackenzie</span>. Besides -those specialists in Europe and America who have so ably assisted in -the collaboration of the Journal, a number of new correspondents -have undertaken to assist the Editors in keeping the Journal up to -date, and furnishing it with matters of interest. Amongst these are: -<span class="smcap">Drs. Sajous</span>, of Philadelphia; <span class="smcap">Middlemass Hunt</span>, of Liverpool; -<span class="smcap">Mellow</span>, of Rio Janeiro; <span class="smcap">Sedziak</span>, of Warsaw; <span class="smcap">Draispul</span>, of St. -Petersburg, etc. <span class="smcap">Drs. Michael</span>, <span class="smcap">Joal</span>, <span class="smcap">Holger Mygind</span>, <span class="smcap">Prof. -Massei</span>, and <span class="smcap">Dr. Valerius Idelson</span> will still collaborate the literature -of their respective countries.</p> - -<p class="center smaller"><b>Price, 13s. or $3.00 per annum (inclusive of Postage). -For single copies, however, a charge of 1s. 3d. (30 -Cents) will be made. Sample Copy, 25 Cents.</b></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Medical Bulletin.</b></p> - -<p>Edited by <span class="smcap">John V. Shoemaker</span>, A.M., M.D. Monthly; $1.00 a -year. Bright, Original, and Readable. Articles by the best practical -writers procurable. Every article as brief as is consistent with the -preservation of its scientific value. Therapeutic notes by the leaders -of the medical profession throughout the world. These and many -other unique features help to keep <span class="smcap">The Medical Bulletin</span> in its -present position as the leading low-priced Medical Monthly of the -world. Subscribe now!</p> - -<p class="center"><b>TERMS, $1.00 A YEAR IN ADVANCE</b></p> - -<p class="center">In United States, Canada, and Mexico.</p> - -<p class="center"><b>Foreign Subscription Terms.</b></p> - -<table> -<tr> -<td> -<ul> -<li><b>ENGLAND, 5 Shillings.</b></li> -<li><b>AUSTRALIA, 5 Shillings.</b></li> -<li><b>FRANCE, 6 Francs.</b></li> -</ul> -</td> -<td> -<ul> -<li><b>JAPAN, 1 Yen.</b></li> -<li><b>GERMANY, 5 Marks.</b></li> -<li><b>HOLLAND, 3 Florins.</b></li> -</ul> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MEDICAL SYMBOLISM IN CONNECTION WITH HISTORICAL STUDIES IN THE ARTS OF HEALING AND HYGIENE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin-top:1em; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 16e69d0..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure01.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure01.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e260b03..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure01.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure02.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure02.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6360e14..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure02.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure03.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure03.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b7688ee..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure03.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure04.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure04.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d7a2d82..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure04.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure05.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure05.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 86fbe90..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure05.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure06.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure06.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9fc7875..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure06.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure07.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure07.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 99970bb..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure07.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure08.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure08.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 909d21c..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure08.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure09.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure09.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9d228c4..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure09.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure10.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure10.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 6053150..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure10.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure11.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure11.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d2ec216..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure11.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure12.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure12.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 629a5b3..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure12.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure13.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure13.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8bd49d5..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure13.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure14.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure14.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a9f1807..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure14.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure15.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure15.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 782d5a5..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure15.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure16.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure16.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2fe1214..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure16.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure17.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure17.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ed47c84..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure17.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure18.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure18.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 4aa9cc5..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure18.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure19.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure19.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 876ce35..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure19.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure20.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure20.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1fb561b..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure20.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure21.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure21.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d0c315c..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure21.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure22.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure22.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8561c46..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure22.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure23.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure23.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d515d61..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure23.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure24.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure24.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2df787d..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure24.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure25.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure25.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ce1d6f8..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure25.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure26.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure26.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c2bd919..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure26.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure27.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure27.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fed6f9f..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure27.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure28.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure28.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0052d9b..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure28.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/figure29.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/figure29.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8ef9adb..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/figure29.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/frontispiece.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/frontispiece.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 400726a..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/frontispiece.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/69442-h/images/snake.jpg b/old/69442-h/images/snake.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f3861cc..0000000 --- a/old/69442-h/images/snake.jpg +++ /dev/null |
